THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
NEW VOLUMES
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 1788 1797.
FOURTH twenty 18011810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 1823 1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 1860.
NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
(ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes), 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
TWELFTH (eleventh edition and three new volumes), 1922.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD.
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
THE NEW VOLUMES
CONSTITUTING, IN COMBINATION WITH THE TWENTY-NINE VOLUMES
OF THE ELEVENTH EDITION,
THE TWELFTH EDITION
OF THAT WORK, AND ALSO SUPPLYING
A NEW, DISTINCTIVE, AND INDEPENDENT LIBRARY OF REFERENCE
DEALING WITH EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF
THE PERIOD 1910 TO 1921 INCLUSIVE
THE FIRST OF THE NEW VOLUMES
VOLUME XXX
ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY
LONDON
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD.
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
1922
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1922
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
DEDICATED BY PERMISSION
TO
THE TWO HEADS OF THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES
HIS MAJESTY GEORGE THE FIFTH
KING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS
EMPEROR OF INDIA
AND
WARREN GAMALIEL HARDING
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
13^32
EDITORIAL PREFACE
IF it had not been for the World War, there would not have been any occasion, so early
as 1922, for a Supplement to the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
as published in 1911. But for the exceptional situation so created, the original inten-
tion not to take in hand anything equivalent to a Twelfth Edition until a much later date
would undoubtedly have been maintained.
So colossal a convulsion, however, as that of the war, with consequences shown in so
many unexpected directions and radically changing the world-outlook under the new
conditions, made the need for this prompt addition to universal history absolutely impera-
tive, as a record and illumination of so peculiarly dark and complex a period. The gap
between 1911 and 1921 is all the more noticeable because, from the middle of 1914 onwards,
authentic history could not be written at all, as had been practicable normally under
earlier peace conditions, in such periodical publications as have usually served the require-
ments of the public for purposes of reference on contemporary affairs. The very nature
of the war, and of the war conditions which persisted even after the Armistice, not only
involved the imposition of secrecy, the cutting off of intercommunication, and even an
interested perversion of fact in much that was given out for belief, but also led to a state of
paralysis and aphasia in the spheres where, before the war, independent observation and
judgment were to be found. Attention was monopolized everywhere by conditions of
urgency and emergency, and concentrated upon the immediate conduct of life, while
almost every expert, whether in scholarship or in science, was living, so to speak, from
hand to mouth, with his accustomed intellectual activities interrupted, suspended, or
diverted.
In such circumstances there arose inevitably a clear call for the publication of a
Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica at as early a date as was practicable after the
war, conformably with the arrival of a stage in post-war reconstruction which would
once more enable its Editor to secure a reasonable modicum of the disinterested inter-
national cooperation on which the value of the Encyclopedia Britannica, as a critical
record of world-history, has so long depended.
These New Volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica accordingly follow precedents
established during the 154 years since it made its first appearance in 1768. Between its
Third (1788-97) and Fourth (1801-10) Editions, a two-volume Supplement (1801) to the
Third Edition was published; and while the Fifth Edition (1815-7, a reprint of the Fourth)
was still current, and the reedited Sixth (1823-4) was nearly ready for issue, a "Supple-
ment to the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Editions," edited by Macvey Napier, appeared in
'six volumes during 1816-24. In 1902 again, by way of supplement to the Ninth Edition
(1875-89), there were published eleven New Volumes, forming in combination with it the
Tenth Edition, for the general editorship of which the present writer, taking over the task
early in 1900 from the late Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, was responsible. Incidentally
vii
viii EDITORIAL PREFACE
those eleven New Volumes set a new precedent in publications of this kind by being
prepared and issued simultaneously, and the same method was subsequently adopted in
the preparation of the Eleventh Edition (1911).
Had it not been for the war, the twenty years between the average date of the Ninth
Edition (25 Volumes, 1875-89) and the date of its supplementary New Volumes, which
were added to form the Tenth Edition (1902), may be regarded as indicating the length
of interval which might well have been expected to follow the publication of the Eleventh
Edition before it in turn had a supplement added to it, to form in combination with it the
Twelfth Edition. The course now taken, however, is directly in line with Macvey Napier's
great Supplement (1816-24) to the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Editions. The extent of
that Supplement exhibited, indeed, a notable advance in the whole standard of the
Britannica as a work of original scholarship and expert authority the result of the copy-
rights having recently passed into the hands of the enterprising publisher Constable:
but its interest in this particular connexion lies in the fact that it was conceived as a
response to the pressing demand for a comprehensive survey of the situation resulting
from the Great War which had just ended at Waterloo in 1815. In 1816, when the first
volume of Macvey Napier's Supplement appeared, the same need was felt for an authori-
tative record and reconsideration of the new developments during the convulsions of
1793-1815 as has arisen now in respect of the decade ending with 1921, and for very
similar reasons. Anyone who still cares to examine that remarkable Supplement of 1816-24
will find that the ideals of public service in education set before themselves by Constable
and Macvey Napier (as expressed by the latter in his Preface to the Sixth Volume) were
identical with those which animate the Encyclopedia Britannica to-day. The present
writer, having made this examination, with knowledge of the many difficulties of his own
task a hundred years later (on the first subsequent occasion of an engrossing conflict
having upset the world), is bound to testify to the admirable way in which, amid evidence
of similar obstructions and complications, Macvey Napier carried out his scheme. His
Supplementary Volumes, organized at the conclusion of the Great War of 1793-1815,
formed the only critical and universal survey then available of the period just ended.
They brought together a mass of valuable material which was afterwards incorporated in
later editions; indeed much of this information, fresh from the sources, could only have
been placed on record by being obtained at that time a consideration which is encourag-
ing to the Editor of the present New Volumes in regard to the permanent value of the
material embodied in them also.
In one respect, possibly, Macvey Napier may appear to have had an advantage over
the present Editor, or a somewhat easier task, in that he had eight years over which
to spread the publication of his volumes first issued in parts. But his successor a
hundred years later is too conscious of the real advantage given to the public by imme-
diate and simultaneous production, and indeed of the superior quality which such a work
possesses when the whole of it has been under editorial control at one time, to take this
superficial view. Having himself organized the production of these New Volumes within
a single year a year, moreover, characterized by post-war unrest and unsettlement
he may perhaps make this difference of method some excuse, however, for any imperfec-
tions in them which may be found in the light of later events or of knowledge undisclosed
EDITORIAL PREFACE K
while they were in the making. 1 The generous reader may pardon some incidental defects
or omissions, in consideration of his having the use, practically at once, of the full Supple-
ment, as complete as it could reasonably be made, and not having to wait several years
for a succession of volumes with long intervals between them. In the latter case each
volume would be apt to exasperate him by cross-references from its articles to others in
a volume still inaccessible; each earlier one, furthermore, would become relatively out-of-
date as soon as the next one appeared; and the whole must lack organic unity, because
the subject-matter, as distributed in one volume or another, must necessarily have been
dealt with at different dates from dissimilar viewpoints.
These New Volumes, systematically arranged, in accordance with the traditional
standards of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, so that the articles may be adapted either for
continuous reading or for occasional reference, have been planned as a guide to an appre-
ciative understanding of contemporary affairs. The reader has before him what may be
described as an international stock-taking, by carefully selected authorities, of the march
of events all over the world from 1909-10 to 1920-1, and of the nature and critical value
of such advances as were made in the principal branches of knowledge during that period.
In this respect the New Volumes aim at giving a key to the problems of to-day, so far as
these contemporary problems are bound up as indeed they are to an unprecedented
extent with the new social and economic issues which only began to emerge in their
present magnitude, or to impress themselves on the public, as the result of the tremendous
upheaval caused by the World War. Yet it is necessary, in the interests of a publication
which is essentially educational, to add one proviso. It remains as true as ever that con-
temporary human life and interests are organically related not only to the immediate
developments of one preceding decade but to those of a succession of earlier decades and
epochs, back to the abysses of time. The great Drama is of the Ages, and can only be
appreciated with all its Acts on record. The eye which looks only at the passing scene is too
often colour-blind. The roots of the Post- War World go down into the Pre-War World.
Its proper interpretation can be found only in the light of all that earlier history on which
we can look back as we cannot do on contemporary affairs with assurance that it
is seen in perspective and in ordered values, as the result of an accumulation of disinterested
criticism. The Post- War World is the residuary legatee of the Pre-War World, from which
it inherits the whole basis of its intellectual equipment. The present survey of recent
happenings, indispensable though it may be as an account of the Post- War World, can
only therefore be utilized perfectly when it is regarded as an integral part of the unitary
library of education represented in all the thirty-two volumes now forming the complete
Twelfth Edition. The structure of that great edifice, with its contents, is not substantially
affected by the fact that it has been built with an Annexe for housing more recent
1 It may be noted here that, though bibliographical references, representing a selection of the most authoritative books
or documents published since 1910, are plentifully made in the New Volumes, it was impossible, merely by way of supplement
to the bibliographies attached to articles in the Eleventh Edition, to include them systematically, except in appropriate cases
where this course was demanded by the nature of the supplementary articles. No attempt has been made, when otherwise
there was no substantial reason for adding a supplementary article at all to the account given of a subject in the Eleventh
Edition, to add a list of later books published about it. Nor, indeed, in the Editor's judgment, would it have been in accord-
ance with the objects of the Britannica to give the cachet of " authority " in this way to many contemporary publications
which can hardly be said to have earned that title. The bibliographical references in the Britannica are especially valuable as
critically directing the reader to the best sources, outside its own articles, for more detailed information; but the very nature of
many of the articles in the New Volumes, as being the latest (or even the only available) authoritative accounts of purely
contemporary developments, made it unnecessary if indeed it would not be misleading to direct the reader to com-
paratively ephemeral publications by less responsible writers.
x EDITORIAL PREFACE
acquisitions, in the shape of these New Volumes. They are designed as having behind or
beside them the main body of the work the earlier Volumes of the Eleventh Edition which
were constructed in the closing years of the Pre-War World.
It may be pardonable for the present writer, at the end of the twenty-first year of his
occupancy of the position of Editor of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, to emphasize in retro-
spect one specially valuable characteristic of the Eleventh Edition, in supplying to-day
an authoritative digest of world history and the progress of knowledge up to the last few
months before it was originally published in 1911. Its value does not merely depend on
the benefit secured to the reader of these New Volumes by its having also been produced
as a whole at one date, so that its accounts of every subject, organically distributed under
appropriate headings, represent uniformly a single editorial policy (identical with that
of to-day), a common terminus of time in the facts dealt with, and a common standard of
criticism in the viewpoints of its contributors so far .as expert opinion at any one moment
is ever in agreement. This in itself is, no doubt, a great convenience in the linking up of the
later information provided in the New Volumes. 1 But there is a still more important
quality attaching to the Eleventh Edition, of which indeed its Editor was not himself fully
aware during the critical years of its preparation. It required the experience obtained
during the gestation of these New Volumes to teach the Editor how much simpler a
matter it is to create such a " Library of Education" when the world is at peace and is
progressing normally, as it was in the years preceding 1911, than when, as recently, it is
everywhere in convulsion, nobody being able to tell from week to week what he would be
doing next, or where some new complication or even revolution, political, economic, indus-
trial or scientific, might break out, to the upsetting of any attempt at orderly statement of
the progress of events and the crystallization of opinion. Though it was not so realized at
the time, it is now evident that the maximum service which the Encyclopedia Britannica
could have performed for the public of to-day was the production of the Eleventh Edition
in 1911, before the war of 1914-9 cut a Grand-Canyon gash in the whole intellectual struc-
ture of the world. For what would have happened if the complete new edition which would
follow the Tenth Edition had not been undertaken until several years later say, after
the Armistice? In that case it would still have been necessary, in, some way, to keep
what may roughly be divided as the Pre-War and Post- War Worlds distinct. The account
of the Post-War World would then substantially be what appears in the present New
Volumes; for this must, in any case, start at a convenient point before the war, in order to
make the break intelligible, and it must differ in scope and perspective from the part
devoted to the Pre-War World, in proportion as its new problems require a different sort of
discussion according to their bearing on the future rather than as continuations of past
history. But so far as the Pre-War World is concerned everything, that is to say, except
the contemporary developments of the decade preceding 1921 it may be asserted, with-
out fear of contradiction from anyone who can appreciate the responsibilities of an Editor
of the Encyclopedia Britannica, that, if the task had not been undertaken till after 1914,
it would have been absolutely impossible to produce to-day anything so comprehensively
authoritative or critically complete as is actually available in the shape of the Eleventh
Edition owing to its having been produced just before the war.
'Reference by volume and page (e.g. "see 2.493") is accordingly made, as a rule immediately after the headings of
articles in the New Volumes (but also elsewhere in their course, as seemed useful), to places in the earlier volumes where
accounts of the same subjects, leading up to the point where the account is now resumed, may be found.
EDITORIAL PREFACE ri
In the present writer's judgment it is very remarkably the fact that, however care-
fully the contents of the Eleventh Edition are tested, as representing the highest standards
of international research and criticism, whether in Science or in Art or in historical informa-
tion, up to 1911, nothing substantial has occurred since to diminish its value or alter its
perspective. The reason is that it was fortunately produced at a quiet period, when there
was every opportunity for obtaining sure, authoritative and orderly surveys, in a world-
society which was evolving along known lines of "normalcy" to use President Harding's
favourite expression fairly calculable in advance in accordance with well-informed
expectations, and permitting of a reasonably final judgment on the sequence of con-
temporary progress in relation to the past. To-day, on the other hand, the whole atmos-
phere of scholarship and thought has temporarily been vitiated by the world upheaval,
and the cooperation enlisted for the Eleventh Edition is unattainable under present
conditions. It is not too much to say that the service done by the Encyclopedia Britannica
for the public, by bringing together in the Eleventh Edition its unique combination of the
world's ripest judgments on every sort of subject, could not have been rendered to this
generation at all if that Edition had not been completed before the war. As the composition
of the present New Volumes shows, it has still been possible for the Editor to enlist the
most highly qualified experts, and writers officially connected with Government Depart-
ments or Services, for dealing with matters familiar to them (and often known only to
them) in the course of the past decade. But the writing of contemporary history by persons
who have been chief agents or eye-witnesses is one thing; it is quite another to recreate the
whole drama of the far-reaching past. To do that, as it was done in the Eleventh Edition,
needs a type of mind and will which for the present has largely ceased to function along
the pre-war ways.
Irrespectively, indeed, of the question whether as good a complete edition as the
Eleventh could have been produced de novo now, it would cost in any case at least twice
as much to make as it did in 1911, and it would have to be sold at a far higher price. But,
from the editorial point of view, the important fact is that it could not be made to-day so
as to have anything like the scholarly value of the work produced before the war by the
contributors to the Eleventh Edition. Neither the minds nor the wills that are required for
such an undertaking are any longer obtainable in any corresponding degree, nor probably
can they be again for years to come. This is partly due to sheer " war-weariness," which
has taken many forms. A shifting of interest has taken place among writers of the academic
type, so that there is a disinclination to make the exertion needed for entering anew into
their old subjects a necessary condition for just that stimulating, vital presentation of
old issues in the light of all the accumulated knowledge about them, which was so valuable
a feature of the Eleventh Edition; the impulse has temporarily been stifled by the pressure
of contemporary problems. Many of the pre-war authorities, moreover, have died without
leaving any lineal successors, and others have aged disproportionately during the decade,
while the younger generation has had its intellectual energies diverted by the war to work
of a different order. Again (a most essential factor), it would have been impossible to
attain the same full measure of international cooperation, among representatives of
nations so recently in conflict, and in a world still divided in 1921 by the consequences
of the war almost as seriously as while hostilities were actually raging.
xii EDITORIAL PREFACE
It is with some satisfaction that the Editor has been able to make a fresh beginning in
these New Volumes toward a revival of this cooperation, by including German, Austrian
and Hungarian contributors, in addition to those from the countries allied or associated
with the British Empire and the United States during the war. In the material structure
of the New Volumes, and their sub-editing, the same note of Anglo-American solidarity is
struck as in the Eleventh Edition; and this is again emphasized by their being dedicated
jointly to the two Heads of the English-speaking peoples, by express permission of King
George V. and President Harding. Nowhere except in Great Britain and the United States
would it have been possible, under the world-conditions of 1921, to find the standard of
poise and perspective required in their construction. Any other assumption, throughout
these New Volumes, than that the terrible war of 1914-9 was won by those who had right
and justice for their cause, would manifestly be impossible in the Encyclopedia Britannica;
and historical justification for this belief is indeed given in the proper articles. On the other
hand, many of the more violent criticisms of German action current during the war are
now shown, in the Anglo-Saxon spirit of fair play, to have been exaggerated for " propa-
ganda" purposes. Opinion on the incidents and issues of the war-period will probably
continue to be revised by succeeding generations over and over again, as the weight of
evidence, so much of it still undisclosed, increases; but a start is made here toward the
acceptance of such conclusions as already represent a judicial view, expressed without
favour or malice, free from any conscious bias, and backed by a presentation of the relevant
facts on authority that is either admittedly unimpeachable or so far unchallenged. It was
an integral part of the editorial policy to put aside any war-prejudice in inviting the
assistance of contributors from among the nations which had fought against the Allies, so
far as might be practicable without the intrusion of " propaganda," especially for nar-
ratives of the domestic history of the enemy countries, about which so little informa-
tion had penetrated outside during the war-period. The list of writers of ex-enemy national-
ity, and of the articles contributed by them, shows that a considerable section of the
contents, including the military history of the war itself (to which British, American,
French, Italian, Belgian, German, and Austro-Hungarian soldiers have contributed), is
derived from such sources; and this fact alone gives these Volumes a special interest. Con-
sistently with this policy, the Editor has encountered only very rare disappointments in
carrying out his plan of obtaining the best contributors available from all foreign countries,
including Germany and Austria, in order to provide the most authoritative information
on their own affairs according to their own respective standpoints. In this connexion
it will be noted that, for the first time in the history of the Britannica, the article on Japan is
contributed by a Japanese. The Editor is glad here to acknowledge the help of the dis-
tinguished historian, Prof. A. F. Pribram, of Vienna, in organizing, with the collabora-
tion of Dr. Redlich, the eminent Austrian jurist, the whole series of articles dealing with
Austro-Hungarian subjects. He had also the valuable assistance of Mr. George Saunders,
formerly The Times correspondent in Berlin, in obtaining the cooperation of German
contributors and in supervising the translation and editing of their articles; while Mr.
George Adam, The Times correspondent in Paris during 1913-9, performed the same
function in respect of France. In the case of Russia, the Editor was fortunately able to
rely on the great authority of Sir Paul Vinogradoff . The Editor's thanks for useful advice
EDITORIAL PREFACE xiii
and assistance with regard to the articles on other foreign countries are due to Presi-
dent Masaryk (Czechoslovakia), Prof. H. Pirenne, Rector of Ghent University (Belgium),
Prof. L. V. Birck of Copenhagen (Denmark), Mons. M. Beza, of the Rumanian Legation
in London (Rumania), Mons. D. Caclamanos, the Greek Minister in London (Greece),
Mons. H. N. Bronmer, of the Netherlands Legation in London (Holland), Baron Alstro-
mer, the Swedish Charge d' Affaires in London (Sweden), and Mons. Erik Colbran, of
the League of Nations.
So many individuals have, in one way or another, smoothed the Editor's path, either
by suggesting the best-qualified contributors or by giving helpful advice on the subject-
matter of articles, that he can only make a rather arbitrary selection here in naming some
of the more conspicuous. Practically every national Government, either directly or
through its accredited representatives, has aided- his attempt to give international author-
ity to the New Volumes, by encouraging the use of its own sources of information; and
British official cooperation, as also American, has been generously sanctioned and utilized.
By the courtesy of the Naval Intelligence Department of the British Admiralty, the
editorial staff had access to all the historical materials it had collected from various parts
of the world for secret service during the war, including the handbooks of statistical and
general information which had been* privately printed by the Government for the use of
British officers and political agents while the war was still in progress, and which were
only partially "released" for publication afterwards. In this connexion acknowledgment
may be made here, once for all, of the permission .accorded by the Geographical Section
of the British War Office (supplemented by that of the Controller of H.M. Stationery
Office), and by the French Service Geographique de I'Armee, to reproduce British and French
staff-maps, and also by the Librairie Militaire Berger-Lerrault, of Paris, to reproduce some
of their maps of the battle areas. In different specialist spheres, the following acted as
technical consultants: on Biology and Zoology, Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, secretary of the
Zoological Society of London; on Botany, Prof. F. W. Keeble, of Oxford University; on
Mathematics, Prof. G. H. Hardy, of Oxford University; on Aeronautics, Lt.-Col. Mervyn
O'Gorman; on Medicine and Surgery, Dr. R. McNair Wilson; on Civil Engineering
generally, Mr. H. M. Ross, editor of the Times Engineering Supplement; on Electrical
Science and Engineering, Prof. J. A. Fleming, of University College, London. Each of the
above was responsible for suggesting contributors on the subjects named, and assisted
in coordinating their contributions. On military matters Maj. C. F. Atkinson acted for
the Editor in obtaining the cooperation of a large number of expert advisers, at home
and abroad, and he was responsible for organizing all the articles dealing with military
history and equipment. On naval affairs useful advice was given by Rear-Adml. Sir W.
Reginald Hall, M.P., and Rear-Adml. H. W. Richmond. Mr. Humbert Wolfe, of the
British Ministry of Labour, and Mr. R. Page Arnot, of the unofficial Labour Research
Department (the intelligence office of the British Labour movement), assisted, from
different points of view, in planning the articles dealing with Labour developments,
while valuable advice was received on their economic aspects from Sir Hubert Llewellyn
Smith and Mr. Sidney Webb. The Editor's thanks are due to all these counsellors; and
also to Lord Stamfordham, for material in connexion with the biographical article on
King George V., to Sir Godfrey Thomas as regards that on the Prince of Wales, to Sir
EDITORIAL PREFACE
Hercules Read for suggestions as to the treatment of Archaeology, and especially to Lord
Justice Sir William Younger and Lord Newton, jointly and severally, for their help in
securing the undertaking, by their colleague Sir Reginald Acland, K.C., of the article
on " Prisoners of War," which represents the first judicial review of the evidence officially
taken by Sir William Younger's committee on that subject.
In crediting the editorial staff as a whole with a loyal fellowship which alone rendered
possible, by the cooperation of its various departments, the production of the New Volumes
in so short a time from their inception, the Editor-in-chief must express his warmest
acknowledgment of the services of the three principal assistant-editors in London Dr.
Henry Newton Dickson, D.Sc., formerly professor of Geography at University College,
Reading, and Literary Director of the Naval Intelligence Department of the Admiralty
during the war; Professor Walter Alison Phillips, Lecky Professor of Modern History at
Trinity College, Dublin (who was able to follow up his previous association with the
Eleventh Edition, as principal assistant-editor, by devoting his vacations, and such other
time as he could spare, to this work) ; and Mrs. W. L. Courtney (Janet E. Hogarth), who,
with an efficient lieutenant in Mrs. Guy Chapman, was in charge of the work done by the
ladies who formed part of the staff. Apart from a general participation in headquarters
control, Dr. Dickson was especially concerned with the subject-matter of geography and
statistics, and with the selection of maps and illustrations, Prof. Alison Phillips with
political and constitutional history, and Mrs. Courtney with the biographical articles and
those dealing with the Women's Movement, and with the making of the Index, which thus
supplements the Index to the Eleventh Edition under the same guiding hand which had
been responsible for the great Index to the main body of the work. As Editor's Secretary,
keeping touch with all departments, Mr. Arthur Bollaert Atkins also resumed his former
r61e, with an efficiency which was invaluable to the editorial organization. The New York
branch of the editorial staff, under Mr. Franklin H. Hooper, as American Editor, with
Mr. H. R. Haxton and Dr. G. C. Scoggin as his principal assistants, acted in concert
throughout with the London office, more particularly in arranging for articles by American
contributors or dealing with American affairs. The Editor-in-chief was assured before-
hand of the sympathetic and experienced collaboration he enjoyed in this respect by the
fact that his editorial association with Mr. F. H. Hooper for such purposes had already
been continuous since the year 1900. In seeing the New Volumes finally through the press,
he had the advantage of having the combined force of the British and American editorial
staffs brought to bear on the critical revision of the work as a whole.
As architect both of the Eleventh Edition and of the superstructure which now converts
it into the Twelfth Edition, it has been the present writer's privilege to be served by an
international company of practical builders, supplying the world's best available materials
and masonry; and he has been inspired by the ambition of cementing and adorning, in the
completed edifice, that great movement for Anglo-American cooperation, on whose progress
from strength to strength the recovery of civilization after the World War of 1914-9
must so largely depend.
HUGH CHISHOLM.
Christmas 1921.
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THESE VOLUMES
A.A.=
A.A.G. =
A.B.C. =
Abt.=
ac. =
A.C. =
A.C.I. =
A.C. ofS.
A.D. =
Adml. =
A.E.F. =
A.F. =
A.F.C.=
A.F.E.F. =
A.F.M.=
A.F. of L. =
A.G.=
A.I.D. =
A.I.F. =
A.L. =
Ala.
A.L.A.M. =
A.L.G.P. =
Als.-Lor.
A.L.V.F.
A. M.S. =
ANZAC. =
A.O.C.=
A. O.K. =
A.P.C. =
A.P.D.=
Ariz. =
Ark. =
A.S.C.=
Anti-Aircraft; Army Act
(British) ; Automobile
Association.
Assistant Adjutant- G e n-
eral.
Argentina, Brazil, Chile.
sub-unit (German Army).
acre or acres.
Artillerie de Campagne, Ar-
tillerie de Corps = Field
artillery, Corps artillery
followed by numeral
(French).
Army Council Instruction
(British).
Assistant Chief-of-Staff
(U.S.A.).
Anno Domini = In the year
of our Lord (Latin); Ar-
tillerie divisionnaire
Divisional artillery (fol-
lowed by numeral)
(French).
Admiral.
American Expeditionary
Force.
Air Force (British).
Air Force Cross (British).
Anglo-French Expedition-
ary Force.
Air Force Medal (British).
American Federation of
Labor.
Adjutant-General.
Aircraft Inspection Depart-
ment (British).
Australian Imperial Force.
Artillerie Lourde = Heavy
artillery (French).
Alabama.
Association of Licensed Au
tomobile Manufacturers.
Artillerie Lourde a grande
puissance = Super-heavy
artillery (French).
Alsace-Lorraine.
Artillerie Lourde 5 voie
ferree = Heavy railway ar-
tillery (French).
Army Medical Service.
Australian and New Zea-
land Army Corps.
Army Ordnance Corps
(since 1918 R.A.O.C.).
Armee-0berkommando =
SupremeArmy Command
(Austro-Hungarian);
Headquarters of an army,
with numeral, e.g. A.O.K.
2 (German).
Army Pay Corps; since
1918 R.A.P.C. (British).
Army Pay Department
(British).
Arizona.
Arkansas.
Army Service Corps; since
1918 R.A.S.C. (British).
A.S.E.= Amalgamated Society of
Engineers.
A.T. = A rtillerie de tranc hee =
Trench artillery (French).
A.V.C.= Army Veterinary Corps;
since 1918 R.A.V.C.
(British).
A.V.S. = Army Veterinary Service.
Az. = Aufschlagziinder = Percus-
sion fuze (German).
B
b.= born.
Balk.Penin.= Balkan Peninsula.
bar. = barrel or barrels.
Batt. = Battery; battalion.
Bav. = Bavarian.
B.C.= Before Christ.
Bde. = Brigade.
Beds. = Bedfordshire.
B.E.F. = British Expeditionary Force
(in particular in France
and Belgium).
Berks. = Berkshire.
E.G. = Brigadier-General, General
Staff appointment (Brit-
ish).
B.H.P. = Brake Horse-power.
B.L. = Breech-loading (artillery; as
distinct from Q.F.).
B.M.= Brigade-Major (British).
B.M.A. = British Medical Association.
Bn. = Battalion.
Brig.-Gen. = Brigadier-General.
Bucks. = Buckinghamshire.
bus. = bushel or bushels.
Bz. = Brennziinder = 'Time fuze
(German).
c
C. = circa = round about (Latin).
C.A. = Corps d'A rmee=A rmy
Corps (French).
C.A.C.= Corps d'Armee Colonials =
Colonial Army Corps
(French).
Cal. = California.
Cambs.= Cambridgeshire.
Capt. = Captain.
C.Asia = Central Asia.
Cav. = Cavalry.
C.B.E. = Commander of the Order
of the British Empire.
C.C.= Corps de Cavalerie = Caval-
ry Corps (French).
CE. = Contre-Espionnage = A n t i -
spy service (French).
C.E.= Tetronitromethylaniline
(Tetryl) (Chemical Ex-
plosive).
C.F.= Chaplain to the Forces
(British).
cf. = confer = compare (Latin).
C.G.S.= Chief of the General Staff
(British).
C.H. = Companion of Honour.
Ches.= Cheshire.
C.G.T. = Confederation Generale du
Travail =General Federa-
tion of Labour (French).
C.-in-C.= Command er-in-Chief
(British).
C.I.D. = Criminal Investigation De-
partment (British).
C.I.G.S.= Chief of the Imperial Gen-
eral Staff (British).
C.M.= Court-martial.
C.M.B. = Central Midwives Board.
C.N. = Comite Nationale de Secours
el d 'Alimentation = Na-
tional Committee for Re-
lief and Feeding (Bel-
gium).
co. = county.
Co.= Company.
C.O.= Commanding Officer (Brit-
ish).
C. of S. = Chief of Staff (U.S.A.).
Col. = Colonel.
Colo.= Colorado.
Comm. = Commander.
Conn. = Connecticut.
Corn. = Cornwall.
C.O.S.= Charity Organization SocU
ety (British).
C.P. = Centre-pivot (artillery).
C.R.A. = Commanding Royal Artil-
lery, i.e. commanding a
formation or station
(British).
C.R.A. = Commission regulatrice au--
tomobile = Motor regula-
tion staff (French).
C.R.B.= Commission for Relief in:
Belgium.
C.R.E.= Commanding Royal Engi-
neers, i.e. commanding a
formation (British).
C.r.h. 1 _ Calibres-radius of head or-
C.r.o. / " ogive (artillery).
cub. ft. = cubic feet.
Cumb. = Cumberland.
C.W.S.= Cooperative Wholesale So-
ciety.
cwt.= hundredweight.
d.= died; also penny or pence.
D.= Director (e.g. D.M.O.= Di-
rector of Military Opera-
tions); as prefix of office-
abbreviations = Deputy
(e.g. D.D.M. I. = Deputy
Director of Military In-
telligence).
D.A.= Detachement d'A rmee =
Army group (French);
Direct Action (fuze);
Direction de I 'A rriere
= Directorate of the
Rear Zone (French).
Equivalent to British L.
of C. and American S.O.S.
D.A.Q.M.G.= Deputy Assistant Quarter-
master-General.
D.B.E.= Dame of the Order of the
British Empire.
D.C.= Division de Cavalerie = Cav-
alry Division (French);
District of Columbia.
D.C.A.= Defenses Centre Avians (or
Aeronefs)= Anti-Aircraft -.
Defence (French).
XVI
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THESE VOLUMES
D.C.M.= Distinguished Conduct
.Medal (British).
DeL= Delaware.
de?:. - department.
D.E.S.= Direction f Stapes et de
Services = Directing staff
of a line of communica-
tions of an army
(French).
I>eT.= Devonshire.
D J.C.= Distinguished Flying Cross
(British).
D J.M.= Distinguished Flying Medal
(British).
D.G.= Director-General (e.g. D.G.
A.M.S. = Director-Gen-
eral Armv Medical Serv-
ice).
D.G.V.O.= Director-General of Volun-
tarv Organizations.
DI.= LH*ian d'lnfanterie = In-
fantry Division (French).
DIC.= Dirision d'lnfanterie Colo-
niale = Colonial Infantry-
Division (French).
Dir.= Division.
Dopp.Z.= Doppflc*ndfr = Time and
percussion fuze (German I.
D.OJUL= Defence of the Realm Act
(British).
D.O.R-E.= District Officer Royal Engi-
neers (British).
Dorset. = Dorsetshire.
D.Q.M.G.= Deputy Quart ermaster-
GeneraL
DR-= Dirision de Res*rte=Re-
serve Division (French).
D-R-F.= Depression Rangefinder.
D.S.C. = Distinguished Service Cross
(U.S.A. and British).
D.S.M.= Distinguished Service Med-
al (UJSA. and British).
D.S.O. = Distinguished Service Order
(British).
Dur. = Durham.
E.= East.
Ed. = Editor.
E.E.F. = Egyptian Expeditionary
Force.
e.g. = exempli gratia = for example
(Latin).
E.M.F. = Electro-motive force.
E .N .E. = Elements non mdirision-
nies =Troops not included
in divisions ("corps
troops" or "army
troops ") (French).
Ess.= Essex.
Esth. = Esthonia.
et seq. = et sequfntio=*zad the follow-
ing (Latin).
FAJf.T5-= First Aid Nursing Yeoman-
ry Service (British).
FEKA. = FemkampfartiUerie = Super-
heavy artillery (G e r -
man).
fig. = figure or figures (illustra-
tion .
FU.= Florida.
Flugalnctkrkanone = A n t i -
aircraft gun (German).
Field Marshal: Fusil Ui-
traiiieur = French light
machine-gun.
F. Mi. = Field - Marshal - Lieutenant
(Austro-Hungarian).
f .o.b. free on board.
r.= French Equatorial Africa.
Field Service Regulations
(British).
ft.= foot or feet.
ft.* = square feet.
ft.' = cubic feet.
fur. = f urlong or furlongs.
F.WJ>.= Four-wheel Drive.
M G W = General Staff branch of the
Staff, and its functions
(British).
G.= Gold.
G. = Georgia.
G.A. = Croupe d 'A rmfes = Group
of Annies (followed by
E=rf. N = Aorrf. etc.)
(French).
gal. = gallon or gallons.
Gl.= Galicia.
G-AJl- = Grand Army of the Re-
public (UlS.A.).
Gii.= Grand Cross of the Order
of the British Empire.
G.dJL = General der A rtiUerie
G.dJ. = General der Infanierie \
G.tLK. = General der Kavallerie J
= " full " general (German
and Austro-Hungarian).
Gen.= Generai
G.H.Q. = General Headquarters
(British and U.S.A.).
GI,GII,Gin.= Maintenance, Intelligence
and Operation branches;
General Staff (U.SJV.).
G.Kdo. = General- Kommando = Army
corps headquarters (Ger-
man).
Glos. = Gloucestershire.
G.M.T. = Greenwich Mean Time.
G.O. = Generaloberst = General in
Command (German).
G.O.C.= General Officer Command-
ing (British).
GOT. = Governor.
G.Q.G. = Grand Quartier-Giniral -
General Headquarters
(French Field Armies).
gr. = gramme or grammes.
G.R. = Care rfgulatriee = Regulat-
ing station rail trans-
port (French).
G.S, = General Staff (British and
U.S.A.); General Service
(British).
G.S.G.S. = Geographical Section Gen-
eral Staff (British).
G.S.O.= Gas-SchHtsOJfiaer = Ant i-
gas Officer (German).
G.S.O.i,2j= General Staff Officer, ist,
2nd and 3rd grade (Brit-
ish).
G.V.C.= Gardes des Votes de Com-
munication = Line-of-Com-
munication defence troops
(French).
H. = Honred (as prefix in Aus-
tro-Hungarian designa-
tions); " Heure" =Zero
hour, hour set for attack
(French).
HJL= Heavy Artillery; less fre-
quently, horse artillery;
high-angle (gun).
Hants. = Hampshire.
H.E. = High Explosive.
Hereford. = Herefordshire.
Herts. = Hertfordshire.
H.G. = Heeresgr*ppe**Group of
armies (German).
hhd. = hogshead or hogsheads.
H.M.S.= His Majesty's Ship (Brit-
ish).
H.O.= Headquarters (British and
U.S.A.).
H.Ou. = Hauptquartier = Headquar-
ters (German).
H.P. = Horse- power.
HJl.= Hors rang =Supernuraer-
ary (French Army).
Hunts. = H unt ingdonshire.
H.T.= Horse Transport.
H.V.= High Velocity (gun).
L = Instantan/e = I nstantaneous
(in French fuze designa-
tions); Island.
Ia.= Iowa.
LA.= im A*ftrage = B\ order, on
behalf of (German).
LA.= Indian Army.
ib. or ibid. = ibidem = in the same place
(Latin).
LD. = Infanterte-Difiiion = Infan-
try Division (German).
i.e.= i/=that is (Latinl.
I.HJ>.= Indicated Horse-power.
Dl.= Illinois.
LLJ>. Independent Labour Partv
(British).
in. = inch or inches.
in. s = square inches.
in.' = cubic inches.
Ind. Indiana.
Inf. = Infantry.
Is. = Islands.
I.W.W.= Industrial Workers of the
World.
" J" = "Jour" =" Zero day " fixed
for attack (French).
J.C-A.= Jewish Colonization Asso-
ciation.
K. = Koniglic k = Royal, or Kai-
serlick = Imperial (Ger-
man).
Kan. = Kansas.
K.B.E. = Knight Commander of the
Order of the British Em-
pire.
K.D. = KatuUerie-Division = Ca val-
ry Division (German).
kgm. = kilogram or kilograms.
K K. Kaiseriich-Koniglich = Im-
perial-Royal (Austrian
Landwehr).
km. = kilometre or kilometres.
K.R. = King's Regulations (British
Army).
K.T.D.= KavaJlerie - Tntppendirision
= Cavalry Division
(Austro-Hungarian).
K.u.K. = Kaiserlich und Koniglich =
Imperial and Royal (Aus-
trian and Hungarian des-
ignation of common
army).
kw.= kilowatt or kilowatts.
Ky.= Kentucky.
L. = Landicehr (German and
Austrian).
La.= Louisiana.
Latv. = Latvia.
Ib. = pound or pounds.
Lanes. = Lancashire.
L.C.C.= London County Council.
Ldst.= Landiturm (Austro-Hun-
garian and German).
Lith. = Lithuania.
L.M.G. = Leifhtes Afaschinengetcehr =
Light machine-gun
(German).
L. of C. = Line of Communications
(British).
Leics. = Leicestershire.
Lines. = Lincolnshire.
Lt. = Lieutenant.
Lt.-Comm. = Lieutenant- Commander.
Lt-Gen. = Lieutenant-General.
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THESE VOLUMES
xvii
M
m. = mile or miles.
Maj. = Major.
Maj.-Gen. = Major-GeneraL
M.B.E.= Member of the Order of the
British Empire.
M.C.= Military Cross (British);
Master of Chemistry.
Md. = Maryland.
Mdi.= Middlesex.
Me Maine.
Mebu. = Maschinengewckr-Eisenbeto*-
unlerstand = Reinforced
concrete machine-gun
emplacement (German).
M.E.F. = Mediterranean Expedition-
ary Force (British
I9I5-7)
Mesop. = Mesopotamia.
M.G. = Machine-gun (heavy im-
plied, as a rube).
M.G.A. = Major-General in charge of
administration, regional
commands (British;.
M.G.C. = Machine-gun Corps.
M.G.G.S. = Major-General, General
Staff of anAriny (British).
M.g.H.= Mit gcschrankter Haftung =
With limited liability
(German).
M.G.K.= Maschinengewekr-Kompa-
nie = Machine-gun Com-
pany (German).
M.G.O.= Master-General of the
Ordnance (British).
MJ.= Military Intelligence; for-
merly also .Mounted In-
fantry (British;.
Mich. = Michigan.
Minn. = M innespta.
Miss. = Mississippi.
M.L.= Muzzle-loading.
M.M. = Military Medal (British).
M. ofM.= Ministry' of Munitions
(British).
Mo. = Missouri.
Mons. = Monmouthshire.
Mont. = Montana.
M.S.= Military Secretary.
M.T. = Mechanical Transport.
m-V. = mil Verzogenmg = Delay-
action fuze (German).
MW. = Minenwerfer = Trench Mor-
tar (German).
N
N. = North.
N.A.C.B. = Navy and Army Canteen
Board (British).
N.Af. = North Africa.
N.Am. = North America.
N.C. = North Carolina.
N.C.T.= Nitro-cellulose, Tubular.
NJ).= North Dakota.
Neb. = Nebraska.
Nev. = Nevada.
N.H.= New Hampshire.
N.H.P.= Nominal Horse-power.
N.I.D. = Naval Intelligence Division
(British).
N.J. = New Jersey.
N.M.= New Mexico.
Nor. = Norway.
Norf . = Norfolk.
Northants. = Northamptonshire.
Northumb. = Northumberland.
N.O.T. = Netherlands Overseas
Trust.
Notts. = Nottinghamshire.
N.S.= Gregorian, or new style,
Calendar (see 4.994).
N.U.R.= National Union of Rail-
waymen (British).
N.TJ.S.E.C. = National Union of Societies
for Equal Citizenship
(British).
N.TJ.W.S.S. = National Union of Women's
Suffrage Societies (Brit-
ish).
N.TJ.W.W.= National Union of Women
Workers (British).
N.Y.= New York.
0.=
O.B.E.
O.C.=
O.HJ,.
Okla.=
Ore. =
O.S.=
O.T.C.
o.V.=
Oxon.
oz. =
P. =
Pa.=
P.A.
P.C.
P. etO.=
P.O.
PoL=
pop. =
PJL=
Pr.=
Pres. =
Prof. =
pt. =
P.V.=
Ohio.
Officer of the Order of the
British Empire.
Officer Commanding (Brit-
ish).
ObersU
preme Army
(German).
Oklahoma.
Oregon.
Ordnance Survey (British);
Julian, or old style. Cal-
endar (see 4-994).
Officers' Training Corps.
ohae Vcrzogentng = Direct-
action fuze (German).
Oxfordshire.
ounce or ounces.
Percussion (fuze).
Pennsylvania.
Pour ampliation = Author-
ized for issue of docu-
ments (French Army).
Paste <fe Cammaniement
(French Army); Post of
Command (U.S.A-) =
battle or advanced head-
quarters (British).
Pares O. Comois Trains
and columns (French
Arir
Par ordre = By order; by
command (French); Post
Office.
Poland.
population.
Paste-retard = Delay-action
fuze (French).
Pounder (Gun designation).
President.
Professor.
pint or pints.
Pigeon Toyaffur = Carrier-
pigeon (French).
QJULMJf.S. Queen Alexandra's Im-
perial Military Nursing
Service (British).
QJLMJ.N.S. Queen Alexandra's Military
Families Nursing Service
(British).
QJULN.N.S. Queen Alexandra's Royal
Naval Nursing Sen-ice
(British).
QJ.= Quickfiring (artillery).
Q.G.= Quarticr General = Head-
quarters (French).
Q.G.A2= Headquarters of the II.
Army (French).
Q.M .AJLC. = Queen Mary's Army Auxil-
iary Corps O\;XA.C.)
(British).
Q.M.G. = Quartermaster-General.
Q.M.N.G.= Queen Mary's Needlework
Guild (British).
qr. = quarter or quarters,
qt. = quart or quarts.
q.v.= quod vide = which see
(Latin), for reference.
R-= Reserve (in troop designa-
tions).
RJL= Royal Artillery (British).
RJLC.= Royal Automobile Club
(British).
RJLM.C.
RJLO.C.=
RJ>.
RJE.
Kegt
Res-
RJ.C.
ILG.=
R.GJL
ILHJL
ILL =
RJ.C.
R.M.C.=
RJT.=
RJIJLF.=
RJCJLS.=
KJf.VJL =
ro.=
rs.=
R-OJ>.=
RJ>.=
R.T.O.=
RotL=
R.W.=
S.=
8.=
SJLE.=
Salop =
S.C.=
SJ>.=
seq.=
S.M.O.=
S-M.T.O.=
Som.=
s.o.s.=
Royal Air Force (British).
Royal Army Medical Corp*
Royal Army Ordnance
-:- : - --
Royal Army Service Corn
Royal Corps of Signals,
ance 1919 (British).
Roe Droite= Right bank (of
a river) (French).
r '-- ':--.- - ._-= : - --
SJ>.VJ).=
Becen t
Royal Field- Artillery
BVftni
Ro>alFl>-ing Corps (Brit-
Sae Gafc=Left bank (of
a river) (French).
Royal Garrison Artillery
L-::>- .
Royal Horse Artillery (Brit-
Rhode' Island.
Royal Institute of British
Architects.
Royal Irish Constabulary.
Royal Maiw (British).
Royal Military Academy
(Woohrich); Royal Ma-
rine Artillery (British).
Royal Mfljtar> College
(England).
Royal Marine Light In-
fantry (British).
Royal Navy (British).
Royal Ka'val Air Force
(British).
Royal Naval Air Service
(British).
Royal Naval Reserve (Brit-
ish).
Royal Naval Volunteer Re-
serve (British).
roods.
rupees.
Railway Operating Division
(British Army in France).
Rules of Procedure (British
Military Law).
Railway Transport Officer
(British and U.S.A.).
Rutland.
Royal Warrant (for pay,
etc.) (British).
South.
shilling or !
Society of Automobile En-
gineers.
Shropshire.
South Carolina.
South Dakota.
seqmens, tequcmtia =the fol-
lowing (Latin).
Silesia.
Senior Medical Officer of a
formation or station
(British).
Senior Mechanical Trans-
port Officer of a forma-
tion (British).
Somersetshire.
Sen-ices of Supply, Rear
Zone (U.S-A.), equivalent
to British L. of C; also
wireless call for life-sav-
ing.
Society for Psychical Re-
search.
Society for Prevention of
Venereal Disease.
Squadron.
square feet.
Sans retard = Direct -action
(of fuze).
XV111
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THESE VOLUMES
S.S. = Secret Service.
S.S.F.A. = Soldiers' and Sailors' Fami-
lies Association (British) .
S.S.S.E.= Societe Suisse de Surveil-
lance conomique=Sviiss
Society for Economic Su-
pervision.
Staffs. = Staffordshire.
Stellv. = Stellvertreter, stellvertre-
tend= Substitute, acting
deputy (German Army).
Suff.= Suffolk.
Sur. = Surrey.
Sus. = Sussex.
T
T. = Territorial (British Army)
T.= Time (fuze).
T.A.= Territorial Army (British,
since 1919).
T.B.D.= Torpedo-boat destroyer.
T.C. = Trains de Combat =" Com-
bat trains," "first-line
transport" (French).
T.D. = Territorial Officers' Decora-
tion (British).
Tenn.= Tennessee.
Tex. = Texas.
T.F.= Territorial Force (British,
till 1919).
T.F.N.S. = Territorial Force Nursing
Society (British).
T.M.= Trench Mortar.
T.M.G. = Temps Moyen de Green-
wich = Greenwich Mean
Time (French).
T.N.T.= Trinitrotoluene (High Ex-
plosive).
T.P.S.= Telegraphie par le 50/ =
Earth telegraphy (Power
buzzer, etc.) (French).
T.S.F.= Telegraphie sans fl = Wire-
less telegraphy (French).
u
Ukr. = Ukraine.
U.S. = United States.
U.S.A. = United States of America;
United States Army.
U.S.N. = United States Navy.
U.S.S. = United States Ship.
Va. = Virginia.
V.A.D.= Voluntary Aid Detachment;
nursing service, Terri-
torial Force (British).
V.C.= Victoria Cross (British).
V.D. = Volunteer Officers' Decora-
tion (British).
Verst. = Verstarkl = R ei n forced,
chiefly of formations
temporarily provided
with artillery (German).
viz.= videlicet = namely.
Vt. = Vermont.
V.T.C.= Volunteer Training Corps
(British).
w
W. = West.
W.A.A.C.= Women's Army Auxiliary
Corps (Q.M.A.A.C.)
(British).
W.A.F.F. = West Africa Frontier Force.
Wash. = Washington.
W.D.= War Department (British
and U.S.A.).
Westm. = Westmorland.
WUts.= Wiltshire.
Wis. = Wisconsin.
WM. = Werfmme=Shell of Minen-
werfer (German).
W.O.= War Office (British Gov't.).
Worcs. = Worcestershire.
W.R.A.C.= Women's Reserve Ambu-
lance Corps (British).
W.R.A.F. = Women's Royal Air Force
(British).
W.R.N.S.= Women's Royal Naval
Service (British).
W.S.P.U. = Women's Social and Politi-
cal Union (British).
Wumba. = Waff en- und Munitions-
Beschaffungs-Ami = W a r
Office for Munitions
(German).
W.U.S.L. = Women's United Service
League (British).
W.Va. = West Virginia.
W.V.R. = Women's Volunteer Service.
Wyo.= Wyoming.
yd. = yard or yards.
Y.M.C.A. = Young Men's Christian As-
sociation.
Yorks. = Yorkshire.
Y.W.C.A.= Young Women's Christian
Association.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXX. TO IDENTIFY CONTRIBUTORS, 1
WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES TO WHICH
THESE INITIALS ARE SIGNED.
A. B.
A. C. D.
A. D. H.
A. E. Ev.
A. Fl.
A. F. Pr.
A. G. L.
A. G. W.
A. H. Br.
A. H. C.*
A. H. Ch.
A. H. Gi.
ANTON BETTELHEIM, DR. JURIS.
f Austrian Empire :
\ Literature and Drama.
Administration :
ALFRED C. DEWAR, CAPT. R.N. (RET.), B.Lrrr. (Oxon.).
Gold Medallist, Royal United Service Institution. Late of the Historical Section, ( Bi oc k a( j e . Convov
[ Coronel; Dogger Bank.
Naval Staff, Admiralty.
SIR ALFRED DANIEL HALL, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Chief Scientific Adviser and Director-General of the Intelligence Department,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Author of The Soil; Fertilisers and
Manures; A Pilgrimage of British Farming; Agriculture after the War; etc.
Agriculture.
ARTHUR ERNEST EVEREST, D.Sc., PH.D., F.I.C.
Joint-author of The Natural Organic Colouring Matters (Perkin and Everest). J Botany: Chemistry of Sap
Author of various papers on Colouring Matters, etc., in Proc. Roy. Soc., Journ. 1 Pigments of Plants.
Chem. Soc., etc.
ALEXANDER FLEMING, M.B., F.R.C.S.
Director of the Department of Systematic Bacteriology in St. Mary's Hospital,
London.
ALFRED FRANCIS PRIBRAM, PH.D.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Vienna.
Vienna Academy of Science; etc.
Member of the
ALFRED GOODMAN LEVY, M.D., M.R.C.P.
Physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest.
Antiseptics.
Aehrenthal;
Austrian Empire: Austro-
Hungarian Foreign Policy;
Berchtold, Count L. ;
Burian, R. S. von;
Charles (Emperor of Austria) ;
Czernin, Count.
Anaesthetics.
ADAM GOWANS WHYTE, B.Sc., A.I.E.E. (
Editor of the Electrical Press Limited. Author of The Electrical Industry; < Electricity Supply: United
Electricity in Locomotion; The All-Electric Age. { Kingdom.
ALFRED H. BROOKS, B.Sc., D.Sc.
Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey. In charge of geologic and topographic i .. .
surveys and investigations of mineral resources of Alaska. Vice-Chairman of
the first Alaska Railroad Commission.
A. H. CHRISTIE.
Late Director, Westminster Technical Institute.
ARTHUR HARRY CHURCH, M.A., D.Sc.
University Lecturer in Botany, Oxford.
ARNOLD HARTLEY GIBSON, D.Sc., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.MECH.E., F.R.AE.S.
Professor of Engineering, University of Manchester; late Professor of En-
gineering, St. Andrews University. Member, Board of Trade Water Power
Committee; Hon. Secretary, Conjoint Board, Water Power Committee. Member
of the Air Ministry I.C.E. Committee. President, British Association, Section
9, 1921.
Arts and Crafts (in part).
Botany: General Morphology.
Aeronautics: Aero- Engines.
1 A complete list, showing all contributors to the New Volumes (arranged according to the alphabetical order of their surnames) with
the articles signed by them, appears at the end of Volume XXXII.
XX
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. H. McM.
A. J. G.
A. J. M.
A.-K.
A. L. Bo.
A. L. C.
A. P.
A. S. D.
A. S. E.
B. B.-H.
B. E. P.
B. K. L.
B. W. D.
C. A. D.
C. Br.
C. B. C.
C. C. H.
C. E. C.
C. E. W. B.
COLONEL SIR ARTHUR HENRY M'MAHON, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.C.I.E C S I
F.S.A., F.L.S., etc.
Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, 1911-4. British High Com-
missioner in Egypt, 1914-6. See biographical article: M'MAHON, SIR ARTHUR
HENRY.
REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., D.D.
Principal and Professor of Systematic Theology in the Scottish Congregational
College, Edinburgh. Assistant Editor of Peake's Commentary on the Bible.
SQUADRON LEADER ARNOLD JOHN MILEY, O.B.E., R.A.F.
Design Branch, Directorate of Research, Air Ministry, in charge of Seaplane
Development. Assistant Director, Air Department, Admiralty, June 1915 to
June 1916; Senior Flying Officer Naval Air Station, Felixstowe, August 1916 to
June 1917.
GENERAL MORITZ AUFFENBERG-KOMAROW.
See the biographical article: AUFJENBERG-KOMAROW, MORITZ.
Afghanistan.
Church History : Free
Churches: Presbyterian
Church of Scotland.
Aeronautics: Seaplanes.
Army: Austro- Hungarian
(in part);
Beck, Graf von;
Conrad von Hotzendorf.
ARTHUR LYON BOWLEY, Sc.D.
Professor of Statistics in the University of London.
Statistics; Wages in the United Kingdom; etc.
Author of Elements of < Cost of Living.
Army: United States;
Champagne, Battles in
(in part).
Blindness.
Education: United States
(in part).
Astronomy.
Army : British.
Champagne, Battles in
(in part).
COLONEL ARTHUR LATHAM CONGER, U.S. ARMY.
Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A.), C.M.G. Legion of Honour. Formerly
co-editor of The Military Historian and Economist.
SIR ARTHUR PEARSON, BT., G.B.E. (died 1921).
Chairman of the Blinded Soldiers and Sailors Care Committee. President of
the National Institute for the Blind. Author of Victory over Blindness; The
Conquest of Blindness. See the biographical article: PEARSON, SIR ARTHUR.
AUGUSTUS SEISS DOWNING, A.B., M.A., L.H.D., LL.D.
Assistant Commissioner for Higher Education and Director of Professional
Education, University of the State of New York.
ARTHUR STANLEY EDDINGTON, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.S.
Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy and Director
of the Observatory, Cambridge. Author of Stellar Movements and the Structure
of the Universe; Space, Time and Gravitation.
MAJOR-GENERAL BASIL FERGUSON BURNETT-HITCHCOCK, C.B., D.S.O., p.s.c.
Director-General of Mobilization and Recruiting, War Office.
GENERAL OF BRIGADE BARTHELEMY EDMOND PALAT.
Late French Army. Commanded a Division 1915-6. Author of La Grande
Guerre sur le front Occidental; Les Batattles d'Arlois et de Champagne; and, under
the pseudonym " Pierre Lebaut court," of La Defense Nationale, 1870-1 and other
works, including a general bibliography of 1870-1.
BASIL KELLETT LONG.
Editor of the Cape Times. Formerly Foreign Editor of The Times.
BRIAN WESTERDALE DOWNS, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Mediaeval and Modern Languages and English, Christ's
College, Cambridge.
CLYDE AUGUSTUS DUNIWAY, PH.D., LL.D.
President of Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo. Author of Freedom of
the Press in Massachusetts.
CARL BROCKHAUSEN, DR. JURIS.
Professor of the Science of Administration in the University of Vienna.
WING COMMANDER T. R. CAVE-BROWNE-CAVE, C.B.E., R.A.F., F.R.AE.S.,
A.M.I.MECH.E., A.M.I.N.A.
In charge of Airship Experiments and Research at the Admiralty and the Air
Ministry. Lecturer in Airship Engineering, Imperial College of Science. Airship
Member of the Aeronautical Research Committee. Formerly Engineer Officer,
R.N. Airship Pilot, 1913. In charge of Non-rigid Airship Design and Con-
struction at Kingsnorth, 1914-8.
CHARLES CAESAR HAWKINS, M.A., M.I.E.E., Assoc. AMERICAN I.E.E. f _. ^ . _ .
Author of The Dynamo. Joint-author of Papers on the Design of Alternate { ^'ectncal Engineering
Current Machinery. \ <* *"')
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR CHARLES EDWARD CALLWELL, K.C.B.
Director of Military Operations, War Office, 1914-6. Author of Small Wars;
Military Operations and Maritime Preponderance; The Dardanelles; etc.
MAJOR CLAUDE EAGLES WILLOUGHBY BEDDOES, O.B.E.
Gloucestershire Regiment. Inspector of Grenade Training, G.H.Q., Great Brit-
ain, 1915-8. Experimental Officer for Grenades and Trench Stores, Ministry
of Munitions, 1915-9. Control Officer, Inter-Allied Commission of Control, 1919.
| Botha, General.
Cambridge.
Colorado.
/ Austrian Empire (in part) ;
( Badeni, K.
Aeronautics: Airships.
Dardanelles Campaign.
Dogs, War (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xxi
C. F. A.
C. F. C.
C. H. H.
C. H. T.
C. J. M.
C.K.*
C. L. C.
C. LI. M.
C. M. E. M.
C. O. B.
C. R. W.
C. T. A.
C. T. G.
MAJOR CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
T.D. Late East Surrey Regiment. Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A.), Order
of Saint Anne (Russia). Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Staff
Officer for Trench Warfare Research, 1915-7. British Instructor in Intelligence,
American Expeditionary Force, 1918. Editorial Staff of the nth edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of Grant's Campaigns; The Wilderness and
Cold Harbor; etc.
CHARLES FREDERICK CROSS, B.Sc., F.R.S. (
Analytical and Consulting Chemist. Member of the firm of Cross & Bevan.
Joint-author (with E. J. Bevan) of Researches on Cellulose; Text-Book of
Papermaking.
CLARENCE HENRY HARLNG, B.LiTT. (Oxon.), PH.D. (Harvard).
Associate Professor of History in Yale University. Author of The Buccaneers
in the West Indies in the XVII. Century; Trade -and Navigation between Spain
and the Indies in the Time of the Habsburgs; etc.
CHARLES HARRISON TOWNSEND, F.R.I. B. A. fnivi
Past-Master of the Art Workers' Guild. Late Member of Council of the Royal I elcl j ler > J>
Institute of British Architecture. Cantor Lecturer on Mosaic. [ Bentley, J. i>.
COURTENAY J. MILL.
Financial Editor of The Times.
Air Bombs (in part) ;
Ammunition (in part) ;
Army: Russian (in part) ;
German ; Artillery (in part) ;
Balkan Wars (in part);
Bombthrowers ;
Cordonnier, General;
Eastern European Front
Campaigns (in part).
Cellulose.
Brazil.
CARL KARSTEN.
Member of the Staff of the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung.
< English Finance.
f Allenstein-Marienwerder;
I Ballin, A. ; Berlin; Bernstorff,
| Count; Dresden;
(Ebert,F.
Author of { Behaviourism.
CHARLES LYON CHANDLER, A.B.
Curator of South American History and Literature in the Harvard College I Argentina;
Library. Manager of the Foreign Commercial Department of the Corn Exchange | Buenos Aires.
National Bank of Philadelphia. Author of Inter- American Acquaintances.
CONWY LLOYD MORGAN, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
Emeritus Professor of Psychology in the University of Bristol.
Animal Life and Intelligence; Instinct and Experience; etc.
GENERAL CHARLES MARIE EMANUEL MANGIN, K.C.B., etc.
See the biographical article: MANGIN, C. M. E.
CHARLES OTTO BLAGDEN, M.A.
Reader in Malay in the University of London and in the School of Oriental
Studies, London Institution.
CLINTON ROGERS WOODRUFF, A.B., Pn.B., LL.B.
Attorney-at-Law. Hon. Secretary, National Municipal League. Vice-President,
American Civic Association. President, Civil Service Commission of Philadelphia.
CAPTAIN C. T. ATKINSON.
Historical Section, Committee of Imperial Defence.
/ Champagne, Battles in
\ (in part).
Austric Family of Languages.
City Government.
Artois, Battles in (in part).
CHARLES THEODORE GREVE, A.B., LL.B.
Referee-in-Bankruptcy, U.S. District Court, Southern District of Ohio. Secre- { Cincinnati,
tary to the Trustees of the Sinking Fund of Cincinnati, Ohio.
D. A.
D. D. T. O'C. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR DESMOND DYKES TYNTE O'CALLAGHAN, K.C.V.O., R.A
DOUGLAS AINSLIE, B.A. (Oxon.). f
Translator of Benedetto Croce's works. Author of John of Damascus; The Song < Croce, Benedetto (in part),
of the Stewarts; and other poems.
f
Colonel Commandant, Royal Artillery. Secretary, Member and President of the
Ordnance Committee. President of the Committee on Explosives. Formerly
on the Experimental Staff at Shoeburyness.
D. P. B. DAVID PRESCOTT BARROWS, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.
President of the University of California. Professor of Education, University of
California, 1910. President, Board of Trustees, Mills College, California, 1910-7.
Author of the Ethno-Botany of the Coahuilla Indians; A History of the Philip-
pines; etc.
D. Y. T. DAVID YANCEY THOMAS, M.A., PH.D.
Professor of History and Political Science in the University of Arkansas. Author
of A History of Military Government in Newly Acquired Territory of the United
States. Joint-author of The South in the Building of the Nation; Studies in South-
ern History and Politics. Associate Editor of the Southwestern Political Science
Quarterly.
E. B. A. MAJOR-GENERAL EDWARD BAILEY ASHMORE, C.B., C.M.G., M.V.O. f
Commander of the Legion of Honour. General in Command of the London Air < Air Raids.
Defences.
Ammunition (in part).
California, University of.
Arkansas.
XX11
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
E. C.K.
E. F. B. G.
E. F. L.
E. G.-H.
E.J.
E. J. F.
E. J. G.
E. J. R.
E. J. S.
E.K.
E. M. Ho.
E. N. S.
E. S.
E. S. H.
E. S. H.*
E. S. S.
E. V. V.
E. v. W.
E. W. MacB.
EDWARD CAMERON KIRK, D.D.S., Sc.D., LL.D.
Late Dean and Emeritus Professor of Dental Pathology and Therapeutics,
Dental School, University of Pennsylvania. Editor of The Dental Cosmos.
ELINOR F. B. GROGAN (Lady Grogan).
Wife of Colonel Sir Edward Grogan, Bart., C.M.G., D.S.O. Travelled and lived
for some years in the Balkans. Author of articles on Balkan subjects in the
Nineteenth Century; New Europe; etc.
EDWARD F. LAW.
Consulting Engineer. Formerly of the Armour Plate Department, Armstrong
Whitworth & Co.
MAJOR EDWARD GLAISE-HORSTENAU.
Late General Staff, Austro-Hungarian Army. Now of the Kriegsarchiv, Vienna.
Formerly Staff Officer to Field-Marshal Conrad von Hotzendorf.
MAJOR ERNST JOLY.
Late General Staff, Austro-Hungarian Army. Now of the Kriegsarchiv, Vienna.
Part-author of the Austrian Official War Chronology Tables, etc.
EDGAR JOHN FORSDYKE, M.A., F.S.A.
Assistant in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British
Museum. Editor of the Journal of Hellenic Studies.
EDGAR JOHNSON GOODSPEED, PH.D.
Professor of Biblical and Patristic Greek, and Secretary to the President, Chicago
University. Author of the Story of the New Testament; Index Patristicus; and
Contributor to the Atlantic Monthly.
EDWARD JOHN RUSSELL, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Director of the Rothamsted Experimental Station. Author of Soil Conditions
and Plant Growth; The Fertility of the Soil; Lessons on Soil; Manuring for Higher
Crop Production; etc.
EDWARD JAMES SALISBURY, D.Sc., F.L.S.
Lecturer in Botany and Fellow of University College, London. Hon. Secretary,
British Ecological Society. Author of An Introduction to the Study of Plants; etc.
EDMUND KNECHT, Pn.D. (Zurich), M.SC.TECH., F.I.C.
Associate Professor of Applied Chemistry, Manchester University and College
of Technology.
ERNEST MARTIN HOPKINS, A.M., Lrrr.D., LL.D.
President of Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H.
BREVET COLONEL ERNEST NORMAN STOCKLEY, D.S.O.
Royal Engineers.
ERNEST SANDFORD.
Secretary to the Lord Mayor of Birmingham. Joint-author (with R. H. Brazier)] Birmingham.
of Birmingham and the Great War.
ELIZABETH SANDERSON HALDANE, C.H., LL.D., J.P.
Member of Education Authority for Perthshire. Vice-Chairman, Territorial
Force Nursing Service Committee. On Royal Commission on the Civil Service.
Member of the Scottish Universities Committee. Author of The Life of Des-
cartes; etc.
Dentistry.
Bulgaria.
Armour Plate.
Austria, Republic of:
History; Eastern European
Front Campaigns (in part) .
Army: Austro-Hungarian (in
part);
Brest Litovsk, Battles
round, 1915;
Dunajec-San, Battles of the^
Archaeology : Greece.
Chicago, University of.
Botany: Soil Sterilization*
Botany: Ecology.
Dyeing : United Kingdom-
Dartmouth College.
< Bridging, Military.
Child Welfare:
United Kingdom.
Army: British, Demobiliza-
tion;
Dogs, War (in part).
F. A. Cl.
CAPTAIN EDGAR STOPFORD HOLLAND.
Late Royal West Kent Regiment. Formerly Mobilization Directorate, War
Office. Member of Gray's Inn.
ERNEST STANLEY SALMON, F.L.S.
Reader in Economic Mycology, University of London. Mycologist to the South- { Botany: Mycology.
Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.
ERNEST VANCOURT VAUGHN, M.A., PH.D.
Professor of History in the University of Delaware. Author of The Origin and
Early Development of the English Universities to the Close of the ijth Century;
English Trading Expeditions into Asia under Authority of the Muscovy Company,
I557-8I.
EDUARD VON WERTHEIMER.
Emeritus Professor of History in the University of Pressburg.
ERNEST WILLIAM MACBRIDE, D.Sc. (Lond.), M.A. (Cantab.), HON. LL.D. (McGill),
F.R.S.
Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. Vice-Chairman of the
Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Professor of Zoology in McGill Univer-
sity, Montreal. Professor of Zoology in the Imperial College of Science and
Technology, London. Author of Textbook of the Embryology of the Invertebrata;
etc.
FREDERICK ALBERT CLEVELAND, Pn.B., PH.D., LL.D.
Professor of United States Citizenship, Maxwell Foundation, Boston University. ( Boston.
Author of Organized Democracy; First Lessons in Finance; etc.
Delaware.
Andrassy, J. J.
Cytology;
Embryology.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xxin
F. A. L.
F. C.-O.
F. C. E.
F.F.
F. G. B.
F. G.-T.
F. H. Br.
F.I.
F. J. C. W.
F. Ke.*
F. L. N.
F. M. R.
F. R. C.
F. W. E.-G.
F. W. P.
F. Y.
F.Z.
G. A.
G. Ab.
G. A. Y.
G. C.
G. E. B.
FREDERICK ALEXANDER LINDEMANN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Experimental Philosophy in the University of Oxford.
CAPTAIN FRANK CREAGH-OSBORNE, R.N., C.B.
Director, Admiralty Compass Department.
FRANZ CARL ENDRES.
Major, late General Staff, Turkish Army. Author of a Life of M alike; Die Ruine
des Orients; etc. Member of Committee, German League of Nations Union.
FRANK Fox, O.B.E.
Author of Australia; Problems of the Pacific; "G.H.Q." Served in
War as Artillery officer and as Staff officer.
FRANK GEORGE BARNES.
Superintendent, Homerton Residential School for the Deaf.
The Teacher of the Deaf. Officer of the French Academy.
F. GLOERFELDT-TARP, M.A.
Chief Secretary to the Danish Extraordinary Commission on Regulation of
Prices. Secretary to the General Director of the Great Northern Telegraph
Company (Store Nordiske).
FRANK HERBERT BROWN, C.I.E.
On the Staff of The Times for Indian Affairs. London Correspondent of The
Times of India. Formerly Assistant Editor of the Bombay Gazette and Editor of
the Indian Daily Telegraph, Lucknow.
FLORENCE IRWIN.
Author of The Complete Auction Player; Master- Auction; etc.
MAJOR F. J. C. WYATT, O.B.E., M.C.
Royal Engineers. Organizer and Controller of Camouflage, British Expedition-
ary Force, France, 1916-8.
FREDERICK WILLIAM KEEBLE, C.B.E., F.R.S.
Sherardian Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford.
COLONEL SIR FREDERIC LEWIS NATHAN, K.B.E.
Late Royal Artillery. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Director
of Alcohol Section, Fuel Research Board.
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL F. M. RICKARD.
Royal Artillery. Chief Instructor, Artillery
Instructional Staff, Artillery College).
I Einstein, i
\ Compass.
Army: Turkish;
Balkan Wars (in part).
Formerly Editor of { Deaf and Dumb.
Denmark (in part).
} Aga Khan ;
] Bikaner, Maharaja of.
Bridge, Auction.
Camouflage: Military.
\ Botany: Introductory.
Alcohol.
College, Woolwich (assisted by < Ammunition (in part) .
FRANK RICHARDSON CANA, F.R.G.S.
Editorial Staff, nth edition of the Encyclopedia Bntannica. Editorial Staff of
The Times. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; Problems
of Exploration; Africa; The Sahara in 1915; The Great War in Europe; etc.
FREDERICK WILLIAM EDRIDGE-GREEN, C.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.S.
Special Examiner and Adviser to the Board of Trade on Colour Vision and Eye-
sight. Author of The Physiology of Vision. Inventor of the Colour Perception
Spectrometer and Colour Perception Lantern used as the Official Test of the
British Navy.
FLOYD W. PARSONS, E.M.
Founder and former Editor of The Coal Age.
ALEXANDER BELL FILSON YOUNG.
Editor of the Saturday Review. Author of With the Battle Cruisers; Master-
singers; Ireland at the Cross Roads; Christopher Columbus and the New World;
The Sands of Pleasure; When the Tide Turns; etc.
F. ZEUTHEN.
;
GEORGE JEFFREYS ADAM,
Formerly Correspondent of The Times in Paris.
GRACE ABBOTT, M.A.
Chief of the Children's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor. Formerly Director
Child Labor Division, U.S. Children's Bureau, and Executive Secretary,
Illinois Immigrants Commission, Chicago.
GILBERT A. YOUNGBERG, D.S.O.
Lieutenant-Colonel, Corps of Engineers, Assistant to the Chief of Engineers,
U.S. Army.
G. CASTELLANO.
Author of Introduzione allo studio delle opere di B. Croce (1920).
GEORGE EARLE BUCKLE, M.A., HON. LL.D.
Formerly Scholar of New College and Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.
Editor of The Times, 1884-1912. Author of Life of Disraeli (vols. 3, 4, 5, and 6).
See biographical article : BUCKLE, GEORGE EARLE.
Abyssinia; Africa; Angola;
Belgian Congo; Cairo;
Cameroon; Cape Province;
Dahomey; Delagoa Bay;
East African Military
Operations ; Egypt (in part).
Colour Vision and
Colour Blindness.
Coal: United States.
Beatty, Lord.
| Denmark (in part).
/ Briand, A.
\ Deschanel, P.
Children, Laws Relating to :
United States;
Child Welfare: United States.
Engineers, Military:
United States.
/ Croce, Benedetto
\ (in part).
Asquith, H. H.; Balfour,
A. J.; Carson, Sir Edward;
Cecil, Lord Hugh; Cecil,
Lord Robert; Churchill,
Winston; Cromer, Lord;
English History: 1913-21.
XXIV
G. . M.
G. E. S.
G. K. S.-M.
G.P.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
SIR GEORGE ERNEST MAY, K.B.E., F.I.A.
Secretary of the Prudential Assurance Company, Limited. Manager to the
Dollar Securities Committee.
GRAFTON ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.
Professor of Anatomy in the University of London. Author of The Ancient \ . ,
Egyptians; The Royal Mummies; Migrations of Early Culture; Evolution of the } An " lro pology.
Dragon; etc.
G.S.
G. S. F.
G. T.*
H. A. B.
H. A. H.
H. Ch.
H. Cl.
H. Cr.
H. E. A.
H. E. A. C.
H. E. B.
H. E. E.
H. E. Wi.
H. G. J.
H.H.*
Barracks and Hutments;
Engineers, Military:
United Kingdom.
Conservation Policy.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR GEORGE KENNETH SCOTT-MONCRIEFF, K.C.B., K.C.M.G.,
C.I.E., HoN.M.lNST.C.E., LATE R.E.
Director of Fortifications and Works, War Office, 1911-8. Author of The Water
Supply of Barracks and Cantonments; The Principles of Structural Design; etc.
GIFFORD PTNCHOT, A.B. (Yale), HON. A.M. (Yale and Princeton), Sc.D. (Michigan
Agricultural College), LL.D. (McGill).
Professor of Forestry, Yale University. U.S. Forester, 1898-1910. President of
the National Conservation Association. Pennsylvania Commissioner of Forestry.
Author of The Adirondack Spruce; The Training of a Forester; The Fight for
Conservation; etc. ,
GEORGE SAUNDERS, O.B.E., B.A. (Oxon.), HON. LL.D. (Glasgow). [ Bethmann Hollweg, T. von;
Correspondent of the Morning Post in Berlin, 1888-97; an d of The Times in I Biilow, Prince von ;
Berlin, 1897-1908, and in Paris, 1908-14. ] Delbruck, Hans;
{ Eisner, Kurt.
Guv STANTON FORD, PH.D. [
Professor of History and Dean of the Graduate School, University of Minnesota. J
Director of Division
Public Information.
of Educational and Civic Publications, Committee on
Censorship : United States.
GEOFFREY TOYE.
Scholar and Exhibitioner, Royal College of Music. Author of Experance Morris { Dancing.
Dance Book, No. 2. Conductor, Philharmonic Societies, London and Liverpool.
BRIGADIER-GENERAL HENRY ARTHUR BETHELL, C.M.G.
Late Royal Field Artillery. Author of Modern Guns and Gunnery; Modern
Artillery in the Field.
HOWARD ARCHIBALD HUBBARD, M.A.
Associate Professor of History and Social Science in the University of Arizona.
HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the toth, nth
and 1 2th editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Financial Editor of The
Times, 1913-20. See the biographical article : CHISHOLM, HUGH.
SIR HUGH CLIFFORD, G.C.M.G.
Governor of Nigeria. In the Federated Malay States Civil Service,
1883-1903; in the West Indies, 1903-7; in Ceylon, as Colonial Secretary, 1907-12.
Governor of the Gold Coast, 1912-9. Administered the British Sphere of Occu-
pation in Togoland throughout the World War. Author of Studies in Brown
Humanity; Furtlier India; The German Colonies; etc.
HOMER CROY.
Author of How Motion Pictures Are Made.
HENRY EDWARD ARMSTRONG, PH.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Emeritus Professor of Chemistry at the City and Guilds College, South Kensing-
ton. Davy Medallist of the Royal Society, 1911.
HENRY EVAN AUGUSTE COTTON, C.I.E., L.C.C.
Formerly Scholar of Jesus College, Oxford, and Advocate of the High Court at
Calcutta. Author of Calcutta Old and New. Late Editor of India.
HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE, L.H.D. f
Professor of History in Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Author of ( Cleveland.
The Revolutionary Period in Europe; The Teaching of History and Civics; etc. [
HUGH EDWARD EGERTON.
Sometime Beit Professor of Colonial History, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls
College, Oxford. Author of A Short History of British Colonial Policy; Origin
and Growth of the English Colonies; " Canada" (Part II.) in Sir Charles Lucas's
History and Geography of the British Colonies; etc.
MAJOR H. E. WIMPERIS, O.B.E., M.A., M.I.E.E., A.M.I.C.E., F.R.AE.S.
Superintendent of the Air Ministry Laboratory. Lecturer on Air Navigation at
the Imperial College of Science. Served in Royal Air Force.
HERMAN GERLACH JAMES, M.A., J.D., PH.D.
Professor of Government in the University of Texas. Author of Principles of
Prussian Administration; Applied City Government; A Handbook of Civic Im-
provements; Municipal Functions; etc.
HARRY REGINALD HOLLAND HALL, D.Lnr., M.B.E., F.S.A.
Assistant Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum.
Artillery (in part).
Arizona.
English History:
1910-2.
Ashanti.
j Cinematograph.
< Chemistry
Banerjea, Sir S.
British Empire.
Aeronautics : A ir Navigation.
Chile.
/Archaeology: Egypt
\ and Western Asia.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XXV
H. I. P. HERBERT INGRAM PRIESTLEY, M.A., PH.D.
Associate Professor of Mexican History and Librarian of the Bancroft Library,
University of California. Author of Jose de Gdlvez, Visitor-General of New
Spain] etc.
H. J. W. H. J. WILSON, C.B., C.B.E.
H. K. HANS KELSEN, DR. JURIS.
Professor of Constitutional Law at the University of Vienna. '
H. Lu. H. LUND, M.A.
H. L. H. S. HARRY L. H. SCHUTZE, M.D.
Bacteriologist at the Lister Institute, London.
H. L. T. HENRY LETHEBY TIDY, M.A., M.D. (Oxon.), F.R.C.'P. (Lond.).
Assistant Physician to St. Thomas's Hospital. Physician to the Great Northern
Hospital, London.
H. M. L. HAROLD MAXWELL LEFROY, M.A., F.Z.S.
Professor of Entomology in the Imperial College of Science and Technology,
South Kensington. Author of Indian Insect Pests; Indian Insect Life; etc.
H. N.* CAPTAIN HOFFMAN NICKERSON, B.A., M.A. (Harvard).
Late U.S. Army. Member of New York State Legislature, 1916. In the World
War served in G.H.Q. Intelligence Staff, American Expeditionary Force, France.
H. P. HENRI PIRENNE.
Rector of the University of Ghent. Member of the Royal Academy of Belgium
and of the Institute of France. Corresponding Member of the Royal Historical
Society. Author of Histoire de Belgique; etc.
H. P. W. HENRY PARKER WILLIS, PH.D.
Professor of Banking in Columbia University. Director of Research, Federal
Reserve Board. Author of American Banking; The Federal Reserve; etc.
H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D.
Gold Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society. Author of The Siege of
the South Pole; etc. See the biographical article: MILL, HUGH ROBERT.
H. Tk. HANS TIEKE, PH.D.
Professor of Art History in the University of Vienna.
H. v. H. MAJOR-GENERAL HANS VON HAEFTEN.
Late General Staff, German Army. Director in the Archives of the Reich.
Formerly member of the Historical Section of the Great General Staff. During
the World War a General Staff Officer with troops. Representative of the
Supreme Command at the Foreign Office, 1918.
H. W. HARTLEY WITHERS.
Editor of the Financial Supplement of the Saturday Review. Formerly Editor of
The Economist. Author of The Meaning of Money; Case for Capitalism; etc.
H. Wf. HUMBERT WOLFE, C.B.E.
H. W. M. HENRY WILLIAM MARDON, F.R.G.S.
Commander of the Mejidieh. Formerly Lecturer in Geography and Education
in the Tewfikieh and Dar el Ulum Colleges, Cairo. Author of A Geography of
Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan; etc.
H. W. M.* HAROLD WOOD MILNER, M.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.
Executive Engineer, Public Works Department, Government of India.
I. B. B. SIR ISAAC BAYLEY BALFOUR, K.B.E., M.D., LL.D., M.A., F.R.S.
Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Fellow of Magdalen
College, Oxford.
I. F. IRVING FISHER, A.B., PH.D.
Professor of Political Economy at Yale University. Author of The Nature of
Capital and Income; The Purchasing Power of Money; The Rate of Interest; etc.
See the biographical article: FISHER, IRVING.
J. A. G. JAMES ALISON GLOVER, O.B.E., M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), D.P.H.
Medical Officer, Ministry of Health. Late Officer in Charge Cerebro-Spinal
Fever Laboratory, London District.
J. A. T.* JOHN AITON TODD, B.L. f
Lecturer in Economics, Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The World's Cotton { Cotton and Cotton Industry.
Crops; etc.
J. B. C. K. JOHN BAKER CANNINGTON KERSHAW, F.I.C., F.S.S.
Consulting Chemist and Chemical Engineer. Author of The Electric Furnace
in Iron and Steel Production; Electrometallurgy; Electrothermal Methods of Iron
and Steel Production.
Costa Rica.
I Arbitration and Conciliation:
I United Kingdom.
! Austria, Republic of:
< Constitution and
{ Administration.
| Denmark (in part).
<, Bacteriology: Medical.
Encephalitis Lethargica.
Economic Entomology.
Artois, Battles in (in part).
Belgium: History (in part).
Banking: United States.
Antarctic Regions.
Austrian Empire : Art.
Champagne, Battles in
(in part) .
Capitalism.
f Demobilization and
| Resettlement: United
[ Kingdom.
Arabia.
Delhi.
Botany : Horticultural
Exploration.
Dollar Stabilization.
Cerebro-Spinal Fever.
I
f
I Electrochemistry and
] Electrometallurgy.
XXVI
J.C.
J. C. M.*
J. C. Mo.
J. E. W.
J. H. D.
J. Mo.*
J. M. M.
J. O. P. B.
J.P.
J. P.-B.
J. R. Co.
J. R. J- J-
J. R. R.
J. SI.
J. S. Ba.
K. M.
K. P.
L.Bw.
L. C. W.
L.D.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Jo VAN Cvijic.
Patron's Medallist of the R.G.S. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Professor of
Geography in the University of Belgrade. Author of Das Karstphaenomen;
Grundlinien der Geographic und Geologic lion Mazedonien und Altserbien; La
Peninsiile Balkanique.
COLONEL JOHN COLIN MATHESON, R.E.
Deputy Chief Engineer, Southern Command. Formerly Chief Instructor in
Fortification, School of Military Engineering, Chatham. Fortification Adviser to
the Chilean Government. Member of the Belgian Coast Defences Commission,
1919, and of the Heligoland Commission, 1920.
JAMES CECIL MOTTRAM, M.B. (Lond.), D.P.H. (Cantab.).
Director of the Research Department, Radium Institute. Late Experimental
Officer, Camouflage School, G.H.Q. Author of Controlled Natural Selection.
'JAMES E. WEST, LL.B., LL.M.
Chief Scout Executive, Boy Scouts of America. Formerly Secretary of Presi-
dent Roosevelt's White House Conference on Care of Dependent Children.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR JOHN HUMPHREY DAVIDSON, K.C.M.G., C.B., D.S.O., M.P.
Late 6oth Rifles. Member for Fareham Division of Hampshire. Served through- , A _ .
out South African War. Instructor in Staff Duties at the Staff College. On the 1 A" 018 . Ba
General Staff in France, 1914-8.
RT. REV. MGR. J. MOVES, D.D.
Canon of Westminster Cathedral.
Balkan Peninsula (in part).
Coast Defence.
I Camouflage: Natural;
I Colours of Animals.
r
Boy Scouts : United States.
Domestic Prelate to H. H. Pope Benedict XV.
Formerly Editor of the Dublin Review,
__.
History:
Roman Catholtc -
DR. J. MERRITT MATTHEWS.
Head of the Department of Chemistry and Dyeing, Philadelphia Textile School, _ . rr . ,
1898-1007; Consulting Chemist and Expert in Textile Chemistry and Dyestuffs D y em 8 : Umtea
since 1910. Editor Colour Trade Journal since 1917.
JOHN OTWAY PERCY BLAND. f
Author of China; Japan and Korea; Houseboat Days in China. Joint-author of J rjjj na
China under the Empress Dowager. Served in Chinese Maritime Customs,
1883-96. Shanghai Correspondent for The Times, 1897-1910.
Professor of History to Prince
JACQUES PIRENNE.
Avocat at the Court of Appeal of Belgium.
Leopold of Belgium, Duke of Brabant.
JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST.
Editor of The Guardian.
JOHN ROGERS COMMONS, A.B., A.M., LL.D.
Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin. Author of Documentary
History of American Industrial Society; History of Labor in the United Slates;
Principles of Labor Legislation; etc.
COLONEL JULIAN ROBERT JOHN JOCELYN, C.B.
Late Royal Artillery. Gold Medallist of the Royal Artillery Institution.
RIGHT HON. SIR JAMES RENNELL ROOD, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O.
Grand Cross of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus. Commander of the Osmanieh.
Grand Cross of Polar Star. Late Ambassador to the Court of Italy. Member of
Lord Milner's Mission to Egypt, 1920. Special Envoy to King Menelek II., 1897.
Author of Customs and Lore of Modern Greece; Poems in Many Lands; etc.
JOHN SLATER, B.A. (Lond.), F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly President, Architectural Association, and Vice-President, Royal
Institute of British Architects, 1900-4. Member of Appeal Tribunal under the
London Building Acts. Author of a Short History of The Berners Estate;
Joint-author of Classic and Early Christian Architecture.
JAMES STRACHEY BARNES, F.R.G.S.
Author of "The Future of the Albanian State" (R.G.S. Journal, July 1918).
MAJOR KARL MAYERN.
Late General Staff, Austro-Hungarian Army. Now of the Kriegsarchiv, Vienna.
Author of various monographs on the World War.
KARL PRIBRAM, DR. JURIS.
Professor in the University of Vienna.
LEONARD BAIRSTOW, C.B.E., F.R.S., F.R.As.S., F.INST.P.
Professor of Aerodynamics at the Imperial College of Science and Technology,
South Kensington. Author of Applied Aerodynamics.
LAWRENCE C. WROTH, A.B.
First Assistant Librarian, Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore. Author of
Parson Weems: A Biographical and Critical Study, etc.
LETTICE DIGBY, F.N.S.
Author of cytological papers in the Annals of Botany; Archiv fiir Zellforschung;
etc.
Albert, King of the Belgians;
Belgium: History (in part).
/ Church History :
\ Church of England.
Arbitration and Conciliation:
United States.
Air Bombs (in part).
Egypt : History.
Architecture : British.
Albania.
Carpathians, Battles of.
Austrian Empire: Economic
Conditions (in part);
Austria, Republic of: Eco-
nomic Conditions (in part).
Aeronautics: Aerodynamics.
Baltimore.
f
Botany: Cytology.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xxvii
L. J. B. LAWRENCE JOHNSTON BURPEE. f
Secretary, Canadian Section, International Joint Commission. Formerly I Canada: English
Librarian of the Ottawa Public Library. Author of Bibliography of Canadian } Canadian Literature.
Fiction; A Little Book oj Canadian Essays; Century of Canadian Sonnets; etc.
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S.
Assistant Keeper in the Mineral Department, British Museum Natural History. \ Crystallography.
Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. Author of The World's Minerals.
L. Va. LALLA VANDERVELDE. / T> i
Secretary of the Institut des Hautes Etudes, Brussels University. \ "Ogam'. Literature.
I Austrian Empire :
L. v. M. LUDWIG VON MISES, DR. JURIS. J Finance and Banking;
Professor of Political Economy in the University Vienna. ] Austria, Republic of:
( Finance and Banking.
. L. W.* LEONARD SIDNEY WOOLF, B.A.
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Empire and Com- J . .
merce in Africa; International Government; Cooperation and the Future of In- 1 ^P el on -
duslry; etc.
M. B. E. MIRA BURR EDSON. . f
Editor of the Arts and Crafts Magazine and Arts and Crafts Bulletin. Charter { **T / *r t/ratts:
Member of the National Society of Craftsmen and of the Art Alliance. { ^ tates -
M. C. S. MARIE CARMICHAEL STOPES, D.Sc. (Lond.), PH.D. (Munich).
Fellow of University College, London. Sometime Lecturer in Palaeobotany,
Universities of Manchester and London. Author of Catalogue of Cretaceous
Botany: Anatomy and
Palaeobotany.
Plants in the British Museum, etc.
M. Fl. WING COMMANDER MARTIN FLACK, C.B.E., M.A., M.B. f
Director of Medical Research, Royal Air Force. Author of papers on the < Aerotherapeutics.
medical aspect of flying, etc.
M. K. DR. M. KRISTIANSEN. < Denmark (in part).
M. M. W. MERTON M. WILNER. / u i
Editorial Writer on the Bu/alo Express. \ Bufial0 -
M. O'G. LIEUTENANT-COLONEL MERVYN O'GORMAN, C.B., D.Sc., M.lNST.C.E.
Formerly Superintendent of the Royal Aircraft Factory, Farnborough. Con-
sultant to the Director-General of Military Aeronautics. Chairman of the Royal
Aeronautical Society, and of the Accidents Investigation Committee of the Air
Ministry.
Aeronautics: Introductory.
Air Defence.
M. R.* MAURICE RECLUS. / AI
Conseiller d' Etat. Colonial Editor of Le Temps. \ Alger
M. St. L. S. MAJOR AND BREVET COLONEL M. St. L. SIMON, C.B.E., R.E.
Assistant Director, Engineering Services, Canada, 1908-10. Staff Captain, War
Office (Fortifications and Works), 1911-5. Anti-Aircraft Defence Commander,
London, 1916-8. Anti-Aircraft Defence, Independent Force, R.A.F., 1918.
Anti-Aircraft Defence, Leeds, 1919. Commander of Northern Air Defences,
1919. General Staff, War Office, 1920-1.
N. M. B. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, PH.D., LL.D. (Cantab.), JUR.D., HoN.D.Lrrr. f Columbia University;
(Oxon.). { Education: United States
See the biographical article: BUTLER, N. M. ( (in part).
N. W. NORMAN WILKINSON, O.B.E., R.I. [
Marine Painter and Etcher. Originator of Dazzle Painting (Naval Camouflage) < Camouflage: Naval.
as used by the Allied Powers in the World War. Author of The Dardanelles.
O. Kr. OTTO KRIEGK, PH.D. (Gottingen). /
Member of the Staff of the Weser Zeitung, Berlin Office. 1
O. L.-L. OLIVER STILLINGFLEET LOCKER-LAMPSON, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.P., B.A. f
Parliamentary Secretary (Private) to Mr. Austen Chamberlain as Chancellor of J rtiatnViariain T Anctpn
the Exchequer- and as Leader of The House of Commons. Author of The Great *"
Preference Debate. (
lKA Member K of the Berlin Staff of the Frankfurter Zeitung. { Bavaria: Political Histor y-
O. v. K. BARON OTTO VON KLIMBERG, DR. JURIS. j Bosnia and Herzegovina.
P. B. PAUL BOURSON. f . . T
Member of the Commissariat General of the French Republic at Strasbourg. \ Alsace-lx>n
P. Vi. SIR PAUL VINOGRADOFF, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., DR. HIST., DR. JURIS.
Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford. Author of Villainage in England;
The Growth of the Manor; Outlines of Historical Jurisprudence; etc. See the
biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, SIR PAUL.
Benckendorff, Count;
Denikin, Anton.
XXV111
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Censorship (in part).
Ri. RIGHT HON. LORD RIDDELL.
Vice-Chairman of the Newspaper Proprietors' Association. Chairman of the
Weekly Newspaper and Periodical Proprietors' Association. Represented the
British Press at the Peace Conference, 1919-21. See the biographical articl ;:
RIDDELL, LORD.
R. A. C. RALPH ADAMS CRAM, LITT.D. (Princeton), LL.D. (Yale), F.R.G.S.
Fellow of the American Institute ctf Architects and of the North British Academy
of Arts. Hon. Corresponding Member of the Royal Institute of British Architects.
Associate of the National Academy. Member of the American Institute of Arts
and Letters. Supervising Architect, Princeton University. Lecturer on the
Philosophy of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Member of
the firm of Cram, Goodhue & Ferguson. Author of Church Building; The Ruined
Abbeys of Great Britain; etc. See the biographical article: CRAM, RALPH ADAMS.
R. B.-P. LiEUTENANT-GENERALSmRoBERTBADEN-PowELL,BART.,K.C.B.,K.C.V.O.,LL.D. / Boy Scouts: United
Chief Scout. \ Kingdom.
R. DeC. W. ROBERT DECOURCY WARD, A.M. f
Professor of Climatology, Harvard University. Author of Climate Considered \ Climate and Climatology.
Especially in Relation to Man.
Architecture: United States.
R. F. T.
R. H. G.
R.K.
RICHARD F. TAYLOR, M.B.E., F.S.S.
Statistician to the Ministry of Mines.
Coal: United Kingdom.
RALPH HENRY GABRIEL, PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Yale University. Author of The Evolution of < Connecticut.
Long Island, etc.
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL RUDOLF KISZLING. I Eastern European Front
Late General Staff, Austro-Hungarian Army. Now of the Kriegsarchiv, Vienna. ] Campaigns (in part).
R. K. B.-W. BRIGADIER-GENERAL RALPH KIRBY BAGNALL-WILD, C.M.G., C.B.E., R.A.F., f
M.I.MECH.E.
Director of Aircraft Inspection. Fellow and Past Chairman of the Royal Aero-
nautical Society. Commission, Royal Engineers, 1893. Inspector of Aircraft,
Aeronautics :
Materials and Methods of
Manufacture.
R. K. H.
R. M. H.
R. M.Wi.
R. McK. W.
R. N. R. B.
R.P. D.
R. Si.
R.Str.
R.Th.
R. T. T.
R. van O.
LiF.UTENANT-COLONEL ROBERT KNOX HEZLET, C.B.E., D.S.O.
Royal Field Artillery. Superintendent of External Ballistics, Ordnance Com-
mittee. Author of Nomography; Interior Ballistics; etc.
SQUADRON LEADER R. M. HILL, R.A.F., M.C., A.F.C.
Associate Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. Formerly in charge of the
Experimental Flying Department, Royal Aircraft Establishment. Author of
paper to the Royal Aeronautical Society: A Comparison of the Flying Qualities of
Single- and Tivin-Engined A eroplanes; Aeronautical Research Committee Reports
and Memoranda No. 678; The Influence of Military and Civil Requirements on
the Flying Qualities of Aeroplanes.
R. McNAre WILSON, M.B., Cn.B.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine. Editor, Oxford Medical Publications. J Bilharziosis ;
Late Research Worker in Cardiology, Medical Research Committee. Consultant 1 Burns and Scalds ;
to the Ministry of Pensions in Trench Fever. [ Cancer.
Ballistics (in part).
Aeronautics : Performance
of Aeroplanes.
RONALD McKiNNON WOOD, B.A. (Cantab.), A.M.I.C.E., F.R.AE.S.
Head of Aerodynamics Department, Air Ministry.
/ Aeronautics : Development
\ of Aeroplane Design.
ROBERT N. RUDMOSE BROWN, D.Sc. f
Member of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, 1902-4, and of the Scottish J Aland Islands ;
Arctic Expeditions, 1909, 1912 and 1914. Lecturer in Geography, University of ] Arctic Regions.
Sheffield. Author of Spitsbergen, etc. Joint-author of The Voyage of the Scotia.
R. PALME DUTT.
Late Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of
Editor of The Labour International Handbook.
The Two Internationals. { Communism.
ROBERT SIEGER, PH.D.
Professor of Geography, University of Graz; Member of the Academy of
Science, Vienna.
RICHARD STRIEGL, DR. JURIS.
Secretary of the Industrial District Commission.
RALPH THICKNESSE.
Barrister-at-Law. Author of Digest of Law; Husband and Wife; etc.
SIR REGINALD THOMAS TOWER, K.C.M.G., C.V.O.
Administrator of Danzig and High Commissioner of the League of Nations,
1919-20.
CAPITAINE-COMMANDANT R. VAN OVERSTRAETEN.
Aide-de-Camp to H. M. The King of the Belgians. Graduate of the Staff College.
Order of Leopold. D.S.O. Legion of Honour.
Austria, Republic of:
Introduction;
{ Economic Conditions.
/ Austrian Empire : Economic
\ Conditions (in part).
( Children, Law Relating to:
< United Kingdom;
( Divorce: United Kingdom.
Danzig.
Antwerp : Siege of 1914 ;
Army: Belgian.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xxix
S. B. W. S. B. WILLIAMS. / Electricity Supply:
Assistant Managing Editor of Electrical World. \ United States.
S. G. P. SYDNEY GROSS PAINE, D.Sc., F.I.C. f
Assistant Professor of Bacteriologv, Imperial College of Science and Technology, { "actenology:
London 1 General and Agricultural.
St. J. E. ST. JOHN GREER ERVINE. f
Dramatic Critic of The Observer. Author of The Magnanimous Lover; Mixed { Drama.
Marriage; Jane Clegg; and other plays. [
S. P. S. STANLEY PARKER SMITH, D.Sc., M.I.E.E., A.M.I. C.E. /Electrical Engineering
Joint-author of Papers on the Design of Alternate Current Machinery. \ (in part).
S. R. W. REV. STAGEY R. WARBURTON, B.A. f Cmirc jj j
Editor of Year Book of the Churches. Secretary of Literature of the General < ~.
Board of Promotion of the Northern Baptist Convention, U.S.A. [
S. V. SWALE VINCENT, LL.D., D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.S.C. f
Professor of Physiology in the University of London. Author of Internal Secretion { Ductless Glands.
and the Ductless Glands. {
T. C. McC. THOMAS CHALMERS McCoRVEY, M.A., LL.D.
Professor of History and Political Science in the University of Alabama. Author J
of The Government of the People of the Stale of Alabama. Contributor to The 1
Library of Southern Literature and The South in the Building of the Nation, etc. [
T. G. M. THOMAS GARRIGUE MASARYK. /
President of the Czechoslovak Republic. \
Alabama.
Czechoslovakia.
V. B.-J. CAPTAIN VIVIAN BULKELEY-JOHNSON.
Entered Rifle Brigade, 1913. Served in France, 1914-5. G.H.Q., 1916. Aide- j Aeronautics: Control
de-Camp to Governor-General of Canada, 1916-8. Officer of the War Cabinet, } of Air Traffic.
1918-9. Air Ministry, 1919-21.
V. H. B. VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, Sc.D., F.R.S. f
Professor of Plant Physiology and Pathology in the Imperial College of Science < Botany: General Physiology.
and Technology. [
V. L. E. C. GENERAL VICTOR Louis SMILIEN CORDONNIER. / Argonne, Battles of the;
See the biographical article: CORDONNIER, V. L. E. \ Army: French.
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. (Oxford and Dublin). f
Lecky Professor of Modern History in the University of Dublin. Member of J _. .
the Royal Irish Academy. Author of Modern Europe; The Confederation of }
Europe; etc. 1
W. B. A. W. BROUGHTON ALCOCK. / D vsenterv
Director Central Laboratory, Ministry of Pensions. \ *
W. F. S. WILLIAM F. SPAULDING, CERT.A.I.B., F.R.EcoN.S.
Examiner in Banking, Currency and Foreign Exchange to various public bodies.
Author of Foreign Exchange and Foreign Bills in Theory and in Practice; Eastern
Banking: British.
Exchange; Currency and Finance; etc. Sometime Editor of the Statist British
Banking Supplement and International Banking Supplement.
W. G. C.* WILLIAM GEORGE CONSTABLE, M.A.
Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law. Lecturer at the :~r
Wallace Collection. Be rd>
W. G. Ma. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR WILLIAM GRANT MACPHERSON, K.G.M.G., C.B., LL.D.
Editor-in-Chief of the Medical History of the Great War. Formerly Deputy J Army Medical Service :
Director-General, Army Medical Service. Author of Handbooks of the Medical ] British.
Services of Foreign Armies, etc.
W. G. S. A. WILLIAM GEORGE STEWART ADAMS, M.A.
Gladstone Professor of Political Theory and Institutions in the University of { Education: United Kingdom.
Oxford.
W. H. T. COLONEL W. H. TSCHAPPAT (U.S. Army). f Ammunition (in part);
Author of Ordnance Treatise, U.S.A. \ Ballistics (in part).
W. J. C. W. J. CHILDS. f
Late of the Intelligence Department of the Admiralty (Geographical Section). \
W. K. McC. WILLIAM KIDSTON McCmRE, M.A. (Oxon). f Asiago, Battle of;
Late Correspondent of The Times in Rome. Correspondent of The Times on J Cadorna, General;
the Italian Front, 1915-7- Author of Italy's Part in the War; Italy in North 1 Caneva, Carlo;
Africa; Chapters on Italy in The Times History of the War; etc. ( Caporetto, Battle of.
AJ R rd^ance A Departmtnt of the U.S. Army. 1 Ammunition (in part).
W. L. G.* WILLIAM L. GRIFFITH. f ...
Permanent Secretary* Office of the High Commissioner for Canada, London. J 2f It, , ..
Author of The Dominion of Canada; article on " Canada," Oxford Survey of the ] nus % ^" lia
British Empire. ( Lanada -
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
American Literature.
I Cornell University.
Army Medical Service:
United States.
XXX
W. L. P. WILLIAM LYON PHELPS, M.A., PH.D., LITT.D.
Lampson Professor of England Literature at Yale University. Author of Essays
on Modern Novelists; Essays on Russian Novelists; Essays on Modern Drama-
tists; The Twentieth Century Theatre; The Advance of English Poetry; etc.
W. P. WOODFORD PATTERSON, B.A.
Secretary of Cornell University.
W. P. C. WESTON P. CHAMBERLAIN.
Colonel, Army Medical Corps, U.S. Army.
W. R. I. WALTER RENTON INGALLS.
Consulting Mining and Metallurgical Engineer, New York.
of Zinc and Cadmium.
W. R. Ma. WILLIAM R. MANNING, Pn.D.
Economist, Latin-American Division, U.S. Department of State. Author of
Nootka Sound Controversy (Justin Winsor Prize Essay of American Historical
Association, 1904); Early Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and
Mexico (Albert Shaw Lectures, Johns Hopkins University, 1913); etc.
W. St. WILLIAM STOCKING, M.A. (Yale).
Newspaper Editor, 1865-1900. Historian and Statistician, Detroit Board of
Commerce, 1903-21. Author of Under the Oaks; History of the Republican
Parly; etc.
W. S. Ro. WILLIAM SPENCE ROBERTSON, Pn.D.
Professor of History in the University of Illinois. Author of Francisco de Mi-
randa and the Revolutionizing of Spanish America; Rise of the Spanish American
Republics; etc.
W. V. B. WlLHELM VON BLUME, DR. JURIS.
Professor of Law in the University of Tubingen. Author of Familienrecht des
Burgerlichen Geselzbuchs; Erbrecht des Burgerlichen Geselzbuchs. Cooperated in
the drafting of the Constitution of Wurttemberg, 1919.
W. Wo. LIEUTENANT-COLONEL WILLIAM WOOD, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Canada).
Reserve of Officers, Canadian Army. Coordinating Officer of the Canadian
Special Mission at the Naval and Military Fronts, 1917. Formerly President
of English Section of Royal Society of Canada and of Historic Landmarks Asso-
ciation. Author of The Fight for Canada ; The Logs of the Conquest of Canada ;
Folk Songs of New France; etc.
X. Initial used for anonymous contributors.
Y. C. YVES CHATAIGNEAU. f
American Distinguished Service Cross. Knight of the Legion of Honour. Lectur- J ,,._ D __ _.. /
er in the University of Belgrade. Author of " L 1 Emigration Vendeenne," Annales H
de Geographic, 1917, "La Yougo-Slavie," Annales de Geographic, 1921.
Y. D. GENERAL YOURI DANILOV. Army: Russian (in part)
Author of Metallurgy < Copper.
Cuba.
Detroit.
Bolivia;
Colombia;
Ecuador.
Baden;
Bavaria (in part).
Canada: Literature,
French Canadian.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
VOLUME XXX
THE FIRST OF THE NEW VOLUMES
ABBE, CLEVELAND (1838-1916), American meteorologist, was
born in New York Dec. 3 1838. He studied astronomy under
Briinnow and A. B. Gould, and spent a year at the Pulkovo
Observatory, 1865-6, under Struve. He was assistant at the
U.S. Naval Observatory, 1867-8, and Director of the Cincinnati
Observatory, 1863-73. His success there in forecasting the
weather from meteorological observations telegraphed from
various points led to his being called to the U.S. Signal Serv-
ice in 1871. Thereafter with Government aid he was enabled
to extend the field of his forecasts and became the " Father
of the Weather Bureau." The bureau was formally estab-
lished in 1891 under the Department of Agriculture, and Abbe
remained its head until his death Oct. 28 1916. To his
initiative is largely due the introduction of the system of stand-
ardized time.
He was the author of Report on Standard Time (1879); Report on
the Solar Eclipse of July 1879 (1881); An Account of Progress in
Meteorology and Allied Subjects in the Years 1879-81 (1883);
Treatise on Meteorological Apparatus and Methods (1888); Prelim-
inary Studies in Storm and Weather Prediction (1889); Recent
Progress in Dynamic Meteorology (1890); The Mechanics of the
Earth's Atmosphere (3 vols. of translations, 1891-1910); The Physi-
cal Basis of Long-Range Forecasting (1902); The Progress of Science
as Illustrated by the Development of Meteorology (1908); Notes on
Balloons and on Waterspouts from the Voyage of La Perouse (191^)
and The Introduction of Meteorology into Courses of Instruction in
Mathematics and Physics (1915).
ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852-1911), American painter
(see i.n), died in London, Aug. i 1911. The last years of
his life were devoted to mural paintings for the Capitol at
Harrisburg, Pa., his native state. He completed " The Apothe-
osis of Pennsylvania," which stands behind the Speaker's chair
in the House of Representatives, also " The 24 Hours " for the
ceiling of the dome; but for the Senate chamber he finished
only one painting " Von Steuben Training the American
Soldiers at Valley Forge." In igro there was completed
under his supervision the decoration -of the Peers' corridor of
the Houses of Parliament. He left bequests of his works to
the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, to the Boston
Museum of Fine Arts and to the National Gallery in London.
In 1912, the Old Masters' Exhibition of the Royal Academy,
held at Burlington House, London, included over 300 works of
Abbey's loaned for this special occasion as a memorial to him.
ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- ), American divine and author
(see 1.26), continued after 1910 as editor of The Outlook, and in a
less degree as a public speaker, to take an active part in the dis-
cussion of important public questions. After the outbreak of
the World War he supported the cause of the Allies, and on the
sinking of the " Lusitania " in 1915 urged that America break
off diplomatic relations with Germany. He was the author of
The Spirit of Democracy (1910); America in the Making (1911,
being the Yale lectures on the responsibilities of citizenship);
The Four Anchors (1911); Letters to an Unknown Friend (1913);
Reminiscences (1915, containing in the preface an admirable
summary of his liberal views) and The Twentieth Century
Crusade (1918).
'ABDUL HAMID II. (1842-1918), ex-Sultan of Turkey (see
1.35), died Feb. 10 1918. On his deposition in April 1909 he
was sent to Salonika as a state prisoner, but when that town
capitulated to the Greeks during the Balkan War (1912) he
was brought back to Constantinople. In 1915 it was judged
prudent to exile him from Turkey in Europe and he was removed
to Smyrna.
ABERCORN, JAMES HAMILTON, 2ND DUKE OF (1838-1913),
British politician (see 1.43), who served as High Constable of
Ireland at the coronation of King George V. (1911), died in
London Jan. 3 1913. He was succeeded as 3rd duke by his
eldest son, James Albert Edward Hamilton, born Nov. 30 1869.
ABERCROMBIE, LASCELLES (1881- ), English poet, was
born at Ashton-upon-Mersey, Ches., Jan. 9 1881, and educated
at Malvern and Victoria University, Manchester, where he
studied science. His first work, Interludes and Poems, appeared
in 1908, and his other works include: Mary and the Bramble
(1910); The Sale of St. Thomas (1911); Emblems of Love (1912);
Deborah (1912); Speculative Dialogues (1913) and The Epic
(1914), besides a critical study of Thomas Hardy (1912). He was
in 1919 appointed lecturer in Poetry at the university of
Liverpool.
ABERDEEN AND TEMAIR, JOHN CAMPBELL GORDON,
IST MARQUESS OF (1847- ), British politician (see 1.47),
retained his office as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland until 1915. On
his retirement he was created Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair,
the latter title being a form of the place-name Tara, chosen
for its connexion with the history of Ireland. His wife, Ishbel
Maria (b. 1857) daughter of Dudley Marjoribanks, ist Baron
Tweedmouth whom he married in 1877, took a prominent
part in charitable work during her residence in Ireland, becoming
president of the Irish Industries Association and other societies.
She did excellent work in increasing the number of nurses and
establishing committees for the improvement of sanitary con-
ditions and combating the spread of tuberculosis in Ireland.
She published in 1908 Ireland's Crusade against Tuberculosis.
ABINGDON, WILLIAM LEPER [PILGRIM] (1859-1918), English
actor, was born May 2 1859 at Towcester, Northants. He
began life as a bank clerk, but soon went on the stage, first ap-
pearing at Belfast in 1881. His chief successes were in melo-
drama, with Wilson Barrett's travelling companies and later at
the Adelphi theatre, London, where he played in The Harbour
Lights (1889) and many similar pieces. Between 1903 and 1911
ABNEY ABYSSINIA
he appeared often in America. In 1905 he played Monks in
Oliver Twist at His Majesty's theatre, London. He died in New
York May 20 1918.
ABNEY, SIR WILLIAM DE WIVELESLIE (1843-1920),
English chemist, was born at Derby July 24 1843 and edu-
cated at Rossall school, obtaining a commission in the R.E.
1861. In 1876 he became C.B., D.Sc., D.C.L. and F.R.S.
and from 1893 to 1897 he was successively president of the
Royal Astronomical Society and of the Physical Society. In
1899 he became assistant secretary to the Board of Education;
in 1903 he was appointed advisor to the science department of
the Board, and the same year became a member of the Advisory
council for education to the War Office. In 1900 he was knighted
and in 1904 became chairman of the Society of Arts. His con-
tribution to science was mainly in the furtherance of photo-
graphic chemistry and especially of colour photography and
colour printing (see 16.661; 21.489, 498, 531, 532; 25.631;
6.729). His publications on these subjects include Instruction
in Photography (1870); Colour Vision, Colour Measurement
and Mixture (1893); and Trichromatic Theory of Colour (1914).
He also wrote Thebes and its Five Great Temples (1876), and,
with C. D. Cunningham, The Pioneers of the Alps (1888). He
died at Folkestone Dec. 3 1920.
ABRUZZI, DUKE OF THE [Luici AMEDEO] (1873- ),
Italian vice-admiral and explorer, son of Amedeo, late Duke of
Aosta and sometime King of Spain, was born at Madrid
Jan. 29 1873. He entered the navy as a cadet and followed
a regular naval career in which he achieved great distinc-
tion; but he also became well known as an eminent traveller
and mountaineer. He was the first to ascend Mt. St. Elias in
Alaska (1897), and in 1899 he organized an expedition with the
object of reaching the North Pole; although he himself was
disabled by frostbite early in 1900 and forced to remain on his
ship, the " Stella Polare," Comm. Cagni pushed on with a part
of the expedition and reached the lat. of 86 34', at that
tiie the record of northern exploration. In 1906 he was the
first to ascend Mt. Ruwenzori in East Africa, reaching^the twin
summits (16,800 ft.), which he named Margherita and Alexandra,
and also the other chief peaks of the range; he made the first de-
tailed map of the Ruwenzori and collected much scientific in-
formation about it. In 1909 he explored the Central Karakoram
in the Himalayas and by ascending peak K.2 achieved the record
for height ; among other scientific work the expedition completed
the map of the great Baltoro glacier. During the Libyan War he
commanded a naval squadron in the Adriatic and had various
successful engagements with Turkish warships. During the
World War he was commander-in-chief of the Italian naval
forces, and showed very high qualities of seamanship, strategy
and organization in the extremely difficult operations in the
Adriatic. He had British and French warships under his orders.
He relinquished his command in 1917 owing to disagreements
with Adml. Thaon di Revel, chief of the Naval Staff, and
retired from the service. Afterwards he undertook an important
colonization and agricultural development scheme in Italian
Somaliland. He was made a Knight of the Order of the Annun-
ziata.
ABYSSINIA (see 1.82). Since 1910 boundary commissions
have delimited in part the Sudan-Abyssinia and the Italian-
Abyssinian frontier. No change was made in the international
status of the country between 1910 and 1921. The conquests of
Menelek had been retained and the independence of the empire
maintained. The Spanish protectorates excepted, Abyssinia was
the only country of Africa neutral throughout the World War.
Recent History. From 1899, a year which marked the end of
an era of conquest and civil war, the Emperor Menelek (see
18.128) had maintained internal peace and had cautiously en-
couraged commercial relations with Europeans. But in 1910
Menelek was stricken by a malady which incapacitated him from
rule, although until his death, in Dec. 1913, and for years
afterwards (e.g. in 1919), his name was invoked by the people as
that of the highest authority in the country. A regency was
formed in 1910, consisting of Lij Yasu Menelek's grandson,
whom he had nominated his heir in 1908 and Ras Tesamma,
Lij Yasu being then only fourteen. Menelek's wife, the Empress
Tartu, a princess of Tigre, opposed the regency, called to her aid
the Tigrian chiefs, and usurped authority. She refused to see the
representatives of foreign powers and stopped the building of
the railway from Jibuti (see 1.95) to the capital, Addis Abbaba.
After maintaining her position about a year Taitu was over-
thrown by a palace revolution. She took no further part in the
government and died Feb. n 1918.
Not long after the regency was established Ras Tesamma, a
capable man of moderating influence, died, April 1911. Lij
Yasu then attempted to reign uncontrolled. He was strongly
opposed; but with the help of his father Ras Michael, chief of the
Wollo Galla, Yasu made good his authority and on Menelek's
death was acknowledged negus negusti (king of kings, emperor).
At that time, the beginning of 1914, the condition of the
country was not without promise. The building of the railway
from Jibuti had been resumed; in 1912 it had reached the
Hawash river, and was then (1914) being carried up the steep
escarpment to the Abyssinian plateau. Even in its incomplete
state it carried in 1913 merchandise valued at over 1,600,000.
A considerable trade between the Galla provinces (western
Abyssinia) and the Sudan had also developed. Both Abyssinians
and Gallas showed a distinct appreciation of foreign products;
it needed only good government and the provision of better
means of communication to have brought about a great develop-
ment of the very rich natural resources of the country. Lij
Yasu, however, was a youth of depraved morals, his adminis-
tration was both weak and tyrannical, and the result was in the
south anarchy, 1 and in the north the alienation of the Tigrians,
always jealous of Shoa (Menelek's hereditary kingdom). The
maintenance of a large standing army was another cause of
poverty and discontent. Out of a total population, according to
trustworthy estimates, of from 10,000,000 to 12,000,000, about
500,000 were in the army. (Detailed figures for 1916 gave a total
of 571,000 as the strength of the Abyssinian forces.) In the
Galla, Somali and Shankalla (i.e. negro) provinces these men
lived largely by plunder.
Such was the situation when the World War broke out.
Lij Yasu had already come very much under German and
Turkish influence, the chief agent in the propaganda of the
Central Powers having been Herr K. Schwemmer, consul for
Austria-Hungary. (Schwemmer, owing to Italian pressure, was
recalled to Vienna and left Abyssinia in Oct. 1914.) Yasu had
already given offence to the Abyssinians, whose attachment to
their own form of Christianity is strong, by his neglect of the
observances of the national church, and in June 1914 had caused
his father, Ras Michael, to be crowned negus (king) of Wollo,
the only province of Abyssinia proper inhabited by Moslems
(Galla intruders). Michael remained nominally a Christian;
Yasu, at first secretly and later openly, embraced Islam, and,
inspired by Turco-German policy, set himself to unite all the
Moslems of the empire. He married the daughters of several
Danakil and Galla chiefs, and betrothed himself to the daughter of
Aba Jiffar, King of Jimma, the most powerful Moslem prince in
the empire. He also made political alliances with Moslems out-
side the Abyssinian dominions, among others with the " Mad "
Mullah of Somaliland, then at war with the British. His policy
was summed up as (i) Moslem as opposed to Christianity; (2)
Galla as opposed to Abyssinian; (3) Turco-German as opposed
to the Entente.
In April 1916 Yasu officially placed Abyssinia in religious
dependence on the Sultan of Turkey as Caliph and sent to the
Turkish consul-general at Harrar an Abyssinian flag bearing the
crescent and a confession of faith in Islam. About this time he
informed his Moslem confederates who had been told that
Germany and Austria had embraced Islam and had imposed
that faith upon France that he would lead them against the
Allies as soon as a great German victory should be announced.
*One result was raiding into the Sudan and adjacent territories
by Abyssinians. These raids the central Government did not or
could not prevent.
ACHENBACH ADAMS
His anti-Christian, anti-Abyssinian attitude led to Yasu's
downfall. The Allied representatives at Addis Abbaba, in
particular the Hon. W. G. Thesiger, then the British minister,
did much to counteract Turco-German propaganda and, except
Ras Michael, all the Abyssinian chiefs were opposed to the
Emperor's proceedings. They had the support of the people, the
Shoans as well as the men of Tigre and Gondar, and they
determined to end an intolerable situation. On Sept. 27
1916 the Feast of the Cross by a public proclamation of the
Abuna (the head of the church) Lij Yasu was declared dethroned,
on the specific ground of his apostasy. His aunt, the Princess
Zauditu (Judith), who had been a prisoner in the palace since
Menelek's illness in 1910, was proclaimed empress. Dejaz
(general) Taffari Makonnen, a cousin of Zauditu, was appointed
heir to the throne and regent with the title of Ras (prince).
The new regime was at once accepted, practically unopposed,
by the chiefs and people of Shoa and by the imperial army (a
force of 50,000 kept in the neighbourhood of the capital).
Lij Yasu was then at Harrar, a Moslem centre, arming the
Somalis. On receipt of the news of his deposition he showed the
weakness of his character by publicly renouncing Islam, a step
which gained him no credit either with the Abyssinians or the
Somalis. The garrison of Harrar (Abyssinians), sent by Yasu to
oppose the Shoan troops which the new rulers had dispatched
against him, joined his enemies. On Oct. 8 Yasu fled secretly
from Harrar, making for the Danakil country. On the gth
Harrar was occupied by the Shoans, who killed some 400 un-
resisting Somalis before the slaughter was stopped through
the intervention of the British consul.
Ras Michael was made of sterner stuff than his son; moreover,
the Wollo Galla remained faithful to him and he was able to put
some 80,000 men in the field. Wollo lies on the eastern edge of
the Abyssinian plateau, with Gondar and Tigre N. and N.W.
and Shoa to the S. Leaving 20,000 to 30,000 men to guard his
northern frontier, Ras Michael marched S., hoping to capture
Addis Abbaba by a rapid blow. Meantime the new Government
had prepared to advance N., fixing on Shano, 40 m. N.E. of the
capital, as the place of concentration. Michael, who was first in
the field, had an engagement with the advanced force of the
Shoans under Ras Lul Seged Oct. 17, before whom he gave way.
But on the igth Michael surrounded and destroyed Lul Seged's
force in a furious battle in which over 12,000 men perished.
Lul Seged himself was slain, but his resolute defence had de-
layed Michael's advance; it gave time to the Shoans to complete
their concentration. By Oct. 21 they had 60,000 men at Shano,
and a great superiority in artillery over Michael. On the 22nd
Shoan cavalry under Ras Kassa 1 seized a position in the rear of
Michael's army; the same day his force on the northern frontier
was attacked and defeated by the Ras of Gondar (Waldo Giorgis).
Cut off from his base, almost enveloped and with supplies running
short, Michael's only alternative to being starved into surrender
was to attack. The King chose the latter course and gave battle
at Shano on Oct. 27. The fighting was desperate and the
slaughter great. The Shoans were at first hard pressed but the
timely arrival of Ras Kassa's cavalry decided the issue. The
Wollo army was utterly routed, Michael was taken prisoner and
all his artillery captured. This ended the campaign, in which
in three weeks over 60,000 lives are said to have been lost, the
casualties of the Shoans alone exceeding 20,000. The Fitaurai
Hapti Giorgis, Minister of War, who had commanded in chief the
Shoan forces, made no attempt to occupy Wollo or to pursue
Lij Yasu and thus effectively pacify the country. He returned
to Addis Abbaba where the Empress Zauditu reviewed the
victorious troops, the ceremony ending with the parade of Ras
Michael, a fine-looking, dignified man of about 65, chained to
the chief who had captured him.
Profiting by the inactivity of the Government, Lij Yasu
gathered together the remnants of his father's army. He man-
aged to keep his footing in the Wollo country for the greater part
of 1917 and finally took refuge in Magdala. Closely besieged,
Magdala surrendered in Dec. 1917. Lij Yasu escaped, and
'Abyssinian envoy to London for the coronation of George V.
thereafter appears to have led a wandering life among the
Danakil and Somali. In Oct. 1918 he was appealing to the
Turks in Arabia for help, and making attempts to raid the
Jibuti railway. At the close of 1920 Yasu appeared in Tigre,
apparently hoping to gain over that province, but in Jan.
1921 he was captured by Government forces.
The Government of the Empress Zauditu and Ras Taffari
was pro- Ally and in the summer of 1919 missions were sent to
London, Paris, Rome, Brussels and Washington to congratulate
the Allies on their victory. These missions received good advice
as to the necessity of an amelioration of social conditions in
Abyssinia, the suppression of slavery Menelek's conquests had
given a great impetus to the slave trade and the development
of commerce and agriculture.
Economic Conditions and Trade. Two great hindrances to the
economic development of the country have been stated internal
disturbances and lack of adequate means of communication. After
the close of the World War, and with the railway from the Gulf of
Aden to Addis Abbaba completed, an improvement was anticipated.
A British company, the Abyssinian Corporation, was formed in
Dec. 1918, with the approval of the Foreign Office, but owing to
restriction of shipping, the fluctuations of exchange and the fall
in the price of coffee its first two years' operations were unsatisfac-
tory. Nevertheless the total trade of Abyssinia increased. Valued
at about 1,000,000 in 1905, it had more than doubled by 1910;
and in 1920, in the absence of any official statistics, was roughly
estimated at between 3,500,000 and 4,000,000. Hides and skins,
coffee and beeswax are the chief exports. The chief imports are
cotton goods and Maria Theresa dollars (minted at Trieste and an
exact reproduction of the 1780 issue). The external trade of northern
Abyssinia is with Massawa via Asmara; that of Shoa and Harrar
with Jibuti and, to a small extent, with Zeila and Berbera (British
Somaliland). These are all ancient routes to the sea-coast; to the
old trade routes to the Sudan by the Blue Nile has been added that
by the Baro-Sobat rivers. Gambela, on the Baro and 60 m. within
the Abyssinian frontier, was leased to the Sudan Government in
1907, and in the Sobat flood season (June-Nov.) a steamer serv-
ice is maintained with Khartum. Although the road from the
Baro river to Gore, on the highlands, was and remained very bad,
Gambela became an important transport centre. The value of its
trade, 43,000 in 1910, was 103,000 in 1913 and was estimated at
about 200,000 in 1919. Much of the trade in the country is in the
hands of Greeks, Syrians and Arabs. The agricultural and mineral
wealth of the country remain as yet if the cultivation of coffee be
excepted scarcely tapped, and its water-power unutilized.
See L. de Castro, Nella Terra del Negus, 2 vols. (1915); Capt.
Stigand, To Abyssinia through an Unknown Land (1910); G. Mon-
tandon, Au Pays Ghimirra (1913) ; Major C. W. Gwynn, "A Jour-
ney in S. Abyssinia" (with map), Geog. Jnl., Aug. 1911; Major
F. L. Athill, " Through S. W. Abyssinia to the Nile," ibid., Nov.
1920; C. H. Armbruster, Mitia Amharica, Part III. Amharic-
English Vocabulary, Vol. I. (1920). (F. R. C.)
ACHENBACH, ANDREAS (1815-1910), German painter (see
1.142), died in 1910.
ACHURCH, JANET [MRS. C. CHARRINGTON] (1864-1916),
English actress, was born in Manchester Jan. 17 1864. She
married Charles Charrington June 1889. She first appeared at
the Olympic theatre, London, Jan. 8 1883, with Genevieve
Ward in the farce of Betsy Baker. Two years later she joined
Frank Benson's company and played Shakespearean heroines;
but her chief success was gained as Nora Helmer in Ibsen's A
Doll's House, when that play was first produced in England in
1889. She appeared later in other Ibsen plays and in those of
Bernard Shaw. She died at Ventnor Sept. n 1916.
ADAM, JULIETTE (1836- ), French writer (see 1.172),
whose volumes of reminiscences of distinguished contemporaries
numbered seven by 1910, subsequently published Impressions
franQaises en Russie (1912) and Chretienne (1913), as well as
various writings in pursuit of her lifelong policy of revanche,
L'heure vengeresse des crimes bismarckiens (1915), Guillaume II.
jSpo-0 (1917), and a volume of war sketches, La vie des dmes
(1919).
ADAM, PAUL (1862-1920), French novelist (see 1.72),
published in his later years various novels, including Le Trust
(1910) and Stephanie (1913). He was active in propaganda work
during the World War, and shortly before his death published
Reims devasteea.nd.Le Lion d' Arras. He died in Paris Jan. 7 1920.
ADAMS, HENRY (1838-1918), American historian (see 1.175).
died in Washington, D.C., May 27 1918. In 1910 his Letter to
ADAMS ADEN
American Teachers of History appeared, and in 1911 his Life of
George Cabot Lodge. In 1913 his Mont Saint Michel and Chartres
(privately printed in 1904) was published by authority of the
American Institute of Architects, a scholarly interpretation of
the architecture and literature of the mediaeval Church. In 1918
his autobiographical The Education of Henry Adams (privately
printed in 1906) was issued for the public. No book of its
decade evoked more discussion in America. In 1919 The Deg-
radation of the Democratic Dogma (consisting of several essays
previously published together with one hitherto unpublished)
was issued, with an introduction by his brother, Brooks Adams.
His brother, CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS (see 1.175), died in
Washington, D.C., March 20 1915- In 1911 he published Studies
Military and Diplomatic, 1775-1865, and in 1913 Trans- Atlantic
Historical Solidarity (lectures delivered at Oxford).
In 1916 Worthington C. Ford edited Charles Francis Adams, an
Autobiography, from papers deposited in 1913 with the Massachu-
setts Historical Society. See also the same editor's A Cycle of
Adams Letters, 1861-1865 (1920).
ADAMS, MAUDE (1872- ), American actress, was born in
Salt Lake City, Utah, Nov. n 1872. Her family name was
Kiskadden, but she adopted the maiden name, Adams, of her
mother, an actress. She early played child's parts, and at the age
of 16 went to New York. From her appearance in Hoyt's A Mid-
night Bell, in 1889, her popularity grew steadily. In 1897 she
was first starred by Charles Frohman as Lady Babbie in The
Little Minister; and in many of Barrie's other plays she won
applause. She introduced Rostand to the American stage,
taking the title-role in L'Aiglon (1901), and in Chantcclcr (1911).
Other plays in her repertory were Romeo and Juliet (1900);
The Pretty Sister of Jose (1903); The Jesters (1908) and As You
Like It (1910).
ADAMSON, WILLIAM (1863- ), British Labour politician,
was born at Halbeath, Fife, April 2 1863. When very young
he began to work in the pits, and for many years led the life
of a miner. In 1902 he became assistant secretary of the Fife
and Kinross Miners' Association, and in 1908 its general secre-
tary. He stood for Parliament unsuccessfully in Jan. 1910,
but in Dec. was elected for West Fife. On the reorganiza-
tion of the Labour party in 1917, Mr. Adamson succeeded
Mr. Arthur Henderson as its chairman, and in 1918 he was sworn
of the Privy Council. In 1919 the Labour party, as the second
strongest combination in the House of Commons, decided to
assume the position of the official Opposition, and Mr. Adamson
became its leader, taking his seat on the front Opposition
bench. As an Opposition leader he also congratulated the
Speaker upon his reelection. He took part in the debate on the
King's speech, pointing out the views of the Labour party on the
industrial situation. Mr. Adamson took a prominent part in the
various trade-union discussions in 1919, 1920 and 1921, particu-
larly in the numerous debates on the coal industry in these years.
ADDAMS, JANE (i86cr- ), American sociologist (see
1.183), published Twenty Years at Hull House (1910), with much
autobiographical comment; A New Conscience and an Ancient
Evil (1911) and The Long Road of Women's Memory (1916).
She did much to promote the cause of woman suffrage, and in
1912 was an active worker in behalf of the short-lived National
Progressive party. After the outbreak of the World War in
Europe she attended the International Congress of Women
held at The Hague in 1915, and was elected president. She was
also appointed chairman of the International Committee of
Women for Permanent Peace. She was an avowed pacifist
after America had entered the World War.
ADDISON, CH RISTOPH ER ( 1 860- ) , English politician and
medical practitioner, born June 19 1869 at Hogsthorpe, Lines.,
was educated at Trinity College, Harrogate, and received his
medical training at St. Bartholomew's hospital. He graduated
at London University, taking the M.B. (Honours in For. Med.)
and the B.S. in 1892, and the M.D. in 1893. He was elected
F.R.C.S. in 1895. He became lecturer in Anatomy both at
his own hospital and at Charing Cross hospital; professor
of Anatomy at University College, Sheffield; and Hunterian
professor at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1901. Besides the
private practice of his profession, he contributed largely to
medical knowledge by the publication of several books, mainly
on the anatomy of the pancreas and the abdominal viscera, by
papers in the Proceedings of the Royal Society and in professional
journals, and by editing for a time the Quarterly Medical Journal.
He took, moreover, a leading part in medical education in
London University. In 1910 he entered Parliament as Liberal
member for Hoxton. He immediately became active in the
House. In conjunction with Sir George Newman he was mainly
instrumental in securing the medical treatment of school children
and State provision for medical research; and he was one of the
few doctors of distinction who supported Mr. Lloyd George in his
struggle with the profession over the Insurance Act (1912).
The valuable support he then gave to Mr. Lloyd George in
reconciling the doctors to his proposals created a firm bond
between him and the future Prime Minister. When in 1914
Mr. Charles Trevelyan, on the outbreak of war, resigned the
Parliamentary Secretaryship of the Board of Education,
Dr. Addison was appointed in his place. But his principal work
during the war was effected at the Ministry of Munitions, where
Mr. Lloyd George obtained his assistance as Parliamentary
Secretary when the office was created under the first Coalition
Ministry in 1915. So long as Mr. Lloyd George was Minister,
Dr. Addison was his right-hand man in the strenuous labours
of the office, resulting in the enormous multiplication of engines
of war, and in the redeeming of many vital industries, fertilizers,
tungsten and potash from German control; and when Mr. Lloyd
George formed a Government himself in December 1916, he
placed him at the head of the department. Dr. Addison had to
deal with various labour troubles, and in particular with a
serious strike of engineers in May 1917. In July he left the
Ministry of Munitions to become Minister of Reconstruction
without portfolio. In this new but very important work his
policy was apparently influenced by a rather idealistic vision of
a " new world " after the war. One result was the unemploy-
ment dole, at first a necessity, but afterwards a hindrance to a
return to normal life. To promote national health had always
been his main object in politics, and when Mr. Lloyd George
reconstructed his Ministry in the beginning of 1919, he entrusted
the Local Government Board to Dr. Addison, that he might com-
plete Lord Rhondda's work and transform it into a Ministry of
Health. This was accomplished in June. He also carried through
Parliament an important Housing and Town-Planning bill
compelling local authorities to provide housing schemes, and
obtained parliamentary sanction to an arrangement for the issue
by such authorities of housing bonds. The ambitious medical
establishment created by him was subjected to a good deal of
criticism on the score of economy during 1920; and on the
reconstruction of the Ministry in March 1921 he was transferred
from the new department to become once more a minister without
portfolio. This position he resigned on July 14. He married
in 1902 Isobel Gray, and had two sons and two daughters.
ADEN (see 1.190). The territory comprises the peninsulas of
Aden proper and Little Aden, a strip of mainland including the
villages of Sheikh 'Othman, 6 m. inland, 'Imad and Hiswa, and
Perim Island. The town of Aden and its port Tawahi, 4 m.
westward, are connected by a good carriage-road with the
Somali settlement of Ma'la about midway. The harbour
known as Bandar Tawiya or Aden- West Bay lies between the
main and Little Aden peninsulas (Jebel Ihsan or Hasan); it
extends 8 m. from E. to W. and 3 m. from N. to S. and is divided
into a western and an inner bay by a spit of land. The depth of
water at the main entrance is 45 to 5 fathoms and in the western
bay 3 to 4 fathoms. For lack of docks and quayage, large vessels
lie off Steamer Point and all cargo is handled by means of
lighters, the labour being either Somali or Arab. Sailing and
small craft load and unload at Ma'la. The population of Aden
proper in 1915 was 36,900 and of the whole settlement 46,000,
of whom about 23,000 were Arabs and a large part of the
remainder Somalis. European residents and Christians numbered
2,000 to 3,000, Mohammedans about 34,000 and Jews 3,700.
ADLER, VIKTOR
On March I 1921 the administration of Aden was transferred
from the India Office to the Colonial Office, which also exer-
cises political influence, in varying degrees, over the confederations
of tribes inhabiting the interior as far as the Yemen frontier and
over certain tribes of the Hadhramaut. The revenue in 1914-5
amounted to 87^ lakhs of rupees (approx. 580,000), derived mainly
from the Aden Port Trust Fund (34,000), Aden Settlement Fund
(28,000), Local Supply Bills (257,000), imperial and municipal
receipts (215,700), Post Office (34,000), excise, customs and
income tax. The expenditure in the same year was 556,000.
The value of the total trade (including specie) amounted to
8,526,000 (1913-4), and had increased to 10,045,000 in 1918-9
and 13,641,000 in 1919-20. Of the last amount, 7,124,000
represented exports and 6,517,000 imports. A very large propor-
tion represents simple transhipment ; but Aden is also the centre of
the exporting and importing business of the Red Sea commercial
region made up of the Hejaz, Asir, Yemen, Hadhramaut, Eritrea,
Abyssinia and British and French Somaliland. The principal arti-
cles of import in 1919-20 were: cotton piece-goods and yarn
2,180,000, hides and skins 1,291,000, coal 626,000, grain and
flour 541,000, coffee, sugar, tobacco, hardware, petroleum and
provisions. The exports were: hides and skins 2,123,000, cotton
foods 2,112,000, coffee 456,000, grain and pulse 329,000, tobacco
213,000 and salt 151,000. Local products, including kat, fire-
wood, live animals, ghi, dates, honey, wax, gums and sesame oil,
to the value of about 125,000, were exported in 1919-20. 1,065
steam vessels of aggregate tonnage 2,736,391 and sailing craft of
tonnage 365,569 cleared in the year ending March 1919. The port
is free except for a small duty on alcoholic liquors and intoxicating
drugs. Licenses are required for the importation of petroleum and
small arms and ammunition.
The water supply, formerly very uncertain and unsatisfactory,
is mainly from reservoirs and from condensation. The reservoirs
have a storage capacity of 8,000,000 gal. but the most effective sup-
ply is obtained by condensation of sea water. Six condensers yield
52,000 gal. daily.
Aden produces no foodstuffs. The only local industries are the
preparation of salt (Italian and Indian concessions, with an out-
put of 124,000 tons in 1916-7), the unhusking of Arabian coffee
berries and the making of cigarettes from tobacco imported from
Egypt. The main trade routes are: to San'a, via Lahej, 227 m.;
to Mocha and Hodeida, via Ta'izz, 299 m.; and to Makalla, via
Nisab, 413 m.
During the World War, Turkey brought pressure to bear on cer-
tain of the tribes of the Aden Protectorate (see ARABIA) and in
July 1915 a Turkish army several thousand strong advanced on
Lahej, the 'Abdali capital (21 m. N.). A small British force sent
to assist in its defence proved altogether inadequate and had to
retreat to Aden. The Turks occupied Sheikh 'Othman, but were
unable to threaten Aden itself. The loyal Sultan was killed. On
July 20 of the same year reinforced Aden troops surprised the
Turks at Sheikh 'Othman, inflicted on them considerable loss and
they retired to Lahej. In Oct. and in Dec. cavalry had small
affairs with enemy reconnoitring parties in which the latter
were driven off. In Jan. 1916, owing to the Turks again des-
patching troops to coerce the tribes in the east of the Protectorate,
a demonstration in support of the latter was made by the Aden
column. It located the enemy force near the village of Subar (4 m.
S.S.E. of Lahej), inflicted considerable loss on it, and the Turkish
pressure was relieved. In Dec. 1917 the defensive line at Aden
described an arc of about 1 1 m. radius and there had been constant
patrol skirmishes and small actions which continued until the
Armistice.
ADLER, VIKTOR (1852-1918), Austrian politician, was born
at Prague June 24 1852, the son of a well-to-do business man,
who moved with his family to Vienna when the son was three
years old. Here he studied at the Schotten-gymnasium, where
he gathered round him a circle of fellow-students who thus early
began to occupy themselves with political and social questions,
their interest having been aroused by the works of Lassalle and
by the events of 1866 and 1870. It was at this time, too, that the
Social Democratic Labour movement first began to affect
Austria. On the basis of the new law respecting combinations,
passed during the era of Liberal-bourgeois reform, arose the first
proletarian organizations, and the battles between the adherents
of state assistance (Lassalle) and of self-help (Schultz-Delitzsch)
were being publicly fought out. At the university Adler entered
the German national students' association, " Arminia," became
a member of the committee of the German Reading Union, and
belonged to the national and democratic group of intellectuals
who, since the middle of the 'seventies, had grouped themselves
around the deputy Schonerer, and had formulated the so-called
Linz programme (see also PERNERSTORFER). He studied medi-
cine, attaching himself especially to the psychiatrist Meynert,
and in addition to his medical practice occupied himself with
industrial hygiene. In his later career he continued to take
special interest in public health questions. Intending to adopt
factory inspection as a career, he went in 1883 to study in
Switzerland and in London, where he came into close touch with
Engels. On his return to Vienna, however, he turned entirely to
politics. The Workmen's party, weakened by the general
economic depression, by internal dissensions and by police
prosecutions, had sunk into political insignificance. In the
'eighties the " Radicals " (Most, Peukert) and the " Moderates "
were at daggers drawn. The Government of Count Taaffe, on
the other hand, supporting itself on the lower middle classes,
which held the balance of votes in Austria and especially in
Vienna, introduced legislation for the organization of industry
on the guild system. It attempted, indeed, to conciliate the
working classes by social-political legislation on the German
model, but at the same time used the excuse given by the
methods of violence advocated by the Radicals to suspend the
ordinary law in Vienna and certain other districts, as a pre-
liminary to anti-Socialist and anti-Anarchist legislation. The
ground being thus prepared by the Government, Adler under-
took to restore unity in the ranks of Labour. In 1886 appeared
his paper Gleichheit (Equality), eventually succeeded by the
Arbeiterzeitung, the principal organ of the Social Democratic
party, which Adler continued to conduct till his death. His
object was to organize the workmen as a political party, and
the best methods seemed to him to be those of public propaganda
and open political warfare. The united Labour party (Arbeiter-
partei) was to keep the socialistic ideal constantly in view, but
was not to despise small gains. By his sound judgment, and his
exceedingly clever handling of men, he succeeded, in spite of
difficulties within and without the party, in reaching the first
stage in the path he had marked out by carrying the whole party
with him, in the last days of the year 1888, on the basis of a
carefully weighed programme at the party meeting held at
Hainfeld, Lower Austria. He was able to appear in July 1889 at
the first congress of the Second International (of which he was
from that time an official) as the representative of the united
Austrian party; and the first May Day celebration (1890), the
first of those imposing demonstrations by which he sought to give
a striking proof of the will and the power of the working classes,
showed that a new epoch had dawned for Austrian Social
Democracy. Adler, who was repeatedly involved in legal
proceedings and condemned to terms of several months' im-
prisonment for political offences, was from that time the acknowl-
edged leader of the party.
In consequence of the ever-increasing extension of its industrial
and political organization, in which Adler took an energetic part,
the party obtained an increasing influence in public life, which
was further increased by the division of the bourgeois parties on
the nationality question. Adler understood how to make the
best of these conditions. He regarded it as his first task to secure
for the workmen representation in Parliament. After the three
years' struggle for electoral reform (1893-6), which followed
the proposals for the modification of the franchise put forward
by the prime minister, Count Taaffe, some measure of electoral
reform was secured. But it was insufficient, and it was only when
the Government had decided that an extension of the franchise
was the sole means by which the monarchy could be protected
against the centrifugal forces of nationality, that Adler was able
to use the impression made by the confusions in Hungary and the
Russian revolution of 1905 to interpose with all his weight and
help to secure the triumph of universal and equal suffrage (1907).
The Social Democratic party increased their representation
from ii deputies to 87. Adler himself entered the Diet of Lower
Austria in 1902, and in 1905 was elected to the Reichsrat, where
until his death he played an important part as chairman of the
committee of the Social Democratic party and of the Social
Democratic Deputies' Club, taking part in all important
debates.
New dangers, due'to the nature of the Austrian State with its
rival nationalities, more than once threatened the unity of the
ADMIRALTY
party. Adler had always been a Pan-German, but regarded the
disruption of Austria and the union of German Austria with
Germany as a distant goal which had no place in the practical
politics of the moment. He aimed therefore at establishing a
friendly relation between the nations on the basis of democracy.
When the Austrian Germans were threatened by the language
ordinance of Count Badeni, and Parliament itself by a coup
d'etat, Adler made an alliance with the German parties, rallied
the working classes, and overthrew the Polish prime minister
(1897). At the party congresses, Adler tried to accommodate the
conflicting national standpoints on the basis of the principles
laid down in the Briinn programme (equal rights and national
autonomy). But the unified organization of the trade unions and
the union of the Social Democratic parties were destroyed in
consequence of these differences, more especially by the in-
transigeance of the Czechs. No general party congress of the
different Austrian nationalities has taken place since 1905.
In the congresses and in the secretariat of the International
Adler, with Jaures and Bebel, played the most prominent part,
whether as leader, adviser, or mediator. He took part in the
great peace demonstration of the International at Basel, and in
the meeting of the secretariat in Brussels immediately before the
outbreak of the World War. In spite of bad health, which for
many years in succession had compelled him to spend much time
on the Riviera and at Nauheim, he travelled in the spring of 1917,
immediately after the trial of his son Friedrich, to Stockholm to
the proposed Socialist congress. After the collapse of Austria in
1918, at the constituent session of the provisional German-
Austrian National Assembly, which was formed by the meeting
of all the German deputies, he read the declaration of the Social
Democrats, in which they expressed their willingness, in associa-
tion with the other German-Austrian parties, to build the new
State on the basis of democracy and the self-determination of
their own and other nationalities, without prejudice to a possible
association with the German Empire.
In his opening words Adler said: " You will permit an old man
to say that at last we see the accomplishment of what we have
longed for since our youth." He did not long survive that day.
He held for a few days the office of Foreign Minister, entrusted to
him by the new State Council (Staatsrat), but in spite of his iron
determination he was not able to bear the strain. He broke down
on Nov. ii and died on the lath, 1918, the day on which
the State Council had decided to proclaim German Austria
a democratic republic and an integral part of the German Reich.
His works include articles scattered in various newspapers, in
the Neue Zeit, Kampf, Deutsche Worte, in addition to those in the
Arbeiterzeitung; pamphlets, among which are Die Fabrikinspektion,
insbesondere in England und der Schweiz (1884); Die Arbeiterkam-
mer und die Arbeiter (1886); Das allgemeine, gleiche und direkte
Wahlrecht und das WMunrecht in Oesterreich; Alcoholismus und
Gewerkschaft (many editions). See also Die Gleichheit vor dem Aus-
nahmegericht (1889); Schwurgerichtsprozess gegen Doktor Viktor
Adler wegen Verbrechens der Storung der offentlichen Ruhe (1894).
His son, FRIEDRICH ADLER (1879- ), Austrian politician,
was born at Vienna July 9 1879. He was educated at the Real-
gymnasium in Vienna, and studied philosophy at the uni-
versity of Zurich. He was privatdozent (lecturer by diploma)
in physics at the university of Zurich from 1907 to 1911, editor
of the Social Democratic daily Volksrechl from 1910 to 1911,
and from 1911 to 1916 secretary of the Austrian Social Demo-
cratic party and editor of the monthly Kampf. During the
World War he was in sympathy with the conclusions reached
at the conferences of the Socialists of the Left at Zimmerwald
and Kienthal. In despair over the break-up of the International,
he shot (Oct. 21 1916) the Austrian prime minister, Count
Stiirgkh, in the expectation that the deed would be a signal for
the rising of the proletariat against the war. After a speech in
his own defence which aroused much attention he was, on May
19 1917, condemned by a special tribunal to death, a sen-
tence commuted to 18 years' imprisonment. During the chaos
of the autumn of 1918 he was amnestied (Nov. i). In 1919
he was elected to the National Assembl^, and became vice-
president of the committee of the Social Democratic party and
of the Union of the Social Democratic deputies. As president
of the Austrian National Workmen's Council and of the Vienna
District Workmen's Council he exercised great influence in the
party. On his initiative was founded the International Labour
Association of Socialist Parties, of which the first meeting was
held in Vienna in Feb. 1921. He made the opening state-
ment, and became secretary of the Association.
His works are: Die Erneuerung der Internationale (1918); Ernst
Mack's Ueberwindung des mechanischen Materialismus (1918);
Ortszeit, Systemszeit, Zonenzeit und das ausgezeichnete Bezugssystem
der Electrodynamik, eine Untersuchung ilber die Lorentzische und die
Einstein' sche Kinematik (1920). See also Friedrich Adler iior dem
Ausnahmegericht (1919).
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION (see 1.195). The history
of the British Admiralty during the World War of 1914-8 is the
history of the evolution of the naval staff and of a great expan-
sion of the technical and administrative departments. All de-
partments expanded during the war, but the evolution of the
naval staff was more than mere expansion, for it represented
the adoption of definite principles of staff work which were in-
tended to prevent those responsible for the conduct of naval
operations being crushed under a load of administrative business.
This was, indeed, no new trouble. It had been experienced
ashore and afloat in peace and war. Kempenfelt and Tryon
had commented strongly on it. " We are every day," wrote
the former to Middleton in 1770, "plagued and puzzled with
minutiae from morning to night whilst essentials are neglected."
" It cannot be right," wrote Tryon in 1890, " that the Com-
mander-in-Chief should find himself devoting his time to
coaling and watering, provisioning, storing and repairing."
They were seeking after a solution of the difficulty which lay in
a clear distinction between fighting and supply, between the
use of the weapon, and its supply and maintenance in an efficient
state. This principle had been introduced into the British army
by Lord Haldane, and is equally applicable to naval work.
It is a principle vital to war, for on the outbreak of war the whole
rhythm of work changes. Work expands tenfold in extent and
an hundredfold in urgency, and without some clear distinction
of this sort it is impossible to give to the conduct of operations
the attention it deserves.
The principle was not to be found in the British Admiralty at
the beginning of the war. The First Sea Lord was just as in-
terested in the design of ships as in operations, and the Wai
Staff lacked some of the most important elements of staff work.
The important distinction between fighting and supply was
not to be found; the Chief of the War Staff had no seat on the
Board, and the methods of conducting the work of a large staff
had not been studied. Up to 1909 the Intelligence Department
had to some extent filled the place of a staff. It had gradually
grown from the Foreign Intelligence Branch or Committee
instituted in 1883, and had developed into the Naval Intelli-
gence Department, consisting of four divisions foreign, trade,
mobilization and war of which the two latter were evidently
tentative efforts towards an Operations Division. In Sept. 1909
it split into two separate departments, intelligence and mobiliza-
tion, of which the latter was clearly the beginning of an Opera-
tions Division, but was killed by its name, for it soon became
immersed in the task of manning and mobilization, which be-
longs wholly to the sphere of supply. The Intelligence Depart-
ment sank more and more into the position of a mere handmaid
for the collection of data and translations from the foreign
press. Its development was hampered by the intense suspicion
with which most flag officers regarded anything that seemed to
trespass on their prerogative of command. The idea of a staff
was held in great disfavour. The word was anathema at the
Admiralty and not allowed to be used in War College publica-
tions, and it is no secret that the most distinguished flag officers
were opposed to the institution of a staff in 1912.
The naval staff really dates from the Memorandum of Jan.
1912 issued by Mr. Churchill, after the breakdown of the old
system at the Agadir crisis, but it had not had sufficient time
to develop before the World War broke on it and broke it up.
It consisted of three small divisions operations, intelligence
ADMIRALTY
and mobilization. Its deficiencies may be briefly summarized:
Firstly, the Chief of the War Staff was not a member of the
Board, and could not act with Board authority; his function
was merely advisory. Secondly, there was a great insufficiency
of trained staff officers, and the War Staff proved quite inad-
equate in numbers and training to deal with the business of war.
Thirdly, the principles of staff work had not been studied, and
the vital distinction between fighting and supply was not to be
found. Fourthly, the system found little support either at White-
hall or in the fleet at sea. There was no clear conception of con-
ducting the work of a staff, or of grafting it on to the business
system of the Admiralty. On the first day of war a number of
sections were bundled into one big room in order to be as close
as possible to one another to the serious dislocation of their
work. The Operations Division was divided on the basis of
types of ships rather than of areas. It soon became absorbed in
current work, and had no time for the examination of large
plans, which might require three months' work merely to reduce
to terms of time and supply. The enormous importance to a
staff of an operations chart clearly and continuously visualizing
the situation was not appreciated. An operations chart was
started, but gradually over-centralization and the obsession of
secrecy came down on it like a thick fog and turned it into a
fiasco. The movements of transports were kept a profound
secret, and news of them was withheld. Secret telegrams (pink
telegrams) were started about Nov. 1914 but were not passed
to the War Room to be plotted on the chart, which degenerated
into a paltry record of reports of mines sighted round the coast.
Up to 1917 there was no chart to which a staff officer could go
and see at a glance the actual situation at the moment in any
and every area.
The work which ought to have been done by the staff was
done by a small group of two or three flag officers acting in an
advisory capacity to the Board, and the system seemed to be
designed for the special purpose of making it as difficult as
possible to obtain information. The Intelligence Division was
expanding and developing under Capt. (later Adml. Sir) William
R. Hall, but its sections had to fight hard to obtain information as
to British movements. The flag officers worked for the Board,
not for the staff, and no one quite knew what they did or where
they did it.
Let us consider the constitution of the Admiralty Board
when the war broke out. Under a patent of Dec. i 1913 it con-
sisted of the First Lord, Mr. Winston Spencer Churchill (since
Oct. 24 1911), Adml. Prince Louis of Battenberg (ist S.L.,
since Dec. 9 1912), Vice-Adml. Sir Frederick Hamilton (2nd
S.L.), who had succeeded Vice-Adml. Sir John Jellicoe (July
30 1914), Rear-Adml. Archibald G. H. Moore (3rd S.L., since
May 29 1912), Capt. Cecil F. Lambert (4th S.L., since Dec. i
1913), Mr. George Lambert, M.P. (Civil Lord, since Dec. 21
1905), Sir Francis J. S. Hopwood (Parliamentary and Financial
Secretary since Jan. 18 1912, later created Lord Southborough),
with Sir Graham Greene as Permanent Secretary. Its business
was governed by an Order in Council of Aug. 10 1904, which
made the First Lord responsible to His Majesty and Parliament
for all the business of the Admiralty, and from time to time with
his sanction various memoranda were issued regulating the
distribution of business. The distribution of business had re-
mained materially the same for many years, though the memo-
randum actually in force at the outbreak of war was dated
Jan. 1914.
The First Sea Lord was responsible for advising on prepara-
tions for war, for the fighting and sea-going efficiency of the fleet,
and for the superintendence of the War Staff. The 2nd Sea Lord
was responsible for personnel; the 3rd Sea Lord for materials;
the 4th Sea Lord for transport and stores, full and half pay,
salvage and collisions. No one was specially responsible for
the conduct of all operations of war, and though this pre-
sumably rested with the Chief of the War Staff he was not a
member of the Board, and at least two flag officers senior to
him were acting in an advisory capacity to the Board. The
First Sea Lord was responsible for the " fighting efficiency of
the fleet," a phrase covering an immense technical scope and
opening out an endless vista of all sorts of considerations.
It is interesting to observe that the distinction between
fighting and supply, which lies at the basis of modern staff
organization, existed in a simpler form in the organization of
Henry VIII., which continued in force in the British navy down
to 1832. In this organization the Lord High Admiral or Com-
missioners of the Admiralty exercised the function of general
control and was responsible for the conduct of a war, while the
actual supply services were performed by four principal officers,
namely, the Treasurer, Comptroller, Surveyor and Clerk of the
Acts, responsible respectively for finance, supervision of accounts,
building and upkeep of ships, and record of business. These
officials came to be known as the Navy Board, and the organiza-
tion of the Admiralty f rom 1 546 to 1832 was roughly as follows :
Lord High Admiral
or
Commissioners for executing his office
Appointments
of
Officers
Supply
Navy Board
Policy
I
Operations
and
Movements
Victualling
Board
Sick and Hurt
Board
Pay, Stores (other than
Ordnance and Victual-
ling) Manning, Ship-
building, Dockyards
Here the work of supply is kept distinct from the business of
fighting, and it was under this dual organization, in which the
Navy Board was responsible for the multifarious requirements
of war, that the earlier wars were fought.
Unfortunately, the supply system was often bad and in-
sufficient and corrupt, though its defects were due just as much
to limitations of the time as to the system. The work was not
closely coordinated, with the result that Sir James Graham in
1832 merged the functions of the Navy Board and the Admiralty,
an amalgamation which was regarded as a master stroke at
the time and had distinct advantages, but unfortunately
neglected to retain the principle of distinction between the
Admiralty and supply, with the result that it was not the Ad-
miralty that swallowed the Navy Board but the Navy Board
that swallowed the Admiralty. The general constitution of
the Board, though it varied from time to time, may be repre-
sented as follows:
Board of Admiralty
First Lord
I
First Sea Lord:
Preparation for
war, fighting
efficiency
I
and Sea
Lord:
Personnel
I
I
Civil
Lord:
Works
3rd Sea 4th Sea
Lord : Lord :
Material Transport
and Stores
Permanent Secretary
Financial Secretary
Note. According to the Order in Council of Aug. 1904 the First
Lord is practically supreme as being responsible to the King and
Parliament, but according to the terms of the Patent " two or any
more of you " can exercise the office.
In 1860 commenced that vast multiplication and develop-
ment of technical crafts and branches which began with the
steam engine (the last sailing ship of the time, the Ganges, was
paid off in 1861), and exercised an enormous influence on the
navy and naval thought. The result in conjunction with Sir
James Graham's amalgamation was inevitable. Between 1860
and 1900 the study of strategy and of staff work, which is the
business side of war, was practically ignored. All the talent and
brains of the navy flowed to the great technical schools. The
whole trend of thought for forty years was exclusively technical.
It was supposed that war and the conduct of war was quite a
simple matter for any flag officer and needed no study. This
simple creed received a rude shock at the time of the Agadir
crisis when the Admiralty plans for war were torn to shreds by
the General Staff. A War Staff was then instituted. But the
War Staff had hardly been weaned and had not yet found its
8
ADMIRALTY
feet when the World War broke out. It laboured under a further
handicap: practically all senior officers were opposed to it.
They were wedded to centralization. Centralization had become
engrained in their bones from boyhood, and their whole outlook
was necessarily opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system
could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign. It
is clear that there was no machinery for the intensive investiga-
tion of a big strategical question. The First Lord was impressed
with an exaggerated estimate of the Queen Elizabeth's guns,
and the War Staff could neither supply a sufficiently trenchant
criticism of the project nor could they grip the problem and
transform it into a workable proposition by segregating a force
and training it as the Zeebrugge force was afterwards trained.
Enough has been said to show that the war staff lacked the
staff spirit, and a knowledge of the principles of staff organiza-
tion and of the conduct of staff work. One bright spot, however,
shone in it. While the operations side became more and more
narrowly centralized, the intelligence side, under Sir William
Hall, summoned a vast reserve of civilian talent to its aid. Very
early in the war a system of special intelligence based on wireless
directionals had begun to develop, and though cramped and
restricted by the obsession of secrecy had proved of great
value. In Dec. 1916, when Adml. Sir John Jellicoe came to the
Admiralty, he instituted an anti-submarine division, which
was no more than a belated plans division directed to a special
purpose, but it was not till 1917 that the staff was thoroughly
reorganized and really began to function as a staff. In Dec.
1916 it was organized as follows:
Chief of War Staff
I.
Operations
Division
Intelligence
Signal Section Mobilization
Apr. 1916
Trade Division Anti-submarine
Aug. 23 1914 Division Dec. 1916
Sir Eric Geddes gave an immense impetus to the system,
which was forced upon the Government by the exigencies of
war, and in its main outlines was merely the system of Moltke,
Lord Haldane, and every modern army, adapted to naval needs.
These can be briefly summarized as follows. The work of a
staff follows three lines of practical cleavage: (a) operations
(or direction), (6) administration, and (c) technical. Operations
(or direction) enshrines the main purpose of a business; admin-
istration is responsible for its maintenance and equipment in an
efficient state; technical control deals with the scientific aspect
of applied sciences associated with the business. Finance and
the Secretariat interpenetrate the whole. Operations (or
direction) is the premier function, and splits into two main
divisions, operations (minor) and intelligence. It is the special
task of operations to appreciate the situation continuously, to
assist the Command in the consideration of requirements and
with the preparation and conduct of operations, and to convert
the intentions, policy and decisions of the Command into orders
and instructions. It is its business to visualize the situation
continuously on an operations chart and to furnish all branches
and technical services with timely information of all require-
ments. The function of intelligence is to collect, sift and dis-
tribute information of the enemy, and by the cumulative in-
telligence arising out of its work to help operations to appreciate
the situation. Administration and technical comprise all the
great services of supply and technical work, including personnel,
pay, victualling, stores, transport, and the crafts of hydrography
and surveying, navigation, marine engineering, naval con-
struction, gunnery, torpedoes, mine-laying, mine-sweeping and
signals. Each service is responsible for its internal efficiency,
and the Chief of the Staff is responsible for the coordination of
all, while to assist him in this a training and staff division is
required which acts as the trustee of staff principle and organiza-
tion and is also responsible for staff training, principles of
training, staff history and manuals of war. No one of the three
great branches is more important than another. Like the brain,
heart and lungs, all are complementary to each other. If there
are no ships there can be no operations; if the operations are
badly conducted, the best ships will be useless; a new technical
invention may revolutionize operations, and the whole service
must rest on a basis of good discipline and sound financial
administration.
The first step towards these principles was really taken in
May 1917, when the term " War Staff " was altered to " Naval
Staff " and the office of Chief of the Naval Staff was merged
in the First Sea Lord (Admiral Jellicoe), while a Deputy Chief
of the Naval Staff (Vice-Admiral Oliver) and an Assistant Chief
(Rear-Admiral Duff) were appointed with seats on the Board.
This gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board,
and the presence of three members ensured the necessary
authority to carry through any operation of war. The D.C.N.S.
directed all operations and movements of the fleet, while the
A.C.N.S. was responsible for mercantile movements and
anti-submarine operations.
The office of Controller was revived, and Sir Eric Geddes
appointed to fill it, with the rank of Honorary Vice'Admiral,
all questions of supply being thus practically merged in his
hands; but he had barely filled the office two months when he
took Sir Edward Carson's place as First Lord July 20 1917.
On Sept. 6 1917 a Deputy First Sea Lord, Sir Rosslyn Wemyss,
was added to the Board to control operations abroad and
questions of foreign policy. Sir Oswyn Murray too had suc-
ceeded Sir Graham Greene as Permanent Secretary in Aug. 1917.
In Oct. 1917 the development of the staff was carried one
step further by the formation on Oct. 19 of two Committees of
the Board the Operations Committee and the Maintenance
Committee. The First Lord was chairman of both, and the
former consisted of the First Sea Lord and C.N.S., the Deputy
ist S.L., D.C.N.S., A.C.N.S., and sth Sea Lord. The latter
consisted of the Deputy ist S.L. (representing the operations
committee), 2nd S.L. (personnel), 3rd S.L. (material), 4th S.L.
(transport and stores), Civil Lord, Controller and Financial
Secretary.
The direction of operations was finally handed over to the
C.N.S. by an order in Council of Oct. 1917, under which he
became responsible for the issue of orders affecting war opera-
tions to the fleet. It empowered such orders to be issued in
his own name as C.N.S., and not as previously by the secretary
in the name of the Board.
These measures were accompanied by the institution of
further divisions of the staff, including a plans division, and by
Oct. 1917 the Board and naval staff had assumed the following
form:
Board of Admiralty
ist L.
Pi! I
istS.L. D.C.N.S. A.C.N.S. sth S.L. Deputy istS.L.
Operations Committee
(Deputy ist S.L.) 2nd S.L. 3rd S.L. 4th S.L. Civil L.
Controller
Parl. and Finance Secretary
Maintenance Committee
Permanent Secretary
ADMIRALTY
Naval Staff
C.N.S. and 1st S.L. (Adml. Jellicoe)
D.C.N.S.
1
(Acting V.A. Oliver)
A.C.N.S. (R.A. Duff)
1
F
Operations
(R.A. Hope)
Signals
Aug. 18 1917
(Comm. R. L.
Nicholson)
Plans
Oct. 8 1917
(R.A. Roger Keyes)
i
Anti-Submarine
Dec. 16 1916 (Capt.
W. W. Fisher)
Trade (Capt.
Alan G. Hothan)
Mine-Sweeping
May 23 1917 (Capt.
Lionel Preston)
. Mercantile Movements
Oct. I 1917 (Capt.
Fred Whitehead)
Intelligence
(R.A. Wm. Hall)
One of the most important divisions of the naval staff was
the mercantile movements division, which had been started as
a convoy section, under the management of Paymaster Capt.
H. W. Manisty. It was here in May 1917 that an operations
chart came into use for the direction of convoys, on which the
movements of submarines derived from wireless directionals and
other reports were plotted, day and night. Operations divisions,
troubled like Martha over many things, had never been able to
deal in big plans, and this work was undertaken by the plans
division which drew up plans for the mining of the Bight, the
Great Northern Barrage (in conjunction with the U.S. navy),
the Dover Barrage, the Otranto Barrage and numerous smaller
operations.
The ease with which the distinction between operations and
administration can be applied is illustrated in the submarine
and auxiliary patrol services. In both these services the ad-
ministrative work (such as regulations, conditions of entry,
stores, personnel) was dealt with by a centre which had very
little or nothing whatever to do with operations (Commodore
(S) in the one case and the Auxiliary Patrol Office in the other),
and the system worked very successfully from first to last.
The reorganization of staff work was not limited to the Ad-
miralty. It extended to every command, and in April 1918
the First Lord and Rear-Adml. Sir W. R. Hall proceeded to
Malta and made arrangements for the entire reorganization of
the C.-in-C.'s staff, leading to a great reduction in shipping
losses in the Mediterranean.
With the advent of peace the naval staff was greatly reduced,
and some divisions naturally disappeared. A change of some
importance has taken place in the function of the A.C.N.S.,
who has become responsible for all staff questions relating
to technical branches and crafts such as gunnery, torpedoes
and mining. Gunnery and torpedo divisions have been introduced
into the staff to deal with questions of the tactical use of these
weapons and the training of personnel. The plea for this lies
in the close connexion between the use of the weapon and
operations. There can be no doubt that training and the
tactical aspects of weapons constitute a sphere common to the
naval staff, the great technical departments and the fleet,
but though they certainly require to be in close touch with
the naval staff it still remains a moot point whether all technical
crafts with the training that belongs to them should not be
segregated from the naval staff.
The distribution of the naval staff in 1921 was as follows:
nal organization and general direction of the work of the naval staff
and cooperation of the naval staff with the material side of the
Admiralty.
D.C.N.S. Operations and movements, naval intelligence,
strategy, policy and plans. Sea-borne trade and international law.
A.C.N.S. Methods of fighting at sea. Design in relation to
policy and tactics. Staff questions of research. Air development in
relation to naval warfare.
Little has been said here of the civil side of the Admiralty
because it runs through and interpenetrates every branch.
The more essentially civilian branches, such as naval stores and
victualling, were among the most efficient of the war. There
is sometimes a tendency to talk of the Admiralty as a place
where, through civilian agency, the best naval plans " gang
aft agley." This is a complete fallacy. Admirals have played
a great part in the Admiralty and in its history, past and present,
and cannot dissociate themselves from its work. If the Ad-
miralty in the war made mistakes, the navy and its admirals
must share the blame, and in the final victory a portion of the
laurels belong to the Admiralty and the civil servants of the
King.
The strength pf the naval staff divisions and departments in
the British Admiralty is shown, as for the crucial dates under
the war reorganization, in the table on p. 10. (A. C. D).
UNITED STATES. After 1909 various measures providing
for a reorganization of the U.S. Navy Department were brought
forward, but for several years Congress failed to take any
action, though certain proposals, notably the recommendations
of the board appointed by President Taft in 1909, were strongly
urged. The organization .of the Department as then con-
stituted had been the subject of criticism by a number of
secretaries of the navy as well as by others; the chief defect
was the lack of some agency to perform the functions of a general
staff in the conduct of naval operations. It is true that since
1900 the secretary had had the deliberations and reports of the
general board to guide him, but this board had no executive
powers, and in the last analysis the responsibility for coordinat-
ing the activities of some eight different bureaus rested solely
on the secretary of the navy. In default of legislation, Secretary
Meyer made an effort in 1913 to remedy this condition by the
issuance of regulations providing for the appointment of an
aid for operations, an aid for personnel, an aid for material,
and an aid for inspections, who were to be officers of the navy
on the active list not below the grade of captain and who were
to constitute an advisory council charged with the duty of
1st S.L. and C.N.S.
D.C.N.S.
1
Intelligence
Operations
Plans
1
Local
Defence
Trade
Traini
Staff!
The duties of the C.N.S. and principal officers are as follow:
C.N.S. All large questions of naval policy and maritime war-
fare organizations, distribution, and fighting sea-going efficiency of
the fleet. Advice as to general direction of operations of war. Inter-
Tactical
Section
Secretariat and Staff Registries.
A.C.N.S.
Air Sec-
tion
Gunnery
Division
Torpedo
Division
promoting effective cooperation in the work of the Depart-
ment. Under Secretary Daniels, who succeeded Secretary Meyer
in 1913, the offices of aid for personnel and aid for inspections
were discontinued, but there was created the office of aid for
10
ADMIRALTY
BRITISH ADMIRALTY STAFF, 1914-1918
(An asterisk denotes divisions and departments in existence
April 1921.)
Naval Staff:
1914
Nov. 1918
"Operations . . . .
7
24
"Intelligence . . . " .
Mobilization ....
16
4
140 (45 unpaid)
to maintenance
side
"Trade
37
Anti-submarine ) merged in
40
Mine-sweeping f rjife nce
7
"Signals (now Signal Dept.)
28
"Plans
ii
Mercantile Movements (lapsed)
39
"Training and Staff Duties
6
"Local Defence Div'n (post war)
nil
"Gunnery Division
4
"Torpedo Division (post war)
nil
Total ....
27
336
Secretarial:
Secretary
45
80 (2 unpaid)
Chief Censor ....
19
Publicity
25
"Statistics ....
12
Total . .' .
45
I 3 6
Personnel:
"Mobilization ....
\aval Staff
17
"Recruiting
IO
"Royal Marine Office .
10
15
"Paymaster Director General
"Admiral of Training (post war)
4
Physical Training and Sports .
"Naval Education
5
5
"Chaplain of the Fleet
2 ,
2
"Medical Director General
10 .
16
Total ....
27
69
Technical:
"Hydrographer ....
35
58
"Navigation .....
3
6
"Naval Construction .
68
94
"Naval Engineer-in-Chief .
27
48
"Electrical Engineering
32
"Naval Ordnance
53 (and
245
torpedoes)
"Torpedoes and Mining
117
"Naval Equipment
10
60
"Compass Department
"Dockyards and Shipbuilding .
(Director of Dockyards)
3
37
50
Warship Production .
99
Auxiliary Vessels
46
"Armament Production
(now Armament Supply)
49
Airship Production .
57
Finance Division
21
Costings Division . . .
86
General Merchant Shipbuilding
165
Admiralty Labour Dept. .
Materials and Priority
146
1 06
"Research and Experiment
67
"Works .
103
229
Total ....
302
1,818
Supply:
"Stores
36
97
"Victualling
19
3 ,
"Transport
31
116 (4 unpaid)
Total ....
86
243
Finance:
"Accountant General .
IIO
297 (i unpaid)
"Contract and Purchase
46
112
"Greenwich Hospital .
7
7
Total ....
163
416
Summary:
Naval Staff
27
336
Secretariat
45
136
Personnel *|
27
69
Technical > Maintenance
302
1,818
Supply j
86
243
Finance
163
416
Grand Total .
650
3,018
education, whose duties were concerned with the Secretary's
programme for furnishing free instruction to enlisted men.
The outbreak of the World War gave new force to the pro-
posals for reorganizing the naval administration, and by the
Act of March 3 1915 Congress created the office of chief of naval
operations, the incumbent of which by the subsequent Act
of Aug. 29 1916, was promoted to the rank of admiral and
assigned 15 officers above the rank of lieutenant-commander of
the navy or major of the marine corps as assistants. The chief
of naval operations was " charged with the operations of the
fleet and with preparation and readiness of plans for its use
in war." By regulation his duties were defined as including
the direction of all strategic and tactical matters, organization,
manoeuvres, target practice, drills and exercises and the training
of the fleet for war. Under his direction were also placed the
Naval War College at Newport, the office of naval intelligence,
the office of gunnery exercises and engineering performances,
the operation of the radio service and other systems of com-
munication, the aeronautics service, the division of mines and
mining, the naval defence districts and the coastguard when
operating with the navy. The duties of the previously existing
bureaus were limited to activities subordinate to military
operations. By the Act of June 30 1914, these bureaus had been
reduced to seven, the bureau of equipment having been abolished
and its duties distributed among the other bureaus. The value
of the new method of organization became almost immediately
apparent; within 10 months after the passage of the first Act
(1915) plans for the mobilization of the U.S. naval force were
approved and ready to put into effect. Thus, when the United
States entered the World War the Navy Department was,
from the administrative standpoint, well prepared to undertake
its new duties and responsibilities. In his report for 1918 Secre-
tary Daniels stated that the war had necessitated no change in
the organization of the Department, which had easily expanded
to meet the emergency. During the war the Navy Department
had the assistance of the War Industries Board, the Council
of National Defense, the National Research Council, the
Aircraft Production Board and the Naval Consulting Board.
The Naval Consulting Board, composed of civilian inventors
and engineers, was first established in 1915 with Thomas A.
Edison as chairman. It was a voluntary body whose function
was to give expert advice when called upon. Secretary Daniels
also established an advisory council composed of the Assistant
Secretary of the Navy, the chief of naval operations, the chiefs
of bureaus, the major-general commandant of the marine corps
and the judge-advocate general of the Navy Department.
Secretary Daniels' interest in education for enlisted men has al-
ready been noted. An order issued by the Navy Department in
Dec; 1913 provided for instruction of enlisted men, petty officers and
warrant officers serving on board ship, the purpose being partly to
supply deficiencies in school training and partly to fit them for pro-
motion. Training was also instituted at the various naval stations,
and schools for assistant paymasters, yeomen, cooks, bakers, com-
missary stewards, hospital apprentices, machinists' mates, musicians,
mess attendants, painters, plumbers, electricians, blacksmiths, and
carpenters were maintained. Thus enlisted men could prepare
themselves to engage in civil trades at the end of their period of navy
service. With the outbreak of the war much of this educational
work was temporarily suspended. By the Act of Dec. 20 1917 the
number of midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy was fixed as
follows five for each senator, representative and delegate in
Congress, one for Porto Rico, two for the District of Columbia, 15
appointed each year at large, and 100 appointed annually from
enlisted men of the navy. As a war measure the President was
authorized in 1918 to reduce the course of instruction at the Academy
from four to three years; in 1919, however, the fulj four-year course
was resumed. During the participation of the United States in the
World War three training camps for officers of the marine corps were
held. In accordance with the Naval Militia Act of 1914 various
states organized divisions known as the U.S. Naval Volunteers, to
which were assigned naval officers as instructor-inspectors of the
militia. A later Act (Aug. 29 1916) created the U.S. Naval Reserve
force, with which, in 1918, the naval militia was amalgamated. The
Act of 1916 also provided for a Naval Flying Corps, for special
engineering officers, for Naval Dental and Dental Reserve Corps,
and for taking over the lighthouse service in time of war.
The Naval Appropriations Act of 1915 repealed section 9 of the
Personnel Act of March 3 1899, which authorized the retiring of
ADOR ADVERTISEMENT
1 1
officers in certain circumstances for the purpose of accelerating pro-
motion. As a result there were no means of promotion in the com-
missioned personnel of the navy except through vacancies created
by death or statutory age-limit retirements. In 1917, however, a
new law changed promotion by seniority, so that line officers above the
rank of lieutenant-commander were promoted by selection, the ques-
tion of proved ability being the controlling consideration. Much
comment was aroused in 1919 when a new fleet organization was put
into effect, by which two divisions of practically equal strength,
the Atlantic fleet and the Pacific fleet, each having- a commander-
in-chief of the rank of admiral, were created. Some critics regarded
this as a violation of the principle enunciated by Admiral Mahan
that the fleet should never be divided. Secretary Daniels stated that
with the Panama Canal open the two fleets could effect a junction in
either ocean and " carry out the plans already formulated for opera-
ting as one fleet before any enemy could try conclusions with us."
ADOR, GUSTAVE (1845- )> Swiss statesman, a member of
a family of Vaud, which in 1814 obtained the burghership of
Geneva, and grandson of Jean Pierre Ador, who first obtained
this right, was born at Geneva Dec. 23 1845. He studied
law at the academy (now the university) of Geneva and in
1868 became an advocate. In 1871 he started his political career
as member of the communal council of Cologny, and was
twice mayor, in 1878-9 and 1883-5. He was a member of
the cantonal Parliament 1874-6, and continuously from 1878
to 1915 save for a short break in 1902. In 1878-9 he represented
Geneva in the Swiss Conseil des Etats. Then he became a
member of the executive of the canton of Geneva, being put in
charge of the Department of Justice and Police. He resigned
after an unfavourable election in 1880, but once more became
member of the cantonal executive in 1885, and for 12 years had
charge of the cantonal finances. In 1889 he became a member of
the Swiss Conseil National, and remained so till 1917, being
elected its president in 1901. He was president of the cantonal
executive in 1890, 1892, and 1896. In 1894 he became lieutenant-
colonel in the Swiss army. In 1914 he founded in Geneva the
association for facilitating communications between prisoners-of-
war and the central Geneva agency, and succeeded in giving this
enterprise great importance and a wide-spread extension. After
the enforced resignation of Arthur Hoffmann, Ador, in order to
soothe the Entente, became a federal councillor or member of the
Federal Executive in June 1917 and was entrusted with the
Department of Foreign Affairs. Towards the end of 1918 he was
elected by Parliament to be the Swiss President for 1919, but
retired from the Federal Executive at the end of his year of office.
ADVERTISEMENT (see 1.235). The great public service
rendered by advertising during the World War was one of the
most striking features of the progress made in this form of
business during the decade 1910-20.
Before 1915 no Government in modern times had attempted
to raise subscriptions to a loan through the persuasive methods
of commercial advertising on a large scale. The custom was
merely to publish the prospectus, and leave it to the investor to
form his judgment of its merits. It was not till the floating of the
45% War Loan in 1915 that the British Government took any
definite steps to depart from precedent. At an early stage in its
subscription, when it was feared that the result would not be as
good as had been hoped for, a Treasury official asked the advice
of a well-known London journalist, and at his suggestion it was
decided to spend 100,000 in advertising under his direction.
A little more than 60,000 was actually spent in advertising,
and the subscriptions to the loan eventually realized nearly
600,000,000. Later, this new departure was followed, but only
after stereotyped official methods had again proved inadequate,
in the campaigns for National War Bonds after Dec. 1916,
by a considerable extension of advertising, while in the United
States it was freely employed in the raising of the Liberty Loans
(see WAR LOANS PUBLICITY CAMPAIGNS).
Before this, advertising by poster had been employed ef-
fectively in England to gain enlistments for the army. In this
connexion, and in the loan advertising of 1915 and following
years, both in Great Britain and America, advertising reached an
effectiveness and power that had never been imagined. It is
true that the subject dealt with was in everyone's mind; the
appeal was to patriotism, to emotion as well as to cold reason
and self-interest. The interests of the writer and of the reader
of the advertisements were identical. Even so, the results were
amazing. In 1917 a leading American banker said it was im-
possible to float a loan of $3,000,000,000 because there were
" only 275,000 investors in the country." But after widespread
advertising there were more than 6,000,000 individual sub-
scribers to this loan, and the amount was greatly over-subscribed.
For the last of the American war loans, the " Victory Loan "
floated after the Armistice, nearly 21,000,000 subscribers were
obtained one for every five of the country's population, in-
cluding women and children.
War advertising enlisted much new talent in writing and
illustrating. The foremost artists and writers on both sides of
the Atlantic volunteered their services and competed for the
honour of having their productions used. With professional
advertising men, printers, engravers and lithographers all giving
their best, the result was an excellence in form and character
that had never been achieved before. While the tide of patriotic
emotion raised by the war brought new resources to advertising,
their proper application would not have been possible without
the knowledge gained in advertising for ordinary business
purposes during previous years (see PROPAGANDA).
In the years before 1915 remarkable advances had been made.
The number of articles of trade-marked, advertised merchandise
had increased rapidly. Stimulated by advertising revenue, scores
of weekly and monthly publications had obtained circulation
running into hundreds of thousands, and some had passed
the million mark. Great daily newspapers had a similar growth
and could afford to sell their copies at a price which did not pay
for the paper on which they were printed. Posters and advertising
signs had passed from their former rude state to a high degree
of attractiveness.
At the same time came a remarkable improvement in the
character of advertising. Misleading advertisements and
advertising of questionable merchandise or of uncertain financial
offers were gradually weeded out. Publications found it
unprofitable to accept advertising that was offensive to their
better clients. The Association of Advertising Clubs of the
World adopted " Truth in Advertising " as their slogan, and
vigilance committees were appointed to eradicate misleading or
untruthful advertising of whatever products. Advertising had
become a business of high principles and well-defined ethics.
One of the most powerful influences in the development of
advertising along sound business and ethical lines was the ad-
vertising agency. Beginning more than half a century before as
an agency for the selling of space in publications, the modern
advertising agency grew into a service institution, acting on
behalf of its clients in planning advertising campaigns, selecting
the mediums to be used, preparing advertisements, attending
to all the details of engraving, type-setting and plate-making
and performing many other incidental services. The advertising
agency attracted well-educated young men in increasing num-
bers and represented a recognized field for the employment of
talent.
All advertising is more or less a competition for public atten-
tion. As the volume of advertising increased the competition
became more keen, and resulted in improvement of both the
writing and artistic treatment of advertisements. One of the
most notable features in recent years has been the use of illustra-
tions in colour, made possible by improved processes of colour-
engraving and by the perfection of high-speed colour printing
presses. One popular magazine in America, with a circulation
approaching two million; has contained more than 50 full-page
advertisements in colour in a single issue. Every one of these
pages was printed by four-colour process, and gave a faithful
reproduction of the subject. This has made it possible to display
all sorts of merchandise, including foods, in their natural tempting
colours, and textiles with all their shades and patterns, as well as
to reproduce beautiful paintings for their attractive value. Per-
haps as a result of this achievement in colour printing, there
has been a remarkable improvement in the artistic worth of
advertising illustrations. Celebrated painters and illustrators no
12
AEHRENTHAL, ALOYS LEXA VON
longer find it beneath their dignity to make pictures for ad-
vertising purposes, especially as the bids for their services run
to large figures. Similar improvement has been achieved in
typography, engraving and lithography, and in all the mechanical
processes of reproduction.
As the volume of advertising expenditure has grown, so has
the number of publications which derive their chief support from
advertising. These publications have been divided more and
more in recent years into groups or classes, each with an appeal
to a certain class of the population. The number of general
publications reaching all classes has been correspondingly
reduced. The most prominent class publications are the women's
magazines, chiefly of monthly issue, of which in 1921 there were
four or five in America with more than a million circulation.
These magazines deal with home problems, dressmaking, cook-
ing, care of children and kindred subjects, and are the most
valuable mediums for the advertising of foods, textiles and all
household commodities. There are similar class publications
devoted to business interests, the world of books, motion
pictures, the theatre, fashionable society, sports of one kind and
another and all classes of commercial and industrial enterprises.
The significance of this tendency is that advertising of each kind
may be placed before the readers it especially interests, with a
selected audience and less waste of circulation.
Each succeeding year has seen some enlargement of the
possibilities of advertising. Paid space has been used in increas-
ingly large amounts in political campaigns, local and national,
presenting the records of candidates and showing photographs
of themselves and their families. It is used more and more to
influence public opinion on behalf of one cause or another.
Industrial disputes, involving strikes or lock-outs, have led
employers and employees alike to appeal through advertisements
to the public for sympathy and moral support. Public service
institutions have used advertising to put themselves in a better
light before the public or to explain the necessity for increased
revenue. In one notable case, advertising was used to turn
business away. The American Telephone & Telegraph Co. was
seriously affected by the entry of the United States into the
World War. It could not obtain the supplies it needed; the
Government took thousands of its highly trained workers; and
at the same time demands on its service increased enormously.
The Company was wise enough to advertise, explaining why its
service was deficient, why applicants were kept waiting for
installations, and also imploring the public neither to conduct
unnecessary conversations over the wires nor to prolong use
beyond the time required. Similar advertising was employed by
the American railways in the period immediately following their
return from Government control to private management, but
in this case the explanation of inadequate service was followed
by an appeal for higher passenger and freight rates to provide
revenue for rehabilitation. During the same period^ the Chicago
meat-packers, facing threatened Federal action for the further
regulation of their activities, entered upon an elaborate advertis-
ing campaign to convince the public of their blamelessness.
All these varied developments of advertising have been of the
utmost interest to students of economic trends. It is certain that
advertising has been largely instrumental in changing buying
habits and in introducing many things which have quickly
become a part of everyday life. The chief function of advertising
is the saving of time. Information, whether as to merchandise
or controversial or public issues, can be placed before great
numbers of the population almost over night. Public education
on any subject can be effected in days or weeks, where years
were required by old-fashioned methods of canvassing. For
this reason it has been possible to build up entire new industries
on advertised products within a short period. In political life,
and in financial operations, advertising has served to eliminate
the secrecy and ignorance which invite deceit and fraud. The
whole tendency is to take the public into confidence and play the
game in the full light of fair and frank publicity. Advertising is
no weapon for dark causes and no advocate for unworthy goods.
To be effective it must be a sincere expression of the character
of the advertiser. Unless it bears the stamp of truth and sincerity
it is ineffective and defeats its own purpose.
This individuality of a business house as well as the conditions
under which it operates and the field from which it may seek
custom must all be considered carefully before embarking on an
advertising campaign.. It is well to seek the expert assistance of
an advertising agency of established reputation. The implements
of advertising are many, including newspapers, weeklies,
magazines, trade publications, outdoor displays, cards in
railway cars and the sending of circulars and booklets to persons
whose names have been selected on some sound principle.
Each is more efficient for one purpose than another, and knowl-
edge and judgment are needed to plan a campaign that will
achieve results at economical cost. The advertising policy of a
business house and the selection of an advertising agency and
advertising manager should be a concern for the executive
heads who direct the permanent interests of the business. For
advertising, once entered upon, is a continuing influence. The
advertising for any one week or any one month, unlike that
week's or month's buying or selling, cannot be regarded as a
completed transaction. Advertising, it already has been said, is
an expression of character. It reveals the character of the
advertiser, and immediately begins to form a consciousness of
the particular house or merchandise advertised in the mind of
the public. It has an influence also on the advertiser's own
organization. The workman in the factory and the salesman in
the shop judge from the advertising their employer's sincerity
and desire to serve. If the advertising is such that they can take
pride in it; if it is attractive in appearance; if it is placed in the
right environment; if it is a worthy representation of the purposes
and ideals that animate the business then the advertising will
stimulate every employee to greater efforts and enhance the
moral of the organization. Every advertisement tends to
create or destroy the one great business asset, reputation.
The steady growth of advertising is assured. While there are
no authentic data on the amount spent for advertising, it has been
estimated that the expenditure for all forms of advertising in
America in 1920 was upwards of $1,200,000,000, an increase of
approximately 100% in five years. Individual industrial firms in
Great Britain spend as much as 200,000 a year on advertising,
and the total expenditure there on all forms of publicity is esti-
mated at over a hundred million sterling annually. With the
growth in public intelligence and the realization of the power of
advertising, it is likely to be still more widely employed in
the future. The modern business concern is adopting advertising
as a part of its fixed business policy; not as an expedient for
occasional use but as an element of business to be constantly
employed.
AEHRENTHAL, ALOYS LEXA VON, COUNT (1854-1912),
Austro-Hungarian statesman (see 3.25; 9.951), was born at Gross-
Skal, Bohemia, the son of Baron (Freiherr) Johann Lexa von
Aehrenthal and his wife Marie, nee Countess Thun-Hohenstein,
and began his diplomatic career in 1877 as attache to the Paris
embassy under Count Beust. He went in 1878 in the same
capacity to St. Petersburg, and from 1883 to 1888 he worked at
the Foreign Office in Vienna under Kalnoky, with whom he
formed close relations. In 1888 he was sent as councillor of
embassy to St. Petersburg, where he exercised considerable
influence with the ambassador, Count Wolkenstein. Recalled in
1894 to service in the Foreign Office, he undertook important
duties, and in the following year went to Bucharest as ambassa-
dor. Here he succeeded in strengthening the relations between
the courts of Vienna and Bucharest, the secret alliance which
King Charles had concluded in 1883 with the Central European
Powers being renewed on Sept. 30. In 1899 he became am-
bassador in St. Petersburg, where he remained until his
appointment as Foreign Minister in Oct. 1906. Aehrenthal
at this time thought that Austria-Hungary must, even at the
cost of some sacrifice, come to an agreement with Russia. In this
sense he endeavoured to continue the negotiations successfully
begun by his predecessor, Prince Franz Liechtenstein (b. 1853),
for the bridging over of the differences on Balkan questions
AERONAUTICS
between Vienna and St. Petersburg, in order to create a basis for
a permanent friendly relation between Austria-Hungary and
Russia. He played a principal part in concluding the Miirzsteg
Agreement of 1903. During the Russo-Japanese War he took a
strong line in favour of a benevolent attitude on the part of the
Vienna Cabinet towards Russia. When, in Oct. 1906, he
succeeded Count Goluchowski as Foreign Minister he at first
maintained the views which he had professed as ambassador.
He was determined to preserve the interests of Austria-Hungary
in the Balkans, but also showed himself prepared to meet the
Russian wishes in the Dardanelles question. Accordingly he
entered into negotiation, after the outbreak of the Young Turk
revolution in the summer of 1908, with Isvolski, arranging
with him Sept. 15 at the chateau of Buchlau, in Moravia,
an agreement which aimed at securing for Austria-Hungary
the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and for Russia
the opening of the Dardanelles to Russian warships.
It was only when Isvolski's proposals were wrecked on the
opposition of England, and the Russian minister protested
against the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had
meanwhile been accomplished, and supported the Serbs in their
opposition to Austria-Hungary, that Aehrenthal abandoned the
idea of a friendly accommodation with the Russian Government.
In the sharp struggle during the annexation crisis, not only with
Russia and Serbia, but with the Western Powers, he held with
tenacious energy to his purpose, and, powerfully supported by
Germany, succeeded in carrying out his intentions after excited
negotiations which threatened to lead to war. The annexation
of Bosnia and Herzegovina was acknowledged by the Powers; an
agreement was reached with Turkey; Serbia, after long hesitation,
was obliged to submit. For this achievement Aehrenthal
was rewarded by his master by elevation to the rank of Count
(Aug. 1 8 1909), while at the courts of his opponents he was
hated but respected.
This was the zenith of his political career. Few at this time
realized the danger which arose later from the closer adhesion of
Russia to the Western Powers, especially as Aehrenthal took the
greatest pains to prove in all quarters, after the conclusion of the
annexation crisis, that Austria-Hungary cherished no far-
reaching plans of conquest. In this spirit he offered the most
decided opposition to those circles at the court of Vienna which
advocated a bloody reckoning with Serbia. He held fast by the
Triple Alliance, for he saw in this the surest bulwark of peace.
He sought to form the most intimate relations with the German
Empire, but insisted on the independence of the Habsburg
Monarchy, and energetically repulsed all efforts on the part of the
German chancellery to set limits to that independence. One of
his most difficult tasks was to adjust the ever-recurring conflicts
with Italy, who, while officially supporting the political action of
the Triple Alliance, often embarked on courses directly opposed
to the interests of Austria-Hungary. A succession of agreements
which he concluded with the Italian Foreign Minister, Tittoni,
justified his efforts, and enabled him to maintain correct relations
with the Italian Government. Yet, by the maintenance of his
peace policy, which had the full approval of the Emperor
Francis Joseph, he came into serious conflict with the party led
by the chief of the general staff, Conrad von Hotzendorf, which
championed a policy not afraid of energetic, warlike methods.
The battle, carried on on both sides with tenacious endurance,
ended in 1911 with the victory of Aehrenthal and the resignation
of Hotzendorf.
In the solution of questions of internal policy Aehrenthal, as
Foreign Minister, only took part in so far as they seemed to him
to affect the interests of the monarchy as a whole. With the
Czechs, who on his accession to office had shown some suspicion
on account of his intimate connexion with the leading members
of the loyal Bohemian landed aristocracy, he succeeded in
maintaining reasonably good relations. As against the Magyars,
he upheld the view that the unity of the monarchy must not be
shaken, and he therefore offered a determined resistance to the
attempts of the party of independence to intrench on the rights
of the Crown in military matters. He realized the need for an
increase of the army and the reorganization of the army and
navy, but he opposed the far-reaching demands of the War
Minister and the chief of the general staff.
Aehrenthal married in 1902 Pauline, Countess Szechenyi.
He died Feb. 17 1912.
Even during his lifetime the estimate of his political policy
fluctuated violently. On the one hand it was blamed as pro-
vocative, on the other as weak. After the disastrous result of the
World War, bringing with it the downfall of the Habsburg
Monarchy, it is still more difficult to answer the question
whether the path pursued by Aehrenthal in foreign affairs was
the right one. It is certain that the Entente Powers were drawn
more closely together by the active part played, during his
period of office, by Austria-Hungary in Balkan affairs. It is true
that the chances of success for the Central Powers in an inter-
national struggle were better in the years 1909 and 1911 than in
1914. But the question remains undecided whether, if his
activity had been longer continued, Aehrenthal would have been
able to maintain the position of Austria-Hungary as a great
power without an appeal to the decision of arms. There is
no doubt that Aehrenthal was a statesman of considerable mark,
a man of wide knowledge and well-ordered intelligence; he was
ambitious, but not vain, and an untiring worker. Moreover, in
moments of great excitement he was able to maintain outward
calmness. He was convinced of his own value, but had no desire
to parade it. The Emperor Francis Joseph esteemed him, stood
by him in the good and evil hours of his administration of
foreign affairs, and repeatedly refused to accept his tendered
resignation.
See B. Molden, Alois, Graf Aehrenthal: Seeks Jahre auswartiger
Politik Oesterreich-Ungarns (1917); and the article "Aehrenthal"
in the Deutsche Nekrologen (vol. xviii., 1917, pp. 230 seq.).
(A- F. PR.)
AERONAUTICS (see 1.260). Between 1909 and 1921, Aero-
nautics, an infant to start with, had not grown as a child grows,
but irregularly. One member had prospered at one time and one
at another. Thus we find that enterprize in flight was early in ad-
vance of all appliances; then engines developed for a period;
later, structural design. Though aerodynamic theory had been
far ahead it was badly neglected for a spell and was once again
fostered; with this study secret and semi-magical wing shapes
disappeared; after that came methodical production, first in
units and subsequently in bulk; then came pilotage and the ele-
ments of commercial flying. The seaplane, though less risky than
the aeroplane, advanced even more fitfully and never caught it up;
the airship, which was earlier and safer, still lagged behind be-
cause it made less appeal to sensation and cost much more. The
engine, though once in advance, fell behind, and only now (1921)
is again full of promise. Landing-grounds and night alighting
facilities have advanced but little, meteorology progresses slowly
against fog, the enemy, but aerial navigation is at last appearing
as a science.
By taking such of these elements as have separate stories and
keeping them distinct in the. several sections which follow, it is
hoped to present more clearly the progress and prospects of aerial
science than by showing a series of moving pictures of the infant
prodigy in motion as a whole.
Achievements and Performance (see Section I.). The twelve years
of labour of the American Wrights culminated just before 1909 in
the birth of the art as we now know it. Hazardous flights on the
straight or in figures of eight; a circle over Paris; the crossing of 24
miles of sea; the excelling of the speed of an express train, a velocity
once deemed monstrous and now insignificant; the scaling of the
Alps; looping and inverted flying; leaving the craft by parachute;
releasing the first i,ooo-lb. weight; firing the first gun; discovering
how to get out of a spin; alighting by night, etc. each of these
was an experience and a token of growth. Each seemed perilous
and astonishing, yet they had become so common by 1921 that it
was already difficult even to remember the sense of wonder.
Design (see Section II.). The advance of design occurred away
from the public vision, nor were its milestones of progress coincident
with the landmarks made by the great performers who relied more
on their own tact in the air than on the tested and thought-out qual-
ities of their craft. They chafed under the cautions of those who
made stress calculations. Each " stunt " was performed before any
human being knew if it was safe. How and why was design altered
AERONAUTICS
and bettered under the circumstances? Yet strength factors were
introduced, down pressures foreseen, fine lines provided, wing shapes
and controls improved, alighting gear developed and instability
cured. This is the subject matter of Section II. which is closely allied
to Section III.
Aerodynamics (see Section III.). Aerodynamic theory had risen
out of the void at the bidding of the applied mathematician before
1909, but it developed at the call of designers who would have been
tied to the repetition of old methods had not theory justified de-
parture. Once aerodynamic theory was established their inspiration
could take wing.
The deductions l from wind tunnel experiments on models 2 ft.
long could be but surmises till the principle of dynamic " similarity "
emboldened designers to transfer the wind tunnel results to the 4O-ft.
machines. " Scale effect," " slipstream effect," pressure distribu-
tion, phugoids, and the like, had to be verified on the full-sized
aeroplane and measured in the course of flight with the cooperation
of a few keen fliers, at a time when pilots at large were almost antag-
onistic to " theory." Mathematics had been applied to the motion
of aeroplanes through the air in advance of even the earliest flight,
and several separate starts were made. England, represented by
F. W. Lanchester, was easily first. Lanchester made great strides,
at a time when he had no wind channel for his model verifications.
Bryan came independently; L. Bairstow had the wind tunnel, of
which he has indicated the arrangement in Section VI. and greatly
advanced the problems. It was E. T. Busk who in 1913 in his own
person as flier verified the theories he had formed and achieved stable
flight cm " RE I " (see Plate I., fig. l). America had led in initiating
practical flight; France in model experiments, rotary engines and
speed records; Germany in length of aeroplane flight and in rigid
airships; but in the matter of stability and of scientific analysis on
both model and full scale, Britain took the lead before the war
and still kept it in 1921. Something of each national temperament
is disclosed by these specializations.
Construction and Materials (see Section IV.). Aircraft con-
structional methods are to be regarded from two points of view
the one where a few craft are to be made as perfect as possible, and
the other where bulk production is demanded.
Before 1914 there was no output of aircraft in Britain other than
by units; in France there was some manufacturing, in America a
little, and in Germany rather more. These countries had factories
proper where repetitive processes were employed. An army, small
in numbers, was deemed in Britain to need correspondingly few
aircraft. A large navy neglected them. When bulk production
came it came with a will, but designs that were admirable for unitary
construction were found ill adapted to bulk manufacture, and the
British story of changes in material and methods which is outlined
in Section IV. is typical of the war period everywhere.
The tautening of fabrics with cellulose acetate, the evolution of
the fairshaped strut and wire, the steerable tail skid, sewing the
fabric to the wing ribs, covering the wheel spoke with fabric, were
among the step-by-step advances which all belong to the period
before large outputs were contemplated, i.e. the period when, for
example, joints were machined from the solid steel bar. The plywood
body, the spars of built-up wood, the standard relation of radiator
to engine size, the pressed metal turnbuckle and the thorough inter-
changeability of detail parts belong to the " bulk output " period, as
also incidentally much speeding-up of processes and methods, the
evolving of glues and cements, fine castings, new alloys and the wide-
spread use of tests not hitherto commercialized but known to be
good by the few. It would be truer to say that the World War dis-
seminated the science of aeronautics rather than that it fostered it.
The war did foster the technics of quantity production.
Aero Engines (see Section V.). Man would have flown long before
he did but for the lack of a light engine. One cwt. per horse-power
was about the weight of the commercial gas engine, and to fly he
wanted one twenty times lighter. The French rotary engine of
1909-10 was the most real promoter of aerial experience of its
time, for it weighed 4 Ib. where a motor-car engine weighed ten.
How and by what grouping of parts, increases of compression and
refinements of design this weight has been cut down to 2 Ib. with
fuel economy on a similar scale, appears in Section V. Here it will
only be noted that the Germans on the basis of airship experience
had inclined rather earlier than others to big powers on aeroplanes,
and their aeroplane successes on aerodynamically inferior craft
were due to big engines. Their engines were water-cooled, rather
heavy but reliable. The radial air-cooled engine of the French has
been mentioned above. The British service was late to realize how
very big the war aero engine must be, and developed an air-cooled,
non-rotary and some good water-cooled motors eventually of
adequate sizes. The Americans made good use of the experience
poured in upon them from Europe when they began in 1917 to
tackle the Liberty engine of 450 H.P. Apart from size, the advances
in view to-day are considerable. The means for protecting ourselves
from the fire risks on crash due to petrol are also being evolved.
Navigation (see Section VI.). Aerial navigation, as distinct
from piloting with the ground in view, developed tardily everywhere,
though first in Britain. It was a surprise to find that raiding airships
1 See " Flight," 1912, pp. 32, 33.
from Germany disclosed no up-to-date navigating apparatus when
they were brought down, nor had their aeroplanes any turn indicator
to guide them when immersed in cloud or fog. Even after seeing the
Lucas compass (see Plate I., fig. 2) on captured aeroplanes they did
not appreciate or copy it, nor its principle of the "space-damped"
vertical card, spherical bowl and long period; nor was there any-
where an instrument to compare with the British apparatus figured
in Section VI. The air speed indicator that uses the principle of
Pilot was also a British idea, which displaced the earlier French
flat plate pressed back by the wind against a spring, and other
such speed-meters.
Control of A ir Traffic and A ir Stations. Air stations and the rules
evolved to control traffic have a section (VII.) to themselves. The
early stations were fields and each flier a law to himself. When the
Air Convention of Oct. 1919 is ratified all aircraft will be taboo that
have not a specific factor of strength and an adequate field of view
for the flier. As we progress all stations will give wireless warning
to those approaching them when they are immersed in fog and will
afford facilities for night alighting. The movement is in this direc-
tion. The mobility of aircraft makes international agreement on all
rules for alighting, racing, and signalling warnings very important.
Bodies like the Royal Aero Club in Britain exist in each county and
meet annually for these purposes.
Seaplanes (see Section VIII.). The seagoing seaplane is relatively
backward. To make a craft light enough to fly and heavy enough
to stand the buffets of the open sea up to the speed needed to quit
the waves in flight is a problem which was not fully solved even under
the war stimulus. It was tackled too late by Britain no less than
the others. Even the high-speed " float " seaplane was neglected in
England but it eventually advanced in Germany to be a formidable
offence against the air enemies of the submarine. Theirs was not,
however, a craft that could ride out a sea. The American NC3 made
a record by riding on the water for 150 miles in its Atlantic crossing.
It was an achievement to withstand the sea so long even though the
craft was travelling backwards all the 150 miles. Section VIII.
shows that scientific work is being applied to the problem, notably
in the matter of stability when changing from waterborne to airborne
conditions.
Airships (see Section IX.). Airship knowledge gave to Germany
technical advantages which would have been even more valuable to
Britain. They did not use on aeroplanes the identical engines of
their airships, but the experience of large aero engines of the utmost
reliability and economy was there. The dominant advantages of
airships are that they fly for long hours, carry large weights, do not
descend for an engine failure and can safely fly by night. In con-
sequence of night flying they are able on long journeys to outstrip
the aeroplane in speed from point to point. High cost of housing
and the numbers required to handle them on the ground were their
chief hampering factors, but the wonderful development of the
mooring mast, a British device, has improved the position. The
towing of airship by airship and by submarine, the protection of
fabric from deterioration, the use of non-inflammable gas are all
landmarks in their evolution. The kite balloon and the parachute
also need mention, though opinions differ as to the advisability of
giving the latter to the commercial aeroplane as a life-belt is given
to the liner. It is of little use unless the jump is made over 200 ft.
from the ground; if a high wind is blowing the parachutist meets the
ground with the sideways speed of the wind and it absorbs 18% of
the useful (passenger) load. This position is, however, the result of
great advances which have assuredly not ceased.
Each sectional aspect of aeronautics between 1909 and 1921
divides itself into three periods: before, during and after the war.
The dominant emotions and aspirations of those periods governed
men's thoughts whether they were flying, designing, calculating;
experimenting with engines, model aeroplanes or safety devices;
evolving navigational instruments, tests for pilots against gid-
diness, or parachutes to save the lookouts on kite balloons.
Before the war the aircraft builder starved although it was early
accepted that frontiers, rivers, chasms, forests and entrenched
positions could be crossed by anyone brave enough to fly, but
that acceptance was half-hearted. It now amazes one to realize
that in 1911 the speed of flight was regarded as a defect for the
military aeroplane, or that vulnerability by gun-fire from the
ground was its supposed weakness. The Governments demanded
that their aeroplanes should be transported in crates, or towed
with folded wings to their jumping-off place (see Plate I., fig. 3).
An aeroplane was a mute observer; no means of continuously trans-
mitting observations say of artillery fire or enemy movements
or for malung photographic records had been tried out, accepted
as good or prepared in quantity. Imagination is greater than
fact when the imagination is active: all these effects could easily
be, and were, imagined once flight was admitted but the state
is a herd, and extends its imaginative power like a herd to the
distance of the next meal or next year's crop. All nations econo-
AERONAUTICS
mized in aircraft research. Only individuals in any army, navy
or populace appreciated it. Its exponents were a butt for attack.
Still it was war or the fear of war that was responsible for what
there was. War has often been the great inciter of technical
advances it accounted for the Roman roads and for the modern
steel industry when battleship plates were founded and forged.
Such industries have in the past made some compensation to the
world for their malignant first inspiration. So, too, will aircraft
in its civilian uses and in many indirect ways.
The exact calculation of stresses, the exact adaptation of ma-
terial to meet them, the most radical economy of avoidable
weight, all of which are in the essence of engineering progress, have
been enforced upon the new engineer physicist of aerial science,
and young and brilliant aircraft engineers have, since the Armis-
tice, been thrown into industry generally, imbued with the exact-
itude and thrift of mechanical material learnt under the grave
penalty attaching to small errors in strength, weight or quality
or design for aircraft construction.
The introduction of the scientific idea was an intense uphill
struggle. Flying was first in the hands of men of enthusiasm
rather than of precision; the pioneers were more courageous than
scientific or critical. Dynamic similarity, the theorem of three
moments and the like were uninteresting to the small makers,
and all makers were in a small way. The data for the calculation
of aeroplane stresses were insufficient to move the larger firms to
quit the imitative methods of design which were the beginnings
of the industry. The risks from obvious misadventures, from
fliers' errors, from bad landing-grounds, etc., were so great
that the hazards to be guarded against by calculations and wind-
tunnel experiments appeared few and negligible by comparison.
Before the war public pressure had a rather doubtful directing
influence. If it was not explicitly said that such appliances must
be frail and dangerous, it was assumed. In one country after
another the ministers were rather upbraided by the air industry
and dismissed eventually for failing to spread themselves on large
orders than urged to develop the basis for strength and balance, by
expenditure now proved justifiable on precise calculations, labo-
ratory work and mathematics, finer metallurgy, woodcraft and
chemistry, instruments and navigation such as are recorded in
the succeeding sections.
The main efforts made on the scientific side have been individ-
ual, and for those individuals are mainly unrequited. Many are
dead scarcely heard of E. T. Busk; K. Lucas; R. M. Groves;
B. Hopkinson; Pilgrim; Pinsent; Usborne; many others lived on
in 1921 to see the result of their work, which was unparalleled
in brilliance of achievement. Fortunately the names of the per-
formers of heroic flights live on, and many unavoidably there
are omissions from so great a list appear in Section I.
In 1911-2 the compelling necessity for providing in the inter-
ests of fliers a margin of strength for aircraft, calculated upon
the stresses induced by its speed and by its manoeuvres, was
first accepted. So far as we know, this importation of an engineer-
ing standard was British, and was imposed upon foreign sup-
pliers for the first time. '
The various nations, each wanting to know how the other was
getting on, would purchase a few examples abroad; a proceeding
naturally coupled with any known precautions for the home
flier whose person would be risked in testing them. In any coun-
try the industrials regarded foreign purchases with some jealousy,
since a tenuous air vote was seen to be expended elsewhere than
with the home constructor; still an informative exchange of tech-
nical knowledge ensued.
The 20 H.P. engine of Wright and the 35 H.P. engine of Green
were seen to be too small by any who knew the 50 H.P. Gnome
in flight. The speedy monoplane of Nieuport (French 1910)
showed Britain the value of smooth external lines for the craft.
The Wright biplane (U.S.A.) bore only 2 Ib. per sq. ft. of wing
area, and Farman followed its lead in France. The uses of heavy
loading, as in the De Haviland craft, appeared later, when its
demerits were envisaged and difficulties, such as the high speed of
alighting, overcome simply by the great skill and courage of
fliers. The German Zeppelin taught much to Britain. The
British Avro and BE2 taught the possibility of a wide speed
range to the French and others, and generally aircraft lore became
international. (M. O'G.)
I. PERFORMANCE OF AEROPLANES, 1909-1920
The Arena of Aeronautics in igog. The achievements in
1909 had been latent in the effort of the previous 40 years;
that which appeared sudden was the outcome of protracted
experiment and the driving force of great personalities. The date
recalls the names of Wright, Voisin and Farman. The year 1908
had made power-driven flight a reality. Farman had flown from
Chalons to Reims; Orville Wright had flown for over an hour in
America; Wilbur Wright held the Michelin Cup with a flight of
124 km. in France.
In 1909 man little knew at what bitter cost he would maintain
the conquest of the air; yet the toll of life served but as a stimulus.
The International Conference that was held in London consoli-
dated the position of the Aero Clubs of the various countries with
a view to the advancement of aeronautics as an organized move-
ment. The great natural flying-ground at Pau soon made it the
Mecca of aeronautics. There Wilbur Wright created the first
flying-school, and among his pupils were names now famous. At
the aero show in London the public inspected and handled ma-
chines that really flew. At Farnborough, Cody was experimenting
with a machine that was to glide down a wire. Bleriot, who had
emerged from crash after crash unscathed, flew from Etampes to
Orleans, 25 miles. His little machine hopped over hedges and
trees, its diminutive engine humming above the roar of the Paris-
Orleans express, the windows of which were white with faces
upturned to see the new wonder. On a memorable Sunday
morning (July 25 1909), Bleriot set out from France without a
watch or compass to fly the Channel; his monoplane was lost
in the haze; but he emerged triumphant towards the cliffs of
Dover, where he landed on a slope and crashed. His feat
eclipses all others of the year, and is the forerunner of the cross-
ing of the Atlantic 10 years later. The analogy goes further, for
Hawker's failure to cross the Atlantic is reminiscent of that other
failure of Latham's to wrest the prize from Bleriot.
The year is memorable for flying meetings which roused public
enthusiasm in many countries: at Reims, Brescia, Berlin, Co-
logne, Blackpool and Doncaster. At Reims Latham covered 96
m., while later in the year Paulhan climbed to 600 metres, a
dizzy height in those days. The Comte de Lambert, a pupil of
Wright, flew from Juvisy round the Eiffel Tower and back, the
first flight over a town. In Germany Herr Grade won a 2,000
prize for the first German to fly a figure of eight round two posts
placed i km. apart. At the close of the year Farman held the
Michelin Cup with a fine flight of 234 km., made at Chalons.
The Flying Qualities of the Early Aeroplanes. So rapid has
been their development that it is worth recalling what these early
aeroplanes were like. The factors which govern the balance of an
aeroplane and the respective functions of the movable and fixed
surfaces used for its control during flight were, in 1909, ill
understood. The probable, possible and impossible were all one.
Aeroplanes were built by eye and developed by trial and error;
the light aero engine was in its infancy. Wilbur Wright laid the
foundation of aeroplane control as we now conceive it, but ham-
pered it by combining the movement of the vertical rudder with
the warping of the main planes for turning in the air. The pio-
neers flew almost by blind instinct; they had but the vaguest idea
of how to remedy a loss of control; some were even inclined to
doubt that remedies existed; atmospheric disturbances and so-
called " air pockets " were referred to with awe; instruments
which now assist the maintenance of balance, attitude and flying
speed were unknown, and when suggested were objected to; it
was all that human concentration could do to make proper use
of the control surfaces to maintain equilibrium, not only because
the equilibrium was essentially of an unstable kind, but because
the control surfaces themselves were often incorrectly designed
and thus treacherous or inadequate. It was on such machines
that the early pioneers committed themselves to the air, break-
ing records over laud and sea.
16
AERONAUTICS
The Pre-War Years. The chief flight of the year 1910 was
Paulhan's from London to Manchester, by which he won the
Daily Mail 10,000 prize (April 27 and 28 1910). The race was
gallantly contested by Grahame-White. If skill and tenacity had
been the determining factor, the prize would have been hard to
award. The chances of the race aroused the greatest enthusiasm
and to the many incredulous one more demonstration was thus
given of the possibilities of the aeroplane.
During the year flying meetings were held at Heliopolis,
Wolverhampton, Bournemouth, Blackpool and Lanark, the
flying performances at which demonstrated the advance that had
been made on those of the previous year. At Bournemouth Eng-
land lost one of her best fliers, the Hon. C. S. Rolls, who had
previously made the double journey across the English Channel.
His statue stands at Dover, gazing out over the waters that he
crossed. Most British pilots were flying on aeroplanes that were
wholly or partly French, but it is to be noted that Moore Braba-
zon won the British Michelin Cup with a flight of 19 m. on an
all-British machine. At Lanark Chavez on a Bleriot monoplane
reached a height of 1,794 metres, a prelude to his magnificent
flight over the Alps, the tragic sequel to which was his fatal
accident on landing. Legagneux, however, created a record by
reaching a height of 3,100 metres.
Moisant flew from Paris to London but, though he quickly
reached English soil, various troubles delayed his arrival in
London till three weeks later. On the continent, Leblanc won
the 4,000 prize for the Circuit de L'Est. Grahame-White went to
America and brought back the Gordon Bennett Cup, which
Curtis had won the year before. The contests for the British
Michelin Cup and the Baron de Forest prize brought forward new
fliers. Sopwith, competing for the former, flew 100 m. at Brook-
lands, which had been opened as a flying-ground the year before,
thus beating Cody's distance of 97 m. which had previously
stood; competing for the latter he flew from Eastchurch well
into Belgium.
At the close of the year Cody, after an exciting contest with
Sopwith and Ogilvie, held the British Michelin Cup with a dis-
tance of 185 m. in 4 hours 47 minutes. In France Tabuteau held
the International Michelin Cup with a distance of 582 km. in 7
hours 48 minutes.
It was in 1911 that the aeroplane was first tried in warfare.
Hamilton, an American, carried out a flight over the town of
Ciudad Juarez during a Mexican rebellion. In their campaign in
Tripoli the Italians also realized the value of the aeroplane for
reconnaissance. In England the idea of the time was that, for
bombing, aircraft would be useless and contrary to international
usage; on the other, hand, the first British attempt was made to
run an aerial post between Hendon and Windsor.
Capt. Bellenger, a Frenchman, flew from Paris to Bordeaux
in 5 hours 10 minutes net time, a distance of 690 km., while later
Fourny remained in the air for n consecutive hours, covering a
distance of 720 kilometres. Garros made a height record of
3,910 metres. London was linked with Paris by a notable non-
stop flight by Prier, which foreshadowed the aerial services of
to-day.
The year 1911 saw many races: the Paris-Madrid race won by
Vedrines at 50 m.p.h., in the course of which the French Minister
of War met his death and the premier was seriously injured; the
European Circuit, divided into nine stages, with the recently
opened Hendon flying-ground at the end of the seventh, which
was won by Lt. Conneau flying under the name of " Beaumont ";
the Daily Mail race round Great Britain of 1,010 m., also won by
" Beaumont " with Vedrines as a close second.
The Gordon Bennett Cup was won for America at Eastchurch
by Weyman flying a Nieuport monoplane at 79 m.p.h., and the
International Michelin Cup for France at Gidy-Lhumery by
Helen with a distance of 1,252 km. in 14 hours 7 minutes at 56 m.
per hour.
The increase in performance over the previous year may be
referred chiefly to the development of the aero engine. It would
be difficult to say that fliers were more skilful, but it is certain
that they were able to substitute knowledge and experience for
pure instinct, and thus set out on long and arduous flights with
increased confidence in their own powers and in the reliability of
the aircraft they flew.
One of the most prominent features of the year 1012 was the
active part that the British and French Governments took in the
development of aircraft for war. The French Minister of War
held a great review of military fliers and aeroplanes, and British
aircraft took a conspicuous part in naval and military manoeu-
vres. The Cody pusher biplane won the 4,000 prize in the War
Office trials on Salisbury Plain in the summer, during which the
tractor biplane BE2 reached a height of 9,500 feet. In Sept.
four army fliers lost their lives in two accidents in monoplanes,
which led to close restrictions being placed on their method of
bracing in England. In March the French Government had im-
posed a ban on certain monoplanes until the defects were removed
as the result of a report by Bleriot on their structural weakness.
Garros won the Grand Prix of the Aero Club de France for the
Anjou Circuit of 685 m. at 45 m.p.h.; Sopwith the first Aerial
Derby at 59 m.p.h., a race round London of 81 m.; Vedrines the
Gordon Bennett Cup in America at 105 m.p.h.; Audemars flew
from Paris to Berlin; the two British Michelin Cups were won by
Hawker and Cody, the first with a duration of 8 hours 23 minutes,
and the second with a flight over a circuit of 186 m. in 3 hours 23
minutes; in France Daucourt for the Pommery Cup flew 550 m.
in a single day at 63 m.p.h., while at the meeting at Leipzig
Hirth reached a height of 4,100 metres. World's records were
made in height by Garros, who reached 5,610 metres; in dis-
tance by Fourny with 1,010 km.; and in speed by Vedrines with
174 km. per hour, over 5 kilometres.
In the spring, flying had suffered an irreparable loss in the
death of Wilbur Wright from typhoid fever.
Apart from the establishment of the fundamental merit of the
tractor biplane the year was notable rather for a steady improve-
ment in strength and detail than for any radical departure in
type. From this time it becomes increasingly difficult to single
out individual performances. Achievements deemed impossible
three years before became commonplace events.
The year 1913 was one of great progress. Long cross-country
flights were proving day by day the faith that fliers had in the
aero engine. Seguin in France covered 1,021 km., Legagneux
reached a height of 6,120 metres, while Prevost attained the
speed of 203 km. per hour, over 5 kilometres. It was a brilliant
year for him; he won the Schneider Cup for seaplanes at
Monaco, covering 150 nautical m. in 3 hours 48 minutes, and
the Gordon Bennett Cup at Reims at 124 m.p.h. Helen won
the International Michelin Cup with a distance of 16,096 km.
Captain Longcroft won the Britannia Challenge Trophy by a
magnificent flight from Montrose to Farnborough via Ports-
mouth on a BE2 aeroplane built by the Royal Aircraft factory.
Hamel won the second Aerial Derby at 76 m.p.h., while Pegoud
in France and England gave some of the most marvellous demon-
strations in the new art of aerobatics that the world had ever
seen, including looping, inverted flying and quitting his aeroplane
in a parachute. In Dec. 1913 the REi, the first aeroplane stable
longitudinally and laterally, was flown for 35 minutes without
hand or foot control; and this, which may be regarded as the
greatest technical advance in aerodynamics, is to the credit of
Busk, an Englishman, who both made the flight and applied the
theory on which the aeroplane was designed. The last previous
attempt of the kind was by Dunne, who a few months earlier
had flown for one minute with " hands off."
The year 1914, just as it marked a turning point in the affairs
of nations, altered the whole character of flying. For seven months
the ideas of safe, stable flying and safe alighting were dominant ;
then the World War came down like a curtain and blotted them
out in favour of widely different objects. During those months,
Sykorsky, in Russia, had been proving the weight-carrying possi-
bilities of the aeroplane, and had risen to 300 metres, carrying
15 passengers. At Farnborough, an SE4 (see Plate I., fig. 4) flew
at 130 m.p.h. and climbed 1,400 ft. in a minute. Linnekogel had
reached a height of 6,350 metres in Germany, though just before
the war Oelrich beat him by reaching 7,860 metres. Landmann
AERONAUTICS
in Germany remained in the air for 21 hours 48 minutes, while
Boehm further improved on this unofficially with a time of just
over 24 hours.
The Schneider Cup for seaplanes was won for England by
Pixton, who covered 150 nautical m. in two hours at Monaco on
a Sopwith biplane fitted with floats. The Aerial Derby, the
London-Manchester-London and London-Paris-London races
were all won by Brock. Notable events on the Continent were the
Prince Henry Circuit of 1,125 m - in Germany, in which there
were 40 competitors, and the Security competition in France;
although most of the big international races had to be cancelled.
The World War. The ingenuity that sought for speed at low
heights suitable to the race-course or for the maximum climb was
by no one appreciated as vital for war purposes, either in France
or Germany, and least of all in Britain; aeroplanes were for re,-
connaissance they should fly slowly and the very inferior
anti-aircraft guns would not impede their flying low; it was not
till many months elapsed that the margin of speed and climb was
found to be decisive as to who should be the victor in mortal com-
bat held in the upper air. The diverse needs of war stimulated
the development of specialized types, which were evolved as
fast as production considerations would admit. The prime use
remained, as foreseen, reconnaissance, but to maintain and sup-
port this other craft were called into being; the possibilities of
the aeroplane as a bomb-dropper were as yet hardly called for.
The early war pilot went into battle armed more as a sportsman
than as a soldier. But he was attacked, and had either to be made
self-defensive or to be escorted by fast, high-powered, swift-climb-
ing fighters.
In 1915 the artillery on the ground came to rely almost entirely
on aerial " spotting," and the small single-seater fighters had to
sweep hostile aircraft from the skies to allow such machines fitted
with wireless to pursue their work uninterrupted. Bombing was
also rapidly developed. The first time a i,ooo-lb. weight was re-
leased by Goodden from an aeroplane was an event calling for
a special communication to the Secretary of State that by big
bombs the nerves and arteries of the enemy might be continually
harassed and disorganized. Owing to freedom of movement
in three dimensions air supremacy was a far more difficult and
comprehensive thing than naval supremacy. It was never
achieved save locally and for brief periods by any Power, and
then only by concentrating organizations of the greatest mobility
and flexibility at some place and time.
The requirements of quantity, coupled with the demands for
change, came so rapidly that the development and expansion of
the aerial arms of the Great Powers are difficult to grasp. Of
the innumerable acts of courage, the endurance and self-sacrifice,
the skill of the pilot in war, it is impossible here to attempt a
record. Here and there the names of great pilots stand out. But
if one be mentioned, a hundred others would claim justice. Such
were the changing fortunes of war, so many and so astounding
were the feats of daring, that with deeds not unworthy of a Ball,
a McCudden, a Bishop, a Nungesser, a Garros, a Guynemer, a
Vedrines, an Immelmann, a Richthof en, a Boelcke or a Voss, many
a flier passed through the war without fame or praise.
It was only during 1915 that the specialized type of aeroplane
began to appear. The two-seater aeroplane with an engine of up
to 150 H.P. was used promiscuously; for reconnaissance, artil-
lery " spotting," any bombing there was, and fighting as well.
Types in use by the British were BE2C's, Avros and Bleriots,
with small engines below 100 H.P.; by the French, Caudrons,
Breguets, Farmans, Voisins, Bleriots and Moranes; by the
Germans, LVG's and Rumplers, with engines over 120 H.P. and
up to 160 H.P.; the maximum speeds seldom exceeded 80 m. per
hour. Later in the year the single-seater, originally intended as a
scout, was used for fighting. The 80 H.P. Bristol scout and other
tractors used by the British were handicapped by their inability
to fire forwards, the direction of best aim; the various models of
Nieuport and Morane scouts used by the French were also
adopted by the British, while the Albatross and Fokker scouts
were used by the Germans. Engines up to 200 H.P. were coming
in. The so-called " scout " became a real fighter; its speed and
climb became truly effective when firing through the propeller
was devised by a Frenchman, adopted by Germany, and then with
feverish haste by the Allies. The French and Germans, more
zealous about bombing, were for this purpose introducing large
twin-engined aeroplanes and experimenting with armoured ones.
Speeds rose to over 100 m.p.h., and aeroplanes flew and fought
at heights of 15,000 ft., whither they were driven by the increas-
ing intensity of the anti-aircraft fire and by the advantage to be
derived from a swift descent to pounce or to retract. Night flying,
which had been tentatively practised for exhibition before the
war, was taken seriously, as its potentialities for bombing, for the
depositing of spies and for other conveyance were realized.
Stable aeroplanes with special alighting gear and a clear forward
field of view were needed for the repelling of airships by night.
The loading of war aeroplanes was increased and was only
limited by the absolute necessity of reasonable landing speeds;
even then fast scouts taxed the skill of most pilots. Seaplanes,
whose aerial performance was always poor compared with that of
aeroplanes, were of great use in conjunction with naval opera-
tions, and took part in the Gallipoli campaign.
In 1916 the air services came more and more into prominence.
The cry for higher and yet higher performance was insistent.
The French Spad flew at 130 m.p.h. and reached over 20,000
feet. The German Albatross scouts manoeuvred magnificently
at great heights, and high-flying reconnaissance Rumplers with
cameras photographed back areas. Bombing flights up to 800 m.
were carried out, notably by the French. Night bombing and even
night reconnaissance became general, first on moonlight, and then,
as the flier's skill increased, on dark nights. Accessories for
night flying, such as wing tip flares, were developed. Airships
had already proved vulnerable to aeroplane attack, and a German
airship was brought down in flames at Cuffley on Sept. 3 1916
while engaged in raiding England by night. Kite balloons were
attacked and brought down with incendiary rockets and bullets.
Flying became organized, and aeroplanes patrolled in larger and
larger formations and in layers, each unit being allotted its re-
spective duties, signals being made by coloured lights. Slower
aeroplanes were escorted by fast fighters; other fighters, like
hawks, moved on mobile offensive patrols.
As peace seemed no nearer in 191 7, redoubled efforts were made
in the air. America joined in, and American fliers joined British
squadrons, finally forming their own; the Italians had developed
large twin-engined Caproni triplanes; the Austrians, the Turks,
all realized what air-power meant. The British used large twin-
engined flying-boats against the submarine. The Germans
eventually attacked with big float-seaplanes of remarkable speed.
Scouts were flown off lighters at sea against airships, and off the
decks of battleships and " mother " ships. Formation flying was
developed and aerial fighting of the fiercest intensity was the
prelude to every big land operation. The British SEsA's and
Sopwiths, the French Nieuports and Spads, the German Alba-
trosses, Rolands and Fokkers, swept the sky in " circuses " 30
strong, and the effect of superiority of performance was hard to
distinguish from sheer skill in handling.
As the last and bitterest struggles of the World War were
being waged in 1918, aerial activity reached its zenith. The
deep hum of aircraft practically never ceased by night or day, in
fair weather or foul. Large twin-engined Handley Pages and
German Gothas flew farther and farther afield on bomb raids;
retreating armies in the East fled before the onrush of death from
the air. Aeroplanes flew low and attacked anything they could
find on the ground. Large flying-boats patrolled vast expanses of
water. The night was full of the attackers and the attacked, for
fighting scouts had learnt to seek out and fight the night bomber.
Engines had become more and more powerful and had reached
400 horse-power. The height at which an aeroplane could fly
was limited rather by the physical endurance of the pilot, even
with the help of oxygen, than the possible " ceiling " of the aero-
plane. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say of the aero-
planes used in the first and last phases of the World War that
their relative effectiveness as fighting implements was commen-
surate with that of a bow and arrow and a modern rifle.
.18
AERONAUTICS
The Art of Flying in War. If, in war, higher performance was
the prime means of gaining the position to strike, controllability
was essential to direct the blow. Pegoud had given a glimpse of
the possibilities of aerobatics in 1913, and during the war these
possibilities were explored to the uttermost. Probably owing to
temperament, the French led the way. The pilot of a fighting
aeroplane simply came to regard his machine as a mobile gun
platform, whose motion must be in sympathy with his lightest
touch to enable him to get his sights on the target. In fighting-
scouts the guns were integral with the aeroplane, the nose of
which was controlled so as to point them at the target. With
opposing machines of equal performance the striking position
had to be gained by manoeuvre, confidence in which was inspired
by a good view of the opponent. In order to use his guns effec-
tively, the pilot's arcs of view had therefore to be made as large as
possible. Though " looping " itself was little used, half-loops and
" Immelmann " turns enabled the pilot to turn rapidly while
gaining height.
t
FIG. 5. Immelmann Turn.
Until 1916 spinning nose-dives had merely been associated
with loss of flying speed and control, almost always with fatal
results. A courageous demonstration of the method of recovery
from a spin by Goodden, and later the practical application of
the theory by Lindemann, both at the Royal Aircraft factory,
did much to prevent future accidents. A spin came to be regarded,
not with fear, but as a means, if crippled, of eluding attack.
French pilots again pointed the way in the art of " rolling," a
manoeuvre in which the aeroplane is rolled about its longitudi-
nal axis. In 1017 this manoeuvre was widely practised. The
development of an aerial combat was so swift that the first few
seconds might decide the fate of one of the opponents. It was
rather in a brilliant combination of the manoeuvres described
above, calculated to make effective striking possible while pre-
senting an elusive target, than in the use of any single manoeuvre,
that the war pilot put his trust. He had to study the characteris-
tics of the aeroplane he was attacking, single or two-seater or
large bomber, gauge its weakness, divine the mentality of its
pilot and pit his skill against it; but it was grit and the will to
close and finish it that alone could be the decisive factor.
To make possible the achievements of the fighting pilots,
and to solve aerodynamic problems continuous experiments
with new engines were carried on behind the scenes. High per-
formance and controllability were not achieved without the
incessant labour of scientists and designers, who were not a little
baffled by the conflicting and rapidly changing demands often
expressed with emphasis rather than illuminating precision; by
the time new features in design could be given air trial the original
demand had changed out of recognition.
And for military requirements something more than controlla-
bility was required; for besides having to control the aeroplane
the pilot had to examine maps, operate wireless, watch many in-
struments, navigate, care for his guns, and keep a perfect look-out.
If the controls were temporarily released the aeroplane ought in
some measure to look after itself; in other words, be stable. In
1914 the BE2, and later the FEz, aeroplanes were altered so as
to be stable longitudinally in partial conformity with Busk's
REi design. They were thereupon called BEaC and FE2B ; with
these the flier's hands were free, and with them no less than
seven airships were brought down, a result no doubt assisted
by the confidence which stability inspired in night flying. But
it then seemed that stability impaired controllability. By 1916
so strongly did war pilots desire the maximum of control that for
some time many looked upon stability with disfavour. Gradually,
however, a neutral stability was found to be compatible with
the desired control. An added safety was that stable aeroplanes
would automatically tend to recover from a spin after loss of
control, and that, unlike unstable aeroplanes, they would tend to
return to a normal attitude if they became inverted uninten-
tionally or during the course of violent manoeuvres. Great as
was this advance in aerodynamic knowledge, problems equally
great remain, the solution of which can only be reached by con-
stant and arduous experiment.
The Return to Peace. Civil aviation was mainly restarted by
the conversion of war types, which were not so well suited as if
designed for the purpose. Specialization of type commenced in
two directions: aeroplanes destined for travel and transport and
those designed for racing.
The year 1919 saw wonders as great as any that had gone be-
fore. On June i4th-isth Alcock crossed the Atlantic on a
Vickers-Vimy with twin Rolls engines in 16 hours 12 minutes, by
which he won the Daily Mail 10,000 prize, and for which he was
knighted. Of Hawker's plucky attempt and descent into mid-
Atlantic; of Alcock's battle with driving mist, cloud and darkness;
of the navigation of Whitten Brown, his companion; above all, of
the human endurance underlying the feat, it is impossible to
speak in measured terms. Just prior to Alcock's achievement
there was one of a different kind, a triumph of organization for the
Americans; for Lt.-Comm. Read and his crew came from America
to England via the Azores and Lisbon, including the remarkable
passage of 150 m. under power on a rough sea, in the flying-boat
NC4. In the late autumn Ross-Smith and his brother flew
another Vickers-Vimy to Australia in 28 days, won the 10,000
offered by the Australian Government, and were both knighted.
High-powered racing aeroplanes again appeared. Janello, in
an Italian seaplane, put up a fine performance for the Schneider
Cup at Bournemouth at a speed estimated at 140 m.p.h., but,
though virtual winner, had unfortunately to be disqualified.
Gathcrgood won the Aerial Derby at 129 m.p.h. on a De Havi-
land aeroplane. Racing machines reached speeds of 170 and 180
m.p.h., and climbs were made to over 30,000 feet.
In 1920 Van Ryneveld flew from England to Cairo, and thence
after many adventures to the Cape. He crashed two aeroplanes on
the way, and arrived at his destination on a third supplied by the
South African Government; but considering the conditions for
flying in Central Africa his achievement is of the first rank.
The Schneider Cup and the Gordon Bennett, two classic races,
were won respectively for Italy by Lt. Bologna in a Savoia sea-
plane at Venice with an average speed of io(5 m.p.h., and by
Sadi Lecointe at Etampcs at 169 m. per hour. Courtney won the
fifth Aerial Derby in a Martinsyde racer with an average speed
of 153 m. per hour. At Etampes the Farman " Goliath," a large-
passenger machine, remained aloft for 24 hours 19 minutes, beat-
ing all duration records. In America Maj. Schroeder on a Le Pere
biplane with a supercharged engine reached a height of 33,000
feet. The fast American and French racers continually raised the
speed record, until Sadi Lecointe on a Nieuport reached 313 km.
per hour over a measured kilometre. By the end of 1920 racing
machines had reached a speed of nearly 200 m.p.h., a military
type scout had climbed to 20,000 ft. in 15 minutes, a large com-
mercial machine had climbed to 15,000 ft. with a weight equiva-
lent to 26 passengers, fliers had climbed over six miles into the
air, and an aeroplane had remained aloft for over 24 hours.
To promote safety, experiments were carried out to reduce
landing-speed while retaining a reasonable top speed by means of
wings variable in flight, a problem to the solution of which
Handley Page offered a notable contribution. In spite of these
and other difficulties so little risk now remains that the number
of miles flown for every accident is something like 35,000, or one-
and-a-half times round the world.
The years from 1909 to 1920 reveal a story of progress that,
even allowing for the extraordinary stimulus of the World War,
AERONAUTICS
is surely without parallel in the annals of engineering. And in
this story may be found the hint of a tremendous future.
See also: The Royal Aero Club Year Books (1911-9); Flight
(Jan. 1909 to Dec. 1920, the Official Organ of the Royal Aero Club) ;
Captain McCudden, Five Years in the Royal Flying Corps (1918).
(R. M. H.)
II. DEVELOPMENT OF AEROPLANE DESIGN
Design of Lifting Surfaces. The determination of the forces
acting upon a body moving through a viscous fluid, such as
the atmosphere, is a problem so far not amenable to mathematical
solution, and design must therefore be based upon experiment.
A vast mass of experimental data has been obtained by testing
models in wind tunnels (by Eiffel in Paris, by Prandtl at
Gottingen, at the National Physical and other laboratories) and
by experiments upon aeroplanes in flight, principally in England
at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough. A very use-
ful amount of information had been acquired before the war,
but this has been greatly extended during the war period.
Lifting-surfaces of various shapes have been used in the
design of aeroplanes, disposed in a variety of ways. It was
immediately evident that the span or spread of the wing across
the line of flight should be large in comparison with the " chord "
or dimension along the flight path. The ratio of the span to the
chord has been termed the " aspect ratio." Aerodynamic
efficiency increases with increasing aspect ratio; but it is desirable
to limit the aspect ratio for constructional reasons and in order
to reduce the room required for housing. The greater aerody-
namic efficiency, moreover, becomes neutralized after a point by
the head resistance due to the additional external bracing re-
quired. A compromise must be made, and the average figure
used is in the region of six to one. It was also evident that
the wings should be cambered along the line of flight. The
early aeroplane wings had approximately the same curvature
of upper and lower surfaces. Wind-tunnel experiments, however,
showed that the curvature of the under surface had but small
influence compared with that of the upper surface, a result
which enabled the designer to increase the thickness and in-
ternal strength of the wings and reduce external bracing.
Extensive wind-tunnel research has been carried out to find
the best cross-section shape of wings. Greater lift can be ob-
tained from highly cambered wings, but thinner wings offer
less resistance to motion at small angles. An aeroplane should
have as large a speed range as possible. While a wing of high
lifting-capacity is required to fly slow, small resistance is re-
quired for fast flying, that is at fine angles of attack. A greater
speed range is obtained by the use of wings of small curvature
(about i in 15), the same lower limit being attained by the use
of a larger area to carry a given weight. Wind-tunnel experi-
ments further determined the extent to which the curvature
should be greater towards the leading edge of the wing.
Early writers sometimes stated the requirements of a wing
as consisting purely of a high ratio of lift to resistance at some
angle of attack. The requirements are in reality more complex.
To secure a wide range of speed a high ratio of lift to resistance
is required at fine angles (fine in comparison with the angle at
which the wing attains its greatest lift at a given speed) and in
addition a high value of this ratio is required at the inter-
mediate angle at which the aeroplane climbs. This is not all.
For longitudinal stability the travel of the centre of pressure
when the angle of attack varies should be small, as this travel
on a curved surface produces instability. The wing section best
meeting all these requirements is probably the British Royal
Aircraft Factory's No. 15, designed early in 1916.
-Length of Chord >
Rear Spar
Front Spar
Leading ;
Edge.
Trailing
Edge
FlG. 6. Wing Section R.A.F. 15.
The resistance of a wing must, however, be considered in rela-
tion to the resistance of the external bracing attendant upon
its use. It has bee'n suggested that the thick wing, in spite of
greater head resistance due to the wing, might prove superior
by making possible the suppression of all external bracing, and
o s 10 is 20
FIG. 6b. Variation of the ratio
of lift to Resistance for the wing
alone as the Angle varies.
10
15
20
FRONT EDGE
5 10 15 2f
FIG. 6a. Variation of the Lift FIG. 6c. Travel of Centre of
and Resistance of awing with Pressure as Angle of Attack
Angle of Attack. varies.
the German Junker and others have designed aeroplanes on
these lines.
The term " wing " is commonly used of the half of a lifting-
surface on one side of the aeroplane, the whole surface con-
stituting a " plane." Thus a monoplane has one pair of wings.
A tandem aeroplane has two or more pairs of wings arranged
as the name implies. The terms " biplane," " triplane," " quad-
ruplane " denote that two, three, or four planes are superposed.
Langley's " aerodrome " is an early example of the tandem
aeroplane. This type is inconvenient structurally and aerody-
namically very inefficient. The rear plane acts upon air to which
a downward trend has been imparted by the plane in front. The
reaction upon the rear plane is therefore inclined backward by
the angle through which the air has been " downwashed "
by the leading plane. In multiplane systems in which the
planes are placed one above the other, each plane operates in
air whose motion is influenced by the others, and the ratio of
resistance to lift is less than the ratio which each would expe-
rience if acting alone. If, however, the planes are placed at a
sufficient distance apart, so that the gap between is roughly
equal to the chord of the planes, the mutual interference pro-
duces an effect comparable with that due to a reduction in
aspect ratio such as is found necessary in the design of a mono-
plane. Using the same aspect ratio a given area is disposed in
a biplane in half the span required in a monoplane. The biplane
forms a good structure, the planes forming the flanges of a box
girder. In the monoplane the bracing wires make small angles
with the planes, with consequent high tension in the wires and
high compression in the spars of the wing. In the biplane the
wires make obtuser angles with the planes. In reviewing the
examples of the two types, it is found that the monoplanes are
relatively of heavy wing loading and low aspect ratio. In the
triplane the upper and lower planes may form the flanges of the
girder, or the structure may consist of two girders superposed.
This does not possess the same structural superiority over the
biplane, as does the latter over the monoplane. The triplane
arrangement provides a means of reducing span by increasing
height. An early example of the triplane is that designed and
flown by A. V. Roe in 1909. A Sopwith triplane was used by
the British army during the war. The type may be suitable to
large aeroplanes, in which reduction of the weight of the structure
and of bulk is especially needed.
The great majority of aeroplanes have been of the monoplane
and the biplane types, the latter predominating since 1912.
The first aeroplanes to fly were biplanes and by far the larger
number of aeroplanes in use to-day are of this type. The
monoplane appeared about the opening date of the period under
2O
AERONAUTICS
FIG. 7. Early Wright Aeroplane. (Propeller Biplane.) (Elevators
in Front ; Rudder in Rear.)
discussion, and on an aeroplane of this type Bleriot crossed the
Channel in July igog. It was more cleanly designed than the
biplane of that date and was regarded as the faster type. It
was largely used for trick flying, and figured ever more widely in
aeronautical exhibitions. At the outset of the war it had still
a reputation for speed, but had found a rival in the better de-
FlG. 73. Early Farman Aeroplane. (Propeller Biplane.) (Elevator
in Front; Rudder in Rear.)
FIG. 7b. Early B16riot Aeroplane. (Tractor Monoplane.) (Eleva-
tors and Rudder in Rear.)
signed " tractor " biplanes. During the war the monoplane
was more largely used by the French and the Germans than
by the British. The names most associated with the monoplane
are French: Bleriot, Morane, Nieuport. The " Fokker " mono-
planes used by the Germans take their name from a Dutch
designer probably inspired by the French designs. During the
years 1914-8, the biplane was in the ascendant, but the mono-
plane was afterwards revived in the form of the aeroplane with
thick " cantilever " wings without external bracing. The
monoplane appears to be a type convenient in small sizes, but
unsuited for the larger aeroplanes.
FIG. 8. Modern Tractor Biplane.
Position of the Airscrew. Airscrews have been described as
" tractor " or. " propeller " according as the airscrew shaft
is placed in tension or in compression by the thrust, and cor-
responding aeroplanes are usually called by the same names.
The first biplanes, those of the Wrights and the Farmans, were
of the "propeller" type, colloquially "pushers"; almost all
monoplanes were " tractors."
In the tractor, monoplane or biplane, the order of disposition
of the component parts is generally from front to rear: air-
screw, engine, crew; and the body is prolonged to carry stabiliz-
ing and controlling surfaces at the rear. In the pusher the order
is reversed and the controlling surfaces are carried on an open
frame (" outriggers ") in front, at the rear, or in both positions.
On a " pusher " the field of view forward is superior, and great
stress was laid upon this by the British War Office after the
military trials in 1912. The necessity of aerial fighting was
proved in 1914, and the tractor was found unsuitable owing to
the obstruction in the most effective direction for firing. Pushers
were therefore ordered for fighting, at first carrying pilot and
gunner, and later carrying only one man with a machine-gun
fixed in the aeroplane. The situation was completely altered
by the device of firing through the airscrew- disc. The blades
were at first protected by deflector plates, but shortly after
mechanism was used to time the fire between them, the inven-
tion of Constantinescu, a Rumanian. The aeroplane was directed
bodily at the target. The " tractor " then replaced the " pusher "
fighting aeroplane; but " propeller " airscrews continued to be
used on seaplanes, on aeroplanes for night duty against Zeppelins,
and on large twin-engine aeroplanes.
AERONAUTICS
21
The " tractor " is the more convenient design, slightly better
aerodynamically and reputed safer in a " crash."
FIG. 9. Propeller Biplane of 1914-16.
Weight and Head Resistance. The aeroplane designer is
continually interested in the relative importance of weight and
head resistance. At the start attention was naturally concen-
trated upon the production of a light structure. Knowledge of
the resistance to motion of bodies of various shapes was meagre
and was most probably gauged in the mind of the designer by
the frontal area exposed, irrespective of shape. It was not real-
ized that a strut of circular section offers twelve times the
resistance of a strut of the best " streamline " or " fair " shape
of the same frontal area. The light biplane structure of the
Wrights and the Farmans contained a network of struts and
wires offering a very high resistance. To reduce resistance,
exposed parts may be " faired," which involves adding weight;
and the number of external parts may be reduced, which
again increases the weight of the structure. Wrights and Far-
mans may be contrasted with the fast monoplanes and biplanes,
the latter employing only a single bay of struts on either
side, and finally with the unbraced monoplanes of Junker
and Fokker.
" Streamline " wires were first designed for the British army
dirigible "Beta" in 1912, and fairshaped wires were in 1914
fitted to aeroplanes designed at the Royal Aircraft Factory.
They have since become the most usual bracing of British aero-
planes. They offer approximately one-eighth of the resistance
of cable of the same tensile strength. Their metallurgy required
careful study, and hence in other countries cable has con-
tinued to be used, frequently duplicated, the cables lying one
behind the other with a wood " fairing " between them. Struts
of streamline shape were in use at an earlier date. The bodies
of aeroplanes have improved in form, the crew has been pro-
tected from wind pressure, and the spokes of wheels have been
covered in with fabric.
The drag of a biplane of moderate speed is made up roughly
as follows i-
Main planes 3%
Bracing of main planes 20%
Body
30%
Undercarriage 15%
Tail surfaces . . . . 5%
These figures show the importance of careful design of all parts
Much of the resistance of the wing-bracing occurs at the joints
of wires and struts to the planes, and the resistance of the body
is largely due to the necessity of cooling the engine, either by
water radiator or by flow of air over the cylinders.
The weight of the complete structure, excluding the power
unit, fuel, crew and other load borne, is about one-third of the
whole weight of the aeroplane, but varies with the total weight
with the weight carried per unit of area of lifting surface, anc
with the strength of the structure. The following figures are
averages for a number of British aeroplanes:
Total weight
Area of lifting surface
Load borne per unit area
Load factor
Structure weight of % of
total weight. . . . 28 % 35 % 27 % 34 %
2,000 Ib.
33 fl sq -
4 I 8
200 sq.
ft.
10,000 Ib.
l,7OOsq.
ft.
31% 40% 29%
l.OOOsq.
ft.
The " load factor " is the number of times the weight of the
craft which the wings will support; a measure of the strength.
Using one of the light engines now available, the power
unit to give a speed of 100 m. an hour will weigh about one-
quarter of the total, leaving 40 to 45 % for fuel, crew and cargo.
Wing Loading and Horse-Power. The lift of a wing is pro-
jortional to its surface, the atmospheric density, the square of
:he speed and the angle at which it meets the air measured
rom the angle giving no lift and up to an angle near that
known as the " critical angle." At this angle the lift is a maxi-
mum (if the other factors be supposed constant) and above it the
lift decreases. The wing in passing through this angle is said to
be " stalled." Stalling occurs when flying as slowly as possible.
After stalling it is no longer possible to increase the lift by de-
pressing the tail of the aeroplane and it is necessary to dive in
order to recover flying speed. This has been a frequent cause
of accidents when flying too low to have room for a dive. More-
over, the wings when stalled have lost their normal tendency
to oppose rotation about the line of flight and now tend to
auto-rotate " or act as a windmill. The aeroplane may
therefore drop one wing and pass into a steep spiral glide known
as a " spinning nose-dive " from which it may be brought to
normal flight by the same diving process reducing the angle of
attack of the wings. There is no danger in the stall or the spin
so long as there is space for the recovery and knowledge of the
action required.
100 M.P.H.
so
6 10 '6 Ibs./sq. ft.
FIG. 10. Curve showing lowest speed of flight possible with given
wing-loading and the usual thin wings.
Wing-loading, the weight borne per unit area of sustaining
surface, determines the speed at which the wings become
stalled and therefore the slowest alighting speed. With constant
loading, as the speed of aeroplanes increases, wings attack the
air at ever finer angles, very soon passing the angle of lowest
resistance for a given lift. To increase speed it therefore becomes
desirable to increase the loading, or in other words to reduce the
area of the wings. This reduction has also the merit that it
reduces the bulk of the craft, the resistance of external bracing
and the weight of the wing structure. To attain the greatest
height heavy wing-loading is not required, and the best loading
for a high ceiling would to-day be considered a light loading.
For fighting, power of rapid manoeuvre is essential. The
aeroplane of light loading can be turned in a smaller circle. The
total weight is, however, approximately fixed by military con-
siderations, and light loading implies large wing area and con-
sequent greater resistance to angular acceleration, so that the
lightly loaded aeroplane cannot so quickly be " banked " to
the correct angle for the turn. Given the wing area, the aero-
plane having the lighter loading is the more manoeuvrable;
given the weight, the heavier loaded aeroplane is at least the
equal of the other. Aeroplanes carry a larger area of sustaining
surface than they require, except for alighting, and it is the
22
AERONAUTICS
difficulty of bringing the aeroplane to land at high speeds
which prevents the increase of loading beyond 10 Ib. to the
square foot.
In commercial use, economy dictates an increase of loading;
safety demands that the aeroplane may alight at speeds and in
a space impossible with high loading. Attempts have been
made to make the wing area or the wing shape variable in order
to reduce the lowest speed of flight, while retaining the other
advantages of heavy loading. None has so far been successful.
ISO M.P.H.
100-
50
5/
60
100 h.p./IOOO Ibs.
FIG. II. Diagram showing speeds attained by British aeroplanes
at a height of 10,000 feet. The speeds vary between the upper and
lower curves. The base is engine power at ground level per 1,000
pounds of total weight. The dotted lines are lines of constant ratio
of tractive force to weight, marked with the values of this ratio.
30,000 FEET
20,000.
10.000.
50
10O h.p./1.000 Ibs.
FIG. 12. Diagram showing greatest effective height attainable by
British military aeroplanes. These vary between the upper and
lower curves. The base is engine power at ground level per 1,000
pounds of total weight.
During the period 1909 to 1921 the speed attained by aero-
planes was more than doubled. The rate of climb and the height
attainable have increased in a larger ratio. Greater knowledge
and better design have improved the aerodynamic efficiency of
the aeroplane; but the improvement of performance is in the
main due to the use of larger engines. In 1918 four times the
power was being used that was used in 1914 for the same
purpose the reconnaissance two-seater aeroplane and the
speed is more than half as great again. Aerodynamically there
is little difference between the two aeroplanes. As the power
of engines grew their weight per horse-power was reduced.
To save two pounds in every four on an engine weighing one-
third of the whole aeroplane was important.
The largest engines developed were insufficient for the larger
aeroplanes, into which two engines were commonly built, and
in some cases four or more.
FIG. 13. Large Twin-Engine Aeroplane.
Two separate power units have been regarded as conducive
to safety. Experience has so far not confirmed this. It is essen-
tial that the power of one engine alone should be sufficient to
fly the aeroplane, and the " twin-engine " aeroplanes used during
the war were not all provided with so large a total power.
Again, the engines were carried on either side of the centre and
the line of thrust of each offset by a considerable amount.
This introduced difficulties of control, because rudders Vere
unable to balance the offset line of thrust at the low speed at
which the aeroplane could be flown level on one engine only,
and there was danger in the event of sudden failure of -one
engine near the ground.
The table gives some particulars of a few typical aeroplanes
through the period under review. The figures are approximate :
Name
Date
Flying
weight
Ib.
Lilt-
ing
sur-
face
sq.ft.
Horse
power
Wing
load
Ib. per
sq. ft.
H.P.
per
IOOO
Ib.
Speed,
m.p.h.
Wright
1908
1,000
54
25
1-8
25
40
Farman
1908
1,150
560
40
2-1
35
30-40
B16riot
1909
670
1 68
25
4
40
Roe triplane
1909
400
320
10
1-25
25
Dunne .
1910
1,700
560
50
3
30
40
Cody .
1911
1,400
690
5
2
35
40
Roe biplane
1911
750
280
30
2-7
40
40
The horse-power and speed given above
Aeroplanes in
British War
1,500
are u
icertai
45
n.
2-9
35
Up
Office trials
to
to
to
to
to
1912 .
2,15
120
9'5
55
75
BE2C .
I9H-5
2,140
37
IOO
5-8
46
80
Bristol Fighter .
1916-7
2,800
400
250
90
H5
SE 5 a . .' .
1916-7
2,000
250
210
8
IOO
130
Sopwith Camel .
1916-7
1,480
230
125
6-4
85
no
Handley Page
0/400
1916-7
14,000
1,640
550
8-5
40
80
De Haviland gA
1918-9
4,220
490
400
8-5
95
125
Martinsyde F4 .
De Haviland
1918-9
2,290
33
300
7
130
145
loA .
1918-9
9,000
850
810
10-5
90
120
Handley Page
V/iSoo .
1918-9
24,100
2,900
1,440
8-3
60
90
The Large Aeroplane. For the same aerodynamic per-
formance, the lifting-surface of an aeroplane must be proper-
AERONAUTICS
tional to the weight. If aeroplanes of all sizes were constructed
of the same materials and geometrically similar in all parts, the
weight of the structure would increase with increasing size as
the cube of the linear dimensions, that is, as the 3/2 power of
the total weight. This does not in fact obtain, because geo-
metric similarity would give greater strength to the larger
aeroplane; also the design may be elaborated and materials
worked to relatively finer dimensions; and moreover, large
aeroplanes are not designed to have the same strength as smaller
craft, as they are less sharply manoeuvred. Nevertheless, the
weight of the structure is to be expected and is in fact found
to become a larger proportion of the total weight as the size
increases. It is therefore disadvantageous to increase size in-
definitely and there is in fact a best size depending upon the
duty to be done.
To carry an indivisible unit of cargo, such as a large bomb, an
aeroplane of at least a certain size is required; hence we find
size increasing. Sometimes it is preferable to carry a total load
in a smaller number of larger aeroplanes, because the weight
of the crew becomes less in proportion to the cargo carried, so
that every square foot of wing and every unit of engine power of
a fleet carries more useful load. Initial outlay and fuel consump-
tion are reduced and there is further an economy of pilots. At
some point the larger aeroplane requires a larger crew, and for
war the larger " bomber " must carry a number of gunners and
offensive armament for defence against more mobile attackers.
The optimum size for a commercial service with a sufficient
volume of traffic is what would be termed to-day a large aero-
plane (say 7,000 Ib. at least). The actual size depends to some
extent upon the speed of the service, which governs the relative
costs of fuel and personnel, and also upon the distances.
The first large aeroplane flown was the Russian Sykorsky in
1913. Large aeroplanes were demanded in 1915 for bombing
and were increasingly used during the war. The Handley Page
(13,000 Ib. gross) was extensively used by the British. The
" Gotha " and others were used for raids on London. The same
Handley Page aeroplanes and a subsequent design were em-
ployed on a passenger service between London and Paris through-
out 1919 and 1920. The " Vimy " (12,500 Ib. gross) crossed
the Atlantic, flew from Cairo to the Cape, and from Europe
to Australia, and has been used on a London-Paris commercial
service.
Controlling Surfaces. Stability in aviation is discussed in Section
III. Complete inherent stability is obtainable by a proper dis-
tribution of weight and subsidiary surfaces and suitable arrangement
of the main planes. The planes are commonly inclined upwards
from root to tip to secure a righting couple if one wing tip falls and
the aeroplane begins to sideslip. A vertical surface at the rear,
known as a fin, is general although the rudder may entirely replace
this surface. The travel of the " centre of lift " of the wings is such
as to produce instability, and a subsidiary horizontal surface is
required either in front or in the rear. To secure " longitudinal "
stability, the centre of gravity must be sufficiently, forward in rela-
tion to the main planes, and the load on the subsidiary surface main-
tains equilibrium. The aeroplane has three degrees of angular
freedom and has almost invariably employed three means of con-
trol: elevators, to produce a " pitching ' motion, and so govern the
angle of attack of the wings and the speed of flight ; rudders to pro-
duce motion about the vertical axis ; and warp or ailerons, to secure
lateral balance and adjust the angle of " bank." The early Voisin
aeroplanes had no control for lateral balance. The aeroplane when
turning has a natural tendency to bank, which is accentuated or
reduced by sideslip outwards and inwards respectively if the wings
are inclined upwards from root to tip or fitted with a vertical surface
above the centre of gravity. The Voisin aeroplane carried curtains
between the planes to provide this righting couple and was sufficiently
controllable for the requirements of the pioneer content to achieve
flight. " Lateral " control is desirable and is clearly necessary for
rapid manoeuvring. The Wrights obtained this by twisting or
" warping " the wings, and this method was extensively used up to
the end of 1914. Control has been more generally obtained by means
of hinged portions of the wings at the rear near the wing tips.
Elevators have been placed both in front and in the rear: rudders
always in the rear. They have constituted the whole, or only a part
of, the necessary stabilizing surfaces. Control with a single rudder
requires an effective " keel " surface, which is adequately provided
by the body of the aeroplane and the exposed struts of the structure.
The tendency of design towards the " tractor " type places elevators
and rudders most conveniently at the rear end, and this gives a
clear field of view forwards. The early biplanes with an elevator in
front and rudder at the rear disappeared about 1914 ; the monoplanes
conformed to the modern usage. Both elevators and rudders are
usually hinged portions of fixed surfaces, but in some cases the entire
surface has been movable and constituted the elevator or rudder.
The latter arrangement has not provided stability if the controls were
abandoned. Later the fixed horizontal surface was made adjustable
by the pilot during flight and known as a " trimming tail plane,"
a device much used by the British from 1916 onwards. It enabled the
flier to vary the speed of flight at which no pressure upon the con-
trolling lever was required, and effectively increased the range of
control resulting from the application of a definite force.
The arrangement of control levers or wheels, at first very diverse,
became standardized in 19156, and consists of a " rudder bar "
operated by the feet and a hand lever whose fore-and-aft movement
operates the elevators and whose lateral movement provides latera,
control. The rudder bar and the lever are moved in the direction
in which it is desired to move the aeroplane. In larger aeroplanes
rotation of a wheel mounted on the fore-and-aft lever actuates the
ailerons, the fore-and-aft control remaining as before. The lever
or wheel is generally connected to the control surfaces by steel
cables, although shafts in torsion and tension or compression mem-
bers have also been used.
Balanced control surfaces, although in use from an early date,
only became necessary as the size of aeroplanes increased. A part
of the surface to be balanced is carried in front of the hinge and this
surface is most frequently the rear portion of a fixed element, the
part brought forward of the hinge being extended beyond the end
of the fixed element. This so-called " horn " balance proved un-
satisfactory. If a large " horn " were used (adequate to give ease in
normal flight), there was overbalance at low speeds, or when the
aeroplane sideslipped, and the controls would then tend to " take
charge." A more uniform effort results if the balancing projection
is run the full span of the hinge, which must then be set back behind
the fixed element. The front edge of the balanced surface is sharp
and its movement takes place behind the bluff end of the fixed
element. Alternatively separate balancing surfaces in advance of
the hinge have been rigidly attached to the moving element and
placed above the fixed element.
/I
EXAMPLE OF HORN BALANCE
FIG. 14.
EXAMPLE OF SET-BACK HINGE BALANCE
FIG. 143.
Two Methods of Balancing Ailerons.
The imperfection of balancing obtained has led to the develop-
ment of relay motors to reduce the effort. In these, power derived
from the air by a small windmill is brought into play whenever the
flier attempts to move the controls. Relay motors had been but
little used up to 1921.
Chassis or Undercarriage. The Wright aeroplane alighted
upon skids. It was launched by a catapult. The French pioneers
took the air under their own power, and the Farman and
Bleriot used wheels. From 1909-14 combined wheels and skids
were used. The wheels were commonly sprung by means of
'rubber cord. The skids might be brought into action if the alight-
ing were imperfectly executed, and were carried well forward
to prevent the aeroplane from turning over forwards when land-
ing. Sometimes additional wheels were fitted in a forward
position in place of the skids for this purpose. Under the tail a
wheel was often fitted, but a small skid was used alternatively.
Wing-tip wheels or more commonly light skids were used to
protect the wing tips from contact with the ground. In Bleriot's
AERONAUTICS
undercarriage the wheels were mounted as castors to facilitate
landing across the wind. This was subsequently abandoned.
The common arrangement of undercarriage comprises a pair
of wheels a little forward of the centre of gravity of the aeroplane
and a small tail skid. The wheels, of wire-spoke construction
with pneumatic tires, are carried on an axle of steel tube at-
tached to two V-struts from the aeroplane by rubber cord.
The tail skid is also sprung by means of rubber and is mounted
on a swivel. Steering on the ground was improved in 1912 by
arranging the tail skid to be moved by the rudder -bar. The use
of skids and wheels ahead of the main wheels was generally
abandoned early in the war, except in the case of large aero-
planes.
Steel springs have been used, but rubber is superior to steel
because it stores more energy for a given weight. Hysteresis in
rubber is also much greater than in steel. To avoid bouncing
after the first shock the energy received on impact should be
restored as little as possible. This requirement led to the design
of undercarriages containing a combination of steel spring and
oil dashpot, such as the " Oleo " design fitted to the Breguet
and to the Royal Aircraft Factory's " BE-2 " in 1914. This
form of " shock absorber " was chiefly useful for night flying.
Methods of Construction. The first experimenters built their
aeroplanes of wood and fabric with metal at joints and in the
form of piano-wire bracing. The aeroplane of to-day uses spruce
for beams and struts and steel for joints and tension members, the
latter in the form of stranded cable, or " rafwires," i.e. rods
rolled to a " streamline " section. Wings and body are covered
with linen, pulled taut by " dope," and varnished or painted
for protection from sunlight and moisture. Frames composed
entirely of metal were used as early as 1911, but wood remains
in general use, except for the tropics. Steel tubes have been
extensively used in parts, notably for the part of the body to
which the engine is attached, for struts between the planes, and
in the undercarriage. The use of steel tubes for the engine-
bearers gave place to wood owing to the greater absorption of
vibration obtained.
The wings in the common type of biplane contain two wood
spars of I or box section forming the flanges of a truss braced by
wood or steel struts and cables or solid wires. To these spars are
attached transverse ribs which give the shape of the wing and a
light wood edge completes the frame. The linen covering is sewn
on to this with a seam along the rear edge; stitched to every rib
since 1914. The body is most often a frame of wood compression
members and wire bracing. Bodies built of three-ply wood, with or
without reinforcing members, have also been used. These retain
their shape better and, being infinitely redundant structures, have
perhaps some advantage against rifle fire; but the former have
been preferred apparently as being more easily repaired and in-
spected and allowing of a more certain calculation of stresses.
Metal construction advanced further in Germany than in other
countries. Junker produced aeroplanes without external bracing,
strength being obtained by the use of thick wings. These contained
in place of the usual two spars a number of steel tubes interconnected
by tubes forming triangles. The wings were covered with aluminium
sheet corrugated so that the air flowed along the corrugations. The
interconnecting tubes and the corrugations replaced the usual ribs.
Great Britain has experimented with spars and ribs of steel and
duralumin, and secured the necessary strength without increase of
weight; but metal construction is still in the experimental stage.
The principal difficulty in the use of steel lies in the prevention of
local buckling due to the thin gauge of metal required to secure a
light structure. Welding is unreliable owing to the impossibility
of detecting weakness in the finished part, and joints are made by
rivets or bolts. Bodies have been made of duralumin on the same
lines as those built of three-ply wood.
The Strength Required in the Structure. The aeroplane structure is
subjected to a very variable load. In straight flight the wings
support the weight of the craft. A sudden gust, or change in the
direction, or speed of the relative wind, momentarily increases or
decreases the load. To estimate the extent of this, the proportion
which any possible gust bears to the speed of flight must be known.
On a banked turn or when returning to level flight after diving,
the wings must provide an accelerating force, depending upon the
rate of turn and the speed of flight. The pioneers were content to
fly warily, and the accelerations necessary when they turned were
small. The larger variations in loads were due to gusts. They flew
only in the calmest weather, but their speed was slow. As soon as the
aeroplane was used for trick flying, the effect of gusts became
relatively insignificant, and the accelerations due to manoeuvres
became the necessary basis of design. In an aerial combat the wings
may have to sustain over three times the normal load, and it is not
practicable to design a fighting aeroplane for the accelerations which
could be produced by flattening out too rapidly from a steep dive,
in which a speed of over 200 m. an hour may be reached.
The determination of the load variation possible is one part of the
problem of specifying the strength required of the wing structure.
We must also know how this load is distributed over the surface,
along and across the wing, and how it is shared by the different
members of the structure. The important factor is the variation of
the " centre of pressure " on the wing. As the angle between the
wing and the direction of motion decreases the centre of pressure
moves backward with increasing rapidity. It may be noted here
that in a nearly vertical dive at high speed, although the lift of the
wings is small, there is a large couple acting upon them tending to
twist them and to turn the aeroplane over on its back; this is
resisted by the action of the tail.- A number of the early accidents
occurred in the course of a " vol pique," or steep dive.
Rough calculations were probably made of the strength of the
early aeroplanes, and in 19112 those supplied to the Government
were tested by inverting them and loading the wings with sand.
Spars of wings were also tested separately, but as a rule both the
strength required and the strength realized were uncertain quanti-
ties. A number of accidents to monoplanes led to this type becoming
suspect. Early in 1912 B16riot forwarded a suggested explanation to
the French War Office, which resulted in the suspension for a few
months of the use of monoplanes by the French army. Later in the
year accidents to monoplanes in England led to a suspension of their
use by the War Office, although the navy continued to use them.
A committee was appointed and reported early in 1913. It decided
that the accidents were due to the construction of these monoplanes,
but not to anything inherent in the monoplane system. They
recommended that the wings should be braced internally against
drag (a remarkable omission previously), the main bracing wires
duplicated and made independent of the undercarriage, and the
fabric well fastened to the ribs, especially on the upper surface.
Makers were to supply evidence of strength; official inspection and
investigation of accidents were instituted; and the question of sta-
bility and the danger of the " vol pique " and recovery were to be
investigated.
Prior to this, efforts had been made in England to impose a factor
of strength based on the load in straight level flight through steady
air. The same factor has since been termed the " load factor." In
1914 the British Advisory Committee for Aeronautics issued a report
on " factors of safety," regarding the load factor as the product of
two factors, one representing the number of times maximum load
might exceed the normal load, and the other a factor to cover possible
faults of material and workmanship. The first factor is based on
the acceleration due to a banked turn combined with a gust, and to
recovery from a dive. Forty-five degrees was the steepest angle of
bank considered advisable and it is recommended that to secure
safety aeroplanes should not be dived to a speed exceeding the nor-
mal by more than 20 per cent. The committee advised that the
structure should have a factor of safety of at least 2 under the
acceleration so obtained. A factor of from 6 to 8 (which had been
worked to by the Royal Aircraft Factory since 1912) was recom-
mended, to be increased to 12 if this should become possible.
There is no record of the obligatory use of such factors in France or
Germany at this date.
During the war the problems involved were investigated both
mathematically and by experiment. Loops and mock fights were
carried out at the Royal Aircraft Factory by aeroplanes fitted with an
accelerometcr and with tension meters on the wires. The distribu-
tion of pressure^ over wings has been measured in wind tunnels
(first by Eiffel in Paris) and on aeroplanes in flight at Farnborough.
It is now possible to specify the strength of the various members of
an aeroplane with sufficient accuracy for any manoeuvres required.
The " load factor " demanded has never risen to 12, but now ranges
from 4 to 8, the lower factor for the large aeroplane which is not so
violently manoeuvred. The adequacy of these factors has been
confirmed by experience.
The need for extreme lightness precludes the use of the factors of
safety currently used in other branches of engineering, and instead
accuracy of stress calculation and careful inspection and testing of
materials are imposed. It became the practice of the British Govern-
ment to check by its own officials the strength of each design by
detail calculations of stresses and by a proof load on one aeroplane
of a type. Other governments followed. Since 1918-9 Great Britain
requires that an " air-worthiness certificate " be obtained before
a type may be used for commercial purposes. Drawings are sub-
mitted by the applicant from which calculations of stresses are made
by the Air Ministry.
The calculation of stresses proceeds upon the usual lines, com-
mon to other branches of engineering, but with rather greater ac-
curacy of detail. The theorem of Three Moments is applied to the
spars, which require treatment as beams continuous through a
number of supports and subjected to end load. Aeronautical
practice has somewhat extended this theorem. A theory of the
strength of struts of tapering section has been evolved. Knowledge
of the mechanical properties of timber has been much extended.
AERONAUTICS
The Airscrew. The Rankine-Froude theorems on propulsion
by the sternward projection of a stream of the surrounding fluid by
the use of a screw-propeller, or other means, are well known. These
state that the highest efficiency is attained by the projection of the
greatest amount of fluid at the lowest speed, and indicate the use of
propellers of the greatest practicable diameter. The only waste
considered is the kinetic energy imparted to the fluid. An upper
limit of efficiency is thus determined in terms of the diameter and the
thrust of the propeller and the speed of motion. The design of
marine screws proceeds mainly upon empirical lines based upon
experience. The early airscrews were designed by a similar process
of trial and error.
F. W. Lanchester (Aerodynamics, 1892), regarding the airscrew
blade as a twisted aeroplane wing rotating about one tip as it ad-
vances through the air, assumed that the total reaction may be ob-
tained by integrating the forces which would act upon elements at
successive radii if these were elements of a complete wing. This
method of treatment, which was also advanced by Drzewiecki, has
provided the basis of airscrew design. As first applied, the theory
was incomplete, chiefly because it ignored the fact that the blades
in following each other act on disturbed air. For example, if the
number of blades be increased, the theory indicates no fall in the
efficiency, and reactions directly proportional to the number of
blades, which experiment showed to be untrue. Moreover, the effi-
ciency so calculated might exceed that given by the Rankine-Froude
theorems. It was therefore sought to combine the two aspects of the
action of the airscrew in one theory, and the further theorem of
Froude that the stream has reached half the final velocity at the
propeller disc appeared to provide a means of estimating the degree
of disturbance of the air in which the blade acts. It is generally
agreed that the original theory is over-corrected by this modification.
The blade element under consideration is itself partly causing the
acceleration of the stream, and this acceleration is the total and not
merely the initial disturbance of flow in the neighbourhood of the
element. Figures for the reaction on the elements were obtained by
testing a small wing of the same section in a wind produced artifi-
cially in a " wind tunnel." This wing produces a disturbance of
flow equivalent in an airscrew to an acceleration.
It was found in practice that the assumption of an arbitrary ac-
celeration less than one-half of the final acceleration made it pos-
sible by the use of the theory of Lanchester to predict the aerody-
namic performance of an airscrew with a valuable accuracy. The com-
bined theory leads to two important conclusions, completely verified
by experience. Firstly, the efficiency increases with increasing ratio
of the pitch at which the screw operates to its diameter up to an
optimum value seldom employed in practice. Secondly, for given
thrust and speed the diameter must be so large that it acts upon a
sufficient mass of air per unit of time to attain a satisfactory effi-
ciency. The latter brings the theory into conformity with the
law of Rankine and Froude. The former in practice brings the
airscrew designer into conflict with the designer of aeroplane motors.
Higher crankshaft speeds are required to produce a light-weight
internal-combustion engine than are demanded by this condition
for high airscrew efficiency. This has resulted in a large number of
aeroplane engines being arranged to drive the airscrew through a
reduction gear. The point at which gearing becomes desirable in
practice is not easily determined. It depends upon a number of
factors. Among these are a small loss of energy in the gears, added
weight and cost, various practical reasons for dispensing with addi-
tional mechanism if this is not of sufficient value and the adverse
effects of the greater torque of the slower running airscrew upon the
control of the aeroplane, which must be offset against the gain in
airscrew efficiency. In this question is also involved the considera-
tion of the strength of the airscrew to resist the stresses due to ro-
tation. This imposes a limit upon diameter, decreasing as the speed
of rotation is increased, which may result in a further reduction of
efficiency for the high-speed airscrew.
During the war large aeroplanes were built for which single en-
gines of the required power were not available. In so far as two en-
gines were sufficient, these were placed on either side of the main
body of the aeroplane, each driving a separate airscrew. It became
necessary ultimately to install four engines in a few aeroplanes and
these were placed in pairs driving two pairs of airscrews in tandem.
The design of the rear propeller in this arrangement involves an
estimate of the rate at which air is supplied to it by the screw in
front. With the same limitation of diameter the efficiency of pro-
pulsion attainable is approximately the same as if the two engines
were coupled and drove a single airscrew of the same diameter, but
is less than would be obtained by the use of four separate systems
of propulsion. The tandem system is preferred for reasons of com-
pactness and the difficulties of control attendant upon the use of a
number of lines of thrust.
The aeroplane propeller, unlike the propeller of ship or airship,
is required to transmit the full power of the engine at different speeds
of flight, both when the craft is flying level at full speed, and when
it is flying slow in order to climb. The airscrew cannot be designed
to discharge both functions in the most efficient manner possible in
each case. This was of little consequence in the early days of flight
when the range of flying speed was small ; but as the range was in-
creased, some attention was paid to the design of airscrews of vari-
able pitch. These have been experimented with, notably at the
Royal Aircraft Establishment, with some success; but they have not
been used so far in service. If any device for preventing the loss of
engine power with increasing height by an initial compression of the
charge to ground-level density should come into use, the variable
airscrew would become necessary. Such devices are, however, still
in an experimental stage.
The number of blades in an airscrew is commonly two. but four
blades have been extensively used. The two-bladed airscrew has an
advantage in convenience for storing and transport. The use of more
blades reduces vibration due to errors in blade angles, and eliminates
gyroscopic vibration when the aeroplane is turning, and vibration
due to aerodynamic causes both when the axis of rotation is inclined
to the line of flight and when the aeroplane is turning. Airscrews
have been almost universally made of timber, which should be
continuous through the boss from blade tip to blade tip. This has
prevented the use of three blades. In deciding the number of blades,
two or four, the designer is largely guided by the blade area required,
which depends upon the speed of motion of the blade and the power
transmitted. Thus a slow-running airscrew has conveniently four
blades, whereas for a high-speed screw two blades are preferred.
A four-bladed high-speed screw might require such narrow blades
that in order to resist the bending due to the thrust they would be
so thick as to reduce the efficiency seriously.
At the speed of flight of an aeroplane the changes of pressure of
the air flowing past the wings amount only to a small fraction of
the atmospheric pressure. The blade tips of airscrews, however,
commonly reach speeds of 800 ft. per second, approaching the veloc-
ity of sound in air. It follows that while the wings may be regarded
as operating in a fluid of constant density, the compressibility of
the air rriay have important effects in the case of the airscrew.
With increase of blade speed effects must be anticipated similar to
the phenomenon of cavitation experienced with marine screws.
Such effects in a gas may, however, occur gradually with increasing
speed. Experiments with small model wings in a wind tunnel in
America showed a fall in lift and increase in resistance at speeds in
the neighbourhood of 6po ft. per second at large angles, and it is
clear that the distribution of low pressure over the upper surface
cannot continue indefinitely. It appears, however, that airscrews so
far designed have been free from any marked effect of this nature.
The efficiency estimated has been attained in practice, although
designers to a certain extent miscalculated the power required to
drive airscrews as the speed of the blade tips was increased. The
error cannot, however, be ascribed to the effects of compressibility
owing to uncertainty as to many other factors involved. On the
whole the method of aerodynamic analysis led to sufficiently accurate
design.
The screw-propeller as a mechanism for the transmission of
power is convenient and efficient. In the airscrew narrower blades
can be used than in the marine propeller, and efficiencies as high
as 85 % have been attained with airscrews of high pitch and large
diameter, smaller fast-running airscrews giving efficiencies of 75 per
cent.
FORWARD SPEED
FIG. 153. Variation of
Thrust at constant Torque.
FIG. 15. Variation of
Thrust, Torque and Effi-
ciency of an Airscrew with
forward speed at constant
rate of revolution.
Owing to the light weight and high tensile strength of timber for
its weight, the designer has found in wood his most convenient
material. African walnut has proved the best timber when the
stresses are most severe. Honduras mahogany is satisfactory for
most purposes. Spruce and poplar have also been used, but are not
suitable for higher powers and speeds. The screw is constructed
of planks, or laminations, about an inch thick, glued together and
cut to shape. The grain of the wood should be straight and run as
far as possible along the blade. The method of construction secures
a good approximation to this requirement. Timber has the advan-
tage of large hysteresis and consequent power of damping vibra-
tions. The Wright brothers' airscrews were made of spruce cut
from a single piece of timber. An interesting design appeared in
1913 in the " Garuda " airscrew, of laminated wood construction
with the blades tilted forward so that to a large extent stresses due
to rotation neutralized those due to thrust. The forward tilt was
obtained by bending the laminations during manufacture, a rather
questionable practice. This method of balancing stresses has not
26
AERONAUTICS
been developed beyond carrying the most forward lamination to the
tip of the blade and succeeding laminations to smaller radii, owing
to the method of construction and the nature of the material used.
It has recently been stated that this forward tilt renders the blade
liable to twist under load.
The stresses in the blades have been calculated by crude methods
which give an approximation to the stress along the grain. Fracture
has, however, almost invariably occurred across the grain, in the ear-
lier airscrews, by failure of the glued joints. Workshop practice has
now so far improved that the strength of glued joints is equal to the
strength of even hard woods across the grain. The evident need for
knowledge of torsional stress in an airscrew blade led to the practical
solution by G. I. Taylor and A. A. Griffith in 1916 of the problem
of torsion of prisms of any section. The mathematical equations had
already been stated and the new development was the provision of
an experimental method of solution. Theory can now indicate the
shape of blade required to avoid twisting under the loads imposed in
flight. Apart from the reduction of stress, this is of great value to
the designer, who cannot with any certainty predict the performance
of an airscrew if the blades twist in an unknown manner in flight.
In order to protect the blades from moisture the airscrew is var-
nished, or painted, and to protect against sand on land and spray
on the sea, the tips have in some cases been sheathed in metal, but
the practice of covering with fabric (dating from 1912-3) has re- .
cently found more favour. Japanese lacquer has also been used as a
protective covering.
Several early airscrews (e.g. Breguet's) were entirely of metal,
commonly aluminium blades bolted to a steel tube, a method only
possible with the low powers and speeds of rotation of the period.
Bleriot crossed the Channel with a small, high-speed, laminated wood
screw. Experiments with steel construction have proceeded slowly
and steel may in time come into common use. Failure has been
largely due to the unreliable nature of welding, and to brittleness
produced in the process. For production in moderate quantities,
wood requires far less outlay. A modern development is the air-
screw with detachable blades, so far in a purely experimental
stage. It allows of adjusting the pitch of the blades, if the airscrew
has been imperfectly designed or the conditions of operation be
altered, and of replacement of a damaged blade without renewing the
whole. If the blades are of wood, shorter lengths of timber may be
used, but it is doubtful if this can be regarded as an inherent ad-
vantage of the system, because the difficulty of attaching wood blades
to a centre are probably as great as the difficulty of making a satis-
factory joint at the centre of an airscrew constructed entirely of
wood. The airscrew whose pitch is variable in flight is a particular
case of the detachable blade screw, and the chief difficulty in the
design of such a screw for high speeds of rotation is that of making
the joint between the blades and the centre.
In Britain and in America airscrews have been tested before use
in flight by " spinning " by means of an electric motor. This test
has been applied to new designs, to airscrews whose strength has
been suspected by an inspector, and to samples taken from batches.
The practice was in force in this country in 1914 and has been con-
tinued. Flight conditions are not reproduced by the test, because
the airscrew is not advancing through the air, and because the crank-
effort variation and vibration of the engine are absent. The thrust
loading is more severe, the centrifugal loading less severe. Experi-
ence has, however, given considerable confidence in the test. In
France the only test applied has been a loading of the blades to
counterfeit the air forces, without rotation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. British. -Reports and Memoranda of the
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (1909-19) and the Aeronau-
tical Research Committee (H. M. Stationery Office); L. Bairstow,
Applied Aerodynamics (1920); G. P. Thomson, Applied Aerodynam-
ics (1920); A. I. S. Pippard and J. L. Pritchard, Aeroplane Struc-
tures (1919); H. C. Watts, Design of Screw Propellers for Aircraft
(1920); E. C. Vivian and W. Lockwood Marsh, A History of Aero-
nautics; technical periodicals: Aeronautical Journal; Flight; Aero-
nautics; The Aeroplane.
American. Reports of the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (Government Printing Office, Washington) ; technical
periodicals: Aviation; The Aerial Age.
French. -G. Eiffel, Nouyelles recherches sur la Resistance de I' air
et I' Aviation (1919) ; technical periodicals: L'Aerophile; L' Aviation.
German. Technical periodicals: Zeitschrift fur Flugtechnik und
Motorluftschifffahrt. (R. McK. W.)
III. AERODYNAMICS
Experiments and Calculations on the Principles of Flight.
The recent history of the development of aeronautics rests
largely on experiments on aircraft or models of aircraft and their
parts. That branch of investigation whicn is least related to
any other subdivision of engineering is the study of the forces
which are experienced by a body when moving through the air.
The air forces due to motion are dealt with under the general
head of " Aerodynamics." A knowledge of air resistances is
a primitive necessity in connecting the subject with the much
older and well-established subject of " Dynamics."
In dealing with dynamics, the forces acting are frequently
given by a simple fundamental law such as the theory of gravita-
tion when accounting for the motion of planets and comets, and
very many of the more complex reactions have been worked out.
The corresponding fundamental theory of fluid motion has been
known for more than half a century, but application to the
determination of air resistances has proved to involve mathe-
matical problems beyond the capacity of the times. Recourse
has therefore been made to direct experiment , and in the early
stages of aeronautical development almost every new idea could
be tested. The number of variables under review has now grown
so greatly as to exclude such a method on the ground of cost, and
a period of fundamental experiment is being entered on. The
object of such experiments is to find out what is happening to the
air disturbed by the passage of a body in such a way that the
results can be applied, with a reasonable degree of approxima-
tion, to a large number of related problems. Some success has
been obtained in the case of airscrews, where the experimental
data are so used that it is unnecessary to test every new design
of airscrew. Extension to the aeroplane is gradually taking place.
For the same reason expense experiments on models have
been used to cover the main field of inquiry, and the costly and
frequently dangerous experiments on the full scale have, on the
whole, been directed to crucial tests of the validity of the use of
models. ' There has, of course, been a great amount of testing
of aircraft in connexion with their value as fighting craft. At
the present time, the value of such testing as an aid to design is
very limited, detailed analysis being required to indicate lines of
progress.
It then happens that the most comprehensive view of the
subject of aeronautical principles is obtained from those aero-
dynamical laboratories which deal with experiments on models,
experiments carried out under almost ideal conditions in the
artificial air current of a wind tunnel. The theory of the use of
models 1 becomes of great importance in aeronautics and has
been studied extensively. When the maximum possible use has
been made of the theory the position remains one for experiment,
and full-scale cooperation is found to be essential for estab-
lishing a sound position. The theory of models has great value
in showing the correct type of experiment and the method of
comparison with the full scale. Finally, it is now known that
when certain precautions are observed in model tests the applica-
tions to full scale have an accuracy sufficient to give them a high
value as an element in progress. 2
A. Air Intake B. Working Section C. Aerodynamic Balance
D. Position of Airscrew E. Distributor
FIG. 1 6. Wind Tunnel.
Laboratory Experiments. (a) The Wind Tunnel. The num-
ber of first-class wind tunnels in existence in the world in July
1921 was probably between twenty and thirty. Of these, seven
were at the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, three
1 Report, Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1909-10, p. 38.
1 Report, Scale Effect Sub-Committee A. C. A., 1917-8, R and M,
374-
AERONAUTICS
27
at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, and a
number distributed amongst the private aeronautical firms of
Britain. 1 America has a number of channels of generally similar
type, 2 but with a unique example in one instance where the speed
of the air current is very high. 3 The oldest of the wind tunnels
of importance in the development of aviation is that of Eiffel, 4
and from it in 1909-10 came a number of experiments on wing
forms at a time when flying-machines were becoming realities.
The Eiffel type of wind tunnel has been used elsewhere and in
France a new installation has been erected at St. Cyr. s The
other European wind tunnels of note are in Italy (Rome), at
Gottingen University (Germany) and Koutchino (Russia).
Owing to the general upheaval in Russia the last-named labora-
tory is closed, but it earned distinction in the years of its activity
particularly in dealing with interesting experiments on funda-
mental points in the theory and practice of the day.
In general conception all wind tunnels agree in attempting
to obtain a uniformly distributed, non-fluctuating air stream;
and the tendency has been to increase the dimensions and the
velocity attained in passing from one installation to a succeeding
type. Economy of power for a given extension of experimental
range is, by the principles of dynamical similarity, more readily
obtained with large dimensions than with high speed. The
best criterion, other things being unchanged, is the product of
diameter and velocity, and judged on this standard the largest
installations of the various countries do not differ materially.
At the Royal Aircraft Establishment (formerly called the
Royal Aircraft Factory), Farnborough, a speed of 100 m.p.h.
(nearly 1 50 ft. per sec.) is reached in an air stream 7 ft. square. At
the National Physical Laboratory a speed of 1 10 ft. can be pro-
duced in a stream 7 ft. deep by 14 ft. in width and forces on a
model of the order of 200 Ib. are there contemplated.
The larger Eiffel tunnel gives an air speed of 40 metres per
second (130 ft. approximately) on a circular section about two
metres in diameter. The tunnel at McCook field (America)
gives the very high speed of 500 ft. to a circular stream of
air about 3 ft. in diameter.
The experimental section of an Eiffel type wind tunnel con-
sists of an air stream as it crosses an open room from wall to
wall, through a specially devised nozzle and collector. The
National Physical Laboratory type and others use a working
section of the stream in the centre of a chute with solid walls.
There are no striking advantages of either type so far as can be
seen at the present time. The great desiderata are uniformity of
distribution of velocity across the stream and freedom from
large pulsations. Uniformity of distribution is almost auto-
matically secured by using a straight air stream. Once curvature
has been introduced by the turning of corners the difficulties of
producing uniformity are formidable. On the other hand the
delivery of large volumes of air nearly half a million cub. ft.
per minute in the large tunnels requires special consideration
if large eddies in the room with consequent pulsations in the
flow are to be avoided. There is an opinion, supported as yet
only by crude experiments, that the N.P.L. type of channel is
somewhat less fluctuating than the Eiffel type. For the delicate
adjustments required in the measurement of stability coefficients
high value attaches to the steadiness of the air stream.
In dealing with efficient wing forms, where the lift may be more
than 20 times the resistance, it is important that the direction of the
air stream be accurately known and remain fixed; one-tenth of a
degree is considered to be the maximum permissible error. It is
found by experience that in a parallel walled channel the wind sets
itself parallel to the walls with the accuracy desired. Freedom from
large variations of velocity across the section depends not only on
the straightness of the chute but also on the distance over which the
air has been in contact with solid walls. From some experiments by
Stanton it appears that the final distribution of velocity in tubes is
not reached for some 20 to 50 diameters behind the open end. On
the score of space required and power needed such proportions are
unrealizable in wind channels and in other respects would be dis-
1 Report, A. C. A., 1912-3, R and M, 68.
2 Mass. Inst. of Technology.
McCook Field.
4 Eiffel, La Resistance de I'air et I' Aviation (Dimod & Pinet, 1910).
6 La Nature, Oct. 2 1921.
advantageous. Some variation of velocity distribution from point
to point along a wind channel is then to be expected, there being -a
retardation of flow at the walls and an acceleration in the centre.
This change of flow is accompanied by a fall of static pressure along
the working section of the channel. For experiments on wings,
struts, etc., these departures from uniformity are unimportant but
in the case of long models of airship forms there is introduced a
spurious resistance large in comparison with that proper to the air-
ship model. It has been suggested, and experiments are being car-
ried out to give effect to it, that the objectionable effects of the wind
channel might be minimized by the substitution of a slightly diverg-
ing chute in the working section for the usual parallel part. It appears
to be possible by such device to increase substantially the ease and
accuracy of tests on airship forms.
The motion of the air in the wind tunnel is eddying and on this
account a difference from motion through still air exists. So far,
however, no suspicions have been aroused as to the inapplicability
of model tests on this ground. Some eddies produced in the working
of a tunnel are worthy of mention. If light sawdust be sprinkled over
the floor of the building housing a wind tunnel, below the intake, it
will be noticed that isolated miniature whirlwinds are produced.
Some of these are vigorous and the base will clear a track amongst
the sawdust whilst the core extends upwards to the tunnel intake.
The spin in such eddies is great and the effect of the forces experi-
enced by a body in the air flow is considerable. Being spasmodic,
the effect is easily differentiated from that of the mean flow and an
observer at an aerodynamic balance is conscious of a sharp blow on
his apparatus. To eliminate these whirlwinds sufficiently a honey-
comb is placed across the intake, the cells being small compared
with the dimensions of the whirlwind. Some 10 % to 20 % of the en-
ergy of the power plant may be dissipated by the frictional resist-
ance of the honeycomb and some appreciable length of tunnel is
required to permit of the levelling-up of the flow before reaching
the working section.
The design of a wind tunnel will be seen to involve much study if
more than a very moderate degree of refinement of experiment be
contemplated. The following brief description of a tunnel intro-
ducing modern knowledge may be of interest (see fig. 16).
The wind tunnel is housed in an unobstructed chamber a little
longer than itself, a space of one and a half diameters between the
intake and wall being sufficient for the satisfactory admission of air
from the chamber to the tunnel. The cross section of the room should
be 25 to 30 times that of the channel, otherwise the return flow of air
from delivery to intake will produce fluctuations of undesirably large
magnitude. The tunnel proper is straight and is placed symmetri-
cally in the building, this being effective in securing symmetry of air
flow in the working section. Taking the diameter of the section
whether square or circular as a standard, the tunnel would have an
overall length of 10 to 15 diameters made up of a parallel working
section and intake four or five diameters long, having a rounded
entrance and honeycomb, a cone connecting this working section to a
circular race enclosing the airscrew, which may be of similar length,
and a discharge section to the end of the room.
The airscrew giving steadiest flow is one of small pitch-diameter
ratio but otherwise similar in characteristics to those used in aerial
locomotion. The pitch-diameter ratio may be 0-4 upwards, the
higher values giving rather greater economy of power and less
steadiness. With careful design of airscrew and cone the divergence
from channel to airscrew can be made large with resulting economy
of power and no loss of steadiness.
The most modern method of dealing with the delivery stream is to
divide the building into two parts by an openwork brick wall.
Eddies in the return flow are thereby broken up to dimensions which
do not greatly affect the steadiness of the air when it again enters the
intake. In one instance, in addition to the partition wall, there is a
structure closely surrounding the delivery from the airscrew; this
delivery is in the form of a jet which impinges on the .end wall of the
building, and splashing over it, reaches the corners and forms rollers
along the four walls. The structure over the jet is designed to break
up the stream more completely than the porous wall alone. Instead
of the free jet spreading at the wall it is distributed through holes in
the covering structure, the spacing being such that equal volumes of
air are delivered through each unit of area of the distributor. The
number of openings per unit area is small near the wall of the building
and increases to cover the whole area just before the airscrew
section. It is possible to reduce the velocity at which the air returns
to the room to 5% of that in the jet without the introduction of
appreciable back pressure at the airscrew.
Methods of Measurement of Velocity of Air. Having secured
uniformity of distribution and a degree of steadiness sufficient
for the type of experiment to be performed, it is necessary to
be able to measure the air speed. No simple means is known of
obtaining a standard of reference using a wind channel alone, and
only one measure possibly two of absolute air speed appears
to have been made under precision conditions. The particular
measurements made on a whirling arm and in the William
Froude National Tank at the National Physical Laboratory
28
AERONAUTICS
gave a standard anemometer which is easily maintained and
reproduced and which is accepted throughout the world.
The essential parts of the anemometer are an open-ended tube
facing the air current and a parallel walled tube with its axis along
the wind, the walls of the tube being perforated by small holes. The
open-ended tube is usually referred to as a " pitot " tube, the name
being that of one of the early users, whilst the perforated tube is
designed to give what is called " static pressure." If the perforations
of the static pressure tube be some six diameters behind the closed
end it appears that all such tubes give the same reading, independent-
ly of size from a fraction of a millimetre upwards, and that the pres-
sure inside the tube is the same as that on a body moving with the
air stream. The pressure in the pitot tube is higher than that in the
static-pressure tube and the difference, being due to the motion of
the air and the stoppage of a central stream by the pitot tube, is
usually referred to as " dynamic pressure " or " pitot head." The
size of the pitot tube is unimportant and there is little difficulty in
reproducing the standard tubes so that they agree with each other
within a fraction of I %. This represents generally the order of
accuracy of aerodynamic measurements, but for certain simple com-
parisons of force and speed an accuracy of l /s % is attainable.
The experiments on the whirling arm at the National Physical
Laboratory showed that the dynamic pressure of the anemometer
was proportional to the square of the speed through the air. On
physical grounds it is known that the dynamic pressure is also pro-
portional to the density of the air. So long as the compressibility of
the air does not enter into the effects of motion, the constant of
proportionality is found to be equal to one-half, with a probable error
of the order of Vio % The extreme range of speed was from a few
in. per sec. to 50 ft. per second. On the principles of dynamical
similarity, to be explained later, experiments at a speed of 20 ft. per
sec. in water can be used to give information as to what happens at a
speed of 250 ft. per sec. in air. Using the William Froude National
Tank for the purpose, the dynamic pressure of the " pilot-static "
tube anemometer has been calibrated to within I % up to speeds of
250 ft. per sec. in air.
Over the whole of this range the formula for dynamic pressure
given by
-(I)
is an accurate representation of observations on the pitot tube
anemometer. In this formula, p is the pressure in force per unit
area, p the mass of unit volume, v the velocity of the air past the pitot
and a the velocity of sound in undisturbed air at the place. So long
as all the quantities are measured in a self-consistent set of dynamical
units the equation is satisfied. The second term in the bracket will
be seen to be small in comparison with the first up to speeds of 200
ft. per second. The velocity of sound being a little more than 1,000
ft. per second it will be seen that the second term is less than I % of
the first within the range considered. This I % is a measure of the
effect of the compressibility of air and illustrates a general rule
that, for the purposes of aeronautics, air may be considered as an
incompressible fluid. The statement is far from true as applied to
the motion of a shell fired at usual velocities and may need modifica-
tion in aeronautics when applied to airscrews. In ordinary practice
the tip speed of an airscrew is upwards of 600 ft. per sec. and a few
experimental forms have been made to reach tip speeds of 1 ,200 ft.
per second. In the former case the effects of compressibility have
not yet been disentangled from other effects, whilst in the latler
some preliminary observations show marked changes of type of flow
as a result of high speed and the introduction of modifications due to
compressibility of the air.
Dynamical Similarity. The understanding of the laws of
air motion in aeronautics and gunnery has been greatly assisted
by the theory of dynamical similarity. An early formula was
given by Lord Rayleigh 1 and had a marked influence on prog-
ress, not only in Britain but abroad. In the later publications
of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics numerous references
are made to aeronautical applications of the principle.
All the world is familiar with the idea of similarity in some
form or other and there is little difficulty in appreciating the
statement that human beings are similar to each other or, more
accurately, are nearly similar; the horse would not be included
so readily in the category of animals similar to man. The idea
of dynamic similarity extends to motions what is more usually
applied only to concrete bodies. Motions may be exactly similar,
nearly similar, or very different, and in the case of an invisible
fluid like air the eye is no guide to comparison. It is true that
air may be coloured by smoke and the motion followed and that
some work has been carried out on such basis. When it is found,
however, that the fluid may be changed without loss of essential
characteristics of the motion, a new line of attack is opened and
1 Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1909-10, p. 38.
the study of the motion of water or any other fluid will give the
essential information. A striking experimental investigation of
the reality of the law of equivalence in certain cases was made
at the National Physical Laboratory. The motion of air past
a square plate was observed and photographed. 2 Smoke ad-
mitted to the current showed fluid impinging on the plate and
spreading in the water. At a very low speed it was easy to detect
a winding of the air round two axes roughly in the direction of
the stream. A section of the stream across these axes would
have shown particles moving in spirals winding inwards. This
was a permanent state. At a higher speed a very noticeable
change occurred in the type of motion. Instead of the spirals
retaining a steady position, the smoke showed instability had
occurred, and periodically loops formed across the two axes,
broke away and travelled down stream. It is known by the
principles of dynamical similarity that it is possible to produce
similar flow in water. Exact conditions for the second experi-
ment follow from those of the first. Further photographs 3
show that the comparison of types of flow is exact within
the limits of observation. Neither of the motions described is
calculable and the principle of dynamical similarity offers no
assistance to understanding why an eddy occurs or what its
type will be. It says, quite definitely, that if a given type of
motion, eddying or otherwise, exists under certain circum-
stances, there are sometimes a great number of other cir-
cumstances in which the same type of motion must occur,
and it lays down in precise terms the other circumstances in
their relation to the given type. The instance given above re-
lated to change of fluid; other changes might be those of velocity
or size. Clearly the change of size covers the relation between
model and full scale.
The applications of dynamics to similarity depend on fundamental
theories. The common ground exists in Newton's laws of motion but
superimposed on this common ground are a number of special cases.
In investigating the motion of fluids at ordinary velocities, physi-
cists have identified the property of viscosity; at high velocities
compressibility matters and so on. The physical properties of fluids
and the quantities involved in motion are expressed in terms of
numerical factors and dimensions, e.g. 10 ft. per sec. means a velocity
of a certain magnitude, the numerical factor 10 and the dimensions
ft. and sec. being necessary to give full meaning to the idea of the
particular velocity. If a complete dynamical equation be written
down it must, if true, satisfy the condition that the numerical values
of the two sides of the equation are equal and that, independently,
the dimensions are equal. The latter point may be sufficient to give
useful mathematical form to the physical ideas. For example, ima-
gine an aeroplane to be gliding down through still air at some known
speed. The resistance or drag will depend on its shape and size, its
speed, the density of the air and the viscosity of the air. For the
moment it will be assumed that the drag is dependent only on the
quantities enumerated.
Force has the dimensions -- where M is the symbol for mass, L
for length and T for time. Velocity, v , is represented by ~, density
by TJ and viscosity by -' (See footnote 4 )
Expressed in the form of an equation the assumptions so far made
amount to
R =/(, l,v,*) (2)
where R is the resistance, I a typical linear dimension of the body
and /a functional form which depends on the shape of the body. It is
common to include in /the presentation of the body to the wind as
well as its shape, but this can be excluded at will by introducing
angular coordinates into the arguments of the function. The prin-
ciple of dynamical similarity states that / may only have such a
form as will make the dimensions of the two sides of (2) agree. For
methods of finding the most general expression for/, consistent with
dimensions, reference may be made to textbooks, etc. 6 ; it is found
that (2) cannot have a more general form than
-(3)
1 Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, and Applied Aerody-
namics, L. Bairstow.
3 Ibid.
4 The coefficient of viscosity used in dynamics is denoted by v and
referred to as the " kinematic coefficient of viscosity." The other
common coefficient M is related to v by the equation n = p y.
6 Applied Aerodynamics, L. Bairstow, p. 380.
AERONAUTICS
29
No dynamical equation depending on the quantities mentioned
earlier can exist which is not included in (3). For the purposes
of comparison of resistances it has been found convenient by the
aerodynamical laboratories to tabulate the value of F for various
bodies and to use the symbol k D for it. Equation (3) may then be
written alternatively as
(4)
and in this form several points of importance are evident. To make
the case specific, consider the resistance of a sphere in air as obtained
from a wind-tunnel measurement. If the dimension / be identified
with the diameter d of the sphere it will be noted that -=-% is an
experimentally determinate quantity and from it values of ko are
determined. An examination of the dimensions of k will indicate
that they are zero ; the coefficient is therefore a pure number and so
of international validity. Another method of statement would
be to say that the numerical value of k is independent of the
system of units used so long as the system is self-consistent. Meas-
urements of force may be made in dynes, mass in grammes, lengths in
centimetres and time in sees, to meet the standards of the physicist.
Alternatively the engineer may use the force unit of Ib. weight, the
slug as a unit of mass, the foot for length and the sec. for time, or, if
he prefers it, the force unit of poundal, the mass unit of pound, and
the foot and second. In all cases the tabulated values of k D would
be identical. There are further advantages of the system; k D is
independent of the air density and for most aeronautical purposes
almost independent of size and speed, so that comparison between
model and full scale is readily made by comparison of the corre-
sponding values of k D . The extent to which the two agree is a meas-
ure of the utility of experiments on models.
Equation (4) also shows that k D depends on a single variable
not separately on v, I or v. On theoretical grounds alone therefore
we may say for our special assumptions that k D will not change
if the velocity of the same body be doubled in a fluid having twice
the viscosity. The kinematic viscosity of air is 12 or 13 times that of
water at ordinary temperatures and hence the resistance coefficient
will be the same if the velocity of air be 12 or 13 times that of water.
Stanton has shown that this is true for smooth and rough pipes by
testing with the two fluids in the same apparatus. 1 The law was used
in the calibration of the pitot-static pressure tube.
may be kept constant in many other ways; if air be the fluid
used in two experiments, then v and / may vary so long as the product
is constant. A model aeroplane to one-tenth scale would give a
resistance coefficient on test equal to that on the aeroplane at one-
tenth the speed. Since the speeds of flight reach 200 ft. per sec. this
law is inapplicable to the complete aeroplane, for compressibility
of the air would be very important in the model test at 2,000 ft. per
second. In testing streamline struts or wires, it is easily possible to
make models larger than the reality and so to extend the equivalent
speed from that of the wind tunnel to that of flight.
It should be noted, however, that failure to satisfy the law of
corresponding speeds, i.e. t)/ = constant, does not necessarily imply
failure to obtain similarity of flow between model and full scale.
In most of the experiments known to us, resistance varies very
closely as the square of the speed and the hypothesis that an exact
law existed is worth examination.
Since R varies as v* it follows from (4) that k D is independent of
v and further that fa> must then be a constant for all values of
In such a case the law of corresponding speeds is of no importance,
for kn can be deduced from a test at any speed on any size of body.
It needs little effort to see that if R varies a little from proportion-
ality to f 2 the motions in model and full scale will be nearly similar
and that the function is relatively unimportant. It is on this
variation from strict theory that aeronautics depends in many
applications of model results. Since there is no absolute theoretical
sanction except in the case of corresponding speeds, the identity of
the values of k D on the model and full scale must be tried out in a
sufficiently large number of typical cases if reliability is to be estab-
lished. This has in effect been done for aeroplane wings.
It is exceedingly difficult to determine from flight experiments the
resistance of the wings of an aeroplane, for the flying apparatus must
be complete with body, undercarriage, airscrew and engine, all of
which materially affect the resistance of an aeroplane. The com-
parison of the pressures at chosen points on an aeroplane wing in
flight and on a model of it in a wind tunnel is far less difficult and
has been made. 2 The theory which led to equation (4) leads also to
the conclusion that the pressure divided by air density and square of
1 Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1911-2, p. 41.
2 Report, Scale Effect Sub-Committee, A.C.A., 1917-8, R and M,
No. 374.
speed is a function only of -- Special photographic anemometers 3
were made by the Royal Aircraft Establishment for use in flight and
the pressures over a section of the upper and lower wings of a biplane
were measured.
The types of variation of pressure on the full scale are faithfully
reproduced by the model and in three of the four comparisons the
actual numerical agreement is complete within the accuracy of
measurement. The difference on the fourth comparison has not been
explained and some doubt exists as to its reality. Repetition of the
experiments has not yet been made. Generally, however, it is clear
that in heavier-than-air craft the use of models is amply justified.
For airships the lack of full-scale experiment precludes any statement
of value.
In the course of the investigations of the variations of &D with
speed and size it was found that changes of appreciable magnitude
occurred at the lower speeds of wind tunnels but that the values
tended to a limit. It is the value of ko at the limit of capacity of wind
tunnels which is taken in default of correcting factors determined
from a comparison between full-scale and model experiments. On
the score of cost it is not practicable to increase the size of wind
channel or the speed of the wind indefinitely and the highest value
of v I appears to be obtained most economically by large size rather
than high speed. There are some other advantages of size; the com-
pleteness of detail possible increases with the size of model and one
of the claims in favour of the large 7 ft. x 14 ft. channel at the Nation-
al Physical Laboratory is that the model will be so large that an air-
screw can be fitted to it and the combination of airscrew and aero-
plane tested under conditions very closely resembling those in flight.
The Effect of Compressibility on the Motion of Air. The law of
corresponding speeds expressed by the relation = constant is
peculiar to the assumptions made in obtaining (4) as to the experi-
mental factors which have appreciable effects on resistance. There
is an indefinitely large number of laws of corresponding speeds, each
law being applicable under limited conditions. The method of find-
ing the appropriate law is clear; the process begins with a statement
of the physical quantities and measurements involved and concludes
when an equation of the correct dimensions has been found. The
conditions may be so complex that the answer, when obtained, is of
little value; in general the theory of dynamical similarity is useful
only when the number of important variables is less than five.
The difficulty here indicated can be seen, if, instead of limiting the
problem to a fluid characterized by density and viscosity only, an
extra property defining its compressibility is included. There are
various ways of expressing compressibility and the most obvious
would be through an elasticity modulus. Density is included already
in the properties considered, and the velocity of sound in a fluid is
determined by the ratio of the modulus of elasticity to the density.
It has then come to be usual to assume that the velocity of sound a
is a convenient variable when investigating the effects of compres-
sibility of a fluid on the resistance to the motion of a body through it.
The equivalent to equation (2) for the extended problem is
R=/, (p, I, v, v, a) - (5)
and restricting the form of / to that which satisfies the theory of
dimensions
R
To satisfy the theoretical conditions which guarantee the con-
stancy of k a it is necessary to satisfy simultaneously the equations
v I 11
= constant, =constant
v a
for such variations of size, speed and fluid as are at disposal. Once
the fluid is specified, v and a are given and no law of corresponding
speeds exists. Various proposals have been made to use a gas such as
carbonic acid in one experiment and air in another, but little use
appears to have been made of (6) in the form given.
The formula for the pressure due to a pitot tube anemometer
(i) is a particular case of (6). That the form of (i) agrees with (6)
can be seen by an expansion of the functional operator of the latter
in powers of , using Maclaurin's theorem. Such an expansion will
be useful so long as the effect of compressibility is small and the
argument small. There is a further simplification in the case of
the pitot tube since the resistance does not depend measurably on
. From experiments on the issue of steam from the nozzles of
turbines and the measurements of pressure on a shell in flight it
appears that in many cases
_5_ , F 2 ( ^\ - (7)
p/V \a J
is a type of formula applicable to the maximum possible pressure on
a moving body for speeds ranging from a few in. per sec. to 2,000
ft. per sec. and upwards.
3 Report, A.C.A., R and M, No. 287, p. 504, 1916-7.
AERONAUTICS
It is possible that a correcting factor will be introduced into the
design of airscrews to allow for compressibility of the air. In such
a case, resistance coefficients based on (7) would provide the first
approximation to a rational formula.
Tests of the Water Resistance of Flying-Boat Hulls. Applications
of dynamical similarity extend over the whole range of physics and
an exhaustive discussion would lead far away from aeronautics. One
other illustration is required to show the origin of the law of corre-
sponding speeds applied in naval architecture to surface-moving
craft. Experimentally it has been found that the resistance of sur-
face craft at high speeds depends greatly on the generation of waves.
If attention be concentrated on this new aspect of resistance it will
be found by methods already indicated to give the law of corre-
sponding speeds associated with the name of Froude.
At any point of a wetted surface the pressure is proportional to
the head of water above that point and will be increased if a wave
crest exists in the neighbourhood. The pressure depends on the head
and on the weight of unit volume of the water; alternatively the
weight may be expressed as the product of the density of the water
and the acceleration due to gravity. Now consider the problem of
similar motions between a ship and a model of it. The scale of the
model must apply to the scale of the waves if similarity is to exist.
It can be said therefore that the resistance depends on a linear dimen-
sion I, velocity of test v, density of water p and the acceleration due
to gravity g. The appropriate formula then follows and proves to be
-(8).
The law of corresponding speeds is therefore -j = constant.
When dealing with comparisons of motion on the earth's surface, g
is constant and the law states that the speed of test for the model
varies as the square root of the scale. This condition ensures that the
waves in model and full-scale trials shall be similar. Equation (8)
may apply in other cases, such as the disturbed motion of model and
actual aeroplanes in free flight, the governing factor being the de-
pendence of the motion on gravitational attraction.
Summary of the Aeronautical Uses of Dynamical Similarity. In
measurements of resistance to the motion of a body through viscous
fluid the correct law of corresponding speeds is that = constant;
this is applicable so long as the velocity of motion is not more than
about one-quarter that of sound. At higher velocities, compressibility
of the fluid modifies the flow, the changes depending on a further
factor , i.e. on the ratio of the velocity of the body through the
a
fluid to that of sound in the fluid.
If the wave-making resistance alone be considered the law of cor-
v 1
responding speeds for terrestrial surface craft is y = constant ;
where resistance depends partly on wave-making and partly on
viscosity it is generally assumed that the two can be treated by
special assumptions. A very accurate method of treatment of the
complex problem does not lead to practicable formulae.
The Resistances of Bodies of Various Shapes. A somewhat sharp
division exists between the resistances of wings and aerofoils and
those other bodies with which aeronautics is concerned. In the latter
cases the resulting air force is either directly opposed to the motion
or is little inclined to it. In the case of wings at the most efficient
angle of presentation the resultant force is almost normal to the
direction of motion. Since there is always a real drag the direction
of the resultant force must fall behind the normal but the amount
may be less than three degrees.
It has been found experimentally that all aeroplane wings
whatever their variations of shape have certain common charac-
teristics. The best ratio of lift to drag is obtained only at a particular
angle of attack of the wing to the air and a considerable loss of effi-
ciency is incurred if, as is usual in aeroplanes, departure from this
FIG. 173. Flow past wing.
8. Below critical angle.
angle to the extent of 5 or 6 be permitted. At the highest speed
of flight of the aeroplane of 1921 it is improbable that the lift exceeds
12 times the drag, whilst the maximum ratio exceeds twenty.
Apart from efficiency there is a limit to the greatest force which
can be obtained at a given speed by a wing of finite area. Omitting
very special complex wings for the moment, the limiting force at any
given speed is obtained when the wing is inclined at 15 or 20 to
the wind. One of the most efficient types of wing form for high-speed
FIG. i?b. Flow past wing.
20. Below critical angle.
flight has a limiting lift of about 7 Ib. per sq. ft. at a speed of 50 m.
per hour. Other forms of fixed section are known which give 12 Ib.
per sq. ft. at the same speed. The general experience of all experi-
menters with aerofoils has been that, so long as the shape of the sec-
tion is invariable, high loading at the angle of maximum lift cannot
be obtained at the same time as high efficiency for maximum speed.
Much attention has been paid therefore to flexible and variable
wings; if it were possible to vary the area of a wing at will without
introducing unreliable mechanism or adding greatly to the weight
of the wing structure that solution would offer the maximum aero-
dynamic advantages. It should be pointed out here, that the addi-
tion of weight to an aeroplane in such a place as not to add directly
to the resistance leads to an immediate and calculable indirect in-
crease of resistance at a given angle of incidence; the amount may be
estimated as about one-eighth of the weight under favourable condi-
tions. So far no satisfactory proposals exist for the mechanical
variation of the area of the wings of an aeroplane. More practical
success has met the endeavours to vary the section of a wing of given
size so as to obtain the advantages of high lift and consequent low
speed for alighting and high efficiency at flying speeds. It has already
been shown that either condition may be obtained by a wing of fixed
section. A further general observation is that the high-speed wing is
thin and flat whilst the high-lift wing is thick and greatly curved.
Means of constructing flexible ribs for wings to admit of continuous
change from one shape to another have been developed and the me-
chanical difficulties do not appear to be insuperable. A less obvious
method of attack has shown greater promise. Mr. Handley Page 1
found by experiments in a wind tunnel that the properties of high
lift could be obtained by allowing air to pass through the front part
of a wing from the lower to the upper side. By dividing the wing of
an aeroplane into a small aerofoil hinged at its leading edge and a
large main wing the device becomes both mechanically and aero-
dynamically effective.
The motion of an aeroplane is now realized to be dominated by
other considerations than those of lift and drag and it may be that a
particular high-lift wing would be useless because it led to failure
of lateral control at low speeds. This point is of growing importance
and aeroplane design can no longer ignore the complex interactions
of aerodynamic properties. For this reason it may be anticipated that
the full advantages from variable wings will not be obtained im-
mediately but that the processes of evolution will be followed. Past
history has been simpler; early experiments by Langley (1896)
covered the properties of flat plates used as aerofoils and laid the
general foundation of practical aviation. Lilienthal later showed that
curved surfaces were more efficient than flat ones and attention was
given to sections suggested by bird wings, a subject of interest still
occupying the minds of designers. With little guidance as to good
forms, the early pioneers of night, Wilbur and Orville Wright, Far-
man, Bleriot and others, introduced wing sections in the period 1906-
10 and on these Eiffel based his first series of experiments. 2 Design
then began to be regularized. One of the more promising wing sec-
tions examined by Eiffel in his wind tunnel at the Champs de Mars,
designated "Bleriot II bis," was adopted by the Royal Aircraft
Factory for the BE2A. In 1911, thje National Physical Laboratory
adopted this form as the starting-point for systematic variation of
wing form. In the series of experiments which followed, 3 the thick-
ness of the wing was changed, also its shape on upper and lower sur-
faces and the bluntness of the nose, and in each case measurements of
lift and drag were made. From this series it was possible to make a
rational choice of wing section to fit the conditions of the day. The
absolute maximum of aerodynamic efficiency demanded a wing too
1 Jour. Royal Aeronautical Society, 1920.
2 Resistance de I'atr el I' Aviation, 1910-1.
8 A.C.A., 1911-2, pp. 73-77.
AERONAUTICS
thin for structural reasons and the Royal Aircraft in the early days
of 1913 designed the RAF6 wing on the basis of these experiments for
the development of the aeroplane BE2. At a later stage, as engines
of greater power were produced, further experiments led to improve-
ment of wings at small angles of incidence and RAF6 was replaced
by RAFlS (May 1915). It was found that the advantages of the
latter at high speeds were appreciable in spite of the increase of wing
area necessary to maintain a reasonably low landing speed.
Many attempts have been made to introduce new wing forms and
those showing value on preliminary test have been investigated. It
has invariably been found that guesses have been inferior to the
results of systematic investigation. In order to facilitate comparison
all results of wing tests are-^in Great Britain reduced to a stand-
ard form. Different expressions are common in France and America
but neither of the latter is international in the sense of being non-
dimensional. In accordance with principles of dynamical similarity,
the measured forces, lift and drag, have been divided by air density,
wing area and sq. of speed in order to deduce lift and drag coeffi-
cients. A centre-of-pressure coefficient is obtained by expressing the
position of the centre of pressure by the ratio of its distance from
the leading edge to the chord of the wing. The results are usually
shown in curves as well as tables and, if uniformity in scale be adopted
for the curves, comparison of wings is greatly facilitated, since
superposition immediately indicates the relative advantages and
disadvantages.
It is clear to most workers in the subject that the angle of inci-
dence of a wing is a convenient but arbitrary variable. A more use-
ful relation than lift to angle of incidence and drag to angle of inci-
dence is that of drag to lift, and it is very common to find in the
records of the aerodynamics laboratories the value of drag coefficient
plotted on a base of lift coefficient. The idea was in effect used by
Eiffel in 1910 in a system of polar diagrams. When comparing wings
for a given duty a still further variation is sometimes made; the area
of a wing depends on the specified landing speed and on the maximum
lift coefficient. Only when both these quantities are included can
the criterion be of greatest value. If it be presumed that the condi-
tion of prescribed landing speed is to apply to an aeroplane with
different wings it can be shown that at other speeds the lift coeffi-
cients of the respective wings will be proportional to the maximum
lift coefficients. Hence a curve of drag coefficient on the ratio of
lift coefficient to maximum lift coefficient has direct uses.
Further elaborations have been used, one of which, due to the
Royal Aircraft Factory in 191 1, 1 is equivalent to the plotting of
horse-power on a basis of speed. A new point is thus brought into
prominence for it is seen that the choice of wing form to meet given
requirements is affected by the resistance of the rest of the aero-
plane. Brief notes on the character of this additional resistance will
be made at this point.
The aeroplane as a whole is made up from various parts: wings for
support; body for holding the engine, pilot, load and control organs,
and the undercarriage for leaving the ground and alighting. The
same organs are required by float seaplanes and amphibians but in
the boat-type seaplanes the body and alighting gear are combined
into one structure. The wings themselves are usually supported
by struts and wiring which add to the resistance and there is a dis-
position to test and fit wings which are designed to be strong enough
to support the weight of an aeroplane without external bracing
wires. It is desirable here to emphasize the fact that the result may
not be an effective reduction of resistance owing to the less advan-
tageous types of wing section which must be used and to the greater
mechanical difficulties of construction.
The resistances of the body and undercarriage are easily appre-
ciated ; both vary very closely as to the square root of the speea and
are scarcely changed by alteration of the angle of incidence of the
aeroplane. At high speeds the added resistance is roughly equal to
that of the wings whilst for the most efficient flight the proportion is
more nearly I to 2, the wings having the greater resistance. There
is a loss due to the engine which is not quite so evident as that due
to the body. If water-cooling be adopted, the engine may be totally
enclosed and so have no direct effect on the air flow, but in order to
maintain the cooling, radiators in the wind are required. It does not
matter whether the engine be air-cooled or water-cooled, a certain
minimum resistance to motion must be incurred to provide the cool-
ing. Experiments have indicated a relationship between the heat
dissipated from a hot surface and the skin friction given by the mo-
tion of a fluid over that surface, and the best known radiator is the
honeycomb type. Disturbance of the air by a cooling surface which
is such that the motion is violently eddying involves a higher resis-
tance for a given dissipation of heat.
The placing of the radiator in the wind near the aeroplane may
have important secondary effects. The body is made to approach a
streamline form as closely as possible in order to reduce its resistance
and the approach to the best results is found to depend greatly on
the choice of shape. The magnitude of the possible effects of shape
on resistance is most clearly shown by experiments on airship forms.
The resistance of an airship envelope is only from I % to 2 % of that
of a disc which would cover the section at the maximum diameter.
It is true that the aeroplane body is far removed from this condition
1 See Flight, Jan. 13 1912, " An Aeroplane Study," M. O'Gorman.
but it is still sufficiently fine to have its resistance increased by an
unsuitable disposition of radiator. There is little systematic knowl-
edge as to the best arrangement, and the problem of engine-
cooling and body form remains one of engineering difficulty and
uncertainty.
Performance of Aeroplanes. Rapid development also costly
was facilitated by the construction and test of numerous
aeroplanes for 'war purposes. Not until 1917 did the measure-
ment of engine power and aeroplane performance in Britain
reach the stage of generality and accuracy necessary for the
purposes of estimate and prediction. Other countries entered
the field at still later dates and it will be seen that aviation is
still in early infancy. Progress is now less rapid, the main
aerodynamic features having been brought to a state at which
the work of all the better designers produces nearly the same
result. So true is this statement tjiat curves can be drawn
relating engine power to speed of flight, rate of climb and
total weight curves which show what a designer can attain but
rarely exceed. The greatest changes in 1917-21 were in the
power plant and here limits are becoming clearly discernible.
The changes in the weight of the aeroplane structure due to more
advantageous use of material were also small, and in all direc-
tions new advance can only be won by assiduous study. The
period of striking progress is over and has given place to one in
which greater training and knowledge are required than in the
past. This is particularly true in matters relating to the reliabil-
ity and safety of aircraft.
Stability. The idea of stability as applied to motion is very
old and standard methods of dealing with mechanical problems
were gradually developed by the mathematicians of the last
century. Laplace applied his knowledge to an examination of
the stability of the solar system, i.e. he accepted the theory of
gravitation as accounting for observations and made an exten-
sion to see whether the motion was permanent or in a state of
change. The ideas of stability are quite different from those of
performance and at the present day it is safe to say are not
understood by designers with the degree of intimacy which leads
to incorporation in design. It is true that some rough generaliza-
tions exist and are acted upon; by placing the centre of gravity
of an aeroplane very far forward longitudinal stability is en-
sured whilst a rearward position tends to instability and danger.
Similarly, the fin's dihedral angle on the wing is known to
affect lateral stability. Present-day (1921) aeroplanes border on
neutral stability for the conditions of straight forward flight
and this has come about by trial and error, corrected by the
likes and dislikes of a pilot during aerial fighting. So long as the
pilot be alert and the aeroplane of moderate size, say less than
6,000 Ib. weight, it is possible to control the craft in the air in
the condition in which it leaves the works. The few attempts to
make very large aeroplanes, 20,000 to 50,000 Ib. in weight,
have led to early disaster owing to the inability to approach,
on such scale, the necessary degree of refinement of control and
stability. Alternatively it may be said that the attempt to
develop large aircraft has overstepped the reasonable limits of
caution and has placed on the pilot a strain which he is physically
incapable of withstanding.
Even in the smaller craft there are many which in normal
flight require the unremitting attention of the pilot and which
if left to themselves for a minute would be in a dangerous and
probably uncontrollable condition of flight. This is not a neces-
sary state for an aeroplane and there is no insuperable difficulty,
given training, in ensuring, without an appeal to trial in the air,
that an aeroplane will fly itself for long periods. The opinion
has been expressed that aircraft of the present day would be of
commercial value were the obviously removable defects dealt
with. Reliability of the engine installation is probably the most
urgent need, but following that comes the application of the
known theories of stability.
Broadly speaking the quality called stability is readily de-
fined. An. aeroplane is taken into the air and a given state of
motion produced by the pilot and maintained for some time.
This operation does not involve stability but requires adequate
control. When flying steadily suppose that the pilot ceases
AERONAUTICS
to operate but keeps his muscles rigid and without disturbing
the motion deliberately produces a condition in which the
aeroplane has to control itself in gusts of small size. If the
motion be stable, no great changes will occur as a result of
the pilot's relinquishing of control. A small amount of pitching,
rolling, yawing and side-slipping, etc., will occur but on the
whole the speed of flight and the angle of incidence will remain at
the same value as at the beginning; the wings will not change
their angle of bank greatly nor the turning increase or decrease.
An instability, and in contradistinction to stability there are
many instabilities possible, will magnify the effects of a gust with
greater or less rapidity and the motion will depart from the
initial state to some other stable state. It rarely happens that
this second state is a comfortable one. An aeroplane which is
unstable in normal flight will usually be stable upside down
and may be so stable in that position as to be uncontrollable.
The time taken to pass from one state to another is often only a
matter of a few seconds, rarely as long as a few minutes.
In the very early days of flying the problem of getting into
the air at all took first place in importance. The aviators of
1908-10 kept a very close watch on the weather and one of them
had a standard test for satisfactory conditions. Standing with
his feet apart, he dropped a feather from the level of his shoulders
and if it fell outside his feet the wind was too great for flying.
The record of these early years and the shortness of life of the
aviators are sufficient testimony to the consequences of the
extreme forms of instability. The revolutionary step which
made it possible to keep the air for an hour instead of a few
minutes was made by the Wright brothers when they intro-
duced wing warping as a lateral control; there is little reason
to doubt the statement that flying still remained an acrobatic
feat. A study of the technical papers of the period 1908-14 will
show how slowly the idea of banking * an aeroplane entered into
the development of aviation. It is noted in March 1912 as a
possible cause of accident that the pilot " is reported to have
endeavoured to rise when making a turn." Not until April
1913 do we find vertical banking by Chevillard followed by
upside-down flying and looping by Pegoud in Sept. of that year.
A prominent place in the technical journals was devoted to
accidents and a perusal of these shows that all types were liable
to fail as late as 1913. A series of accidents to monoplanes
occurred in Britain and their flight was suppressed temporarily
in Sept. 1912, whilst a committee was formed to investigate
causes and to suggest lines of development. The findings of
this committee 2 have had a marked influence on British aviation
and the paragraph relating to stability is here quoted:
" The Committee desire to urge the importance of the general
investigation into the stability of aeroplanes, whether monoplanes
or biplanes. The experimental data at present available are not
sufficient to allow a complete theory to be formulated. It is under-
stood, however, that the work of the Advisory Committee has now
been carried to the stage at which the problem can be attacked with
hope of success, provided that the necessary facilities a large wind
channel in a sufficiently big enclosed space be put at their disposal,
and the Committee recommend that the Advisory Committee be
asked to continue the further investigation into the stability of the
aeroplane as a matter of great urgency, and more especially to exam-
ine the question of inherent lateral stability, suggestions towards the
solution of which have been given by the experiments of Lanchester
and the calculations of Bryan."
The investigation here started led directly to the stability
experiments on REi and BE2, a combination of full-scale
flights at the Royal Aircraft Factory and model and theoretical
preparatory work at the National Physical Laboratory. Before
dealing with the results, a return to early times will be made
to indicate the position of the theory of stability.
Up to the end of 1909 the chief writers on the stability of the
aeroplane were Bryan, 3 Ferber, 4 ' Lanchester, 5 and Soreau. 6
1 Flight, Feb. 17 1912.
2 Report of Dptl. Comm. on Accidents to Monoplanes, 1912 (ed.
6506), p. 9.
8 Bryan and Williams, "The Longitudinal Stability of Aerial
Gliders," Proc. R. S., vol. Ixxiii., 1904, p. IOO.
4 V Aviation. 6 A erodonelics, Lanchester.
* Socicte des Ingenieurs Civils de France, and in a volume: " Etat
actuel et avenir de 1'aviation."
The most complete method was that by Bryan. The papers all
advanced the study of the subject in some measure but the
appearance in 1911 of Bryan's book Stability in Aviation laid
the foundations of the subject as now known to us. About the
same time other workers were entering the field, amongst whom
may be mentioned Knoller, 7 Bothezat 8 and Reiszner. 9 From
that time the theory of stability has been far ahead of practice.
Developments have been made to cover circling flight, disturbed
motion and the effects of gusts, but all are natural extensions of
the theory of dynamical stability as given by Routh and applied
by Bryan to the aeroplane. There is little doubt that further
extensions will be made as required, but the immediate need is
the devotion of existing knowledge to practice to a far greater
extent than has hitherto occurred. As in other branches of
research the World War has had an adverse effect in curtailing
opportunities for reasoned progress.
In March 1913 a report *was issued showing the possible applica-
tions of the theory of stability in numerical detail. The mathema-
tical analysis cannot be useful unless a number of quantities, known
as resistance derivatives, can be obtained from experiment. The re-
port in question represents the first systematic attempt to apply
experimental research to the evaluation of the quantities required
for application of the theory. A discussion is given of the meaning
and origin, from the physical side, of the resistance derivatives and
rough estimates were made as to the ranges of the quantities for
then existing aeroplanes. For one condition of flight more accurate
data were obtained and a table of some 18 derivatives deduced cover-
ing the longitudinal and lateral stabilities of an aeroplane in normal
flight. There are a number of approximations which assist in the
understanding of the relation between cause and effect which were of
importance in the infancy of the subject.
By such a preliminary examination on the model scale, the
phenomena to be looked for on the full scale were clearly defined.
The now well-known " phugoid " oscillation was then unobserved
and only indicated by calculations: It is indeed possible that up to
that date longitudinal stability did not exist apart from the very
special design of Dunne. The mathematical theory indicated quite
clearly that special shapes were unnecessary and that aeroplanes
of more usual form could be made stable by attention to the dis-
position of weights and the arrangements of the aerofoil surfaces.
In particular, the importance of a dihedral angle on the wings and
an adequate fin and rudder were shown in relation to lateral stability.
In the course of the 12 months which followed great progress was
made; in a series of papers " from the National Physical Laboratory,
the effect of varying essential quantities, such as the centre of gravity
of the aeroplane, the amount of area of the tail plane, the extent of
the dihedral angle, rudder and fin area, etc., was examined in detail.
It was shown that partial experiments on lateral stability would fail
since there is a relation between the dihedral angle on the wings and
the appropriate fin and rudder area.
Further, the exact method of inherent adjustment of an aeroplane
to gusts was shown and the details of flight of a longitudinally stable
aeroplane in a natural wind obtained. This was done not only for
uncontrolled but for controlled flight. By the summer of 1914 the
investigation of the effect of natural properties of an aeroplane on
mechanical devices for controlling it were being envisaged, but the
outbreak of the war broke the continuity and the subject still remains
at that point of theoretical development.
In the meantime full-scale experiments were being made at the
Royal Aircraft Factory. 12 A few extracts from these reports are of
historical value and are here reproduced:
" Although completely controllable under all circumstances by
means of the elevator, it has been found that the BE2A aeroplane,
fitted with the old tail plane (TP l) was not stable with the elevator
free or even locked. . . . Two methods of experimenting have been
adopted: (a) Variation of the section and plane form of tail, (b)
Variation of the position of the centre of gravity of the aeroplane
relative to the position of the wings."
" Experiment (i) with tail (TPl). Area of tail 61 sq. feet. Centre
of gravity at 0-38 of the mean chord behind the leading edge. At a
height of about 2,000 ft. the elevator control lever was held in a
fixed position. After a short time, a steady dive developed, which was
allowed to continue so long as it was considered safe by the flier, in
this instance during a flight of about 500 yards. There was no ten-
dency for the path to revert to the horizontal. ... It was found
that there was just as much tendency for a steady rearing to be
developed as a dive. ..."
7 "Cber Langstabilitat der Drachenflugzeuge," Ztschr. fur Flug-
technik und Motorluftschifffahrt, July and Aug. 1911.
8 tude de la Stabilite de I'aeroplane (Dimod & Pinet. 191 1).
9 Ztschr. fiir Flugtechnik und Motorluftschifffahrt, Feb. 10 1912.
10 R and M, No. 77, Advisory Committee Tor Aeronautics, 1912-3.
11 Reports, Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1913-4, pp.
216-286.
12 Reports, Advisory Committeefor Aeronautics, 1913-4, pp. 385-394.
AERONAUTICS
33
" Experiment (2). Another tail was tried (TP2) ... A long
glide was also made with the elevator locked. During these flights
a marked improvement in the behaviour of the machine was obtained,
damped phugoids being described. ... It may certainly be said,
however, that with TPa and the other conditions of this experiment,
BE2 was proved to be capable of flying indefinitely with the elevator
locked in winds with gusts up to 30 m. per hour."
" Experiment (3). The same tail plane was fitted and the condi-
tions were approximately the same except that the centre of gravity
was considerably further back. . . . This very backward position
of the centre of gravity, of course, made the aeroplane quite unstable,
and increasing dives or rearings were performed almost as soon as
the elevator was locked. ..."
" Experiment (4). The centre of gravity was brought forward and
a considerable improvement was obtained. It was now found that
even with the elevator free, damped phugoids were obtained. In the
absence of gusts at the time, these phugoids were started by move-
ments of the elevator control lever. When the machine had been
forced to assume a sharp dive, the control lever was totally released
and it was found that after two or three complete oscillations the
amplitude became too small to be noticed. . . . The period of
oscillations was found to be about 20 seconds."
" Apart from the practical utility of these experiments in develop-
ing the particular aeroplane in question their wider significance un-
derlies the fact that they agree with and confirm the model experi-
ments on the full scale both as regards the characteristics of the tail
planes and the interference of the main planes with them; and the
two sets of experiments give data from which a tail can be designed
for any aeroplane to give any degree of longitudinal stability required."
It appears from recent investigation of accidents that the type of
instability described above is not avoided in all modern aircraft. The
effect of the instability is serious and epidemic failures to control have
been traced to this cause alone. 1 Some photographic records of
longitudinal motion taken at a much later period will be found as re-
productions in the Wilbur Wright lecture 2 for 1919. The actual time
required for the testing of longitudinal stability is now so short that
the production of records has been made an addition to the older
established performance trials. Progress has been steady but rather
slow and the influence of the tests is not yet evident in new design.
In the case of lateral stability the records of the early experiments
at the Royal Aircraft Factory are of equal or greater interest with
those on longitudinal motion:
" RE I rolling stability experiments, by Mr. Bush. . . . The
wing flap controls were entirely abandoned and the aeroplane was
flown 75 m. with two turns without their use. The rudder was used
for steering or was kept straight to avoid complicating the investi-
gation."
" The evolutions of the aeroplane bore out the theoretical expec-
tations. Disturbance by a gust was followed by side-slip towards the
low side, which brought the dihedral angle into effect, righting the
machine. In both the above experiments the recovery from a roll
seemed rather slow, and it was decided to double the amount by
which the wings were bent up."
" The results of the above experiments were sufficiently satisfac-
tory to warrant the abandonment of the warp and the use of wings
with flaps for RE5 and other aeroplanes in course of design."
Rotative Stability. The rotative stability with the rudder in a
fixed position was next examined. Up to this point the aeroplane had
been usually steered on a straight course, which made recovery
quicker. When the rudder is fixed, however, disturbance of level is
followed by a turn towards the low side as well as a side-slip. If
the directional stability is too great, the increased speed of the outer
wing will counteract the restoring effect of the side-slip, and the
aeroplane will continue to turn with increasing bank and angular
velocity. The manoeuvre if not controlled ends in a spiral dive."
" Dec. 8 1913. In this experiment, the rudder was adjusted for
straight flight and then held fast by the feet, friction of the heels
against the floor making absence of movement certain. When all was
ready the aeroplane was disturbed by the wing flaps, which were then
returned to their normal position. The experiment is rather delicate,
as any want of symmetry will cause the aeroplane to be stable when
rolled in one direction and unstable in the other. It appeared, how-
ever, that the aeroplane was just stable, righting herself slowly."
Complete stability test. The aeroplane was flown from Long
Valley, Aldershot, to Froyle near Alton, and also from Froyle to
Fleet, distances of 6 J and 8m., without the use of wing flaps or eleva-
tor. The wing flaps were left free as usual and the elevator was locked.
The flying was very comfortable, and the pilot considered that re-
connaissance under these conditions would be considerably easier for
a pilot alone."
For normal flight the description of lateral stability given in
these abstracts still represents the position. The experiment is
still delicate and it may be doubted whether any aeroplane has
an appreciable degree of lateral stability. The early work on
stability cleared the way to a large extent; the temptation to
'Accidents Investigation. Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
Jan. 1919. R and M No. 617, also R and M No. 629, Dec. 1918.
2 Supplement to Aeronautical Jour., July 1919.
complex design for safety was removed and dangerous instability
rarely exists so long as a pilot is alert. The introduction of
aerobatics and the training of pilots to loop, spin, roll, etc., at
the same time as it inspired confidence in the ability to control an
aeroplane also led to conditions far removed from those of normal
straight flight. It was then found that the stability of aircraft
under extreme conditions has great importance, particularly
when the angle of maximum lift has been reached or exceeded.
A very large proportion of accidents arises from engine failure
whilst near the ground. In holding up the nose of the aeroplane
whilst attempting to turn back into an aerodrome, the pilot
not infrequently stalls the craft and violent lateral instability
results. Recovery from the effects of this instability is rare and
much study has been made of the phenomenon.
There is now little doubt as to the cause of this instability
but the methods of removing it are far less clear. The same
cause which produces instability removes the effectiveness of
the controls; it is probable that high -lift wings have charac-
teristics antagonistic to those of stability and further investiga-
tion of the subject is required before satisfactory design for
speeds less than that of stalling can be reached.
More recent papers on various aspects of stability will be
found in the reports of the societies and bodies 3 dealing with
aeronautics; there are no striking developments but much solid
work has been done by a few workers in the subject. There are
difficulties in the nature of variation of nomenclature which
make the comparison of work laborious and in an attempt to
deal with this aspect of the problem of stability the Royal
Aeronautical Society, acting as a sub-committee of the British
Engineering Standards Association, has drawn up and recom-
mended the use of a particular set of symbols and axes of refer-
ence. Still in its infancy as regards application, the subject merits
greater attention. It is scarcely likely that the degree of stabil-
ity still undefined thought suitable for military use will
be that correct for civil uses. Extreme manoeuvrability is con-
sidered to be essential in the first and safety in the second.
Whilst not wholly incompatible it is clear that a degree of stabil-
ity can be introduced without discomfort in a straight and un-
eventful flying which is disliked for the purposes of aerial
fighting. (L. Bw.)
IV. MATERIALS AND METHODS or MANUFACTURE
The aircraft pioneers, being their own designers, builders
and financiers, used the simplest design, manufacture and
assembly, and the cheaper materials.
Between 1912 and 1914 came a striving for efficiency; fixed
charges were relatively high, and research costs were extremely
great for the small output of the day; this conduced to the
quest for the best materials and made costly machining to reduce
weight and establish types permissible. In the World War the
aerodynamic advances made in this way were used, but as bulk
production set in before schemes and tools for bulk production
existed, aeroplanes had to be made regardless of cost until the
tools were evolved.
Standardization of materials, of sizes and of parts and com-
ponents, notably bolts, nuts, bracing connexions, piping con-
nexions, etc., common to most types of aircraft, had previously
to 1914 been started, but was extended in 1915 to cover tubes,
bracings, methods of jointing, length of bracings, wheels and
axles, airscrew bosses, etc. Also some of the larger components,
wings, elevators, rudders, and ailerons, which could be utilized
on more than one type, were standardized. Master and work-
shop gauges were made and distributed to ensure interchange-
ability. Continuous records of tests led to the selection of the
most suitable materials, and to standard specifications. These
have been continuously evolved up to the present day, and their
dissemination has spread far and wide much acquired knowledge.
3 Reports of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics to date,
Jour, of the Royal Aeronautical Society.
Reports of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
United States of America.
" Applied Aerodynamics," L. Bairstow.
" Aeronautics: A Class Text," E. B. Wilson.
" Aeronautics in Theory and Experiment," Cowley and Levy.
34
AERONAUTICS
The earliest steps in England, or indeed anywhere, to unify
such standards were taken by the Royal Aircraft Factory at
Farnborough in 1913. They were extended and improved
as experience developed under the Aircraft Inspection Depart-
ment (A.I.D.) in England (towards the end of 1915), and later
under the British Engineering Standards Association, which in
1921 was instrumental in founding in Paris the " Comite Inter-
national pour 1'Unification Aeronautique " to internationalize
the same work.
Components. Fuselages, wings, undercarriages, tail planes and
controlling surfaces, prior to 1914 were not, save in one or two cases,
designed as self-contained units, i.e. their manufacture was usually
completed during erection into the aeroplane. This involved hand-
fitting, trial and error adjustment, constant inspection and slow
production, while spares were not interchangeable.
By 1915 each component became a unit in itself, made to limits,
corresponding with the connexion points, and interchangeability was
safeguarded by the use of jigs and fixtures. By 1919 even compo-
nents were subdivided into standardized parts, and the assembly of
components into a complete aeroplane could be effected after deliv-
ery to the field. The jigs and fixtures were usually confined to the
location of junction fittings on which the structure was erected.
These replaced the fixtures of 1915, which held all members of the
component in position during construction, but proved not to be
satisfactory, owing to the distortion of the finished piece on re-
moval from the fixture.
Girder types of construction, such as fuselages, wings, etc., were
latterly constructed to jigs rather than on fixtures, in order that
their truth of erection might be more permanent. Monocoque con-
structions, however, were always built on cradles or moulds, which
definitely determined their final shape; the individual members,
being free from initial load, were free from distortion on removal
from the mould.
The development of portable gauges (gauge points mounted on
tensioned wires) occurred in 1916.
In 1917 component junctions were designed so that all positioning
was determined by one joint, clearance in one direction being allowed
on the remaining joints; the gauging of components was simplified
thereby, and many of the more costly gauges could thus be super-
seded by simpler ones used in conjunction with a measuring operation.
Woodwork. Wood is eminently suitable for light construction
and for obtaining a rapid output by machining. The mechanical
properties and suitability of various timbers were little known in
1913. Bamboo, the lightest timber, was found unsuitable in about
191 1 ; it lacks uniformity in size, and is difficult to connect at the end
of members. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and hickory (Carya alba,
Hichora ovatd) were early used, but hickory is scarce, and variable
in its mechanical properties, and ash is heavy as well. Ash is re-
stricted to use where high flexibility and shock-resisting are essential.
Silver spruce (Picea Sitchenis, Carr.) was introduced in 1913 for
spars, struts, longerons and other members, being uniform, light and
suitable for machining for weight reduction.
Between 1913 and 1915 accurate information of the strength and
elasticity of this timber was acquired. Methods of converting the
timber for the various uses were determined in order to eliminate de-
fects peculiar to coniferous timbers, such as spiral grain, cross and diag-
onal grain, dote or rot, gum pockets, alternating hard and soft grains,
low density, wide-ringed timber and brittle or lifeless timber (brash).
The great demand in 1916 in England led to the importation of
unseasoned timber, needing to be conditioned for use. The French
and Americans had already experience of this. Kilns were erected in
England (on the Sturtevent system of drying). Humidities, tem-
peratures and time periods of drying were determined. Control of
the moisture-content of timber was found to be essential.
The larger aeroplanes in 1916 and 1917, and the demand in excess
of supply Tor best of spruce of long lengths, led to spars being made of
short lengths joined together, the joints being situated at points of
low stress. A study of various joints in 1918 led to the adoption
FIG. 1 8.
of the plain vertical scarf joint with an inclination of I in 9, reinforced
by bolts through the splice, and bound with fabric (see fig. 18).
Shorter timbers glued together as laminations then became permis-
sible for all spars, and defects could thus either be cut out or re-
inforced. Joints in these laminations, after being admitted for a
period, were ruled out in 1919.
To supplement the supplies of silver spruce in 1917 the following
timbers were tried in 1918, the peculiarities of each being allowed for:
Quebec Spruce (Picea alba and Picea nigra, Link )
White Sea White Deal (Picea excelsa, Link.).
White Sea Red Sea Yellow Deal (Pinus sylvestris, Link.).
West Virginia Spruce (Picea rubeus, Sargent).
North Carolina Spruce (when this is the same as West Virginia
Spruce, but grown in North Carolina).
Louisiana Red Cypress (Bald.).
Port Orford Cedar (Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, Murr.).
New Zealand Kauri (Agathis [Dammara] auslralis).
Canadian White Pine (Pinus Strobus, Link.).
Oregon Pine (Psettdotsuga Douglasii, Carr.).
Cypress, which is very variable, liable to brittleness and unsuitable
for glueing, was barred in 1918. Oregon pine, which is liable to frac-
ture under shock, and may split when cut into small dimensions
must be restricted to struts and used in the solid. Small knots in the
deals can be allowed in laminations if the knots l>e distributed to
obtain uniformity of the member. Laminated struts were used in
1919, with fabric binding to safeguard against the opening out of
joints. Early in 1918 box sections, which have all the advantages of
laminating, were used, and their use continues.
About 1915-6 the glues used in the above processes were classified
into three grades: (i) the best for airscrews; (2) for less highly
stressed joints; (3) for unimportant details. Glue shops were main-
tained at a constant 70 Fahrenheit. Micro-investigation of glued
joints proved the value of carefully preparing the timber and glue;
timber was aged to prevent warping, by storing in the 7O-F. rooms
for long periods before glueing. Roughing of the surfaces to be glued
was adopted to secure keying.
In 1915-6 it was found that if an entire series of laminations were
glued in one operation before clamping the first joint would become
chilled before the clamping occurred. Later, by using trained crews
and special appliances for quick glueing and clamping, the en bloc
process of glueing with the more rapid output became possible and
satisfactory. Where heated-glue rooms could not be used, " liquid "
glue or jelly glues (containing an ingredient which delays the setting
poin^of the glue, thus allowing of ordinary temperatures 55 F.
to 60 F. with ample time for assembly of parts) were adopted.
Metal Fittings. In 1910 fittings for the structures, attachment of
bracings, etc., were made of mild steel, a metal selected, no doubt
because it could be worked cold. This was often used in double
thickness to ensure against flaws. Oxy-acetylene welding was often
used in joints, even in some that were subject to stress. Tubes and
plates were welded together to make sockets, and bent to shape with-
out being subsequently normalized. Failures at welds led to the
substitution in 1915 of mild-steel drop forgings. These were ma-
chined all over to save weight and to get the size accurate to toler-
ances too small for the stamping industry at that time.
The correct temperature for forging and subsequent heat treat-
ment of the forging in high tensile steel was not currently known.
The facilities were lacking, and the control of the temperatures
needed was left too much to the estimate of the skilled operative.
Stampings brittle and unreliable for use, as well as difficult to ma-
chine, were made. In 1915-6 the impact test, long known but little
used, was supported by the War Engineering Committee of the
Royal Society, and was found valuable for ensuring that the material
so tested would bear prolonged shock stress.
By 1917 the call for speedy output led to a reversion from forgings
to sheet-metal sockets and fittings, using a low carbon sheet-steel of
26 tons' ultimate tensile strength. The pressings were shaped in jigs
which ensured an adequate radius at the bend, and they were nor-
malized to remove strains due to bending or punching. Where com-
plicated fittings were built up of simpler pressings these were
riveted and soldered together to avoid welding. Dip-brazing of
such constructions came in in 1918, with the advantage that the
temperatures could be better controlled than when brazed with a
slow-pine. Such pressings are interchangeable and need less gaug-
ing and inspection. Turnbuckles, universal joints, shackles, etc.,
litherto machined from the bar, were re-designed for quicker manu-
'acture from sheet metal.
Bracings. In 1910-1 8o-ton steel " piano wire " was much used
r or bracing the structure, but the fastenings for this had only some
60% of the strength of the wire; the loops stretched, and the struc-
ture was soon distorted. Flexible cables spliced on to wiring plates
and adjusted by turnbuckles were then used with greater safety, but
these also stretched and increased the air resistance, to reduce which
wooden fairings were applied to the cables. Solid wires swaged to
streamline form, and left thick at the ends for screwing, were made
as early as 1911, but they were difficult to manufacture. In 1913 this
: air section was abandoned for the elliptical, to allow of rolling instead
of swaging the rods, while a special steel and heat treatment evolved
by the Royal Aircraft Factory overcame the difficulties. These
wires were not generally adopted till, in 1915, standardized aeroplanes
ed to a demand which warranted bulk production.
Wires of streamline section were swaged, not rolled, because these
asymmetrical sections tend to curve over sideways as they pass out
'rom the rolls. The elliptical-section wires were called " Rafwires,"
o distinguish them when they were standardized. The screwing of
he end of these wires was carried on after heat treatment (at 550
"".). Subsequently the wires were tempered at a lower temperature
AERONAUTICS
35
(450 C.), and later the tempering was abandoned. Round swaged
tie-rods were made from the same steel as the streamline wires
drawn to an ultimate strength of 80 tons per sq. in. without any sub-
sequent heat treatment. The adoption of tie-rods and streamline
wires for bracing extended the period for which the aeroplane retained
its truth, while it was improved both in speed and climb by the
fair wires.
Flexible cables used for controls consisted generally of seven
strands, each of 19 wires of go-ton tensile. To increase the war out-
Eut a single lay cable of larger strands was used. This cable could not
e spliced, and joints were made by turning the ends, wrapping with
wire, and soldering a process that requires much care.
In a few cases in 1919 the structures were built on the strut-tie
principle without wire bracing; this gave quick erection and main-
tained very well the truth of structure.
Dope. The fabric stretched over the wings becomes slack after
exposure to alternations of humidity. Prior to 1909 rubber cotton
fabric was tried, and alternatively the plain cotton was tautened by
painting with flour paste. In 1909 thin sheets of cellulose acetate
were applied over the cotton, and later the substance was dissolved
in acetone and applied with a brush, camphor being used to keep the
coat pliable ; however, the camphor evaporated, and thereupon the
dope cracked on exposure. The search for a suitable softener that
did not evaporate from the dope was prosecuted. Tetrachlorethane
was tried with success, but it proved dangerous to the operatives
applying it in enclosed places. Moreover, sunlight decomposed
tetrachlorethane; to yield hydrochloric acid, which eventually at-
tacked the fabric.
In 1916 benzyl-alcohol was tried with success. When the evil
effect of light on linen and dope was discovered in England a pig-
ment varnish was introduced by the Royal Aircraft Factory (P.C.io)
which protected the fabric and dope from light and increased the life
of both. In 1916 a nitrocellulose dope was introduced, to economize
in the acetic-acid radicals which were in demand elsewhere for ex-
plosives. From 1916 onwards the acetate and nitro dopes were used;
to them benzyl-alcohol was added to render the film plastic, and
triphenyl-phosphate to render the film waterproof and fireproof.
After removing all saponifiable grease from the fabric the dope was
applied by hand in three to five coats, till 1918, when spraying was
introduced for the coats other than the first, which needed to be well
brushed in. Constant temperature and low humidity are required in
dope-rooms to avoid the deposit of water due to evaporation of the
solvents.
Rubber Hose. Rubber tube introduced in pipe lines to give flexi-
bility is deteriorated by petrol and oil. In 1916 some resistance to
petrol was introduced by using pure para heavily loaded with mineral
matter and rather over-vulcanized. This withstood boiling petrol for
one hour, and immersion for 23 hours, but its life in use is very short
and it frequently required renewal after four months.
Engine Testing. The airscrew, the flat plate air brake, the electric
dynamo and the water dynamometer of Heenan and Froude were
used for testing aero engines.
Later the Escargot reaction torque brake was evolved, correspond-
ing in principle to the Heenan and Froude water brake in that an air
fan brake is rotated inside a closely fitted case, into which the air is
drawn through central ports and expelled centrifugally through
tangential outlets at top and bottom; the engine, mounted on a
FIG. 19.
built-up stand pivoted about the propeller shaft axis, is held and the
torque measured with a graduated bar and counterpoise.
To vary the power absorbed at a given speed, the Fell type of
Escargot (see figs. 19 and iga), introducing Butterfly valves in the
tangential outlets, was developed late in 1917. Restriction of the air
outlet from the Escargot perforce reduces the work to be done by the
fan on the air, which tends to rotate with the fan and so increase the
speed of the engine to a corresponding degree. A power curve range
is thus obtained comparable with that given by the Heenan and
Froude brake. The Escargot method provides a ready means of
cooling air-cooled engines by taking special ducts from the outlets
to the engine cylinders, whereas the Heenan and Froude brake re-
quires a separate cooling-fan and driving-motor.
In determining the useful H.P. of rotary engines, " windage loss,"
or the power absorbed by the engine itself, had first to be determined
for each type, and then deducted from the total nominal power,
calculated on the weight bar reading. Originally the bench tests
comprised an endurance test of four hours, followed by complete
dismantlement and examination for defective parts, excessive
wear, reassembly, and final one-hour test, the engine being run
throughout at normal speed and at full throttle, petrol and oil con-
sumptions being recorded in both tests. Subsequently all-round
experience and increased reliability of materials and their treatment
permitted of a reduction of this endurance test, first to three hours,
and then to two hours, with a final half-hour test. The engine through-
out, save for the last five minutes, was throttled down to 90 % and
sometimes even to 80 % of full power at normal speed, to prevent the
overheating of and detonation in the relatively high compression
engines. Such engines were designed to give full power at 5,000 ft.
height rather than at ground level.
Standardization of the actual flow measurement of carburetter
jets in place of orifice-diameter calibration made it possible to tune
up engines for bench tests on a few minutes' running only. Also
standard jets suitable for flight purposes were substituted for bench-
test jets before delivery, so that the time of tuning-up on installation
of the engine into the aircraft was diminished. In 1916 a petrol-
flow meter, whereby the actual flow into each carburetter is indicated,
facilitated the determination of petrol consumptions.
Crank- shafts. The aero-engine materials were covered by definite
specifications originally issued by the Royal Aircraft Factory. The
chemical composition was closely defined, heat treatment provided
for, and an Izod Impact Test added to the usual tensile test, to give
some indication as to the shock-resisting power of the material.
The Izod Impact Test, though it does not reproduce the alternating
and fatiguing stresses of actual running, has proved to be indispen-
sable in detecting steel which has been improperly heat-treated.
" Temper brittleness " induced in alloy steels by slow cooling from
the tempering temperature, even after correct initial heat treatment,
is detected by the 2-3 ft. Ib. obtained as compared with the 25-30
ft. Ib. with the identical steel if properly heat-treated and quenched
after tempering. This brittleness, which obviously unfits steel for
crank-shaft use, cannot be detected otherwise than by the impact
test, since the usual tensile results and micro-structure examination
in no way differentiate between the sound and temper-brittle condi-
tions.
Early in 1915 the British Aeronautical Inspection directorate sug-
gested the following nickel chromium steel for crank-shafts, connect-
AERONAUTICS
ing rods, etc., with good results: Carbon 35%; Nickel 3-5%;
Chromium o-6-l %.
Difficulties attended the manufacture of crank-shafts for 12-cyl-
inder engines which, in order to reduce the overall length, employed
roller main bearings. At first such crank-shafts were produced from
billets twisted through 120 at the main journal, which provided
only 3 in. length in which to effect the twist, necessitating so high
a twisting temperature that no subsequent heat treatment could
restore the structure to a uniform and satisfactory condition. The
use of a billet of double width involving a twist of only 60 was then
tried, with improved but not entirely satisfactory results. Finally
such crank-:;hafts were produced from a billet first pressed or crinkled
to a general crank-shaft form to provide a continuous grain flow
throughout journals, webs and pins, and finished finally by drop
stamping and twisting, where necessary, the main journal through
60 degrees.
The elimination of all sharp corners, as in keyways and the under-
cutting of webs in grinding journals and pins, was found to be of the
utmost importance to prevent fatigue failure.
Rough machining before heat treatment was also required, es-
pecially in the rotary single-throw crank with large variations in mass
of section, to secure uniformity of condition.
Cylinders. In 1914 air-cooled cylinders were of mild steel for
rotary and cast iron for stationary engines. The steel cylinders were
machined from the solid billet; by 1916 forged blanks were used.
By 1915-6 cast-iron cylinders were cast from metal patterns and
machine-moulded, and a close limitation of chemical composition
adopted to secure clean casting of the thin sections, and to overcome
distortion and cracking in running. To eliminate casting stresses
cylinders were normalized after casting, and set aside for some weeks
to " age " before machining.
For water-cooled engines having separate cylinders cast iron (with
a sheet-steel jacket pressed to shape, and welded on, or a copper
jacket electrically deposited) was used. To allow the jackets to
expand, crinkles, both circumferential and round the exhaust valve
seatings, and sparking-plug bosses were introduced, as the local
expansion of the jacket differs from that of the cylinder when
running.
Later, mild-steel cylinders turned from forged blanks were used m
lieu of cast iron. Valve pockets, sparking-plug bosses, and thin
sheet jackets were then welded on as first tried by Vickers in 1909.
Aero-engine cylinders are also cast together in one block for the
sake of the rigidity of the cylinders one to another. At first, following
motor-car practice, cast iron was used for this. Towards the end of
1916, however, aluminium, with its low weight and high heat con-
FIG. 20.
ductivity, took its place. The first prominent " Mono block " (see
fig. 20) comprised a mild-steel cylinder liner complete with head and
valve seats, screwed into an aluminium block which took four
cylinders, and constituted a complete enclosed water-jacket. The
liners were not in contact with the cooling water, and with bigger
cylinders overheating and loss of contact between the liner and the
surrounding aluminium jacket occurred particularly in the flat head.
A natural development, therefore, was to remove the top of the liner,
leave it open, and let the aluminium itself form the combustion head
of each cylinder. Two difficulties then had to be overcome : (i) The
provision of a gas-tight joint between the top of the liner and the
jacket and head; (2) the insertion of rings in the head to form valve
seatings. The first was overcome by screwing the liner hard up
against the shoulder in the head, and the second (which was achieved
without distortion or burning of the seatings) by casting-in or ex-
panding-in steel or hard bronze rings. To improve further the cool-
ing of the cylinders, the lower portion of the aluminium jacket in
contact with the liners was omitted, the liner being held only by a
screw thread of some l-in. depth at the top and a rubber joint and
ordinary lock nut ring at the bottom.
The form of aluminium cylinder head and jacket casting is
complicated, and experiments, both as regards method of casting
and choice of aluminium alloy, led to the selection of a mixture of
14-5% zinc, 2'5% to 3-0% copper, alloy with virgin
i- The pouring temperature is 66oC. The percentage of
12-5%. to _ .
aluminium The pouring temperature is 66oC. The percentage of
scrap is high, say, 10% to 15% in the simplest forms of block, and up
to 30% or 40% for more complicated designs. To overcome the
porosity of castings, stove enamelling of the interior of the blocks or
the application of water-glass under pressure is used.
The Royal Aircraft Factory experiments in 1915 led the way in air-
cooled stationary cylinder engines in the use of aluminium heads
gilled for cooling, using a steel liner and inserted valve seatings. For
rotary-engine cylinders in one instance a thin steel liner was shrunk
into a finned aluminium shell which formed a jacket, the head of
steel being secured to the liner with a plain metal-to-metal joint by
bolts from the head to the crank-case, thus securing the cylinder as a
whole.
Cylinders of all types before erection on engines are tested inter-
nally to 450-500 Ib. hydraulic pressure, and for the jackets to 30-40
pounds.
Connecting Rods. Connecting rods, as regards material, followed
crank-shaft practice in the standardization of plain nickel chrome
steel, heat-treated to give 50-60 tons' tensile strength.
The 6-cylinder and early 8- and 12-cylinder types conformed
to motor-car practice in the use of solid H " section shanks and
white-metal big-ends, without a bronze bush, the cap being held
usually by four bolts or studs. To reduce th'e crank-shaft length of
certain " V " type engines the connecting-rods on one side of the
engine were provided with lugs to carry a wrist-pin, this wrist-pin, on
one side of, and parallel to, the big-end bearing, carrying the auxil-
iary connecting-rod. Alternatively to the same end a pair of rods
superposed. In one case, a hollow circular sectioned shank carried
an integral big-end, white-metalled internally and externally, the
second rod, being fork-ended, oscillating on the sleeve formed by the
first rod. The comparatively thin and flexible section of the inner
rod sleeve, however, enhanced the difficulty of white-metalling and
led to cracking in running.
A further development therefore (of square hollow sectioned
shank) provided a bronze shell rigidly gripped by the forked ends of
the outer rod, while the inner rod oscillates on the middle portion of
the shell, which is white-metalled internally to provide the main big-
end bearing, as shown in fig. 21.
FIG. 21.
Connecting-rods of rotary and radial engines consist usually of one
master rod, ball or rollcr-bearinged, with the big-end enlarged to
form circular lugs to secure wrist-pins carrying the plain or auxiliary
type of rod of the remaining cylinders. One exception provided a big-
end consisting of a separate lead bronze shell (in two halves bolted
together) mounted on ball bearings and provided on the inside with
white-metalled concentric grooves in which oscillate the concen-
trically formed heels of the connecting rods.
Initially, the ordinary small-end bronze bush system with gudgeon
pins fixed in the piston was used. Later, variations with loose bushes
and loose gudgeon pins were developed, the pins_in the latter being
secured endwise in the piston by wire circlips let into grooves on the
outside edges of the piston bosses.
Rough machining before heat treatment is necessary on the rotary
type master-rod stamping which has a large big-end mass and a
comparatively small stem section, to secure uniform structure and
freedom from quenching cracks. The elimination of all sharp corners
and abrupt changes of section is essential.
Main Bearings. Ball, roller and white-metal bearings are to be
found in various types. The two former permit of high loading and
reduce the length of the engine (bearing loads approximating to 100 %
over normal practice being found to give a total life commensurate
with the rest of the engine under service conditions). White-metal
main bearings, usually bronze shelled, are secured either by separate
loose caps bolted on or studded to the top half crank-case ; or, as in
usual German practice, by the bottom half crank-case itself, which
carries the lower halves of the whole of the crank-shaft bearings ; this
adds to the rigidity and general strength of the engine, but increases
the difficulty of production and fitting.
Valves. Valve breakage, originally a trouble, was almost eliminated
by the standardization of valve steels and by stamping the valves
AERONAUTICS
37
so that the grain flow in the valve head swept continuously and uni-
formly from the rim into the throat and stem, thus providing strength
to resist sheer at all points of the head. The original practice, before
bulk production warranted the use of stampings, had been to turn
valves from the solid bar, a procedure which gave in the head a grain
flow parallel to the stem.
For exhaust valves a steel having 14% tungsten and 3-5%
chromium is necessary in certain of the " hotter " stationary-type
engines. For the cooler-running engines a high-chromium stainless
steel gives satisfaction. Either of such steels would be satisfactory
for inlet valves, but, for economy of such high-grade materials, a
plain nickel steel is used with great success. (R. K. B.-W.)
V. AERO ENGINES
Historical Resume. For many years mechanical flight was
delayed for want of a light engine, and indeed from the first
flight to the present day (1921) the aeroplane was ahead of its
prime mover. Flight should have been possible in 1901 when
Manley, in the United States, built for S. P. Langley a five-
cylinder radial petrol engine developing 52 H.P. and weighing
only 2-9 Ib. per H.P. By bad fortune this engine was, however,
never used in flight until 1914, when it was mounted in the
Langley aeroplane for which it was intended.
For their first flights in 1903, the brothers Wright built a
four-cylinder car-type engine of 12 H.P. weighing 12-7 Ib. per
H.P. By 1905 it was improved to 19 H.P., with a weight of
9-5 Ib. per H.P. and, as redesigned in 1908, gave 35 H.P. and
weighed 5-5 Ib. per H.P.
The aero engine proper dates from about 1909, and the
progress made is traceable reliably by the results of competitive
tests held from time to time. Such tests were carried out in
France, 1909-11-13, in cooperation with La Ligue Nationale
Aerienne and the Auto Club de France; in England in 1909-12-
14; in Italy in 1913, and in Germany in 1912-4.
A certain section in England centred its hopes erroneously
on the use of very small engines. A. V. Roe made the wonderful
achievement of flying an aeroplane with only 9-10 H.P. in 1909.
The Alexander prize of 1911 at first stipulated for engines of
only 25 H.P. This was increased by the Advisory Committee
at the request of the supt. of the Army Aircraft Factory to admit
" 40 to 75 H.P." and was won by 24 hours' continuous running
by a 50-60 H.P. Green sent in on Sept. n 1911. This engine
weighed 296 Ib. complete, and developed an average of 53-5
H.P. The British Government competition of 1914, although
won by a no H.P. Green engine, was chiefly useful in showing
the merits of the 100 H.P. Gnome and the 90 H.P. RAF.
Both of these did yeoman service in the war, but soon proved to
be too small.
In Germany, the development of the airship led to the earlier
study of larger aero engines, although the German competition
of 1914 was won by a 100 H.P. Benz, weighing 4-2 Ib. per H.P.
The importance of the aeroplane in war service gave an immense
impetus to engine development along two main lines: (a) An
extensive development of high tensile steels and aluminium
alloys, and a more scientific use of the materials, led to a diminu-
tion of the weight; (b) attention to detailed design, guided by
scientific investigation, greatly increased the mean effective
pressure developed in the cylinders and the thermal efficiency.
The speed of rotation was also increased so that output was
augmented, while at the same time fuel consumption was
reduced.
Modern aero engines may be divided into two classes: (a)
Engines which are developments of the motor-car type, i.e.
all the water-cooled vertical, Vee, and broad-arrow engines;
(b) types designed specially for aerial flight, i.e. the radial rotary
engines and the air-cooled Vee engines.
The rotary air-cooled type, which was one of the earliest of
these, was almost entirely due to the French; e.g. the Gnome,
Le Rhone and Clerget engines. In this type minimum weight
was the objective. The arrangement of the engine, with its
cylinders radiating star fashion in one plane and operating on a
single crank, afforded a crank -shaft and crank-case of minimum
dimensions and accordingly gave a motor of extremely light
weight. To increase the cooling by air draught, and save the
weight of a fly-wheel, the cylinders were made to rotate round
the crank-shaft, which was fixed. Weight was economized by
making the cylinders of steel, with very thin walls, and the
difficulties due to distortion of such thin cylinders with heat
were ingeniously met by using a brass obturator ring, as sub-
stitute for the cast-iron piston rings which are universal in other
engines.
In 1909 a number of rotary engines of powers ranging from
30 to too H.P. were available. Of these the 100 H.P. Gnome
was the most powerful. In 1913 a i4-cylinder Gnome of 160
H.P. was launched, and on a British army aeroplane achieved
the fastest flight up to that time, namely 130 m. per hour.
At the outbreak of war in 1914, the 100 H.P. Monosoupape
Gnome, and at a slightly later stage the no H.P. Clerget and
the 100 H.P. Le Rhone came into current use, and the 160
H.P. Gnome was, unfortunately from the war fighter's point
of view, discarded on the score of complication. In France in
1917 a higher-powered Monosoupape developing 150 H.P. was
put into commission, while in Great Britain the BRi and the
BR2 rotaries, developing respectively 150 and 220 H.P., were
produced. Including the propeller boss the later Mono-Gnome
weighed 2-03 Ib. per H.P. and the BR2 2-21 Ib. per H.P.
In 1914, and indeed at a later stage, none of the rotary en-
gines were quite satisfactory; the type suffers from certain
inherent disadvantages. It is liable to the distortion and over-
heating of its cylinders; the earlier examples required special
precautions against catching fire; its petrol and oil consumptions
are high ; and it requires frequent dismantling and overhauling.
In spite of this the best of these rotaries formed the basis
on which European air experience was founded, and as recently
as 1912 the best aero engines (from the point of view, be it under-
stood, of the aeroplane's performance, which is dominantly a
matter of weight) were probably the Gnome rotaries weighing
from 3-0 to 3-5 Ib. per H.P. At this time long-distance flights
were exceptional and therefore their large fuel and oil con-
sumption was not so serious. Throughout the war, and espe-
cially in its earlier stages, they gave their best service in ma-
chines of the single-seater high-speed class, in competition with
the heavier water-cooled vertical engines on which the German
air service relied almost entirely.
When the distance of flight was extended, the water-cooled
car-type engine came to the front partly because the smaller
weight of fuel to be carried compensated for the greater weight
of the engine itself, and partly because it was at that time more
reliable. The following table shows the total weights of engine,
fuel and oil, for flights of different duration, in the case of a typ-
ical air-cooled rotary engine weighing 2-25 Ib. per H.P. and
consuming i-io Ib. of fuel and oil per H.P. hour, and of a water-
cooled engine weighing 4-0 Ib. per H.P. and having a total
consumption of 0-55 Ib. per H.P. hour.
Weight of engine, petrol, oil (Ib. per hr.).
Duration of flight
(hrs.) . . .
Rotary air-cooled
engines .
Water-cooled engines
I
3-35
4-55
2
4'45
5-10
3
5-55
5-65
4
6-65
6-2O
5
7-65
6-75
10
12-25
9-55
For longer flights than 35 hours the water-cooled engine is here
shown to involve a smaller gross weight.
It was largely emulation of the rotary which forced the pace
of the progress on the car-type engine. This led to the replace-
ment of cast iron by sheet metal for water-jackets; to the use of
thin steel instead of cast iron for cylinder barrels and of alu-
minium for cylinder-head castings; and to the use of two, and in
some cases three, rows of cylinders operating on a single crank-
shaft arid mounted on a common crank -case. The use of steel
or aluminium alloy instead of cast iron for the pistons had
been initiated in experiments for motor-cars. In some few
cases air-cooling was adopted, e.g. in France the 70 H.P. eight-
cylinder Vee Renault of 1912, and notably in England the
90 H.P. eight-cylinder Vee RAF of 1913-4, and the 140
H.P. twelve-cylinder Vee RAF4a, all of which had cast-iron
L-headed cylinders. The last-named engine weighed 4-0 Ib. per
H.P. and gave excellent service during the war.
AERONAUTICS
Still the car engine of given cylinder capacity remained
appreciably heavier than the contemporary rotary, until care-
ful studies in 1916-17-18 were made to increase the output
per unit of cylinder volume, and the thermal efficiency.
The volumetric efficiency was increased by improving the
design of the inlet pipes, valves, and valve gearing, and the
combustion space of the cylinder. The thermal efficiency and
the mean effective pressure were increased by augmenting the
compression. Since high compression is only practicable with a
compact and symmetrical combustion chamber the L-headed
cylinder was replaced by the overhead valve-cylinder. More-
over, since high compression necessitates good cooling of the
cylinder, the water-cooled engine gained a distinct relative ad-
vantage over the earlier air-cooled engines which were, in general,
inadequately cooled. As a result of these steps in the detail
design, the brake mean effective pressure was raised from
the 75 to 95 Ib. usual on cars, to as high as 130 Ib. per sq. in. in
the best modern aero engines, while at the same time the petrol
consumption was reduced to approximately 0-45 Ib. per B.H.P.
hour, a value some 40% better than that of the average car
engine.
In many cases the output was also improved by increasing
the speed of the engine. The speed of the rotary engine was
limited to about 1,200 revolutions per minute, by the stresses due
to centrifugal force. In the fixed cylinder engine, however, much
higher rotational speeds could be adopted by attention to the
balance of the moving parts, and to the design of the bearings.
These speeds now range from 1,400 to 2,100 revolutions per
minute, reduction gears being used for the airscrew drive in
the case of the larger and less rapidly flying aeroplanes.
The resultant weight economy was considerable. Thus the
300 H.P. Hispano-Suiza water-cooled Vee, rotating at 2,000
r.p.m., weighed only 1-80 Ib. per H.P. and the 450 H.P. Napier
" Lion " of 1921 only 1-89 Ib. per H.P. In each case these
weights include that of the propeller boss, but not that of the
radiator and its water, which would add approximately 0-55 Ib.
per H.P.
These advances in the car type of aero engine were accom-
panied by improvements in the specialized type. In 1912 the
radial engine with fixed cylinders was represented by a few
examples of which the 9-cylinder, water-cooled " Salmson "
developing no H.P., the 6-cylinder, water-cooled " Laviator "
up to 6 in. and up to 50 B.H.P. per cylinder, give an output and
fuel-consumption of similar order to those from the best water-
cooled cylinders.
No air-cooled engine with these large cylinders reached the
stage of production in quantity during the war. A number of
British radial engines were, however, developed in 1918, and of
these the " A. B.C. Dragonfly," having nine steel cylinders,
giving 300 H.P. and weighing 2-22 Ib. per H.P., and the 450
H.P. " Cosmos Jupiter," having nine steel cylinders with
an aluminium patch containing the inlet and exhaust ports
bolted to each head, and weighing 1-42 Ib. per H.P., are worthy
of mention.
As compared with these it will be recalled that the 150 Mono-
Gnome of the same date weighed 2-03 Ib. per H.P.
A i2-cylinder Vee experimental engine with aluminium cylin-
ders was built at the Royal Aircraft Factory in 1916-7 and gave
excellent results in flight and on the test bed. This developed
210 H.P. and weighed 3-0 Ib. per H.P.
Prior to 1914 the American aero engine was mostly of the
car type, and was outdistanced during the first two years of the
war by the more intensive development in those countries active-
ly engaged. At that time the 160 H.P. Curtiss was probably
the most outstanding engine in America, and when the United
States declared war in 1917 her need for high-powered aero
engines became acute. In May 1917 it was decided, in confer-
ence with the Allied Mission in the United States, to design
and build the Liberty engine, of which an 8-cylinder model
was completed for test on July 3 1917. This was not put into
production, as advices from France indicated that demands for
increased power would render it obsolete before it could be
produced in quantity. Efforts were then concentrated on a 12-
cylinder model, the first of which passed its so-hour test on Aug.
25 1917. This engine is a water-cooled Vee, originally developing
400 H.P. and weighing 2-0 Ib. per H.P. More recent improve-
ments have increased the output to 510 H.P. and reduced the
dry weight per H.P. to 1-75 Ib. or about 2-3 Ib. with cooling
water and radiator.
The progress in the average aero engine in service between
1910 and 1918, in power, weight, and efficiency, is shown in the
following table. The main details are abstracted from the
report of the American National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics in 1918:
Engine
Date
H.P.
\Yeight
Ib.
Weight
per H.P.
Average petrol
(Ib. per B.H.P.)
Ave
rage i
n sen
/ice .
1910
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
54
112
133
185
234
267
309
437
5'2
570
603
693
5-7"
3-9
3-7
3-1
2-8
2-6
}.
72
65
60
55
developing 80 H.P., and the 6 and 10 cylinder, air-cooled
" Anzani " developing 60 and 100 H.P. are among the most
noteworthy. The Salmson was developed at a later stage as a
i4-cylinder, two-row engine of 200 H.P. and the Anzani as a 20-
cylinder, four-row engine of 200 H.P. These engines were
French, but since 1914 British designers have greatly advanced
the science of the air-cooled engine.
The fixed radial engine has a number of features of superiority
over the rotary. It enables a normal type of carburetter and
of piston to be used; it eliminates the large windage losses;
while since the cylinders are not exposed to centrifugal stresses
aluminium alloys can be used. This light and highly conducting
metal has greatly helped air-cooling. Owing to the greater ease
of installation of the air-cooled engine in an aeroplane, the
absence of a fragile radiator liable to freeze on descent from great
heights, as well as to its adaptability to work in the tropics,
much attention was paid during the war to the design of air-
cooled cylinders. A composite construction using aluminium
alloy for cylinder heads was evolved at the Royal Aircraft
Factory, Farnborough, between 1915 and 1921, with the result
that air-cooled cylinders became available which, for diameters
Since the water-cooled engines cannot function without
radiator and water, an addition of 0-55 Ib. per H.P. has been
made in their case to render Table A comparative. The weights
after deduction of 0-55 Ib. are actual measurements, and include
those of the propeller boss and of the gear, if any. In cases
where the respective makers produce a series of engines of
different powers, only representative examples have been quoted.
During the latter part of the war, the demand for engines
of large H.P. for bombing aeroplanes and dirigibles led to
the production of many experimental engines, which were
available by 1921, e.g. the 800-900 H.P. Sunbeam Coatalen,
the 850 H.P. Fiat, the 1,000 H.P. Lorraine Dietrich, and the
1,000 H.P. Napier " Cub."
Types of Engines. Of the total heat from the fuel, 25 % to 35 %
passes through the walls and piston and must be dissipated by water-
cooling or direct air-cooling if the normal operation of the engine is to
be maintained.
Water or air-cooling have their respective advantages and dis-
advantages.
For the water-cooled engine is claimed:
(l) A lower cylinder-wall temperature; a reduced tendency to
the burning of exhaust valves ana pistons; and more effective lubri-
cation.
AERONAUTICS
39
TABLE A. Details of the Principal Engines Available in 1918 for Service.
t
Country
Engine
Type
H.P.
Weight
R.P.M.
Wt. per
H.P.
Great Britain
Beardmore
6 cyl. W.C.
170
592
1350
4-85
Green
6 ' W.C
170
585
1350
3-99
"
12 ' Vee W.C
300
990
1300
3-85
Rolls Royce Eagle
12 ' Vee W.C. .
360
947
1800
3'i8
Falcon . . .
12 Vee W.C
275
715
2000
3-15
" Napier Lion .
12 ' broad-arrow
456
850
1925
2-41
Sunbeam Arab ....
8 ' Vee W.C
220
524
2IOO
2-93
Maori ....
12 " Vee W.C
280
720
2IOO
3-32
Siddeley Puma . . . .
6 " W.C.
290
635
1650
2-74
B.H.P
6 " W.C
254
604
I4OO
2-93
R.A.F
12 " VeeA.C
1 60
639
I8OO
4-00
B.R.I. . . . ' .
9 " Rotary A.C. .
150
410
1250
2-78
B.R.2
A.B.C. Dragonfly
9 ' Rotary A.C. .
9 ' Radial A.C.
224
294
496
651
1200
1650
2-21
2-22
Cosmos Mercury
14 " Radial A.C.
315
582
I8OO
I-8 4
France .
Hispano Suiza ....
8 cyl. Vee W.C
217
484
2OOO
2- 7 8
" 11
8 " Vee W.C
315
558
2OOO
2-33
Renault
12 " Vee W.C
245
924
1300
4-32
Lorraine Dietrich
8 " Vee W.C
215
834
1450
3-4
Canton Unne ....
9 " Radial W.C. .
255
840
1300
4-13
Anzani
10 ' Radial A.C. . .
125
522
I2OO
4-17
Le Rhone
9 ' Rotary A.C.
130
330
1250
2-54
Clerget
9 ' Rotary ....
125
37
1250
2-96
Mono-Gnome ....
9 ' Rotary .
105
260
I2OO
2-48
it "
9 ' Rotary ....
154
313
1300
2-03
Italy .
Fiat
6 cyl. Vertical W.C. .
317
910
I6OO
3-42
"
12 " Vee W.C
400
805
226O
2-57
Isotta Fraschini ....
6 " Vertical W.C. .
190
574 .
1450
3-57
14 11
6 " Vertical W.C. .
300
662
1650
2-76
Tosi
12 " Vee W.C
410
904
I6OO
2-76
Spa
6 " Vertical W.C. .
230
507
I6OO
2-76
Anzani
12 ' Radial A.C.
too
386
1320
3-86
Germany
Austro Daimler ....
6 cyl. Vertical W.C. .
200
728
I4OO
4-19
Benz
6 " Vertical W.C. .
163
592
I2OO
4-19
"
6 " Vertical W.C. .
235
846
1400
4-17
Maybach
6 " Vertical W.C. .
200
it
6 " Vertical W.C. .
300
891
1400
3-52
Mercedes
6 " Vertical W.C. .
164
618
I4OO
4-3i
**
6 " Vertical W.C. .
252
93
I40O
4-36
(2) A greater uniformity of temperature throughout the cylinder,
and therefore less tendency to distortion.
(3) Generally, greater reliability and higher efficiency.
These advantages could justly be claimed over the earlier types
of air-cooled engines ; to-day they are less clear. Thus the first claim
is only justified where great attention is paid to the design and
arrangement of the jackets and circulating systems. Measurements
confirm claim (2), but also show that the lack of uniformity is not
necessarily a serious matter, while troubles from overheated exhaust
valves have recently been more prevalent on water-cooled than on
the modern air-cooled type.
For the air-cooled engine is claimed :
(1) Smaller weight per H.P. of the complete power unit.
(2) No danger of water freezing on gliding from great heights, or
when standing.
(3) Reduced vulnerability in war service and easier installation.
(4) Special adaptability for use under widely differing atmospheric
temperatures, and for the tropics.
(5) Better adaptability for application of some supercharging
device to give constant power at heights.
Claim (l) is a matter of demonstration, the usual weight allow-
ance for water-cooling being 0-6 Ib. per H.P. while the very best is
0-4 Ib. per H.P. Claim (2) is admissible to the extent that if freezing
be prevented by the use of some other liquid, such as a mixture of
alcohol and water, the alcohol evaporates unless the temperature of
the fluid is kept below about 70 C. which increases the radiator size.
There is undoubtedly a future for the air-cooled engine of the
fixed-cylinder type up to a certain size of cylinder. What this limit
of size may be is not known at present. Cylinders of 8-in. bore by
lo-in. stroke developing over too H.P. have been made and proved
to be possible, and investigations on cylinders up to 10 in. in diameter
are in progress. Twelve 6-inch cylinders would give 600 H.P., a
useful size at present, and an 800 or 900 B.H.P. air-cooled engine is
certainly feasible.
Design of Air-Cooled Cylinders. The useof aluminium alloyforthe
cylinder heads has largely conduced to these results. In a normal
design the middle portion of the head is the hottest point because
the flow of cooling air and the placing of fins at this point is impeded
by the inlet and the exhaust valve ports and valve gear. Most of the
heat has to be conducted outwards till dissipated from the periphery
of the combustion head, and the aluminium alloy effects this well,
both because its conductivity is 3-5 times greater than the steel, and
because being 0-4 of the density of steel it may be used in ample
thickness.
Such a cylinder must be of composite construction, since the valve
seats and the working surface of the cylinder barrel must be of some
harder material than aluminium. The valve seats may consist of
rings of steel or of bronze, and these may be either cast or expanded
into position. Tests appear to favour a steel barrel with integral
cooling fins, screwed into an aluminium head for diameters as large
as eight inches.
Arrangement of Cylinders. Aero engines may be subdivided
according to the arrangement of their cylinders, into the following
types:
(1) Single line engines suitable for water-cooling.
(2) Vee engines suitable for water- or air-cooling.
(3) Broad arrow engines suitable for water-cooling.
(4) Radial engines fixed cylinders ; air-cooling.
(5) Rotary engines suitable for air-cooling.
The general arrangement of these types is shown in fig. 22.
The straight line engine (a), with six or eight cylinders in line,
offers a low hea,d resistance and is accessible. On the other hand its
fore-and-aft length is large. The crank-shaft and crank-case are
long, and hence the type is heavy.
In the Vee type engine (6) two lines of cylinders are used inclined
to each other to form a Vee in elevation, and the corresponding port
and starboard cylinders operate a common crank-pin. Weight is
saved on crank-shaft, case, and valve gear.
In the Broad Arrow (c) three lines of cylinders are used as above
with further weight saving.
In the Radial engine (d) economy of crank-shaft and case is carried
to its logical conclusion. The cylinders are mounted in one plane at
equal angular intervals around the crank-shaft. All the connecting
rods operate on a single crank-pin. The small fore-and-aft length of
the engine helps the aeroplane designer but its considerable diameter
may hamper him.
To obtain explosion impulses at equal intervals throughout each
revolution an odd number of cylinders must be used, the usual
number being seven or nine. Where a larger power is required two
rows of cylinders may be used, operating a two-throw crank-shaft.
The radial cylinders may be stationary or rotating. In the latter
case the airscrew is mounted on a continuation of the rotating crank-
case. The rotating cylinder engine is quite unsuited for water-
cooling. Although the radial engine with fixed cylinders is not well
AERONAUTICS
FIG. 22.
adapted for water-cooling, engines of this type have been built and
operated successfully. Among these is the recent 300 H.P. 9-
cylinder Fiat, weighing 1-7 Ib. per H.P. The difficulty of arranging
the water circulation so as to avoid all danger of air locks in the
inverted cylinders is, however, appreciable, and the head resistance
of the completed engine is large. For these reasons there is not
likely to be any great future for the water-cooled radial engine on
aeroplanes of present types.
Installations of Air-Cooled Engines. Some form of cowling is
needed to distribute the air evenly over the various cylinders, and the
success of a Vee engine depends largely on the cowling, whereas even
air-cooling is more easily obtained on a " radial."
With rotary engines the cooling is not as good as might be expected
from the high peripheral velocity, and the windage losses, even with
a cowling, amount to some 10% of the total power developed.
In these engines the air-petrol mixture is led through the hollow
crank-shaft to the crank-case. In the original Gnome engine auto-
matic inlet valves fixed in the piston heads and opened by the
suction on the inlet stroke admitted the charge. These valves were
light, often broke, and were inaccessible.
In the Monosoupape Gnome the valve in the piston is eliminated
and a mechanically operated valve in the cylinder head is used. This
serves as an exhaust valve, but, instead of closing at the end of the
exhaust stroke, it remains open for a part of the inlet stroke and then
admits air to the cylinder. When it closes, the further motion of the
piston produces a partial vacuum in the cylinder, until, near the end
of its stroke, the piston uncovers a ring of openings in the cylinder
walls communicating with the crank-case. The fuel jet is adjusted
to give a mixture too rich to be explosive, and this mixture enters into
the cylinders and mixes with the air admitted through the inlet
valve to form an explosive charge.
Other modern rotary engines have mechanically operated inlet
and exhaust vajves, with which efficient valve timing becomes
possible. The mixture in the crank-case then passes into a circular
box fixed to the rear of the crank-case and rotating with it, whence
it is led by inlet pipes to the cylinders in the ordinary way.
These methods of mixture supply, though crude, gave the rotary
engine the advantage of having a fuel supply adjustable by hand to
suit the air density when flight at great heights first became impor-
tant. On the other hand, the non-rotary engines, fitted with normal
carburetters, received a mixture too rich for efficient operation at
considerable heights. To obviate this, automatic carburetter con-
trols had to be devised, but pending this the rotary engine had a
distinct advantage for high Hying.
The lubrication of the rotary engine is peculiar to the type. All
oil in the crank-case is thrown centrifugally into the cylinders, and
once there cannot be drained out, cooled, and circulated again as in
fixed-cylinder engines, but must be discharged through the exhaust
valves. Consequently the oil consumption is high. Moreover the
lubricating oil must be insoluble in petrol, so that castor oil is
necessary.
The power of the rotary engine falls off more rapidly with height
than that of the fixed-cylinder engine if the latter has a suitably
controlled carburetter, and at a height of 15,000 ft. the difference in
horse-power is about 10 per cent.
The Differential Engine. For large powers, each of the two types
of radial engine has its own peculiar limitations. In the fixed radial
the fly-wheel effect is small, while it becomes difficult to design an
engine exceeding about 400 H.P. on a single crank because of the
excessive load on the big-end of the connecting-rod. In the rotary
radial this difficulty is less, but windage losses, centrifugal stresses,
gyroscopic effects and valve-gear difficulties are encountered.
The "differential" engine has been proposed to combine some of
the advantages of each type. Here the cylinder ring rotates in one
direction and the crank-shaft in the opposite direction at the same
speed. In this way the big-end loading may be kept within reasonable
limits; the gyroscopic effect is negligible ; centrifugal forces and wind-
age losses are comparatively small ; and the speed of rotation is low
enough to permit an efficient airscrew to be fitted.
If the big-end loading be taken as the criterion, the power of the
differential engine is about 30% greater than that of the fixed radial
engine, or, deducting the windage loss, about 26 per cent. Whether
this advantage outweighs the complication in design, remains to
be proved.
Cycles of Operation. All aero engines are of the single-acting type
in which driving impulses are received on one side only of the piston,
and in the majority of engines the four-stroke cycle is adopted. The
two-stroke cycle has not hitherto been adapted successfully to the
aero engine, owing to its comparative inefficiency in a high-speed
engine which requires to operate over a wide range of speeds.
A six-stroke cycle is in the experimental stage. It consists of the
four-stroke cycle with the addition of a suction and compression
stroke. The first suction stroke draws in a charge which is com-
pressed into an auxiliary reservoir on the succeeding stroke. The
next stroke is also a suction stroke which draws in another fresh
charge. At the end of this stroke a valve opens and admits to the
cylinder the charge compressed during the preceding stroke, and
during the succeeding stroke both charges are compressed into the
clearance space and fired. In this way a charge of double weight is
obtained and the mean effective pressure during the expansion stroke
is twice as great as in the four-stroke cycle. The mean effective
pressure over the whole six strokes of the cycle is thus 33 % greater
than the mean effective pressure over the whole four strokes of the
ordinary cycle. Since the explosion pressures are approximately
twice as great as in the four-stroke cycle the cylinder construction is
heavier.
For evenness of turning moment, the two-stroke is better than the
four-stroke, and this than the six-stroke cycle.
In each of these cycles the mixture is drawn into the cylinder,
compressed, burnt at constant volume, and expanded to the same
volume as before compression. The theoretical efficiency of this cycle
is given by the expression I ( Jy~ l where r is the ratio of the
volumes before and after compression and y is the ratio of the specific
heats of the working fluid at constant pressure and constant volume.
This is known as the air standard efficiency. It assumes that the
specific heat is constant at all temperatures, and that there is no loss
of heat to the walls of the cylinder, in which case the value of y is
1-408.
Taking into account the variation of specific heat with tempera-
ture, the appropriate value of y in this expression becomes 1-295
and except for losses of heat to the cylinder walls and piston, the
efficiency of an aero engine should attain the values corresponding to
its compression ratio, which are:
Compression ratio
4-0
4-5
5-o
5-5
6-0
6-5
7-0
7-5
8-0
,-,-(!),-.
336
359
378
396
411
424
437
449
460
These figures indicate the importance of a high compression ratio.
This is particularly important in the case of an aero engine, since the
drop in power with height diminishes as the compression ratio is
increased.
A limit is, however, set to the compression ratio in practice by the
tendency of a petrol-air mixture to detonate when compressed to a
high pressure and temperature. Such a mixture has a " spontaneous
ignition " temperature corresponding to any definite pressure, at
which it will detonate, and should this combination of temperature
and pressure be attained in operation it is apt to cause overheating of
:he sparking plugs and to lead to general overheating of the cylinder
and ultimately to pre-ignition.
The tendency to detonation depends largely on the design of the
combustion chamber. It is less where this is compact and symmetri-
cal than where it contains pockets as in a cylinder of the L-headed
:ype. It also depends appreciably on the position of the sparking
Dlugs, and on the composition of the fuel. The addition of benzol or
Denzene to petrol enables a higher compression ratio to be used, but
owing to the comparatively high freezing-point of benzol, not more
:han about 25 % can be used in admixture with petrol, for use at
reat heights.
By attention to design it is now found possible to use c6mpression
ratios as high as 5-5 when using petrol as a fuel, and as high as 6-5
when using petrol-benzol mixture. With such compression ratios,
AERONAUTICS
fuel consumptions in the neighbourhood of 0-45 Ib. per B.H.P. hour
may be attained.
Supercharging for High Flying. Since the power is proportional
to the weight of petrol-air mixture taken in per cycle, and since this
weight depends on the density of the surrounding atmosphere, the
power falls off with the height reached. Tests show that in the aver-
age engine the power is sensibly proportional to the atmospheric
pressure. The law of variation with atmospheric density varies
slightly with the type of engine, but may be taken approximately
B.H.P. is proportional to p" where P is the density, and n varies
from i-l to 1-3. increasing slightly with the height. At different
heights the power developed by a 2OO-H P. engine at a constant engine
speed is thus approximately as follows :
Height, feet
o
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
444
30,000
Density .
I-O
869
7H
613
527
360
58
B.H.P. . .
200
171
135
in
90
73
B.H.P. as % of
ground B.H.P.
I-O
8SS
673
552
45
365
290
Since the resistance to the motion of an aeroplane diminishes directly
as the air density, other things being unchanged, the level speed
should only diminish slightly with an increase in height. This
diminution in speed is, however, rendered more pronounced by the
fact that the angle of incidence of the planes requires to be increased
in order that they may support the same weight in air of reduced
density, and this increases the head resistance.
The climbing speed of the aeroplane is reduced in a much greater
degree, since the energy to be expanded in lifting the dead weight of
the machine through a given height is independent of the density
and remains constant at all heights; and at some definite height,
depending on the design of the aeroplane and the power of the
engine, the latter is only sufficient to overcome the head resistance
when flying level at the minimum safe speed of the aeroplane with
the increased angle of incidence of the planes, without leaving any
surplus lifting capacity. This height is termed the " ceiling " of the
Any device which would enable the power of the engine to be main-
tained at height would not only increase the level speed, but more
especially the rate of climb and the height of the " ceiling."
Three such devices have shown promise. In the first the engine is
fitted with differential pistons. Air is drawn into the space between
these on the outward stroke of the engine, compressed on the return
stroke, passed through a cooler, and forced into the cylinder through
a series of ports uncovered by the piston slightly before the end of
the suction stroke. By this method the weight of mixture in the
cylinder is increased. The degree of " supercharging " may be
adjusted by a regulating valve so as to keep the power constant
over a range of heights up to about 10,000 feet. This scheme has
not as yet been very successful owing mainly to mechanical defects.
In the second system a centrifugal blower is geared to the engine.
The discharge from this is passed through the carburetter on its way
to the cylinders which are thus fed with mixture under an increased
pressure. The system is, of course, an added complication and
involves the maintenance of very high-speed gears and bearings. As
the induction system is under pressure, any leaky joints will derange
the operation of the engine, and lastly, since the speed of the blower is
constant at constant engine speeds, the amount of supercharging
falls off with height, while, near the ground, air must be blown to
waste through a bypass valve.
In the third system the engine exhaust is discharged through a
single-wheel high-speed impulse turbine of the Rateau type. This
turbine is direct coupled to a centrifugal blower feeding the car-
buretter, and delivers sufficient air to the engine to maintain its
power at all heights up to about 15,000 feet. This method is partially
automatic in that if the pressure in the induction pipe is maintainec
constant, the pressure of the exhaust gases will be constant, anc
since the pressure on the exhaust side of the turbine diminishes with
height, the pressure available for driving the turbine increases with
height to an extent which compensates for the increased demand for
power by the blower. A valve for bypassing the whole or part of the
exhaust gas directly into the atmosphere is provided to enable the
output from the blower to be regulated.
Here also the induction system is under pressure. The weight
complete for a 2OO-H.P. installation can be cut down to about 60 Ib
and at 15,000 ft. the gain in power is about 80 H. P. for an expenditure
of only 0-75 Ib. per H.P. thus gained.
The increased complexity of the installation, the work thrown on
the pilot, and the risk of breakdown will all retard the introduction
of such schemes. Moreover, the additional weight may alternatively
be devoted to increasing the size of the cylinders, leaving the crank-
case and crank-shaft, etc., sensibly unaltered. Such a " light "
engine would not withstand being opened out fully near the ground,
and special precautions would require to be taken to prevent this
happening. At height, however, it could be fully opened up, and the
increased power corresponding to its increased cylinder diameter
taken advantage of. Such a unit has the advantage of simplicity.
Many of the latest and most powerful engines are really in a modified
degree " light " engines, in that they cannot be run for more than a
very few minutes " all out " near the ground.
Other methods of reducing the drop in power with height are
possible. One such method is to design the engine with a compression
ratio too high to permit of ground operation, and to reduce this
near the ground by a cam giving a late closing to the inlet valve.
As the height is increased the inlet valve would be closed earlier in
the stroke until, at some predetermined height, normal timing would
be attained. A second method which has been suggested consists in
admitting a proportion of cooled exhaust gas to the cylinder with the
working mixture. This reduces the tendency to detonation and
enables a higher compression ratio to be adopted than would other-
wise be possible. As the height increases the proportion of exhaust
gas would be reduced, until, at the predetermined height, the engine
would be working on a normal mixture.
Engine Starters. The operation of starting an aeroplane engine
by swinging the airscrew by hand has always been dangerous, and
to remove the necessity for this, several types of self-starter have
been devised. An electric motor geared to the crank-shaft through a
clutch achieves this, but the number of starts possible with one
charge is limited by the accumulator, and the weight and bulk of the
installation restrict its sphere of usefulness. A compressed-air
starter is lighter. Here a high-pressure cylinder supplies air to the
correct cylinders by means of a distributor operated from the crank-
shaft of the engine.
The most usual starting system consists of a supplementary
magneto placed in the cockpit and rotated by hand by the pilot
when the crank-shaft has been brought into the correct position.
For success one or more of the cylinders must contain an explosive
charge and therefore the crank-shaft is rotated slowly by hand,
drawing a charge of petrol vapour from the carburetter as in normal
operation. The plan is, however, unsatisfactory in cold weather, and
starting is facilitated by admitting coal gas or hydrogen into the
induction pipe from a small container, while the crank-shaft is being
rotated.
One modern device, still (1921) in the experimental stage, consists
of a small two-stroke single-cylinder engine which is started by hand
and drives a compressor which draws an explosive mixture from its
induction pipe and forces this through a distributor into the appro-
priate cylinders of the main engine. This charge is then fired in the
usual way.
Future Development of the Aero Engine. The development of the
aero engine must increase its reliability, its useful life, its efficiency
and its output in horse-power per unit weight, especially at height.
Experience gained in the operation of existing types, by a process of
survival of the fittest, slowly leads to the elimination of those details
in design which are in the main responsible for breakdowns. The
reduction of bearing loads and the improvement in bearings, in-
creased perfection in balancing, better design of valve springs and of
valve gears, of pistons and piston rings and of lubrication systems,
will all add to the useful life, while improvements in carburation, in
cooling and lubrication, induction systems, and in sparking plugs,
will lead to increased reliability of operation. Efficiency will be
enhanced mainly by such modifications in cylinder design or by the
use of such fuels as will admit of higher compression pressures.
It seemed possible in 192 1 that the Diesel cycle might be developed
for aero-engine work, and the Junker engine of this type was said to
have attained a fairly advanced stage of development in Germany.
In view of the heavy cylinders required a sufficiently light Diesel
engine, however, appears to be very difficult of attainment. Failing
this, the direct injection of fuel into the cylinder during the suction
stroke, using moderate compression ratios, may have possibilities.
This is a modification of the method used in the early Antoinette
engine, where fuel was injected by a pump into the inlet pipe of each
cylinder. The method has the advantage of eliminating the car-
buretter and induction system and, in theory, of enabling a uniform
mixture to be given to all the cylinders. Promising experiments on
single-cylinder engines were in progress in 1921.
Outside existing designs in 1921 there appeared to be scope for
an engine working on the two-stroke cycle, and for a double-acting-
line engine with cylinders in tandem. It is true that attention had
already been paid to both these types without, as yet, successful
results. Still, many of the initial difficulties had been surmounted,
and there was every reason to hope that a successful design would
ultimately be evolved. Such an engine would have excellent pros-
pects of fulfilling the ideal conception of I Ib. per B.H.P. which is
at present the dream of the aero-engine designer. In view of the
immense progress in the design of aero engines during 1911-21, it
seemed probable that the aero engines of the future might well show
as much improvement as those of 1921 did as compared with the
machinery to which the early fliers entrusted their lives.
(A. H. Gi.)
VI. AIR NAVIGATION
Historical. Navigation is the art of selecting the course
which a craft should take in order to proceed from any one
position on the waters to any other. For guidance in the building-
up of air navigation centuries of experience of the sister art ot
AERONAUTICS
sea navigation may be drawn on, and much of this experience is
capable of direct application to the air. The earlier forms of
marine navigation were of a rudimentary type and would now
be included in the general term " pilotage." Whenever they
could manage to do so the primitive sea voyagers were careful
to keep in sight of the coastline, so that even a rough map
sufficed to enable the position of the ship to be noted. The
great voyagers of the middle ages were bolder and depended
no longer on mere pilotage methods; then it was that scientific
navigation had its birth. The compass came into use in Europe
about the i4th century, and by its means, combined with a
rough measurement of the speed of the craft through the sea,
it was possible to keep a reckoning on the chart called a
" dead reckoning," or briefly D.R. of the position from day
to day. This allowed nothing for drift due to tides or currents
or leeway, but since in the early voyages these were quite un-
known in amount no allowances could be made. Experience
showed that the D.R. position thus obtained was often con-
siderably in error, and some check upon it became very neces-
sary. For this the simple cross-staff and the astrolabe were em-
ployed. With these instruments a rough measurement of the
altitude of the sun at midday, or of the pole star at night, enabled
the latitude to be determined to perhaps half a degree, or 30
nautical miles. But a simple latitude observation like this did
not suffice to ascertain the ship's position, since it merely gave
the information that it must lie somewhere on an east-west
line drawn so many degrees N. or S. of the equator. If the
course were N. or S., this measurement gave the run, but no
check on the estimated course; whilst if the course were E. or
W., the latitude measurement gave no information as to the run.
Later on, when better instruments were available the introduc-
tion of the Hadley sextant in 1731 marked a very real advance
methods were adopted to enable longitude as well as latitude to
be measured, but the necessary calculation of lunar distances
was troublesome, and it was not until the perfection of the
marine chronometer in the latter half of the i8th century that it
became open to the average sea navigator to work out his longi-
tude as well as his latitude, and so obtain a check on both run
and course.
Experience with air navigation has followed a generally sim-
ilar path; compressed of course into a very few years. When
air craft were first navigated they followed pilotage methods
only; the earth was continuously, or almost continuously, in
sight, and the position from time to time was ascertained by the
recognition of landmarks, or, where these were scarce, by a
system of dead reckoning based on the compass course and the
speed through the air. Here, however, arises the great difference
between sea and air conditions. Currents in the sea rarely exceed
a few knots, but in the air are quite commonly of 20 knots,
velocity, and may be even four or five times as much ; moreover,
whilst the former may be charted the latter cannot. This would
tend to make air navigation the more difficult, but its effect is
mitigated by the fact that the air ocean has the great merit
for this purpose of being transparent (except for occasional
cloud sheets) and of enabling the direction and course of air
currents to be measured by watching the apparent motion of
objects on the earth's surface. A wind of 50 knots opposing
an aircraft having a speed through the air of 100 knots will re-
duce its speed over ground by one-half, while if favouring it
will cause the ground speed to exceed the air speed by 50%:
neither, however, will cause any apparent sideways drift of the
craft. If, in either of these cases, the speed over the ground be
measured in some convenient way, it is possible to determine
both the velocity and direction of the air current, i.e. the wind.
A similar but slightly more troublesome measurement gives
the wind velocity, and direction, when the flight is oblique to
the wind. This ability is not shared by the sea navigator, who
cannot see the bottom of the ocean on which he sails, and has
instead to assume the accuracy of the information given on his
charts and in his sailing directions.
The fact that an aircraft, when flying with the wind, may have
a ground speed of as much as 1 50 to 200 knots, makes it essential
to determine the position with rapidity. An observation which
took 10 minutes to reduce would afford information of a position
some 30 nautical m. to the rear. Hence speedy methods are
essential; and fortunately owing to the absence of aerial rocks
and shoals, and the extensive field of view much less accuracy
of position-finding is required in the air than at sea. An accuracy
of determination of 10 m. suffices for almost all air purposes;
whereas the sea navigator aims hopefully at "an accuracy
within a mile or less.
Dead Reckoning. Hakluyt, recording in 1580 " instructions and
notes very necessary and needful to be observed," points out that
" in keeping your dead reckoning, it is necessary that you doe note
at the ende of every foure glasses what way the shippe hath made
(by your best proofes, to be used) and how her way hath beene
through the water, considering withall for the sagge of the sea, to
leewards, according as you shall finde it growe. Doe you diligently
observe the latitude as often, and in as many places as you may
possible; and also the variation of the compasse. . . ." These
instructions, so necessary and needful to be observed at sea, are for
air navigation not less so. But in the latter case special difficulties
arise. The course over the ground is determined by the apparent
motion of objects on the earth relative to the fore-and-aft line of the
craft ; but owing to the rolling, yawing and pitching of the latter, and
of all instruments carried upon it, such measurements are far from
simple. However straight the pilot may try to fly he will yaw
slightly from side to side, and this will cause the flight path to be
more or less sinusoidal, with an accompanying lateral acceleration
tending to cause the machine itself, and all instruments fastened to
it, to roll periodically to port or starboard. This will cause any
objects below the craft to appear to follow an oscillatory path instead
of a straight line, and so make the determination of the angle of
drift much more difficult. Nor is it possible to surmount this
obstacle by making the observing apparatus pendulous in the hope
that it will remain vertical. The lateral acceleration due to the
slightly curved path will cause the centre of gravity of the pendulous
mass to seek a position such that the moments about the point of
support of the weight will balance; in other words, the instrument
tends to set itself not to the true vertical but to the " apparent
vertical " given by the resultant of the gravitational and the lateral
acceleration. If the pendulous instrument has a substantial amount
of inertia, it will not have time to pick up this direction before the
aircraft will have entered on a fresh part of its sinusoidal path corre-
sponding to a fresh position of the apparent vertical. The instrument
therefore continually hunts the apparent vertical, but is always in
arrear to the one side or the other. It may appear that by making
the inertia sufficiently great the motion of the instrument would be
so slow and so slight as to be negligible, but calculation shows that
unless gyrostatic forces, with their attendant complication, are
brought into play it is not possible, within the necessary limits of
dimensions of the craft, to achieve this. These ever-present oscilla-
tions are of great importance in the study of aircraft instruments.
Not only is the apparatus for measuring the angle of drift of the
ground affected by them, but equally any apparatus for getting a
reading of the ground speed, and, by no means least, the magnetic
compass itself. Compasses fitted to ships usually have a period of
oscillation much longer than the period of roll of the ship, hence the
compass has not time to be very much disturbed by such movements.
In aeroplanes, however, the period of roll is longer and the early types
of aircraft compass by an unlucky coincidence had just about the
same period, hence resonance was a frequent occurrence, and wild
oscillations of the compass needle were all too frequently reported.
Later on the cause of the phenomenon was recognized and a remedy
was found.
That a magnetic compass points magnetic N. instead of true N.
gives rise to the correction called " variation," and this applies
equally to sea and air craft. Variation charts are equally available
and no difficulty is presented. With the correction known as
" deviation " due to the magnetism residing in the structure of the
craft itself, air conditions are simpler than those at sea, in that the
masses of magnetic material near the compass position are much
less in amount; but on the other hand the value of the deviation on
each point of the compass is rather more troublesome to determine
and much more likely to vary with the life history- of the craft itself.
The measurement of the speed through the air fortunately pre-
sents none of these difficulties since the forces produced by the
relative air stream are dependent only on velocity and air density,
and the latter being known for any given altitude of flight it is
possible to obtain a measure of velocity through the air free from any
complication.
Except for flying-boats engaged on anti-submarine patrol scarcely
any aircraft prior to the end of the World War had need to employ
navigational methods of flight: ordinary pilotage sufficed for their
journeys. The work of the flying-boat patrols, however, required
meticulous care in navigation since their duties carried them far
out of sight of land and it was imperative that they should make a
landfall before the petrol supply ran out. The method employed was
dead-reckoning navigation carried out with that care which the risk
AERONAUTICS
43
of failure made necessary for all employed on this arduous service.
That so few flying-boats were lost on such patrols says much for the
care with which the instruments were attended to and the skill with
which their indications were heeded. An error of only two degrees in
the course made good would throw out the position by over 3 m.
in each too flown: the consequences on a misty day for an aircraft
trying to make, say, the Scilly Is. base can be imagined. There were
then no facilities for astronomical navigation, and dead reckoning
had to be relied upon.
Not only had the flying-boats on war service to be navigated but
the pilot and observer had also to " navigate " a bomb to its desired
target. Since a bomb, or any other heavy body, maintains the course
and speed of its carrier aircraft substantially unaltered during its
fall to sea level, the sighting problem is the same as the dead-reckon-
ing navigation problem: in fact, one observing instrument can
serve both purposes. The horizontal motion of the bomb is com-
pounded of the wind velocity and the air speed of the craft. The
distance it will travel horizontally will be the product of the resultant
of these two velocities and the time taken to fall from the height at
which the aircraft is operating. This then must be the horizontal
distance of the craft from its target at the moment of release and the
line of attack must of course be that of the course being made good.
The angle ahead of the vertical which the target subtends at the
moment of release is called the sighting angle, and obviously it will
vary with the direction in which the target is attacked unless the
wind velocity happens to be zero. This requires that the instru-
ment should be set for height, air speed, wind velocity and wind
direction, and further that it should make automatic provision for
the right combination of these elements for any direction of attack.
FIG. 23 Course-Setting Sight
The best known instrument for doing this is the course-setting
sight shown in the illustration (fig. 23), and much used on flying-
boats; in its navigational use it enables the velocity and direction of
the wind to be measured whilst in flight, and it indicates the course
to be steered for any given track, and the time taken in flying any
desired distance in that direction. Towards the end of the war the
French made some use of navigational bomb sights, and the United
States Government had a large number constructed, but so far as is
known no such efforts were made elsewhere.
For D.R. navigation on land aircraft use is often made of an
instrument called an aero bearing plate. This was an adaptation of
a marine bearing plate, or pelorus, having a transparent centre to
admit of vertical observations of the ground, and having one or more
longitudinal rods or wires which could be aligned parallel to the
apparent earth flow so as to enable the drift angle to be read off. A
graduated height bar also permitted the ground speed to be measured
by noting the time taken for an object on the earth to pass through
the vertical angle corresponding to a distance of flight of half a mile,
or other convenient distance.
New Navigational Instruments. One of the first instruments
known to have been used for the determination of latitude in mari-
time navigation was the astrolabe. This device consisted of a
pendulous disc graduated round its circumference in degrees and
carrying at its centre a rod fitted with back and fore sights the
inclination of which to the horizontal could be read off on the degree
scale. A sight on a star would therefore give a measurement of its
altitude. The use of a pendulum or " plumb bob " is, of course, a
familiar way of obtaining a vertical line, but it suffers from the
disadvantage that it no longer indicates truly if its point of attach-
ment is not kept still. On board ship the point of support is neces-
sarily in general motion and in consequence the pendulum con-
tinually oscillates: its average position still gives the vertical, but it
is a tedious business to find what the average position really is.
Seamen turned, therefore, to the visible horizon as a more satis-
factory datum from which to measure the altitude of heavenly
bodies; the early cross-staffs were inaccurate, but a nearly perfect
form of instrument for this purpose was discovered in the Hadley
sextant of 1731. It depended on the very important fact that if a
beam of light be reflected from two plane mirrors in sequence, the
total angle through which the beam is turned depends only upon
the angle between the two mirrors and not on the angle between
the rays of light and the mirrors themselves. Thus, if the two mirrors
are fixed at an angle of 40 to one another, the angle through which
the ray of light will be turned after the double reflexion will be
exactly 80; if this reflecting system be now used to view a star
having an angular elevation above the visible horizon of 80 then
the star will appear to be " brought down " to the horizon and its
apparent position will not be affected, however much the frame
carrying the two mirrors may be rocked in a vertical plane. It will
easily be seen that for use on a rolling platform, such as the deck of a
ship, this is a most valuable property. The seaman will see the
horizon rising and falling relative to the ship, but the image of the
star will rise and fall with it. If the two images only came into
coincidence when the deck was level, the instrument would be
useless. It is the fact that star image and horizon appear to move
together when the ship rolls or pitches which makes the sextant the
valuable instrument it is. Inasmuch as the pitching and rolling of an
aircraft is sometimes just as bad as the pitching and rolling of a
seacraft, it might be thought that the Hadley sextant would equally
be of use in the air. Indeed, the instrument is equally available, but
the horizon is not. At 10,000 ft. height the horizon is about 90 m.
away, and unless the day is exceptionally clear there will be sufficient
mist to prevent so distant a horizon being visible as a clear line. If
the horizon has therefore to be abandoned as a datum line, it be-
comes necessary to fall back once more on the method of the mediae-
val astrolabe and to employ plumb-bob methods of obtaining the
vertical. This, of course, has the great disadvantage that it is only
the average of a number of such observations that can give the true
answer.
There is, however, a half-way house, though not a good one.
Although the true horizon may be invisible there will often be false
horizons given by the upper surface of cloud layers or banks of mist.
These false horizons are not so far below the level of the aircraft as
is the sea, hence their distance is much less and the line of separation
between cloud level and sky is often sufficiently sharp to be of use.
The great drawback is, however, the absence of definite knowledge
of the height of such cloud levels, and therefore of their value as
datum lines for sextant observations. A wrong guess at the height
may give a totally false value to the sun's altitude, and therefore to
the position line deduced from it. Attempts have been made to
avoid such errors by assuming that the false horizon on the port side
is of the same altitude as that to starboard, and then, by taking a
point half-way in between as the zenith, to make all measurements
from that as datum. This is correct just as often as the two horizons
do happen to be of the same height ; but it does not appear that this
is always the case, nor in fact is a second horizon always visible, and
at night time neither the one nor the other. Moreover, such level
cloud or mist layers can only be expected when the temperature lapse
rate is small and the air is very stable. On very many occasions these
conditions do not hold, the air is frequently " bumpy," and the
cloud masses heaped and tumbled. Speaking generally, the condi-
tions in which large flat cloud sheets extend are conditions favourable
to navigational measurements, and they are also the conditions in
which accurate knowledge of position is most essential. Such
conditions arise when the temperature falls but slowly with altitude.
When this lapse rate (as it is called) is much lower than the 10 C. per
km. which marks the condition of instability, there is little atmos-
pheric turbulence, and the aircraft is comparatively steady; even
a plumb-bob instrument is then a convenient method of making
measurements. A spirit level is of course a form of plumb-bob, in
that the bubble is a kind of inverted " bob," which tries to get as
high up as possible instead of as low down. Such levels have long
been used in inclinometers for surveying, witness the well-known
" Abney level." They suffer, however, from the disadvantage that
when the instrument rocks, the image and bubble move in opposite
directions. No such device could be a success in the air, and it is
necessary to incorporate the double reflexion method or its equiva-
lent of the Hadley sextant. This has been done by the staff of the
Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, in England, and by
Prof. Wilson in America.
The principle of action of the R.A.E. instrument is shown in fig. 24.
la this instrument known as the R.A.E. bubble sextant the
vertical is given by the position of the bubble in a spherical level,
capable of being illuminated at will by a little electric lamp. The
eye may take up either position (i) or position (2). The former is
best for star or planet observations, and the latter for those on the
sun, though theoretically there is no reason why either position
should not be used for all observations. It is a matter of convenience
which is used ; a star is more easily identified and held in view by the
method of direct vision, whilst for observations of the sun there is
no risk of confounding it with any other heavenly body, and it is
much more comfortable to the eve to look downwards and so avoid
the glare of the sky in the neighbourhood of the sun. The lens is
chosen to have a focal length equal to its optical distance from the
bubble, and since the curvature of the upper surface of the latter is
44
AERONAUTICS
SUN
Position 2
Plain Glass Plate,
capable ot being
rotated through a
measured angle
Spherical
bubble
Piism
i. ' A > .' "v y
RAE SEXTANT
FIG. 24.
carefully chosen to be equal also to this distance, the bubble will
remain in focus and will appear to move with the sun or star if the
instrument should rock in the hand.
Gyrostatic Horizons. When sextant observations are made at a
ground station it is best to employ an artificial horizon, usually in
the form of a bath of mercury. The sextant is then used to measure
the angle between the heavenly body itself and its image seen in the
reflecting surface of the mercury; half this angle is the angle of
elevation of the body above the horizontal. Such a method is
inapplicable to an aircraft for two reasons: first, that the vibration
would cover the mercury surface with ripples and cause it to reflect
a shimmer instead of a definite image ; and secondly, that the accelera-
tion forces would act on the mercury and cause its surface to tilt in
one direction or another. For this reason use has sometimes been
made of a little gyrostat spinning on a pivot and carrying a small
circular mirror fixed at right angles to the axis of rotation. If this
gyrostat accurately kept its axis vertical the little mirror would form
a convenient substitute for the mercury bath. But it also is subject
to the disturbing effect of acceleration forces, and is thereby deflected
more or less from the desired position. Its behaviour in this respect
is, however, much in advance of that of a simple pendulum or bubble;
although since it is a rotating body it has the double disadvantage of
requiring power to drive it, and of being adversely affected in its
performance by the inevitable wear of its pivot. It is still uncertain
whether a sextant using a bubble or a little gyrostat will in the long
run prove the more suitable for air purposes. Gyrostatic means of
measurement are, however, of much importance for air navigation,
and the first application on a wide scale is that of the gyrostatic
" turning indicator." In this device a gyrostat is spun in bearings
so that its axis lies normally in a horizontal plane. If then the frame-
work containing the bearings is turned about a vertical axis due to
the aircraft carrying it turning to port or starboard the gyrostat
will tend to turn itself about an axis perpendicular alike to that about
which the forced turn occurs, and that about which the gyrostat is
itself rotating. This effect is called " precession " and the couple
brought into play is called the " precessional couple"; this couple
is caused either to compress or to wind up a spring and in so doing
to move a pointer, the indications of which give a measure of the
degree of rapidity of the turn, and whether the direction is to port or
starboard. Such turning indicators are invaluable when flying in
cloud, mist or fog. Without them a pilot tends to lose all sense of
direction, and the indications of the compass, which might be
thought a sufficient safeguard against such uncertainty, are in some
cases so affected by the large and sudden acceleration forces brought
into play as to be quite misleading in their indications. The reason
for this will be dealt with at greater length in what follows. The
gyro turning indicator was first employed for measuring the rate of
roll of ships (apparatus for this purpose was made both by J. B.
Henderson and H. E. Wimperis prior to the World War) and its use
on aircraft came in the later stages of the war. In the meantime an
aircraft turning indicator due to H. Darwin had been employed;
this depended on the static air pressure at the two wing tips being
communicated to a differential manometer (air-speed indicator type)
and a reading being given whenever the aircraft turned, since in so
doing it introduced centrifugal forces which disturbed the balance
of the two pressures and so gave a plus or minus deflection of the
manometer needle. The instrument works well, but needs more
attention than the gyro device.
Gyrostats are also used in aircraft as azimuth indicators for
experimental or test purposes; they may some day be used as part of
a gyrostatic compass, but the necessary weight limit will make their
introduction for this purpose a matter of some difficulty.
Magnetic Compass. The design of the magnetic compass as
applied to aircraft has in late years undergone a marked improve-
ment. Quite early tests showed that the compass should be a liquid
one, and that to avoid the effect of engine vibrations the pivot
should be above the cup. But most of the early compasses had
periodic times of oscillation about equal to those of the airplanes on
which they were carried, and resonance in vibration took place, so
that when the airplane rolled even a little, the compasses oscillated
through considerable angles. Moreover, such short compasses gave
false readings of a turn when flying on any course between N.E.
and N.W. The simplest explanation of this phenomenon (first
given by Keith Lucas at the Royal Aircraft Factory in 1915) is that
since in these latitudes the north-seeking end of a balanced magnetic
needle tends to dip downwards it is customary to add a weight to
the south end in order to keep the compass card horizontal. When
an airplane flying N. begins to turn to starboard this little weight is
acted upon by a centrifugal force acting from E. to W. and hence
tends to turn the compass card also to starboard. An ideal compass
would remain pointing exactly N., and the turn of the aircraft to
starboard would be noticed by the apparent motion of the lubber
mark from N. towards E. around the compass card ; but if the card
is also rotating in the same direction, and at perhaps a greater angular
speed than the airplane, the lubber mark may appear to move
towards the W., giving the false impression of a turn to port. Hence
a flier unable to see the ground may infer quite wrongly that he is
turning to port when he is really turning to starboard. In order, as
he thinks to correct his turn, he tends still more to starboard whereas
he really should have turned to port. The compass therefore fails to
keep him on a straight course. Many of the earlier types of compass
had this defect, but by making the compass period very much longer
(as suggested by Keith Lucas), or by making the damping friction
very much greater (as suggested later by Campbell & Bennett), the
northerly turning error was either eliminated or greatly reduced.
There is, however, a practical limit to the length of the periodic time,
since if this be too great it becomes difficult to use the compass for
ordinary navigation : it is too sluggish in giving its indications. This
limit also concerns the highly damped or aperiodic compass, but
not in the same degree. It is easier to construct a good compass by
making the degree of damping approach the aperiodic than in any
other way. Theory indicates that the performance of compasses is
governed more by the product of undamped periodic time and the
damping coefficient than by any other equally simple factor. In the
early types of compass both elements entering into the product were
too low; this was remedied by Keith Lucas in the one direction and
by Campbell & Bennett in the other. Actually it is best to use both
means subject always to the limit of not making the compass too
slow in its movements.
Air Speed and Height_ Measurements. The measurements of air
speed and height are linked together, since both depend on the
temperature, pressure and density of the air. The usual form of air-
speed indicator, first made by M. O'Gorman in 1911, makes use of the
difference in the air pressure in two tubes, one of which has an open
end facing the direction of motion, and the other a closed end, but
with a hole in the side. In the latter the static pressure is read, and
in the former the larger pressure due to the addition to the static of
the kinetic effect of the air speed. A simple instance of a similar
effect is seen when a plank is dipped vertically into a flowing stream;
the surface facing up-stream will be wetted higher up than the one
facing down-stream. The difference in height is a measure of the
velocity or rather of the square of the velocity of the stream. In
the case of a compressible fluid like air it also depends on its density.
In fact, the reading of the air-speed indicator is proportional to the
product of the density of the air, by the square of the velocity
through the air. Since such instruments are always calibrated so as
to read correctly at sea level, it follows that the " indicated " air
speed will always be less than the true air speed at altitude. Thus
an aeroplane travelling at 140 m. an hour at a height of, say, 21,000
ft. will only be credited with 100 m.p.h. on the air-speed indicator.
Such indicators are therefore sometimes provided with circular cal-
culators around their circumferences to enable the true air speed to
be read for navigational purposes. For aerodynamic purposes such
corrections are quite unnecessary since the forces due to air pressure
acting on the wings, the fins, the tail and all other surfaces will also
be proportional to the product of air density by the square of the
speed, and an instrument like the air-speed indicator which gives a
reading proportional to this product is, for this purpose, ideal and
needs no correction. So that, although for purely navigational
requirements it might be thought advisable to introduce a type of
air-speed indicator giving true air speed, such action would be
disadvantageous from the purely flying point of view. Hence it is
best to retain the present instrument and to add for navigational
purposes a circular calculator to effect the conversion. The case of
the aneroid is not entirely parallel, but it also needs a supplementary
device if the true height is to be read. Almost all altimeters in use
are based on the pre-flight aneroid in which the trade convention
was to assume everywhere an atmospheric temperature of 10 C.
Although this is not widely out for the average surface temperature
it is manifestly most incorrect at a height, since on the average the
temperature falls by about 6 C. for every km. (3,281 ft.) of ascent.
Thus at 7 km. (23,000 ft.) the mean temperature of the atmosphere
would be about 21 below the assumed steady level of IOC.; a
difference of about 7 %, leading to an over-estimate of height by the
same amount. This is corrected by reading the temperature at
height on a strut thermometer and using a circular calculator (the
A.M.L. height computer) as in the case of the air-speed indicator
AERONAUTICS
45
to give the true result. For surveying work an accurate measure of
the height is of special importance.
Reduction of A stronomical Observations. The traditional method of
maritime navigation is to employ logarithmic tables for the solution
of the spherical triangle. The problem is: given the declination of
the heavenly body, the latitude of the assumed position and the hour
angle at the moment of observation, to determine the corresponding
altitude of the heavenly body. The difference between the altitude
To make this calculation by means of logarithmic tables is simple
enough on board an airship, but is not easily performed in an aero-
plane. Nor is the degree of accuracy to which the existing tables are
worked out necessary for air navigation. A method, which was
tried in a Handley Page machine, was to use the rectangular nomo-
gram devised by d'Ocagne, but it was found that within the limits of
space available it was not possible to draw the diagram to a suffi-
ciently large scale to ensure the final answer being accurate withfn
the necessary one or two minutes of arc. (It is true that the deter-
mination of position to within 10 m. easily suffices, but there is not
infrequently an error of this amount in the sextant observations
themselves; and to these unavoidable errors of observation it is not-
desired to add any larger error due to the process of reduction of
more than one or two miles.) Trial was next made of the ingenious
method suggested by Veater of employing a Mercator projection of
the sphere and using certain curves drawn thereon to solve the
spherical triangle by the equivalent of a rotation of the sphere. This
method gave, in small compass, a means of attaining the accuracy
desired ; but it was difficult to use the curves without eye strain, and
the method eventually gave place to the cylindrical slide rule devised
by L. C. Bygrave. The whole procedure is by this last means made
both simple and accurate. The advantage of the spiral scale of cylin-
drical rules is that an immense length of scale is compactly housed ; an
accuracy on this rule of one or two minutes of arc is easily attained.
Directional Wireless. During recent years wireless telegraphy has
been made use of for the determination of the position of both sea-
craft and aircraft. The invention followed from the discovery of a
method by which the direction from which wireless waves were
arriving could be accurately measured. An analogy would be
afforded were it possible to determine, from the receipt of ripples at
the margin of a pond, the direction of the spot at which a stone had
fallen into the water. It was found that if a rectangular coil hap-
pened to be placed so as to face the direction from which the wireless
waves were travelling, no current would flow in the coil, whilst if the
latter were placed " edge on," it was possible to detect an oscillating
current in the coil. In intermediate positions, intermediate results
were obtained. Once, therefore, a search coil of this kind is mounted
on a vertical axis it can be turned until the current is either a maxi-
mum or a minimum, and by these means the direction of the sending
station be determined. It is true that a station N.E., say, could not
be distinguished from one to the S.W., but other considerations
usually enable a right choice to be made from these two alternatives.
In practice various electrical improvements have been made on this
simple circuit but the principle is the same; and it is the results
obtained by such means which are of importance to the navigator.
The navigator will of course require of the wireless officer that W/T
bearings so given shall be " true," and that corrections due to any
possible bending of the waves shall have been allowed for.
There are two methods by which " directional wireless " (as it is
termed) can be employed. The first and simplest is by having suit-
able search coils mounted in wireless beacons ashore. Two or more
of such beacons take note of the direction of the calling aircraft, and
communicate with each other so that one of them can plot on a map
the several bearings which, by their common point of intersection,
determine the position. This is then communicated to the aircraft.
This plan has the double disadvantage that the aircraft is forced to
disclose its position, and that the number of messages sent out " into
the air " is thereby increased. The alternative is to mount the
search coil on the aircraft, and for the latter to determine the bear-
ings of two or more sending stations, and to do its own position-
plotting on the chart. The latter alternative is usually preferred,
but it suffers from the difficulty that the bearing of the wave is not
infrequently altered immediately prior to receipt by the influence of
the many flying, and other, wires forming part of the structure of
the aircraft. These are called quadrantal errors, and they correspond
to the errors which would be obtained in magnetic compasses if devia-
tion were not allowed for. A difficulty common to both methods lies
in the bending of the ray's direction when crossing a coast line, or the
boundary of day and night such effects need to be allowed for. The
plotting of wireless bearings, whether in the aircraft or ashore,
requires care. If, as is usual, a Mercator chart is employed, it has to
be borne in mind that straight lines on such charts are not great
circles, and since the waves travel along the latter (except for the
disturbances above mentioned) it is necessary to draw the path of the
waves by means of a certain curve, the bending of which will depend
on its distance from the equator. Approximate methods of doing
this are in use, but the best method (following Veater) is to make use
of the Littrow projection of the sphere (more familiarly known as
the " Weir diagram ").
Much work has still tobe done before it can be determined how
accurately the position of an aircraft can be found by means of
directional wireless. But it has a great use apart from position find-
ing, since it enables a straying aircraft to fly back to its parent ship
by flying " home " along the wave path. Its path may not be a
straight line, and it may take some time to make the flight, but if
persisted in it is bound to bring the craft home sooner or later.
World Flights. The famous world flights of 1919 and 1920
were the transatlantic crossings by the American flying-boat
NC4, by the Vickers-Vimy aeroplane, and the rigid airship R34
(not forgetting the gallant attempt of the Sopwith aeroplane) ;
the flight to Australia by a Vickers-Vimy aeroplane, and the
several attempts to fly an aeroplane down the length of Africa.
In the case of the Australia flight the coast line was usually
followed and methods of air pilotage, as distinct from air naviga-
tion, sufficed. The African flights were in part over uncharted
territory, and pilotage alone did not suffice; both there and, of
course, in the transatlantic flights the course was steered by
navigational methods. In the case of the R34 the operations
were carried out by officers accustomed to the navigation of
naval ships, and in so roomy a craft the work was much more
easily arranged than in the more compact aeroplanes and flying-
boats. Comm. Mackenzie Grieve, the navigator of the Sopwith,
stated that even in his tiny aeroplane he navigated by celestial
observations and found that his position, as given by his ob-
servations of the stars, when picked up after the forced landing
in the sea was " practically correct."
The instruments available in 1921 for navigation were much
more satisfactory than those in use prior to 1920. In future
world flights the determination of position, course and speed
will not only be simpler and more speedy, but will also be very
much more accurate than anything hitherto known in the history
of air navigation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. S. F. Card, Navigation Notes and Examples (igif),
and Air Navigation Notes and Examples^ (1919); J. E. Dumbleton,
Aerial Navigation (1920); H. E. Wimperis, Primer of Air Navigation
(1920) ; Hawker and Grieve, Our Atlantic Attempt (1920).
(H. E. Wi.)
VII. CONTROL OF AIR TRAFFIC
The pre-war legislation of individual States generally pre-
sumed sovereignty of the air, but the doctrine was not finally
accepted until the World War. Thus in 1911, at the Madrid
session of the Institute of International Law, a resolution was
passed that " International aerial circulation is free, subject
to the right of States to take certain steps, which shall be fixed,
to ensure their security and that of the persons and property of
their inhabitants." This principle was modified in the Report
of the Committee on Aviation of the International Law Asso-
ciation in 1913:
" It appears to the Committee impossible to contend that accord-
ing to existing International law the air space is free, nor do they
think that States would be willing to accept or to act on that view
of the law. But they are of the opinion that, subject to such safe-
guards as subjacent States may think it right to impose, aerial
navigation should be permitted as a matter of comity.'
Though in some quarters the assertion of state sovereignty
only up to some prescribed height was advocated, individual
States, and among them Great Britain, asserted, mainly for
military reasons, their right to close their atmosphere ab-
solutely (usque ad coelum) to the aircraft of other States. It was
the conflict of opinion between the British and German delegates,
as to the right of each State to the exercise of control and juris-
diction in the air space over its territories, that prevented the
completion of an International Convention by the conference
held in Paris in 1910. By the first British Aerial Navigation
Act (1911) power was taken to prohibit the navigation of air-
craft over prescribed areas. In the Act of 1913 this power was
extended for the purposes of the defence or safety of the realm
to the whole or any part of the coastline of the United Kingdom
and territorial waters, while the Statutory Rules and Orders of
that year limited the landing areas for aircraft coming from any
place outside the United Kingdom to a comparatively few strips
of coastline, and forbade foreign naval or military aircraft to
pass over or land within any part of the United Kingdom except
4 6
AERONAUTICS
with express permission. By a French decree of 1913 the cir-
culation in France of foreign military aircraft was forbidden,
and the draft Franco-German Agreement of 1913 practically
admitted the principle of the sovereignty of the air by allowing
each country the right of making such regulations as it pleased
for flights above its own territory.
From the beginning, therefore, air sovereignty and air legis-
lation were influenced by a predominantly military conception
of aviation, and, on the outbreak of war, the doctrine of the
freedom of the air was doomed. In the words of the Civil Aerial
Transport Committee in 1918: " Since the outbreak of the war
sovereignty over the air has been generally claimed and, except
by Germany, recognized." During the war neutral countries
consistently regarded the passage of belligerent aircraft over
their territory as an unneutral act.
Pre-war legislation was in spirit and effect distinctly national, and
in Great Britain regulations affecting the entry of foreign aircraft
from abroad were stringent. In the case of airships a clearance from
a British consular officer was required, and in the case of aeroplanes
notice had to be sent to the Home Office giving the proposed place
of landing, time of arrival, and nationality. Aircraft were forbidden
to carry mails or goods chargeable upon importation, and before
departure were obliged to report to an officer at one of the pre-
scribed landing-places. Otherwise, with the exception of an Order
prohibiting the navigation of aeroplanes within four m. of Charing
Cross and of a number of small areas over which flying was prohibited
on military grounds, there was no State regulation of flying, and
certification and other safety measures were carried out by the Royal
Aero Club, which represents Britain on the Federation Aeronautique
Internationale.
A similar state of things existed in France until the passage of the
Aerial Navigation Act of 1913, which was to a considerable extent
based on the draft Convention of 1910, and made the owner of an
aircraft responsible for damage to property, provided for the regis-
tration, marking and inspection of aircraft, pilots' certificates and
log books, and prohibited the transport of foreign merchandise or of
national merchandise unaccompanied by papers testifying to its
French origin.
The only serious attempt to place aviation on an international
civil basis, by the adoption of a code of regulations common
to all countries, was the draft Convention of 1910, which dealt
with the nationality and registration of aircraft, certificates
and licences, the admission of aerial navigation over the territory
of foreign States, customs and transportation, and rules of the
air. The international aspect of aviation did not, however,
completely die with the failure of the Convention to materialize.
The Institute of International Law, in its session of 1911, adopted
rules distinguishing aircraft as public and private, confining an
aircraft to one nationality, i.e. that of the country in which it
was registered, and imposing identification marks. Another
step in international air traffic was the Franco-German Agree-
ment of 1913 permitting the entry of civil aircraft into each
country subject to the conditions that machines were provided
with navigation licences and distinctive identification marks,
that the fliers were provided with proficiency and nationality
certificates, and that the requirements of international law
and the customs and air regulations of each country were
observed.
In England in 1913 the Convention of 1910 was reconsidered
by a sub-committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence; and
when the advance in flying during the war indicated the great
potentialities of aircraft for civil transport, a Civil Aerial Trans-
port Committee under the chairmanship of Lord Northcliffe
was appointed by the Air Board in 1917 to consider the whole
subject, both from its international and national aspects. It
was not, however, until after the Armistice that the first steps
were taken by a departmental committee of the Air Ministry
to frame regulations for civil flying in Great Britain. Shortly
after, the drafting of a Convention governing international civil
flying was included in the work of the Peace Delegates at Paris
the coordination of the British proposals therewith being under-
taken by Sir Frederick Sykes, and took shape as the Interna-
tional Air Convention, which was signed by the majority of the
Allied and Associated Powers on Oct. 13 1919, though up to
Aug. 1921 ratification was not yet complete.
The objects aimed at by the Convention are the encourage-
ment of the peaceful intercourse of nations by means of air inter-
communication, and the establishment of a broad basis upon
which a uniform procedure for the control of air traffic can be
drawn up by the contracting States.
The parties to the Convention recognize the exclusive sover-
eignty of every Power over the air space above its own territory and
territorial waters and those of its colonies, and while each contract-
ing State allows freedom of innocent passage above its territory,
except over certain areas prohibited for military reasons, to the air-
craft of other contracting States, it may not, except by a special
temporary authorization, permit the flight above its territory of
aircraft belonging to non-contracting States (Article 5).
Every aircraft of a contracting State has the right to cross the air
space of another State without landing, subject to following the route
fixed by the State, but if it passes from one State into another it must
land, if required to do so by the regulations, at an appointed aero-
drome. Every State has the right to establish reservations and
restrictions in favour of its national aircraft in connexion with the
carriage of persons and goods for hire between two points in its
territory but is liable to reciprocity on the part of other States. Any
aerodrome in a contracting State open, on payment of charges, to
public use by its national aircraft, is likewise open to the aircraft of
all the other contracting States.
Aircraft engaged in international navigation must be provided by
the State whose nationality it possesses with certificates of registra-
tion and airworthiness, certificates of competency and licences for the
crew, which must be recognized as valid by the other States, a list of
passengers, and, if freight is carried, bills of lading, log books and a
special licence for any wireless equipment carried.
The Convention forbids the carriage by aircraft, engaged in inter-
national navigation, of explosives, arms and munitions of war. All
private aircraft, i.e. aircraft which are not used for military pur-
poses, or employed exclusively in State service, are subject to the
provisions of the Convention.
A series of annexes to the Convention give detailed regulations
with regard to the marking of aircraft (Annex A), certificates of air-
worthiness (Annex B), log books (Annex C), lights and signals and
rules of the air (Annex D), pilots' and navigators' certificates
(Annex E), maps and ground markings (Annex F), the collection
and dissemination of meteorological information (Annex G) and
customs (Annex H).
The Convention provides for the establishment of a permanent
International Commission of Air Navigation, affiliated to the League
of Nations, consisting of two representatives of the United States.
France, Italy and Japan, one representative of Great Britain and
each of the British Dominions and India, which are deemed States
for the purposes of the Convention, and one representative of each
of the other contracting States, for carrying out the terms of the
Convention and the interchange of information.
Disagreements among States as to the interpretation of the Con-
vention and technical regulations are to be settled respectively by
the Permanent Court of International Justice and a majority of
votes of the Commission. A State which took part in the war of
1914-9 but which is not a signatory of the Convention may only
adhere to it if a member of the League of Nations, or, until Jan. I
1923, if its adhesion is approved by the Allied and Associated
Powers, or after that date if it is agreed to by at least three-fourths of
the signatory States.
States which remained neutral during the war have not availed
themselves of the Article permitting their adhesion to the Conven-
tion, mainly owing to the restriction placed by Article 5 on their
intercourse by air with late enemy States. To overcome this diffi-
culty, a Protocol was subsequently added to the Convention
permitting certain derogations to Article 5 and authorizing the
contracting States profiting thereby to allow, for a limited period
of time, the aircraft of one or more named non-contracting States to
fly over its territory.
The above Convention of 1919, the charter of international
flying, may be regarded as prescribing the minimum control
required from contracting States. There is no reason why States
should not make their regulations more stringent for their own
aircraft in the interests of safety and efficiency. The harmoniza-
tion of the regulations enforced by the contracting States will
undoubtedly form an important part of the functions of the Inter-
national Commission of Air Navigation.
During 1919-20 a large number of countries, including, among
others, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Spain, the Scandinavian
kingdoms, Holland, Italy, Switzerland and Germany, passed regula-
tions more or less in accordance with the requirements of the Con-
vention, though in most cases frequent additional Acts or Decrees,
embodying modifications in the original regulations, have been
found necessary to secure stricter conformity with the Convention.
Thus the British Aerial Navigation Act of 1919, and the Regulations
issued by its authority which were influenced by, but actually pre-
ceded, the signature of the Convention were only temporary, and
were superseded by the Air Navigation Act of 1920.
AERONAUTICS
47
The Act of 1920 asserts absolute sovereignty over all parts of His
Majesty's dominions and adjacent waters, provides for the applica-
tion of the Convention by Order in Council to internal flying, the
regulation of civil Hying and the supplementing of the Convention,
as necessary, by general safety regulations. It authorizes any steps
to be taken for preventing aircraft from flying over prohibited areas
or entering the British Isles in contravention of the law, and permits
the extension of the provisions of the Act to British Possessions other
than the Dominions and India. The Act also provides for the pro-
hibition of all Hying, and the taking over of aircraft, etc., in time of
emergency; the establishment and maintenance of aerodromes by
the Air Council or local authorities; purchase of land; compulsory
investigation of accidents; and penalties for dangerous flying. No
action lies in respect of trespass or nuisance by reason of the flight
of aircraft over any property at a reasonable height above the
ground, or the ordinary incidents of such flight, so long as the pro-
visions of the Act and Orders made thereunder are complied with,
but where damage is caused by aircraft, damages may be recovered
from the owners of the aircraft. The law relating to wreck and
salvage at sea applies to aircraft in the same way as to vessels.
Administration. The methods of administration adopted in
Great Britain in conformity with the Air Navigation Acts were
probably, in 1921, in advance of those in other countries, but
they might be regarded as typical of what would be required,
at least in the near future, before aircraft could be operated
by companies or private individuals in accordance with the terms
of the International Air Convention. Their essential points are
given below.
(i) Registration of Aircraft. Every aircraft must possess a certifi-
cate of registration, which lapses on change of ownership.
(ii) Licensing of Personnel. For a private pilot's licence the Royal
Aero Club certificate is accepted as a certificate of competency, the
Club having agreed to bring their tests for this certificate into line
with those laid down in the International Air Convention. A person
qualified as an R.A.F. pilot is entitled to a private pilot's licence.
For a licence to fly a passenger or goods aircraft for hire or reward
an applicant must undergo a medical examination, pass certain
practical flying tests and a technical examination, submit proof of
reasonable flying experience within the previous six months on the
class of machine for which a licence is required, and pass an exam-
ination in navigation and elementary meteorology. In the case of
applicants who are qualified as R.A.F. pilots the tests are limited to
an examination in navigation and meteorology. Licences are issued
for six months. There are five grades of licences for navigators.
Aerial navigators, fourth-class, are licensed only to navigate civil
aircraft over land by day, those qualified for the third-class certificate
are licensed to navigate only over land by day or night, whjlst those
attaining the higher classes are licensed to navigate over both land
and sea by day or night. Licences for ground engineers, usually
valid for twelve months, are granted for the inspection and main-
tenance or overhaul of aircraft or engines.
(iii) Airworthiness. In order that an aircraft may receive a
certificate of airworthiness, its design, including the design of its
components, must be approved as satisfying the requirements of
safety in regard to both strength and stability; it must be con-
structed of approved materials and by workmanship of approved
quality, and its engine must be approved.
In order that such certificate may be valid on any particular
occasion the aircraft must be examined before flight and be periodi-
cally overhauled by a competent person duly licensed; it must be so
loaded that its total weight does not exceed a given maximum, and
its centre of gravity must be situated within certain given limits.
If the application for a certificate is in respect of a " type " aircraft,
inspection is carried out by representatives of the Aeronautical
Inspection Directorate, and, in addition, such drawings and par-
ticulars are required to be furnished to the Director of Research, as
will enable him to approve the design. In the case of " subsequent "
aircraft constructed by a firm whose inspection is approved, sole
responsibility lies with the Aeronautical Research Directorate, the
constructor insuring that the conditions governing the inspection of
" type " aircraft are applied to " subsequent " aircraft. A certificate
of airworthiness is not valid unless the aircraft concerned is regu-
larly inspected by a licensed ground' engineer employed by the
owner of the machine.
(iv) Aerodrome Licences. The regulations for aerodrome licences
are framed to insure that only those aerodromes which are safe for
passenger work receive licences.
The dimensions laid down as a preliminary guide for the classifica-
tion of aerodromes are as follows:
800 yd. run in any direction,
with good approaches, etc. Suitable for any type of aircraft.
Suitable for all but the larger types
of aircraft, i.e. not suitable for
H.P.V. 1,500.
. . Suitable as permanent aerodrome for
aircraft of Avro 5O4.K or similar
types.
600 yd
300 yd. by 400 yd.
300 yd. run in any direction . Temporary aerodrome for Avro
5O4K and similar types.
Any aircraft may use a licensed aerodrome of the appropriate
class, subject to the payment of the landing and housing fees
approved at the time of the issue of the licence.
GROUND ORGANIZATION
(i) Air Ports, (a) Aerodromes. The early aerodromes were
usually any large, level grass fields, and the first real aerodromes
were established in France, England, Germany and America.
Their early equipment consisted only of rough sheds for aero-
planes, and fliers carried out at the local smithy or garage such
repairs as could not be done on the spot or in their own homes.
Repair shops were only available at a very few of the military
flying grounds. As aeroplanes became more numerous, work-
shops equipped with power-driven machinery were established
at large aerodromes such as Farnborough and Hendon, and the
occupations of " aeroplane mechanic " and " aeroplane rigger "
were defined. With the increase of flying, certain rules were
laid down for the control of aerodromes; aeroplanes were not
allowed to be moved about the aerodrome without ascertaining
that they were clear of other craft alighting, and when in the
air in the vicinity of aerodromes, were obliged to conform to
circuit rules, i.e. machines were made to circle round an aero-
drome in one direction, which was indicated by a coloured flag
hoisted in a prominent position; and some form of indicator,
such as a smudge fire, was used to afford pilots a guide to the
direction of the surface wind.
From these simple rules, the complex system of aerodrome
control which developed during the World War was built
up. While the original principles of aerodrome management
remained the same as in 1914, new inventions produced much
greater efficiency. With the advent of night flying new methods
of visual signalling were adopted (see below) ; the bucket flares,
used at the beginning of the war to indicate wind direction, were
replaced by electric lights or the " Money " flare; and a stand-
ardized system was introduced to permit of machines leaving
and arriving at an aerodrome in quick succession both by day
and night.
The results of the experience 'accumulated during the war in
the control of aerodromes were embodied after the war in Annex
D of the International Air Convention.
According to the regulations laid down therein, every aerodrome
consists of three zones looking up-wind: a right-hand or taking-off
zone, a left-hand or landing zone and a neutral zone. At night the
taking-off and landing zones are marked by white lights placed in
the position of an " L," as shown in fig. 25.
LIGHTS
FIG. 25.
An aeroplane must land as near as possible to the neutral zone,
but on the left of any aeroplanes which have already landed, and
immediately taxi into the neutral zone. No aeroplane may com-
mence to take off until the preceding aeroplane is clear of the aero-
drome. A flag is hoisted in a prominent position to indicate whether
an aircraft which finds it necessary to do so should make a left-
handed (red flag) or right-handed (white flag) circuit. Aeroplanes
must comply with this rule within 500-1,000 metres of the nearest
point of the aerodrome unless flying at a height above 2,000 metres.
The direction of the wind must be clearly indicated, and aeroplanes
must take off or alight up-wind, those flying at a greater height
being responsible for avoiding those at a lower. Aeroplanes in dis-
4 8
AERONAUTICS
tress are given free way in attempting to land. At night suitable
markings are required on all fixed obstacles dangerous to flying
within a zone of 500 metres of an aerodrome.
The London terminal aerodrome at Croydon, Sur., may be
taken as typical of a modern air-port for commercial traffic.
It consists of a level grass field 900 yd. long by 800 yd. wide,
and is equipped with a continental arrival and departure station,
a customs office, repair shops and stores, aeroplane hangars
and the private offices of companies engaged in air and road
transport. An indicator, consisting of a conical linen bag, painted
in conspicuous colours and attached to a mast, shows the direc-
tion of the wind by day; and the movements of machines are
directed from a control tower. Along the south side of the
aerodrome the name Croydon is let into the turf in chalk letters
of 30 ft., legible from a height of 10,000 feet. For the assistance
of night flying an aerial lighthouse shows the position of the
aerodrome, while a searchlight distinguishes the aerodrome from
its surroundings and illuminates the path of the machines.
Electric lights are sunk into the ground to indicate the direction
of the wind for landing. A wireless transmitting and receiving
station is installed capable of telegraphic communication with
ground stations within 400 miles and aircraft within 200 miles,
and of telephonic communication within 200 and 100 miles
respectively.
(b) Coastal Stations. A sheltered stretch of water, usually an
inland lake, was selected by the pioneers of hydro-aviation, a
sloping beach, a rough shed and one or two small boats being
the only other requirements. The equipment of the English
station at Lake Windermere, the scene in 1911 of the first take-
off and landing on water by a British aeroplane, was almost
negligible, and it was not until 1913 that the first organized
seaplane stations came into existence. The management of these
stations is very similar to that of an aerodrome, with the excep-
tion of slipways up and down which aircraft are moved on leav-
ing and entering the water, mechanical power for hauling heavy
machines, and wheeled trucks to move them about on shore.
At most of the early stations, however, man-power was sufficient
to move machines, which were small and light, up and down the
sloping beaches, while the pilot was carried to and from his sea-
plane while it was still afloat.
The first British flying-boat was produced in 1912, but it was
not until 1915 that the larger boats were sufficiently developed
to enable them to stay out on the water for days at a time.
This development caused a corresponding expansion in the
organization of seaplane bases. Launches and rowing-boats,
used previously to assist machines in difficulties, became ferry-
boats for taking fuel, stores, and personnel to and from the
large flying-boats which were moored out to buoys in sheltered
waters adjacent to the coastal stations. The organization and
management of these depots, until the formation of the Royal
Air Force in 1918, was modelled on that of H.M. ships.
Calshot, Hants., was in 1921 the most up-to-date coastal station
in Great Britain ; the sheltered area of Southampton Water provides
ample sea room for craft getting off and alighting, while the narrow
promontory on which Calshot Castle stands, almost surrounded by
water, allows of numerous slipways for the handling of machines in
and out of the sea at most states of the tide. Repair shops, sheds
and living-quarters occupy a large area ashore; boat seaplanes,
which are gradually replacing float seaplanes for all but special
purposes, are moored out in a backwater; launches and rowing-boats
are moored alongside a small pier, and trucks of special construction
are held in readiness on the beach to move craft about on, when they
have been hauled up the slipways by electric power capstans.
(c) River Stations. The value of river stations lies in the fact
that they can be located in the centre of many large cities, and
passengers by air can thus save the time, now lost, in reaching
aerodromes necessarily situated on the outskirts. River stations
were still in 1921 in an experimental stage, but stations on the
Thames, the Seine and the Spree will probably be developed to
serve the three capitals London, Paris and Berlin which
are already important airline termini.
(d) Airship Harbours. In the early days of airships any
convenient open space, such as a parade ground or moorland,
was utilized, but as their size increased stations were selected
so as to afford shelter from the wind, accessibility by air and
road, suitable accommodation for personnel, and privacy. In
1909 the Royal Aircraft Factory, then called the Balloon
Factory, -Farnborough, was used for the first airship flights in
England, and in 1912-3 it was provided with an elementary
mooring mast. This station was abandoned in 1915. After the
outbreak of the World War large airship harbours and construc-
tion stations were erected in many parts of the United Kingdom,
thus following on the far greater development in Germany.
The first sheds for the housing of airships were comparatively
small and constructed of various materials, such as canvas, wood
or corrugated iron. As the development of the airship progressed
these were superseded by sheds about 750 ft. long, built of cor-
rugated iron on iron girders, and capable of accommodating
two large rigid airships and several smaller non-rigid types. The
annexes of the sheds contained all the requisite workshops for
engineering, carpenter and fabric work as well as stores for
general equipment and laboratories for research.
The development of the airship, however, was so rapid that
it was not possible to keep pace with the construction of airship
stations, which entailed considerable labour and expense. For
this reason other schemes for housing had to be devised.
The first method for small airships was a reversion to the early
one of " housing " them under natural shelter, but it had the
disadvantage that the airship fabric rapidly deteriorated by
constant exposure.
Owing, however, to the length of rigid airships it was im-
possible to dock them in this manner. Experiments were accord-
ingly made for mooring them in the open by the three-wire
system (see AIRSHIPS, Section 9). This was superseded by
reversion to the mooring mast, which proved so successful that
a large mast was erected at Pulham, where the first attempt
was made in England to organize an airship harbour for com-
mercial traffic, and the largest airships have been moored to it
for long periods and in high winds. The adoption of the mooring
mast has enabled the sheds to be mainly used for the housing
of airships for the purpose of overhaul and repair, and has re-
duced the personnel required for handling airships on the ground
from an average of about 200-350' to an average of eight men.
Airship harbours have facilities for gassing airships with
hydrogen, either from steel bottles or by manufacture on the
spot by the water-gas process.
(ii) Signals. The methods for effecting communication with
aircraft are ground signals, such as flags, pennants and ground
strips; smoke signals-, rockets, flares, flash lamps and search-
lights; and wireless telegraphy (latterly also wireless telephony).
Visual signals for indicating wind direction and landing-
grounds date from the birth of flying, while flash lamps, flares
and rockets have long been used at night, or in fog. Ground strips
of cloth or canvas, which are generally white on one side and
black on the other so as to show up against, dark and light back-
grounds respectively, were placed in varying positions, according
to a pre-arranged code. The flash lamp using Morse code was
a little used prior to the World War, whilst the flier dropped
written messages in a weighted bag attached to coloured
streamers or a white parachute; early in the war the signalling-
lamp (involving a knowledge of Morse by both operators) was
employed.
Annex D of the International Convention prescribes that an air-
craft in the air, or stationary upon land or water, but not anchored,
shall carry forward and at the rear a white light, on the right side a
green light, and on the left a red light. These lights, which are
visible at varying dihedral angles and distances, are fixed so that
only one can be seen at a time. On airships all lights are doubled. An
aircraft when on the surface of the water, and not under control, dis-
plays two red lights visible all round the horizon. When moored, but
not near the ground, the airship, the mooring-cable and the object
to which it is moored are marked by lights or streamers.
An aircraft wishing to land at night on an aerodrome fires a green
Very's light or flashes a green lamp, and makes by international
Morse code the letter group forming its call sign, permission being
given by the repetition of the same call sign from the ground fol-
lowed by a green light. It is forbidden to land by the firing of a red
light or the display of a red flare. If it is compelled to land, a red light
is fired from the aircraft and a series of short flashes made by the
navigation lights. When an aircraft is in distress it gives one or
more of the following signals: the international SOS, the inter-
AERONAUTICS
49
national code flag signal of distress, a square flag having either above
it or below it a ball ; a continuous sounding with any sound appa-
ratus; or a succession of white Very's lights. The following signals
are used to require an aircraft to land : by day, three discharges, at
intervals of 10 seconds, of a projectile showing on bursting black or
yellow smoke; by night, a similar projectile showing on bursting
red stars or lights. In fog and bad visibility, sound signals may be used.
From the date of the formation of the British Royal Flying Corps
in May 1912 the importance of wireless telegraphy in connexion with
aircraft was fully recognized, both in the naval and military wings;
and at a very early period of the World War its superiority over
other methods of signalling from the air was clearly demonstrated.
Standard patterns of instrument for naval and military work were
gradually evolved ; how reliable even these early types were may be
seen from the fact that a few of them are actually still in use to-day
in a practically identical form. The demand for the control of
artillery fire by aircraft became steadily greater until, at the Armis-
tice, on the British section of the western front alone there were over
600 aeroplanes and approximately 1,000 ground stations in use. AH
these machines were employing a spark system, and with the
advent of the long-distance reconnaissance and bombing squadrons
with their higher-powered sets the need became apparent for
improvements allowing of less interference and, if possible, a larger
number of machines working within the same limits of wave length-.
The introduction in the early part of 1917 of the oscillation-
valve continuous-wave transmitter an extremely light and
efficient instrument with a range of 100 m. from air to ground
overcame these difficulties and opened up a new vista with immense
possibilities. Reception of ground-station signals by aircraft,
although actually accomplished by the military wing at Farnborough
as far back as 1913, became a reliably consistent proposition. Air-
craft, whose duties carried them over considerable distances, were
enabled to maintain a constant communication with their base, and,
what was perhaps more important, the introduction of the con-
tinuous-wave set opened up the possibilities of the design of an
efficient pattern of wireless telephone capable of withstanding the
most rigorous usage.
Although hostilities terminated before the full benefits of these
latter developments had become appreciable, the progress which has
since resulted, both in service and civil aviation, is considerable.
Airways have rapidly sprung into being, and the necessity for
rapid signalling along the route, reporting arrivals, departures and
delays of machines and of communicating with the aircraft them-
selves, has been responsible for the growth in England of the seven
ground stations now existing, and, abroad, of the stations of the
continental airports. The Air convention provides that every air-
craft used in public transport and capable of carrying ten or more
persons shall be equipped with sending and receiving wireless
apparatus, and to-day most of the passenger-carrying aeroplanes of
the London-Paris and other continental routes are equipped for the
transmission and reception of wireless telephony, and are thus
enabled to keep in touch with the ground throughout their flight.
On several occasions during the year 1921 telephone conversation
was carried out direct between a passenger flying between London
and the Continent and a friend in his own home or office in London;
the line telephone being used as far as the aerodrome station at
Croydon, and thence being relayed by wireless telephone to the
aircraft.
Another important war development, now becoming more and
more extensively used, which was the outcome of the determination
of the direction of passage of electro-magnetic waves, is the system
of navigation by " direction finding," or " radiogoniometry." By
this system two or more ground stations can detect the position of ah
aircraft using wireless telegraphy or telephony, and can pass that
information direct to it within a few seconds.
The converse an aircraft taking the bearing by W/T of two or
more W/T stations on the ground can plot her own position, and thus
enable the navigator to settle his position without asking for any
information from the ground stations. This method is still in its
infancy, but will undoubtedly prove of value to aerial navigation.
(iii) Weather Information. The value of the collection and
distribution of meteorological information for the assistance of
aeronautics was early recognized, notably in Germany. In
England in 1909 the Meteorological Office was represented on
the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics; in 1010 a meteoro-
logical station was started at the Royal Aircraft Factory, and
in 1912 at the Central Flying School at Upavon; both of these
eventually prepared daily weather charts, and were the pre-
cursors of the present local distributive stations. During the
war meteorological services developed under the War Office and
the Admiralty, a portion of the service under the Admiralty
being transferred in 1918 to the Air Ministry. In 1919-20 all
branches of the Meteorological Service were coordinated and
attached to the Air Ministry.
The information required for air traffic to-day consists of existing
weather conditions on any route, or landing-ground forecasts and
warnings. General information as to weather conditions is provided
by the Daily Weather Service of the Meteorological Office, which
receives information by wireless telegraph or telephone four times
daily from a network of observing-stations throughout the British Isles.
The reports obtained from these are issued collectively in the form
of synoptic messages four times daily, and are available to anyone
within wireless range either in the British Isles or European countries,
while the latter distribute^their local information in a similar manner.
According to the code drawn up by the International Commission
for Weather Telegraphy the information transmitted to the Central
Office in these reports consists of surface conditions, atmospheric
pressure, wind, general state of the weather, temperature, visibility,
humidity, cloud, rainfall, upper-air conditions, etc., the observations
relating to each element being very detailed. In addition to the
above, reports and forecasts usually covering a period of 24 hours are
issued four times daily to each of four Aviation Weather Groups into
which the British Isles are divided. Warnings are issued from the
Central Office to all flying-centres when gales are threatened.
Local distributive centres are fully equipped meteorological
stations established at certain important flying-centres, especially
terminals, and will eventually number about twenty. Their duties
include local observation and the issue of special information to the
Aviation Services within their area. The establishment of a regular
air service such as that between London and Paris entails a distribu-
tive station at each terminus, subsidiary observing-stations along the
route, and the hourly distribution of information. While in the air
the flier can obtain information as to the weather in front of him by
wireless telephony or from ground signals. (V. B.-J.)
VIII. SEAPLANES
Early Attempts at Flying from the Water. Among the earliest
aircraft designed to fly from, and alight on, the water were a
French craft by M. Fabre (1910), the Parseval monoplane con-
structed in Germany in 1911, and the Grabadini monoplane
tested at Monaco in 1911. Their difficulties were considerable
and their successes slight, but by the end of 1911 floats were sub-
stituted for wheels on aeroplanes that were already proved to fly;
thus in Oct. of that year Glenn Curtiss, in America, flew from
the water on a craft adapted from the Curtiss aeroplane which
won the Gordon Bennett Trophy at Reims two years before.
Its performance as a hydro-aeroplane suffered from the extra
weight and resistance of the floats. In England the first flight
from the water was by Comm. Swarm, R.N., and S. V. Sippe on an
Avro biplane with 35-H.P. Green engine at Barrowin Nov. 1911.
Henri Fabre's " Canard," an original "pusher " monoplane
with a 5O-H.P. Gnome engine, made several straight flights at
Monaco in April 1912, and Voisin, Caudron and R. E. Pelterie
thereafter successfully equipped their standard aeroplanes with
Fabre floats. This float was a fairshape, rectilinear in plan, and
made of a wooden framework covered with proofed canvas.
This type was displaced later by pontoon-shaped floats covered
with 3-ply wood or mahogany planking.
In 1912 Colliex, on a Voisin " Canard " equipped as an " am-
phibian " with both wheels and floats, left the land at Issy-les-
Moulineaux, and alighted on the Seine at Auteuil. Donnet and
Leveque in France in 1912 built and flew the first boat seaplane,
a two-seater pusher having a central hull with the engine above
the boat, sufficiently high under the plane for the airscrew to
clear the hull. The tips of the lower plane carried small floats
to balance the craft on the water, and wheels were later fitted
to the hull. The high centre of thrust relative to its centre of
gravity, which signalized this craft, had been demonstrated in
1909 by Bleriot on an aeroplane. The design of this boat generT
ally made it the forerunner of the seaplane of 1921. In 1912 the
Royal Aircraft Factory equipped an F.E. biplane pusher with
floats, and later a tractor biplane was made there and flown from
Frensham Lake to Southampton Water.
At the end of 1913, Short made a loo-H.P. Gnome tractor
biplane waterborne on a single central float and small wing tip-
floats. On the next seaplane, however, two floats were used in
place of the central float. These craft and their successors proved
fairly seaworthy, and were useful on naval manoeuvres. About
this time the experience of the shocks met with, when flying
from broken water, led to the use of rubber shock absorbers, be-
tween the floats and the supporting struts.
In America, following the lead of Glenn Curtiss, several aeror
planes were fitted with pontoons. Towards the end of 1912
Curtiss replaced the single central pontoon by a boat-shaped
AERONAUTICS
hull, which carried the tail members. To protect the crew, a wood
and canvas superstructure had been built on the fore-part of the
original pontoon, making its appearance very similar to that
of the later Curtiss flying-boats. With experience this pontoon
was extended further aft to carry the tail members, and so this
flying-boat appears to have been progressively evolved.
In April 1913 a prize of 10,000 was offered by the Daily Mail
for crossing the Atlantic in 72 hours, and Rodman Wanamaker
had a two-engined (2x90 H.P.) Curtiss flying-boat, called the
"America," made for this. Loaded to the necessary 5,000 Ib.
gross, it could not leave the water. With a third engine it could
do so, but the air endurance was thus reduced, and in July 1914
the flight was abandoned.
War Period. Up to July 1914 seaplane design was thus very
backward, and its war usefulness to a fleet was but little indicated.
The non-existence of any particular line of advance that could
be systematically developed had adversely influenced its evolu-
tion. In England in 1914 seaplanes were used in coast-defence
work, and one seaplane carrier was in commission. By Aug.
the carrying of aircraft on board ship had been facilitated by the
introduction of folding wings, and their offensive value enhanced
by the successful launching of a locomotive torpedo from the air.
This led to the conversion of small passenger vessels into seaplane
carriers, and soon the merits and limitations of the float type
of seaplane were ascertained. As no launching- or landing-deck
was available, the seaplane had to be operated from the sea,
and this could be undertaken only in very favourable weather.
An increase of air endurance and useful load was achieved, but
at the expense of some of the seaworthy qualities. With a crew
of two, wireless, and about 60 Ib. of bombs, an endurance of two
to three hours at 70 knots was possible.
By 1915 an improvement of the same type (known as the
"Short 184"), which survived throughout the war, could carry
a heavier load for about five hours. They were intended mainly
for duties with carrying ships, originally proposed for service
with the fleet, and with the light cruiser and destroyer squadrons.
As, however, these " float seaplanes " lacked sea-going qualities,
and their carrier ships were vulnerable, many of the operations
intended for them were abandoned. They were utilized in the
Gallipoli campaign.
Air-cooled rotary engines, used on the seaplanes of 1914 be-
cause they gave the lightest weight for power where weight was a
cardinal consideration, soon proved unsuitable at sea, and were
replaced by water-cooled engines. " Float seaplanes " were also
employed with the Grand Fleet during the first two years of the
war for observation with the. fleet at sea, and patrol, but they
were handicapped because their sea-going qualities were not
. adequate for the bad weather prevalent in the Ngrth Sea. At
this time only one ship was provided with a forecastle deck large
enough to enable a seaplane to be launched therefrom on a light
subsidiary carriage, thus avoiding the necessity for stopping the
ship with the attendant risk from submarines, when getting a
seaplane into the air.
In the absence of seaplanes with good sea-going qualities,
ordinary aeroplanes were carried in fighting-ships with a launch-
ing-platform. Latterly carrier ships have been evolved with an
alighting-deck as well. This led to the small seaplane not being
pressed forward in the way the small aeroplane was by the stimu-
lus of the war.
The " Boat Seaplane." In 1914 there was in the British serv-
ice a small Sopwith boat seaplane fitted with wheels (winner of
the Mortimer Singer trophy), and also two small French and
American machines. They could not carry any appreciable load
nor could their wings be folded for operation from carrier ships;
accordingly they were not then developed. 'In July 1914 Lieut.
Porte, who was engaged upon the twin-engined boat seaplane,
the " America," previously mentioned, was instrumental in
developing the modern " boat seaplane." In 1915 several
" Americas " with their two go-H.P. engines were delivered at
Felixstowe. Their performance was poor on account of their
lack of horse-power for their weight; and they were too small
36 ft. hull to give good sea -going qualities.
The much larger " Porte " boats with their three engines of
275 H.P. and air endurance of 8 hours, a total weight of about
8 tons, and a hull 60 ft. long, were laid down. The increase of
dimensions carried with it a great improvement in sea-going
qualities, but the air performance was but little better, and the
type was not further developed. One H.P. for 20 Ib. was in-
sufficient power, and bigger engines for the weight had to be used.
The Curtiss " H8," built in America, was better in this respect.
Only one of these was made, but knowledge obtained in England
during its construction was embodied in its successor, the " Hi 2."
Many Hi2 7 s, with 340-H.P. Rolls-Royce engines, were used with
success against submarines. The Hi2's weighed 5 tons, carried
5 persons and 500 Ib. of bombs at 80 knots for 6 hours, and were
armed with three or four machine-guns. They had i H.P. for
every 16 Ib. and when first used had a higher performance than
any other sea-going aircraft over the North Sea. They showed
that hydroplaning efficiency, previously regarded as cardinal,
could be sacrificed for sea-worthiness, provided sufficient engine-
power were available.
All the earlier types, including the H8 and the Hi2's, were
practically flat-bottomed, and pounded heavily in disturbed
water; the higher power available in the latter type enabled these
seaplanes to take off rapidly and the improvement of providing
them with a pronounced V-section bottom was adopted first
on a small " America, " and then on the H8 with the two Eagle
engines.
This combination of Felixstowe hull, H8 wings with Rolls-
Royce engines known as the F2 was the forerunner of all the
many boat seaplanes of the latter part of the war. These craft,
one of which is illustrated (see Plate II.), corresponded in size,
weight and power to the Hi2 type, but on account of their V-
section hulls, were capable of alighting in, and taking off from,
disturbed water with less risk of damage to the hulls. Their
effectiveness against submarines led the Germans to evolve high-
performance two-seater fighter seaplanes of the float type.
Among the most effective of these were the Brandenburg mono-
plane seaplanes. These remarkable craft became useful as a
menace to the heavier " boat seaplanes," and as they were carry-
ing only a light machine-gun load and comparatively little fuel
they out-manoeuvred them.
It has been seen that the small seaplane that might have count-
ered these was undeveloped in England. The defensive arma-
ment of the large seaplanes was increased, though such additional
load adversely affected their performance and sea-going qualities.
Small two-seater seaplanes to escort the larger ones were con-
structed, but as these were not delivered until after the cessation
of hostilities, the technical advantages to be derived from this new
field of study were only partly reaped. Summarizing the above
we see that the smaller boat seaplane originated in France, the
large one in the United States of America, the very large one in
England. Many seaplanes were brought to England from Amer-
ica were improved by experience obtained in Britain, and sub-
sequently the types designed at Felixstowe and built in England
were reproduced in America in quantities.
The construction of the American " NC " type, and its cross-
ing of the Atlantic, was a wonderful achievement. The fact
that from lack of fuel " NC3 " alighted in mid-Atlantic, and
arrived at Ponta Delgada after travelling 180 sea miles on the
water in 54 hours with bad weather, pays a high tribute to the
design and is a sign of the future value of the seaplane in com-
mercial transport.
In France the war incentive to seaplane progress was lacking.
France has mainly used the small boat seaplane for coast defence,
and patrol for submarines. Up to the end of 1918 sufficiently
high-powered engines were lacking for sea-going craft; the
Hispano-Suiza 200-H.P. being in most general use.
In July 1914 the Germans had few seaplanes in service, and
of these one had been imported from England. They were nearly
all of the two-float type, and suffered from the defects of that
type previously mentioned. Their activities were mainly de-
fensive, and did not require either long endurance or good sea-
worthiness. Torpedo-carrying seaplanes were made use of in
AERONAUTICS
1916 from the Belgian coast in attacks on merchant shipping
but these were not required to cover great distances, and were not
remarkable. Isolated small boat seaplanes have been constructed
in Germany, but not in quantity.
The Germans (no doubt in consequence of their greater study
of airships) continuously kept a heavier, and more reliable, engine
than the Allies, but by 1917 the Allies had produced higher-
powered units, and it is probable that these two facts are mainly
responsible for the German retention of the smaller " float sea-
plane." Moreover, their engine failures at sea were few, and
there was not, therefore, so much pressure for their seaplanes to
withstand open sea conditions.
The Brandenburg seaplanes of 1917-8 had rather heavy engines
of 180 to 200 H.P., yet they had very high performance. Their
success in fighting was due to the unusual monoplane wing
arrangement which gave a clear field of fire in all directions above
the horizontal plane, and to their clean general design without
any external wire bracing. They employed the more recent type
of twin floats.
Before the period of limitation of aircraft construction set by
the Allied Commission of Aeronautical Control, the Germans had
been developing the giant aeroplane in several experimental
forms, differing mainly in the arrangement of multiple-engine
units. These ranged in total weight roughly from 9 to 12 tons,
and in the case of the larger types difficulty was experienced in
providing sufficient area of contact between the wheels and
ground. This difficulty did not exist in the giant seaplanes, a
few examples of which had been built by the Zeppelin works on
Lake Constance. Their aerodynamic design was not good, and
the type was not perpetuated in its original great size on account,
probably, of difficulties of control. The Staakener Giant was
another example; this had two long floats made entirely of
duralumin. These giant seaplanes would no doubt have devel-
oped but for the prohibition, and an interesting comparison of
advantages would have been obtainable between the giant sea-
plane, and the giant aeroplane.
Characteristics of Seaplanes. The boat seaplane, a craft suitable
for less-sheltered waters than the early float-equipped aeroplane,
or hydro-aeroplane as it was called, must, to be of real value in naval
operations, be fully sea-worthy, and such progress as had been made
had not yet proved by 1921 whether this was completely obtainable.
But there were then : (i) the smaller craft to operate from sheltered
waters, rivers and lakes, and (2) the boat seaplane to operate over-
sea. The first includes all types of small dimensions of less than, say,
4 tons, and all existing "float" types in 1921 fell into this category.
To the considerations of design, stability and control applying
to aeroplanes must be added the design and distribution of the float
system, so that the forces due to water shall not affect adversely the
stability and control. These water forces are controlled by means of
the aerodynamic elements, which are ineffective except at the higher
hydroplaning speeds. Hence the float system must be such that any
instability that occurs between the air-borne and water-borne con-
ditions shall take place at speeds high enough for the air controls to
be dominant.
Wheeled seaplanes, for land and sea alighting, had been built by
1921 as experiments, but their development had only just begun.
Their wheel system, springing, ground clearance and like factors
are those of the aeroplane. These amphibians are handicapped by
the weight of the float system, but show promise of very useful speed
and climb.
Most large centres of population possess areas of smooth water,
rivers, lakes or harbour, affording an alighting area comparable with
the average aerodrome, and if the proposed route provides large
water areas for any forced alighting, this fact can be taken advantage
of by carrying a heavier load per sq. ft. of wing area with a corre-
sponding gain of speed, reduction of structure-weight and increase
of efficiency.
The desiderata for seaplanes for the open sea are less well known,
and more difficult of attainment. They must for sea-worthiness
be large. They had reached 15 tons by 1921 and were still far below
the dimensions of the small coasting vessel ; with the existing construc-
tional materials science places a very early and definite limit to the
increase of size possible. In order to enable even a 15-ton seaplane
to carry a reasonable weight of fuel, crew and equipment, the load
factor is in some cases reduced to three and a half. The increase of
wing-loading, though it entails a higher stalling speed, and the adop-
tion of a wing-section of high lift, may yet improve matters.
For commercial purposes, a high top speed is not so essential as
for war, and model tests indicated in 1921 that the overall efficiency
of a seaplane with high-lift wings may compare with craft with the
usual flatter wing. The reduced area of wings so obtained has kept
down the structure weight. For war the wing whose camber is vari-
able to give high speed with good lift at low speed may be perfected
Three arrangements of "float seaplanes" are possible; in all, the
engine, crew and loads are carried in one or more fuselages well above
the floats in such a way as to bring the centre of gravity and thrust
axis into approximate alignment :
(a) Two main floats which together support the whole weight
and provide lateral and longitudinal support.
(i) Two main floats together with one or more tail floats, the for-
mer supporting nearly the whole weight, but being dependent on the
latter for longitudinal support.
(c) One central main float supporting the whole weight and pro-
viding longitudinal support, two comparatively small wing floats
providing lateral support.
Systems (a) and (b) provide positive metacentric height both longi-
tudinal and transverse, while system (c) is always dependent on the
wing floats for lateral support; for small angles of roll this is lack-
ing, as it is necessary to carry the wing floats clear of the water when
the seaplane is on an even keel.
Systems (a) and (b) are most usually employed because they avoid
this defect. A main advantage of the system (c) is that the float im-
pedes the view much less.
Arrangement (a) is better than (b), as the tail float of (c) is easily
damaged, and thereupon longitudinal support being lost, the sea-
plane turns over on its back.
Float seaplanes have the following merits over the boat type :
(1) They can be handled on slipways with the most primitive ar-
rangements, and can be beached safely on any smooth foreshore.
(2) The aerodynamic elements give the normal balance, stability
and control.
(3) They may be convertible into aeroplanes, or vice versa.
(4) The floats are simple in design, and can be subdivided into
watertight compartments.
(5) The static transverse stability of systems (a) and (b) enable the
wings to be folded afloat, for hoisting the craft from the water to a
ship or a quay.
(6) For war, good arcs of fire are obtainable over the rear hemi-
sphere.
The following are the disadvantages :
(1) The floats are uneconomical of structure- weight.
(2) The aerodynamic drag is comparatively high.
(3) Arrangements (a) and (b) cannot be used for larger craft than
3 tons as heavy racking stresses are set up in the structure connect-
ing the two floats when on disturbed water.
In the " boat seaplane " the displacement of the craft is borne by
the central hull. Longitudinal stability on the water, both static
and dynamic, is supplied by the length of the hull, and the distri-
bution of its planing surfaces. Wing-tip floats are necessary for
lateral support.
The advantages of the type are as follows:
(1) An excellent crew position for flying and observation, e.g.
in anti-submarine operations.
(2) Comfort : the crew can move about, the pilot be relieved, etc.
(3) Economy of structure-weight.
(4) Compact design low air drag.
(5) Absence of racking forces, and large size possible. This last
advantage is the most important, and the limit of size of aircraft,
as already discussed in the section on "aeroplane design," applies
here save as regards the hull. Experience shows that the hull weights
do not increase even in the same proportion as the total displace-
ment, a slight reduction in the ratio of the hull weight to total weight
having been obtained, and if this continues further, it is clear that a
reduction in hull weight can be set off against an increase in wing
weight, resulting possibly in the most economical scale being greater
than anything yet constructed.
The disadvantages are :
(1) The wings cannot be folded afloat.
(2) Cannot be beached except in very soft mud, and requires
elaborate apparatus to move it to a shed on shore.
(3) In war it is difficult to defend from attack astern.
(4) The large distance between the centre of gravity and the
thrust axis, and the low position of the centre of gravity in relation
to the centre of lift. The former produces a variable pitching mo-
ment, the latter influences adversely the lateral control.
Elements of Design Peculiar to Seaplanes. Many of the desiderata
in a seaplane design are antagonistic to each other.
Flight can be achieved with I H.P. for each 25 Ib. to be flown, but
jood speeds and climbing need I H.P. for each 8 or 10 Ib.; therefore,
structure-weight must be economized.
No wings can stand a blow from any large volume of water. The
wings must clear the waves and any but light spray. Regarded as
an aircraft the centre of gravity of the whole and the centre of pres-
sure of the wings should De nearly coincident, and for this the centre
of gravity should be high above the water. As a watercraft, how-
ever, a relatively low position of the centre of gravity is needed in
relation to the waterplane. The compromise necessary puts the
centre of gravity so that the metacentric height (apart from the wing-
ip floats) is negative.
AERONAUTICS
The position of the airscrew dominates the design. Air inflow near
the blade-tips sucks spray off the sea, and picks up spray thrown by
the hull, with damage to the blades. This is prevented either by
putting it high up or over some part of the seaplane, e.g. the lower
wing or hull. This places the thrust axis well above the centre of
gravity, and the smaller the seaplane, the more this effect is notable.
The high thrust axis produces a downward pitch varying from
zero in gliding flight to a maximum at full power. In the earlier
boat seaplane this was uncorrected, and, in order to get balance in
normal flight, the craft was very "tail heavy" when gliding.
This effect has been diminished by placing the tail plane in the
slipstream, by setting it at a negative angle to the chord of the main
planes, and by distributing the weights so as to bring the centre of
gravity particularly far forward. The thrust-couple thus opposed
by the tail-couple can be nearly balanced out. As the main reactions
on the tail are downwards, the tail plane is sometimes set with the
camber downwards.
Unusually large airscrews and geared-down engines are used for
efficiency at low speeds, i.e. at about 4/10 of the stalling speed,
because the water resistances are greatest at this speed.
The hull must provide longitudinal stability, both at rest and in
motion on the water. To ride in a seaway and not bury its nose when
accelerating, a long forebody is used. The section of this part should
be veed at the keel, and well flared at the chines, respectively to
reduce shocks from on-coming waves, and to keep the divergent wave
formation low and clear of the wings and airscrews. For the same
reasons the keel and chine lines have a gradual rise forward with
overhang forward of the fore-end of the water-line.
At least a 300 % reserve of buoyancy is given to boat seaplanes to
provide adequate freeboard at sea. With watertight floats 120%
reserve is adequate.
Above 4/10 of the minimum flying speed, called the "hump"
speed, the water resistance due to wave-making begins to fall. Above
the hump speed the water resistances are probably due as much
to skin friction of the planing surfaces as to wave or eddy making,
and by disposing steps in the planing bottom, the wetted surface,
and consequently the resistance is reduced. From the hump
speed onwards these hydroplane resistances decrease, the weight is
transferred more and more to the wings until the seaplane leaves the
water.
The larger the planing surface (i.e. the wider the beam) the sooner
the hull rises, and the earlier the hump occurs, but this increases the
resistance at lower speeds, and makes the hull heavy for its strength.
Models tried in the Froude National Tank at Teddington (Eng-
land) show that but a slight reduction of max. E.H.P. at or about
the hump speed is obtained when the beam exceeds about \ the
length of forebody. Where a high power is available on other ac-
counts, the beam may be still further reduced. A narrow hull with
spray-deflecting sections, and without flat surfaces, or main " step,"
though desirable, was found not to give the necessary lowering of
resistance beyond the hump speed. The resistance increased as the
displacement diminished with speed.
The main " step " under the centre of gravity was proved necessary,
but the area of the planing surface forward of less importance. The
boundaries of the planing surfaces must have sharp edges to make
the water break clear away from them ; water clings to rounded sur-
faces even of small radius, and these would cause unnecessary resis-
tance. The angle between the hull surface at the chines and steps
should not exceed 90 for the same reason.
In a seaplane hull we require static stability at rest on the water,
and dynamic stability in motion at the higher speeds. Longitudinal
stability of the whole at rest is obtained by the length of the water-
plane area and presents no difficulties.
The tendency of all craft to trim by the bow at low speeds is ag-
gravated in the seaplane by the high thrust axis. The heaviest
waves are formed while this tendency to dive is still present, and it
is at these speeds (in the region of \ to J of the minimum flying
speed) that clean running in disturbed water is most difficult to attain.
The modern hull possesses large restoring moments at small nega-
tive angles of trim, but if the forward trim exceeds about 3, the
moments will have become negative, and an attempt to alight at such
an angle will break up the hull.
Lateral stability at rest (though sought in early boat seaplanes by
providing sufficient beam to give a small positive metacentric height)
is destroyed by the lightest side wind, and therefore wing-tip floats
are a necessity. The transverse metacentric height is always nega-
tive to-day, and wing-tip floats are relied on.
Stability in the hydroplaning condition becomes increasingly im-
portant with size. Beyond the hump speed the hydrodynamic
reactions, the air reactions and, to a diminishing extent, the buoyancy
combine to support the hull, and to determine the stability of the
whole. Just above the hump. speed hydroplaning reactions are great,
while the air-forces are small; so are the moments due to the air-
controls. Here the planing surfaces and steps must afford stability.
When the speed increases the water-forces become less, and the air-
forces greater, till, on approaching the minimum flying speed, any
instability that may occur can be counterbalanced by the air-con-
trols. In the larger seaplanes, however, the water moments may be
large even at high speeds, and their hulls must, therefore, be stable
over the whole range of water speeds.
The stability depends on the relative size and positions of the
steps and planing surfaces, on the angles of the planing surfaces to
the mean water-line to each other, and to the chords of the aerofoil
surfaces ; and on the position of the centre of gravity in relation to
these and to the height of the thrust axis.
The problem is one of great complexity, and partly on account of
its recent origin is as yet unsolved.
During the war, model work was called for on individual designs
and delayed the general investigation, but clues have been found.
Usually the smaller hulls are proved more apt to develop instability
both in the tank tests and on the full scale. The minimum flying
speed being much the same on large and small seaplanes, the wave
lengths at any given speed are much the same. A hull of 45 ft. gave
best results with the main step slightly forward of the C.G. and the
rear step, very small relatively, 18 ft. aft of it. Here instability was
delayed until the air-controls were effective, and when tried in the
full scale, no instability was apparent, probably on account of the
damping action of the air-surfaces, since the seaplane took the air
without operation of the controls by the flier.
A somewhat similar model of a much larger seaplane with steps
32 ft. apart was stable throughout the speed range.
In the small types the hull length restricts the distance apart of
the steps. The two steps may be compared to the wings and tail
surfaces of an aeroplane ; the main step nearly under the C.G. does
the lifting of the boat on to the surface, while the rear step provides
the pitching moments for equilibrium, and is most effective for this
purpose when far aft and of small dimensions. Tank experiments
on models show that not more than about l/io of the total resistance
is due to the rear step and after body. The two steps must also be
arranged in such a way that the intermediate hull-sections and that
part of the hull carrying the tail surfaces, aft of the rear step, are
clear of the two depressions formed in the water by the passage of
the steps. The object is to reduce the wetted surface, aft of the main
step, to the minimum necessary (at the rear step itself) to give
stable conditions. This best arrangement can only be obtained, at
present, by individual model experiments. The full scale has cor-
roborated the restjlts, and accordingly the resistance, running angles,
pitching moments required for equilibrium and general characteris-
tics of running can be obtained in the Froude tank, where waves
can also be reproduced artificially. Tests show that complete
stability on the model is obtained under more difficult conditions
than in the full scale, hence the seaplane corresponding to a stable
model may be fully relied upon.
Between Air and Water. The water reactions on a badly designed
hull may continue to be considerable up to the moment of quitting
the water; then, their sudden disappearance may produce moments
dangerous at a time when their correction by air-controls requires
big movements. Such a seaplane at a high speed on water, and kept
at the angle for maximum lift of the wings by means of the air-
controls, is subject to a moment in pitch due to the water reaction
on the steps. This is balanced by a moment due to the elevator until
it leaves the water, when all the water forces are lost. If the elevator
moment, which had been applied by the flier were positive (i.e.
increasing the angle of attack), the seaplane would stall. These
moments should either not exist or be negligible. If they do exist
they are less dangerous if operative in the inverse sense to those in
the example. Their existence can only be ascertained, and as a rule
eventually elinHnated, by experiment. From such experiments a
canon for design will be evolved.
To keep hull weight low there are special methods of construc-
tion. The timbers used in boat-building practice have so far been
found best. In the present sizes steel is out of the question. Alumin-
ium alloys have been used in Germany with success for float con-
struction, but it is doubtful whether duralumin or any other alumin-
ium alloy is superior to mahogany for the hull skin as regards
strength, hysteresis or durability. In any case of timbers, mahogany
is the best for this purpose.
Unsuccessful attempts have been made to depart from the time-
worn principles and practice of light boat building. A planked skin
through-fastened on to timbers and stringers in the usual manner is
essential for watertightness and durability.
Design is addressed to keeping down the weight of the skin, and
its supporting structure. Seaplane hulls have been built having a
bare weight from 20 % to 9 1 % of the total weight. The latter figure
was got on a boat displacing about 15 tons.
The two principal methods of construction are: the rigid and the
flexible. For most hulls the skin is supported by a rigid structure
which permits of easy subdivision by transverse bulkheads like the
ordinary steel steamship except that timber is employed. The main
objection to this method is its low specific strength. The rigid
structure produces strong local points in the skin with intermediate
areas poorly supported, resulting in sudden changes of cross section
and localized deflections under load. Such a hull to have sufficient
strength for taking off in disturbed water weighs 15 % of its displace-
ment at least.
The flexible method as developed by Linton Hope has its trans-
verse sections approximately circular throughout the whole length,
while the planing surfaces are built on outside the main hull, produc-
ing what is virtually a double bottom. The structure is tubular, its
whole strength being concentrated in the skin and its local support-
AERONAUTICS
53
ing members. Two or'more thicknesses of mahogany-planking are
through-fastened to transverse timbers of small section closely spaced ;
these are connected longitudinally by a large number of stringers of
rectangular section lying in a radial plane, edge on to the timbers;
the stringers are in turn supported on their inner edges by elm hoops
of comparatively heavy section widely spaced. The small section
timbers are placed so closely that no fastenings need be passed
through the skin anywhere between timbers. This type is water-
tight, durable and light. The average hull weighs not more than
II % to 12 % of its displacement.
The flexibility absorbs the shocks of alighting and taking off, and
precludes heavy local pressures. Care is taken to distribute the air
loads, which are generally concentrated along two lines transversely
to the axis of the hull, over a sufficient area of the skin, and all
internal installation is arranged to allow for comparatively large
relative movements of components. Transverse subdivision is prac-
tically impossible, but the provision of a subdivided double bottom
is easy and effective.
Seaplane in Operation. The preparations made for housing and
upkeep of seaplanes were unfortunately dominated by the require-
ments of the early types. The seaplane station was modelled on
aerodrome lines, with the addition of a slipway to the water. The
flat floats of the float seaplanes were placed on trolleys, and thence
by slipways to the water. The delicate V-section hull of the heavy
boat seaplane is ill-suited for such handling. The draught of the
modern boat (with a trolley under it) exceeds what can be negotiated
by men in waders. If such boats are to be brought ashore at all new
devices are required for doing so. Experience shows that boats of
only 5 or 6 tons are damaged in such handling, though they draw
little more than 2 ft. of water. To limit the bringing ashore to slack
water periods in good weather, would be intolerable for commercial
work. Better water-side facilities, such as covered sheds with direct
access to the water for the construction, erection and repair of
modern seaplanes are needed. These should allow of admitting water
to part of the shed to reduce the out-of- water handling to a minimum.
As a large expanse of sheltered water is necessary, and the rise and
fall of the tide is important, floating sheds may be needed.
Closed sheds are not essential for operating seaplanes. The larger
the seaplane the more can it resist exposure for long periods, and the
practice of mooring out will become an economical necessity, but the
seaplane must be designed with this in view, and proper auxiliary
services for heating, fuelling and repairs provided. In high winds
seaplanes moored out have risen off the water at their moorings and
destroyed themselves, but this is avoidable by destroying the air-flow
over the lower planes by attaching light boarding along the leading
edges at a large negative angle to the chord. As the seaplane for com-
merce has been but little studied, marked developments may be
expected in this direction ; sea-worthiness is still the main problem
for warcraft and increase of size the most direct solution.
In transport work, sea-worthiness is an insurance against engine
failure ; remove this risk and operation would take place from shel-
tered water only, design would be freer, size would be dictated by
load, capacity and economy. The need to counter the winds rather
than competition against the slow surface ship would dictate the air
speed of such craft.
For operation from smooth waters structure-weight and hull
weight can be reduced and wing load increased, while high-lift wing
sections also offer much promise.
It is remarkable that though the viewpoint for seaplanes is so
different from that for aeroplanes, the reliable engine unit is equally
found to be the prime desideratum for present progress. (A. J. M.)
IX. AIRSHIPS
Airships are divided into three main types: (i) The rigid, which
has a hull structure of rigid members covered by an outer fabric
fairing, and containing a number of separate gas cells. (2) The
semi-rigid, in which the whole or part of the bending and longi-
tudinal compression induced in the ship by the rigging wires is
taken by a rigid keel. The envelope from which this keel is car-
ried is kept distended by the pressure of the gas, but is mainly
subject to vertical loads. (3) The non-rigid, in which the envelope
maintains its shape solely on account of an internal pressure
which must exceed the outside pressure.
Small airships up to, say, 300 ft. long are necessarily non-rigid,
as there is not sufficient lift to justify a rigid framework. The
largest airships have a rigid hull structure because the pressures
involved in an envelope of large diameter necessitate very heavy
fabric and make a system of compartments essential. Between
the two, the semi-rigid seeks to reduce the fabric tensions by the
use of a rigid keel girder, but it is doubtful whether this justifies
the keel, except as a convenient means of carrying the loads
from the envelope.
A rigid airship has a hull structure of light aluminium girders,
arranged with some 25 longitudinals connecting some 17 main
transverse polygonal rings. At each main ring a bulkhead is
formed of the load wires which suspend the weight of the keel
from the upper part of the framework and the radial and chord
wires which retain the shape of cross section of the ship. A spe-
cially strong keel of triangular section and some 8 ft. high runs
nearly the whole length of the ship and carries the petrol tanks,
water-ballast bags and other weights, being itself supported
at the main transverse rings. The 30-metre spaces between
the bulkheads are each fitted with a single gasbag of gas-tight
fabric. The degree of fullness of these bags varies from the
maximum to sometimes less than 50% full, when the upper parts
of the space alone will be occupied by the bag, whose lower part is
collapsed and empty. A cover of fabric is stretched over the
outside of the whole frame, so as to present a smooth surface and
protect the gasbags from weather and light. Separate engine
cars are attached below the hull at points along its length.
Performance Table of Seaplanes, 1914-20.
Float Seaplanes.
1914.
Type
H.P.
Useful
Load In-
cluding Crew
(Ib.)
Endurance
Hrs.
Maximum
Speed in m.p.h.
at Sea Level
Span
Total
Weight*
Maximum
Total
Weight
Effective
Ceiling
M. Farman ....
Short
Sopwith-Schneider .
IOO
1 60
IOO
880
850
340
3
4*
2*
62
74
90
63
56
26
2,130
3,000
1,500
2,130
3,000
i, 600
1915
Short 184
225
1,300
5
68
63
4,700
5,000
1916
Sopwith-Schneider .
130
515
2f
109
26
1,790
1,790
1917
Fairey Type III.
Short 184. Improved
Short 320. ....
260
260
320
1,190
1,748
2,140
4i
5
3
93
79
73
46
63
74
4,159
5,250
7,000
4,300
5,250
7,000
14,000
5,500
3,5oo
1918
Fairey Type III. c.
Westland Single-Seater .
Hanriot Single-Seater
360
150
130
1,408
474
585
*
3
104
103
"7
46
3i
28
4,800
1,987
1,825
5,000
2,000
15,000
10,400
1919
S.V.A
2OO
495
3
124
30
2,195
1920
Fairey Type III.
45"
1,479
44
118
46
5,250
5,250
* Total weight carried for performance shown.
54
AERONAUTICS
Performance Table of Seaplanes, 1914-20.
Boat Seaplanes.
1914.
Type
H.P.
Useful
Load In-
cluding Crew
db.)
Endurance
Mrs.
Maximum
Speed in m.p.h.
at Sea Level
Span
Total
Weight*
Maximum
Total
Weight
Effective
Ceiling
Curtiss America .
F.B.A
1 80
IOO
650
630
3
3
65
68
76
40
4,000
1,825
4,5oo
2,000
IQI5-
Norman Thompson
1 20
835
4i
78
48
2,600
2,600
ipi6.
Large America. H 12
Porte Boat ....
690
i, 080
1,357
3,900
6
7
97
88
95
124
10,650
18,600
11,000
18,600
10,800
8,000
1917.
A.D. Boat
200
i, 066
4i
93
50
3,56o
3,600
11,500
1918.
F 5 (Light Load) . . .
Phoenix PS (Light Load)
Tellier
720
72O
350
1,607
i,773
2,640
8
7i
6
IOI
i5
90
104
8?
76
9,630
9,210
7,160
13,300
12,500
7, 1 60
17,400
15,100
1919.
Felixstowe Fury
F.B.A. . ...
Nieuport Macchi
N.C
Cornier G.S.I. (Zeppelin)
i, 800
200
260
i, 600
520
6,690
1,320
595
12,000
2,800
10
4
3
1
95
87
127
85
112
123
51
40
126
6.5
25,250
3,520
2,245
28,000
9,500
28,000
4,000
2,245
28,000
12,000
7920.
Vickers Viking Mk. III.
450
1,278
4*
121
46
4,900
5,100
* Total weight carried for performance shown.
The early development of rigid airships was carried out by
Count Zeppelin in Germany, and represents an extraordinary
record of perseverance. This development was only rendered
possible by political influence and by the repeated financial
assistance available. The Schiitte-Lanz airships were of wooden
construction and developed more slowly. They appear, however,
to have embodied considerably more original and perhaps cou-
rageous developments than did the Zeppelins, which were de-
veloped more as gradual minor improvements on the original
design.
British Rigid Airship No. i was started in 1909. During the
construction great consideration was given to the various auxiliary
gear required by the ship and to the problems included in the
handling and mooring as well as the actual flying of the ship.
The thoroughness and accuracy with which this auxiliary work
was developed is most remarkable in the light of later experience.
Before the first flight was made the ship was moored by the bow
to a mast with her cars resting on the water. The ship was broken
amidships in Sept. 1911 as the result of a mistake in handling
while she was being returned to her shed after one of the trials
of handling before flight. Comparison of the details and esti-
mated performance of this ship with the contemporary Zeppelins
shows that she was a remarkably good first design and that had
it not been decided to abandon rigid-airship construction the
British development of these ships would almost certainly have
become at least equal to that of Germany.
British Rigid Airship Rg, by Vickers, stopped at the beginning
of the World War, was restarted in July 1915 and made her
first flight in Nov. 1916. She made a rather remarkable passage
to Howden through a snowstorm over the Pennine range. Being
somewhat inadequate in buoyancy, she was used for instruction
and ultimately for mooring experiments.
She was followed by four ships of R23 class, built by Vickers,
Beardmore and Armstrong, and again by R27 and Rag, which
were remarkable for the absence of the keel which had existed
in all previous rigid airships and had been looked upon as con-
stituting the real strength of the ship to resist bending and shear-
ing forces. This keel subsequently reappeared in German Zep-
pelins and in the ships built in England, but then merely as a
means of distributing to the main frames the weights of petrol
tanks, etc., arranged along it.
Two wooden ships, RJI and R32, were built by Short to a design
closely similar to that of the Schiitte-Lanz type. They were
considerably faster than contemporary ships.
Rigid-airship construction in Germany had advanced con-
tinuously and was, therefore, greatly ahead of French and British.
A combination of the talent and experience of the Zeppelin and
Schiitte-Lanz firms early in 1916 resulted in the design of L3o,
giving a speed and performance far ahead of any earlier ships.
L$3 of this class was brought down in Sept. 1916 in such a com-
paratively undamaged condition that it was possible from her to
prepare a design in England to which R33 and R34 were built.
These ships were not, however, completed till late in 1918.
The German L65 class marked a further advance in speed and
performance, while the L?o class, of which the first ship, L7o, was
destroyed on the first flight to England with some of the chief
constructional experts on board, marked still further progress in
performance and in the simplification of the machinery installa-
tion, in the adoption of fins of triangular cross section. 1,72,
which was not actually completed until after the Armistice, had
again a slightly higher performance.
After the Armistice Germany built a much smaller airship,
the " Bodensee," for commercial purposes, and with her carried
out a remarkable series of passenger flights. The ship was then
enlarged and a sister ship, " Nordstern," also constructed.
Subsequent to the R33 class the British R36 and R37 were
constructed to a generally similar design, of somewhat greater
capacity and much improved detail. R8o, designed and con-
structed by Vickers, embodied several entirely new features, but
her size was so restricted by the dimensions of the construction
shed that her performance was seriously handicapped. R38
made radical changes in features of design, and a clear and def-
inite departure from German methods. The United States had
contracted for its purchase. It was to be used, as it was gener-
ally understood, for an experimental service from New York to
San Francisco and for that purpose masts and intermediate
stations were being prepared. R38, while on the final test flight
before delivery on August 24 1921, caught fire and fell owing
to structural weakness, and many lives were lost.
Non-Rigid Airships. In 1913 the chief general classes of non-
rigid airships were: (i) Those with a plain circular envelope
from which the car, etc., was suspended from special fittings on
AERONAUTICS
55
the envelope, and of which the British military airships are
typical. (2) The Parseval type, in which the circular envelope is
reinforced against bending under the rigging tension by Parseval
trajectory bands passing over the envelope and secured to a
girdle to which the car is rigged. (3) The Torres type, made by
the Astra firm of Paris, trilobe in section, with riggings led inside
the envelope and divided into fans secured to points along the
two top ridges.
The two latter systems are intended to decrease the distance
between the envelope and the car without producing excessive
tendency to bend in a large ship.
At the beginning of the war the French had several non-rigid
ships of various types which carried out bombing operations,
but no important new ships were built. Germany had a few
Parseval airships, which did a little work on the Russian front,
but there was no important development of small ships. England
had three small non-rigids, also one Parseval and one Astra.
It became necessary, however, at the beginning of 1915 to develop
the very small non-rigid airship as rapidly as possible as an anti-
submarine protection. Extreme simplicity was essential in order
to allow of rapid production by firms having no previous expe-
rience. For the first 30 ships aeroplane bodies were used as cars,
but later special cars far more suitable for patrol work were
adopted. Engines of about 90 H.P. were used and a crew of three
carried. Some 150 ships of the S.S. classes were built, but at the
end of the war it had been decided to adopt a slightly larger ship
with twin engines and a crew of five as being more suitable for
the longer patrols which became necessary. Later in 1915 a
larger type -the Coastal class having greater speed and taking
a crew of five, was built. For these the Astra system of rigging
was adopted in order to reduce to a minimum the necessary
height of the sheds. Thirty-five of these ships and ten of an
improved (C*) class were built during the war. These ships later
carried a crew of five and had an endurance of 1 2 hours at a full
speed of 51 knots. In 1916 the first ship of the North Sea type
was flown. This class was intended to work with the fleet and
had an endurance of some 24 hours at 50 knots. Sixteen of these
ships were built.
The characteristic of these ships, more particularly the N.S.
class, was that the petrol tanks and all other weights possible
were carried direct on the envelope. In the N.S. class the car
was separate from the power unit and the weight distributed
over the length of the ship. This gave important advantages
over all earlier non-rigids where the loads had been concentrated
in the car. The S.S., Coastal and N.S. classes were all designed
and built at the R.N. Airship Station, Kingsnorth. They con-
stitute a very interesting development from the small supply of
ships and experience available at the beginning of the war.
A considerable number of British non-rigid airships were built
and supplied to the French, Italian, Russian and American serv-
ices, and one Italian semi-rigid was supplied to England for
experiment. A large Astra ship of some 800,000 cub. ft. capacity
was built in France with two large cars. It is understood
that lack of longitudinal rigidity of the envelope gave trouble.
The Italian airship design has favoured the semi-rigid type
of construction, their most successful type being one in which
the keel girder was not in itself rigid but " vertebrate," consisting
of a number of pin-jointed frames capable of taking the longitu-
dinal thrust induced by the car riggings, so long as the envelope
held the keel in line. This system did not greatly reduce the
height of the ship, as the points of attachment of the riggings
were necessarily at the bottom of the envelope instead of near
the level of its centre line. It did, however, enable a much lower
envelope pressure to be used than in the non-rigids of the same
size. This enabled a very light envelope fabric to be used and
also a system of automatic pressure regulation by air taken at the
nose of the airship. These' ships were designed for bombing
raids at great heights across the Adriatic Sea. The excellent
weather conditions rendered their comparatively slow speed
quite satisfactory.
Germany built a few large semi-rigids of the M type and the
Parseval type. The two largest, PL26 and 27, were of some
1,120,000 cub. ft. capacity. They embodied many interesting
features, including spherical partitions which divided the envelope
into sections so that the accumulation of pressure at the upper
end of the ship when pitched was avoided. As far as is known,
no very thorough trial of these scrips was made, but as far as the
experiment was carried it appears to have been satisfactory.
The type was not, however, proceeded with on account of the
decision to concentrate on the rigid type.
Italy, after the Armistice, built a large semi-rigid " Roma,"
intended for transatlantic service.
An interesting aircraft which was developed experimentally
as a counter to the Zeppelin raids was the " airship-plane "
devised by Wing Comm. Usborne. A complete aeroplane was
rigged under the envelope of an S.S. airship in such a way that,
after patrolling at a great height, the envelope could be released
and the aeroplane left free to deliver its attack. After several
preliminary flights the first attempt to slip the envelope in
flight failed on account, probably, of temporary loss of pressure
in the envelope. The machine was partly released prematurely,
and was damaged as it fell away; Wing Comm. Usborne and
Wing Comm. Ireland were both killed. The former particularly
was a most serious loss, as he had up to that time been mainly
responsible for the exceptionally rapid airship development.
Kite Balloons. The Drachen kite balloon, in the form origi-
nally used by Maj. von Parseval and Capt. von Sigsfeld in 1896,
was used by the Germans immediately on the declaration of war
for observation of artillery fire. Its value became at once ap-
parent, and it was immediately copied by the Allies, very large
numbers being made. The stability was, however, so poor that
this type could only be used in fair weather, and accurate ob-
servation was often difficult. Capt. Caquot of the French army
designed an improved arrangement of stabilizers. Three fins,
one at the bottom of the tail and two 120 from it, were in the
summer of 1916 ultimately adopted instead of the single fin of
the Drachen and the string of parachutes which were necessary
with it. Considerably improved stability was obtained, ana
there was an important increase of the dynamic lift which gave
increased height. This type was generally adopted by the Allies
for military use and worked well up to 6,000 feet. The same type
of balloon was used by the navy, but was replaced by a similar
one designed to resist higher wind speeds and capable of only
2,000 feet. This was used extensively by the fleet for gunnery
observation and as a look-out for submarines. The balloon, being
in continuous telephone communication with the captain of the
ship, could transmit information more completely and rapidly
than other aircraft. The balloons were also used in the ships
protecting convoys, although it was sometimes contended that
they acted as buoys to show the position of the convoy to a sub-
marine which could thereby keep in touch at a safe distance
during the day and deliver its attack at night. These naval
balloons were capable of very high wind speeds, in one instance
80 knots being recorded.
An Italian A.P. type of balloon having a considerably smaller
length to diameter ratio was adopted to give very great static
lift in calm air. These were used for the apron defence against
aeroplane attack. A line of balloons lifted to a height of some
15,000 ft. a horizontal cable from which hung thin vertical wires
arranged to foul the wings of the hostile aircraft.
Airship Operations. During the early days of the war French
airships were employed for bombing behind the German line,
but the damage to the ships, usually through gas leakage caused
by shell and bullets, was so great that only a limited amount of
work was done.
The Italian airships designed specially for bombing raids at
very high altitude across the Adriatic obtained considerable
protection from their height, and more useful results appear to
have been achieved.
The Zeppelin raids over England were an interesting achieve-
ment from the airship point of view. So much of the effect
of these raids was indirect, in the delays to munition work during
raid nights, large amount of personnel and material retained for
defence, and also iji the psychological effect produced, that it is
AERONAUTICS
impossible to assess the full value of this work as a warlike
operation.
A less well-known Zeppelin activity was the patrol of the North
Sea in conjunction with the navy. These patrols were of extra-
ordinary extent and thoroughness, and must have proved a most
valuable assistance to the naval authorities. The value of a
similarly thorough patrol to the British would probably have
been even greater. British airship activity was confined almost
entirely to anti-submarine work carried out by non-rigid ships
partly as patrols over definite areas and partly as protection
to convoys. As a prevention to submarine activity these small
ships were extremely effective, although the number of sub-
marines actually destroyed through their direct agency was
small. The use of a hydrophone from an airship while in flight
was being successfully developed at the time of the Armistice,
and promised greatly to increase the effectiveness of their work.
The function of these ships was to detect and keep touch with
the submarine until the surface craft arrived with better locating
gear and a much more ample supply of explosive with which to
carry out the actual destruction. The large ships did a certain
amount of scouting work for the fleet, but this operation was
really only in course of development at the time of the Armistice.
The number of hours flown on patrols was over 87,000 and the
distance covered well over two million miles.
One remarkable operation by the Zeppelin Ls7 was her flight
to East Africa for the relief of the German force there. She left
AIRSHIP
Year
of
Com-
ple-
tion
Length
Diam-
eter
Ca-
pacity
Gross
Lift
Disposable
Lift
Useful
Lift
Engines
Speed
Endurance
Max.
Nor-
mal
Cruis-
ing
Cruis-
ing
At
40
kts.
feet
feet
million
cub. ft.
tons
tons
%of
gross
tons
%of
gross
No
H.P.
knots
knots
hrs.
hrs.
RIGIDS
Germany:
Zeppelin L4 ....
Lio ....
L2O ....
L30 ....
L 5 8 . . . .
L72 . . . .
" Bodensee" (modified)
Lioo (design) .
Schiitte-Lanz SL3
SL6 . .
SL8 . .
SL20 . .
Britain:
Rq
1914
1915
1916
1916
1918
1918
1915
1915
1916
1917
1917
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1921
518
536
586
645
645
743
430
781
513
534
571
650
526
535
< 15
640
535
672
695
49
61
79
79
79
79
61-5
96
65
65
66
75
53
53
66
79
70
79
86
793
1-126
1-264
1-949
1-978
2-420
800
3-814
1-144
1-236
1-367
1-978
-89
95
1-553
1-958
i -200
2-IOI
2-724
24-1
34-2
38-4
59-2
60-0
73-45
22-0
II5-8
34-7
37-5
41-5
60-0
25-6
27-3
47-14
59-5
36-43
63-8
82-7
8-53
14-9
16-52
30-0
36-93
47-0
ii-l
75-6
12-18
14-58
18-0
32-56
5-i
5-6
16-43
25-9
14-0
32-5
50-0
35-3
43-5
43-o
50-6
61-5
64-0
50-5
65-3
35-1
38-9
43-4
54-2
2O-O
20-5
34-8
44-7
38-5
51-0
60-5
3-3
8-44
10-0
17-35
27-8
36-72
8-0
60- 1
6-16
8-30
11-30
23-5
1-6
1-8
8-9
17-2
7-81
25-5
38-0
13-7
24-7
26-0
29-4
46-4
50-0
36-3
52-0
18-0
22-2
27-3
39-2
6-25
6-6
18-9
28-8
2i-5
40-0
46-0
3
4
i
5
6
4
10
4
4
4
6
4
4
5
5
4
4
6
2IO
240
240
240
260
26O
240
26O
210
2IO
240
240
1 80
26O
250
250
230
350
350
45
52-4
51-4
55-7
61-7
66-4
68
66-6
45-7
50-1
5-i
55-4
36
45
58-2
52
53-9
54
60
38-6
39-6
42
47-4
49-1
54
53-3
36-5
40-1
40-1
44-3
29
36
46-6
41-7
43
43-2
48
39
77
80
93
178
182
76
1 80
56
75
90
126
20
26
1 06
65
130
157
22
70
77
107
290
330
165
414
43
76
91
170
18
85
119
81
163
245
R23
R32 (Schiitte-Lanz type)
Rl4
R8o ....
R 3 6
R38 (design) ....
SEMI-RIGIDS
Italy.
O
1918
1918
1917
1918
1920
1914
1917
177
264
298
298
410
400
520
35
59
66
66
70
53
65
127
441
635
635
I-2OO
-69
I-I2
3'9
I3-36
19-3
19-3
36-3
20-9
33-8
1-37
6-7
9-2
8-64
18-1
35-0
50-1
47-6
44-7
50-0
95
5-42
7-39
6-83
13-0
6-0
15-0
25-0
40-5
38-3
35-4
36-2
28-7
44-5
2
3
2
4
6
3
4
120
2OO
2IO
15
500
1 6O
240
47
45
38
47
68
43
49
37'6
36
30
37
53
34
39
28
69
140
65
IOO
96
1 20
23
48
47
230
59
US
MSI ....
Forlanini 5 ....
Forlanini 6 ....
Germany:
M. IV. E
PL27
NON-RIGIDS
Britain:
Beta
1912
1913
1915
1916
1915
1917
1916
1913
I9'5
1919
1916
1918
1917
1918
1920
H3
H3
196
220
262
278
400
264
307
157
160
192
198
54-5
27-7
30-7
37-2
44-1
54-2
49-5
54
52-8
46 ,
35-6
31-6
42
42
05
12
06
07
170
200
360
28
47
336
368
096
084
180
190
1-52
3-63
1-82
2-155
5-15
6-4
11-44
8-5
H-3
IO-2
n-4
2-92
2-55
5-45
5-75
5
696
1-4
1-93
4-34
4-0
4-5
9
866
1-63
2-12
27-0
32-3
27-0
30-2
37-9
39-0
39-4
30-9
34-o
30-0
37-o
435
9
1-285
3-24
2-8
6
2-8
3 : 6
611
i-i
1-55
20-2
3
20-1 ^
28-3
33-o
42-0
27-4
27-2
20-5
24-0
2O-2
27-0
i
2
I
I
I
I
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
2
I
2
2
45
80
70
80
no
220
no
260
260
1 80
2IO
250
22O
80
IOO
150
I2S
31
35
40
43
40
51
50
35
37
43-5
38
42
41
52
50
25
28
32
35
32
41
40
28
30
35
30
33-5
33
4'-5
40
8-5
10
29
19
33
53
20
43
9
27
3i
37
21
8
22-5
36
12
7
16
33
37
Eta
s.s.
s.s.z
Coastal*
North Sea ....
Germany:
PLi8
PL25
France:
Astra 19
Tunisie ....
Zodiac Vedette . . .
America:
B
C ....
D
NOTE. The trials made with the earlier ships were less complete and less accurate than those made later. The performance was in
many instances calculated and recorded on a basis very different from the present standard. The figures given in the table are, however,
the best that can be derived from the sources available.
The endurance depends upon the weight available for petrol when a deduction from the useful lift has been made for crew, armament,
stores, etc. This deduction necessarily varies with different types of ship, and the basis on which it is made is usually not stated in the
records that have been preserved. The endurance should not, therefore, be regarded as a reliable basis of comparison. The figures given,
are those for the best ship of each class.
PLATE III.
AERONAUTICS
R.36 AT HER MOORINGS.
S.S.Z.4 IX DOCK AT GODMERSIIAM.
N.S.6.
CHANGING CREW.
TOWING C.I. FULL SPEED.
AERONAUTICS
57
Jamboli (Bulgaria) at 4:30 A.M. on Nov. 21 1917 with over ten
tons of machine-guns, ammunition and medical stores. She had
passed Khartum when she was recalled and landed again at
Jamboli at 5:30 A.M. Nov. 25, having covered 3,000 m. in 97
hr. with her full load of stores.
The Atlantic flight of R34 was slightly better in point of time.
Leaving East Fortune, near Edinburgh, at 1:42 A.M. July 2 1919,
she reached New York at 1:54 P.M. on July 6 after 108 hr.
12 min. in the air. The return journey to Pulham in Norfolk
occupied only 75 hours.
The longest flight by an N.S. airship was 101 hours. The
record for an S.S. ship was 51 hr., equally remarkable when it is
realized that the crew of three were continuously on duty.
As indicating the regularity of the patrols, it is interesting
that in 1918 from Jan. to Nov. there were only eight days on
which there was no airship patrol. As showing the life of a ship,
that of Coastal No. 9 at her patrol station in Cornwall may be
quoted. She was inflated on July i 1916, and deflated on Sept. 14
1918. During this 805 days she flew 2,500 hr., or an average
of 3 hr. 6 min. per day, over the whole period. The deduction
to be drawn from the airship operations carried out appears to
be that for future warlike operations their duties will be limited
to those areas where intense hostile anti-aircraft fire or hostile
aeroplanes are unlikely to be met. With this reservation their
uses are likely to be the same as in the past war, with a very
important extension to work over undeveloped country, the
airships acting as patrols and for the transport of stores. The
use of a large airship as a carrier from which fighting or bombing
aeroplanes could be released, and to which they could return,
was considered. An aeroplane was on two occasions dropped
from a rigid airship with no inconvenience or danger to the pilot.
Arrangements for the complementary process of hooking on
again were not completed at the time of the Armistice.
For passenger and goods transport over distances longer than
the aeroplane can profitably cover at one stage the airship has
important advantages. By eliminating the time spent at inter-
mediate stops and by flying day and night with the passengers
in reasonable comfort, the effective speed over a long journey is
probably greater than that of the aeroplane. To this must be
added the ability to make long ocean passages in safety and so to
select a course as to take advantage of trade winds or local
meteorological conditions.
German commercial airship activity was already in 1921 very
completely planned and was only suspended by the restrictions
of the Peace Treaty. The " Bodensee " had already carried out
a remarkable series of flights between Berlin and Friedrichshafen,
making 100 flights in 97 days and carrying in all 2,300 passengers.
The ship has now been enlarged and a sister ship built in order
to extend the flights to Scandinavia. Larger ships and an ex-
tension of the service to London and other capitals were con-
templated, and a service of ships of considerably larger size from
Cadiz to N. and S. America was planned.
Mooring and Handling. The earliest activity of airships had been
limited rather by the ability. to handle them on the ground than by
their ability to meet weather conditions in flight. British Rigid Air-
ship No. I was moored by the bow to a mast and sheltered by a screen
on Cavendish Dock, Barrow, before the ship was flown. This trial
was successful, the ship remaining safe during winds with gusts
up to 48 m. an hour. In the course of these trials the screen was
abandoned.
The Royal Aircraft Factory in 1912 devised and used continuously
for many months a new form of mooring mast to which a non-rigid
airship was attached while floating in the air. To prevent the ship
overriding the mast in gusty weather and to facilitate approach,
the mast carried at its head a swinging cone duly counterpoised,
into which the nose of the airship was drawn by a rope running down
the inside of the mast. The cone was free to rotate about the axis
of the mast as well as to rock vertically on a universal joint and the
mast functioned satisfactorily, save that side gusts caused the cone
to rub the bows of the ship with a tendency to bend it. These mast
moorings were the precursors of one of the great developments in
airship use, but till they were adopted generally the airship had to
fie housed in a shed, and hence the activity of the ship was limited
to those occasions when it was possible to take her out in winds of less
than 10 or 15 m. an hour with a reasonable chance of rehousing
her under equally good conditions.
Under war conditions this restriction was serious, and the method
of the mooring mast was again examined. A non-rigid envelope
rigged with a dummy car was secured to the head of a mast at Kings-
north, first with a cone but later with the cone removed. The ship
was reinforced to take the pull of the mast, by fitting inside her bow
a spar, the after-end of which was supported by a cone of cords led
slightly forward and secured round a circle on the inside of the en-
velope. The tension in the fabric of the envelope and in these cords
held the spar rigidly, and supplied the reinforcement which was
necessary for stiffening the bow of the envelope while in flight and
also for mooring.
A further set of experiments was carried out at Barrow with a ship
secured to a short stump mast, attached to her mooring point and
stepped on a lighter. The point of attachment was not on the axis.
Indeed, it was so low on the envelope that side gusts produced se-
rious rolling. Accordingly a form was devised in which a somewhat
taller mast was fitted with a horseshoe head, so that fittings carried
at the top of its arms could be attached to suitably reinforced points
aft of the nose of the envelope. This gave support against rolling,
but the point of attachment was some distance aft on the ship, and
consequently the steadiness was not quite so good as when the en-
velope was attached by its extreme bow point.
Definitely comparative tests between mooring at the nose, using
the spar inside the bow of the envelope and using the horseshoe mast
were carried out at Pulham. After considerable time the internal
spar of the former broke, for a reason that was not explained, and the
horseshoe mast was preferred. As, however, other means were found
for mooring the small ships at advanced patrol stations, the horse-
shoe was little employed.
Mast mooring was, however, realized to be important for rigid
airships, and prolonged trials with R24 secured to the head of a mast
at Pulham were instituted in July 1919 with success. The ship
later remained continuously at the mast for 70 days and experienced
winds up to 35 with gusts of 43 m. per hour. Difficulty was experi-
enced in taking the ship to the mast in any but light winds.
Experiments were continued with R33 on Feb. 2 1921, and up to
the beginning of June 1921 the ship had worked entirely from the
mast. On a few occasions she had been into the shed, but never for
more than five days. During April and May 1921 she averaged
between four and five flights per week. In this case the mast is
provided at its upper end with a single arm, pivoted at its middle
point. Down the centre of this arm passes the wire rope, which is
attached to that dropped by the ship and by which she is hauled in.
This arm, therefore, comes in contact with the bow of the ship before
that has actually reached the head of the rigid mast, and gives im-
proved safety as the ship approaches the masthead. Difficulty was
experienced with the control of the winch which hauls in the ship's
wire. In the experiments with R24 a kite-balloon winch was em-
ployed and abandoned owing to its irregular action and control.
For the experiments with R33 a steam ploughing engine was used
temporarily and found to be satisfactory.
The process of landing to the mast consists in the airship dropping
to the ground a rope some 1,000 ft. in length, which is then secured
to the rope led from the winch up the centre of the mast and down
to the ground. The winch hauls in these ropes and draws the ship to
the masthead. There is no difficulty until the ship comes within some
200 ft. of the masthead, but as this distance decreases there is a
tendency of the ship to swing both sideways and fore and aft, under
the influence of gusts of wind. This difficulty is less serious when the
ship is trimmed somewhat down by the stern, so that the wind force
on the bow is approximately in the same direction as the tension in
the wire. If this arrangement is not made, the variation in the wind
force causes swinging of the bow of the ship, and a tendency to over-
ride and strike the head of the mast.
Even with the stern of the ship trimmed considerably down, there
was still, owing to disturbed conditions, a distinct tendency to swing-
ing, and it was often desirable to employ side-guys led from the bow
of the ship to fixed points on the ground, in order to guide the bow to
the masthead. With these arrangements, it was possible to secure a
6o-ton ship to the head of the mast in winds of 30 m. an hour, with
not more than eight men in addition to those actually in the ship.
During the time that R33 was secured to the Pulham mast, an
engine was hoisted out and replaced by a spare, and a gasbag was
deflated and replaced by a spare.
Three-Wire System of Mooring. As an alternative to the system
of mooring an airship to a mast, and as a more temporary arrange-
ment, the "three-wire system" was developed from one in which the
ship was secured by her mooring-point to the head of a pyramid
formed of three cables, the lower ends of which were secured to the
points of an equilateral triangle of some 800 ft. side.
The height of the apex was arranged to be between 100 and 200 ft.
in order that the downward component of the wires when resisting
the wind force should not be excessive. A considerable weight of
wire was, however, necessarily supported by the ship, and a large
amount of static lift was therefore necessary. This system gave
considerable success during 1918, but was found defective in gusty
winds owing to the liability of one wire going slack under the influ-
ence of side gusts. A wind along the axis of the ship produces a
certain amount of dynamic lift which balances the downward com-
ponent due to the tension in the wire. The force caused by a side-
ways gust produces no corresponding increase of dynamic lift, and
AERONAUTICS
there is, therefore, a tendency for the lee wire to go slack. When the
gust ceases and this wire draws taut, a serious impulse is brought on
the bow of the ship.
It was also found that the wires of this system were so nearly
horizontal that they fouled the car of R33-
To overcome these difficulties, a running system was devised.
Various alternative forms were tried giving varying degrees of
rigidity of support. The final system which has been found most
satisfactory is that shown in fig. 26. This has the additional advan-
Gl. G2. G3. Denotes swivelling Pulley attached to Ground Bollards
S. Denotes Mooring Point. A. B.C. Denotes Rings.
FIG. 26.
tage that only the comparatively short wires, SA, SB, and SC, are
carried in the ship, the remainder of the wires lying on the ground and
being picked up when the ship lands. Complete experiments with
this system have not been carried out, but it is considered that a
ship could withstand any ordinary wind forces when secured in this
way. She would be much more difficult to secure in this way than
to a mast, and could not be easily supplied with water ballast, fuel
or additional gas.
In order to meet the greatly increased requirements for small air-
ships for anti-submarine patrol during the war, a system of mooring-
out grounds was developed. These mooring-out stations were formed
by making clearings in suitable woods and cutting a comparatively
narrow avenue through the wood to the clearing. Small airships
were secured in these clearings, and re-fuelled and repaired in exactly
the same way as in proper sheds. The protection was so good that
ships have been totally undamaged even though winds of 60 m. an
hour were blowing over the top of the wood at the time.
Airship Sheds. The construction of airship sheds has been an
important item in the expense of airship work. The cost of the shed
increases very rapidly with height and with the span, both of which
must be considerable with any but the very small ships. Apart from
the cost of the shed, there is considerable difficulty in taking a ship
into the shed in any but very calm weather. When a wind is blow-
ing across the mouth of the shed, the airship has to be hauled broad-
side on to the wind in order to pass in through the door, and this
represents a very difficult operation when the wind is of considerable
strength or of a gusty nature. In order to afford protection during
this operation, all early airship sheds were provided with wind-
screens running from the corners of the shed outwards parallel to
the axis. These screens were of a height nearly equal to that of the
shed, and afforded considerable protection against the horizon-
tal force of the wind. They, however, caused a serious eddy to be
formed, which produced a vertical disturbance on the ship nearly
as difficult to overcome as the horizontal force which would have
existed had there been no wind-screens present. Experiments were
carried out with the wind-screens formed of expanded metal, and
with screens of corrugated iron in which 30 % of the sheeting had been
omitted. These screens, although they reduced the horizontal wind
to a smaller extent than the solid screens, avoided the serious vertical
air disturbance and were, for that reason, considerably preferable.
Experience in Germany had, however, shown that a system of
rails provided with easily running trolleys was the most satisfactory
system of supporting the ship against sideways forces. These rails
ran out from the corners of the shed parallel to the axis, and the
side-guys of the ship were attached to trolleys running on these
rails. The support of the ship obtained in this way is so good that
wind-screens are rendered unnecessary, and the vertical air disturb-
ance connected with them is thereby avoided. Even with this sys-
tem of handling rails, the housing of an airship presents considerable
difficulties. A landing party of several hundred men is required to
receive a 6o-ton airship on the landing ground, to carry her to the
end of the handling rails and to haul her round parallel to the rails.
The air in the neighbourhood of the shed is necessarily so disturbed
that considerably greater difficulty is experienced near the shed than
when on the open landing ground or in the neighbourhood of a moor-
ing mast. The difficulties connected with airship sheds are, there-
fore, considered to be so great that the shed must only be regarded
as the dock, the mooring mast being regarded as the normal method
of securing an airship between flights.
When secured to the mast the airship can be supplied with gas,
water ballast and fuel. The passengers can be passed up the mast
by a lift and can walk through the bow of the ship down to the cabin.
The airship appears to behave satisfactorily in any wind. The most
difficult conditions to meet are those in which there is no wind but
rapid changes of temperature which affect the lift of the ship.
Tiiis necessitates rapid adjustment of the ballast in the ship by
taking in or discharging water. As long as there is a considerable
wind the trim can be regulated by the elevators, as in flight.
Attempts have been made to anchor a ship to the ground by a
single wire. This operation would have considerable advantages
for a ship which became broken down and required to avoid drifting
with the wind. At sea a drogue can be lowered into the water, and
the ship will ride to it satisfactorily provided she is correctly trimmed
some five degrees up by the bow in order to derive the necessary
dynamic lift. It is, however, necessary to steer the ship continuously
while secured in this way, exactly as though in flight. Anchoring
to the ground is a considerably more difficult problem. A grapnel
cannot obtain a sufficiently firm hold to resist the impulsive upward
pull in the airship trail rope. Experiments were carried out with a
form of dropping grapnel consisting of a large, suitably shaped weight
dropped from a height of some 200 feet. This grapnel obtained a
satisfactory hold either on very hard ground or on soft ground
where the penetration was very deep. The hold was, however, quite
unyielding, and the shock produced on the ship when thus checked
was far too serious. Various forms of friction device to allow a grad-
ual check to be brought on the ship were tried, but were never found
sufficiently satisfactory for adoption.
Towing. The earliest test in connexion with airship towing is
perhaps the most interesting one. Naval Airship No. 2 broke down
about 40 m. from Farnborough, and in order to save the loss of gas
and the probable damage to the ship that would have attended her
deflation, she was towed home by another airship, ' ' Eta, " of a slightly
greater size. The operation presented no difficulty whatever. " Eta "
landed alongside the damaged ship; a wire some 600 ft. in length
was laid out between the two ships; both ships were made light
and allowed to rise into the air. The towing ship then went ahead
slowly and towed the disabled one back to Farnborough.
Occasion for repeating this towing operation has not since pre-
sented itself, but the complete success which attended the first
attempt indicates that there is no serious difficulty in connexion
with it. It is probable that for certain special purposes, where large
weights have to be carried and where speed is not of great importance,
the towing of one or more " air barges " by an airship presents very
interesting possibilities.
Naval Towing. Various trials were made to determine the possi-
bility of towing an airship to the scene of operations so that she
should arrive there with her full supply of petrol still available.
In May 1916 a Coastal airship was, after a few preliminary tests
with a motor launch, towed by a light cruiser steaming at 26 knots
up, down and across a wind of some 15 knots. In a further trial
the airship was hauled down to the deck of the cruiser and the crew
changed and gas and fuel supplied. The same operation was carried
out at a height of 150 ft. to provide for occasions when the sea was
too bad to allow the airship to be brought close down. These trials
were entirely satisfactory.
In Aug. 1918 a ship of the S.S. class carried out extended trials in
tow of a submarine. These caused no difficulty except that it was
desired to make the ship capable of being towed without a crew.
Arrangements for the automatic maintenance of pressure and the
greater degree of stability required caused the extension to this much
more difficult operation to be abandoned.
In Nov. 1918 the towing of an S.S. ship by a destroyer was again
actively being developed with a view to replacing kite-balloons by
airships for convoy work. In Aug. 1919 N.S-7 carried out a long tow-
ing operation with the fleet. She was in tow continuously for some
40 hrs., and was gassed and refuelled in a wind of 30 knots.
The conclusion to be drawn from these tests is that an airship
can be towed without difficulty provided she is steered and handled as
in flight. The towing is little relief to the crew, but the expenditure
of fuel is avoided. The crew can be changed and fuel and gas can be
supplied in reasonably fair weather.
Airship Fabrics. The outer cover of a rigid airship has to form
a smooth fairing over the hull structure and gasbags. Unless it
remains taut under all conditions the passage of air over it and
more particularly the disturbed air in the vicinity of the airscrews
gives rise to flapping, which not only increases the ship's resistance
but may cause the cover to chafe and ultimately be torn. The taut-
ness is produced and maintained by a dope, applied to the fabric
partly before and partly after the sheets of fabric are laced to the
hull framework. The dope is generally similar to that used on aero-
plane wings, but the unsupported expanses of fabric are so large
usually 3 metres by 5 metres that the prevention of flapping is a much
more difficult problem ; indeed, these surfaces are so large that the
maintenance of a correct difference of pressure between the inside
and the outside of the ship is more effective than exactly correct
tautness. The weight of the outer cover is such a large proportion
of the total of the ship that very great care must be taken to apply
only the minimum of dope necessary.
The outer surface must be made reflecting in order to reduce as
far as possible the amount of radiant heat absorbed and transmitted
to the gas in the cells and the air inside the hull.
The pigment or dye employed in the dope must be such that the
part of the light which most rapidly deteriorates the cellulose of the
AERONAUTICS
59
gas cells is eliminated as far as possible. A certain amount of light
is necessary in the keel, and this usually enters through the bottom
two strakes of outer cover on which a transparent dope is used. The
surface of the dope should be water-repellent in order to reduce the
weight of water taken up in a rainstorm.
The fabric usually employed for the outer cover is linen weighing
about 90 grms. sq. metre, although cotton, mercerised as thread before
weaving, appears to have some advantages owing to its great uni-
formity of contraction when doped.
Gasbag fabric must primarily have good gasholding properties for
the minimum weight. The strength need only be sufficient to with-
stand handling when the bags are being placed in the ship or are
moving slightly with change of fullness.
Goldbeaters' skin a thin membrane from the caecum of the ox
although easily permeable to moisture is extremely gaslight when
in good condition. The skins vary in size, but, allowing for over-
laps, each skin covers about 10 in. by 4 in. In English gasbags the
skins are attached to the fabric by rubber solution, as this gives
rather better gastightness for a given weight. The German method is
to build up the skins into large sheets some 10 metres wide and of
length equal to the circumference of the bag. Fabric is then stuck
to these sheets with a form of gelatine adhesive. Skin contracts as
it dries, whereas fabric contracts as it absorbs moisture; great care
has, therefore, to be taken that the fabric is attached to the skin
sheet under correct humidity condition. The fabric in which rubber
is used as the adhesive is found to give trouble in hot climates, owing
to the serious contraction of the skins and the softening of the adhe-
sive just when good adhesion is most essential.
German experts are strongly of the opinion that the use of rubber
in gasbags forms a non-conducting surface apt to become electrically
charged by friction or in the vicinity of an electric storm. The use
of rubber has, therefore, been abandoned in Germany since very
early days.
Fabric made with glue adhesive appears satisfactory even under
the most extreme tropical heat.
The envelope fabric of a non-rigid or semi-rigid ship, in addition
to being gaslight, must have an outer surface capable of giving pro-
leclion againsl light and heat. It is also called upon to take very
considerable tensile stresses. These are due partly to local tensions
in the neighbourhood of rigging attachments; partly to a bending of
the envelope as a whole, but mainly to the internal pressure which
is necessary in order to maintain the shape of this class of ship. When
the ship takes up a steep angle of pitch there is considerable accumu-
lation of pressure at the upper end, and if for any reason, such as a
rapid rise, Ihe pilot allows the pressure lo become excessive Ihe len-
sion in Ihe envelope is more likely to approach the safe maximum
than from any other cause. The tension induced by internal pres-
sure is, therefore, the main consideration and must be regarded as a
load thai, although not very suddenly applied the interval between
normal and maximum being at least 15 seconds cannot be expected
to be maintained for long periods say, more than 15 minutes. The
resistance of fabric to tension varies greatly with the rate at which
the load is applied. For a high rate of loading say, 150 Ib./in./min.
the load reached before failure is 10 to 20% higher than the load
reached with the comparatively slow rate of 30 Ib./in./min. or less.
A load sustained for really long periods gives lower strength still.
A load of only 50 to 60% of that which the material will stand for,
say, 10 minutes will break it after a week.
Considerably more investigation on these points is still required,
but they are probably due to the manner of failure of a woven mate-
rial, being one of gradual slipping of the fibres of the twisted thread.
A small local cut produces considerable reduction of tensile
strength of an ordinary fabric. This is due to the concentration of
stress at the ends of the cut causing the failure of individual threads
in succession. Provided the cut is more than J in. long across Ihe
direclion of tension Ihe reduction of strength is to some 30 % to 40 %
of the unwounded strength and is no greater until the size of the
cut is such that it becomes an important proportion of the whole
width of fabric in tension. In order to reduce this loss of strength
fabric exposed to serious tension is usually made of 2 or 3 plies, of
which one has its Ihreads at 45 to those of the other plies which lie
along and normal to the direction of tension. The threads of the
diagonal ply help to redistribute the concentration of stress at the
ends of the cut. The extent of this reinforcemenl depends upon Ihe
comparalive slrength of the diagonal ply and upon the nature of
the material with which the plies are stuck together. The table
shows with an accuracy of about 5 % the wounded and unwounded
strengths of typical airship fabrics built up of one or more plies of
the same cotton and expressed as percentages of that of single ply,
the adhesive being in each case rubber.
Fabric
Slrength
unwounded
Strength
wounded
Single ply
2-ply parallel
2-ply diagonal . . .
3-ply parallel .
3-ply centre-ply diagonal
IOO
210
125
315
240
40
70
90
no
1 20
Rubber is particularly suilable as a doubling adhesive as it allows
the requisite movement of threads for the reinforcement to take
place. Glue, being a much more rigid adhesive, will allow of prac-
tically no reinforcing action by the diagonal ply.
Rubber is also a reasonably good gasproofing material and as it
combines these two qualities it is almost universally employed in the
construction of non-rigid airship envelopes. The fabric used for the
envelopes of the N.S. airship was made of three plies of a cotton
weighing 80 grms./sq. metre. The outer surface as a protection from
light and heat was of 50 grms. of rubber containing a proportion of
black litharge and a surface of aluminium powder. Between the
outer and diagonal ply was 30 grms. of rubber and between the
diagonal and inner ply 100 grms. of rubber as a gastight layer; some
more recent experiments show that additional protection is given
to the rubber by staining it with a suitable red dye.
Gastightness of most materials decreases considerably (4 or 5%
per degree Centigrade) with increases of temperature.
A film of gelatine gives the greatest gastightness for a given weight,
but its proteclion against the effects of moisture is a matter of con-
siderable difficulty which has only recently been achieved with any
degree of success in compound films now being developed.
Goldbeaters' skin is almost equally good, but is liable to small
local defects caused in the process of preparation and building up.
An extract of the plum, cordia myxa or Turkish birdlime, has
given satisfactory results in some respects, but its use has not been
very fully developed.
It is important to realize that gastight fabric for airships must
primarily stop the leakage of air into the gas. Loss of hydrogen is
too small to be important, but the ingress of a weight of air definitely
reduces the useful lift of the ship by an equal weight and this can
only be partially got rid of even by the discharge of many times the
volume of gas.
Airship Machinery. In the early days the machinery of airships
and aeroplanes had to be extremely light. As development pro-
ceeded, the greater length of flight of the airship made fuel economy
and some other characteristics of greater importance in the airship
than in the aeroplane. In England neglect of airships before the war
followed by difficullies of supply during Ihe war caused the airships
to use, not a special engine suitable for this requirement, but stand-
ard aeroplane engines. This general unsuitability of the engines
used for airship work caused the machinery to be by far the most
unreliable part of the airship as a patrol unit.
The advent of the commercial aeroplane for long flights is in
turn bringing a requirement more nearly that of the airship. Even
so, an aeroplane which flies 10 hrs. before refuelling must be com-
pared with the airship which flies TOO hrs. on one load of fuel. A
machinery installation which weighs, say, 5 Ib. per H.P. burns 0-5
Ib. of fuel per H.P. in one hour. An aeroplane in 10 hrs. will burn
a weight of fuel equal to that of its machinery. In 100 hrs. an
airship will burn ten times its machinery weight. The importance of
saving fuel even at the expense of increased machinery weight is
therefore much greater in the airship. During much of the airship's
flighl some engines are run at considerably less than their full power,
thus introducing the need for good fuel economy at reduced power.
In an airship repairs of some magnitude can be made in flight (a
cylinder has been changed, cracked water-jackets patched, magne-
tos changed and retimed, etc., during long flights). The machinery
must therefore be arranged so that advantage can be taken of this
possibility.
Arrangement of Power Units. The low speed of an airship renders
desirable a larger airscrew than in the faster aeroplane. Moreover,
airscrew size is not restricted by the consideration of landing as in
the aeroplane. The large airscrew makes for fuel economy, and this
being cardinal has been found to justify the use of reduction gearing.
The most efficient arrangemenl for a rigid airship includes a fly-wheel
fitted to the crank-shaft of the engine driving, through a friction
clutch, a gear reduction box on which is mounled a large two-bladed
airscrew. In R38 350 B.H.P. is transmitted through a 3-3:1 reduc-
tion gear to a I7i-ft. airscrew, turning at 600 revs, for a ship's air
speed of 60 knots. There is usually, in addition, a dog clutch and an
airscrew brake, so that the airscrew can be disconnected and locked
horizontal when landing. The departure from aeroplane praclice
is here notable.
In early airships it was usually necessary to mount the engines in
the car and to transmit the power to airscrews carried on outriggers.
The weight available for this transmission was so small that there
was frequent trouble, which could mostly be traced to resonance at
some speed within the very wide range (often from 1 00% to 50%
of the revolutions for full speed) over which the airship engine was
driven.
Belts, chains, bevel-gear boxes with long lengths of shafting were
used, but all gave trouble within a few hundred hours' flight.
German rigid airships derived great benefit from the Maybach
engine, which was developed at the same time as the ship's designs
progressed, and was devised primarily to be suitable for airship pur-
poses. It departed from other aero-engine practice in many respects,
and though it was not till quite late in the war that a modified type
of a Maybach was used in aeroplanes, the German industry gained
the earliest experience of large light-weight engines.
Jn the British airships constructed during the war there was no
intermediate shafting, the airscrew being mounted on the engine.
6o
AEROPLANE AEROTHERAPEUTICS
In some cases a reduction gear was incorporated in the engine itself.
In the first ships of the N.S. class a length of shafting was used in
order to give a better shape to the engine car and obtain better air-
screw efficiency. This shafting had ultimately to be abandoned on
account of torsional resonance, and the airscrew mounted direct
on the engine. In the German rigid airships, however, where more
weight was available, the reduction gear box and intermediate shaft-
ing were employed.
Pre-war British airships and the first few rigids were fitted with
swivelling propellers. The airscrews were carried at the ends of
horizontal arms and driven through bevel gearing so that the axis of
the airscrew could be rotated about a horizontal transverse axis,
and the direction of thrust of the airscrew changed from ahead to
astern, up or down. The ability to exert a vertical force independent
of the headway of the ship was often very valuable to the then com-
paratively inexperienced pilots under the bad landing facilities then
existing.
Though engine failure has not the same consequences as in an
aeroplane, the machinery must still be regarded as the part of the
airship most frequently in need of overhaul. Experience shows that
the engine cars must be easily detachable so that spare cars can be
fitted and thorough overhaul made possible without excessive delay
to the ship. They must be as the locomotive to the train, not as the
machinery to a battleship.
Hydrogen as Fuel and Recovery of Exhaust Water as Ballast. Dur-
ing a long flight the consumption of petrol so reduces the weight of
the ship that, in order to restore her static equilibrium for landing or
to avoid the increase of resistance if she is flown very light, it is neces-
sary either to discharge a quantity of hydrogen or to acquire weight.
The latter can be done by condensing the steam in the exhaust gas.
Petrol produces steam equivalent to some 140 % of its weight, and the
proportion of this which can be collected depends upon the tempera-
ture and humidity of the issuing gas. The chief difficulty in the
condensation is due to the fouling of the cooling surfaces with an
oily deposit.
Attempts have been made to burn, as supplementary fuel, the
hydrogen, which must otherwise be discharged. When burning hy-
drogen alone in an engine with a compression ratio of about 5:1 it
is not possible to develop more than 25 % of the engine's full power
without serious detonation. When petrol and hydrogen are burnt
together the proportion can be so adjusted that any fraction up to
full power can be developed. A few of the smaller airships were fitted
in this way but the system was abandoned on account of increased
risk of fire.
Risk of Fire. Apart from hostile incendiary action the risk of
fire in the air is small and is mainly due to the petrol. It is thought
that the use of heavy oil fuel would give added safety. The heavy
oil engine at present involves prohibitive weight, but a Diesel en-
gine capable of burning only -38 Ib. of fuel per H.P.-hour would, on
the basis of too hrs. flight, justify an increase of machinery weight
of 12 Ib. per H.P. over the 5 Ib. per H.P. of the petrol machinery
which burns -5 Ib. per H.P. hour.
Winches (for Kite-Balloons). The earliest form of winch used
had a steam engine driving a single drum on which the wire was
wound. It was mounted on a single chassis and was drawn by
horses.
In 1915 the French adopted a steam winch of Col. Renard's design
which was fitted with surge drums a pair of drums round which the
cable makes a number of turns in grooves of correctly formed section.
These drums transmitted the whole of 'the engine or brake torque
to the cable and allowed it to be stowed on a separate storage drum
under comparatively small tension and, therefore, less subject to
damage. The winding unit of this type of winch, including the surge
drums, liquid brake and storage drums, was adopted, with only modi-
fications in detail, as the standard for all future winches.
The later winches were usually driven by petrol engines independ-
ent of the motors driving the chassis which carried them.
After 1916 the German winches were made in two separate units,
the motor on one and the winding unit on the other. These were
treated like gun and limber and when in use were connected by a
flexible shaft.
For naval purposes the standard winding unit was employed but
driven by a steam engine in destroyers, an electric motor in light
cruisers, and by hydraulic motor in capital ships, these being the
most convenient forms of power available.
Gas for Airship Purposes. Hydrogen is almost invariably em-
ployed for airships and balloons. Coal gas is cheaper and more uni-
versally available. It is sometimes used for free ballooning, but has
a lifting power of only about half that of hydrogen. Helium, al-
though having only 93 % of the lifting power of hydrogen of equal
purity, is totally non-flammable and has, therefore, signal advan-
tages for airships exposed to attack with incendiary bullets.
Variation of Lift. The total upward force on the airship when
at_rest is termed her "gross lift." If V be the volume of gas in the
ship, ph its density and pa the density of the surrounding air:
Lift = V(po-pA).
Variation with Height. The lift is constant as the ship ascends
until a height termed " thepressure height " is reached at which
the gas spaces have become full and further expansion involves the
loss of gas. When descending, the lift will similarly remain constant,
because V varies directly and pa and ph inversely as the height, as-
suming that the temperature of gas and air remain equal. As the
ship rises above pressure height, V remains constant but pa and ph
decrease.
Variation with Barometer is nil until the ship becomes full; after
that it varies directly with the barometric reading.
Variation with Temperature. Provided the temperature of the
gas exactly follows that of the surrounding air, there will be no change
of lift until the ship becomes full. Then, after V has reached a maxi-
mum the lift will decrease inversely as the absolute temperature
rises. Radiant heat falling on the ship raises the gas temperature
sometimes as much as 40 F. and often 20 F. above that of the air.
The gas temperature changes comparatively slowly as the ship moves
through air of varying temperature, hence there may be a consider-
able difference between gas and air temperatures and this will sub-
stantially influence the lift of the airship.
Variation with Gas Purity. Dilution of the hydrogen by ingress
of air increases ph and decreases the jift.
Standard Basis of Airship Calculations. The variation of atmos-
pheric density with height is a somewhat complex relation. The
accepted relation is given in A.C.A. Reports, R.M. 509. The condi-
tions at sea level are assumed to be: atmospheric density -0782 Ib./
ft. 3 ; temperature 282 A; pressure 1,014 millibars, i.e. 14-7 lb./in 2 .
As a standard basis of calculation of airship performance, the lift
of hydrogen under these conditions at sea level is assumed to be 68
Ib. for each thousand cubic feet. This figure corresponds to a purity
of 94 per cent.
Determination of Purity. The apparatus most usually employed
measures the times taken by equal volumes of gas and air to escape
through a small hole. The densities are inversely proportional to
the squares of these times. An accuracy of =*= I % can be obtained
with such an instrument.
The most accurate method is by chemical analysis.
Manufacture of Hydrogen. The choice of method is governed pri-
marily by the transport facilities and the raw materials available
in any district. Those most usually employed for airship purposes
are:
The Water-Gas Process^ generally employed at large fixed bases
where a supply of coke is available. It yields a steady supply of
gas of about 99-0% purity. Calcined spathic iron ore is oxidized at
about 800 C. by steam. Hydrogen is given off and the ore is
then reduced by water-gas and the process repeated. In the Lane
plant the ore is contained in iron retorts heated externally by coke
or spent gas. In the Messerschmidt plant the heating gas is burnt
actually in contact with the ore itself.
The Electrolytic Method is employed where cheap electric power
is available or where the oxygen is valuable as a by-product. Dis-
tilled water must be used and a yield of 5 to 7 cub. ft. of hydrogen
per kilowatt hour with a purity of over 99 % can be obtained.
The Silicon Process is employed where a rapid yield is required and
where transport of raw materials is difficult. Powdered ferro-silicon
(90% Si) is fed into hot 40 % caustic-soda solution. One ton ferro-
silicon and 2 tons of caustic give about 50,000 cub. ft. of gas of 99 %
purity.
In cases where transport of materials is exceptionally difficult, hy-
drolythe (calcium hydride made by passing hydrogen over strongly
heated metallic calcium) is used with water. About 34,000 cub. ft.
of hydrogen are given off per ton of hydrolythe.
Storage. Hydrogen is usually stored in gas-holders under a pres-
sure of some 9 in. of water. It is transported in steel cylinders under
a pressure of some 2,000 lb./in. 2 One ton of cylinders will carry some
2,600 ft. 3 of gas at N.T.P. In Germany special Kesselwagen (tank
trucks) carried 2,600 cub. ft. for a weight of one ton of tank (see
T. A. Monckton, Hydrogen Manual, Parts I and 2, H. M. Stationery
Office).
Helium. Helium is present in the atmosphere as -0004%. It is
present in certain natural gases in proportions up to 2^5 %. The main
supplies are, however, in the natural gas in Texas, where the
strength is about 1-8%, and in Canada, near Ontario, where the
purity is -3 %. The process of collection is by liquefaction of the gas
and by regenerative distillation. The cost, therefore, varies almost
inversely as the proportion of helium present in the gas. The cost
of production in a large plant working in America is about 12 per
1,000 cubic feet.
Such technical detail as has been published is contained in:
Reports to the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and Reports
to the Aeronautical -Research Committee; lectures to the Royal
Aeronautical Society, published in Aeronautical Journal; two lec-
tures to the British Association in 1919 and 1920; lecture by Air
Commodore Maitland to the Royal Society of Arts; T. A. Monck-
ton , Hydrogen Manual, Parts I and 2 (H.M. Stationery Office); va-
rious articles in the German aeronautical press, mostly in Illustrierte
Flugwoche, Luftweg and Luftfahrt; in the Italian in L' A eronautica
and Cazzetta del Aviazione, and in the French in L Aeronautique.
(C. B. C.)
AEROPLANE: see AERONAUTICS.
AEROTHERAPEUTICS. The term " aerotherapeutics," as a
special branch of medicine, might convey the idea that there are
special diseases due to aviation which require special treatment.
AEROTHERAPEUTICS
61
But such is not the case, as there is no special " flying sickness "
brought about solely by the pursuit of aeronautics. Although
certain authorities have inclined to recognize some mechanical
effects owing directly to the reduction of atmospheric pressure
upon the body, this is only of importance in connexion with
the air enclosed within the cavity of the middle ear and to a
lesser .extent as regards gas inside the intestines. Changes of
absolute pressure of the atmosphere produce no mechanical
effects since the altered pressure is transmitted equally in all
directions through the semi-fluid body tissues. The suggestion
has also been made that, owing to the diminution of atmospheric
pressure, the airman may be liable to a special disease, somewhat
akin to that experienced by the diver or the worker in compressed
air. The cause of " diver's palsy," " caisson disease," or " com-
pressed-air illness " is now thoroughly well established. When
man is subjected to an increased air pressure he dissolves in the
fluid portion of his blood a considerable amount of nitrogen
from the surrounding air. When the air pressure is diminished,
this nitrogen is again given off. If the diminution in pressure be
rapid, then bubbles of gas are liberated inside the blood vessels,
in the same way as bubbles of gas are liberated when fluid is
removed from a siphon of aerated water. These bubbles then
circulate in the blood and produce symptoms, according as they
become lodged in the various parts of the body.
At first sight, therefore, it might be supposed that an airman
making an ascent, in other words subjecting himself fairly rapidly
to a diminution of the surrounding air pressure, might be liable
to symptoms arising from the same cause as does " diver's
palsy." This, however, is not the case, since the diminution in
pressure is not sufficiently great or rapid to bring about any
liberation of gases held in the blood plasma. In " diver's palsy "
and " caisson disease " one is dealing with a reduction of pressure
of from two to five atmospheres, whereas in flying one is generally
dealing at most with a diminution of pressure of a little more than
half an atmosphere, which is reached relatively slowly, and is
easily within the margin of safety for the rate of decompression in
compressed-air work. The idea, therefore, that airmen are
subject to any special " flying sickness " of this nature may be
dismissed.
Because it is stated that there is no " flying sickness " it does
not mean, however, that flying may not cause bodily breakdown.
Flying imposes a very definite stress upon the body, especially
when flights are carried out for long periods at high altitudes.
When to this is added the stress of offensive and defensive war-
fare in the air it is obvious that bodily breakdown as the result of
" strain " is likely to ensue. But the signs and symptoms of
" flying strain " are varied and might occur in an individual
quite apart altogether from flying. In the World War it was
found that " flying strain " was most generally characterized
by a gradual loss of power to fly high, associated in varying
degrees with symptoms of respiratory, cardiac and nervous
derangement, such as breathlessness on exertion, quickened
heart-beat, exaggerated reflexes, marked tremor of fingers and
eyelids, and loss of neuromuscular control as exemplified by
power to balance on one leg. Mental symptoms, generally in the
form of anxiety neurosis, might or might not be present. In many
cases it was difficult to say whether breakdown was to be attrib-
uted primarily to the effects of flying or to the nervous strain of
aerial warfare, but such symptoms were frequently found to occur
in those who had taken no part in active service in the air.
In order to appreciate the correct medical measures which
must be taken in respect of the care of flying personnel, it is
necessary in the first place to consider the human machine in
relation to flying. The aviator provides the controlling and
coordinating mechanism on which the satisfactory performance
of the aeroplane depends. The pilot adds the aeroplane to him-
self the " joy-stick," engine controls and so forth are append-
ages to his hands, the rudder bar an extension to his feet. By
appropriate movements of his upper and lower limbs man is now
able to fly, just as previously by appropriate arm and leg move-
ments he was able to indulge in games or to control other forms
of mechanism, as, for example, a motor-car.
To acquire the art of flight, therefore, a number of controlled
and coordinated movements are necessary. It is common ex-
perience that certain people are found heavy-handed or heavy-
footed and not likely to acquire the art of flying. In the apt
pupil these coordinated movements are at first all made as the
result of conscious effort, but later they pass into the realm of the
automatic, so that eventually the expert pilot does not have to
think how he flies he just wishes his machine to perform a
certain evolution and it occurs.
No elements come into the mechanical problem of flying that
are not required for driving a motor-car or taking part in various
sports; some men have more aptitude for flying than others;
just as some have more aptitude for games.
To initiate the coordinated movements necessary for flying,
the pilot relies upon certain sensory impressions. Vision is the
most important. Without facilities for using his eyes a man is
not able to fly. It has been found that experienced pilots cannot
satisfactorily perform even a simple evolution with the eyes-
blindfolded. It is also well known that pilots cannot fly level in
fog and may even get upside down. This is due to the temporary
eclipse of the sense of vision ; unaided by instruments, man will
never be able to fly in a fog successfully.
Besides good visual acuity it has been found that harmonious
working of the muscles moving the eyeballs is necessary, particu-
larly for successful landing, and is lacking in a great percentage
of bad landers. By careful training it has been found possible to
bring about good visual judgment of distance and to turn bad
landers into good ones.
For successful flying, next to vision and perhaps almost equally
important, come the sensations from the skin and muscles. A
pilot flies very largely by the " feel " of his machine. In addition
to the " feel " of the controls, he derives much information from
the " feel " of his seat, from the direction and change of direction
of the wind on his face. He is also aided by hearing the singing
of the wind in the wires. Hearing is of importance also in flying
in so far as it enables a pilot to detect a failing engine, to operate
wireless and to hear a telephone above the roar of the engine.
According to some people it has been thought very necessary
that a man should have a good sense of balance, but experience
has shown, as already mentioned, that " balance sense " is not
sufficiently developed in any man to enable him to fly level in a
fog.
But for flying it is not sufficient to be endowed with a mechani-
cal and mental aptitude; a consideration of prime importance is
physical endurance to resist the stress of high flights or flights of
long duration. For endurance it is particularly important that a
man be fit as regards his respiratory and circulatory mechanisms.
This has been shown by the examination of fit pilots as well as of
subjects who have been deemed in need of a rest or who have
broken down as the result of flying strain.
The examination of successful flying officers showed that they
were possessed of an efficient respiratory capacity. The examina-
tion of officers taken off flying through " flying strain " showed
that their capacity was very much diminished. It was found by
careful observation that this fall was due chiefly to ineffective
working of the " exhaust " or expiratory side of the respiratory
" bellows." The individual had lost his power to expire fully to
the greatest extent. He, therefore, could not empty his lungs
satisfactorily. Such a condition makes for deficient ventilation
and the subject becomes very like a motor-engine in which
the exhaust valves are defective and incomplete scavenging of
the cylinders results. Hence we find that the airman in this
condition easily gets breathless on the ground and certainly can-
not fly to heights at which formerly he did not notice anything
abnormal in his breathing.
For endurance and high flying, therefore, it is especially im-
portant that a flier have an adequate " bellows capacity " and
that the " bellows " be particularly effective on the exhaust side.
An efficient expiratory force is, therefore, very necessary to the
pilot.
Examination of successful flying officers also showed that the
effective pilot is possessed of an efficient circulatory system.
62
AEROTHERAPEUTICS
Observation has shown that there is a marked difference between
the fit and unfit pilot in this respect. For example, the fit pilot
is possessed of a regular, fairly slow pulse which gives the im-
pression of a delightfully easy-working piece of mechanism. It
is not greatly quickened by exercise and speedily returns to its
normal rate. The pulse of the man unfit for flying, or unfit to
learn to fly, is unduly quickened by exercise and takes con-
siderable time to return to normal.
Circulatory efficiency also depends upon the pressure main-
tained in the arteries both during and between the beats of the
heart. With the beat of the heart the pressure in the arteries
rises: during the rest period it falls. In some people it may fall
greatly, in others but a little. The examination of successful fly-
ing officers has shown that in them the fall is not great, whereas
in the tired or inefficient individual the difference in the pressure
during and between the beats is relatively large. The importance
of a good pressure between the beats will be appreciated when it
is realized that if the fall of pressure be great enough, fainting
may result.
The efficiency of the circulatory mechanism of the body is
intimately bound up with the efficiency of the respiratory
mechanism. The abdominal cavity has sufficient vessel capacity
to take the whole of the blood of the body and, in the upright or
sitting posture, blood, by virtue of the effect of gravity, will tend
to stagnate there unless its return to the heart is aided by the
movements of respiration. In inspiration the downward thrust
of the great muscle separating the chest from the abdomen, the
diaphragm, acts like the piston of a pump and squeezes blood
upwards into the heart, since it is prevented from escape in any
other direction by means of valves placed in the vessels. During
expiration the muscles of the abdominal wall and of the lower
ribs squeeze inwards upon the abdominal contents and again
force blood upwards to the heart.
The importance of these accessory pumps to the circulation is
well exemplified in the crucifixion of a man. In the vertical
posture the immobilization of the limbs and the restriction of the
action of the respiratory and abdominal muscles cause blood to
stagnate in the lower limbs and the abdomen, thereby con-
tributing the principal cause of death.
Since in the machine the pilot is rendered relatively immobile
in a sitting posture, it is of the greatest importance that he be
possessed of efficient respiration and good abdominal tone, in
order that an adequate circulation may be maintained. The
importance of good abdominal tone is further emphasized by the
following experiment. If a hutch rabbit, with its flabby, pendu-
lous abdomen, be held in the vertical posture, it will soon become
unconscious owing to the lack of tone of its abdominal wall; a
wild rabbit, on the other hand, will not do so, owing to the fact
that, on account of the exercise taken in its free open-air life,
it has developed the tone of its abdominal musculature.
This emphasizes the value of sport in developing the respira-
tory and circulatory mechanisms, and for this reason all airmen
are advised to take up sports which, besides giving eye and limb
coordination, also give physical endurance by toning up the
respiratory and circulatory mechanisms. The importance of
sports and games in the life of the flying man cannot be over-
emphasized.
In addition to the power of endurance the pilot must also be
possessed of quick perception and judgment, which, besides
enabling him to learn to fly, will help him to meet any sudden
emergency which may arise while he is in charge of his machine
in the air. He must therefore possess good mental and nervous
stability. Such stability is of even greater importance in the
service pilot who may be called upon to undertake combatant
service in the air.
Since 1878 it has been known that the chief cause of " mountain
sickness " or " altitude sickness " is lack of proper oxygenation
of the body owing to the rarefaction of the air breathed. Ex-
periments conducted in rarefaction chambers as well as at high
altitudes, such as Pike's Peak and Monte Rosa, have fully
proved this point. In respect of life at high altitudes, however,
a certain degree of bodily acclimatization takes place, which is
not the case in respect of flying. In an aeroplane the length
of sojourn at high altitudes is insufficient to induce any ac-
climatization, beyond possibly a transitory concentration of the
blood plasma. In flying the effect of increasing altitude is in
the first place a deepening of the respiration in order to secure the
oxygen necessary to maintain the bodily functions. At the same
time the heart quickens, and thus is established the beginning of
a " vicious circle." For an increase in the rate of the heart-beat
means an increase in the amount of work done by the heart,
and this increased work entails an increased oxygen consumption,
the supply of which is diminishing; thus each factor reacts
unfavourably upon the other.
All the devices to render the respiration and circulation
efficient will, therefore, be called into play to meet the changing
conditions, so that with prolonged and repeated stress a break-
down of the respiratory and circulatory mechanisms, involving
also the nervous system, is to be anticipated, unless appropriate
measures are taken to mitigate the ill effects. This has been
found to be the case.
The effects of flying at great altitudes were observed as
the result of the high flying which became necessary during the
World War. In the earlier stages of the war such flying was the
exception rather than the rule. Owing to the increasing altitudes
reached by aeroplanes, however, it became eventually quite an
ordinary event for high-flying aeroplanes to maintain an altitude
of from 20,000 to 22,000 ft. for several hours. When this first
took place it was found that after a time the pilots and observers
began to suffer from the effects of prolonged exposure to such
altitudes. In the air the chief among these effects were breath-
lessness, muscular weakness and diminution of judgment followed
by great bodily fatigue. This, when frequently repeated, led
to the signs of breakdown already given.
Another effect of high altitudes was the onset of drowsiness or
sleepiness. In some cases this was excessive and pilots have
stated that they have fainted at great heights and cannot re-
member landing, whereas they have actually been sufficiently
awake to fly the machine and land it in their own aerodrome
with verbal assistance from the observer.
At great altitudes there is, therefore, either a general slackening
of moral and loss of offensive spirit or else a feebleness of
judgment which may lead a pilot into unnecessary difficulties.
The effects of high altitudes upon judgment are insidious and
constitute for the aviator a subtle danger.
Some flying officers eventually complained of headaches which
at times came on while in the air, but more usually after landing.
Vomiting and bleeding from the nose were very rare indeed.
Cases of syncope were infrequent.
As with " mountain sickness," the symptoms described
above are chiefly due to oxygen want and it was found that
with the provision of oxygen apparatus on high-flying machines
these symptoms were greatly alleviated.
As is well known it has been shown that the administration
of oxygen (i) tends to keep an efficient slow pulse; (2) tends to
keep up a good arterial pressure; (3) keeps off the onset of dis-
tressful breathing; (4) mitigates any ill effect due to excessive
deep breathing; (5) increases the power for nervous concentration
and muscular work.
In flying, particularly in high flying, it is important that
the pilot be able to accommodate himself to the effects of
diminished pressure upon the air enclosed within the middle
ear and the air passages connected with the nose. Any hindrance,
for example, to effective ventilation and drainage of the frontal
sinuses in the brow may lead to headaches of varying duration.
As regards the ear, the external orifice affords a wide passage
by which alterations of air pressure are easily transmitted to the
ear drum; on the other hand the Eustachian tubes, leading from
the throat to the middle ear, are narrow passages which normally
open only during the act of swallowing, and therefore do not so
readily transmit changes of pressure. Any catarrhal condition
or congestion of these tubes, therefore, tends to produce difficulty
in the equalization of pressure within and without the tympanic
cavity. Generally speaking, during an ascent the ears are
AEROTHERAPEUTICS
unconsciously " cleared " by swallowing, which under ordinary
circumstances is sufficient to open the Eustachian tubes and
equalize the pressure on both sides of the ear drum. Occasion-
ally a very graduated self-inflation, just sufficient to open the
tubes, may be required to dispel a sensation of fullness in
the ears. If, however, owing to very marked obstruction of the
Eustachian tubes, no equalization of pressure has taken place,
then at 20,000 ft. the pressure in the external auditory meatus is
approximately 380 mm., while in the middle ear it is still 760
mm. (ground level), a difference of 380 mm. tending to push
the drum outwards. If, on the other hand, during the relatively
slow ascent to this height equalization of pressure is made, but,
owing to Eustachian obstruction, little or no equalization is
made during a rapid descent, then on reaching ground level there
is through the external ear a pressure of 760 mm. but only
about 380 mm. in the middle ear, a pressure which forces the
drum painfully inwards. Such an " invagination " of the drum
is sometimes found immediately after landing in pilots who com-
plain of deafness, discomfort or pain in the ears, headaches, dizzi-
ness, nausea and, in certain cases, vomiting and fainting in the
air. In less severe cases, inspection of the ear drums often shows
marked distension of the blood vessels. On enquiry it is usually
ascertained that the symptoms complained of have come on
during descent or immediately after landing, and are in many
cases attributable to difficulty in equalizing the pressure within
and without the tympanic cavity. It has been found also that
one-sided obstruction of the Eustachian tubes may cause vertigo
and incoordination in the air. The importance to the aviator,
therefore, of adequate ventilation and drainage of the middle ear
through the Eustachian tubes under rapidly varying degrees of
atmospheric pressure is manifest. Broadly speaking, any con-
dition of the nose or throat which causes or is likely to cause
post-nasal or pharyngeal catarrh is a potential factor in the causa-
tion of Eustachian obstruction. Abnormal conditions of the nose,
throat and ears which are apparently of trifling importance on
the ground tend to become considerably aggravated in the air.
Free nasal respiration and a healthy condition of the upper
respiratory tract are necessary in the aviator.
From what has been written it will be seen that the medical
measures to be taken as regards flying consist in (a) the careful
selection of flying personnel; (b) the effective care of those
selected.
In the main the case for careful selection has been presented.
The great necessity of nervous stability, efficient respiration and
circulation has been shown. Attention has also been directed to
the important part played by vision, as well as to the necessity of
a healthy state of the ears and upper air passages.
A word may be added here as to the importance of vestibular
stability. As already mentioned, a man cannot fly level in a fog.
In certain countries, particularly in the United States, great
importance was at first attached to the supposed " motion-
sensing functions " of the vestibular apparatus. On them the
success or failure of candidates for flying was believed largely
to depend. The sensitivity of the vestibular apparatus was
tested by means of " rotation tests." As the result of special
investigation, so great an importance is not assigned to these
tests in England. Generally speaking, rotation tests therefore
are only employed when a candidate gives a history of giddiness,
train or swing sickness, suggestive of undue sensitivity of the
vestibular apparatus.
At first no special medical examination was made for flying,
but early in the World War medical officers with squadrons
collected considerable evidence which proved that a special
examination was necessary. They were constantly seeing pilots
who were breaking down or had actually broken down from
causes which should have precluded their admittance to the
flying services.
In addition to visual defects, olitis media, and conditions
resulting in Eustachian obstruction, numerous instances of
gross nervous instability were observed amongst unfit flying
officers, who could never have been accepted for the service had
details of their past histories been elicited at a medical examina-
tion. In the selection of flying personnel the importance of the
past history of the candidate cannot be overestimated.
Nowadays candidates in England, both for military and
civil aviation, are submitted to:
I. A surgical examination, comprising, in addition to measure-
ment of height and weight, observations as to any existing surgical
abnormality, congenital or the result of injury or disease, which is
likely to impair the efficiency of f he individual.
II. A medical examination, including enquiries as to previous
occupation, family and personal medical history, an investigation of
the various systems, including special tests for flying efficiency.
III. An examination of the eyes from the point of view of normal
acuity of vision and also of good ocular muscle balance. Normal
colour vision is also demanded.
IV. An examination of the ears, nose, throat and buccal cavity,
including tests of hearing, the patency of Eustachian tubes, and,
when deemed necessary, the sensitivity of the labyrinthine apparatus.
V. An assessment in which, after such further examination as
appears necessary, a decision is formed as to the candidate's fit-
ness for flying.
The special tests employed in the assessment of efficiency are as
follow:
For respiratory efficiency :
1. Measurement of the respiratory capacity by means of a
spirometer.
2. The length of time during which the breath can be held after
full expiration and full inspiration.
3. Measurement of the expiratory force that is, the height to
which the subject can force a column of mercury with the cheeks and
lips held.
For circulatory efficiency:
4. The pulse rate sitting, standing and after regulated exercise
(lifting the body weight on and off a chair five times in fifteen
seconds).
5. Measurement of the systolic and diastolic arterial pressures.
For nervous stability and neuromuscular coordination:
6. Observation of knee jerks and other reflexes.
7. Observation of presence or absence of tremor of eyelids,
tongue and fingers.
8. The ability of the subject to stand steadily on one leg for 15
seconds with the eyes closed and hands to side.
9. The ability of the subject to raise from table to shoulder level
and replace again an unstable rod placed on a piece of board.
Tests for endurance and resolution (testing respiratory and
circulatory 'efficiency and nervous stability):
ip. After full expiration and full inspiration, the length of time
during which the subject can support with the breath held, a
column of mercury at 40 mm., the rate of the pulse being counted
meanwhile.
The standards for these tests, which are used as adjuncts to
the clinical examination, have been set by the examination of
efficient pilots who have rendered satisfactory aerial service.
Results have also been obtained from larger numbers of pilots
who have partially or wholly broken down.
The duty of forming a final decision as to the candidate's
fitness for air work rests with the assessor, a medical officer of
wide experience. His decision is based upon a review of all the
facts and observations recorded by the examiners, checked and
supplemented by an examination on his part of such points as
appear doubtful.
Apart from the elimination of cases which fail to satisfy the
requirements in respect of the special senses of sight and hearing
or show signs of organic disease of a gross or potentially disabling
nature, the assessor's main duty is to ensure that the accepted
candidate is possessed of a mental aptitude and a degree of
stamina and nervous stability adequate to withstand the stress
of training and of subsequent service in the air.
In forming an opinion on these points, no attempt is made
to determine the temperamental suitability of candidates by
elaborate psychological methods. In most cases the assessor is
able to gain an insight into the candidate's general " mental
make-up " by interrogation as to his motives for wishing to fly,
by ascertaining his keenness for sports and games and by ob-
taining details as to his service, if any, in the war. The evidence
as to the soundness of the stock from which the candidate
6 4
AFGHANISTAN
comes, the illnesses from which he has suffered, the stresses to
which he has been exposed and the manner in which they have
been borne, are of prognostic importance. Reliable impressions
are also formed in many cases in the course of ordinary clinical
examination, additional aid in arriving at a decision being
afforded by the candidate's method of performing the various
tests of the cardiovascular, respiratory and neuromuscular sys-
tems. When deemed necessary the psychomotor reflexes may
be measured.
After admission much devolves upon the medical officer in the
way of careful supervision. As in other branches of the medical
profession, the success of the medical officer in preventing
breakdown from flying strain depends largely upon his mental
aptitude for, and his attitude towards, his work. To the medical
officer the flying officers under his care are so many human
engines, and it is his duty to keep them as far as possible in fit
condition, properly attuned, and to overhaul them periodically
so that he can say whether they are wearing well or showing signs
of strain, and, if the latter, to take necessary measures to prevent
any disaster.
The medical officer should live as much as possible among the
officers under his charge; by this means he acquires an intimate
knowledge of their characters, which he may use sympathetically
and confidentially as occasion arises. Each flying officer is, so to
speak, an individual unit, and requires his own special study.
Much of the medical officer's best work, therefore, is done in
the mess, on the aerodrome, or at games. For example, indications
of " fatigue " may be observed when a pilot, usually efficient,
begins to land badly, or returns from a relatively simple flight
unduly exhausted; when a moderate drinker begins to take more
than is good for him; or when a sociable pilot prefers always to
sit alone quietly reading in the corner. A little tact and sympathy
on the part of the medical officer under such conditions may make
all the difference between recovery and breakdown.
It should always be borne in mind that a certain number of
pilots are liable to develop an " anxiety " in regard to their
occupation, especially as the result of the stress of early training
or of prolonged service in the air. The first symptoms of such
anxiety are best detected by a medical officer knowing each of
his pilots personally. Thus during the training stage much
information can be gleaned by a quiet chat with an officer or
cadet in regard to his sensations while in the air, either when
receiving dual instruction or when learning to acquire pro-
ficiency at aerial acrobatics. The stress of the first solo flight
must always be borne in mind. It must be remembered also
that a young officer is generally averse to showing any sign of
what he fears may be deemed cowardice. Yet, during the stages
of training, he is probably constantly repressing a tendency to be
afraid, which is only natural. With such an individual a frank
discussion of his fear with the medical officer will frequently
improve his condition. It is a great help, from the pilot's point
of view, to be assured by a medical officer in whom he has con-
fidence that he is in good condition, or that he is not a coward,
and that many other pilots who have eventually " made good "
have been through the same stages of " wind-up." In gleaning
information as to the " anxiety state," note should be made of
such points as change of habits, restlessness, irritability, ten-
dency to jump at any sudden noise, or inability to concentrate.
Enquiry should be made as to sleep and the nature of dreams or
nightmares. The " anxious " pilot is particularly liable to in-
somnia, anxiety dreams and nightmares. In his dream or
nightmare he is nearly always performing something connected
with his daily duties, and failing in its performance. The
importance of good refreshing sleep in a flying officer cannot
be too strongly emphasized.
Periodic medical examination will also give indication of
the onset of flying strain or fatigue, and if found, appropriate
steps can be taken to prevent or mitigate it.
Attention has already been drawn to the great importance
of the use of oxygen for flights at high altitudes or of long dura-
tion, as well as to the great value of sports and games in promot-
ing flying skill and bodily endurance in pilots. Periodic advice
by medical officers in respect of the ill effects of too much smok-
ing or alcohol also play a part in the effective care of flying
personnel. Advice may also be given in regard to the efficient
protection of the body.
The intensity of the cold varies with the season of the year
and with the height attained; it is accentuated also by the
speed of the machine through the air. To prevent loss of body
heat while flying, special suits have been designed, the cardinal
principle of which is to keep the body surrounded by layers of
warm air. In most cases this warmth is derived from the body,
but the warming of clothing by electric means has also been
tried. For warmth purposes, great thickness of clothing is by
no means necessary. Underclothing should be loose-fitting; two
thin garments of closely-woven texture, either of wool or silk,
are better than one thick one. Research has shown that the
warmth-giving power of clothing lies in the fineness of the mesh
rather than in its thickness. Care should be taken to avoid
orifices through which the outside air can permeate. Tight
clothing should be avoided, particularly clothing which tends to
hamper the movements of the chest and abdomen or to restrict
the circulation of the limbs. Frequently, however, it is necessary
to employ considerable additional protection for the legs, espe-
cially for the feet, and for this reason care should be taken to
provide suitable additional protection in the form of warm,
loose-fitting stockings.
For the protection of the face, a fairly close-fitting head
and face piece of non-absorbent and non-porous material may
be made, the inner surface of which will not absorb the oil or
grease with which it is advisable to anoint the face when severe
cold has to be endured. Over such, a woollen balaclava may be
worn, and then a flying cap of close-fitting design.
For the protection of the hands a series of suitable gloves
may be employed; for instance, thin silk gloves covered by
woollen gloves, the whole enclosed in a leather gauntlet, which
can be easily removed for delicate work. Gauntlets provided
with a specially adaptable finger muff are to be recommended.
In certain cases electrically heated gloves have also been
employed.
For the protection of the eyes well-fitting fur-lined triplex
goggles should be employed. The fogging of goggles may be
prevented by certain preparations which are on the market.
Some pilots prefer to employ tinted goggles; this is especially
necessary for flying in the tropics, otherwise the effects of
glare are soon felt.
In regard to diet, gas-producing foods are best avoided, since
altitude causes expansion of the gases of the intestines, but in
practice there is little need for the healthy person to worry about
the constitution of his diet. It is important, however, that no
flying should, under any circumstances, take place upon an
empty stomach.
Before long flights it is advisable not to partake of food of
too fluid a nature or of too much liquid. By this means the
desire to urinate in the air during a flight is avoided. On very
long flights, a supply of liquid food, such as sweetened cocoa or
malted milk, may be carried in special thermos flasks. In addition
compressed food in the form of tablets or chocolate may be
provided.
Finally if " flying strain " supervenes the treatment necessary
is such as would be applied to the condition of " fatigue "
arising in any other occupation. According to his chief symptoms
the patient may pass for treatment of an anxiety neurosis to the
neurologist or for the treatment of respiratory and circulatory
symptoms to the general physician. But it is always to be
remembered that the keynote of the effective care of flying
personnel lies in prevention rather than cure. (M. FL.)
AFGHANISTAN (see 1.306). The visit of the Amir Habibulla
Khan to India at the beginning of 1907 was destined to exercise
a powerful and beneficial influence on the attitude of the Afghan
ruler during the rest of his reign throughout periods of unusual
crisis and strain. It gave him the opportunity of making ac-
quaintance with British officials and Anglo-Indian society, and
the result was a new development of friendship and mutual
AFGHANISTAN
confidence. The effect in Afghanistan of the Anglo-Russian
Convention signed on Aug. 31 of the same year was not of a
similarly happy nature. Articles III. and IV. of the Convention,
which provided respectively for the establishment of direct
relations between Russian and Afghan frontier authorities and
the maintenance of equality of commercial opportunity for
British (and British-Indian) and Russian trade and traders,
were interpreted by the Afghans as an attempt to interfere
with the economic autonomy and political independence of their
country. Article V. laid down that the Convention would only
come into force on the notification of the Amir's consent to its
terms. This consent, though repeatedly pressed for, was never
given by the Amir.
From 1908 to 1914 the history of Afghanistan remained peace-
ful and uneventful, and was chiefly remarkable for the gradual
introduction into the country of measures of civil, economic
and military reform.
Influenced by what he had observed in India, steps were taken
by the Amir to open schools, increase facilities for the education of
the upper classes, establish factories, introduce telegraphs and tele-
phones and to provide medical relief. The provision of improved
military education and reforms in the training of the army were like-
wise taken in hand. For the above purposes a number of foreigners
were imported into Afghanistan, and of these the majority were
Turks. It was, however, in the direction of public works that the
Amir chiefly directed his energies. Great efforts were made, largely
by means of forced labour, to improve the internal communications.
Metalled roads were constructed between the principal local centres,
and good roads, realigned and fit for motor traffic, were constructed
from Kabul to Dakka and from Kabul to Kandahar. Important
irrigation canals were also constructed, notably the Nahr-i-Siraj
from the Helmand river near Kala Bist; from the Kabul river near
Daronta; and the Panjdeh Argandab canal from the Argandab river
near Kandahar.
The outbreak of war in 1911 between Italy and Turkey created,
as might be expected, a general wave of sympathy among the Afghans
for their co-religionists in Turkey, and considerable sums of money
were subscribed by the general public to Turkish funds.
When in Aug. 1914 war was declared between England and
Germany the Amir was immediately informed by the Govern-
ment of India and asked to maintain the strict neutrality of
Afghanistan, and to this he gave a solemn assurance on the
understanding that the safety and independence of Afghanistan
were not interfered with.
On the entry of Turkey in Nov. 1914 into the war on the side of
Germany, the Government of India, in communicating the event to
the Amir, laid stress on the non-religious nature of the struggle, and
brought to his knowledge the terms of a proclamation issued by the
British Government pledging immunity from attack of the Holy
Places of Arabia. The intervention of Turkey under German in-
fluence could not fail to place the Amir in a very difficult position.
Public feeling in Afghanistan was profoundly stirred by this event,
and the trend of popular feeling under other conditions of rulership
might have led to far different results had not the Amir Habibulla
Khan, faithful to his pledge, maintained throughout the long years
of the war an attitude of strict and correct neutrality and enforced
it upon his country, notwithstanding many temptations and induce-
ments both from within and without his country. Within Afghanis-
tan the voice of religious bigotry and fanaticism was loudly raised
on the side of Turkey, while the opportunists proclaimed against
the folly of not taking advantage of so favourable a moment for suc-
cessful aggression.
More seductive still were temptations from outside. Chief among
them were the persuasions of an important mission which the
German Government despatched towards Afghanistan in the spring
of 1915. The party were selected to comprise such elements as
would be likely to appeal to Afghan sentiment Indian sedition-
ists were, both Mohammedan and Hindu, together with German and
Turkish officers. The mission bore letters from the German chancellor,
and were charged to make important revelations regarding possible
future relations between Afghanistan, Germany, Austria and Tur-
key. The mission reached Kabul through Persia towards the end of
1915, and were dismissed in May 1916, without effecting their
purpose.
The continuous and unwavering loyalty of Amir Habibulla Khan
to his pledges to the British Government throughout the changing
vicissitudes of the World War forms one of the most remarkable in-
cidents of that eventful period. He not only maintained throughout
the strictest neutrality of his country but successfully used his
influence to preserve peace among the unruly tribes on the frontier,
thereby diminishing demands on the depleted garrison of India.
With the Armistice of Nov. 1918 the World War came to an
end, but Afghanistan was not long to enjoy the benefit of peace.
At 3 A.M. on Feb. 20 1919 Amir Habibulla Khan was shot in his
bed in his tent at Kala Gosh while touring in the district of
Lamaghan. His brother Nasrulla Khan, then at Jalalabad, at
once proclaimed himself Amir of Afghanistan in his stead. Prince
Amanulla Khan, the third son of the late Amir by his principal
wife, the Ulya Hazrat, who was then residing at Kabul as gover-
nor, was simultaneously proclaimed Amir by the people of all
classes at the capital. His uncle Nasrulla Khan at once abdicated
in his favour, and his elder brothers, Inayatulla Khan and Haya-
tulla Khan, and other members of the royal family, acknowl-
edged his succession to the throne. The facts relating to the mur-
der of Habibulla Khan have never been made known. Nasrulla
Khan was charged with complicity and sentenced to imprison-
ment for life. In a letter dated March 3 1919 to the Govern-
ment of India, Amanulla Khan announced his accession with
protestations of friendship to the British Government. Mischie-
vous and unfriendly influences however, so long kept in check
by the wise, restraining hand of Amir Habibulla Khan, soon
began to display themselves. In April the new Amir proclaimed
the independence external as well as internal of Afghanistan.
In the same month a mission under Gen. Wali Mohammed Khan
was despatched to Moscow to institute relations with the new
Soviet Government. Grossly exaggerated and unfounded reports
of rebellions in India and of British tyranny in India and Meso-
potamia were spread broadcast by official agency throughout
the country and frontier tribes, and exhortation was addressed
to all to be prepared for a call to arms. This was quickly followed
by the proclamation of a jihad (holy war) and the cupidity of
the credulous Afghan people and frontier tribes was aroused by
promise of an easy conquest of India.
Early in May information accumulated to the effect that the plan
of operations decided upon by the Afghan Government was to
attack simultaneously on three fronts under separate generals
through Dakka, Khost and Baluchistan, by hordes of Ghazis (reli-
gious fanatics) supported by regular troops. Prompt measures were
accordingly taken to reenforce British forces on the Indian frontier.
The arrival of Afghan troops at the western end of the Khyber
was reported on May 3, and active hostilities opened on May 8 by
the occupation by Afghan regular troops of the heights commanding
Landi Kotal. From there they were immediately expelled, and the
British force in the Khyber, advancing into Afghanistan, occupied
Dakka May 13. This prompt measure, and the menace it involved
to the safety of Jalalabad, had an immediate and discouraging effect
on the Afghan plan of operations, and was shortly followed on May
28 by the capture of the Afghan fortress of Spin Baldak which
threatened the security of the southern capital of Kandahar.
In a letter dated May 28 the Amir addressed the Viceroy
of India, definitely asking for peace and suggesting a cessation
of hostilities. He was informed in a reply dated June 2 that an
armistice would be granted on certain terms, which included
the withdrawal of all Afghan troops from within 20 m. of the
British front and the exercise of the Amir's influence in restrain-
ing the frontier tribes from further hostilities. These terms with
but slight modifications were accepted 'by the Amir in a letter
of June u, in which he agreed to send delegates to India to
discuss terms of peace and the reestablishment of former friendly
relations between the Afghan and British Governments. These
delegates duly arrived at Rawalpindi on the date appointed,
July 25, and peace was formally signed on Aug. 8.
The preceding narrative of the war has only referred to the brief
operations in which British troops were engaged with forces of the
Afghan regular army. Open hostilities by the latter against British
forces may be said to have ceased on June 3. This, however, repre-
sents but a small portion of the actual fighting which took place
between the outbreak of war at the beginning of May 1919 and the
signing of peace in Aug. 1919. Throughout the whole of that period
continuous conflict prevailed, now at one point, now at another,
along the whole stretch of the north-west frontier of India from Chit-
ral to Chaman. The rising of the frontier tribes failed, as such ris-
ings always have failed in the past, to be simultaneous, and the
ardour of many tribes received a wholesome check from the news of
British successes and the capture of Dakka in the north and of Spin
Baldak in the south at the outset of the war. Nevertheless the call to
jihad and the cupidity aroused by specious promises of plunder,
together with the encouragement and material support given by
bodies small and large of Afghan regular troops interspersed along
the frontier, succeeded in causing many of the great frontier tribes,
Mohmand, Afridi, Wazir, Mahsud and Shiranni, to throw themselves
at one time and another against whatever appeared to be weak points
66
AFRICA
in the British line of defence or occupation. Instances of loyalty to
the British Raj were, however, numerous. In the north the tribal
levies of Chitral victoriously resisted continuous Afghan aggression,
while in the Kurram and Swat valleys, and farther south in Baluchis-
tan, all but a few tribes remained firm. Military operations through-
out this period of struggle were of an exceptionally severe and ardu-
ous nature, owing not only to the great heat that prevails at that
season of (he year in the frontier tracts, but to the severe outbreak
of cholera which occurred along the whole front and caused serious
losses among the troops engaged. The armistice of June II, which
terminated hostilities between the regular troops on either side, had
but little effect on the guerrilla warfare raging along the frontier, and
this continued, notably in VVaziristan, until even after the signing of
peace on Aug. 8.
The treaty of peace laid down that the British Government, in
view of the circumstances which led to the war, would on their part
withdraw the privilege, hitherto enjoyed by former Amirs, of import-
ing arms, ammunition and warlike munitions through India; would
confiscate the arrears of the late Amir's subsidy and grant no subsidy
to the present Amir, but would be prepared, if the Afghan Govern-
ment gave proof, by good conduct in the meantime, of a genuine
desire for friendship, to receive another Afghan mission after a period
of six months, to discuss the settlement of matters of mutual interest
and the reestablishment of friendly relations. The Afghan Govern-
ment on their part agreed to adhere to the Indo-Afghan frontier
accepted by the late Amir, and also to assent to the early demarca-
tion of the hitherto undemarcated portion of the line to the west of
the Khyber; British troops were to remain in their present positions
until this demarcation be effected.
Demarcation was satisfactorily completed and British troops ac-
cordingly evacuated Dakka on Sept. 13. The Afghan fort of Spin
Baldak had been previously evacuated on Aug. 14.
It will be noticed that the treaty of peace marks an important
departure from previous practice in that no mention is made in it
of the dependence of Afghanistan on the British Government in
external affairs, in regard to which previous Amirs, 'Abdurrahman
and Habibulla Khan, had bound themselves to follow the advice of
that Government. In a letter handed by the Foreign Secretary to
the Government of India to the Afghan delegate immediately after
the signature of the treaty it was expressly stated that that treaty
left Afghanistan free and independent in its affairs both internal and
external.
Reference has been made to the despatch in April 1919 of an
Afghan mission to the Soviet Government at Moscow. This mis-
sion, under Wali Mohammed Khan, reached Moscow in Oct., and
were well received. Meanwhile, in Sept. 1919 the Soviet Government
of Turkestan despatched a mission to Kabul under M. Bravin, a
former member of the Russian imperial consular service. In Nov.
1919 the Soviet Government of Moscow, desiring to establish a more
direct control by themselves of foreign relations in Asia, also sent
a mission under M. Suritz, which reached Kabul in Jan. 1920. M.
Suritz, superseding M. Bravin, at once commenced negotiations with
the Afghan Government, and in the course of the summer despatched
to Moscow the draft of a treaty which, it is understood, provided for
the grant of a subsidy to the Amir, the supply of material assistance
and expert instructors and the establishment of Russian consulates in
both eastern and northern Afghanistan.
In the meantime, after a lengthy correspondence between the
Indian and Afghan Governments, it was decided that an Afghan
mission, as arranged in the treaty of peace of Aug. 8 1919, should be
sent to India. They arrived at Mussporieon April 14 1920, under the
charge of Sardar Mahmud Beg Tarsi, the Afghan Foreign Minister,
and were met by a British delegation under Sir Henry Dobbs, the
Foreign Secretary to the Government of India. The conference
lasted until July 24, when the Afghan delegation were presented with
a statement of the general lines on which the British Government
were prepared to discuss a formal treaty. Throughout this period
the attitude of the Afghan Government in respect to questions under
discussion was swayed backwards and forwards by outside concur-
rent events, notably by the steady strengthening of the Turkish
Nationalist position in Anatolia, the change of Government and the
growth of Bolshevik influence in Persia, the outbreak of revolt in
Mesopotamia, and by the increase of political agitation in India.
Nearer home also, a renewed outbreak of hostilities, fostered and
assisted by Afghan agency, on the Indo-Afghan frontier in Waziris-
tan, led to lengthy military operations, and raised hopes in the mind
of the Afghan Government that the British Government would not
be indisposed to consider the question of changes in favour of Afgha-
nistan of the Indo-Afghan boundary.
On Oct. 16 1920 the Soviet Government of Moscow signed a treaty
with Afghanistan, subject to ratification by the Amir. The exact
terms of this treaty were still unknown in Nov. 1921, but were under-
stood to be on the lines of the draft prepared in April by the Suritz
mission. In Nov. 1920 the Turkish general, Jemal Pasha, arrived in
Kabul on a special politico-military mission; and in 1921 a British
mission under Sir Henry Dobbs was also sent to Kabul.
(A. H. McM.)
AFRICA (see 1.320). Territorial changes in Africa between
1910 and 1921 resulted in a repartition of large areas of the con-
tinent; knowledge of its physical features largely increased and
means of communication developed. Social and economic
factors, affecting all races, acquired new values. The present
article surveys these matters broadly under the headings:
(i) Exploration; (2) Communications; (3) History.
I. Exploration. The largest unknown area of Africa in 1910 was
in the Sahara, of which the central part only had been adequately
explored. French officers had begun as early as 1904 to make itiner-
aries in the Western Sahara. These were continued by Gen.
Laperrine, Capt. Martin, Capt. Mpugin, Capt. Augieras and others.
A long-cherished design was realized on Christmas-day when, in
nnd desert, a column under Capt. Augieras coming from Algeria
effected a junction with a column under Maj. Lauzanne which
had started from Atar in Mauretania. The result of these 18
years of work was that by 1921 a roughly accurate knowledge of
the region had been obtained. The Western Sahara consists of a
central dome (the Eglab) of moderate elevation, almost surrounded
by great tracts of sand dunes. The "central dome," though unin-
habited, contains habitable regions, and is regularly traversed by
organised bands of brigands who set out from Southern Morocco to
pillage the tribes of Mauretania and the middle Niger. Abundant
traces of ancient human occupation in the Western Sahara have
been discovered ; except that they are pre-Islamic it has been impos-
sible even approximately to fix their age. The great depression known
as the Juf, to the N.E. of Timbuktu, remained unexplored UD to
1922.
But it was in the region bordering the southern end of the Eastern
Sahara, and in the Libyan desert itself that the greatest gaps existed
in the map of Africa in 1910. Several of these gaps wore filled, and
the chief remaining problems in the hydrography and orography
of Africa were solved by Lieut.-Col. Jean Tilho and his colleagues
in an expedition extending from 1912-7. The main object of
Col. Tilho was to ascertain whether the basin of the Chad was
closed or belonged to that of the Nile, and that thus there was,
as tradition asserted, a water connexion between the Niger and
the Nile (see 19.676). In a previous expedition (1908-9) Tilho
had found that the Soro (the Bahr-el-Ghazal channel running E.
of the Chad) was of the same level as the lake for a very consider-
able distance. The 1912-7 expedition discovered that a mountain-
ous barrier encirclc-d the basin of the Chad from N. to S.E., that is,
it had no fluvial connexion with the Nile basin. But N.E. of the
lake is a low-lying zone of which the lowest point is 520 ft. below
the level of Chad. This point is in the recently dried-up bed of
the lake of Kirri and is some 250 m. from Lake Chad. Thus Chad
was proved to be but the remains of a vast lake comparable in size
to the Caspian. The Tilho expedition also explored the Tibesti and
Ennedi (End!) mountains, and discovered another massif, that of
Erdi, connecting Tibesti and Ennedi. It also learned of the existence
in the Libyan desert of another mountain mass, the Jebel el Auniat
(about 150 m. S.E. of Kufra), with heights probably exceeding 4,000
feet. Hypsometric determinations enabled the expedition to ascer-
tain the heights of the chief summits of the mountain chains between
Chad and the Nile. The highest points are Emi Kussi, 11,200 ft.
(an extinct volcano), and Tussidc, 10,700 ft., in Tibesti, and (the)
Jebel Marra, 9,800 ft., in Darfur. 1 The exact longitude of many
places was determined by wireless time signals from the Eiffel
Tower, and a chain of astronomical positions completed the con-
nexion of the maps of the Niger, Chad and Nile. Some 7,000 m. of
surveys were made by the expedition. Particular interest centred
in the exploration of Tibesti, which had been seen by one European
only (Nachtigal in 1869) until it was reached by Comdt. Loftcr
in Dec. 1913. It had l>een thought that Tibesti might prove a
well-watered fertile region, but though it contains pasture lands,
palm-groves, and flowing rivers it is mainly arid a magnificent
mountain-mass with deep gorges and serrated ridges, falling east-
ward in giant steps; westward overlooking a boundless plain.
Of the Libyan desert Mr. W. J. Harding King collected much in-
formation from native sources and himself investigated its north-
western fringe. Early in Jan. 1921 Mrs. Rosita Forbes, a young
Englishwoman, reached Kufra from Cyrenaica, and the following
month travelled to Jarabub by a new route. Except by a French
prisoner of the Senussites who was interned there in 1916, Kufra
had only once before been visited by Europeans by Rohlfs and
Anton Stecker in 1879 and Mrs. Forbes showed that the extent
of the oases was less than supposed and their position incorrectly
mapped. Evidence of increasing desiccation of the desert was
obtained one stretch of 350 m. traversed was without a well or
water of any sort.
In the upper Nile basin Capt. H. D. Pearson, director of sur-
veys in the Sudan, explored (1911-2) in part the head streams of
the Pibor, the main western branch of the Sobat. Captain H. A.
Darley investigated other parts of the Sobat system and Capt.
R. H. Leckc in 1912-4 explored the adjacent southern region
that between the Bahr-el-Jcbel (Mountain Nile) and Lake Rudolf.
The chief feature of the country was shown to be the escarpment
1 These figures are subject to rectification on the full working-out
of the data obtained by the expedition.
AFRICA
forming the Nile-Rudolf watershed, which drops abruptly into the
Turkana plain on the Rudolf side, but slopes gradually westwards
to the Nile. It has heights of 10,000 feet. The expeditions named
nearly completed the exploration of the region between the Nile and
Abyssinia. In 19156 Maj. Cuthbert Christy made a ten months'
journey along the Congo-Nile divide, where it forms the frontier
of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The divide proved to be " a continu-
ous and more or jess level strip of bush-covered country (mostly of
ironstone formation), sometimes as much as two miles in width
but often only a few yards." In Maj. Christy's opinion the divide
was perfectly suitable for the building of a railway, a roundabout
link in the Cape-to-Cairo scheme.
Mr. I. N. Dracopoli in 1912-3 explored part of southern
Jubaland. He reached the Lorian Swamp which receives the
waters of the Uaso Nyiro and solved the problem of its outflow.
He found that the Lake Dera issues from Lorian in a well-defined
bed and, though usually dry in its lower course, is, through Lake
Wama, a tributary of the Juba river. Mr. (afterwards Sir) G. F.
Archer completed in April 1912, after over two years' work, surveys
connecting the triangulation of British East Africa with Maj.
Gwynn's Abyssinian boundary survey. Captain R. E. Salkeld in
1913-4 further explored Jubaland, drawing attention to the over-
running of that region by the Somalis the most recent instance of
the migration of African races.
In east central Africa a survey by Capt. E. M. Jack, in 1911. of
the region N.E. of Lake Kivu and W. of Victoria Nyanza resulted in
making known a healthy highland region and added to the knowl-
edge of the Mfumbiro range of active volcanoes. Karissimbi was
found to be 14,780 ft. high. In Dec. 1912 Sir A. Sharpe and
Mr. M. Elphinstone witnessed the formation of a new volcano,
named Katarusi, which, following an earthquake, rose out of an
old grass-covered lava-field, sending into the N.E. corner of Kivu
a river of lava which filled up a " large bay."
The first survey along its whole length of the Congo-Zambezi
watershed was made in 1911-4 by Anglo-Belgian and Anglo-
Portuguese boundary commissions, the principal commissioners
being Capt. Everest (killed by a lion), Maj. E. A. Steel and
Mai. Reginald Walker (British), Maj. Begraud and Capt. Web-
er (Belgian) and Capts. C. V. Cago Coutinho and V. da Rocha
(Portuguese). As in the Congo-Nile watershed, it was found that
many rivers ran for considerable distances parallel to the divide,
which is largely bush-covered. Major Walker discovered that the
Luapula (the main eastern headstream of the Congo) did not, as
was believed, issue from Lake Bangweulu, but was a continuation
of the Chambezi, which passes through the great swamp S. of
Bangweulu.
Another boundary commission, under Capt. W. V. Nugent
and Oberleutnant Detzner, in 1912-3 demarcated the Nigeria-
Cameroon frontier between Yola and the Cross river. The frontier
followed roughly the edge of the highlands overlooking the fertile
plains of the Benue and was an instance where the straight lines
drawn on the map by diplomatists to mark international boundaries
worked out fairly well in practice.
During the World War exigencies of campaigning led to many
additions to exact knowledge of the topography of tropical Africa,
partly through the use of aircraft for survey purposes. Thus very
useful maps, showing routes unsuspected on the ground, were made
of Portuguese Nyasaland by airmen. In 1920 Dr. P. Chalmers
Mitchell, who passed over the whole length of the Nile basin in an
aeroplane, proved the value to geology of air reconnaissances by the
discovery in the Bayuda desert N. of Khartoum, of the volcanic
character of a range of hills. Between Old Merowe and Atbara the
aeroplane crossed " a high and irregular range of hills running east
and west. In the middle of them was a great plain looking like toffee
poured out on a plate. From this a number of craters rose, two large,
one with a sandy interior with thorn bushes, the other with a second
peak and crater inside the outer rim." From pieces of tufa recently
obtained from the Nile Valley, N. of Khartoum, the existence of
some unknown Tertiary volcanic field in that region had been sus-
pected. Exploration on the ground remained to be undertaken,
but Dr. Chalmers Mitchell's observations would appear to be the
first important geological discovery made from the air.
2. Communications. The first railway and steamer route across
Africa was completed by the opening in March 1915 of a railway
from Kabalo on the Lualaba (Upper Congo) to Albertville on the
west shores of Lake Tanganyika. The year before (1914) the Ger-
man railway from Dar es Salaam had reached Kigoma, on the east
shores of Tanganyika. A part of this Atlantic-Indian Ocean route
is by the Congo, the non-navigable stretches of the river being
bridged by railway. An all-rail east-west route across South Africa
had also been effected in 1915, when a line was built from Prieska
to Kalkfontein connecting the S.A. system with that of German
South-West Africa. By this means Walfish Bay and Delagoa Bay
were linked by railway. A second east-west all-rail route across
Africa will be provided by the railway from Lobito Bay to Katanga,
where it will join the lines to Beira and other east-coast ports, as
well as to Cape Town. In 1920 some 600 m. of rails remained to
be laid on this route. The surveys had been completed in 1920 and
construction began in 1921.
None of these lines was designed as a transcontinental route,
though the Dar es Salaam-Congo route was so used for passenger
traffic.
With the Cape-to-Cairo scheme little progress was made in the
period 1910-21. The railway from Cape Town via Bulawayo and
the Victoria Falls, which had reached the Belgian Congo frontier
in 1009, was however continued N. across Katanga to Bukama on
the Lualaba (Upper Congo), the line being completed in May 1918
an addition of 442 m. in ten years, making a through service from
the Cape, on the same gauge (3 ft. 6 in.), of 2,598 miles. In 1921
the construction of a further section of the railway to a more north-
erly point on the Lualaba. where navigation was easier than at
Bukama, was begun. But from 1918 it was possible, by utilizing the
Congo and Tanganyika systems, to travel alternately by train and
steamer from the Cape to Cairo, with only two breaks together
not more than 300 m. to be covered on foot. The southern break
was from Tabora (on the Tanganyika railway) to Mwanza, on Vic-
toria Nyanza; the northern from Nimule to Rejaf, along the banks
of an unnavigable stretch of the Upper Nile.
These cross- Africa routes were valueless for through goods traffic ;
their function was to bring the produce of Central Africa direct to
the nearest seaport. Thus the Tanganyika railway made Dar es
Salaam the natural outlet for the trade of a large portion of the
eastern part of the Belgian Congo. With these mam routes may
be mentioned the line (built 1916-8) from Qantara on the Suez
Canal, across the Sinai peninsula to Gaza, which put Africa and
Asia in direct railway communication, Cairo being linked with
Jerusalem, Damascus, Aleppo, etc.
With regard to trans- Saharan railways, from Algeria to the Niger
countries, surveys made in 1912-3 showed that there were routes
presenting no engineering difficulties. From Msala, in the Algerian
Sahara, the route is by Anhet, W. of the Ahaggar (Hoggar) massif
to the Niger at Tosaye (Burem), some 200 m. below Timbuktu.
What was regarded as the first section of the trans-Saharan was the
line from Biskra to Tuggurt, opened in 1914. From Tuggurt to
Tosaye by the route indicated is 1,470 miles. A line from Blida to
Jelfa, on the way to Laghwat, was also built.
French projects to connect the Middle Niger with the ports of
the Guinea Coast were hindered by the World War. The scheme
was for railways from Dakar (Senegal), Konakry (French Guinea),
Abidjan (Ivory Coast) and Kotonu (Dahomey) to be carried inland
to the French Sudan (Upper Senegal and Niger colony), and there
united by a transverse line. Political and economic considerations
induced the French to neglect the Gambia river (as being British),
the natural outlet for the French Sudan the Gambia is navigable
from the ocean by vessels drawing 13 ft. up to 153 m. inland. Of
the lines proposed, that from Thies (Dakar) to Kayes, on the Sene-
gal, begun in 1907, has a length of 682 m., of which about 100 m.
remained to be built in 1920. The French Guinea line from Kon-
akry reached Kurussa (365 m.) in 1910 and Kankan, in the French
Sudan, 411 m. from Konakry, in 1915. This led to much of the
trade of the countries in the Niger bend going to Konakry. The
Ivory Coast railway from Abidjan, traversing a dense forest region,
reached Buake (193 m.) in 1913. No progress northward had been
made by 1921. The Dahomey railway had reached Save (162 m.)
in 1912. All four lines are of the French standard West-African
gauge, namely one metre. Besides the railways the French built
many hundreds of miles of metalled roads, on which motor services
connecting with the Niger countries were established.
In British West Africa local lines and extensions, on differing
gauges, were built during 1910-20; there was no unity of plan
such as marked the French programme in West Africa. The bridging
of the Niger at Jebba, completed 1914, gave the chief Nigerian rail-
way, that from Lagos to Kano (704 m. long), an uninterrupted
service. In 1913 a new railway was begun from Port Harcourt, at
the mouth of the Bonny river. It was completed to the Udi coal-
fields (151 m.) by May 1916. From Zaria, on the Lagos-Kano rail-
way, a branch line, built across the tinfield area to Bukuru (143 m.),
was completed in Dec. 1914. Surveys were made for an exten-
sion of the Port Harcourt-Udi line northward across the Benue
river and thence north-west to a point, Kaduna, on the Lagos-
Kano line. The building of this extension, some 450 m. in length,
was begun in 1921. Motor services are maintained in connexion
with the railways, which are Government owned.
In Morocco the French, from 1912 onward, built narrow-gauge
railways for military purposes. By 1920 these connected (l) Sallee
with Fez, and (2) Ujda, on the Algerian frontier, with Taza, while
the section Fez-Taza was under construction. From Rabat via
Casablanca another line was built to Marrakesh. The river divid-
ing Sallee and Rabat was not bridged, but a ferry service was insti-
tuted. In 1918 the French Government decided to reconstruct the
lines on the normal gauge. Up to 1921 no progress had been made
on the Tangier-Fez railway. In North-East Africa the decade
1910-20 saw the completion of the railway from Jibuti to Addis
Abbaba, the capital of Abyssinia.
The greatest mileage of railways built in the period under consid-
eration was in South Africa (see SOUTH AFRICA). A line from
Beira to the Zambezi (in construction 1920) gave Nyasaland direct
access to the ocean. The Germans provided their South-West Africa
Protectorate with an extensive system of railways. In Uganda the
British built a short railway linking Jinja, on Victoria Nyanza, with
68
AFRICA
the first navigable stretch of the Nile, and during the World War a
line connecting the Uganda railway with the Usambara railway in
German East Africa was constructed.
The telegraphic system was greatly extended between 1910 and
1920, while from the first-named year gaps in the telegraph lines
were increasingly filled by wireless telegraphy. The first wireless
station in South Africa (at Durban) was opened in 1910. The
Germans by the middle of 1914 had just completed powerful wire-
less stations in Togoland, South- West and East Africa. The French
built stations in West and North Africa (Dakar, Algiers, etc.) and
in 1920 had a trans-S.aharan wireless service, there being two sta-
tions in the desert. Wireless stations in Egypt and the Sudan con-
nected with Mombasa, Tabora and South Africa.
The World War gave a great impetus to aerial communications,
and Cairo became the junction for services to and from Europe,
Asia and the Cape. In 1919 an air route was laid out by British
officers from Cairo to Cape Town, aerodromes being built at 24
different places. The distance by the air route was 5,206 m., com-
pared with 6,823 m - by tj 16 Cape-to-Cairo land route. The first
attempt to fly across Africa was made in Feb. 1920 by Dr. P.
Chalmers Mitchell in an aeroplane chartered by The Times. At
Tabora, a little over half way, the machine crashed (Feb. 27).
The first to succeed in the enterprise were Col. Sir H. A. van
Ryneveld and Maj. Sir C. J. Brand, of the South African forces.
They reached the Wynberg aerodrome, Cape Town, after many
delays and having had to use three machines, on March 20
1920. Their actual flying time from Cairo to Cape Town was
72 hours, 40 minutes. At the same time (Feb.-March 1920)
French airmen, Maj. Vuilleman and a comrade, flew from Algiers
across the Sahara to the Niger at Gao, and thence to Dakar. The
first regular air service in Africa was established in 1921, with
seaplanes along the Congo from Stanley Pool to Stanleyville, a dis-
tance of 1 ,000 miles. 1
3. History. A summary statement of recent territorial
changes affords a guide to the course of events in Africa. In
1910 the British self-governing colonies of the Cape, Natal,
Transvaal and Orange Free State were formed into the Union of
South Africa, with a single government and one legislature.
In 1911 a considerable area of French Equatorial Africa was
transferred to the German protectorate of Cameroon, and
in return Germany acknowledged a French protectorate over
the greater part of Morocco, the protectorate treaty between
France and Morocco being signed in April 1912. In Nov.
1912 a Franco-Spanish treaty defined the Spanish zones in
Morocco. In 1912 also Italy annexed the Turkish vilayets of
Tripoli and Bengazi (Cyrenaica), to which they gave the common
name of Libya. In the same year the United States acquired
financial control of Liberia, part of its hinterland having passed
to France in 1910. In Dec. 1914 a British protectorate over
Egypt was proclaimed. In June 1919, by the Treaty of Versailles
(which came into force Jan. 10 1920), Germany renounced
possession of all her oversea protectorates in favour of the
principal Allied and Associated Powers. These protectorates
were placed under mandatories. The Union of South Africa
became mandatory for German South- West Africa, which her
troops had conquered in 1915. It was renamed the South- West
Protectorate. Togoland was divided between France and Great
Britain (it had been conquered by British and French troops in
Aug. 1914). France became the mandatory for Cameroon,
but a small portion was transferred to (British) Nigeria. Came-
roon had been conquered by Anglo-French forces in 1915-6.
Britain became mandatory for German East Africa, renamed the
Tanganyika Territory. A small fragment (the Kionga triangle)
of German East Africa was, however, added to Portuguese East
Africa, and the greater part of the provinces of Ruanda and
Urundi to the Belgian Congo. German East Africa had been
conquered, as to the greater part in 1916, by British and Belgian
troops. An Anglo-French convention of Sept. 1919, rati-
fied in 1921, settled the boundary between Wadai and
Darfur, which had been in dispute since 1899. In 1920-1
Italy gained additions to Tripoli and Cyrenaica by arrangements
with France and Great Britain; also the promise of an addition to
Italian Somaliland at the expense of British East Africa. British
East Africa, up to then a protectorate, was in 1920 annexed
to the British Crown and renamed Kenya Colony.
As a result of these changes Africa was divided among the
1 A mail air service from Toulouse to Casablanca had been in-
stituted in 1920.
following Powers, territories governed under a mandate being
reckoned in the possessions of the Powers named:
sq. m.
Great Britain . . 4,364,ooo 2
France 4,200,000
Portugal 788,000
Italy 650,000
Spain 140.000'
Belgium 930 ooo
Liberia 40,000
Abyssinia (Independent) 350,000
These figures give a total of 11,462,000 sq. m. as the area
of Africa. In the absence of definite surveys of large areas of the
continent this may be regarded as a close approximation to
accuracy. In 1914 the German possessions in Africa had an
area of approximately 1,030,000 sq. m.; the Turkish possessions
(not reckoning the legal suzerainty it possessed over Egypt)
an area of some 400,000 sq. miles.
'The extinction of Turkish rule in North Africa had long
been foreseen and was no matter for regret. It ended a connexion
which had lasted five centuries and had been almost wholly
evil in its effects. German sovereignty in Africa had dated from
1884 only and had been rapidly enlarged. Endeavours further
to extend it had been a prominent factor in German policy for a
decade before the World War began, and closely affected very
large areas of Africa. Germany desired to secure a footing on the
African coast of the Mediterranean and a port on the Atlantic
coast of Morocco. These desires conflicted with Italian and
French ambitions, and in 1911 the issue on both points was
decided against Germany. As to Morocco the Franco-German
convention of Feb. 9 1909 had recognized the privileged posi-
tion of France in Morocco, but not a French protectorate
over that country, and the sending of the German gunboat
" Panther " to Agadir in July 1911 was a protest against what
Germany considered an unwarranted extension of French influ-
ence in Morocco, and an intimation that if German treaty rights
in Morocco were to be renounced France must make com-
pensation. According to Prince Billow, Germany in 1911
" never had any intention of taking possession of any part of
Morocco . . . England and Spain, besides France, would
have opposed us there " (Imperial Germany, 1913 ed.). Although
this statement may be an after-the-event reflection the inter-
vention of Britain on the side of France was decisive. Germany
withdrew her opposition to the establishment of a French
protectorate over Morocco, and accepted compensation in
Central Africa. While the Franco-German negotiations were
still in progress, Italy, by abruptly declaring war on Turkey and
invading Cyrenaica and Tripoli, deprived Germany of her last
opportunity short of war of gaining a footing in the Mediter-
ranean. 4
The alternative scheme to territorial acquisitions in North
Africa which Germany had prepared were indicated in a note
addressed to France on July 15 1911, during the Agadir
crisis. Germany then proposed that France should cede the
greater part of the coast and the interior of French Equatorial
Africa as far as the Sanga tributary of the Congo river, and
further renounce in favour of Germany her right of preemption
over the Belgian Congo. These proposals Germany was com-
pelled greatly to modify, but by the convention of Nov. 4
1911 large tracts of French territory were added to Cameroon.
On the south these additions made Spanish Guinea an enclave
2 Including Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
3 Including the Spanish zones in Morocco.
4 In view of the position publicly assumed by Germany in 1898
of friendship to Moslems in general and to Turkey in particular,
Germany had not sought direqt rule over the Ottoman provinces
in question. Turkish sovereignty was to be respected, but an Austro-
Hungarian chartered company had been formed under German aus-
pices for the exploitation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, and under the
charter Austrian (in effect German) authority would have been
imposed upon those vilayets. Italy, however, ever since the establish-
ment of the French protectorate over Tunisia in 1881, had " ear-
marked " Tripoli and Cyrenaica for herself. See the Memoirs of
Francesco Crispi (London, 1914) and H. H. Johnston in Geog.
Jnl. (vol. 44, pp. 280-1).
20
10
10
20
30
A F F
Natural Scat
Englis
Kilo
International Bour,
i '
German Colonies
Main ftaL
AFRICA
AFRICA
69
in Cameroon and gave Germany the southern shores of the Muni
estuary. In the east the additions to Cameroon included two
tongues of land which gave the protectorate direct access to
the Congo river and its great northern tributary the Ubangi.
The Mittel Afrika scheme foreshadowed in 1911 aimed at se-
curing Germany's supremacy, primarily economic and ultimately
political, in central equatorial Africa. The aim was to reserve
the Belgian Congo, Angola and Mozambique N. of the Zambezi
as a German sphere and thus to link up Cameroon with the
South-West and East Africa protectorates. German industries
had need of the raw material tropical Africa produces, and
moreover southern Angola was a good field for European settle-
ment. British statesmen were not unfavourable to German
expansion in equatorial Africa so long as it was confined to the
economic sphere. In 1898 the year of Fashoda Mr. A. J.
Balfour and Count Hatzfeldt had concluded an agreement which
divided Angola and Mozambique into zones in which Britain
and Germany respectively were to give financial and economic
assistance to the Portuguese. This agreement was capable of
various interpretations and in the following year (1809) another
agreement, known as the Treaty of Windsor, renewed the
ancient Anglo-Portuguese alliance, the object being to reassure
Portugal that the Balfour-Hatzfeldt agreement was not in
derogation of her sovereign rights in Africa. Neither the agree-
ment with Germany nor that with Portugal was published.
After the settlement of the Morocco crisis of 1911 Germany
endeavoured to come to a further understanding with Great
Britain. Negotiations in regard to the Portuguese colonies in
Africa were reopened by Baron Marschall, then ambassador to
Britain, and were energetically taken up by Prince Lich-
nowsky, who came to London as ambassador in Nov. 1912.
A new agreement was drawn up and its terms fixed. It
affirmed the intention of the signatories to respect the sovereign
rights of Portugal and went on to delimit the region in which
each party was, as far as the other party was concerned, to have a
free hand in respect to economic development. By Prince
Lichnowsky, and by the German Foreign Office, the new agree-
ment was looked upon as a stepping-stone to political rights in
the regions concerned. By this agreement the whole of Angola
up to long. 20 E. became a German sphere, together with the
cocoa-producing islands of San Thome and Principe. On the E.
coast the whole of Mozambique province N. of the river Likungo
also became a German sphere. 1 Originally Belgian Congo
was, according to Lichnowsky, to have been included in the
agreement, but Germany refused the offer " out of alleged
respect for Belgian sensibilities."
In Aug. 1913 the agreement was ready for signature.
But Sir Edward Grey, then British Foreign Minister, made
it a condition of signing that the 1898 and 1899 agreements as
well as the new agreement should be made public, with the obvious
object of again reassuring Portugal. The German Foreign
Office objected to publication, as detrimental to negotiations
for concessions then proceeding with Portugal, and, as Herr von
Jagow (then Foreign Secretary) said, because the German press
would regard the terms of the Treaty of Windsor and the
Lichnowsky agreement as contradictory. Von Jagow said that
publication of the agreement would be better delayed until the
Bagdad railway treaty which was looked upon as a genuine
triumph for Germany could also be published. In July 1914
German consent to the publication of the agreement was given
but before the document could be signed the World War had
begun.
During the period of these Anglo-German negotiations the
French in Morocco, under Gen. Lyautey as resident general, had
adopted both a bold and conciliatory policy and had won
the respect of the majority of the Moors; the French also
steadily developed their West African colonies and had brought
under control the region between Lake Chad and the Nile basin.
1 The Likungo lies about 120 m. N. of the Zambezi. The Zambezi
valley and all the territory S. to and including Delagoa Bay was
reserved as the British sphere. Britain already had the right of
preemption over Delagoa Bay.
In the German colonies there was likewise considerable develop-
ment, notably in the building of railways. It was a period too of
material development in the British colonies and of prosperity
in Egypt and the Sudan, accompanied in Egypt by manifestations
in favour of self-government. In South Africa the alliance of
Dutch and British, which had brought about union, had been
followed by a reaction among a section of the Dutch, but the
majority of the people followed the Prime Minister, General
Botha, and his colleagues in their loyal adherence to the British
connexion. When the World War broke out it was found that
the German authorities in South-West Africa had maintained
for years clandestine relations with a number of Boer leaders
and that they counted, at the least, on South Africa's neutrality
in the war; Germany had also established relations with elements
in North Africa inimical to France and Great Britain.
But the British command of the sea rendered it impossible
when hostilities began for Germany to succour her colonies.
And this led to proposals for neutrality in various parts of
Africa. The first such proposal was made, on instructions from
Berlin, by the acting-governor of Togoland to the French and
British authorities on Aug. 4 and 5, reasons of humanity
and the presumed need of the white races to exhibit solidarity
in face of the negroes being alleged. This proposal, purely local
in scope, was not entertained (see TOGOLAND). Later in the
month Aug. 23 Germany made an offer of neutrality in
the conventional basin of the Congo as defined in Article I.
of the Act of the Berlin Conference of 1884-5. The Congo
Free State, in accordance with the permission given by Article X.
of the Act, had proclaimed its perpetual neutrality, and when
the Free State became a Belgian colony the obligation of neutral-
ity was retained. No other state exercising jurisdiction within
the conventional basin of the Congo had, however, exercised
the option given by Article X. of proclaiming its neutrality within
that area, which included besides Belgian Congo about half of
French Equatorial Africa, a third of Cameroon, all German East
Africa, all British East Africa, all Uganda, all Nyasaland,
Mozambique N. of the Zambezi, a small part of Northern
Rhodesia and the northern part of Angola. Belgium had desired
to preserve neutrality in the Congo. At the outbreak of the war
M. Fuchs, governor-general of Belgian Congo, had been in-
structed to observe a strictly defensive attitude, and on Aug.
7 M. Davignon, then Belgian Foreign Minister, asked the
British and French Governments if they intended to proclaim
the neutrality of their territories in the conventional basin of
the Congo. The bombardment of Dar es Salaam by British
warships on Aug. 8 was a sufficient demonstration of the
British attitude; but at first the French Government seemed
disposed to entertain the proposal; so the Belgian minister in
Paris informed M. Davignon on Aug. 9. But the French
commander in Equatorial Africa had opened hostilities on Aug.
6, and on Aug. 17 Comte de Lalaing, Belgian minister in
London, informed M. Davignon that neither Great Britain
nor France could adopt his suggestion.
Hostilities in the conventional basin of the Congo had thus
been proceeding for over two weeks when Germany made her
neutrality offer; on the day before it was made the Germans in
East Africa had committed the first act of war in the Belgian
Congo by bombarding Lukuga, a port on Tanganyika. The
German demarche was made by Herr Zimmermann, Under-
secretary in the Foreign Office, to Mr. Gerard, the American
ambassador in Berlin, in a note which asked the aid of the
United States to procure the neutralization of the conventional
basin of the Congo. In a later note, dated Sept. 15 1914,
Herr Zimmermann stated that Germany's object was " to
prevent an aggravation of the war which could serve no purpose,"
which was not the view of Von Lettow Vorbeck, the German
commander in East Africa, " while prejudicial to the community
of culture of the white race." The Department of State at
Washington confined itself to forwarding the German notes,
without comment, to the governments concerned. Spanish aid
was also sought by Germany. But France and Great Britain
refused to entertain the proposals, while, the Belgian Congo
AGA KHAN III.
having been attacked, M. Fuchs had been given permission, on
Aug. 28, to aid the French in the Cameroon campaign.
The efforts of Dutch nationalists in South Africa to save German
South- West Africa from invasion were equally fruitless.
In process of time the whole of Africa, except Abyssinia and
the Spanish protectorates, was involved in the war (for the
operations see the articles on the various countries). The con-
quest of the German colonies was foreseen in the negotiations
which preceded Italy's entry into the war, and Article XIII.
of the agreement signed in London on April 26 1915 between
France^ Russia, Great Britain and Italy, said:
In the event of France and Britain increasing their colonial terri-
tories in Africa at the expense of Germany, those two Powers agree
in principle that Italy may claim some equitable compensation,
particularly as regards the settlement in her favour of the ques-
tions relative to the frontiers of the Italian colonies of Eritrea,
Somaliland and Libya, and the neighbouring colonies belonging to
France and Great Britain.
At a meeting of the Supreme Council at Versailles on May 7
1919 it was agreed to form an inter-Allied Committee to consider
the application of Article XIII., which had already been the
subject of negotiations. Italian desires went beyond the re-
adjustment of frontiers. In north-east Africa she sought a
position which would give her all the seaward approaches to
Abyssinia. In particular Italy desired to acquire Jibuti, the port
of French Somaliland, whence a railway ran to Addis Ab-
baba. This desire was intimated to France in the. negotiations
preceding the signing of the London agreement of 1915. But
Jibuti was the only French port on the Suez Canal route to the
East and to Madagascar, as well as the only approach to Abys-
sinia France possessed, and she declined to entertain proposals
for its surrender. Italy, however, obtained from France a wel-
come rectification of the Tripoli-Tunisia frontier, besides
valuable railway and commercial privileges in Tunisia. The
claim to extend the hinterland of Tripoli to Lake Chad was
refused. With Great Britain the negotiations were prolonged;
the British Government, however, assented in 1919 in principle
to a considerable readjustment of territorial claims in the
Cyrenaican-Egyptia'n hinterland, that is in those regions of
the Libyan Desert in which lay Kufra and other Senussi strong-
holds. The oasis of Jarabub was assigned to Italy. In East
Africa the British offered an addition to Italian Somaliland by
the transfer to it from Kenya Colony of the western part of the
valley of the Juba a rich cotton-growing area together with
the port of Kismayu. This offer was accepted in Sept. 1919,
but the Italians desired a larger concession and this led to delays
in the final settlement. The proposal to transfer Kassala from
the Sudan to Eritrea was not entertained. Meanwhile the area
administered by the Sudan Government had been enlarged by the
conquest of the tributary sultanate of Darfur in 1915.
The distribution of the German colonies after the war has
already been stated. The change of masters was readily accepted
by the natives. The war itself stimulated trade in various parts
of Africa and led to a development of communications (see page
67, Communications).
Politically the greatest movements in Africa in 1919-21
were the continuance of the separatist campaign by the
Dutch Nationalist party in South Africa, and the insistent
demand of the Egyptians for independence. These movements
are described in the articles SOUTH AFRICA and EGYPT.
Another subject which raised large issues was the position of
Indians in South and East Africa, but it was of less importance
than the growth of race consciousness among the negroes. In-
crease of education and of Christianity, the employment of large
numbers of Africans in industries, and the lessons taught by the
World War, were among the factors which intensified the feeling
of racial unity, and led to manifestations of a new anti-white
movement a movement different from the simple objection to
interference by Europeans or Arabs previously displayed. The
new movement had a consciousness of the need of self-develop-
ment and progress. Not all the ferment among the negroes
was however anti-white, nor was there by 1921 any clear indica-
tion what form negro nationalism would ultimately take.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Exploration: Jean Tilho, " The Exploration of
Tiberte, Erdi, Borkou and Ennedi in 1912-1917," Geog. Jnl., vol.
Ivi. (1920) ; Capt. Augieras, Le Sahara Occidental (1919) ; F. JR.
Cana, " Problems in Exploration: Africa," Geog. Jnl., vol. xxxviii.
(1911); " The Sahara in 1915," ibid., vol. xlvi. (1915); I. N. Dracopoli,
Through Jubaland to the Lorian Swamp (1914); Sir A. Sharpe, The
Backbone of Africa (1921); Rosita Forbes, "Across the Libyan
Desert to Kufara," Geog. Jnl., vol. Iviii. (1921).
Geography, Climate, etc.: A. Knox, The Climate of Africa (1911);
H. Hubert, Mission Scientifique au Soudan (1916); Documents
Scientifiques de la Mission Tilho (1906-9), 3 vols. (1910-4); J. W.
Gregory, " African Rift Valley," Geog. Jnl., vol. Ixi. (1920) ; E. H. L.
Schwarz, The Desiccation of Africa (N. D. 1918); K. Dove, Wirt-
schaftsgeographie von Afrika (1917); R. Tjader, The Big Game of
Africa (1911); T. Roosevelt, African Game Trails (1910).
Peoples and Languages: Oric Bates, The Eastern Libyans (1914);
C. Meindorf, Introduction to Study of African Languages (1915);
A. Werner, Introductory Sketch of the Bantu Languages (1919);
Sir H. H. Johnston, A Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-
Bantu Languages (1919) ; G. Foucart, Introductory Questions on
African Ethnology (1919).
History, Politics, etc.: C. H. Stigand, Administration in Tropical
Africa (1914) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, History of Colonization of Africa
by Alien Races (new ed. 1913); ibid., " Political Geog. of Africa
before and after the War," Geog. Jnl., vol. xlv. (1915); Evan Lewin,
The Germans and Africa (1915); The Disclosures from Germany
(1918) contains Prince Lichnowsky's pamphlet, with translation,
Herr yon Jagow's reply, and notes; L. Woolf, Empire and Com-
merce in Africa (N. D. 1920); J. H. Harris, Dawn in Darkest Africa
(1912); D. Crawford, Thinking Black (1912); N. Maclean, Africa in
Transformation (1913) ; F. Baltzer, Die Kolonialbahnen, mit beson-
derer Beriicksichtigung Afrikas (1916); Col. Godefroy, Transsahariens
et Transafricains (1919).
See also the bibliographies under SOUTH AFRICA, EGYPT, etc.
For current affairs consult the Geog. Jnl. and the Jnl. of the African
Society, and L'Afrique Fran$aise (Paris, monthly). (F. R. C.)
AGA KHAN III. (1877- ), Indian Moslem leader (see 1.363).
During 1910-21 the Aga Khan's widening influence both on
Indian and international affairs was shown in various directions.
He had headed the Moslem deputation in 1906 to the Viceroy,
Lord Minto, which submitted the case for encouraging abandon-
ment of the studied aloofness of their community from Indian
political life; and he was president of the All-India Moslem
League thereupon formed during its first constructive years.
He initiated the fund, and personally collected more than Rs.3o
lakhs, for raising the Mahommedan college at Aligarh to univer-
sity status, which was effected in 1920. In the immediate pre-
war years he did much to soothe Indian Moslem sentiment in
respect to the Turco-Italian and two Balkan wars. He was tour-
ing amongst his followers in East Africa when the World War
broke out, and immediately cabled to the jamats or councils
of the millions of Ismailiahs within British territories and on
their borders directing his followers to place themselves un-
reservedly at the disposal of the British authorities. Both in
East Africa and on arrival in England he pleaded for combatant
participation in the war, but Lord Kitchener reserved him for
services no one else could render. When Turkey was drawn
into the struggle the Aga Khan issued a stirring manifesto show-
ing that the Allies had no overt designs on Islam, and calling
upon the Moslems of the Empire to remain loyal and faithful to
their temporal allegiance. His immediate followers provided a
solid phalanx of whole-hearted support of Britain,, which had a
most steadying influence in sterilizing the efforts of impatient
headstrong elements. Secret missions of great diplomatic im-
portance in Egypt, Switzerland and elsewhere were entrusted
to His Highness, and enemy anger found scope not only in
bitter newspaper attacks but in designs upon his life. His great
influence was rcenforced by his close and intimate contact with
leading Allied statesmen and the breadth and liberality of his
outlook on the problems of reconstruction. His remarkable
study of Indian and Middle Eastern affairs in India in Transi-
tion (1918) was not without considerable effect in the final shap-
ing of reforms under the India Act of 1919, and was consistent in
broad principle with his post-war criticisms of the British Gov-
ernment's Mesopotamian and Arabian policy.
The Aga Khan laboured unceasingly to secure mitigation of
the Allied terms toward Turkey, and joined in many repre-
sentations, public and private, both at the Peace Conference
and subsequently, as to the immense importance to Great
AGLIARDI AGRICULTURE
Britain, the ruler of the greatest aggregation of Moslems in the
world, of not depriving Turkey of a real independent existence.
But the issue was complicated by many considerations, and
British statesmen seemed less ready to accept his advice in
peace than to use his influence in war. To the G.C.I.E. and the
G. C.S.I, there was added in 1916 a salute of n guns and the
rank and status of a first-class chief of the Bombay Presidency,
the only previous instance of the grant of a salute outside the
Indian territorial ruling families being that of the first Sir Salar
Jung. (F. H. BE.)
AGLIARDI, ANTONIO (1832-1915), Italian cardinal and
diplomatist (see 1.377). Noted for his strongly patriotic senti-
ments, he actively opposed the Temporalist tendencies which
prevailed at the Vatican during a part of the pontificate of Leo
XIII. At a time when clerical influences in France aimed at
a restoration of the Temporal Power, Agliardi was frankly
favourable to the Triple Alliance as the best guarantee of
Italy's territorial integrity, and he eventually succeeded in
convincing the Pope of the hopelessness of his schemes. With
Leo's subsequent social-Catholic activities he was in hearty
sympathy, and contributed much to their Success. He enjoyed
the personal friendship of many of the most eminent men in
Italy, including Luigi Luzzatti, Antonio Salandra and the
Marquis di San Giuliano. He died in Rome March 19 1915.
AGRICULTURE (see 1.388). In the separate articles on
different countries of the world, their agricultural progress
between 1910 and 1920 is dealt with. Here will be considered
(i) the progress of scientific research generally, (2) the agricul-
tural administration and regulations in the United Kingdom,
and (3) the developments in the United Kingdom during the
World War. Developments in the United States 1910-21 are
described under the heading Agriculture in the article UNITED
STATES.
I. PROGRESS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
During 1900-20 scientific research upon the soil was in the
main directed to two sets of phenomena the interaction of the
various groups of organisms living in the soil, and secondly the
relation of the various soil constituents to water as a means of
interpreting the physical behaviour of the soil under cultivation.
Soil Research. Dealing first with the latter question, it has
long been obvious that the crude view which regards the soil as a
mere mechanical foundation for the plant containing a certain
amount of plant food nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid
determinable by analysis must be abandoned. Infertile soils
disclose in the surface layer sufficient plant food for a hundred
full crops, and even the later modification of the hypothesis
which laid stress not on the " total " plant food in the soil but on
the amount that was "available," i.e. soluble in some dilute
medium such as carbon-dioxide-charged water and a solution of an
organic acid akin to the cell sap of the plant, failed to provide a
means of measuring fertility by chemical analysis. It was the
failure of this chemical theory of the soil that led the American
investigators, Whitney and Cameron, to propound the view
that what really matters in the soil is its water relationships.
The plant's roots feed in the soil solution, the liquid medium
held on the surface of and between the soil particles by surface
tension, and as this solution is always saturated, e.g. with
phosphoric acid and potash of which any soil contains more than
the soil solution is capable of dissolving, then the actual amount
of these constituents in the soil (above a certain very low mini-
mum) and the extra amount supplied by fertilizers are matters
of indifference. Apart from some other factors, it is the water
supply that determines the growth of the plant and therefore
the fertility of the soil. In its turn this hypothesis breaks down,
because it takes too simple a view of the process of solution in
the soil, which it regards as a mixture of definite compounds
possessing a definite solubility like sodium chloride or other
inorganic salts. Actual experiment showed that whenever soil
extracts were prepared from soils of different fertility or when
even the solutions actually existing within the soils could be
removed by mechanical means, they displayed a varying con-
centration in phosphoric acid and potash. Moreover the growth
of plants in such extracts is, within limits, proportional to the
amounts of the nutrient constituents they contain.
The value of Whitney's and Cameron's suggestion lay in the way
it directed attention to the soil solution as the seat of nutrition of
the plant, and our ideas as to the character and formation of that
solution have to be revised in the light of our more recent conceptions
of the nature of colloids. A study of the behaviour of any soil towards
water, whether we examine such a character as the rate at which
water will drain through the soil or the rate at which successive
portions of water will be removed from it by evaporation under
constant conditions, shows that the soil does not behave as if it
were a mixture of mere rock particles of various grades of fineness.
An artificial soil built up of particles of ground quartz of the same
order of sizes as the soil behaves quite differently towards water, so
again does a soil that has been ignited to a red heat. In the natural
soil a number of the particles, especially those of the smallest size,
exhibit colloid properties, which roughly means that they have a
special power of holding water on their surfaces more and more
tightly as the amount of water diminishes, and also of holding and
withdrawing from solutions, the ions, sometimes basic, sometimes
acid, of salts. These colloids are probably the particles of compound
aluminium silicates resulting from the decomposition of the felspars
in the original rock basis; they are akin to the zeolites which can be
found in a pure state. The humus or organic matter of the soil is
also largely colloid, but the inorganic colloids themselves will ac-
count for most of the properties of the soil.
As regards the water itself, the colloid theory explains certain
facts which had much occupied the attention of the American
investigators who have been studying the relation of plants to soil
under arid conditions as a means of extending cultivation upon the
bad lands. Sachs had long ago shown that a plant would begin to
wilt and be unable to take water from the soil before the soil was
absolutely dry, again that a clay soil would hold water against the
plant much more strongly than a sandy soil, wilting occurring when
the clay soil has still 8 or more of water in it, whereas the sand will
lose water down to I % before the wilting begins. Various attempts
have been made to correlate the " wilting coefficient " of the soil,
i.e. its proportion of moisture when wilting sets in, with the " hy-
groscopic moisture," i.e. the amount of water a dry soil will absorb
when in contact with a saturated atmosphere, and with the amount
of water the soil holds when wetted and allowed to drain. But
none of these conceptions mark any change of state; for example
the curve expressing the rate at which evaporation will take place
from soil is a perfectly smooth one without any discontinuities, and
the points defining the wilting coefficient or the hygroscopic moisture
are only particular positions of equilibrium between the water-
holding power of the soil particles and the external set of forces
tending to remove water. In the same way the distinction between
the water held by the colloids and the " free water " in the soil,
the latter being regarded as something different in kind and sharply
marked off from the colloid water, cannot be maintained. The
colloid " gels " must be regarded as imbibing water and exercising
some attractive action on all the water in the soil, though that
attraction is infinitesimal when the soil is saturated and only
becomes a measurable force when the water has shrunk to small
proportions.
The colloids that hold water in the soil are also the agents which
control the composition of the soil solution upon which the plant
feeds. If the soil colloids are brought into contact with a solution
of any of the fertilizer salts (except the nitrates with which the
action is very slight) there is an instantaneous absorption of ammonia,
phosphoric acid or potash as the case may be, that is never complete,
the extent being determined by such factors as the relative mass of
the soil and the fertilizer, the concentration of the solution and the
nature of the accompanying ions, e.g. carbon dioxide in the soil
solution. Speaking broadly, a fertile soil is one possessing a high
absorptive capacity, that is as it were pretty fully charged, so that
the equilibrium with the soil solution is mobile and the soil colloids
part freely with their nutrients to the solution as its strength is re-
duced through withdrawals by the plant's roots. The analytical
methods which attempt to determine say the " available " phos-
phoric acid by attacking the soil with weak acids really determine
something much more complex in which the absorptive power of
the soil plays a part. The acid, whatever its nature, first dissolves
all the phosphoric acid, and then there is a reabsorption, the amount
of which is conditioned by the nature and strength of the acid em-
ployed. Thus the result obtained is an empirical one, valid only for
comparisons of soils of similar type and constitution, to which limited
degree it is of service.
Lining Organisms. The study of the living organisms of the
soil has resulted in some reconsideration of the views formerly
held as to the relative importance and function of the different
groups. Among the earliest of the organisms associated with the
soil to be specifically studied were those concerned with the
process of nitrification and responsible for the conversion of
ammonia (resulting from the breaking down of organic compounds
of nitrogen by other bacteria) first into nitrites and then into
AGRICULTURE
nitrates. It was held that as plants (other than the legumes)
practically take in all their nitrogen as nitrates, then the rate of
nitrate-making or the nitrifying power of a soil would be on one
side at least a measure of its fertility. In the course of the
experiments on the partial sterilization of soil by heat or anti-
septics it has become apparent that the nitrification organisms
are very susceptible and may be killed off while the ammonia-
making organisms are still active. Again acid soils have been
found in which nitrates are not produced. Yet in such soils
plants grow freely, taking in their nitrogen as ammonia, not as
nitrate. It becomes clear that nitrification is only the end
process, and the rate at which it will proceed is determined in a
normal soil by the rate at which the other organisms supply
ammonia. This is seen from the fact that nitrates will heap up
in the soil, whereas the ammonia remains comparatively con-
stant at a very low level provided that the soil is normal and
nitrification is going on.
For a long time the only organisms capable of " fixing "
nitrogen, i.e. bringing the free gas from trie atmosphere into
combination, were the so-called " nodule " organisms (Pseit-
domonas radiclcola) discovered by Hellriegel and Wilfarth, which
live in symbiosis with the leguminous plants. More recent in-
vestigations have discovered methods whereby these organisms
can be grown and made to fix nitrogen independently of a host
plant, and have also cleared up the forms in which they exist in
the soil and find their way into the roots of the leguminous plant.
The attempts to improve the growth of leguminous crops by
inoculation with strains of the particular organism have not
been attended with any practical success, though soils, generally
of the new or reclaimed order, destitute of the nodule organism,
can now be effectively inoculated and thereby made to grow
good crops of legumes, provided always that the soil is first made
a fit medium for the organism by a supply of lime and appropriate
mineral manures. Without this preliminary acid heath or peat
soils would neither support the nodule organisms nor the legu-
minous crops and inoculation would be of no avail. But as
" fixers " of nitrogen apart from the leguminous plants Pscu-
domonas radicicola is ineffective compared with a widespread
group of organisms isolated by Beijerinck, to which he has given
the name of Azotobacler.
Azolobacler. These organisms, found in both virgin and
cultivated soils from all parts of the world, are comparatively
large oval bodies 4 to 5 /t in length and 3 /i in width, which
differ from normal bacteria in containing glycogen and act as
powerful agents for the oxidation of the sugars and other carbo-
hydrates. From the carbohydrates they produce in the main
carbon dioxide and water, but also small quantities of organic
acids and of a characteristic deep brown pigment. It is by means
of the energy derived from the oxidation that they are able to
bring nitrogen into combination and the nitrogen fixed under
favourable laboratory conditions may amount to i% of the
carbohydrate oxidized. To be effective Azotobacler requires
certain conditions a neutral medium with calcium carbonate
present to neutralize the acids produced, for which reason the
organism is generally absent from acid soils, also the presence of
such nutrients as phosphoric acid and potash, and finally a
favourable temperature. It has been found at Rothamsted that
a soil will accumulate nitrogen, as evidenced by an increased
crop, after the application of starch or sugar, carbohydrates
containing no nitrogen, if these materials are mixed with the
soil in the early autumn when the land is still warm and Azolo-
bacler is active. On the other hand spring applications of carbo-
hydrates are followed by a diminished crop, because at a low
temperature other organisms in the soil which are consumers of
combined nitrogen, attack the carbohydrate and by their
multiplication withdraw some of the soil nitrogen from circula-
tion and so reduce the supply for the crop.
The great significance of these observations of the mode of action
of Azolobacler is that they afford a solution of the problem of how the
great stocks of combined nitrogen came to be accumulated in virgin
soils, especially in certain black soils such as occur on the prairies
and in the Canadian North-West. Of itself the mere growth and
dying down of vegetation for however many years repeated, could
not add to the stock of combined nitrogen in the soil. The plant
itself fixes no nitrogen, but only draws upon the capital in the soil,
restoring whatever it took out when the vegetation is allowed to
die back to the soil without loss. But the falling vegetation contains
carbohydrates derived from the air and if they are added to a soil
containing A zotobacter under conditions favourable to its growth, the
carbohydrate supplies the energy whereby the Azolobacler can fix
some more nitrogen from the air and add to the stock in the soil.
In this way the annual cycle of vegetation when the leaves fall back
to the soil can result in a yearly accretion of nitrogen which in time
may amount even to the remarkable accumulation found in the
deep black soils of Manitoba and similar " steppe " lands, soils that
are invariably found to be well supplied with carbonate of lime and
also to contain the Azotobacter organism. The clue to this interpreta-
tion of the accumulation of nitrogen in virgin steppe and forest
soils was derived from the examination of the soils of the wheat
field at Rothamsted. The soil of the unmanured plots which has
been in arable cultivation for over half a century shows a steady
decline in the amount of nitrogen it contains, a decline which is
approximately equivalent to the nitrogen which is known to have
been removed in the crops harvested year by year. Doubtless the
soil has suffered other losses of nitrogen by drainage, removal of
weeds, etc., that cannot be estimated, but the analysis of the soil
shows that any recuperative processes which may have been at
work restoring nitrogen to the soil have only been able to repair
these minor losses butvnot to restore any of the nitrogen removed in
the crops. A portion, however, of the same plot was allowed to go
to waste, i.e. it was allowed to cover itself with a natural vegetation
of weeds and grasses, which were neither cut nor grazed but allowed
to die back to the soil. After 30 years an examination of the soil
of this wilderness showed it had been accumulating nitrogen at the
rate of nearly 100 Ib. per ac. per annum, the greater part of which
must have been due to the action of Azotobacter working upon the
carbonaceous matter supplied by the decaying vegetation reaching
the soil in the autumn and winter.
On the arable land where the vegetable matter reaching the soil is
minimal, only the roots and stubble of the crop, there is a- steady
loss of nitrogen ; on the wilderness which may be compared to a
natural prairie, the return of the vegetation to the soil causes nitro-
gen to accumulate not because of the nitrogen contained in its
material, but because its carbonaceous matter supplies the energy
whereby the Azotobacter fixes nitrogen. The Azotobacter group of
organisms, though not the only ones capable of bringing free nitrogen
gas into combination, constitute the group which has played the
fundamental part in building up not merely the vegetable soil but
the whole substratum of organic life in the world.
Soil Protozoa. The outlook on the organisms in the soil has
been entirely changed since Russell and Hutchinson showed the
part played by the protozoa in limiting the development of
bacteria in the soil. The soil protozoa, which are large, definitely
animal organisms of varied character amoebae, ciliates and
flagellates exist in large numbers in all cultivated soils, and as
they feed upon bacteria, any conditions which encourage the
development of bacteria by increasing their food -supply stimulate
the multiplication of the protozoa which thereby put a check to
the increase of the bacteria. Thus normally the number of
bacteria in a soil, however rich and favourable to bacterial
development the conditions may be, does not pass a certain
limit because it is kept in check by the increasing number of the
protozoa. As the fertility of the soil among other things depends
on the rate of production by bacteria of ammonia and nitrates
from the nitrogenous residues in the soil, the fertility of the soil
is also limited by the presence of the protozoa. Certain processes
of partial sterilization of the soil, such as heating to the tempera-
ture of boiling water or even to 1 70 F. or again treatment for a
time with some antiseptic, e.g. chloroform or toluene vapour,
effects a selective destruction of the soil organisms. The protozoa
are almost entirely killed off, but many groups of bacteria, notably
the ammonia-makers, resist destruction though they may be
reduced in numbers. But if after treatment the treated soil is
placed under normal conditions for growth, the bacteria that
remain multiply with great rapidity and rise to a level of numbers
and activity they were unable to attain before, because now the
protozoal check to their multiplication has been removed.
In consequence the fertility of the soil is greatly increased, in
fact the yield from a given soil may be doubled. This discovery
suggests immense potentialities of increased production from
the land but as yet it has not been found possible to apply the
method of partial sterilization to ordinary field soils in the open.
Heating would be inordinately expensive and the difficulty is to
find an antiseptic that combines cheapness with the right degree of
AGRICULTURE
73
volatility and stability against the attack of bacteria. In green-
houses, however, where the soil soon becomes " sick " through the
excessive development of protozoa under the favourable con-
ditions of moisture, temperature and manurial enrichment, the
sterilization of the soil by heat has been worked out as a com-
mercial process and is now part of the routine of all progressive
cultivators under glass.
Microfungi. Great as is the attention that is now being" given
to the soil organisms in all agricultural laboratories there would
appear to be room for more work upon one group the micro-
fungi, of which there is a large flora in the soil.
It has been shown that when from one cause or another a soil
becomes acid, many bacteria concerned in the decay of vegetable
matter are entirely inhibited and may disappear. Fungi instead
take up the work, but the broad character of the process thereby
changes, the vegetable matter is not burnt away as carbon dioxide
but in part accumulates in the form of peat. The formation of a
peaty material is in fact a concomitant of an acid reaction in the soil
and the activity of microfungi rather than of bacteria, and this
generalization fits in with many observations of the character of
peat deposits.
Often trees are found at the base of these beds where trees no
longer grow; and it may be surmised that the trees grew on the
original neutral land surface when it became fit for vegetation after
the close of the glacial epoch. That soil being of a non-calcareous
nature gradually accumulates acids arising from the decay of the
vegetation falling upon it, whereupon under the prevailing climatic
conditions the further vegetable debris reaching the soil began to
form peat. This accumulation of peat in its turn brought about the
death of the forest.
Nitrogen. During 1910-20 agriculture received great benefit
from the working out of processes on a large scale for bringing
nitrogen into combination, processes which thus supplement the
comparatively limited sources of nitrogen compounds afforded
by the Chile deposits of nitrate of soda and the ammonia which
is recovered as a by-product from the distillation or combustion
of coal.
Prior to the World War two processes had been established com-
mercially. At Notodden in Norway air is driven into a specially
formed electric arc which results in the combination of nitrogen and
oxygen so that the issuing gases contain about I -25 % of oxides of
nitrogen which are then absorbed by passing up towers where they
meet an absorbing stream of water or milk of lime. The product,
nitrate of lime, contains about 13-5% of nitrogen, and is a most
valuable fertilizer, quite as effective as nitrate of soda and on some
soils more suitable.
At about the same time as synthetic nitrate of lime was in-
troduced, another nitrogenous fertilizer began to be manufactured
on a large scale, calcium cyanamide or nitrolim. The body arises
from the combination which ensues at a temperature of about 600"
C. between calcium carbide and pure nitrogen gas under slight
pressure, with the resulting formation of a compound which in the
soil decomposes mainly into ammonia and calcium carbonate.
Cyanamide as a fertilizer requires a certain amount of care in use
and on the majority of soils has not proved so effective as nitrate of
soda or sulphate of ammonia. Its manufacture, however, received an
immense impetus during the World War, as it was the simplest and
most readily available process for bringing nitrogen into combination,
from which by further steps ammonia and then the nitrates and
nitric acid required in explosives could be obtained. The United
States and many European countries have immensely developed
the manufacture of cyanamide, which must in future be available
as fertiliser either used directly or after prior conversion into some
convenient compound of ammonia.
The war period was also marked by the development on a gigantic
scale of a new process, which had only been finally worked out to the
manufacturing stage in Germany in 1913 the Haber process of
bringing nitrogen and hydrogen into combination as ammonia. In
the presence of a suitable catalyst of activated iron these elements
will unite at pressures of 250-300 atmospheres and a temperature
approaching 600 C. to the extent of 8 % or so of the mixed gases.
The ammonia can be removed and the remaining gases passed
round again into the catalyser. Great as are the difficulties of work-
ing at these temperatures and pressures the Haber process is cheap
in power and materials. It was the mainstay of the supply of com-
bined nitrogen for explosives to Germany during the war, and should
become a most important future source of fertilizer to the agricul-
turist.
During the war the demand for nitrogenous fertilizers greatly
increased in all countries ; the United Kingdom for example increased
her consumption of sulphate of ammonia from 60,000 tons to
269,000 tons per annum, part of this being of course substitution
for the pre-war use of 80,000 tons of nitrate of soda, which was no
longer available. Potentially, however, the establishment of so
many war plants for the manufacture of synthetic nitrogen products
has increased the supply of nitrogen available as may be seen from
the following table:
Metric Tons of Nitrogen.
Output
1912
Output
1917
Productive
Capacity
1920
Chile Nitrate
Ammonium sulphate
(by-product) .
Cyanamide.
Haber process .
Arc process
4".329
272,007
22,435
9,9f>7
465,000
340,000
190,000
100,000
27,000
471,000
413,000
325,000
308,000
33,6oo
715,678
1,122,000
1,550,600
It should be noted, however, that the 1920 figures are not actual
but only potential supply, if existing plants are worked up to their
capacity.
Potash. As the only extensive potash deposits in the world
that had been commercially developed Stassfurt and Alsace
were in German hands, there was during the war a great shortage
of potash fertilizers outside central Europe. Great efforts were
made to develop processes for the extraction of potash from
felspars and other natural sources, but without much success.
The only method which proved of value was the discovery made
in the United States that the dust which accumulates in the flues
through which the gases from blast furnaces are led contains a not
inconsiderable amount of potash in a readily soluble form, one-half
indeed consisting of sulphates and carbonates soluble in water.
Different grades of flue clust can be collected : the finest is a cream-
coloured material containing as much as 60% of potash. The dust
was collected and used for agricultural purposes during the war
though only some 15,000 tons per annum were obtainable in Great
Britain. It is now worked up for industrial purposes, but the output
of potash salts from this source cannot exceed a few thousand tons
per annum in the United Kingdom. The supply of potash salts for
agricultural purposes since the war has been .entirely changed by
the transfer to France of the Alsatian deposits which occupy an area
of some 77 sq. m. between Miilhausen and Colmar in Alsace. This
deposit consists of two beds, the upper about 4 ft. thick, the lower
about llj ft., which form practically unbroken strata at an approxi-
mate depth of 1, 800 ft. and present no difficulties in mining. The
material is very uniform in composition, consisting in the main of
sylvinit, mixed chlorides of potassium and sodium, containing about
20 % of potash reckoned as K 2 O. It can be used for agriculture in its
crude state and though the development of the field is still very in-
complete the former German monopoly of potash supplies is thereby
broken down. Another extensive deposit is known in Spain, but it
has not reached the stage of commercial development and is generally
considered to be controlled by the German company which works the
Stassfurt deposits.
Superphosphates. During the war the manufacture of
superphosphate in the United Kingdom was considerably re-
stricted, on the one hand by the withdrawal of sulphuric acid for
the manufacture of explosives, and on the other by the shortage
of tonnage for the importation of phosphate rock. American
supplies were completely cut off and receipts from the North
African deposits fell to something like 500,000 tons per annum.
In consequence British farmers were compelled to resort mainby
to basic slag of which this country produced about 400,000
tons per annum, though prior to the war only some 280,000 tons
had been consumed by British agriculturists. With the extended
programme of arable farming the demand for phosphatic
fertilizers was greatly increased and the whole of the basic slag
produced at home was absorbed, though the output was in-
creased to as much as 565,000 tons from the year ending May
1919. Unfortunately this increase in amount was accompanied
by a decline in character, owing to changes in the processes
generally adopted for making steel.
The Bessemer process has been almost displaced by the open-
hearth process which produces a slag less rich in phosphoric acid.
The practice has also been adopted of adding fluor-spar to the furnace
in order to induce the formation of a more fusible slag, but thereby
the solubility of the phosphoric acid of the slag in the weak citric
acid generally used in testing its quality becomes impaired. The
bulk of the basic slag now sold contains only about 10 % of phosphoric
acid against 15 to 20% in the older types of slag and the phosphoric
acid is no longer soluble in weak acids. The new type of basic slag
proves, however, little less effective, unit for unit of phosphoric
acid, as a fertilizer, but freight charges, always a large item in the
cost of basic slag to the farmer, now become doubled for the amount
of phosphoric acid that is carried, apart from the increase in these
74
AGRICULTURE
charges per ton. Attempts were in 1921 being made to replace basic
slag Dy finely ground mineral phosphates as a fertilizer for grass
land. American experience has always been favourable to these
ground phosphates, and recent experiments in England have
demonstrated that they effect in poor pastures the same encourage-
ment of clover as is obtained from basic slag, even upon such un-
promising land as the clays in the dry Essex climate. The phosphate
rock from Nauru Island, that has passed from German hands into
the control of the British Government, may prove of special value
for application in this finely ground but otherwise untreated con-
dition.
Plant Breeding. Probably the plant breeders have during
1900-20 rendered the greatest services to agriculture, inasmuch
as improvements in this direction the introduction of new
varieties giving large yields, better quality and more resistant
to disease are at once appreciated by the farmer and require no
alterations in the methods of cultivation. It has been found
possible to apply Mendelian principles with comparative sim-
plicity and accuracy to the breeding of new varieties of plants,
especially of cereals, and the results achieved have already
experienced considerable commercial development in the case of
wheat, barley, oats, maize, sugar-cane and cotton. The value of
the Mendelian principle lies in the power it gives of combining in
one of the selected descendants of a cross-bred individual un-
related valuable characters possessed by the parents separately.
In the case of wheat Biffen has shown that among the Mendelian
characters that are transmitted as unchanged units are such quanti-
tative properties as the resistance to disease, the normal percentage
of nitrogen in the grain and the " strength " of the flour resulting
from it, the stiffness of the straw, etc. One of the chief desiderata
as regards English wheat has been an improvement in its strength,
i.e. the capacity to yield a spongy elastic dough which will .bake into
a light loaf of large volume. This strength factor which is connected
with the amount of gluten and therefore with the percentage of
nitrogen in the flour is as a rule the property of spring wheats grown
in a " steppe climate " with a short period of growth, with consider-
able rainfall in the early months exchanged for great heat and al-
most complete dryness before harvest. Wheats from Hungary,
South Russia, Manitoba and the great plains of North America
possess this quality, and Leclerc ana Leavett have shown by sowing
the same seed in different states how potent is the effect of environ-
ment and climate in determining the percentage of nitrogen and
the strength of wheat. As a rule any of the strong wheats brought
either from continental or American sources lose their strength
completely when grown under English conditions. One wheat,
however, of Galician origin but widely grown in America under the
name of Red Fife, so widely indeed as to be the dominant constituent
of such commercial grades as Manitoba and No. I Northern, does
to a large measure retain its strength in England, the strength in this
case being congenital and not the product of environment. Red
Fife is, however, a poor cropper on most English soil, yielding but
3 qr. per ac. where the typical English wheats will yield four or five.
Biffen has, however, employed it as a parent in the hope of combin-
ing the strength of the one parent with the cropping power of the
other and one of the results of this cross, a wheat called Yeoman,
issued to the public in 1915, is on its congenital soils the warmer
and better soils of the east and south-east of England probably the
heaviest cropper grown. Further, the quality of the grain is so high
that the miller can use it without any mixture of strong foreign
wheats, such as are necessary to the extent of 40% or more with
ordinary English wheat. Another of Biffen's wheats, Little Joss,
by its power of resisting rust, has proved a very heavy cropper and is
now extensively grown on soils that remain fairly dry and warm
throughout the winter. Saunders in Canada has effected a very con-
siderable extension of the wheat area by the introduction of a
wheat called " Marquis," another hybrid with Red Fife as one
parent, which combines the good quality of Red Fife with a shorter
period of growth and an earlier ripening habit, thus rendering wheat-
growing safe in wide areas, as in parts of Alberta, where the crop
was liable to ruin through the onset of early autumn frosts before
harvest had been completed. On the average Marquis ripens six
days earlier than Red Fife and thus in the Central Prairie region
where firsts are expected between Aug. 27 and Sept. 2 Marquis can
generally be grown safely though Red Fife is liable to be caught.
In part the extension of Marquis may be put down to its superior
cropping powers, but for one reason or another it has largely dis-
placed all other spring wheats in the North-West. In 1918 the area
under Marquis in Minnesota, the Dakotas, Montana, Manitoba,
Saskatchewan and Alberta was estimated to amount to 20,000,000
ac. and the crop in Canada alone to 129,000,000 bus. all the produce
of what was but a single plant in 1903!
Immunity from Disease. The inheritance of immunity from
disease is best illustrated by the discovery of potatoes immune
to wart disease.
About 1897 attention was drawn to the prevalence in certain
parts of England and Wales of a disease of potatoes, generally found
in old cottage gardens and allotments, which causes the potatoes to
degenerate into a mass of dark corky excrescences and will in bad
cases destroy the crop entirely. The disease is due to the attack of a
lowly organised fungus, and the difficulty of dealing with it is due
to the fact that once established in the soil the spores or some resting
form of the fungus retain their life for an indefinite period of many
years. Once the soil has become infected no practicable means has
been found of cleaning it; even leaving the land down to grass for
ten years has been found ineffective. Considerable areas in the
industrial districts of Lancashire, Cheshire, Stafford and Shrop-
shire, North and South Wales are subject to the disease and it
became more widely distributed throughout the West of England
as a result af the great shortage of seed potatoes in 1917, which
caused men to plant anything that was available without inquiring
into its origin.
The consequences would undoubtedly have been the complete
destruction of potato-growing in those districts had it not been
observed that one or two types of potatoes could be found growing
unharmed in some of the old infected gardens. Further examination
proved that these varieties were really immune to the disease, how-
ever heavily infected the soil, and though in themselves they pos-
sessed little commercial value they were at once employed as seed
parents and have become the source of a new race of potatoes
immune to wart diseases. Many of these are now proving to be good
market varieties of heavy cropping power and by their aid potato-
growing has been rendered possible in the infected areas which other-
wise inevitably would have spread until the whole country would
have been involved. As the disease has also obtained a foothold
(its original habitat is unknown) in North America, Holland, Bel-
gium and Germany, the value of this discovery of immunity is
difficult to overestimate. From the study of this and other cases
the conviction gains ground that the most fruitful method of dealing
with plant disease will always be by the search for immunity rather
than by methods of treatment.
Selection. In the improvement of cereals considerable
advantages have been derived by working on another principle
than that of breeding, i.e. pure line selection. Very little im-
provement in a variety can be effected by what may be called
" mass selection." If in going over a field of wheat a collection is
made of the longest ears, or again if the heaviest grains are sorted
out, no perceptible improvement is visible in the crop grown
from the selection, not even if the process is repeated generation
after generation. The superiority of the individuals selected has
been due to some accident of nutrition and is not transmissible
to the offspring. If, however, the selected individuals are sown
separately, here and there among them will be found one which
in the next and succeeding generations still preserves some
superiority which is congenital to it and is maintained in succeed-
ing generations even when the seed is worked up to a large crop.
An ordinary variety, say of wheat, really consists of an indefinite
mixture of sub-varieties each of which, for many generations at
least, breeds true in the case of cereals which are self-fertilized.
Thus " pure lines " may be selected from single seeds of such self-
fertilized plants and worked up to commercial stocks of seed. These
pure lines may have some superiority, never, however, great, in
cropping power over the mixed variety from which they are derived,
and are also appreciably more uniform in such details as time of
ripening and length of straw.
It has become evident that every commercial variety of cereals,
even if of deliberately cross-bred origin, will be improved by pure
line selections from time to time.
Nutrition. It was still difficult in 1921 to discuss in any
detail the progress that is being made in the study of animal
nutrition, in regard to which the teachings of the scientific man
have had much less effect upon the practice of the farmer than
has been the case when the nutrition of the plant has been
concerned.
The great shortage of cattle food during the war, notably in 1917
and 1918 when no tonnage could be spared for cattle food, did reveal
two things, first, the dependence upon imported corn and oil seeds
that British meat and milk production had fallen into, and secondly,
the enormous waste that had been going on. It was estimated that
the normal output of meat, milk and other animal products did not
represent one-half, possibly not more than a third, of the amount
that could have been obtained, not merely theoretically, but even in
properly informed practice. At the same time certain lacunae in
our theory were disclosed, which prevent the scientific man from
setting out with any accuracy the limits within which the fattening
of animals will proceed most economically. It will be seen that the
problem is a very complex one. On the one hand, as regards the
amount of food fed over and above the maintenance ration, the law
of diminishing returns is found to hold for the amount of daily
increase; on the other hand, the slower the rate of fattening, the
AGRICULTURE
75
greater must be the non-productive consumption of food on main-
tenance only.
Again in the later stages of fattening the law of diminishing re-
turns operates in another fashion, in that the increase of weight
may be put on as offa! fat of comparatively low value instead of as
edible fat in the " meat " portions of the carcass. Much more
exact information is therefore being sought as to the relations
of the live weight increase to the progress in consumption of food
and again to the changes in the composition of the carcass as the
fattening process advances.
On the other side of the nutrition question recent work upon " vita-
mines " and accessory food factors is found to have its application
to questions of animal nutrition. Not only the health and growth
of certain animals, notably pigs, is in practice affected by the
deficiency of the foods habitually used in these accessory factors, but
again the fats arising from the animals, e.g. lard, bacon, even milk
and butter fat, may in their turn become deficient as human foods
because of the lack of the accessory substances in the food of the
animal. Enough work has been done to show that in certain special
cases of indoor feeding of animals not only the broad energy- and
tissue-forming properties of the food have to be considered, but also
the supply of certain accessories energizers or detonators, whatever
may prove to be their function. In practice the path of safety for
all farm animals lies in a reasonably mixed diet, which includes some
proportion of uncooked green food. Pigs and poultry have not in-
frequently been sufferers from diets insufficiently supplied with
vitamines.
Animal Breeding. Although in 1921 such progress had not
yet been made with the very complex subject of animal breeding
as to enable economic results to be obtained similar to those
which had accrued in plant breeding, still the ground was being
prepared by certain initial investigations for the mode of in-
heritance of some of the desiderated qualities in domestic
animals, e.g. size, prolificacy, quality of wool, etc.
Punnett, for example, in England has thrown some light on the
inheritance of size in fowls and rabbits, and again on the inheritance
of fur, but by far the most important work in this direction has been
done by Pearl in Pennsylvania. In studying the inheritance of milk
yields he has first of all endeavoured to obtain a single figure char-
acterizing the performance of a cow, a sort of index number. By a
study of commercial milk records he has constructed a type curve
showing the variation in milk yield for a cow during successive cal-
vings, whereby if its milk yield in any one year is known this figure
can be corrected to give the milk yield in the standard year used for
comparison. A similar type curve can be constructed for the period
of a lactation, whereby the yield for the whole period can be de-
duced from the yield ascertained during a particular month or less.
Having thus obtained characteristic figures for cows, Pearl was in a
position to compare the performances of cows with their offspring by
different bulls. By tabulating all such comparisons obtainable with
regard to a particular bull a characteristic mark is obtained for the
bull. Some bulls are found always to bring about an increase in the
milk production of the daughter over the dam ; other bulls which had
a great repute in their day and a fine record in the show yard equally
invariably gave progeny yielding less milk than their dams. The
value of this work in connexion with milk recording and breeding
is evident; indeed in Denmark for some years the underlying prin-
ciple has been appreciated in that prizes are offered for bulls, the
award being based upon the milk tests of the bull's progeny. The
difficulty attaching to the application of these results lies in the
disinclination of farmers to retain bulls for service for more than two
or three years ; they are cast before there is any opportunity of test-
ing the milk-producing quality of their offspring. (A. D. H.)
II. ADMINISTRATION AND LEGISLATION IN THE
UNITED KINGDOM
As was inevitable, the World War gave rise in all countries to
a great body of emergency enactments and temporary legisla-
tion affecting agriculture. Beyond these, however, the years
1917-21 saw a large volume of legislation which aimed at the
reorganization of agriculture in Great Britain, and also inaugu-
rated a definite agricultural policy, the main features of which
found expression in the Corn Production Act of 1917 and the
Agriculture Act of 1920. The principles underlying these Acts
first were set out in the report of the commission appointed in
1915 under Lord Milner, and still more fully in the report of the
sub-committee of the Reconstruction Committee under the
chairmanship of Lord Selborne.
Briefly, these committees found that the position of the United
Kingdom had, as demonstrated by the war, fallen into great
insecurity in consequence of the neglect of agriculture which had
been going on during the previous 40 years. In 1872 the arable
land in the United Kingdom amounted to nearly 24,000,000 ac.,
and this had become by 1914 little more than 19,000,000 acres.
The loss had been experienced chiefly in England and Wales,
where the shrinkage had been nearly 4,000,000 ac., from 14,943,-
oooto 10,998,000 acres. This represents a great decline in the gross
production of food, because it has been abundantly demonstrated
that an acre of medium land under grass does produce only about
one-third of the meat or milk that can be obtained from the
same land if it is put under the plough and the crops are con-
sumed by stock. Moreover, whenever there is a definite shortage of
food the production of meat is in itself a wasteful process, from
seven to ten pounds of real food being consumed by the animal
in making one pound of food in the shape of meat or milk. The
only gain in meat production is that the animal is able to convert
coarse fodder like straw and waste materials like millers' offals
into human food, but an animal like a pig, which is largely fed
upon barley and maize meal, equally edible by human beings,
becomes definitely wasteful of the resources of the country when
a real food scarcity is declared. The comparison between the
productiveness of grass and arable land may perhaps be illus-
trated most markedly by a consideration of the potato crop. Art
average yield of potatoes in England is about 6j tons per ac.,
which represents over 2,000 Ib. of dry food when all allowances
have been made for waste. Under grass the same land would not
produce more than 120-150 Ib. of meat, i.e. about 100 Ib. of dry-
food, or 160 gal. of milk, i.e. 170 Ib. of dry food. Nor does
the animal food, pound for pound of dry matter, possess more
than a slight superiority over the potatoes in its power of main-
taining human beings.
Before the War. Roughly speaking, in the years immediately
preceding the World War the United Kingdom was only pro-
ducing about 42% of the food consumed by its people. The
greater portion had to be imported, and this applied particularly
to wheat of which only about one-fifth of the normal consump-
tion was produced at home. This dependence of the nation
upon external supplies of food was its great weakness revealed
by the war. Not only was there the danger that the German
submarine campaign might prove successful and force submission
by starvation, but, even as it was, the country's effort was ham-
pered by the necessity of allocating to food supply so large a
proportion of the available tonnage needed for other purposes
and of employing part of the naval strength to protect it. Again,
the purchasing power and credit of the country were continually
impaired by the enormous sums spent abroad for food.
The external food bill amounted to over 220,000,000 a year
before the war, and during its latter stages this had risen to three
times that sum. The enemy was not slow to realize that this was
Britain's vulnerable spot. The attack failed, but the economic
consequences pressed grievously upon Great Britain after the
war. The recovery of Britain was deferred by the enormous
purchases it must continue to make abroad in order to keep its
people fed, and the sacrifices it must make in order to maintain
the foreign exchange at a high level in order to meet these pur-
chases.
It had often been argued that in case of emergency the grass
lands of Britain constituted a great reserve of fertility which
could be drawn upon for the growth of corn and other crops,
but when the occasion came it was proved how little of this
reserve was immediately available. Neither the men nor the
horses, not even the buildings or the implements, required for
arable farming, existed any longer. All the inertia of the farming
community came into play against conversion, and despite the
efforts of the State, armed with compulsory powers, proffering
compensation against loss and assisting with fertilizers, seeds
and machines, less than a further 2,000,000 ac. of grass lane 1
got broken up during the fateful years of 1917 and 1918. Once
the art and means of arable farming have been lost, it is only
slowly and at great expense that they can be improvised.
Concurrently with the decline in the production from British
land in consequence of the conversion from arable into grass
there had been a, corresponding decrease in the agricultural pop-
ulation, which in England and Wales alone had fallen from
AGRICULTURE
1,269,371 in 1871 to 951,674 in 1901, though by 1911 it had
again risen somewhat, to 1,002,743.
This reduction of the agricultural community was not to be
viewed with equanimity. A population dependent entirely upon
manufactures gives rise to an unstable State, subject to violent
fluctuations of prosperity because the causes that determine
employment are apt to affect all industries simultaneously.
Politically a country population is more sober and cautious,
just as it is healthier and more reproductive and both physically
and temperamentally better fitted for steady enduring work.
It was these two motives then that led to the legislation under
review the desire to ensure a greater production of food and the
better cultivation of British land, and the desire to increase the
rural population, neither of which could be attained if the old
laissezfaire policy were persisted in.
New British Policy. What had been the origin of the danger-
ous situation in which the nation found itself in 1914? Taking
extent of the arable land as an index, the high-water mark of
English agriculture was reached in 1872. The later seventies
were marked by bad seasons culminating in the disastrous ex-
perience of 1879. At the same time rapid progress was being
made with the opening up of the American prairies for corn-
growing and with the cheapening of ocean freights. This was a
period of immense expansion in the new lands of the world; it
saw the growth of the Middle West both in the United States
and Canada, the agricultural settlement of the Argentine and
other South American lands, the development of Australian
wheat-growing areas and the commercial exploitation of
southern Russia. As a consequence, prices of the great agri-
cultural commodities, corn and meat, fell rapidly and con-
tinuously during the eighties and nineties. Wheat from an aver-
age of 543. 8d. per qr. in 1871-5 fell to 223. lod. in 1894; the
average return per acre on an arable farm for both corn and meat,
estimated at 1653. in the first period, dropped to about iocs,
between 1894 and 1900. As the rate of wages rose during the
period and no great compensating factor was at work (other
than the perfecting of the self-binder, which had made wheat-
growing for export possible in the new countries), British farm-
ing was unable to adjust itself with sufficient rapidity to the vastly
diminished returns. The great depression resulted in the ruin
of a large proportion of the old farmers, in a wholesale loss of
capital, and, worst of all, in an entire loss of confidence in an
industry that had ceased to control the prices of its main prod-
ucts. The industry met the situation by a drastic reduction of
expenditure and the conversion of arable land into grass on
which the labour bill was small. The process was aided by the
continued development of the milk trade. From 1900 onwards
the course of prices turned upwards the world's population
was growing up to the food supply, and the new farming adjusted
to the changed conditions began to become steadily prosperous.
But the memory of the great depression remained, confidence
was small and capital mistrustful. Men hesitated to adventure
their money in a business which was liable to a break of prices
such as had occurred within all too recent a date. Such were
the conditions that had led to the dependence of the nation upon
foreign food and particularly upon foreign corn; hence the object
of the policy was to give the arable-land farmer security that he
should not in future be subjected to a devastating break in
prices such as had occurred in the eighties and nineties of the
last century. With this security in the background it was thought
the current conditions would be favourable enough to bring
about an extension of the arable area.
As the Prime Minister said in his famous speech to agricultur-
ists in Oct. 1919:
" The Agricultural industry is the greatest industry in the State.
It ought therefore to be a primary concern of every Government and
of every Statesman to do what in them lies to promote that industry.
I regret to say that in no civilized country has the State done so little
during the last generation to foster agriculture. I hope that record
will now be rolled up and that there will begin a new era in the
relations of the State with the greatest and the most important of its
industries . . . The question is ' Are we going back to the dismal
pre-war conditions or are we merely going to maintain the progress
which has been made?' Are we not going further? There can be but
one answer from every man who loves his country. We must go
forward. How is it to be done? You must have a settled policy with
regard to agriculture. The first condition is security to the cultiva-
tor : security in the first place against ruin through the violent fluc-
tuations of foreign agriculture."
Acts of igij, i gig, 1920. The method by which this security
was given in the " Corn Production Act " of 1917 and the
" Agriculture Act " of 1919 embodies a novel principle. Instead
of a protective duty, which enhances the price to the consumer,
a bounty was given to the producer if the average market price
of wheat or oats fell below certain guaranteed figures. In the
Corn Production Act certain guaranteed prices were set down
for six years ahead, but at that time it was vain to make forecasts
of the trend of prices, and actually none of the guarantees then
given ever came into operation. By the Agriculture Act of 1920
basal prices of 68s. for wheat and 465. for oats were taken for the
year 1919, and commissioners were appointed who were charged
to determine from year to year how far the average costs of
production of wheat and oats had changed in that year from
those of the basal year 1919, whereupon the guaranteed figure of
68s. or 465. was varied in like proportion. If for example the
commissioners found that in 1923 the cost of production of a
quarter of wheat was on the average 20% less than in 1919, the
price guaranteed by the Act would become 545. sd. Should then
the average price actually obtained by farmers, as ascertained
by the official corn market returns from Sept. i to March 31,
amount to 525. nd. and thus leave a difference of is. 6d. per
quarter between the guaranteed and realized price, the Govern-
ment would be liable to pay is. 6d. per quarter on all the wheat
produced. But since the verification of the actual quantities
grown presents great administrative difficulties the crop is
assumed to be 4 qr. to the acre, and the undertaking of the
Act was to pay four times the difference between the average
realized price and the guarantee on every acre of wheat grown,
five times the difference in the case of oats, on the assumption of
an average crop of 5 qr. to the acre. It will be seen .that the pay-
ments made to any individual were independent of the actual
price he happened to obtain for his particular sample. The nor-
mal course of trade is not interfered with and the grower gets the
benefit of any superiority of quality or favourable market con-
ditions he may possess.
The guarantees were confined to wheat and oats, not so much
to increase the specific production of those cereals as to en-
courage arable farming, since one or both of these crops formed
an inevitable part of every rotation in the United Kingdom.
Inevitably the State was involved in a considerable liability in
any year in which a break in prices might occur after harvest but in
which the costs of production had not been affected. These are,
lowever, precisely the occasions dreaded by the farmer mindful of
the past, and the Act was designed to give the farmer such assistance
as might save him from ruin, though it would not provide a profit.
The State, however, only accepted this liability in order to bring
about an increase of production ; it recognized an obligation towards
agriculturists, but on the other hand it required that the land should
be put to proper use. In the Corn Production Act the Board of
Agriculture was given power to enforce proper cultivation where the
rules of good husbandry were being neglected and also to dictate the
mode of cultivation or the use to which the land should be put for
the purpose of increasing the production of food in the national
interest. In case of failure to comply with the directions the Board
could cause the owner to terminate the tenancy, or, if the occupier
were the owner, could enter itself and cultivate.
These somewhat drastic provisions, which were exercised under
the Defence of the Realm Act during the war, were strongly opposed
by both owners and occupiers and became greatly modified when the
Agriculture Act of 1920 replaced the Corn Production Act. Prac-
tically under the new Act the powers of the Ministry of Agriculture
were limited to the enforcement of cultivation according to the
rules of good husbandry.
Where an estate is grossly mismanaged to such an extent as to
prejudice materially the production of food thereon or the welfare of
persons engaged in the cultivation of the estate, the minister may,
after holding a public inquiry, appoint some person to act as re-
ceiver and manager of the whole or a portion of the estate, an appeal
being allowed to the High Court. The Ministry's powers were dele-
gated to cultivation sub-committees of the agricultural committees
of the county councils which had been set up by the Ministry of
Agriculture Act of 1919.
There was, however, another public interest to be considered
AGRICULTURE
77
the condition of the labourers engaged upon the land. In order
to give them security the Corn Production Act, whose provisions
were renewed in the Agriculture Act, provided for the setting up of
an agricultural wages board, empowered to fix minimum rates
of wage for persons engaged in agricultural work, no such rate to be
less than 255. a week for able-bodied men. The wages board con-
sisted of an equal number of representatives of employers and
workmen, together with certain appointed members nominated by
the Board (Ministry) of Agriculture. District wages committees were
set up for administration of the Act within their areas, and these
committees proposed local rates of wage and incidental regulations
regarding their area for the confirmation of the central wages board.
As the setting up of the wages board coincided with a time of rapidly
advancing wages in all industries the minimum rates of wage were
repeatedly advanced under its orders. In June 1921 the lowest rate
amounted to 433. 6d. per week of 52 hours in summer and 48 in
winter, and this rate prevailed in the English counties where the
average rate of wages before the war was not more than 153. An
incidental result of the wage regulation was the practical abolition
of all allowances which in many parts of the country were made to
labourers in lieu of cash, e.g. milk, potatoes, bacon, coal, etc. A
deduction may still be made for cottages but the amount of deduc-
tion allowable is fixed by the wages board and may not exceed 35. a
week. It may be noted that with one or two comparatively small
exceptions the minimum wage regulations succeeded in avoiding
strikes in the agricultural industry during a period in which labour
conditions were very disturbed.
The Corn Production Act, and in its turn the Agriculture Act,
thus represent a definite attempt on the part of the State to frame a
constructive policy for agriculture in the national interest. The two
main interests concerned, the farmers and the labourers, were given
some security of a return for their work, the State obtained increased
production and some control over the use of the land. Should it
prove, however, that even with guaranteed prices the occupiers of
land were not responding by an increase of production to any pay-
ments made by the State under the guarantees, the purpose of the
Act would be unfulfilled. To meet this the Act gave the Ministry
power by Order in Council to give four years' notice of the determi-
nation of its powers under Part I. of the Act, which dealt with
the system of guarantees, the control of cultivation and the regula-
tion of wages.
It should be noted that the Agriculture Act contemplated the
delegation of the powers of the Ministry to control cultivation to
committees of the county agricultural committees which were set
up by the Ministry of Agriculture Act of 1919. This was a continua-
tion of the procedure adopted during the war, when the Board of
Agriculture appointed county executive committees in order to
carry out the orders under the Defence of the Realm Act for the
increase of food production.
The second part of the Agriculture Act of 1920 also contained a
series of provisions amending considerably the Agricultural Hold-
ings Acts. The main feature of this legislation entitles a tenant who
is given notice to quit to compensation for disturbance. This com-
pensation amounts to one year's rent, or, if greater, to the proved
loss and expenses incurred in quitting the holding, up to a maximum
of two years' rent. Compensation is not payable to a tenant who
was not cultivating his holding according to the rules of good hus-
bandry, or who had failed to comply with an order to pay arrears
of rent or to repair a breach of covenant. The landlord may also
demand that the question of the rent payable for the holding shall be
submitted to arbitration and if the tenant refuses to agree to this de-
mand may then give him notice to quit without compensation for
disturbance. The Agriculture Act applied to Great Britain only,
and the procedure of the Corn Production Act in setting up an
agricultural wages board for England and Wales was somewhat
modified as regards Scotland and Ireland.
In 1919 the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act was passed,
which, besides changing the title of the Board of Agriculture, set up a
council of agriculture for England and Wales, partly elective and
partly representative, which should meet at least twice a year for
the purpose of discussing matters of public interest relating to
agriculture and of making representations to the minister. From
these councils are selected the members of the Agricultural Ad-
visory Committee, which has the duty of advising the Ministry on
all matters (except as regards fishing) relating to the exercise of the
powers of the Ministry. These two bodies resemble in many respects
the Council and Board of Agriculture in Ireland, though neither
of them possesses that control over expenditure which the Board of
Agriculture in Ireland can exercise over the expenditure of the
endowment fund enjoyed by the Department of Agriculture in
Ireland. The Act also provides for the setting up by the county
council in each county and in certain county boroughs of an agricul-
tural committee. These committees must set up sub-committees to
deal with small holdings and allotments, with the powers to regulate
cultivation delegated to them by the Ministry under the Corn
Production and Agriculture Acts, and with drainage under the Land
Drainage Act of 1918. This committee may also, by the direction
of the county council and with the concurrence of the Board of
Education, take over from the Education Committee the control of
agricultural education.
Land drainage for generations has been the subject of legislation,
but it was evident that existing powers were inadequate to provide
for the efficient management of the drainage of the majority of the
river basins of England and Wales. In many areas there was a
multiplication of authorities, many of whom possessed insufficient
rating powers to be able to carry out works falling within their
area but vital to the whole river basin. In other cases the area was
inadequate or the existing commissioners of sewers failed to execute
their duties. The Drainage Acts of 1914 and 1918 gave the Ministry
of Agriculture powers to make orders constituting drainage districts,
altering the boundaries of existing drainage areas or enlarging their
powers of levying rates or borrowing. The Ministry may also act
itself in default of any drainage authority or may delegate its powers
to a committee of the county council or councils of the area con-
cerned, though its power of executing any such work of drainage and
of recovering from the owners affected is limited to schemes costing
not more than 5,000. By means of these Acts and of the Defence
of the Realm Act powers possessed by the county executive commit-
tees, much valuable work had been accomplished by 1921 in cleaning
out the smaller watercourses and improving the drainage of many
minor areas subject to flood or unfertile because of waterlogging.
Larger schemes exist for dealing comprehensively with important
areas like the Ouse basin, which embraces some of the most valuable
land in the Fens, but these schemes are likely to remain in abeyance
while the difficulties of financial stringency and high cost of labour
prevail.
One of the heaviest tasks which was assigned to the Board of
Agriculture at the close of the war was the settlement upon the land
of such ex-service men as desired holdings and could show their
suitability to occupy land. Under the Small Holdings and Allot-
ments Act of 1908 county councils had been empowered to purchase
land and equip it for small holdings, but it was necessary that the
schemes they framed for this purpose should show a reasonable
Frospect of being self-supporting on the rents that could be expected,
t was evident, however, at the close of 1918 that little settlement of
ex-service men could be effected upon such terms. Not only had the
price of land, especially of land suitable to small holders, increased
very largely, but the cost of buildings, equipment and adaptation,
necessary in the majority of cases before a small holder can be placed
upon the land, had grown to three or four times its pre-war magni-
tude. No such rents could be charged as would make the small
holdings pay, nor could county councils be expected to burden their
rates with the losses that would accrue if the holdings were let at
reasonable rents. Accordingly, by the Land Settlement Act of 1919,
the State accepted this liability and allotted a sum of 20,000,000 for
the provision of holdings for ex-service men.. The Act retained the
county councils as the agencies for the provision of small holdings,
and strengthened their powers to acquire land compulsorily for the
purpose by purchase or by hiring. In the main the 20,000,000 men-
tioned above has been lent to the county councils in order to enable
them to acquire land and adapt it for letting as small holdings.
The county councils could not take up such loans, did not the
Act further empower the Ministry for seven years after the passing
of the Act to pay to the county councils any losses they had incurred
in the provision of holdings under approved schemes. The loss each
year consists of the excess of the loan charges over receipts for rent
together with administrative expenses. Then on April I 1926 a
valuation is to be made of all the land acquired by county councils
under the Small Holdings Act, and this valuation will be compared
with the liabilities incurred by the council. The Ministry will then
assume the responsibility of paying such portion of the loan charges
due from the council as represented the excess of liabilities over the
valuation. Finally the councils will be left as owners of the small
holdings that have been set up, with only such charges to meet as
might reasonably be expected to be covered by the rents in the
then conditions of the land market.
By the end of May 1921 some 34,000 applications for holdings had
been received in England and Wales alone, 29,000 of which had been
approved by the county councils; 277,000 ac. of land had been
acquired, and 15,000 men had already been placed upon it. Slow as
this progress may at first sight appear it has to be remembered that
land cannot be acquired at short notice nor sitting tenants displaced
except at the cost of burdening the scheme with impossible charges
for compensation. The work of building and adaptation had also
had to be carried out under the most difficult and burdensome con-
ditions, at a time when both labour and materials of all kinds
were abnormally deficient. In the great majority of cases the holding
created was inevitably uneconomic, in the sense that the capital
outlay on land, buildings and roads, fencing and other incidentals,
cannot be repaid by the rents which can be paid under anything like
existing conditions. The total cost of the scheme to the State, i.e.
the expenditure that would have to be written off as not represented
by the market value of the resulting holdings, can only be estimated,
but seemed likely to amount to about 8,000,000. Undoubtedly the
State accepted a very heavy financial responsibility in this scheme
of land settlement for ex-service men, but it had to be taken as a
partial repayment of the debt due from the State to the men who
fought for it. As part of the national policy they were promised
access to the land, and the conditions prevailing at the close of the
war made it impossible to redeem that promise except at a loss.
AGRICULTURE
Education and Research. From the administrative point of
view the chief advance effected during 1900-20 was the organiza-
tion throughout the United Kingdom of a scheme of agricultural
education and research. State assistance to agricultural educa-
tion may be said to have begun with the Technical Instruction
Act of 1889, but organized research remained practically un-
provided for until the setting up of the Development Com-
mission in 1908. The scheme then adopted was furthered by the
allocation of fresh funds for the purpose after the end of the war,
and most of the institutions contemplated were at work in 1921.
The essential feature of the scheme is the provision of institutes,
each dealing with a particular aspect of the subject and as a
rule associated with a university possessing an agricultural de-
partment. The State exercises no direct control over the nature
of the investigations conducted, other than the sanction ac-
companying its annual contribution, which is in the nature of a
grant in aid. General policy is also reviewed at the meetings of a
research council composed of the directors of the institutes and
officials of the Government departments concerned. The staff
of the research institutes are not civil servants but are engaged
by the respective governing bodies; the State does, however, pro-
vide for a stated scale of salaries with increments and superan-
nuation allowances. The annual expenditure on the scheme
amounted to 140,000 for England and Wales for the year 1921-
2, and to 5,400 for Scotland for the same period, but the Irish
expenditure cannot so easily be differentiated from the other
commitments of the Department of Agriculture.
The Experimental Station at Rothamsted, the oldest in the
world, has been greatly enlarged and developed as the Institute of
Research in problems of soil and plant nutrition, to which has
recently been added a second institute dealing with plant pathology,
embracing entomology, mycology and helminthology. At Cambridge
is situated the main institute for research in animal nutrition, and a
second station also exists in connexion with the university of Aber-
deen. At Cambridge, also, investigations have been made dealing
with animal-breeding from the genetic side and with problems of
reproduction, and the plan was to draw all these threads together so
as to make at Cambridge an institute dealing broadly with animal
husbandry in all its aspects.
Research in dairying problems is provided for by an institute in
connexion with the University College at Reading; and a second
station was projected in 1921 in connexion with the Agricultural
College at Glasgow. The plant-breeding station and institute proper
are situated at Cambridge; a second station, specializing mainly on
grasses, clovers and fodder crops appropriate to the moister climates
of the west, is associated with the University College at Aberystwyth ;
and a third station was planned in 1921 in Scotland. The commercial
development of the products of the plant-breeders is provided for
by the National Institute of Agricultural Botany, which has also
recently been set up at Cambridge largely by contributions from
trade sources.
Research in fruit-growing problems is dealt with by an institute
associatecl with the university of Bristol (Long Ashton) and a second
station situated at East Mailing in Kent, further sub-stations being
in contemplation at Cambridge for the eastern counties fruit district
and elsewhere. The Bristol centre also deals with cider-making and
with the various processes of fruit preservation, to which end a small
commercial factory is maintained at Chiming Camden.
The Imperial College of Science in London maintains an institute
for work in problems of plant physiology, utilizing for its experi-
mental cultures various institutions near London, such as Roth-
amsted, the Lea Valley Experimental Station which deals with
glass-house problems, the East Mailing Fruit Station, and the Experi-
mental Gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Wisley. Men-
tion should also be made of the John Innes Horticultural Institute
at Merton, which under Mr. W. Bateson deals mainly with'genetic
problems, though this institution derives its income entirely from
trust funds.
Schemes for dealing with research on problems of agricultural
machinery and again with veterinary science were under considera-
tion in 1921. As regards the latter subject the only institution main-
ly concerned with research is the laboratory maintained by the
Ministry of Agriculture.
The complete scheme also provided an annual sum for grants in
aid of particular investigations set on foot by individuals who might
not be attached to a research institute, and again for postgraduate
scholarships in order to ensure a supply of properly trained workers.
Higher instruction in agriculture is provided for by agricultural
colleges, which as a rule are attached to one of the local universities
and have a distinct regional responsibility as to the provision of
information and technical advice to farmers occupying land in the
area allocated to the college.
In Scotland three such colleges are attached to the universities
of Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Glasgow; in England there are de-
partments of agriculture attached to the universities of Durham
(Newcastle), Leeds, Cambridge. Reading (Oxford), and in addition
four residential agricultural colleges the Harper Adams College at
Newport, Salop; the South-Eastern Agricultural College at Wye,
Kent; the Midland College at Sutton Bonington and the Scale
Hayne College at Newton Abbot, Devon. In Wales the University
Colleges of Bangor and Aberystwyth maintain similar agricultural
departments. In Ireland higher instruction in agriculture is given
at the Royal College of Science in Dublin and the Albert Agricultural
College at Glasnevin, while there are professors of agriculture at the
Queen's Universities of Cork and Belfast.
Intermediate education in agriculture is in Scotland organized by
the agricultural colleges through extension lecturers attached to the
various counties. In England and Wales the county councils are
the responsible authorities, and the Ministry of Agriculture pro-
vides an agricultural organizer for each county and gives assistance
towards the setting up of a farm institute, intended to give instruc-
tion by means of short courses for the sons of farmers, etc., who
cannot leave the farm for the long periods demanded by the agri-
cultural colleges. In Ireland intermediate instruction in agriculture
is given at the Munster Institute, Cork, the Ulster Dairy School and
the four regional agricultural stations at Athenry, Ballyhaise, Clon-
akilty and Strabane.
Steady progress has been made in all parts of the United Kingdom
in the schemes for the improvement of live stock, by the dissemina-
tion among the smaller farmers of improved sires. In Ireland, where
the scheme came into operation in 191 1, premiums, to which both the
Department and the local authorities contribute, are given towards
the purchase of approved bulls and other sires, and the success of
the scheme is manifest in the improvement effected in the quality
of the store cattle exported for fattening to Great Britain. In
England and Wales farmers are encouraged to form societies for the
purchase of a bull or the hire of a stallion, and a grant is made
towards the cost of the sire, which in the case of a bull may not ex-
ceed /2O or one-third of its cost. The work of forming societies for
recording the milk yield of the cows of the members has been
vigorously prosecuted, and the growth of the movement is shown by
the fact that 637 cows obtained certificates in 1915 and 16,211 in
1921. The high prices obtained for recorded cows and their progeny
show the value that farmers attach to milk records.
III. THE WAR PERIOD
For a long time after the declaration of war no special effort
was made in the United Kingdom to develop agriculture and
increase production of food. A measure to prevent the slaughter-
ing of calves and pregnant animals was passed in 1914, but no
other legislative action was taken until the close of 1916. Pro-
posals which had been made, such as those of the Milner Com-
mittee, to guarantee a price for wheat or to give other bounties
on production, were turned down on the broad principle that any
interference with the free play of the market would impair the
confidence of the trader and reduce importation to a greater
degree than the increase in production. In 1915 in response to
the general feeling farmers had increased their acreage of wheat
by 430,000 ac. and of oats by 200,000, but this increase had
chiefly been attained at the expense of the barley crop, for there
had been no increase in the total extent of land under the plough.
In 1916, however, the wheat area went back by 280,000 ac.,
and a low yield per acre was obtained. The potato crop also was
much below average. It may be noted here that, speaking
generally, except in the magnificent harvest of 1914, the seasons
during the World War were very adverse to arable cultivation,
being characterized by wet seeding-times and harvests, with
spring droughts. It was not until 1917-8 that there was a favour-
able autumn and spring for sowing, but that promise was belied
by a disastrous harvest-time for all the western and northern
parts of the kingdom, with rains so heavy and protracted
that no inconsiderable proportion of the corn crops were never
harvested.
Intensified Production. It was not until the close of 1916 that
any action was taken to stimulate production. By that time the
effects of the enemy interference with the free play of the market
and the indifferent output began to be apparent in rapidly rising
prices for all the prime food products corn, potatoes, meat and
milk. At the same time the withdrawal of labour from agricul-
ture was bringing about a still further diminution in the area
under wheat, of which at the close of 1916 it was estimated that
15% less had been sown than at the corresponding season in the
preceding year. The appointment of a Royal Commission on
AGRICULTURE
79
Wheat Supplies, which assumed complete control of the purchases
of wheat and the operations of the milling trade, was followed by
the appointment of a Food Controller and a promise in Dec. of
certain guaranteed prices for wheat, oats and potatoes. At this
time Rowland Prothero (afterwards Lord Ernie) had become
President of the Board of Agriculture, and he proceeded to set
up a Food Production Department which would take charge of a
national effort to obtain more food from the land. To this
department came as chief Sir Arthur Lee (afterwards Lord Lee
of Fareham).
The policy adopted aimed at obtaining an increased acreage
of arable land and as large a proportion of wheat and other
bread corn as possible. Success depended upon the cooperation
of the farmers, upon securing additional labour and upon assisting
the farmer to obtain supplies of all kinds horses, tractors, seeds
and manures.
The first step was to set up War Agricultural Committees
in each of the counties of England, Wales and Scotland; in
Ireland the existing statutory County Council Committees on
Agriculture were available for the same purpose. In England
smaller executive committees were afterwards appointed, to
whom were entrusted in the main the special powers which had
been conferred by D.O.R.A. on the Board of Agriculture. Dis-
trict committees, and even in some cases parish committees,
were further appointed. The staffs required for the executive
committees were made up from the county council staffs and
officers of the Land Valuation Department and Inland Revenue,
while district commissioners appointed by the central depart-
ment for small groups of two or more counties served to bind the
whole organization.
As it was already Jan. 1917 before the Food Production
Department was set up, it was impossible to effect much increase
in the crops of that year, and in practically all cases it was ob-
tained by voluntary response to the appeal for greater production.
In England and Wales a further 286,000 ac. were put under the
plough; the increase in wheat was 50,000 ac., in oats 616,000 ac.
and in potatoes 220,000 acres. Scotland, having suffered less loss
of arable land in the generation prior to the war, had smaller
opportunities for reconversion from grass into arable, but added
some 50,000 ac. to the plough land. In Ireland, however, the
greatest extension was possible because of the much smaller
draft that had been made on its man-power. An Order in Council
was made requiring all Irish occupiers of more than 10 ac. to add
10% to their area under tillage, except in cases where the arable
already amounted to 50% of the total cultivable area of the
farm, and this resulted in an addition of nearly 650,000 ac.
to the plough land of that country.
While this was going on during the spring of 1917 the county
executive committees with the help of their district committees
carried out a survey from farm to farm which revealed in all too
many cases into what a state of neglect the land had been allowed
to fall. Notices were served calling for improved cultivation,
and in the worst cases the tenancies were determined, the execu-
tive committees either approving a new tenant, or taking the
land under their own control. The central department framed a
programme for 1918 which provided for the ploughing-up in
England and Wales of 2,000,000 ac. of permanent grass as com-
pared with 1916, and in Scotland of 350,000 acres. A quota was
fixed for each county, based upon such considerations as the area
which had been converted from arable into grass land since 1872,
the existing proportion of arable in the county, the labour still
upon the land, etc. Each county in its turn divided its quota
among districts and eventually among the parishes and the in-
dividual farms, orders to plough certain fields being served upon
the occupiers. These " ploughing orders " in many cases excited
violent opposition, and sustained attacks were made upon the
Department on the specious plea that ignorant officials were
ordering grass land, which was providing meat and milk, to be
converted into plough land which would yield nothing. Time
considerations alone permitted of no appeal from the order of
the committees, who had perhaps acted in some cases on the
principle of making every man do a share proportional to his
acreage without consideration of the character of the land. But
the mistakes made, if one is to judge by the mass of the results
afterwards realized upon the broken-up land, affected but a small
proportion of the land ordered to be put under the plough. The
opposition both of occupiers and owners to the plough policy
must be set down to the grass-land tradition, which the great
depression of 1880-1900 had so firmly impressed on English
agriculture.
None the less the programme was adhered to, and, aided by
favourable weather in the winter and spring of 1917-8, a re-
markable increase in the cultivated area was achieved. The
disturbed state of Ireland prevented the realization of the plans
which had been formed for a still further increase of 5% in the
cultivated area. The tables show what was actually obtained
in each of the three countries.
England and Wales
1914
1916
1917
1918
Arable land
Wheat
Barley
Oats ....
Potatoes .
All crops other than
temporary grasses
and fallow
ac.
10,998,254
1,807,498
1.504,771
1,929,626
461,621
8,276,166
ac.
11,051,101
1,912,208
1,332,076
2,084,674
427,948
8,038,905
ac.
11,246,106
1,918,485
1,459,796
2,258,909
507,987
8,391,263
ac.
12,398,640
2,556,661
1,500,809
2,780,063
633,832
9,894,695
Scotland
1914
1916 1917
1918
Arable land
Wheat
Barley
Oats ....
Potatoes
All crops other than
temporary grasses
and fallow
ac.
3,295,487
60,521
194,109
919,580
152,318
i ,8o5;35o
ac.
3,303,741
63,083
169,739
990,589
130,119
1,815,217
ac.
3,360,562
60,931
159,135
1,041,343
147,717
1,866,575
ac.
3,453,495
79,062
152,835
1,243,823
169,497
2,094,376
Ireland
1914
1916
1917
1918
Arable land
Wheat
Barley
Oats ....
Potatoes
All crops other than
temporary grasses
and fallow
ac.
5,027,082
36,913
172,289
1,028,758
583,069
2,327,752
ac.
5,050,234
76,438
150,063
1,071,593
586,308
2,400,328
ac.
5,046,008
124,082
177,135
1,463,737
709,263
3,037,869
ac.
5,270,615
157,326
184,712
1,579,537
701,847
3,239.495
United Kingdom
1914
1916
1917
1918
Arable land
Wheat - ...
Barley
Oats
Potatoes
All crops other than
temporary grasses
and fallow
ac.
19,320,823
1,904,932
1,871,169
3,877,964
1,197,008
12,410,268
ac.
19,405,076
2,051,729
1,651,878
4,146,856
1,144,375
12,254,450
ac.
19,652,676
2,103,498
1,796,066
4,763,989
1,364,967
13.295,707
ac.
21,122,750
2,793,049
1,838,356
5,603,423
1,505,176
15,228,566
Speaking roughly, about 40% more grain was produced in
1918 than in 1916, and if the potato crop is also taken into ac-
count the 1918 crops represent a saving in tonnage (and shipping
was the limiting factor in the prosecution of the war at that time)
of 2,600,000 tons. Results would have been even better had it
not been for the disastrous harvest weather, which caused the
total loss of something like 5 % of the grain crop, and rendered
even more unfit for any other purpose than cattle-feeding. The
occurrence of so continuous a succession of heavy rains was
naturally regarded by the opponents of " ploughing up " as a
justification of their adhesion to grass. It did indeed put an end
to the plans which had been made for a further extension of the
arable area in 1919. Work on most farms had fallen badly into
arrears, and land had become foul and weedy, so that it seemed
preferable to concentrate the available labour on the existing
8o
AGRICULTURE
tillage land rather than to attempt to increase its area in the
face of the general opposition of the agricultural community.
Labour Supply. Turning now to the means by which this in-
creased production was realized in war-time, the prime difficulty
experienced was the lack of labour. Grass land had often been
described as a reserve of fertility that in case of need could be
converted into crops, but this view had ignored the facts that
laying down to grass is accompanied by the permanent loss of
men and horses, implements and even buildings. When the need
comes tillage cannot be resumed at pleasure; the men and
machinery are no longer there. In Jan. 1917, when the food
production campaign began, the 800,000 men employed in agri-
culture in 1914 had fallen to 562,000, and as about 180,000 of these
were of military age and fresh drafts were urgently needed for
the army, some new sources of labour had to be tapped. The
operations of voluntary recruiting, and the action of local tribu-
nals in granting exemptions, had produced very unequal results;
the eastern and home counties, for example, had parted with
a much larger proportion of their men to the colours. For a
time in 1917 the calling-up of men from farms was suspended,
but the spring offensive of 1918 resulted in a fresh call for 30,000
Grade i men from agriculture, 22,600 being actually called up.
Meantime, however, the War Office rendered great assistance by
the release of men on home service for short periods when the
call for labour was greatest. In the spring of 1917, 21,000
ploughmen were lent for two months, together with about an
equal number of other men with some experience of the land or
of horses, and these men did much to render possible the first
increase of tillage land. Though 18,000 of these men in Category
A had to be returned to the army in May 1917, almost an equal
number of men on home service were released for the harvest of
that year. Other men were furnished by the military authorities
during the autumn and winter, until in the spring of 1918 there
were about 62,000 men working upon the land though nominally
engaged on military service.
Assistance was also obtained from enemy prisoners-of-war.
Early in 1918 prisoners at work in France', who were skilled
ploughmen and had other agricultural experience, were brought
across and established in camps of from 25 to 40 for work upon
farms throughout England. The first prejudice against the
employment of these men was soon dissipated as their skill and
willingness to work became apparent, and eventually a certain
number were even allowed to be housed upon farms without
guards. As a rule these men were employed upon the Depart-
ment's ploughing contracts or drainage operations, or other work
that would absorb a gang of men and minimize the number of
guards required. In the great majority of cases the German
prisoners did excellent work and even came to be preferred by
farmers to the local labour that had been left to them. Nor did
any trouble arise over discipline; the tale is told of the guard who
was brought back to camp helplessly drunk, supported by two
of his prisoners, with a third carrying his rifle.
Various attempts were made to recruit civilian labour perma-
nently and for special harvesting operations, but with little success.
The only valuable recruits that were obtained were the public-
school boys, some 4,500 to 5,000 of whom were formed into camps
for the harvest and did service that was much appreciated, and
again the camps of Boy Scouts, who in their turn did first-rate
work for the farmers with whom their camp was placed. A
certain number of " conscientious objectors " were told off for
agricultural work, but the feeling against them in most rural
districts was too strong to permit of their employment, and such
of them as were engaged in camps proved of little use.
The greatest part of the accessory labour required in order
to carry out the agricultural programme of 1917 and 1918, was
provided by women. The supply was organized by the Women's
War Agricultural Committee in the counties and by the Women's
Branch of the Food Production Department. In the first place
the employment for part or whole time of the women resident
in the villages, who, in England at any rate, had largely ceased
to work on the land, was revived, with the result that over a
quarter of a million were at work in 1918 as compared with less
than 100,000 before the war. Some assistance was given to these
workers by the supply f boots and other outfit for farm work.
Considerable camps were also formed of college students for
temporary labour in the harvests of 1917 and 1918, and these
women did excellent service in flax-pulling and other seasonal
operations. But the chief effort was to provide a mobile force
of women's labour from sources that did not usually furnish land
workers, and at the beginning of 1917 the Women's Land Army
was organized. The recruits were very carefully examined for
fitness; indeed, something like 75 % of the first 47,000 who volun-
teered were rejected, though by 1918 a considerable improve-
ment in the material coming forward became manifest. Most
of the women had to be trained, even if only for a few weeks, and
in addition to the facilities provided by certain agricultural
colleges and farm schools, over 600 special training centres were
established. A minimum wage was laid down, at first i8s. and
later 205. a week, and in addition an outfit of the necessary
clothes was provided. Depots had also to be established where
the women who were waiting for employment or temporarily
unengaged could be housed, and the women were eventually
distributed between farm work, the Forage Department of the
War Office and the Timber Supply Department.
At first considerable prejudice had to be overcome on the part
of farmers, and again great difficulties were experienced in assuring
proper accommodation for the women on the farms, but by the
winter of 1917-8 some 7,000 were at work, and the number in-
creased to 16,000 in the harvest of 1918, until the workmanlike
costume of the landswomen, with their breeches and smock,
became a familiar feature of all country life in England and
Wales. On the whole these women proved of most service as
milkers and in charge of stock and horses, for which many of
them showed a special aptitude. Others again developed into
very efficient drivers of motor tractors.
After the war and the return of the agricultural labourers
on service, the demand for whole-time women's labour to a large
extent disappeared. Moreover, a large proportion of the lands-
women, especially the educated women, had taken on this kind
of work for patriotic reasons, and had no call to the life of an
agricultural labourer, so that the Women's Land Army was
disbanded in 1919 and very few of the workers so recruited
remained in 1921 upon the land. Undoubtedly, however, a
certain number of women whose circumstances permitted were
led to take up farming as a profession, and the whole movement,
over and above the indispensable work it actually accomplished
at a critical time, led to the diffusion through the community
of a much better understanding of agriculture and rural life.
Tractors. After labour, the provision of implements and
especially of tractors proved the main difficulty of the Food
Production Department. At the outset, in the early spring of
1917, with the immense urgency of getting land ploughed forth-
with for the harvest of that year, it was necessary to buy every
and any tractor available. Something under 500 were at work in
three months, together with about an equal number of privately
owned tractors which were controlled by the Department in
order to get a maximum of work out of them. The Department
engaged the ploughmen and operated the tractors, a charge being
made to the farmers of 155. to 205. per acre for ploughing and
half that rate for cultivating. Naturally the service did not
pay its way; many of the tractors were far from efficient, and
with the limited training that had been possible the drivers were
at first unable to get a good average acreage worked per day.
As experience of the various types of tractors accumulated it
was decided to concentrate the main effort on the production of
the Ford tractor, the specifications of which were placed by
Henry Ford at the disposal of the Government. It was found
possible neither to manufacture any of the British types nor
to undertake the production of the Ford tractor in England, so
entirely had British engineering works been turned over to the
output of war material. Instead, orders were placed with Mr.
Ford, and delivery began early in 1918. By the end of the year
the Department was operating 4,200 tractors, despite the with-
drawal of the large numbers of earlier types, and a further 3,000
AGRICULTURE
81
had been sold to farmers from the supplies ordered by the De-
partment. In the year 1918 650,000 ac. were ploughed and 580,-
ooo ac. were cultivated by the Department's tractors, and in
many districts where the means for arable farming had run low
the ploughing programme could have been carried out in no other
way. Nor was it the ploughing only that was forwarded; the
difficult harvest of 1918 was in many cases only won through the
capacity of the tractor to get the binders over a large acreage
in a short time. Great as were the expenses attending the trac-
tor programme, it was justified not only by the immediate re-
sults but by the education it afforded the British farmer in the
use and value of mechanical traction, an education which might
have required a generation under peace conditions.
In addition to tractors, the Department obtained sanction
for the purchase of 30,000 horses, and formed gangs of teams
to work under the district committees in parts of the county
where the programme of ploughing-up grass land was beyond
the strength of the farmers themselves. The numbers purchased
were limited by the skilled ploughmen available to go with them,
but something like 10,000 horses were working under the orders
of the Department at the end of 1918, and an equal number had
been lent to farmers. The steam-ploughing tackle existing in the
country was also organized, and the owners engaged to keep their
machines at work not only through the winter but also overtime
and on Sundays. Facilities were given for the manufacture of
further sets of tackle, until there were 90 more at work by the
autumn of 1918. A very great share in the programme of extra
cultivation was accomplished by the energy of the steam-tackle
owners. Indeed, between their first meeting in March 1917 and
the end of that year over i ,000,000 ac. of ploughing and cultiva-
tion had been accomplished, and 23,000 ac. had been mole-
drained. The Department also purchased in America, and loaned
or sold to farmers, large numbers of other implements, the manu-
facture of which in Great Britain had been to a large extent
suspended in favour of munitions. Something like 5,000 binders,
as many harrows and proportional numbers of other implements,
including nearly 500 threshing-machines, were thus obtained by
the Department and disposed of to farmers.
Fertilizers. The effect of two and a half years of war and the
increasing shortage of tonnage had begun to be manifest early
in 1917 in a very marked disorganization of all the sources
of supplies needed by the farmers fertilizers, feeding-stuffs,
seeds and minor but still essential articles like sulphate of copper
and binder twine. The Food Production Department took
charge, and achieved remarkable success in both extending
supplies and regulating distribution to ensure equality of treat-
ment and the saving of transport. In nearly all cases the or-
ganization was carried out through the trade concerned, the
members of which formed associations and agreed to pool their
resources and limit prices. Practically the only nitrogenous
fertilizer available was sulphate of ammonia; shipping was no
longer available from Chile for nitrate of soda, of which an
earlier large Government purchase could not be moved and had
eventually to be resold. Prior to the war the production of
sulphate of ammonia in the United Kingdom had exceeded
400,000 tons per annum, of which about 70% was exported,
while the home consumption for agriculture did not reach 70,000
tons, and indeed was not more than 78,000 tons in 1916. The
propaganda and distribution scheme of the Food Production
Department secured the use of as much as 234,000 tons in the
year June I9i7-June 1918. Basic slag was similarly dealt with,
grinding facilities were obtained, and the consumption was
increased by something like 200,000 tons. Owing to the shortage
of shipping it was impossible to maintain supplies of phosphate
rock for the manufacture of superphosphate, but some allevia-
tion of the scarcity was obtained by the diversion of shipping to
North Africa, and over 750,000 tons of superphosphate were dis-
tributed for the year ending June 1918.
Thus the work of the Food Production Department did succeed
in putting at the disposal of farmers in the harvest of 1918 a
substantially greater amount of fertilizers than they had been in
the habit of consuming prior to the war, and this at a time when
the sources were diminishing had no governmental stimulus
been applied and when most of the production would have gone
for export with the relatively enormous prices that were ruling
outside the United Kingdom. There has been but little recog-
nition of the amount the British farmer gained from the control
over fertilizers that was exercised from 1917 onwards.
Little need be said about the steps that were taken to ensure
the supply of seeds and other articles of agricultural consumption.
The most striking result was the way in which the great dearth
of seed potatoes from the 1917 crop was met. More than 15,000
tons of seed potatoes were distributed in England and Wales, and,
above all, the newly-formed allotments that had been so eagerly
taken up in that year were furnished with the seed potatoes they
needed. The opportunity was taken early in 1917 to enforce a
declaration of germinating capacity and purity of all seeds sold;
and this action, necessitated at the time by the scarcity of
material and the resulting commercial temptation to sell in-
ferior seed, so commended itself both to farmers and the trade
that it was embodied in a permanent fashion in the Seeds Act
of 1920.
Allotments. In no respects perhaps was the Food Production
Department more successful in helping out supplies than in the
stimulus and assistance it gave to the creation of allotment
gardens, particularly in urban centres. The powers conferred
upon the Department by D.O.R.A., which were delegated to
town and urban district councils, enabled them to take possession
of any unoccupied land for the purpose of letting it as allotments,
and even of cultivated land with the sanction of the Agricultural
Executive Committee. These powers were freely exercised,
and perhaps an equal amount of land was made available for
allotments by voluntary agreement. Because of these private
agreements it will never be known exactly how many allotments
were provided during the war period, but over 250,000 were
added in England and Wales under the D.O.R.A. powers alone,
and so rapid was the further growth that it was estimated in 1918
that the total number of allotments had been more than doubled.
On the outskirts of "all large towns the new movement was very
much in evidence in the spring of 1917; unoccupied land of all
kinds, building plots, waste land awaiting development, por-
tions of commons, even parks and recreation grounds, were being
divided up into plots of a sixteenth of an acre and hastily pre-
pared for growing vegetables. It was often late in the season
before the work began, particularly for heavy land such as the
clays round London, but fortunately the season proved favour-
able and good results were obtained for the zeal and energy
which had been put into the cultivation of what was often very
unpromising material. The Food Production Department
assisted in the supply of seed potatoes and other supplies; advice
and instruction were organized in conjunction with the Royal
Horticultural Society, which enrolled the professional gardeners
everywhere into a panel of voluntary instructors. It was esti-
mated that by 1918 the number of allotments had increased in
England and Wales from something like 800,000 to over 1,200,-
ooo, and the increase was continued after the Armistice. The
number relative to the population varied considerably, but in and
about Leicester there was an allotment to every three households.
The benefit of the allotment movement to the community is
difficult to overestimate. There was in the first place the actual
addition in the food supply, which in England and Wales alone
was set at 800,000 tonsoffoodin 1918. This home-grown supply
without doubt helped to steady prices in 1917. Again, the
growth of fresh vegetables by urban populations, who under the
prevailing conditions would have had some difficulty in buying
them, contributed a very valuable factor in a war-time dietary.
The development of allotments did contribute to keep down the
growth of deficiency diseases like scurvy and probably of tuber-
culosis, to which the food conditions of 1917-8 were favourable.
Lastly, very many people obtained a considerable relief from the
war strain by the physical exercise in the open air and the new
interests developed by their allotments. To many people the
war-time allotments revealed a deep-seated pleasure in the
cultivation of the land, which had been obscured to them by
82
AGRICULTURE
residence in a town, and the strength of this feeling was made
manifest by the widespread movement that grew up after the
war for the retention and extension of the allotment gardens.
Of course, the close of the war necessarily led to the displace-
ment of many of the allotments which had been formed on land
that could only be temporarily allocated for the purpose. Much
of it had only been handed over on private agreements and was
resumed for building or other industrial purposes. Recreation
grounds and park lands could not be permanently alienated from
the enjoyment of the general public. Even land which had been
occupied under the D.O.R.A. powers of the Board, and of which,
possession could be retained until March 23 1923, had often to
be given up because its retention would have involved enormous
claims for compensation when the land was immediately
required for building purposes. Widespread as was the demand
for security of tenure in allotments it was impracticable either
to gratify it now, or to repair the want of foresight when the
great towns were growing, by making allotments at the expense
of the community on land which had already acquired a building
value of 1,000 an acre or upwards. It might still be possible to
provide for allotments on such land while it was vacant and
awaiting development, but only on condition that the occupiers
would have to be prepared to move on at comparatively short
notice when building became imminent. Many authorities in
1921 were exercising with considerable forethought their powers
to acquire land for allotments, and were acquiring land con-
veniently accessible outside the zone of immediate development.
Round many cities and towns a belt of allotment cultivation
could be seen to be extending, though the cultivators might
actually live at some considerable distance in the thickly popu-
lated inner area.
Incidentally the Agriculture Act of 1920 gives an allotment-
holder compensation for disturbance on similar lines to that
enjoyed by occupiers of larger buildings.
The growth of the allotment movement may be measured
from a very full inquiry that was made of the numbers at the end
of 1920. According to an early return in 1890 there were then
448,586 allotments in England and Wales of under one acre, to
which should be added certain railway allotments estimated as
39,115 in 1886.
At the end of 1920 the numbers in England and Wales were
as follows:
Land managed by county councils under Act
of 1919
Land entered upon by councils under D.O.
R.A
Land occupied by councils and used tem-
porarily under D.O.R.A
Other land used as allotment. ....
No. of
allotment
holders
329471
198,299
56,456
598,157
Acres
46,963
14-369
4.HI
95-754
Totals 1,182,383 161,227
Owing to the fact that in six cases the allotment land was let
to associations of allotment-holders, the gross total of holders
should be increased to about 1,330,000. It should be noted
that one-half in numbers and considerably more than half in
acreage of the allotments in England and Wales were still
provided in 1921 by private owners.
Control of Agricultural Prices. The pressure of the war and
the increasing difficulty in obtaining supplies necessitated a
resort to the fixing of prices for agricultural commodities, which
materially affected the business of British farmers during the
critical years from the beginning of 1917. The Food Controller
was appointed in Dec. 1916, and the Act under which he was
appointed gave him very complete powers to fix the prices of
commodities and to take over stocks, to control distribution and
otherwise deal with all articles of food produced within or enter-
ing the country.
As might be expected, considerable discussion and differences
of opinion arose as to the methods to be adopted in dealing with
agricultural produce. From the crudest point of view the
Food Controller might be taken as the agent of the vast majority
of consumers, anxious therefore to reduce prices, whereas the
Departments of Agriculture would be regarded as the guardians
of the interests of the agriculturists. Such an opposition of
interests was, however, rarely allowed consciously to weigh.
The divergences of opinion grew from the fact that the Agri-
cultural Departments were more seized with the necessity of
increasing production, and apprehensive of the way in which
restrictions upon price might so interfere with the business of
the farmer as to limit the total output of food. It may be useful
to put on record some of the results of the control and the effect
they had upon the course of production.
During the years 1917-9 control was exercised over the prices of
all the main articles of agricultural produce grain, meat, milk,
cheese and butter, potatoes, eggs, fruit, certain vegetables, wool and
hay, though in the two latter cases the control was exercised by the
War Office and not the Food Controller. Two ends have to be satis-
fied in the control of prices of agricultural produce. Primarily the
public have to be protected from excessive rises of price, due primarily
to the scarcity and then to the speculation and repeated dealings
amongst the middlemen that inevitably follow. The farmer himself,
the prime producer, is rarely in a position to take advantage of the
public need and, in the current slang, " to profiteer." The conditions
of the farmer's business are such that he is waiting on the price that
is offered to him in the open market. Most of his output consists of
perishable materials which must be sold forthwith, and he is rarely
united into associations that are capable of exercising any pressure to
refuse to sell below an agreed price. The rapid enhancement of prices
that follows scarcity is as a rule the work of the dealers between the
producer and the consumer, and the farmer is but a passive recipient
of the share that accrues to him through the competition of dealers
for his produce.
The second end to be attained in price control is the encourage-
ment of production. It is possible to fix a price in the interests of the
consumer which may be regarded as leaving a fair margin of profit
to the producer, but which is followed almost immediately by a re-
striction in supply. High prices are of course an evil from the point
of view of the consumer, but in times of scarcity it is more important
to get the food in quantity than to get it cheap. It becomes neces-
sary, therefore, to fix such a level of prices as will encourage the
producer to make a special effort to increase his output, and to this
end it is never possible to base the price upon the average cost of pro-
duction of the article. It is necessary to stimulate the produc-
tion of the poorer farmers, whose skill may be inadequate or who
are working under comparatively unfavourable conditions. As a
consequence it follows that the prices will be such as give excessive
profits to the more favourably situated producers. This is specially
marked in dealing with agriculture an industry which in the main
is carried on by individuals working upon a comparatively small scale,
an industry in which the processes are not standardized and for
which accounts showing the actual cost of production are very rarely
available.
Considerable feeling was at times engendered against the farmers
in Great Britain on the ground that they were making very large
profits out of the public need and the restriction of supplies, but
looking at the question broadly, these excessive profits accrued in-
evitably to the men who by their skill or their situation were capable
of comparatively cheap production.
From time to time attempts were made to establish systems of
differential prices, according to districts. This was tried, for exam-
ple, with milk, on the ground that the south-western counties could,
as a rule, produce milk at a lower price than the mass of the country.
Again, in 1918 differential potato prices were established by districts,
according as they were regarded as adapted or otherwise to potato-
growing on a large scale. Speaking generally, these differential
prices proved to be comparatively ineffective and were the cause
of great discontent and opposition amongst the producers. The
main difficulty lies in the definition of districts within which the con-
ditions of production are equal. County boundaries do not represent
uniform conditions of soil and climate. The object could only be
rightly attained by the scheduling of individual farmers into differ-
ent classes and that is administratively impossible.
As a rule, the method of control adopted was to fix a maximum
price beyond which the article must not be sold, and to enforce this
maximum price by the action of inspectors. It was found in all
cases of real scarcity that the maximum price became a minimum,
and that the control amounted to the fixing of a flat rate of price for
the article all over the country. Maximum prices having been fixed,
there are then two alternatives: the Government may become the
sole buyer of the commodity, or it may still leave distribution to the
ordinary channels. It was found by experience that the Govern-
ment can only become the sole buyer when it also controls the con-
sumption of the article. The main examples of this type of action
during the war period were wool and wheat. In the case of wool the
Government held the whole stocks, both of foreign and home-grown
wool, and made its allocation from these stocks to the manufacturers
for defined purposes. In the case of wheat the Government assumed
control of all the flour-mills and instructed them to accept delivery
of the farmers' wheat at the fixed prices.
AGRICULTURE
Where the processes of manufacture and distribution are not so
simple, as in the case of wheat and wool, the method of making the
Government the sole buyer of the output resulted in excessive ad-
ministrative difficulties. An example is furnished by the potato crop
of 1918, which on Nov. I was taken over by the Ministry of Food.
The difficulties were accentuated by the fact that the crop was a large
one, rather more than the demand would normally call for, and that
it was not as sound as usual, so that in many cases the whole or part
of the crop perished in the farmers' clamps before it could be distrib-
uted. Under normal conditions the farmer who has potatoes of in-
ferior keeping powers makes a sacrifice in order to get them away
rapidly. He also looks the crop over from time to time and rejects
potatoes that are becoming diseased and therefore dangerous to the
bulk of the crop. Once, however, the crop had passed into the Gov-
ernment's hands, the farmer naturally ceased to exercise the same
care in handling it. The result in this case was a dispute as to the
responsibility for the losses that occurred. The Ministry on the one
hand alleged that the losses had been due to the initial unsoundness
of the crop, for which the farmer must bear the responsibility. The
farmer, on the other hand, alleged that had he remained in control
he could have disposed of the crop and that the losses were due to the
Government's delay in moving it to the consumer. When the Gov-
ernment attempts to replace by a new official organization the intri-
cate machine which custom has built up for the distribution of any
general article of consumption, the result is confusion and increased
cost. The "trade" machine may be intricate and illogical, but it
has been in the habit of working and it has been shorn of waste by
competition.
If the Government does not constitute itself the sole buyer of the
production, it yet follows that it must assume the control of distri-
bution as well as of prices. Under normal conditions it is only by
the offer of a price above the average that any locality distant from
the source of supply, or otherwise unfavourably situated, can attract
to itself the supplies that it needs. With a flat 'rate of price the
producers will endeavour to sell as near home as possible. The near
localities would thus become abundantly or even over-supplied,
while the distant localities would have to go without. Not only
must the Government control the distribution, but also it must fix
prices all along the scale between the producer and the consumer. It is
not sufficient to fix retail prices only to the consumer, nor, at the other
end of the scale, producers' prices only. It was, therefore, found in
practice necessary to fix both the price to the consumer and to the
producer, and also the percentage that could be taken by each mid-
dleman in handling the commodity. This inevitably resulted in an
increased margin between the prime cost obtained by the producer
and the price finally paid by the consumer, because all the interme-
diaries between the producer and the consumer established their
claim to a commission, whereas in practice some or other of them
are generally cut out by competition, or have to take a lower toll
than that for which they are able to make out a case.
Speaking generally, when a Government has to make a bargain,
either with producers about price or with the members of a trade
for their services, it fails to get good terms. The accounts of the
weaker producers or agents are always put forward, and the price
is determined according to their needs and their expenditure. More-
over, the parties always deal in terms of round pennies and round
shillings, whereas in normal working profit and loss is determined
by eighths or sixteenths one way or other.
The main difficulty, however, that besets the control of agricultural
prices arises from the alternative nature of the farmer's business.
As a rule he has more than one way of disposing of his produce. For
example, he may find it more profitable to turn his wheat into food
for hens and sell eggs or poultry than to sell the wheat itself. He has
the alternative of selling his barley crop or grinding it into meal and
feeding pigs with it. His milk can be sold as such or converted into
butter, cheese or veal, according to which offers the greatest pros-
pect of profit. It therefore follows that for no article of agricultural
produce can the price be fixed without reference to the prices ruling
for other products which may from the farmer's point of view be
alternative. The farmer may even though this is more difficult and
acts more slowly vary his method of dealing with the land. For
example, at the time when the land was most in need of corn production
and the Food Production Department was engaged upon a strenuous
campaign to extend the area of arable cultivation, the farmer was
able to obtain much greater profits from the production of meat and
milk on grass land than from corn upon arable land, because a proper
parity had not been established between corn and meat. In fact,
the fixing of prices of agricultural produce should be preceded by a
scientific examination of all alternative conversions of one product
into another which are possible to the farmer. It is possible to con-
struct a scale of parity which shall show the price relationship of
such diverse articles as hay, corn, meat, milk and milk products.
Prices should then be fixed in accordance with this scale of parity,
weighting those articles which it is desired to produce in the general
interests of the community by giving them a rather better price than
the scale of parity would indicate.
The neglect of this principle led to many difficulties and much dis-
content in particular cases. For example, in 1918 the prices at which
the British farmer was called upon to sell his wheat, oats and bar-
ley were a good deal below the prices at which he could buy other
articles of cattle-food on which to feed his stock. The farmer was
forbidden to use wheat and barley for stock if it was sound and fit
for milling. On the other hand he could buy no feeding-stuffs so
cheap, and corn which had been damaged in harvesting or was other-
wise unfit for milling purposes was more valuable to the farmer as
stock food than the price fixed for sound corn. Inevitably this state
of things led both to carelessness in harvesting and storing corn and
to a certain amount of evasion of the order forbidding the use of
sound corn for feeding stock. That the extent of the evasion was not
Greater was due to the general state of public opinion at the time,
ut a more careful consideration of the question of parity of prices
would have removed the temptation and resulted in more corn being
available for the general public. Another example may be seen in
the case of butter. It takes from 23 to 3 gallons of milk to make a
pound of butter, yet for various reasons at the time when milk was
selling at 2s. a gallon or even higher prices, the price of butter was
fixed at 2s. 6d. per pound. The result was the almost complete dis-
appearance of home-made butter from the market.
A still more noteworthy example of the difficulties arising from
price fixation and the alternative use of products is supplied by the
later dealings with milk. Prices of milk were fixed at six monthly in-
tervals from 1917 onwards and rose steadily from year to year as
the shortage of labour and the cost of feeding-stuffs increased. The
prices fixed were without doubt remunerative to the great majority
of dairy farmers, as can be judged from the expansion of cow-keep-
ing and the abnormal rise in the price of dairy cows. Eventually
when whiter prices were fixed in the autumn of 1919 the public defi-
nitely revolted and the demand for milk declined all over the coun-
try. The season was also such as to produce an unexpected abun-
dance of milk. All wholesale milk-supply businesses must possess
some alternative means of utilizing milk and generally adopt cheese-
making in order to deal with their occasional surpluses. The Minis-
try of Food, in its anxiety to encourage winter milk production and
yet unable to fix a cheese price in parity with the price of milk, had
adopted the expedient of offering an allowance to wholesalers for all
cheese made in the autumn months. With the refusal of the public
to buy milk freely this cheese grew into quantities altogether beyond
anticipation; at the same time the allowance did not make up for
the wholesalers' losses on the contracts at maximum prices they had
made with farmers. The situation became impossible, and eventu-
ally early in 1920 control had to be abandoned, with the result of a
general breaking of contracts and a smart fall in price. A system
of control of prices which will work well enough and secure even
distribution during a period of scarcity lacks any power of adjusting
itself to the other situation, which is always liable to arise, of supply
outrunning demand. The public sooner or later revolts at the price,
whereupon the producer demands from the Government a market as
well as a price.
The establishment of fixed prices, by obliterating the variations
which under normal conditions meet variations in quality, causes
the deterioration of the general average of quality. Various exam-
ples were seen of this operation of a flat price. For example, in 1919
the finest grade of Cox's orange pippin apples had to be sold at
prices below that which they normally obtained in pre-war times,
because the maximum price for dessert apples, high as it was in
comparison to pre-war prices, still made no allowance for the choicest
grades. Nor is it possible under such conditions to remove these
special articles from the control. If there are two prices the retailer
immediately removes the whole of his wares into the higher category
and the consumer is faced with the alternative of paying the higher
price or going without.
Another example of the effect of the flat rate of price might be
seen in the general deterioration of quality of all kinds of cheese
made during the war years. The producer could get no higher price
for fine quality, and since storage and therefore the development of
flavour is inevitably accompanied by loss of weight, the cheese was
sold as quickly as possible without regard to its quality. Again,
the fixing of a flat rate of price for mutton and lamb of all kinds
resulted in a great diminution in the number of sheep kept upon the
arable land, like the South Downs and the Hampshire Downs.
These flocks derive their returns chiefly from the sale of lamb at
comparatively high prices, but when the extra price for lamb was
unobtainable with their more expensive methods of production
they became unprofitable. Between 1913 and 1919 the numbers
of sheep in England and Wales taken as a whole declined by 11-7%,
but the flocks in predominantly arable counties like Hampshire,
Wilts and West Sussex lost about 40 % of their sheep. The decline
in sheep fell in the main upon the arable land sheep because they
could no longer obtain the normal differential prices for their output.
One general conclusion may be drawn from the operations of
controls during the later years of the war, a conclusion strength-
ened by a consideration of the parallel events in Germany and
France where the pressure was greater that State action has
very little power to compel agriculturists to conduct their
businesses along lines contrary to the interests or traditions of
the farmers themselves.
For example, numerous orders and regulations were promul-
gated from 1914 onwards forbidding the slaughter^ calves, even
8 4
AICARD, JEAN F. V. AIR BOMBS
to the extent of closing the markets to the sale of calves for
slaughter and of forbidding the sale of veal. Though the
measures had the approval of all the farmers' organizations they
were systematically evaded and were wholly without effect in
checking the increasing slaughter of calves. Again, the orders
that forbade the use of barley and wheat for feeding stock in
1917 and 1918 were not observed whenever the farmer was in
any real difficulty about getting food for animals. No farmer
will see live stock starve and the agricultural conscience was
salved by a consideration of the extraordinary mixtures of
waste material that were being purveyed as cattle-food at higher
prices than the farmer was allowed to receive for his sound wheat
and barley. Again, in the rationing of the self-producer, the
regulations declaring that a farmer might only retain so many of
the pigs he killed at home, or so much of the poultry, milk,
butter or cheese he produced, were simply ignored. It is impos-
sible to enforce such regulations except by a system of espionage
and inspection that is impossible in war-time for lack of men.
Rationing was carried out most successfully in Great Britain,
and the great force behind it was the public sense of its need
and the feeling that it was being administered with perfect
fairness and no favour. Nor was the pinch of scarcity ever
severe enough to break down the general moral; the people at
large did feel hungry and were irked by the restrictions in their
diet, but they could carry on and were not impelled to illicit
traffic in order to obtain food. But since the farmer saw no dire
need he felt no particular compulsion to change his ordinary way
of living. It is not that the farmer is less patriotic than his
fellow-men, but the war was far away from his countryside, and
he is an individualist by temperament and habit, less subject to
the crowd suggestion that draws the city dwellers into a common
action, and with his accustomed routine as the most compelling
factor in his psychology.
Should the occasion ever again arise it will be well to recognize
that the agricultural community cannot be driven or subjected
to the external control that proved successful enough with other
industries; it must be organized from within to cooperate with
the State. In this particular case agriculturists felt that their im-
portance to the nation had been ignored in the early years of the
war, and when the time came to regiment them in the common
effort there was always a tinge of opposition in their attitude to
the measures that were then forced upon them.
Speaking broadly, it may be said that, whatever criticism may
be passed on the working of the control of prices in the United
Kingdom during the war period, whatever may have been the
defects in the system that have been noted above, these faults
were inherent in the nature of the task and were not products of
the administration. The farming community often felt itself
oppressed, the consuming public often regarded itself as exploited,
individual hardships were inflicted and in other cases ill-deserved
profits were lightly piled up, but the control did work and did
prevent an intolerable state of war between consumers and pro-
ducers. Control there had to be, and one may look back upon it
as a reasonably successful improvisation, characterized by the
national qualities of fair play and compromise.
AICARD, JEAN FRANCOIS VICTOR (1848-1921), French
poet and dramatist (see 1.434), published after 1910 a collection
of poems for children (1912) and Hollande, Algerie (1913), as
well as various volumes of war poetry, a novel Arlette des Mayans
(1917), and two volumes of adventure stories, Un Bandit a la
FranQaise and its sequel Le fameux chevalier Gaspard de Besse,
both in 1919. He died in Paris May 13 1921.
AINLEY, HENRY (1879- ), English actor, was born at
Leeds Aug. 21 1879, and was educated for business; but a
meeting with George Alexander and an engagement for a
" walking-on " part turned his thoughts to the stage, and he
joined F. R. Benson's touring company for two years. He then
appeared at theLyceum theatre, London, in 1900 as Gloucester in
Henry V., and in 1902 at the St. James's theatre as Paolo in
Stephen Phillips's Paolo and Francesco. He played Orlando in
^5 You Like It both at the Comedy theatre in 1906 and at His
Majesty's theatre in 1907. In 1910 he appeared there again
in many Shakespearean parts, and in 1914 he played Leontes and
Malvolio in Granville Barker's production of The Winter's Tale
and Twelfth Night at the Savoy theatre. After serving dur-
ing the World War he began management at the St. James's
theatre with Tolstoy's Reparation in 1919, following it up
by a production of Julius Caesar early in 1920. In 1921 he
played Prospero in The Tempest at the Aldwych theatre, and
John Beal in Lord Dunsany's //.
AIR BOMBS. Although the Hague declaration of Oct. 18
1907 contained a clause prohibiting, for a period extending till
the next peace conference, the " discharge of projectiles and
explosives from balloons or by other new methods of a similar
nature," this declaration was only ratified by Great Britain,
Austria-Hungary, the United States and Turkey. France,
Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia and Spain did not sign it, and it
was therefore regarded as " practically without force " (British
official Land Warfare, 1912, p. 24). The only limiting condition
of aerial bombardment was, therefore, that applying to all
bombardments, viz.: The prohibition of bombardments of
undefended localities. The word " undefended " was not more
closely defined; and it could be, and by some far-seeing authori-
ties was, presumed that aerial bombardment of localities would
certainly figure as an element of the " next Great War."
In the article AIR DEFENCE will be found an account of the
principles of defence against air bombardment, as they were
evolved in the World War of 1914-8. The present article deals
with the bombs themselves, as material weapons, and with
their accessories.
Projectiles dropped from aircraft, officially termed "Aerial
Bombs," may be classified as High Explosive Bombs (H.E.
bombs), Incendiary Bombs, and Bomb Parachute Flares.
/. High Explosive Bombs. The principal use ol H.E. bombs is to
destroy material of all kinds; they are also used occasionally against
personnel. They are a species of common shell, but differ from gun
shells as, owing to the absence of shock of discharge, their envelopes
require less strength, and consequently the proportion of weight
of charge to weight of projectile is higher. With regard to their
striking energy, bombs and gun shells, when fired at high angles, are
comparable; but the striking energy of low-trajectory gun shells,
other things being equal, is far beyond that of bombs dropped even
from an extreme height. The field of action of a bomb is not re-
stricted, as is that of a gun shell, by its extreme range, but depends
upon the flying capacity of the aircraft employed ; but the ballistic
conditions under which a gun is used give an accuracy of fire which,
in the case of bombs dropped from aircraft, is reduced to a minimum.
High explosive bombs are classified as Light Case and Heavy Case.
Light case bombs, pear-shaped receptacles of mild steel, weighing
when filled from 16 Ib. to too lb., were made in great numbers in the
early years of the World War. They were all of the same type. The
case was made in two parts; the heavier, the nose end, was a hemi-
spherical casting; the body was conoidal, tapering towards the tail
end and the two parts were joined by an angle steel ring. In the
6s-lb. bomb, for example, the nose end was -25 in. and the body
064 in. thick. As time went on the type developed; fig. I shows a
Filled Amatol
230-lb. bomb made of mild steel, -128 in. thick in the body and in-
creasing to -375 in. in the nose. It carries 140 lb. of 40/60 amatol.
AIR BOMBS
Light case bombs have practically no fragmentation and depem
for effect on their charge alone. Heavy case bombs are made o
single castings of steel or iron such as the heavy case H2-lb. bom
shown in fig. 2. Its cast-iron body varies from -5 in. to I in in thick
ness and it carries about 28 Ib. of 80/20 amatol. The fragmentation
of these bombs is of the highest importance.
Bombs are usually provided with a central tube running the!
whole length, fitting into screwed sockets for which the bomb i
tapped at nose and tail, except when the bomb, like the light cast
23p-lb. bomb, is provided with_a sharp nose, when a tail socket alone
exists. This central tube is divided into two parts by a steel ring
called the diaphragm for convenience in loading and keeping com
ponents in their place. In the heavy case 2o-lb. and 5o-lb. bombs, the
tail is prolonged outside the bomb proper by a light construction
called a fairing, to provide a suitable shape for aerial flight. The
2O-lb. bomb is peculiar in having only a nose socket and in the
shape of its central tube. Lifting, lugs are attached to many bombs
They are made of wrought iron and are riveted to the case so as tc
be in the same vertical plane as the centre of gravity of the fillec
bomb, when the latter is suspended in a horizontal position. Al
first bombs were released when horizontal; but now they are fre-
quently suspended vertically from an eyebolt attached to the nose
fuze or screwed into the nose socket. When a bomb is thus releasec
it turns over in flight and falls nose- first. Lifting bands of steel are
sometimes used in place of lifting lugs. Four vanes or fins, placed in
quadrature, are riveted to the case of all bombs about the tail end,
to ensure steadiness in flight. The interiors of bombs are varnished
or lacquered; they are then filled with high explosive.
High Explosives used in H.E. Bombs_. Trinitrotoluene, known as
trotyl and T.N.T., is used as the main charge of a bomb or as a
topping to a charge of amatol, which on account of its hygroscopic
nature has to be protected from damp. T.N.T., when compressed
into pellets, is also used in exploders and relays. Amatol is used as a
main charge for bombs. It is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and
T.N.T. ; at first it consisted of 40 parts ammonium nitrate and 60
parts T.N.T. (40/60 amatol) ; later on, 80 parts ammonium nitrate
and 20 parts T.N.T. (80/20 amatol) was the mixture adopted.
Tetronitromethylaniline, known as tetryl, Composition Exploding
or C.E., when compressed into pellets is used in exploders and relays.
Fulminate of mercury is used for detonators.
Bomb Components. Bomb components consist of fuzes, exploders,
relays, detonators and igniters. Those selected for a given purpose
are called an assemblage. The assemblage varies with the bomb and
the purpose for which it is to be employed ; but in every case an H.E.
bomb is detonated on impact by the action of the striker of a fuze,
which explodes a cap or patch of cap composition, detonating
a relay or exploder, which detonates the main charge of the bomb.
Exploders are hollow cylinders of sheet brass or paper filled with
compressed pellets of JT.N.T. or C.E. They are provided at one or
both ends with metal envelopes or sleeves for the reception of the
particular detonator with which they are to be used. Exploders vary
in length and other details. Relays are exploders of a special kind,
usually filled with pierced C.E. pellets; thev are always next the
fuze, to which they are sometimes attached* by screwed thimbles
called adapters.
Detonators are copper tubes of various sizes and are charged with
from 45 gr. to 60 gr. of fulminate of mercury according to the use for
which they are intended. When they are to be fired by a striker
they are closed by a cap. Igniters are a special form of detonator,
which carry between their charge and the cap a piece of match
designed to cause a certain delay (up to 15 sees.) between the
moment of impact of the bomb and its explosion. The match com-
position consists of nitrates and chlorates of potash, etc., mixed with
shellac and methylated spirit.
Fuzes. Both nose and tail fuzes are provided for H.E. bombs.
The former are all on the percussion principle and are usually called
direct-acting fuzes (D.A. fuzes). The first to be used by the British
was a modification of the No. 1 8 gun percussion fuze made for a
tapered fuze hole. The motion of the striker, however, was controlled
by a collar carrying two small vanes, called arming vanes. The vanes
rotated as the bomb descended, eventually screwing the collar off
the striker and leaving it free to act in the same way as it would in
No. 18 after undergoing the shock of discharge when fired in a gun.
A tapered fuze hole being found an unnecessary refinement in the
nose bushes of bombs, the latter were tapped cylindrically and fuzes
with corresponding threads were adopted. The latest development
is the D.A. pistol (see fig. 2) which is an ordinary percussion fuze
fitted at the top with a cover to which the vanes are attached, as
is also a hanging eyebolt for the suspension of the bomb. At the
bottom end the fuse is attached by an adapter to a detonator and
relay and the assemblage thus complete can be screwed into the
bomb. In certain special nose fuzes the action of the vanes is
utilized to screw the striker into position. Safety devices exist in
all fuzes. Tail fuzes are all of that type to which the term pistol
was originally given. (See figs. I and 2.) The striker at its upper end
terminates in a screw upon which works a collar with vanes attached.
As the bomb falls the collar screws off and releases the striker, which
is then only held in position by a spiral spring; on impact this spring
is compressed and the striker is forced down upon a cap which ex-
plodes the bomb. If desired, however, a match burning a certain
number of seconds may be interpolated between the cap and the
charge, thus forming an igniter which secures the desired delay
action.
When a nose fuze is employed the striker is on impact driven on to
a detonator which causes a practically instantaneous explosion ; but
all tail fuzes must of necessity have a slight delay, for they only act
after the speed of the bomb has been reduced considerably by
meeting with some serious resistance, and this results practically
in a delay of at least a quarter of a second, which delay can, as
already explained, be extended up to 15 sees, by the use of igniters.
It is evident, therefore, that a bomb set in action by a nose fuze has
no chance of penetrating a target before explosion takes place;
there is but a small crater formed and fragments of the bomb are
scattered over a wide area. A nose fuze, therefore, is used with
heavy case bombs in the attack of personnel and light structures,
such as aeroplanes in transit, where crater effect is not required.
With tail fuzes, on the contrary, bombs falling in suitable ground
Will bury themselves before exploding, producing considerable
craters but scattering no fragments. Tail fuzes in connexion with
light case bombs are therefore employed in the attack of railways,
dumps, buildings, and for general local destruction.
In the attack of certain buildings a combination of a nose and
tail fuze is adopted. The shearing pin of the former is such as not to
be broken as the bomb passes through the roof, while the tail fuze
has a delay which will cause an explosion inside the building. If in
such a case a tail fuze only were used, should the bomb break up on
impact, the delay action might entail incomplete detonation or
there might be no detonation at all. When bombs are made of cast
iron both nose and tail fuzes are always employed.
Carriage of Bombs. Filled bombs are stored with all sockets, etc.,
plugged; components are packed in their own receptacles. Before
the various detonators, relays, fuzes, etc., which constitute the
assemblage, are inserted in the central tube of a bomb, the latter
is tested in the dropping gear; when all is proved to be satisfactory
the bomb is made " live "; but all safety devices are kept in opera-
tion till the moment of ascent. If a machine lands with bombs
unexpended, all safety pins and other devices are made operative
before the bombs are removed from the carrier.
Sighting of Bombs. If a machine be flown directly on a target
at a known constant height and with a known constant speed, a
sighting apparatus can be employed from which, however, accurate
results cannot be expected. Its use depends upon the following
theoretical considerations: a bomb, when released, will continue
to travel with the velocity of the machine and will pass over a
horizontal distance before striking earth, which will depend on this
velocity and the time taken to fall from the height at which the
machine is flying. If then a right-angled triangle be formed with an
altitude equal to the given height and a base equal to the horizontal
distance passed over by the bomb, the slope of the hypothenuse will
give the direction of Che line of sight which must be employed.
The sighting apparatus is fitted with a horizontal wire which acts
as a foresight and with three other similar wires which act as back-
sights, each for a given speed and height. Thus an observer using
the backsight will have his line of sight so directed that when it
passes through the target he knows he must release the bomb.
The heights and speeds provided for are : a height of 6,000 ft.
and a speed of 90 m. an hour; a height of 10,000 ft. and a speed of
80 m. an hour; a height of 15,000 ft. and a speed of 70 m. an hour.
The foresight is capable of fore-and-aft movement by which cor-
rections for wind and density of the air can be given. Two fore-and-
aft wires in the. apparatus, placed vertically one over the other,
serve in preserving the proper direction of flight.
Typical Bombs. The following are typical bombs for the purposes
lamed: The 2O-lb. is a small heavy case bomb, capable of carriage
>y light machines ; it is used in the attack of personnel, aerodromes
and road transport. It is made of steel, its actual weight being 24
b. ; it will take a charge of 4 Ib. 9 oz. of 40/60 amatol or 4 Ib. of
io/2o amatol. The so-lb. bomb is a medium heavy case bomb for
;eneral use especially against material, and can be carried by the
mailer bombing machines on long-distance raids. Its actual weight
s 49s Ib. ; it carries a charge of 10 Ib. 80/20 amatol ; it is made of
ast iron, J in. thick in the body and f in. thick at the nose; the
iverall dimensions are 281 in. long by 7 in. maximum diameter,
t is sometimes carried vertically slung from the eyebolt of the nose
uze, sometimes horizontally when it is attached to the dropping
'ear by means of a steel band. The 112 Ib. bomb is a larger heavy
ase bomb (see fig. 2) used for similar purposes in larger machines,
he 230-lb. bomb is a large light case bomb, used for crater production
n the attack of railways and buildings (see fig. i).
In addition to these types of bomb, special bombs have been
designed for special purposes. Thus the 336-lb. bomb was designed
o effect demolitions by the distribution of heavy fragments. It
arned a bursting charge of 70 Ib. of compressed T.N.T. and the
ody was built up of bulged segments of steel I in. at their thickest
>arts. The l8o-lb. bomb was designed as an armour-piercing bomb,
t consists of a pear-shaped steel case varying in thickness from -9
n - to 3-3 in. from tail to nose, being provided with a cap of mild
teel on the same principle as a capped armour-piercing projectile
or a gun, and carrying a bursting charge of 20 Ib. of 40/60 amatol
r T.N.T.
86
AIR BOMBS
A light case 52O-lb. bomb has also been made for crater production
and for use against submarines. When used in the latter capacity
it has a special fuze to obtain " depth-charge " effect, a purpose for
which the 65-lb. bomb was used in the early part of the World War.
The actual weight of this bomb is 525 Ib. and it carries 340 Ib. of
40/60 amatol. There is also a heavy case 55O-Ib. bomb, with a body
of cast steel varying from -75 in. to 1-5 in. in thickness; it carries
180 Ib. of 40/60 amatol.
As carrying power is developed, bombs tend to become larger:
thus in a recent professional lecture (see Journal of the Royal Ar-
tillery, March 1921) a bomb of 1.650 Ib. was spoken of, and even
heavier types may be seen in the near future.
2. ' Incendiary Bombs. In British bombs of present make the
following compositions are used : -Thermalloy, which consists of
50 parts magnetic oxide of iron, 27 parts aluminium and 23 parts
sulphur; thermite, which consists of 76 parts magnetic oxide of
iron and 24 parts aluminium; phosphorus; carcass composition,
which consists principally of ground saltpetre, to which is added
ground sulphur, sulphide of antimony, black powder and powdered
aluminium, mixed with powdered resin, tallow and turpentine.
The special match composition for igniters in incendiary bombs is
approximately 34% chlorate of potash, 30% iron filings, 5% each
of powdered aluminium and nitrate of barium and 26% shellac
and methylated spirit.
The following are typical incendiary bombs: The modified
carcass bomb is made of tin plate, its overall dimensions being 195
in. long by 5 in. maximum diameter. It is tapped at the tail for a
pistol. It carries 3^ Ib. carcass and 131 Ib. thermalloy composition,
the total weight of bomb and pistol being 23^ pounds. It has two
lifting lugs and is carried horizontal. During the loading of this
bomb a former is employed to preserve the necessary cavity for the
reception of the firing arrangement which consists of the pistol, the
special igniter and the adapter and its attachment. The special igniter
consists of a 28-bore Eley cap fitted with a copper sleeve containing
a strip of instantaneous fuze, and the adapter is a screwed ring
socket to which is attached a nozzle-ended celluloid tube loaded with
5 gr. of match composition. On preparation for action the igniter is
pushed into the adapter, the latter is screwed on to the pistol which
is then screwed into the bomb.
The caseless incendiary bomb is made of thermalloy moulded
over an iron framework; its overall dimensions are 27-8 in. by 5 in.
(side of square of maximum section). The total weight of the bomb
is about 30 Ib. of which 24! Ib. consist of thermalloy. The bomb can
be stowed either in a vertical or horizontal position, and it is fired
by a tail fuze and special igniter. It is fired in a similar manner
to the modified carcass bomb, except that in addition to the pistol,
special igniter and adapter, a length of instantaneous fuze is placed
below the nozzle of the celluloid tube.
The baby incendiary bomb consists of three parts, the body, the
cartridge and the cap or cover. The body is cylindrical and of thin
plate tin, but is weighted at the bottom ; in the centre of this weighted
portion is placed a short pin or striker. A little above the latter are
two suspending lugs for the cartridge, made by partially cutting
out two small portions of the plate on opposite sides of the body and
bending them inwards so as to form a support. The cartridge, which
is of the ordinary sporting shape, has a percussion cap in the centre
of the base and rests on the two lugs. The cap or cover is dome-
shaped at the bottom, above which are three vanes with a circular
disc on top of them. The assembled bomb weighs about 6 oz. and
is about 6 in. long by I in. in diameter. The bomb is carried on the
machine with the vaned cap downwards, but on release it turns over
and falls with the vaned cap upwards. When falling from heights of
over 30 ft. the lugs on which the cartridge rests are on impact sheared
or bent sufficiently to permit it to set forward on to the striker, when
the cap is exploded and the cartridge case ejected and the thermite
ignited simultaneously. These bombs are always used in masses, and
are packed in a special carrier which allows them to fall with a con-
siderable spread ; thus, to take a particular example, the 272 bombs
packed in one form of carrier would, if released at a height of 5,000
ft., cover an area of 30 yd. by 80 yards. The carrier can be dropped
complete if it is desirable to get rid of the bombs speedily, as in the
case of a forced landing. With large bombing planes like the Hand-
ley Page, bombs can be distributed either by using several machines
or by successive releases from a single machine. The small bombs
provide a many-chance method of attack, which is not possible with
the larger incendiary bombs, for with the latter a direct hit must be
secured upon a combustible target and the chances are greatly
against this combination being achieved. As, however, the small
bombs descend in showers with a large spread and on impact further
disperse their cartridges over the target area, the chances of a suc-
cessful attack are considerable.
The 4O-lb. incendiary and smoke bomb can be either burst on
impact to produce a smoke screen or burst in air for the attack of
kite-balloons, etc. It is made of tin plate -025 in. thick and carries
30 Ib. of phosphorus. Its overall dimensions are I ft. 10-75 ' n - long
by 8 in. maximum diameter. It is tapped at nose and tail and has a
central tube for a burster containing C.E. pellets and black powder.
When used for smoke production a D.A. pistol is screwed into the
nose and the tail is plugged, but when an air burst is required the
nose socket is plugged and a special time fuze is screwed into
the tail socket. The bomb when burst in air spreads out a shower of
burning phosphorus over a circle of some 250 yd. in diameter. The
lumps of phosphorus slowly burn out in falling and about half are
used up in the first 2,000 ft. from the point of burst. If the latter be
3,000 ft. above the target the bomb will be practically lost. The
special time fuze employed, the Medgelly fuze, is set in action by a
striker, normally held back by a spring in compression, which is
released by a trigger when the bomb is dropped.
The Ranken Dart. This dart, invented by Engr.-Com. F. Ranken,
was used for the attack of Zeppelins and for other purposes. It
consisted of a hollow tin cylinder, about the size of a large candle;
the bottom was closed by a pointed bullet of steel or iron, and its
top by a lid of tin through which passed a spindle capable of vertical
movement and terminating at the end outside the dart in four flanges
or vanes. The cylinder was filled with incendiary composition which
was fired after the fashion of a Christmas cracker. For this purpose
a strip of friction match had one end attached to the cylindrical
body and the other to the spindle. Then if the dart fell upon a
Zeppelin from above, its sharp bullet point would enable it to pene-
trate the outer covering upon which, however, the four flanges or
vanes would catch ; a jerk would thus be given to the spindle causing
the match to be torn apart and ignited, and the dart, held fast in the
cover of the Zeppelin, would burst into flames.
3. Bomb Parachute Flares. These flares are used for reconnais-
sance at night, for illuminating and showing up ground held by
the enemy, and for affording light to a pilot wishing to land in the
dark. The flares are cylindrical paper tubes filled with aluminium
composition and primed with magnesium composition; they are
sometimes called candles. They are lighted by means of pieces
of quickmatch attached to the primed end, the other end being
fixed in a cup arrangement which is attached by a wire rope to the
parachute.
Electric-Ignition Parachute Flare-Bombs are of two kinds almost
similar in construction. One is used as a reconnaissance flare, the
other as a landing flare to enable pilots to land in the dark. They are
both launched by means of a launching tube attached to the fuselage
of the aeroplane, and so designed that as the bomb leaves the launch-
ing tube an electric circuit is completed, and a platinum-silver wire
bridge heated. This, by igniting a priming, sets a delay pellet in
action and, after the bomb has dropped some 1,000 ft., a powder puff
is fired, which both ignites the candles and projects the parachute
clear of the cylinder. The reconnaissance flare (with a 9 seconds'
delay pellet) burns for three to four minutes, weighs 6 Ib. 13 oz.,
and has a parachute weighing n oz. and measuring about 5 ft. 6 in.
across when open. The landing flare weighs 5 Ib. 45 oz., and has a
parachute of the same size as the other but of lighter material,
weighing only 35 oz. The candles burn for from 2j to 3! min..
and the delay pellet only gives one sec. delay so that the bomb opens
after it has dropped some 20 feet. In both bombs the candle power
is about 40,000. (J. R. J. J.)
German Air Bombs. The general characteristics of air bombs being
the same in all countries, British practice may be regarded as typical
and foreign bombs need not be dealt with. Some notes on German
air bombs are added, however, on account of the special interest
attaching to these projectiles, which for the first time for many
centuries brought war to the very doors of the British people.
The earliest types designed by the Germans were so far ineffective
that as early as the spring of 1914 they were replaced by bombs of a
type known as " Carbonite." These bombs, which were used through-
out the earlier part of the war, were pear-shaped and solid, pointed,
and had a propeller-actuated pistol of the same type as those
described earlier in this article. Their special characteristic was the
form of air-drag used : instead of fins, a sort of inverted tin cap was
used, attached to the tail of the bomb by stays. The smallest of
these bombs weighed 43 kgm. (about 10 Ib.), and the heaviest 50 kgm.
(no Ib.). Small incendiary bombs of the carbonite type were also
used. There was, further, a grenade-like projectile thrown by hand,
which weighed 800 grammes (1} Ib.), but this was criticized as being
too small to be effective, as also was the 4^ kgm. H.E. carbonite bomb.
In 1916, these bombs were replaced by a different type known as
" P. und W.," which continued in use to the end of the war. They
were torpedo-shaped 1 and were fitted with slanting vanes which not
only acted as an air-drag to keep the projectile nose down but also
imparted rotation to the falling bomb, and so enabled the German
designers to replace the propeller as an arming device by centrifugal
bolts, on the same principle as those of gun fuzes. As the height at
which bombs were released had by that time greatly increased, the
additional time required for the arming of the fuze was of no im-
portance. Time fuzes were also employed, chiefly for obtaining
delay effects after impact.
The standard sizes of these " P. und W." bombs were the I2j
kgm. (27 Ib.) a thick-walled bomb with instantaneous fuze and
the 50, 100, 300 and 1,000 kgm. " mine" or thin-walled bombs, with
bursters respectively of 23 kgm., 60 kgm., 180 kgm., and 680 kgm.
One other form of air projectile should be mentioned as, although
it was never used on any large scale, it had a moment of notoriety
1 Torpedo-shaped bombs were also used by the French, who
named them " pisciforme " (fish-shaped) bombs, in contradistinction
to " piroforme " (pear-shaped).
AIR DEFENCE
in the early stages of the war. This was the dart, a heavy bullet p]
steel sharpened to a point at one end. These darts, released in
showers, were intended to be effective against personnel.
(C. F. A.)
AIR DEFENCE. Even before aerial navigation and aviation
had been developed to a practical point, the employment of
aircraft in war for the attack of vulnerable places was discussed
from time to time in a speculative way, and in the seven or
eight years preceding the World War the types and characteristics
of aircraft became so far definite that technical study could be
brought to bear on the problem of defence, especially that of
artillery defence. But this period of seven or eight years was
short; military history could give no lead; practical experiments
were almost impossible. Moreover, in the existing state of
international law, liability to air attack was understood to
depend not on whether a place was vulnerable, in the sense that
its destruction would impair the capacity of the nation for
carrying on the war, but on whether it was " defended," i.e.
fortified in the conventional sense of the word, or at any rate
held by a ground garrison against ground attack. Attention was
therefore directed chiefly to the question of air attack on what
according to the prevailing ideas were " military " objectives,
and in view of the small numbers of aircraft then available such
attacks were regarded as unlikely to affect the course of operations
seriously.
In these conditions, and especially in the absence of all data
based on practical experience, it is not surprising that defence
against air attack was everywhere in a rudimentary state at the
outset of the World War. In the war itself, on the contrary,
experience, data and methods crowded upon one another from
first to last, and through the clearer definition of the problems to
be faced on the one hand and the constant process of trial and
error on the other, it has become possible to formulate the main
principles of air defence with some approach to precision.
/. General Considerations.
Air defence, as discussed in the present article, deals with
the arrangements which deny to enemy aircraft access to vulner-
able points. By " access " is implied the gaining of a position
either directly over the objective or sufficiently close to it for the
success of the attack. Amongst " vulnerable points " are in-
cluded bodies of troops and their materiel in the field, centres of
population, large magazines, arsenals, harbours, ports, dock-
yards, ships and convoys at sea, big industrial centres, and the
like. As with a fleet, the primary duty of the air forces is to seek
out the enemy air forces and destroy them; but the problem in
the air is far more difficult than on the sea, as a third dimension
has to be taken into account, i.e. that of height. When we
remember what difficulties have been introduced into naval war
by the introduction of the submersible warship, slow as this is
and small as is its up-and-down range, and when we realize
further that, in the air, opposing craft can pass at great heights
both above and below each other, move at speeds that are enor-
mous relatively to any rate of movement on or under the sea and
have to cope with extraordinary difficulties in detecting one
another's proximity, it will be seen that the task in front of the
air forces of any nation is the most difficult of all.
There is no " command of the air " while the enemy disputes
it. Therefore, against attacks by air, it is a logical necessity to
provide ground defences, and to limit the radius of the air
units allotted to cooperate with them. But though defence
against attack by air, as on the ground, may be active or passive,
yet to be effective it must be both. Further, the conditions
under which aircraft move, by day and by night respectively,
are so widely different, that the conditions of the defence must
be correspondingly varied to meet them.
It is not intended here to deal with operations launched over
long distances against enemy aerodromes and depots, such being
the role of the air forces alone, but solely with the local defence
of areas occupied by " vulnerable points " of the kind which have
been enumerated above.
The instruments of air defence are: (a) the machine-gun
on the ground; (6) the machine-gun in the aeroplane; (c) the
heavier guns on the ground; (d) the searchlight, the sound locator,
the observer post; (e) the aerial obstacle; (/) local protection on
the ground, i.e. against bomb splinters and machine-gun fire, and
camouflage.
Each of these weapons supplements a deficiency in one or more
of the others; none is complete without one or more of the
others acting in conjunction with it. From this it follows that, in
any anti-aircraft organization, cooperation in effort can only be
effected by organizing units of the air force, artillery and engineers
under a single command, as in a formation of all arms in ground
warfare.
The following are some of the forms which attacks by air may
take: bombing by airships, aeroplanes or seaplanes, singly or
in formation; the harassing of troops on the ground or sea with
machine-gun fire by aeroplanes or seaplanes, singly or in pairs;
torpedoing ships at anchor, by seaplanes, probably in pairs or
escorted by " scout " (i.e. air fighting) machines. To these may
be added, though they only indirectly affect the problems here
discussed: photographic or visual reconnaissance, by aeroplanes
or seaplanes, singly; and aerial engagements, by aeroplanes in
formation on hostile patrol, i.e. ready to engage air-fighting
groups of the enemy, or by aeroplanes, singly or in groups,
attacking machines which are engaged in observation duties
(especially artillery observation) in connexion with ground
operations.
Anti-aircraft units are concerned primarily with hostile
attacks the objectives of which are on the ground or sea; the
defence of objectives in the air is a secondary matter, but never-
theless important when air-force units are not at hand to under-
take the duty themselves.
It may not be amiss at this stage to mention a few of the
peculiarities of sound and light. Although these properties are
generally known, their full importance in relation to air defence is
seldom recognized by those who have little experience in anti j
aircraft work. Sound travels at a certain known rate, namely
about 1,100 ft. per second. Aircraft are generally first detected
by ear. By the time the sound of a machine reaches the ear, the
machine making it will have moved some distance away from the
spot where it made the sound. A path of sound is deflected
by the different velocities of the various air currents through
which it passes on its way to the ground. A machine in the air is
only visible to an observer on the ground by reason of light rays
reflected from the surfaces of the machine, reaching his eye in
sufficient intensity to enable him to detect it. Thus a machine
flying " straight into the sun " is invisible to an observer also
facing the sun. A spherical or cylindrical surface reflects light
chiefly in the direction from which the illumination comes;
hence, in the case of a balloon or airship, the observer sees the
target best when he and a searchlight are on the same side of it.
A flat surface reflects light towards an observer further from the
source of illumination than its own position; thus an aeroplane
flying steadily in a searchlight beam is generally seen best when
it is between the observer and a searchlight. It does not follow
that because aircraft are invisible to observers on the ground
the ground is invisible to an observer in the machine, and
nice versa. The greatest difficulty is frequently experienced in
gaining the correct focus for the eye, and, having gained it, to
maintain that focus. This is a difficulty common to the observer
both on the ground and in the air, but whilst the former has only
to look upwards, the latter has in addition to look all round and
below his machine. Neither has the assistance of intermediate
objects by means of which the focus of the eye can be altered
and held at definite stages. By day the observer in the air is
deaf, by night he is deaf and blind. A searchlight shining into
the sky is only visible by reason of the particles of " dust " or
moisture in the path of the beam. In a perfectly clear or clean
atmosphere the beam is invisible. 1
1 Unusually clear atmospheric conditions with a few high clouds
were responsible for popular rumours prevalent during the war in
1914-8, to the effect that a new invisible searchlight had been dis-
covered which simply threw a disc of light far away up in the sky,
and was otherwise quite invisible.
88
AIR DEFENCE
//. Conditions affecting the various Instruments of Air Defence.
(a) The machine-gun on the ground, on account of its com-
paratively short range, can only deal with targets flying at low
heights, e.g. up to 3,000 or 4,000 feet. On the other hand, the
ease with which it can be handled enables it to cope with the
rapid change in angular velocity of low-flying targets in a way
which the heavier guns cannot do. Low-flying machines move
over their ground targets with a very rapid angular velocity,
and owing to their small height they are often invisible from the
ground objective until at a close range. Every unit of an army,
therefore, requires anti-aircraft machine-gun equipment for its
own local protection.
(b) The machine-gun mounted in the aeroplane can attack its
target at close range, and, if its own aeroplane is superior to the
target in speed and in climbing and manoeuvre power, can main-
tain that attack until the combat ceases. It is therefore of great
importance in air defence.
Mention has already been made of the difficulties of seeing ob-
jects other than on the ground, and of hearing; and to overcome
them it usually becomes necessary to direct the pilot and ob-
server by signal (visual or wireless) from the ground, to assist
them in finding the target which has been selected for attack. 1
Other serious handicaps to the observer in the air are the un-
stable platform for his gun and the difficulty of estimating the
range to his target.
(c) The heavier gun on the ground acts in cooperation with
the machine-gun in the air, and in substitution for it when
weather conditions or other reasons prohibit the use of the
aeroplane.
The gunnery problem is an extremely intricate one owing to
the difficulties involved in range finding, the rates of change in
angular velocity, the ease with which a target can change its
height and course, and the fact that the target can only be
engaged for a very limited space of time. The difficulties of the
artilleryman originate from the time of flight of his projectile.
On the other hand, he is not hampered as is the airman by the
unstable platform and by the noise made by the engine.
(d) The searchlight has three roles to fulfil in air defence, (i)
It points out the selected target to the defending aeroplanes.
At night the pilot is deaf and practically blind, and, unless he
carries a searchh'ght in his machine, he must depend on those on
the ground to show him where the target is moving. (2) It
illuminates it for the artillery. The artilleryman on the ground
is blind, and cannot use his sights unless his target is well
illuminated so that he can see it. (3) It exerts a moral effect
deterrent to the attack. It is necessary to read the personal
narratives of night-flying pilots, and to listen to their conversa-
tions, to appreciate the great moral effect which the systematic
and unhesitating use of searchlight beams has upon them when
they are approaching their objectives on the ground. They know
that once the searchlight succeeds in laying on them they become
the target for every gun and aeroplane within reach an
experience to be avoided as far as possible.
There are peculiarities in a searchlight beam which handicap the
detachment to a large degree ; the principal one is the frequent inabil-
ity of a man standing close to a projector to see a target in the beam
from it. This is sometimes due to a general prevalence of a local
mist which diffuses light in all directions in the neighbourhood of
the projector, but it may also be due to the blinding effect of a
secondary cone of light close to the base of the main searchlight
beam, which prevents the man close to the projector from detect-
ing the light reflected from the target. At distances, however, vary-
ing from 6 to 20 ft. to one side of the projector, the effect of this
secondary cone of light is generally so slight as to cause no ioter-
ference. Projectors have accordingly been provided with long con-
trol arms fitted with wheels or handles at the end, so that the man
whose duty it is to manipulate the beam can do so with the mini-
mum of outside assistance.
An aeroplane can, by " side slipping " or otherwise executing some
unexpected manoeuvre, generally escape from a single illuminating
1 By day the visual signal may be given by gunfire. By night it is
more often made by the searchlight. For this purpose the Germans
in Belgium erected large illuminated " arrows " composed of in-
candescent lamps in troughs of wood, designed to revolve on the
roofs of concrete shelters.
searchlight, owing to the differences in the reflecting surfaces of an
aeroplane when viewed from different angles. If, however, three
beams manned by good detachments succeed in training on it,
they can generally hold it whatever the gymnastics attempted by
the target. On the other hand, if a target is illuminated by a com-
paratively large number of beams, say eight or ten, some of which
must be at a considerable range from the target, there is a marked
tendency for the latter beams to drop below the target altogether;
although the detachments at those projectors are unaware of the
fact that their beams are now useless, and may even interfere with
the vision and consequently the work of detachments nearer
the target.
An incident which took place during the German airship raid on
London on the night of Sept. 2-3 1916, has been attributed to a
reason of this nature. The Schiitte-Lanz airship SLll, which was
eventually burned that night and fell at CufHey, was entering the
area over London from a northerly direction. London itself was
lying in what looked like a lake of mist, and the searchlights, which
could hear the attack approaching over them, were seeking for it
through the mist. Presently the airship was " picked up," and
immediately from all quarters of the defences searchlights could be
seen moving across to get on to it, until there may have been any
number up to 20 beams shining in its direction.
The airship seemed to hesitate, and then swung round until she
was steering north again. She was seen to empty one or more of her
water ballast tanks and suddenly disappear. The searchlights lost
her entirely for some minutes. Though, as is well known, she was
eventually detected again and then held until she fell, there is little
doubt that the searchlights were, in the first portion of the engage-
ment, hampering each other in their work owing to the exposure of
too many beams.
In the same engagement a searchlight near Kenton was quite
useless owing to a dense mist surrounding it and the gun station
near by. The local reflexion of the light by the mist was so great that
it prevented either gun or light detachment from seeing the target.
During the first years of the war discussions were often heard as
to the advisability of throwing out searchlight beams, on the assump-
tion that the target might not know where it was, and might there-
fore pass away without dropping any bombs; in other words that
the exposure of searchlights invited the arrival of bombs. The an-
swers to these suggestions are simple, viz. :
(i.) The searchlights are there to be used, because guns and aero-
planes are blind without them. Guns and aeroplanes cannot defend
efficiently without seeing their target.
(ii.) There is no justification for the assumption that the enemy
has lost his way and does not know where he is.
During the spring of 1917 a general display of searchlights round
London was arranged to test their efficiency as a moral deterrent
on airship commanders. Every searchlight in the London area was
given a prearranged arc through which the beam was to be moved
slowly and regularly at a given signal, the movement to be con-
tinued indefinitely until the signal was cancelled or enemy aircraft
became audible or visible to any of the detachments. The intention
was to expose all the beams (some 120) simultaneously as soon as
an attack was heading towards the London area, but whilst it was
still sufficiently far away to give the airship commander plenty of
time to think matters over, and remind him of the aeroplanes and
guns which were waiting for him, and of the fate of some of his
predecessors. On the two occasions when this scheme was put into
force the attacks stopped short of the defended area and never came
near it, though the German official communique announced on each
occasion that they had dropped bombs on London.
A searchlight and its detachment are very vulnerable when with-
in range of shell and machine-gun fire. On some occasions air-
craft have occupied themselves in deliberately bombing search-
lights, though the instances have been rare in England, and in no
case was harm done either to the searchlights or to their personnel.
On the other hand, in the areas where ground fighting was in prog-
ress, searchlights formed a vulnerable target for machine-gun fire
from low-flying aeroplanes, though actual casualties were com-
paratively few.
The sound locator is an instrument which is intended to indicate
the angle of elevation, and the bearing in azimuth, of aircraft
audible but invisible from the ground.
Many types of sound locator were invented and tried by the
various nations involved in the war, but none was eminently satis-
factory. The fact of the matter was that but little was known of
the vagaries of the paths of sound waves in the atmosphere. During
and since the war, however, students have begun to appreciate and
learn a few of its peculiarities, though at the present time knowledge
of the subject is still little more than in its infancy. The pattern of
sound locator most commonly used in the war was one with four
trumpets, two for obtaining the direction in elevation and two for
obtaining it in azimuth. In order to convey the information to the
searchlight itself in as instantaneous a manner as possible, the
locator was provided with a " ring sight," on the edge of which
the searchlight beam was kept in contact by a " layer, ' who gave
suitable directions to the men at the projector.
AIR DEFENCE
89
A defect of this type was its inability to eliminate certain sounds
which had nothing to do with aircraft, such as those from petrol
tractors, motor bicycles, etc., on the ground in the neighbourhood.
The Germans in Belgium had to give up using their instrument at a
searchlight near Bruges, because of the noise made by the frogs in
the dykes all round it.
Another pattern of sound locator has been constructed in cliffs
on the shore by cutting a concave surface in the face of the cliff,
and providing an appliance for collecting the sound waves at their
point of maximum concentration, in such a way as to indicate
approximately the direction of the source of the sound. This pat-
tern was used on the British coasts and warned observers of the
approach of machines from Belgium when the latter were as far
away as 15 to 20 miles. These locators also, however, were liable
to error; and on one occasion a fleet of motor-boats caused an alarm
which was only prevented from becoming public by the perspicacity
of the local anti-aircraft commander.
The functions of the observer post, which may or may not be
equipped with detector apparatus, are of great importance.
The duty of the observers is to detect the passage of aircraft and
report their movements to the authority controlling the air
defences. On these reports depend the warnings to the civil and
military authorities within the defended areas. Such duties
demand considerable physical strength to bear the severe strain
incurred by watching and waiting; and a high degree of refine-
ment in hearing and eyesight, owing to the necessity of detecting
and identifying aircraft at great distances. The speed of aircraft
in the attack is the factor which determines the minimum dis-
tances of the posts from the objective, and those distances may
involve the disadvantage of great isolation for many posts. The
necessity of good and speedy means of communication between
such posts and the controlling air defence authority to which they
belong is obvious. However excellent an observer's training may
be, a report based solely on what he has heard must be open to
doubt, should it attempt identification of the class of the air-
craft in question.
(e) The aerial obstacle consists of some form of wire impediment
hung from balloons, and intended to be such a menace to a flying
machine that it will either pass beside the obstacle or, more prob-
ably, fly at a higher level than the balloons supporting it.
The Italian authorities claimed extraordinary success with the
contrivances used in their defences. The French authorities were
not so optimistic over the type adopted by themselves, and there
is no proven case of success with the pattern used in Great Britain.
The Germans at Bruges and Zeebrugge flew kites and balloons
by wires of a very high tensile strength, and one Handley Page
bombing machine with its crew was destroyed at Bruges by these
means. The balloons were about 15 ft. in diameter, and were used
when wind power was insufficient to raise a kite. The kites were of
at least two patterns, but both were of the double box-kite type.
The lower ends of the wires were wound on vehicles- provided with
gauges, oil baths, and lightning "earths." They were managed by a
few small boys, pressed into the German service at the rate of a
few francs a night. It was calculated that the wire provided an
obstacle up to about 3,000 feet.
In Great Britain balloons moored by wire cables were arranged
in lines, and at some distance below the balloons was a bridle con-
necting all the cables. From this bridle at equal intervals were sus-
pended long thin wires of considerable tensile strength. 1
Any arrangement of obstacles suspended from balloons must be
particularly vulnerable, both from the shell fire of the defence and
from any machine-gun fire brought to bear by the attack.
Many other forms of obstacles have been suggested from time to
time, and perhaps one of the most ingenious was that of an aerial
minefield. The inventor proposed to attach a small charge of explo-
sive, sufficient to destroy an aeroplane wing, to a revolving vane
by a length of fine cord. The charge was fitted with suitable per-
cussion firing arrangements. The vane was attached for the purpose
of delaying the fall of the explosive through the air. Charge, cord,
and vane were neatly packed together so that considerable numbers
could be carried in a box provided with a simple release. The pro-
1 A curious incident occurred during an air-raid alarm in London
during the war. To the astonishment of the detachments one com-
plete series of balloons came down with unexpected suddenness, all
being deflated by the rupture of their ripping panels. On examina-
tion, it was found that moisture had condensed on the ripping ropes
and frozen there, until each cord was about as thick as a man's
forearm. The weight had gradually increased on all with remark-
able regularity until the ripping point was reached, when each bal-
loon in the series was deflated almost simultaneously. There was a
heavy mist that night, and the temperature at the ground level was
above freezing-point.
cedure proposed was to send up a group of machines loaded with
these " mines," on patrol well outside the defences, on any occa-
sion when conditions were so favourable that a raid was probable.
The " mines " were to be released across a broad belt through
which the attack would probably pass, as soon as a signal was made
from the ground that it had reached a suitable point on its course.
The idea, however, was never carried into effect probably owing
to the danger involved to friendly machines, but nevertheless it
had possibilities which gave considerable promise, especially for
use over the sea.
(/) Bombproof and Splinterproof Protection. Local protection
for personnel, animals and stores involves the provision of
shelters proof against the bombs themselves and their splinters.
A bomb with a stout and heavy point, and provided with a
means to keep it revolving so that the point travels first, will, if
launched from a great height, penetrate most practicable forms
of shelter. A stout double roof of concrete with the sides sloping
fairly steeply, and provided with a " sandwich " of some resilient
material between the roofs, will probably give protection to
what is beneath it, provided that the foundation supporting the
roofs is a good one.
Many bombproof shelters made of concrete or big stones cemented
together were constructed in France and Belgium by all belligerents,
but they were generally of small capacity, and provided for particu-
lar detachments whose duties necessitated their remaining in the
vicinity at all times. It is not, however, possible to provide such pro-
tection universally; in most cases all that can be done is to minimize
the danger as far as is practicable, and to accept the fact that a direct
hit on, or an explosion very close to, the person or animal will finish
the matter as far as they are concerned. A little-known fact is that
the open spaces in a big city like London may amount in total area
to nearly ten times that on which houses are actually built, the
chance that a bomb will fall on a house being therefore far less than
is generally recognized.
The heaviest bombs used by both sides in the war made craters
about 35 ft. in depth when dropped on ordinary soil and open
ground. These bombs were fitted with fuses with a slight delay
action. A light bomb with a very sensitive fuse was used by the
Germans with deadly effect against men and animals. The crater
made by it was practically negligible, all the fragments flying out-
wards and upwards. Protection against this type of bomb was
afforded by low parapets of sandbags or sods, close to which troops
could live; but horses were extremely difficult to protect against
these so called " daisy cutters." In the open, protection during a
bombing attack will generally be best found by lying down in a
depression if one be available.
In houses it is difficult to say which position is the safest; a bomb
with a delay-action fuse will probably blow the whole house up from
roof to cellar, while one with an instantaneous fuse will probably
blow the roof in. On the whole, it would appear that the safest
position of all is near the chimney breast in a room on the first
floor, and below the level of the window sill. Such a spot may give
protection from debris falling from the roof, and from splinters
from a bomb bursting in the road outside, but is of course not
likely to be of any use if the whole house is blown up.
Torpedo nets arranged in tiers about 10 ft. above each other may
provide a certain amount of protection against small bombs fitted
with instantaneous percussion fuses, but they are costly and diffi-
cult to erect.
Camouflage. Concealment of the ground target may take
more than one form. The landscape may be studied from the
air, and the vulnerable points treated in such a way with painting
and netting and so on, as to assimilate their appearance as far as
possible with the surrounding country. Again, attempts may be
made to hide an important point with smoke clouds during a
raid, but unless the work is very carefully done the smoke may
invite attention to the possible objective rather than conceal it.
In any case it involves much careful organization, and may
in the end prove very expensive. Lights and dummy buildings
may be placed in exposed positions so as to form attractive
targets for hostile bombing machines, at a safe distance but
not too far from the point actually sought by the enemy. Thus
a carefully arranged target of green, red, and white lights
may successfully simulate and so protect an important railway
junction.
Concealment of the principal leading-in marks has frequently
been suggested ; but success would only be likely with objects which
were of small size, and therefore probably of comparatively small
importance. For a big objective such as London, where there are
such prominent guides in the nature of rivers, railroads and valleys
the expense of concealment would be enormous and the probability
of success negligible. Moreover, the developments of wireless teleg-
AIR DEFENCE
raphy for directional and position-finding purposes would almost
entirely neutralize any such work if it were attempted, on account
of the size of the target. (See also CAMOUFLAGE.)
///. Forms of Attack.
The effects of bombing are moral and material. There is no
doubt that the moral effect is far greater than the material
particularly in thickly populated districts where self-control, as a
general rule, will be found lacking in the population to a greater
degree than amongst armed forces in the field. No result decisive
to a campaign has been brought about by a raid of any kind of
itself alone. This fact will probably be true of aircraft bombing
operations, provided that a country has taken suitable precautions
in peace against the chance of an overwhelming attack at the
very outbreak of war.
Written evidence was found during the war of the nervous appre-
hension reigning in a certain German town after the British special
raiding force known as the " Independent Force, R.A.F.," had been
operating for a comparatively short time. One of the inhabitants
described a night of terror in which Allied aeroplanes had come in
the early night and dropped their bombs and gone away. No sooner
had the inhabitants come out of their shelters to go to bed than they
were again summoned under cover, and the bomb dropping was
repeated. Again they went to bed, and again they had to take
cover the performance continuing in this manner for some three
or four hours. As a matter of fact one solitary Allied aeroplane paid
a single visit to the town that night ; the rest of the raid was purely
imaginary, and the result of demoralization ! Over another large town
six long air raids took place during eight nights. One effect was that
the clothing output from that district was temporarily reduced by
80% a serious matter for the army, as a large proportion of the
force was depending on the district for its clothing.
Bombing operations over disciplined forces in the field consti-
tute on the whole a form of annoyance rather than a potential
danger, provided that store and ammunition dep&ts are so designed
as to be separated from each other, and subdivided within them-
selves, in such a way that a fire arising in one section may be prop-
erly isolated and prevented from spreading to its neighbours. Inter-
ference with movements of troops and stores by rail can be, and has
been, caused by low-flying bombing machines.
Airship Attack. Airships form targets of great size, and, if
fiDed with inflammable gas as were those of the Central Em-
pires during the war are objects of considerable danger to their
crews. If and when a suitable non-inflammable gas is discovered
which can be produced cheaply for commercial purposes, the
airship will become a serious factor in air-defence considerations.
It possesses greater endurance, radius of action, carrying capacity,
accommodation, and facilities for observation than " heavier-
than-air " machines. Meteorological conditions, however, will
always militate more against the free use of airships than of
aeroplanes, which possess higher powers of manoeuvre and
performance.
During the war bombing operations by airships were not
intentionally undertaken by the Germans over land targets by
day, but ships at sea were frequently made the objects of such
attention between dusk and dawn. Airships intending to attack
land objectives in the British Is. used to leave their sheds by
day, and make their landfall . while still over the North Sea.
There they would wait until it was dark enough to cross the
coastline without prospect of serious interference, and make
for their various objectives as a rule more or less independently,
but sometimes in pairs. The return journeys were made in-
dependently.
It has been held that at night it is hardly necessary to attack
with more than one airship at a time, but there is no doubt
whatever that simultaneous attacks by two or more airships on
the same course add enormously to the difficulties of the defence.
The German raid on London during the night of Sept. 23-4
1916 affords a notable instance of airships setting out to attack in
pairs, but failing to carry out their intention. L3I and L$2 sailed
on the task in company and reached Dungeness together. Thence
LSI, commanded by a bold and skilful pilot, set her course straight
across London at high speed, and eventually won through. Her
consort hesitated, and was lost.
LSI passed over Purley and Croydon, and dropped a very brilliant
flare as she turned on a northerly course. This undoubtedly had
the effect of distracting the ground defences from herself; for she
was scarcely seen as she passed over the metropolis, and bombed
it heavily without damage to herself. She reached home in safety.
L32 waited near Dungeness for about 40 minutes, and then flew
north over Tunbridge Wells, instead of following LSI. She avoided
London, and dropped her bombs between Westerham and Ocken-
ham. Near Billericay she was destroyed by fire.
Although there would appear to be much to commend such a
course, " fleet " movements of airships in formation with the
intention of bombing were not carried out by the Germans.
However, it does not necessarily follow that a big attack of
airships, either by themselves or convoyed by aeroplanes, will
not form part of an extensive bombing operation in the future.
The arrival of such an aerial flotilla over a capital city at the
very outset of a war would do much to spread despondency and
alarm; and if such a fleet succeeded in getting away unscathed,
the attack might suffice to overturn all government in the state
attacked.
Aeroplane and Seaplane Attack. Bombing aeroplanes ' by
reason of their speed, difficulty of destruction from the ground,
and comparative ease of handling in unfavourable weather, form
the most serious factor in air attack.
The first aeroplane raid on London by day took place about noon
on Nov. 28 1916. This was carried out by a two-seater machine
carrying about half a dozen light bombs and flying at a high al-
titude. It was a courageous effort. Engine trouble brought the
pilot to the ground on French territory, where he was cap-
tured with his observer. London was covered with clouds of dust
which prevented all but a very few from ever seeing the machine.
The success of the effort made it all the more surprising that it
was never repeated; subsequent attacks in daylight were all made
by machines flying together in considerable numbers and not singly.
The most notable was that which took place on July 7 1917.
Before Sept. 1917, only a single attack on London was made
by aeroplane by night. In that particular case (May 6-7 1917) the
attack was made by a solitary machine which dropped most of its
bombs on Hackney Marshes.
With these two exceptions, aeroplane and seaplane raids on Eng-
land by day and night were limited practically to coastwise towns
and shipping at anchor till the beginning of Sept. 1917, when
aeroplane attacks on London by night were commenced seriously.
These seem to have been made at first by machines in groups of
three to five in number, but at the end of the same month, tne
groups appear generally to have split up on reaching the English
coast, each machine taking its own line independently from that
time onwards.
Machine-gun fire from low-flying aeroplanes and seaplanes will
be encountered wherever targets present themselves: troops in
action, in camp, or on the march, transport in movement, troops
crowded on shipboard. But here again the principal effect will be
moral rather than material.
Where ships lie at anchor in open roadsteads, or in harbours
which offer a direct line of approach from the sea of moderate length,
seaplanes will find targets vulnerable by the marine torpedo. The
launching of the torpedo involves a close approach by the torpedo-
carrying machine to the surface of the sea, and complete occupa-
tion for the crew of the machine. These facts render it necessary
that such machines be escorted by one or more fighting machines,
whose duty it is to protect them from attacks by air and if possible
from fire from the shore and ships. Various methods of active pro-
tection suggest themselves the destruction of the machine, harass-
ing its aim, or deflecting the torpedo during the launching process.
Photography of the ground for intelligence purposes forms a
highly important feature in aircraft work. With good lenses, pho-
tographic machines can do their work at immense heights, thus
rendering their detection by the defence a matter of considerable
difficulty.
Aeroplanes on hostile patrol constitute an armed guard whose
duty it is to seek for enemy machines. Such patrols form targets
for air defence formations when they are within range and the air
forces proper are not at hand to take up their challenge.
Friendly machines acting as auxiliaries to ground operations
especially artillery machines observing the results of gun fire are
'.The paragraphs which follow are applicable also in the main to
seaplanes. Nevertheless the typical differences between the two
classes are not without importance from the point of view of the
preparations against attack by one or the other. The principal
difference is that seaplanes require no landing ground or special
arrangements for landing on ships. They can also take in their fuel
from ships. On the other hand they find difficulty in " taking off "
in rough water. Their powers of manoeuvre are, however, com-
paratively limited. They come chiefly into the consideration of coastal
air defence, owing to the necessity they are under of landing on
water. But amphibious machines are certain developments of the
near future, and wide canals such as that between Bruges and
Zeebrugge have served as landing places and enabled seaplanes to
operate from a point inland and safe from interference from the sea.
AIR DEFENCE
at a serious disadvantage if attacked by enemy aircraft, as their
duties tie them to a comparatively small area at a fairly low height.
To defend each of such machines by an aerial escort would absorb
too great a number of fighting aircraft, and so the duty falls most
frequently on the anti aircraft artillery and such machines as are
allotted for air defence work provided that the latter can be directed
to the spot in sufficient time to provide the protection required.
IV. The Defence in General.
It will now be realized that air defence is required both in the
actual theatre of active operations in the face of the enemy, and
in areas far to the rear of the fighting line, so long as the enemy has
machines capable of reaching those distant points and returning
again from them. Bombing attacks may be met anywhere, i.e.
both in the forward area of ground operations the " Front "-
and also in store depots, bases, ports, and large cities far removed
from them. Low-flying machines with bombs or machine-guns
may be encountered far in rear of the " fighting line," but prin-
cipally in or near it and over the communications imme-
diately behind it; so that, as a broad general rule, the nearer
the " line " the greater will be the proportion of low-flying
targets, and vice versa. Torpedo-carrying machines will be met
with over the sea; and photography machines anywhere be-
tween the " line " and points far in rear of it on the lines of
communications.
In order to place defending aeroplanes in positions favourable
for engaging their targets, it is necessary to obtain information of
the attack in sufficient time. This leads to two great essentials in
any scheme of air defence, namely: (a) intelligence, and (6)
communications.
(a) Intelligence can be treated under three headings:
(1) during peace, and before the beginning of an attack in war;
(2) during an attack; (3) immediately after an attack.
Intelligence before the beginning of an attack includes
information obtained during peace of all the resources of a
possible enemy; his preparations and probable intentions; with
the numbers, details and performances of his machines both
civil and military. On such information will the whole scheme
of air defence of a country and its forces in the field depend. In
peace such information can be collected, compiled, and as-
similated in a careful and comparatively slow manner. But
directly a state of war arises, speed in the collection and trans-
mission of that intelligence to those whom it most concerns, i.e.
the executive in the air defence services, becomes the prominent
factor. The authority responsible for the collection of that
information has to add comparatively suddenly to his ordinary
peace-time duties that of rapidly tracing the movements of both
hostile and friendly aircraft, as by no other method can an
officer check information sent to him by his observers. Only on
the efficiency of the preparations made for the use of telephone,
telegraph, and other signals can he hope to issue the warnings
which will be required by the population to enable them to take
cover during a raid. The state of war may even be heralded by
the air attack itself, and there may only be a matter of a few
hours for the transition from " intelligence duties during peace
and before an attack " to " intelligence during an attack."
It will be best to consider a concrete example, which will show
perhaps more than anything else the necessity for speed.
Take an imaginary city with an average radius of 12 m., with
its centre situated 30 m. west of the sea. One night a ship 60 m.
east of that city reports a number of aeroplanes as having been
heard passing high overhead, going west at an estimated ground
speed of lop m. per hour. The message, which is probably sent
" in clear," is picked up by some coastguard station, which sends it
to the local senior naval officer and so to the military garrison com-
mander near at hand. These officers, after digesting the report,
and confirming it if possible, send it on through their respective
headquarters to the central organ of the system. Thence it goes
to the railways, to the police, and to air defence headquarters, who
give the alarm to the railroad men, to the civil population, and to the
squadrons, guns, and lights, etc., of the defences, respectively.
The defending squadrons will probably be situated from 15 to
20 m. from the centre of the city, i.e. about 40 to 45 m. from the
source of the report. At the squadron aerodromes the pilots, who
are waiting ready to start up the machines, " taxi " over the aero-
drome, and then " take off and begin to climb to predetermined
heights, as the real height of the attack cannot be known at the
moment.
A little time-table will show the time probably left to them to get
up to, say, 10,000 feet.
minutes
Time taken by attack to travel 40 to 45 m., say . 27
Ship to shore ... .... 5
Coastguard to local H.Q 2
Local H.Q. to main H.Q 2
Main H.Q. to Air Defence H.Q. . . .2
Air Defence H.Q. to units i
Starting up machines, " taxi-ing " and taking off . 5
Total (say) 17
Leaving the machines to get their heights in . . 10
A single report of this nature would suffice to send out an alarm
far and wide, and turn the defence posts over a vast area into
seething points of activity ; whilst there might be nothing whatever
to show that those machines were hostile, or that if hostile they were
going to attack the city in question. The initial probability was
that they were hostile; and as they happened to be going west at a
point 70 odd miles east of the city, the time required to get the de-
fending aeroplanes into position would leave no option but to
assume that the attack was coming to that city. Yet the attack in
this instance might easily turn aside as soon as the coastline was
made, in order to proceed to some other objective; there was no
certain indication beforehand of the real one, and there may never be.
The foregoing example shows that the observer system of a defen-
sive organization for a big " vulnerable point " must extend to a
radius of from 70 to 100 m. from the probable main objective of
hostile attack by air if the executive is to have sufficient time to
get its defences into a state of readiness for action, and the civilian
population and railways properly warned of the approaching danger.
As soon as the attack enters the area in which anti-aircraft
posts exist, each of such posts within sight or earshot of the
attack becomes a potential source of information. It remains
then for the commander of the air defences to organize a system
of speedy intelligence within his own command, which can be
supplemented by reports collected from police and railways,
which may or may not assist in checking the reports received
from the defence posts themselves. This system continues its
work until such time as the attack withdraws to a point outside
its boundaries, when intelligence is again required from outside
sources until it is certain that the engagement is over.
Directly after the attack it becomes of importance immediately
to check the commander's ideas of the battle, to supplement them
with local details of what actually happened, and to compile as
complete an account as possible, showing: Nature and numbers
of aircraft employed on each side ; routes followed by attack and
defence; casualties to personnel and material; number and nature
of bombs dropped; expenditure of ammunition; size, speed, and
manoeuvres of enemy machines; new features of machines, if
any; efficacy of communications; weather conditions, etc. This
report is of high importance and may enable a commander, if it
is compiled and issued rapidly, to dispose his forces afresh in
sufficient time should features in the attack show this to be
necessary.
In this connexion, it is important to note certain peculiarities
of air-defence information. A report on the position of aircraft
in movement is incorrect the instant after the observation is
made, unless the time of the observation is given. The value of
the report decreases with every moment that elapses after the
observation. To be of value at all it must specify whether the
aircraft was seen or only heard; if the former, whether friendly or
hostile; and the time of the observation. To be of real value, it
should contain data as to the direction of flight, the number and
type of the machines and their height. One of the outstanding
curiosities of the air raids over England was the remarkable
inaccuracy of the reports rendered by eyewitnesses which were
received at the various headquarters. To men who have been in
the services the hypothesis that the man " on the spot " knows
"what is going on and therefore knows best what should be done,
will be familiar. The history of anti-aircraft operations during
the war abounds with instances showing the fallacy of that
hypothesis.
During the aeroplane raid of June 1917, over Sheerness, Graves-
end, Wrotham, and Folkestone, two independent reports were
received of an airship approaching London in broad daylight from
AIR DEFENCE
a point between Grayesend and Wrotham. They were the only inti-
mations of any airship being present. One of the reports came from
an officer, and one from a searchlight detachment: all had been
used to seeing airships at night and knew what they were like.
They were closely questioned, and there is no doubt that they were
mistaken, but none of them was ever shaken in his conviction that
he had seen an airship.
The gun detachment at Hyde Park were threatened by an angry
crowd one afternoon in June 1917, because they would not open fire
on a British machine flying high overhead. An air raid was actu-
ally in progress over East Kent at the time.
Bombs were reported one night as dropping in places up and
down the eastern -portions of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, but a
duty officer sitting over a map in London could only trace the noises
to echoes of a serious explosion which had taken place a short time
before in Lancashire; so he assumed the responsibility of declining
to give an alarm ; he was right.
An airship was reported as visible and audible over the scene of
the great Silvertown explosion in east London within a few minutes
after the last explosion there had taken place; it was identified with
a curious wisp of smoke which many spectators had noted in the
glare of the flames. The sound of the engines was purely imagin-
ary. Thin long clouds were frequently reported as airships on moon-
light nights.
These few examples will show the unreliability of reports con-
cerning aircraft, and bring into prominence the enormous responsi-
bility resting on the shoulders of the " duty officer," who, sitting
miles away from the scene in a closed room, has to decide whether
an observer really has seen or heard what he has said he did.
In making observations on the movements of large cylindrical
airships, a common cause of error is due to the lack of an ap-
preciation of the effect of perspective. An airship travelling
horizontally and straight away from an observer may give the
impression of falling vertically, nose downwards. An obliquely
approaching airship may appear to be gaining height, and vice
versa, although travelling at a constant height. Further, the
observer on the ground is unable to assist himself by com-
parison of the size of the machine with other objects, the sizes of
which may be familiar, placed at gradually increasing distances
from him, and between himself and the airship.
The vagaries of the path of sound emanating from aircraft
have proved extraordinarily deceptive. An officer accustomed to
living in a shelter on a roof in the heart of London was able, while
inside the hut, to detect sounds of aircraft which were quite
inaudible to him when he was outside it. Local slopes and
wooded country lead to confusion in the intensity and direction
of the source of sound.
During the raid of May 23-4 1917 on the London area, airships
were reported independently as "almost overhead" by three expe-
rienced anti-aircraft detachments in the neighbourhood of Hoddes-
don and Hatfield, though no airships came nearer than within 25 m.
of them ; the mistake was probably due to peculiar and dense cloud
formations which lay over the London area at the time. During the
same engagement, bombs dropped between Braintree and The
Wash were reported as clearly audible from Putney Heath and south-
west of it.
In a civilized country, warning of an approaching attack by
air is required by both civil and military populations. Mere
again the organization must be based on " areas." It is not
possible to decide beforehand the objective of attack by air, but
it is possible to fix the degree of probability of attack on the
different vulnerable points in any country. In each of such
vulnerable points certain precautions are necessary, such as the
evacuation of the workers from an explosive factory, the dowsing
of bright lights, or the control of railway traffic. These precaution-
ary measures take time to bring into force but it is nevertheless
desirable to bring them into force only at the very last moment, in
order not to delay output or cause unnecessary alarm and con-
gestion. It becomes necessary therefore to keep a quick and care-
ful record of the enemy aircraft movements, to divide up the
country into " warning districts," and to provide a good system
of distributing the warnings.
The movements of the attack are recorded by the " in-
telligence " system. The sizes of the warning districts depend
on the speed with which the attack may move, as well as on the
time required to bring the precautionary measures into force.
The system of distributing the warnings will rest with those civil
authorities who act as guardians of the public safety, who will
probably use the civil telephone system.
Warnings and orders will normally be divided into: (a) pre-
liminary warnings as to the approach to the area of an attack;
(b) definite military orders as soon as the attack has entered the
area; (c) messages cancelling (a) and (b).
As regards railways, special arrangements are necessary.
Complete stoppage of railway traffic creates such disorganization
that weeks may be taken to recover from it. Failure of train
service causes the assembly of huge crowds of would-be passen-
gers at railway stations, and so the formation of " vulnerable
points " in which a single bomb would cause immense destruction
of life. The dislocation of the traffic suspends the punctual
delivery of goods, and upsets transport arrangements throughout
the whole country traversed by the railway system, as well as in
the ports to which it is connected. The control of the traffic
therefore remains in the hands of the railway authorities, who
are advised by the military authorities of the assistance the
system may afford to hostile aircraft under certain circumstances.
Both the railway and military authorities render each other
mutual assistance in the interchange of information regarding
the progress of an attack by air.
(b) Communications. The rapidity with which aircraft move,
and the uncertainty of their objectives, render necessary a
very complete system of communications. Without such provi-
sion the intelligence gained cannot be collected or information
and orders distributed in sufficient time to meet an attack before
it arrives over its objective, or to enable precautionary measures
for the public safety to be taken.
Signals may be sent by wire, wireless, and visual means.
Means of communication are required between :
Points on land, "j f points on land.
Ships on the sea, > and < ships on the sea.
Machines in the air, i ( machines in the air.
Signal by wire is only possible between stationary points, i.e.
those on land or the shore and anchored vessels afloat. Visual
signalling between machines in the air and points on the ground
is limited chiefly by atmospheric conditions, but also by the neces-
sity of concealing the position of machines in the air. As between
points on the surface of the earth, intervening ground features'
as well as atmospheric conditions may interfere.
In order to minimize the inevitable congestion which arises
where the same wire circuit is used for the dual purpose of
collecting and distributing information, independent methods
must be provided for the two processes wherever this can be
arranged. As far as possible information should be collected by
wire circuits, but after verification it may be distributed by any
method available. Wireless is of value between machines in the
air to enable formation commanders to communicate with each
other and with the machines under them. Wireless signal
facilities are also required to enable machines to check their
navigation reckonings, and to assist them in locating landing
grounds, particularly when fog or cloud prevail. For the com-
munication of intelligence before the latter has been thoroughly
investigated its use is a source of danger, owing to the ease with
which wireless messages can be " picked up " and to the large
proportion of inaccuracies to be found in messages concerning
aircraft.
These broad principles apply to all " back " areas; but in
" forward " areas, where shell fire renders the maintenance of
wire circuits almost impossible, resort to wireless alone may
be necessary, if the passage of aircraft intelligence is essential in
the area affected. That the highest standard of accuracy and
rapidity is required to make the service of communication
efficient for crises in which minutes are precious goes without
saying.
V. The Application of the Various Instruments of Defence.
In order always to be as economical as possible, air defences
must not be disposed too far from the area they are intended to
defend. As the attack can come from any direction, they must
be disposed all round that area. To dispose ground defences
along the boundary of a state with aeroplanes on patrol on
either side of them, in order to keep the invader out of the state
AIR DEFENCE
93
at the outset, is to be " strong everywhere," and consequently
" strong nowhere." Such a policy involves dispersion of available
strength over unimportant localities, reduction of control, loss of
cohesion in effort, extravagance, and the achievement of a
minimum of efficiency. The close defence of the localities which
are important to the state is the only sound policy.
For the defence to be effective, the attack must be met and
defeated at the right height and outside the line from which it
can achieve its object. Such at least must be the aim of the
defence, however difficult it may be of achievement. That is to
say, the defence must be outside the objective of the attack. This
necessity plunges the matter at once into difficulties with what is
known in the army as the " chain of command." An army works
by definite boundaries shown by real or imaginary lines on the
ground. The air knows no boundaries. It follows, therefore, that
those units of air defence formations which are tied to the
ground must be sited and organized for purposes of command
with no regard to those imaginary territorial boundaries necessary
to the ordinary army of the ground, and solely with regard
to the whole area in which the vulnerable point or points are
situated.
In one respect the sea has an important bearing on the nature
of aeroplane attacks. The risk of being shot down on the return
journey while still over water, with little or no hope of rescue,
tends to make a circumspect pilot fly high over his objective,
even if this be some distance inland, as he must evade detection
till he has gained such a start over the pursuers as will enable
him to pass the sea in safety even with a damaged engine. This
was apparently the policy of the Germans during the raids
on London in Sept. 1917. Whether, in any given case, the
pilot will thus sacrifice some of the effectiveness of his attack in
order to give himself better chances of a safe return, will depend
on his personal character, the traditions of his corps and the free
hand or limiting instructions that he receives from his superiors.
From the point of view of the defence this has its drawbacks.
It is difficult to decide a priori, or even during the progress of
the attack itself, as to the probable height of the enemy when
the basis of the decision is practically conjecture. Another
effect of the seacoast on anti-aircraft defences may be to limit
them in area. The defences must extend over an area outside the
vulnerable point; but, in cases of ports on the open sea, that area
is limited to the ranges of gun and searchlight on the edge which
borders on the sea.
Some typical instances of the use of the various instruments of
defence may now be considered. The defence has to provide
against attacks both by day and by night. By day the instru-
ments of defence and their adjuncts are: the machine-gun in the
air, the heavy gun on the ground, the sound locator, and the
observer post. By night the machine-gun in the air must be
manned by a crew specially trained in night fighting, and in
addition there is the searchlight. By day and by night the object
of the defences is to break up the enemy attack and destroy it in
detail. By day the massed attack must be broken up by gunfire
before the aeroplanes on the defensive are launched against it;
this entails guns outside the defensive aeroplane patrols, which
again are outside the vulnerable point. Then in support of the
aeroplanes (i.e. in rear of them) more guns again are required to
repel such of the attackers as succeed in penetrating the aero-
plane patrol area. And lastly, throughout the area of the vul-
nerable point itself, provision must be made for attacking by
gunfire any hostile machine which may succeed in penetrating
so far.
The attack will probably be audible and visible throughout
the greater part of its course. In certain conditions of thick
cloud or haze it may be invisible from the ground, but this fact,
though increasing the difficulties, does not alter the disposition
of the defences.
By night the attack is broken up in an entirely different
manner. Both attacking and defending machines being in
darkness, the attack is, as it were, reconnoitred by the search-
light, and the targets selected by the latter are isolated for
engagement by the apparently simple process of keeping them
illuminated. Unless the searchlights succeed in their object,
the attack is invisible.
It is not possible as a rule to illuminate several targets in a
searchlight beam simultaneously, although during the war as
many as five have been held in the beam simultaneously for a few
minutes; nor is it likely that any method of illuminating a
formation of, say, 22 machines simultaneously, for any length of
time, would be practicable. The outer ring of guns, therefore,
would normally remain inactive by night unless the absence of a
defending aeroplane gives an opportunity for a gun to engage an
enemy target.
By day and by night the aeroplane in defence can only move
a certain maximum distance on patrol without running the risk
of allowing an attack to slip past in rear of it ; the aeroplane also
requires a certain minimum distance on one side or other of its
patrol line in which to manoeuvre and bring its enemy to battle.
Suppose for the purposes of illustration these measurements be
taken at 15 and 10 m. respectively. The aeroplane patrol area,
and the battle and pursuit area, must be kept as clear as possible
of gunfire areas and areas containing vulnerable points of any size.
The width of the gunfire area will depend on the probable
height at which the attack is delivered. Assuming that the
latter is 10,000 ft. and that the gun can command a horizontal
range of three miles at that height, the belts of gunfire may be
taken at six miles in width. Observer posts must be between
70 to 100 m. away, as has been shown, in order to gain time for
the defences to get into position, If they are to meet the attack
as it comes in and not bring it to account merely as it is returning
home.
In the case of a vulnerable area represented by a circle of a
radius of 5 m., the area immediately outside that will be a belt for
gunfire from 3 to 4 m. in width; the next a belt of 10 m. for the
aeroplane battle and pursuit area; then one of 6 m. for the outer
gunfire area; and a final belt from 45 to 75 m. wide covered with
a network of observer posts, each of which can be from 10 to 15
m. from each other. This arrangement provides for the problem
of defence by day.
By night it is necessary to consider the disposition of the
searchlights, and it will have been seen that one of their functions
is to indicate the approximate position of attacking aircraft.
To be of any value they must be able to do this throughout the
vulnerable area, the adjacent gunfire area, the battle and patrol
area, and for a sufficient distance outside the latter (say 4 to 5 m.)
to enable the aeroplanes patrolling in defence to move into
position to meet the attack. This gives the total area through
which searchlights must be disposed, the projectors being at the
angles of triangles whose sides measure approximately 2,500 to
3,000 yards. Owing to accidents on the ground, trees, houses,
railway stations and the like, the actual distribution of search-
lights throughout the area often appears to be indiscriminate;
it is inadvisable as a rule to place a searchlight nearer than from
200 to 500 yd. from a gun. Again, by night, the difficulties
of determining the height of the attack are so great, that it
becomes necessary' to dispose the aeroplanes in defence at
different heights. Assuming this difference to be 1,000 ft.,
and that there are five machines one above the other, with the
lowest at about 8,000 ft., the highest will be at 13,000 feet. The
degree of endurance to be expected of a pilot flying on patrol
at night may not exceed a tour of two hours in the air.
These data, combined with a knowledge of the average
lengths of the summer and winter nights, will be sufficient
to give some indication of the minimum numbers of machines
and pilots required in the problem of night defence. The number
by day is also affected by the probable frequency and size of
the attacks.
It will now be easy to realize the enormous scale of defences
required if any appreciable degree of efficiency is to be attained.
A simple diagram will illustrate this general disposition of
defences.
Few "vulnerable points" are as symmetrical as those in-
dicated in these diagrams, but the principle illustrated can be
applied to areas of almost any shape.
94
AIR DEFENCE
Outer Gunfire Area
[Aircraft Battle and
(Pursuit Area.
Inner Gunfire Area
Vulnerable Point
Aircraft Battle and
Pursuit Area.
Inner Gunfire Area
Vulnerable Point
FlG. 2 Night.
By taking the maps of any state and applying these principles to
the important towns, it will readily be seen that the matter is in
reality considerably more complicated than it at first appears. For
example, the defence area for Birmingham cannot be separated
from that for Coventry. The defence of London is closely associ-
ated with that of Woolwich, and both of these are intimately linked
with the defences of Gravesend and of Chatham ; so that it eventu-
ally becomes necessary to look upon the whole district south of a
line between the Wash and the Bristol Channel as a single area to
be provided with defences under one command. Therefore this
whole area will, for purposes of air defence, have an organization
independent of all those ordinary commands and military forma-
tions whose activities are limited by conventional lines on a map.
The same line of reasoning applies to forces in the field with their
" forward " areas, lines of communication, and bases; and necessi-
tates the problem of air defence being considered with reference to
the whole area of active operations, and not merely to that of all
the independent vulnerable points within it.
The principle illustrated in the diagram will be found applicable
to most cases, provided that consideration is given to the relative
urgency of demands for gun and aeroplane defence combined, and
of aeroplane defence alone. For the civil population, whilst applaud-
ing the courage and success of the airman, is ever apt to mingle with
its praise a demand for a gun. A gun is tangible and comforting ; it
can be seen and heard; and so it produces on the population a moral
effect which may be more than counterbalanced by the interference
it may cause to the defending airmen.
An instance, already alluded to, in which the principle requires
modification, is that of coastal towns and harbours, few of which
can be situated geographically so as to admit of the all-round dispo-
sition of defence illustrated. Here the sea intervenes to cut off
observer posts, searchlights, and guns, in addition to restricting the
area of manoeuvre for the defending aeroplanes by night. This
inroad into the defences offers the enemy an avenue of approach,
and necessitates considerable strengthening of the batteries within
range of and covering the sea in the neighbourhood. A certain
amount of defence may be afforded from vessels afloat, but reliance
cannot be placed on them for anything more than a temporary
assistance, as they may only be present for uncertain periods.
All that can be done is to increase the intensity of the gunfire
belt to seaward, and to provide aircraft detector posts and instru-
ments with a directional value in azimuth rather than vertically.
The latter serve as a partial substitute for the observer cordon by
giving somewhat distant warning of the approach of aircraft.
The defence of towns and ports separated from enemy territory
by sea alone thus requires maintenance in a state of instant readi-
ness for action, and so calls for a greater complement of personnel
than would be the case in defences situated inland.
The areas on either side of the dividing " line " between opposing
forces in the field, up to a distance of some miles from the dividing
line, were generally described during the World War as " forward "
areas. The areas behind the forward areas were usually termed
" back" areas; the latter term, however, was not generally taken to
refer to places outside the " theatre of war," though from the point
of view of aircraft action it was just as applicable.
In " forward " areas vulnerable points in the nature of men, guns,
animals, and ammunition stores are numerous, but as a rule well
distributed. In " back " areas they all tend to greater concentra-
tion. Protection is therefore more easily afforded in the former than
in the latter, and so the better targets for bombing machines will
be found as a rule in " back " areas.
The nearer the " line " the more intense will become the fire
of hostile ground artillery; this precludes the free use of searchlights
nearer than about 5,000 yd. from the " line," and necessitates the
distribution of anti-aircraft artillery in smaller fire units than is
possible at a greater range from the enemy.
Targets will be far more numerous in the forward area than in
rear of it, throwing much more work on the anti-aircraft artillery
situated near the line.
Applying the principle, as illustrated in the figures, to the prob-
lem in the field, a distortion of the diagram results, as in the cases
of coastal towns. The outer ring of guns (fig. l) is formed by the
guns " in the line " and such as can be spared to protect the flanks
and rear of the force. Within that ring, guns will be concentrated
closely around vulnerable points such ammunition dumps, hospi-
tals, etc., whilst the defending aeroplane will patrol in the space
which may be available between. The maintenance of communica-
tion between the forward guns in the shell area becomes a matter of
great difficulty and may require provision of special apparatus.
By night the guns " in the line " must rest as far as possible,
and employ themselves with observation duties. Searchlights in
the aeroplane battle and pursuit area nearest the " line " must
perforce be curtailed, and the aeroplane patrol lines withdrawn to
points which will admit of sufficient searchlights operating between
them and the attack.
VI. Some Possibilities of the Future.
Some limit to the speed of aircraft and the height at which
they can fly must be assumed, and, as far as the possibilities can
at present be imagined, heights up to 30,000 ft. and speeds of
200 m. per hour, together with powers of long endurance in the
air, may come within the range of practicability during the next
20 years or so. A successful development of the helicopter would
bring about a great change in the power of manoeuvre of aircraft,
and enormously increase the difficulties of the defence. Detection
of approaching aircraft will be rendered difficult by the silencing
of the machinery; their destruction by fire will be hampered by
the introduction of metal protection. Wireless aids to navigation
will decrease the difficulties of the pilot in thick weather, im-
provements in the landing power and stability of machines will
increase their immunity from storms; and all these conditions
will call for a greater state of readiness in the defence. On the
other hand, improvements in artillery will be necessary, and will
follow as a natural consequence. Inventions for the detection
of the locus of the source of sound will facilitate the accuracy
of searchlight work. These factors, in their turn, will impose
greater caution on the attack and give greater confidence to
pilots patrolling in defence. Aeroplanes now used in defence
will in the course of years become less localized in their work, and
will develop a tendency to operate more and more like battle-
fleets at sea. Such aerial fleets operating from their bases wilh
be likely to carry their own armaments and searchlights, and to
be accompanied by what we may call their " destroyer flights,"
which will assist them to seek out and find the enemy themselves.
The improvements which will produce this tendency will only
mature gradually, and danger will lie in the endeavour of the
ground or air services to assume entire responsibility for defence
against air raids before being in a position to do so. There must
be a long transition period during which cooperation between
air and ground units must be the strongest link in the chain of
AIRD, SIR JOHN AIR RAIDS
95
defence. Only in proportion as the air services become of a more
stabilized nature, and anti-aircraft artillery improves, will the
need for close cooperation diminish; it will never entirely
disappear. The inability of the British navy to prevent short
raids on the East Coast towns of Great Britain during the World
War must not be forgotten; in like case, no country will ever be
able to make good a defence against aerial raiding attack by
aircraft alone. Consequently a nation must guard against
exposure in the transition period to dangers which the air
services or ground services of themselves alone cannot avert.
Local ground defences will always be a necessity; and reliance
on them will become greater owing to the many and devious
paths of approach open to the enemy taken in conjunction
with the reluctance of a nation to expend the huge sums necessary
to provide aircraft to watch them all.
Every disease produces its own remedy; and in the end only
the highest degree of excellence attainable by the arms of de-
fence on the ground, acting independently of the units in the
air, will procure the maximum of immunity for vulnerable points.
(M. ST. L. S.)
AIRD, SIR JOHN, IST. BART (1833-1911), British engineer, was
born in London Dec. 3 1833, the only child of John Aird,
contractor for gas and water plant. He joined his father's
business at 18, and was entrusted with the removal of the Crystal
Palace buildings from Hyde Park and their reerection at Syden-
ham. He took part in many enterprises at home and abroad,
such as the Hampton and Staines reservoirs, the waterworks of
Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Moscow, Bahia, Para, Calcutta, Simla
and Berlin, and later (in the joint firm of Lucas & Aird, after-
wards John Aird & Co.) the St. John's Wood railway, the Hull &
Barnsley railway and docks, the W. Highland railway and the
great Assuan dam across the Nile. He represented N. Padding-
ton in Parliament as a Unionist from 1887 to 1005, and was
its first mayor in 1900. In 1901 he was created a baronet.
He made a fine collection of pictures by British painters, the
illustrated catalogue to which was printed in 1884. He died at
Beaconsfield, Bucks., Jan. 6 1911.
AIR FORCES: see FLYING CORPS.
AIR RAIDS. Air-raiding by airships, and still more by
aeroplanes, was carried out during the World War in most of its
geographical areas. German bombers were particularly active in
France, and many towns near the Rhine suffered severely in
later times from the aeroplanes of the British Independent Air
Force. But nowhere can the history of the continual see-saw
of success between raiding and air defence during the war be
studied better than in the German raids carried out over England
in general and against London in particular. Their story during
1914-5, 1916, 1917 and 1918 will here be narrated.
1914-5. Directly Great Britain came into the war, the
German High Command began to encourage their public with
prophecies of the havoc the Zeppelins were about to work in
England. Disillusionment came quickly. The experience of
some of the smaller airships, attempting to work by day over
Belgium and Lorraine, was by no means encouraging. Three
were destroyed at once, and it became evident that for airships
to fly low in daylight over enemy territory was to invite certain
disaster. Hence it was that, although reconnaissances over the
North Sea towards England were begun by airships, the first
actual attacks were made by aeroplanes.
In Dec. 1914 a couple of bombs were dropped in the sea off
Dover, and three days later, on Dec. 24, the first German pro-
jectile hit English soil. A small bomb fell near the Castle at
Dover and broke some glass. Both these aeroplane attacks
were in the nature of a surprise, and the defences, such as they
were in those days, could take no action. On the following day
a seaplane dropped a few bombs at Sheerness, without effect.
This time both the ground and aerial defences took action; but
British aeroplanes came in for most of the anti-aircraft fire from
the ground. A few half-hearted attacks by aeroplanes and sea-
planes made during 1915 were ineffective, except that two women
were killed at Margate in September.
The barren honours of the first attacks having fallen to the
aeroplane, it was left to the lighter-than-air machines to cause
the first serious damage and loss. In the evening of Jan. 19
1915, two naval airships approached the coast of the eastern
counties between Yarmouth and Cromer. They separated and
dropped bombs on both towns. One of the raiders went out to
sea again at once; the other, handled with greater boldness,
proceeded to King's Lynn, dropping bombs as it went. Four
people were killed, including two women, and the material
damage was estimated at 7,000 or 8,000.
On April 14 the redoubtable Mathy, boldest and ablest of all
German air commanders, began his activities over England.
Commanding Lg, a new and improved type of naval airship,
he made a considerable tour over the North. On this occasion
he was not particularly successful, most of the bombs falling
harmlessly in open country. At Walsall, however, he succeeded
in singeing the hair of a woman who was washing a little girl
by the fireside. The following night Lg returned, accompanied
by two other ships, and caused some damage in Suffolk. The
next four raids were on a similar scale. Bury St. Edmunds was
bombed in moonlight from a height of some 3,000 ft., the airship
trusting to patches of fog to escape. Southend, always a favourite
" fortress " for attack, suffered twice, three people being killed.
On May 17 Capt. Linnarz, very active about this time in com-
mand of one of the military airships, while over Ramsgate des-
cried the lights of London, more than 50 miles away, for the
first time; but his orders forbade him to go inland, and this most
tempting of targets had to be left for another occasion.
The opportunity soon came. On the night of May 31 1915
Linnarz succeeded in bringing his ship over the metropolis, in
reply, so the Germans alleged, for a bombardment of Ludwigsha-
fen. This raid was carried out in full moonlight, a fact that shows
how much there was to learn at the time in the art of air defence.
The great size of the thickly populated area of London makes
it an ideal target for promiscuous bombing. There was on this
night only one raider, armed with an inefficient type of bomb,
but 41 people were killed or injured, and more than 18,000
worth of damage was caused. The bombs all hit the eastern
part of London north of the river; one of them fell into a tank at
John Walker's whisky distillery in Whitechapel. Fortunately
the tank contained water only.
Further raids in Yorkshire and Kent on June 4 had little
result, but two nights later Mathy again attacked the north,
this time doing much more harm than before. He found Hull,
came down low over it, and killed 24 people, besides wrecking
some 40 houses. The people of Hull, exasperated by this ex-
perience, broke out and smashed up a number of shops supposed
to be German, but a better revenge was in store, for another
airship, LZ37, that attempted to raid on the same night was
totally destroyed by Lt. Warneford while it was returning home
near Ghent, and fell in flames, one member only of the crew
escaping alive. The first serious military damage in England was
done by a single ship that raided the north on June 15. Some
works in Yarrow were hit, 18 men killed and a number injured.
In commenting on the first raid on London on May 31, the
Press had to come to the conclusion that it was in the nature of
a trial trip, and this view was justified by the series of nine
organized raids that took place in the latter part of 1915. The
series opened inauspiciously for the Germans, a Zeppelin engaged
in bombing Dover being hit by a new 3-in. gun that had just
been mounted there. She struggled across the Channel, losing
gas rapidly, and fell into the sea near Ostend, where she was
finished off by bombing aeroplanes.
London was reached on four nights during this period. Twice
the results attained serious proportions. On Sept. 8 Mathy,
now in command of Li3, an improved type of Zeppelin, came in
over the Wash, steered straight on London and bombed the City
deliberately and with considerable success. Fires broke out in
many places, and the damage done amounted to more than 500,-
ooo. Mathy also took part in the raid of Oct. 13, when his
ship bombed Woolwich. On this occasion the casualties were
71 killed and 128 wounded. These losses were severe enough,
but they were nothing to what the German public was led to
9 6
AIR RAIDS
believe; it was during this time that many of the airship com-
manders began lying freely, and " bombing " places they never
went near.
The anti-aircraft defences had not yet been able to take the
measure of the attack, and the good shooting of the Dover gun,
mentioned above, was the solitary success that can be claimed
for the ground defences up to the end of 1915. A few aeroplanes
had been allotted to home defence, but they were quite unsuited
for their task on account of their poor climbing power and their
inefficient armament. The pilots, also, had but little training,
and night landing grounds were few and very far between, so
that ascents during 1915 for the attack of airships led in nearly
all cases to fatal or serious injury to British pilots, and the
attempt was looked on as a forlorn hope.
1916. The defences could do no better in the early raids of
1916. Nine Zeppelins manoeuvred over the Midlands on the last
night of January, one getting nearly to Shrewsbury. Seventy
people were killed. Out of 16 British aeroplanes that went up in
pursuit, 8 crashed on landing. A month later 2 airships were
able to sit over Hull and bomb it from a low height, without any
interference from the defence. From this time, however, defence
took an upward turn; the change for the better began to show
about the beginning of April 1916 during the very next series of
raids. Li5, one of the five ships that attacked on March 31
1916, in attempting to reach Woolwich, was hit by the gun at
Purfleet; it was then attacked in the air by Lt. Brandon, event-
ually falling into the sea off the coast of Essex. Mathy's ship was
hit by a shell on the same night, but he managed to struggle home.
A wholesome dread of defended areas now began to be ob-
servable in the German tactics. For instance, during the last
raid of this April series, Hull was undoubtedly saved from
further bombing by some new guns just installed there.
Fifteen airship flights were made over England and Scotland
during this April period. Edinburgh was bombed with little
effect; nothing came over London, although some bombs were
dropped as near as Waltham Abbey. British losses were 84
killed during the series.
Further raids at the end of April were organized in con-
junction with the naval bombardment of Lowestoft and Yar-
mouth, the whole operation being timed to coincide with the
rebellion in Ireland. A large number of airships took part, but
the result was small. London was saved from bombing by its
defences on April 25. One Zeppelin ran out of petrol and was
eventually destroyed on the coast of Norway.
The shortness of the summer nights prevented further raids
until the end of July, when four attacks were delivered, in-
dicating an ever-increasing respect for the defences. Twenty
flights over England produced infinitesimal results, if we except
the loss, at Hull, of 10 lives. An abortive raid on Harwich was
followed on Aug. 24 by an attack on London by M^athy, now in
command of LJI, a new Super-Zeppelin; he showed his usual
dash, skilfully avoiding the defences by making use of clouds.
He threw several 24o-lb. bombs, the largest then known; they
caused a few casualties and considerable damage in southeast
London and round about Blackheath. The raid of Sept. 2 was
carried out by 14 ships and was a determined attempt on Lon-
don. The metropolis was undoubtedly saved by the brilliant
action of Lt. Robinson of the R.F.C., who did not hesitate to
attack the military airship SLu, although she was under very
heavy gunfire at the time. As he fired his third drum of ammu-
nition into her, she burst into flames and fell, a burning mass,
near Cuffley. The sight of this disaster was too much for the
other commanders, who turned tail and made the best of their
way home. British casualties included only three killed.
The next series of raids, begun on Sept. 23 1916, was of
great importance. The German command were not deterred by
previous losses from again risking their best airships and pilots
in the attack of London. They conceived, not unreasonably,
that if London could be terrorized, they might touch the moral
of the British Government, and so produce an appreciable effect
on the conduct of the war. On Sept. 23 igi6 the weather condi-
tions over the North Sea were favourable for raiding. Eleven
airships left German sheds, nine crossed the British coasts, and
the main attack was directed on London by three of the newest
Super-Zeppelins, coming in from the east and south-east.
Having crossed the Essex coast shortly before n P.M., L33
was over east London ten minutes after midnight. Here she
dropped twenty bombs. London, however, was no longer the
helpless mass of former days. The searchlights continually lit
up the hull of the airship, which was at 12,000 ft.; she was badly
holed by the guns, one of her engines was damaged, and she
began to lose gas and fly clumsily. To add to her miseries,
Brandon of the R.F.C. now brought his machine close up to her.
For twenty minutes he stuck to her, pumping bullets into the
fabric. As she laboured back towards the North Sea, the crew
threw out everything they could lay their hands on, includ-
ing the machine-guns. Her commander crossed the coast at
Mersea Island, going out due east. But the certainty that his
ship would fall into the sea was too much for him; he turned
her about and came to earth three miles inland at Wigborough,
near Colchester. A specimen of the latest type of Zeppelin thus
fell nearly intact into British hands.
Mathy meanwhile brought his ship L3i in company with
L32 up the English Channel and, turning in over the Kent coast,
made straight for south London. On the way he dropped a few
trial bombs to test his sighting. Approaching the defences, he
handled his ship with great skill and succeeded in blinding some
of the British searchlights, that were picking him up, by throwing
out powerful illuminating flares. He passed straight over the
centre of London, crossing the Thames near London Bridge.
South London and the extreme north suffered severely; but, for
some reason, Mathy threw no bombs in the central districts,
where he could have done most damage. He got clear away this
time, and went out to sea by Yarmouth. The handling of the
companion ship, L32, was not of nearly so bold a character. Her
commander began to hesitate as soon as he had crossed the
coast of Kent, and he spent an hour circling about Romney
Marshes. When eventually he started N. for London his courage
again failed, and he kept edging off to the E. so as to avoid the
central defences. His caution could not save him. As he crossed
the Thames near Dartford he was picked up by lights and
attacked by guns. In order to rise he dropped most of his bombs
in open country. His efforts were of no avail. Brandon, who was
still in the air, describes the ill-fated ship as being " hosed with a
stream of fire." This was the attack delivered by Lt. Sowrey,
also of the R.F.C. , who succeeded in setting the ship on fire in
several places; she fell in a mass of flames at Billericay, in Essex.
The British casualties on this night were 41 killed, including one
aeroplane pilot. The enemy would hardly see in this an ade-
quate return for the loss of two new airships with their crews.
On the night of Sept. 25 four ships raided the north, bombing
Sheffield, where 29 people were killed, and narrowly missed
Manchester. Two other ships, whose commanders had already
become noted for their caution, came up to the Norfolk coast but
would not cross it. Mathy, on this occasion, took his ship on an
entirely new line. Passing through the Straits of Dover, he flew
up the Channel as far as the Isle of Wight, where he turned N.
and went straight over Portsmouth. He dropped no bombs on
the fortress or dockyard. Near Hastings he went to sea again
on what was to be his last voyage to Germany.
Yet another serious attempt to bomb London was made
on the night of Oct. i. Eleven ships started from Germany.
Three of them made an innocuous tour over Lincolnshire.
Mathy in L3i came in over Lowestoft about 8 P.M. and as usual
steered an excellent course on London. Soon after passing
Chelmsford, however, he found that the outer defences on that
side of the capital were ready for him. A searchlight picked him
up. He therefore turned and steered N.E. for some 15 minutes.
Turning again he flew S.W., in order to get into position for his
favourite dash down wind over the city. After drifting a few
moments towards Ware, he set his engines going and started for
north London at full speed. Suddenly a heavy gunfire was
opened on him, and he decided to abandon his attempt. He
threw out all his bombs, at the same moment executing a very
AIR RAIDS
97
remarkable right-hand turn that must nearly have broken the
back of his ship. The pursuing aeroplanes were close upon him.
He did all that was humanly possible to save his ship. He tried
flying towards the W. on a zigzag course, rising and falling, in
order to escape from the lights that continually held him, and
from pilots who would not be shaken off. An airship once caught
in such toils has little chance of escape. The end came quickly.
Lt. Tempest came up to the ship at 12,70x3 ft. and brought her
down in flames at Potter's Bar. Thus perished Mathy, the
bravest and most skilful, as well as the most successful, of all the
German commanders. The fall of Mathy's ship had an immedi-
ate effect on three other raiders, who all made a sharp turn for
home the moment they saw it. After his victory, Tempest crashed
on landing at North Weald Bassett, but was unhurt. During
the whole of this great raid the only British loss was one man
killed. The defence of London had now definitely got the better
of the lighter-than-air attack; after this period no German air-
ship ever flew intentionally over the metropolis.
Deterred by the victory of the London defences, the German
command turned their attention to the north for the final effort
of 1916. They met with no better success. Of the ten ships
that left Germany in the course of Nov. 27, eight came over land.
One was destroyed on the coast near Hartlepool before midnight
by Pyott of the R.F.C. She fell blazing into the sea. Although
the pilot dived away at once to avoid the flaming mass, his face
was scorched by the heat as she fell.
Another raider, 1,2 1, after a remarkable journey right across
England to Cheshire, was caught in the early morning just as it
was growing light, when she was leaving the coast at Yarmouth.
Three British naval aeroplanes came up with her. Cadbury
attacked first, but exhausted all his ammunition; his experience
was destined to be useful to him on a subsequent occasion.
Another pilot then tried, but his gun was frozen up and jammed.
The third pilot, Pulling, then went right in to within 60 ft. of the
ship, under a heavy fire from her machine-guns, and succeeded in
setting her alight. It is a curious fact that machine-gun fire was
kept up from the gondolas for a considerable time after the hull had
begun to burn. ShefellintotheseafromS,oooft.andsankatonce.
Other raiders, seeing the disaster near Hartlepool, turned for
home again without attacking. Those who came in over land
found that the ground defences were very different from what
they had expected. The guns and lights were successful in keep-
ing the raiders off their targets. The British losses were one man
and three women killed.
During 1916 eighteen raids were made on England by aero-
planes and seaplanes. They were nearly all of the " tip and
run " variety, and consisted in coming over the coastline,
dropping a few bombs haphazard and getting away as soon as
possible. The attacks were delivered with no apparent military
purpose, and they had practically no effect.
The first aeroplane attack on London was made on Nov. 281916
by a single machine; the weather was misty and the first intima-
tion was the fall of six small bombs between Brompton Road
and Victoria station. The raiding machine had an engine failure
on the return journey and was forced to land within the Allied
lines near Boulogne. Lt. Ilges, the pilot, had set out to take
photographs and bomb the Admiralty.
Before the beginning of 1917 the defences had quite definitely
beaten the attack, so far as concerned operations by airships
against London. Over the rest of England the airship com-
manders were tending more and more to avoid defended places,
consequently the damage they could do was limited to objectives
of secondary importance. It is a significant fact that of the nine
Zeppelin commanders who attacked in Jan. 1916 three had
been killed and two others taken prisoner, their five ships being
destroyed by the action of the defences, before the end of the year.
1917. The three airship raids of the first half of 1917, carried
out under the conditions indicated above, produced little re-
sult other than the loss of two of the raiders, one being shot
down while on the way home by a French gun near Compiegne,
the other being destroyed by one of the defending aeroplanes near
Harwich. On the night of May 6-7 a single German aeroplane
appeared over the East End of London, and dropped a few small
bombs. The attack, in itself, was unimportant, but it afforded an
indication of what might come later.
Before the end of 1916 it had become evident to the German
command that, if effective bombing was to be kept up on
targets that were worth attacking, it would be necessary to try
new methods. Early in 1917, therefore, they began equipping a
squadron with special machines suitable for bombing England
systematically. This formation, known as the 3rd Bombing
Squadron, was distributed in aerodromes about Ghent, roughly
170 m. from London. The new machines, of the Gotha type,
were capable of flying with a full load of bombs at 12,000 ft.
and over. They carried a crew of three, pilot and two machine
gunners. In May 1917 the squadron was ready for action, and
as soon as the weather became favourable the attacks were to
begin. The raids, with the exception of two minor attacks on
Harwich, were aimed at London, but on the first two occasions
unsuitable weather caused a failure, and the bombs were un-
loaded in other places.
The first attempt on London came on May 25 1917, The
3rd Bombing Squadron, 16 machines strong, left Belgium
early in the afternoon and made the Essex coast about 5 P.M.
On the Continent the sky was generally clear but there were
thick banks of cloud over Essex. The task of navigating to
London was found too difficult and the leader had to give up the
attempt. He therefore turned S. over Essex and crossed the
Thames about Gravesend, afterwards making a course S.E.
Bombs were dropped on the Canadian camp at Shorncliffe,
where there were 100 casualties. The worst effect was produced
in Folkestone itself. One bomb fell in a crowded street and
killed 33 people, mostly women who were out shopping. Over
England the opposition to the raid was entirely without effect,
but one raider was brought down in the sea by a British machine
working from Dunkirk.
The second unsuccessful attempt was made on June 5; 18
machines, practically the full strength of the 3rd Squadron at
that time, left the Ghent aerodromes about 2 P.M. They made
the Essex coast as on the previous occasion, but this time they
turned S. earlier. They bombed Sheerness with some effect, the
town and dockyard both being hit several times. The guns at
Sheerness succeeded in hitting one of the raiders, which fell into
the river off Barton's Point. A large number of machines
went up in pursuit. They were nearly all too slow and climbed
too badly to do any good.
The third attempt on London was more successful. The
whole of the 3rd Squadron started in the morning of June 13,
taking the same course across the North Sea as before. A
few machines were detached to bomb Margate and Shoebury-
ness. Probably this was done to confuse the defence arrange-
ments. The main formation of 14 machines held on N. of the
river to London, which was reached a little before noon. A few
bombs were dropped in the East End and near the Royal Albert
Docks; then, at a signal from the leader, the formation loosed 72
bombs over a small area having Liverpool Street station as its
centre. The station itself was hit by three bombs. The casualties
were severe 159 killed and 424 injured. One ico-lb. bomb hit
a school in Poplar. On striking the building the bomb was torn in
half before the fuse acted, and only half the charge exploded;
even so, 17 of the children were killed. A few isolated attacks
were made on the raiders without success. One machine got into
touch with the enemy over Ilford, but the observer, Capt.
Keevil, was killed and the pilot's gun jammed. Such gunfire as
was brought to bear in the London area was badly directed and
had no effect.
The next raid on London on July 7 was also successful.
Twenty-four machines started; they were first seen well out to
sea soon after 9 in the morning, flying at about 10,000 feet. Coming
up to the coast, two machines were detached, as on the previous
occasion, in order to attack Margate, where a couple of houses
were wrecked. The main body of 22 machines, flying in diamond
formation, crossed the Essex coast near the mouth of the Crouch
river about 9.45 A.M., and they came on towards London,
9 8
AIR RAIDS
gradually climbing, until they were about 13,000 ft. over Brent-
wood. The coui se of the raid ran by Enfield, where the formation
turned S., over Edmonton and Tottenham. On the way to the
City, St. Pancras and Shoreditch were bombed. The City itself
received 26 bombs, one of them starting a small fire in the
General Post Office.
The German formation was well handled in the way of making
it a difficult target for the anti-aircraft guns. The machines flew
in two divisions, which drew apart as they came under fire. The
majority of the shell fired into the brown of the enemy burst harm-
lessly in the interval thus left. Individual machines flew with a
switchback movement, alternately diving and climbing in order to
make the task of prediction at the guns more difficult. The anti-
aircraft guns fired a very large number of rounds, but produced no
effect at all on the enemy. The aeroplane defences again showed a
lamentable lack of plan. Eighty-seven machines went up, of all
sorts and sizes. A few were efficient fighting machines. Many of
them, for all the good they could do, need never have left the
ground. No scheme existed by which a combined attack could be
delivered. In consequence, the enemy were quite well able to beat
off such isolated, though gallant, attacks as were made. They
brought down two machines. All that the British pilots were able to
accomplish was to finish off one lame duck, a machine that was in
difficulties from engine trouble. It fell into the sea off the coast of
Essex and the crew were drowned.
The failure of the defensive arrangements, or rather the
complete lack of efficient arrangements, began to cause consider-
able agitation in the public mind. The Germans were touching
the nerve centre, and the British Government found it necessary
to order a complete reorganization. The London Air Defences
were to be formed as a separate command. It was to include all
the means o{ defence, both from the ground and in the air.
General Ashmore was brought from France to take charge.
On the formation of this new command several distinct problems
presented themselves. Night raids on London by airships, al-
though not very likely, were still possible; it was obvious that
night raiding by aeroplanes would have to be faced. But the
most threatening danger lay, for the moment, in day raiding by
aeroplanes in force. To meet this, a line of guns was established
to the E. of London some 20 m. out; and inside this line strong
patrols of aeroplanes, working in formation, were organized.
Careful plans were laid to ensure that the guns and aeroplanes
would really cooperate and not interfere with each other.
A system of signals and directing arrows on the ground was
installed to assist the pilots in finding the enemy. Outer patrols
of aeroplanes near the coast could deal with the homeward
journey of the raiders.
The new arrangements were soon tested; on Aug. 12 a party
of nine Gothas made the land near Harwich. After following
the coast to the Blackwater, they turned inland for London.
The communication system of the defence control worked well,
and the squadrons immediately defending London were at the
required height in plenty of time to meet the enemy formation.
The German commanderj however, would not face the defences
of London itself, and turned his formation about before they
reached the outer line of guns. A number of bombs were un-
loaded on Southend as the enemy made off, and 32 people were
killed. The Germans were pursued out to sea, but an exaspe-
rating series of gun-jams robbed the British pilots of success,
and the only bag was one Gotha that was flying badly and was
brought down in the sea by a naval machine.
An attempt on Aug. 18 was frustrated by bad weather. Many
of the German machines were blown over Holland, where some of
the pilots, thinking they were over England, dropped bombs!
An abortive attack on the Midlands by eight airships on the
night of Aug. 21 was followed by the last day attack on England
on Aug. 22, when Capt. Kleine, commander of the 3rd Squadron,
started out with 13 Gothas to bomb Sheerness and Dover. A
number of naval machines turned the Sheerness bombers from
their objective, and the German formation, harassed by the
British pilots, wheeled south by Ramsgate. Here the anti-air-
craft guns, working with great accuracy, shot down two of the
raiders. A third was shot down off Dover.
The increased efficiency of the defences, both in machines and
guns, decided the Germans to abandon day attacks, and they
turned their attention to raiding with aeroplanes by night.
Practically no answer had been found at the time to this form
of attack, which had been carried on for more than a year on the
western front in France. Searchlight staffs, in their then state
of training, found great difficulty in picking up or holding an
aeroplane in their beams. Gunfire, which could only be aimed
roughly in the direction of the enemy, was so inaccurate as to be
negligible. It was not thought possible to fly during darkness
fast scout machines of sufficient climb and performance. Further-
more, it must be remembered that a pilot in the air at night
can only see another machine when he is close to it, and that
the noise of his own engine deafens him to other sounds. At the
time there was no way in which the pilot could receive information
from the ground. For these reasons it seemed difficult to find
any means on which to base plans of defence against night
aeroplane raiding.
The first group of night attacks came in the beginning of
Sept. 1917, and one of these reached London itself. The raid
on Sept. 2 was a quick affair at Dover and of little importance.
On the following night, Sept. 3-4, about 10:30, hostile aeroplanes
were reported near the North Foreland, and warnings were sent
out by the central control a few minutes later when it was clear
that they were coming up the Thames. Unfortunately there
was serious telephone delay in getting the warning out at Chat-
ham, and before cover could be taken a bomb had fallen on a
drill hall in which a large number of naval ratings were asleep.
No fewer than 130 were killed and 88 wounded.
Although on this night the defence was ineffective, certain
points emerged which gave hope for the future. Three stout-
hearted pilots went up in Camels, fast scout machines, and
found that it was by no means impossible to handle them at
night. In fact, being small and light, they were even easier to
land than heavier machines, which would run on longer on the
ground. The idea also was evolved of barrage fire, a curtain of
bursting shell to be put up in the path of the raiders.
The last raid of this moon period, on Sept. 4, reached London.
The attacking machines, between 20 and 30 in number, began to
come up to the coast soon after 10 P.M. While isolated attacks
were made on Dover and Margate the majority of the raiders
made for London. The barrage fire, organized since the previous
night, turned some of the pilots, but 10 raiders reached the met-
ropolitan area, and bombs were dropped in widely separated
localities. The City, Paddington, Stratford, Hornsey, Holloway
and Regent's Park, all suffered. One bomb narrowly missed
Cleopatra's Needle. Considering the magnitude of the raid, the
damage caused was small, and the total casualties for the night
included only nine killed.
Favourable weather and good moon conditions at the end of
Sept. and beginning of Oct. 1917 produced a sustained series
of raids, opening on the night of Sept. 24th with an attack
on London by aeroplanes, in conjunction with an airship raid on
Hull and the north.
The first aeroplanes were reported approaching Kent as
early as 7 P.M., and by 8:10 P.M. some 21 machines in seven
groups had come over the coasts of K,ent, Essex and Suffolk.
Dover was heavily attacked, the gas-works were hit and several
houses were damaged. Nine at least of the pilots attempted to
attack London itself, but considerable improvement had by this
time been effected in putting up barrage fire, which was success-
ful in turning back all but three of the attackers. Of these three,
one dropped bombs about Deptford and Poplar, doing but little
damage; the other two passed right over London from north to
south. A bomb dropped in Southampton Row killed 13 people
who had not taken proper cover; others fell near the Ritz Hotel
and into the river opposite the Houses of Parliament. Although
27 English machines went up they failed to find any of the enemy;
the gunfire brought down one of the Gothas, which fell in the
river near Sheerness.
The attack on the north was carried out by 10 airships under
Capt. Strasser. After concentrating off Flamborough Head
six of them came over land. Although Hull was found, the raid
had very little success. This was partly owing to the cloudy
AIR RAIDS
99
weather that prevailed. But the main reason for the failure is
traceable to the gradual improvement of the defences, which had
driven the airships higher and higher on each successive raid. On
this occasion none of them flew under 16,000 ft. while over the
land. At this height the difficulties of navigation are greatly
increased and the probability of successful bombing diminishes.
On the following night, Sept. 25, 10 aeroplanes attacked.
Of the three that approached London, one was turned off
by the barrage fire; the other two, coming in from the S., did
a little damage in Camberwell, Southwark, and Bermondsey,
where nine people were killed. The barrage fire at Dover was
particularly successful on this night, and the attack on that
place completely failed.
The attacks were continued on the 28th, when some 20
machines came over; the night was cloudy and a few only ap-
proached London; they were all kept off by the barrage fire.
The barrage was again singularly effective on the following
night, Sept. 29. Out of the 18 or 19 machines that came over
only four penetrated far enough to bomb London. Of the
remainder a large number were turned back by the fire put
up by the outer ring of London guns. The Dover guns again did
well, keeping off attack and bringing one of the enemy down
in flames. Thirty defending pilots went up on this night; none of
them found the enemy, although one was so close to a German
machine that the anti-aircraft guns had to stop firing on it.
On the next night, Sept. 30, the German pilots showed more
pluck; of 25 that attacked, eight got over London and bombed
places as far apart as Highgate, Edmonton and Woolwich.
Considering their numbers, they were singularly unlucky in the
results: six people were injured and the damage was under 8,000.
The last raid of the series on Oct. i was made by about 18
machines; a few penetrated the defences and dropped bombs.
One attacked Highbury, damaging a large number of houses;
another bombed Hyde Park and the neighbourhood. One bomb
fell into the Serpentine, killing most of the fish there. Only one
British pilot saw anything of the hostile machines.
During these raids a large proportion of the attackers had
been turned before reaching their target. The defences had
done fairly well, but they were still far from complete. The
outer ring of guns was not installed on the W. of London, and
it was plain that the German pilots were feeling round by the N.
for this gap.
The barrage fire was expensive in ammunition and there was a
doubt if the supply could be kept up. Doubts had even arisen
as to the use of the barrage one Cabinet minister describing it
as " self -bombardment." A few casualties from the gunfire were
inevitable until people realized that even the lightest cover would
protect them from the fragments of high-explosive shell. In
spite of casualties, however, it was plain that the public looked
upon the barrage fire as a comfort. It is significant that a
Christmas fund got up by the Star newspaper for the men working
at the guns had to be closed down from over-subscription.
Progress had already been made in night flying, on fast
machines, but the defending squadrons had not nearly reached
the necessary efficiency in machines or pilots.
The " Aprons," a new defence devised after the raid of
Sept. 5, were only beginning to be installed. These were
screens of wire that could be raised to 10,000 ft. by Caquot
balloons, and were designed to limit the range of heights in
which the defending pilots would have to seek the bombers.
The Central Control as organized in Sept. 1917 could give
no information to pilots when once they had been sent on
their patrols, but schemes to rectify this had already been
initiated. On the whole, although the attack at this time had
the best of it, there were reasonable hopes that this condition
would not last much longer.
The airship raid of the night Oct. 19-20 1917, which be-
came known in London as the " silent raid," has points of
special interest. The weather conditions were the dominating
feature both as regards the attack and the defence.
Eleven airships met on the evening of the 1 9th off the York-
shire coast for an attack on the industrial centres of the Midlands.
To avoid gunfire and aeroplane attack while over England,
the ships flew at an immense height, well over 16,000 ft. At
this altitude the efficiency of the crew is much impaired by
height sickness and the intense cold. Another and fatal condition
was produced by the weather. Near the ground the air was
misty and there was very little wind, but at the height of the
airships a strong gale was blowing from the N., and in this the
Zeppelins drifted blindly S., the navigators being prevented
by the ground mists from correcting their course. One airship
passed over London without recognizing it and dropped a few
heavy bombs; one of 50 kgm. fell in Piccadilly outside Swan &
Edgar's shop and caused some casualties. Owing to the peculiar
conditions of the night, sound carried very badly, and this ship
crossed London unheard. Eight other airships, in the course of
their southern drift, passed, without knowing it, within easy
reach of the metropolis.
Realizing that, on account of the ground mists, searchlights
would have no chance of lighting up a high Zeppelin, the defence
ordered them to remain covered unless an airship could be heard.
The London public were inclined to complain that the usual
display of lights and barrage fire was lacking. The lights,
had they been turned on, must have produced the worst results.
They could not light up the enemy, but they would be sufficient
to show the attackers where London was, and to enable them to
correct their course for drift. As it was, London was saved from
a combined attack and the raid ended in disaster to the attackers.
One airship only returned to Germany in the usual way;
six got back after flying over Holland or across the Allied lines.
The remaining four were destroyed during the following day
on French territory.
Aeroplane raiding was resumed during the moon period at the
end of October. An attempt on the 2gth failed on account of bad
weather; another on the 3ist was carried out by 24 machines.
Considering that a good many of them got over London, the
effect was small one woman killed and damage to the extent of
about 23,000.
The weather in Dec. 1917 was generally unfavourable for
long-distance raiding, and only three attempts were made on
London. The defences, showed steady improvement. Two
Gothas were brought down by anti-aircraft gunfire during a
raid in the early morning of Dec. 6 on which occasion the
Germans lost a third machine in the sea on the way home. On
the night of the i8th, improvements in the searchlight control
and the special training of the night-flying pilots began to make
themselves felt. Twenty-seven defending machines of the best
performance went up, and three combats took place.
As a result, one of the Gothas was so damaged that it fell into
the sea off Folkestone and was destroyed. On this night the new
" Giant " aeroplane came over London for the first time. It
dropped one 3oo-kgm. bomb in Lyall Street, near Eaton Square,
making a large crater but doing little serious damage. The
whole raid, however, cost London more than 300,000 in damage.
On Dec. 22 the last raid of the ye9r was frustrated by un-
favourable weather; one Gotha was forced by engine trouble to
descend near Margate, where it was destroyed by the crew.
1918. In the five aeroplane raids of the first quarter of 1918
there was a tendency to replace the smaller Gotha machines by
the new " Giants." A Gotha was destroyed by a defending
aeroplane on Jan. 28. During this raid a bomb dropped by a
Giant fell on a building in Long Acre that was being used as an
air-raid shelter, and 38 people were killed.
On the following night, Jan. 29, one of the Giant machines
was pursued half round London by four of the defending
scouts. The reason for its escape is curious. The British pi-
lots saw over their sights a machine they imagined to be of
Gotha size. The actual machine, being a Giant and very
much larger, was therefore a good deal farther off than they
thought, and they were firing at too long a range to be effective.
The crew of the Giant became panic-stricken and were within
an ace of landing when the British machines drew off.
Three Giants, unaccompanied by any smaller machines,
attacked on Feb. 16; the only one that penetrated to Lon-
IOO
AIRSHIP ALABAMA
don demolished a house in Chelsea Hospital with a 3oo-kgm.
bomb.
The raid of March 7 1918 was remarkable as being the
only occasion on which aeroplanes attacked London in the
absence of any moonlight. The navigators of the attacking
Giants were helped by a bright aurora. This made the night
unusually light, and gave a constant bearing of fair accuracy
to the pole. Warrington Crescent was badly hit, most of .the
houses being wrecked.
To turn to the airships, the disaster of Oct. 19-20 1917 was
followed by the destruction of four more ships by explosion
in their sheds, and raiding was not resumed until the nights of
March 12 and 13 1918. Both these raids were made at an
immense height, and although Hull and West Hartlepool were
bombed, the damage did not amount to much. The casualties
comprised nine killed on the two nights.
Five airships of the newest and largest type, under Capt.
Strasser, attacked the Midlands on the night of April 12.
Although more than seven tons of bombs were dropped in the
neighbourhood of big towns, the result was very small, and only
five people were killed.
The end of the airship raiding came on Aug. 5-6 1918.
Five ships came up to the coast of Norfolk, no bombs were
dropped on land, but 1^70, the latest word in airship construction,
was destroyed, with Capt. Strasser on board, by Major Cad-
bury, flying a DH4 machine.
In the great aeroplane raid of May 19 1918 the Germans
made their maximum effort in this form of attack; between 30
and 40 Gothas of the 3rd Bombing Squadron took part, with at
least two Giant machines. Thirteen of the raiders managed to
get over London. The casualties included 49 killed, and 130,000
worth of damage was done in the London area alone. But the
defence had by now made very real progress. Eighty-four aero-
planes, nearly all of excellent performance, went up in pursuit,
and all landed safely. The anti-aircraft guns fired upwards of
30,000 rounds. The plans worked well in that the defending
pilots were assisted instead of being hampered by the gunfire
and searchlights. The Germans lost seven machines three shot
down in air combat, three destroyed by gunfire, and one from
engine failure.
This success of the defence was final, and London was saved
from further bombing. The Germans turned their attention to
Paris, which now sustained a long series of raids.
A new system of defence control was in course of being in-
stalled in London at this time, but it did not come into full
operation until Aug., and it was therefore never tested in an
actual raid. It provided a method by which the defence com-
mander could follow the course of raiding machines, and could
instantly transmit information and orders to the pilots in the air
by wireless telephone. It was calculated that this system would
increase the power of the defence at least fourfold.
A proof of the efficiency of defence by aeroplanes, assisted by
a good organization on the ground, was furnished by a squadron,
manned by pilots trained in the London methods, that was sent
to France in June 1918 to cope with night bombing near the line.
In a very short time they accounted for 26 German machines,
and they practically stopped bombing in their area, with no loss
to themselves.
Conclusion. We have now traced the way in which raiding
and defence grew up together, and the eventual success of
adequately equipped and organized defences. In addition to
casualties 1,413 killed, 3,407 injured in all and damage, the
German raids on England produced actual results by no means
negligible. A night raid stopped munition work over a large area.
In order to establish a defence, men and material were kept back
from France. This was particularly felt in the case of aeroplanes
and pilots. Two hundred aeroplanes of the best performance
and 200 highly trained pilots were available about London
at a time when they would have been of the utmost value
on the western front. The moral effect of raiding is found to
depend not so much on actual damage as on the success or ill-
success of defensive measures. In London, the barrage, the
" aprons," and the aeroplane defence did much to allay fears
that had arisen when there was apparently no answer to the
attacks. (E. B. A.)
AIRSHIP: see AERONAUTICS.
AITKEN, JOHN (1839-1919), British physicist, was born at
Falkirk Sept. 18 1839. He was educated at Falkirk gram-
mar school and Glasgow University, and trained as marine
engineer at R. Napier & Sons, Glasgow. He lived at Falkirk,
where he carried out his great experiments on atmospheric dust
in relation to the formation of clouds and mists (1882), on the
formation of dew (1885, see 8.136) and on the laws of cyclones
(1891). His instrument for counting the dust particles in the air
(see 8.714, 18.279) has been utilized in principle by many later
workers. He also invented new forms of thermometer screens
and powerfully aided the development of meteorology. He was
elected F.R.S. in 1889 and was awarded the Royal medal in 1917.
He also received the Keith medal (1886) and Gunning prize
(1897) from the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in whose Trans-
actions and Proceedings most of his valuable contributions were
published. He died at Falkirk Nov. 14 1919.
AKHWAN MOVEMENT, a religious revival or reform, confined
mostly to the Nejd districts of Arabia. The term akhwan, or
ikhwan, signifies "brethren," and the tenets of the brotherhood
are those of Wahabism revived and intensified (see 28.245).
The movement, recognized by Ibn Sa'ud, Emir of Nejd, had
taken definite shape after 1910; and in 1921 it still seemed
likely to have far-reaching effects upon the attitude of the people
of Central Arabia towards other Arabian communities and
even to the outer world.
ALABAMA (see 1.459). In 1920 the pop. was 2,348,174 as
against 2,138,093, in 1910, an increase of 210,081, or 9-8 %, as
compared with 309,396, or 16-3%, in the preceding decade.
Although the proportion of urban pop. was greater than in 1910,
yet in spite of the marked development of mining and manu-
facturing interests, more than three-fourths of the inhabitants
were still rural and chiefly agricultural. The urban pop. (in-
habitants of cities of 2,500 or more) was 509,317; the rural,
1,838,857.* The growth of pop. in the chief cities is shown in the
following table:
Increase
1920 1910 per cent.
Birmingham 178,270 132,685 34-4
Mobile . 60,151 51.521 16-8
Montgomery 43464 38,136 14-0
Bessemer 18,674 10,864 71-9
Anniston 17.734 I2 >794 3^-6
Selma , 15,607 13,649 14-2
The distribution of pop. by race was as follows: whites, 1,447,032;
negroes, 900,652; Indians, 405; Chinese, 59; Japanese, 18; all
others, 8. During the decade 1910-20 the white pop. increased
17-8%, while the negro pop. decreased 0-8%, due to male negro
migration to northern industrial centres.
Agriculture. There were 256,099 farms in 1920; 262,901 in
1910, a decrease due to the negro migration noted above, but
there was a marked increase in total production. The state
Department of Agriculture estimated that in 1920 there were
harvested 5,630,000 tons of commodities compared with 5,203,000
tons for the year 1919. The same department made the following
estimates of the acreage, production and value of crops in 1920:
Crops
Acres
Production
Value
Corn
4,277,000
67,234,000 bus.
$67,057,000
2,868,000
660,000 bales
53,515,000
Cottonseed .
296,700 tons
7,839,000
Peanuts
409,700
9,024,000 bus.
5,936,000
Hay
1,440,000
3,324,000 tons
27,123,000
Velvet beans
743.700
440,100 tons
7,914,000
Cowpeas
532,200
5,113,000 bus.
9,622,000
Irish potatoes
47,900
3,215,000 bus.
11,250,000
Sweet potatoes
179,800
17,585,000 bus.
16,939,000
Sorghum syrup
99,900
8,917,000 gal.
8,340,000
Sugar-cane syrup
59,700
10,298,000 gal.
10,643,000
Oats
366,000
6,833,000 bus.
6,740,000
Wheat .
68,000
680,000 bus.
1,594,000
Soy beans
23,000
227,000 bus.
588,000
Tobacco .
3,000
2,100,000 Ib.
420,000
Total harvested
11,117,900
$2^5,520,000
ALAND ISLANDS
101
The above estimates did not include the acreage grazed or
" hogged " and not harvested, which the state department of
Agriculture placed in 1920 at 1,344,000 ac. with an approximate
value of $20,001,000. The Statistical Bureau of the U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture estimated the value of all crops in Ala-
bama in the year 1920 at $240,000,000.
Industries and Transportation. Three new lines of material
progress during 1910-20 were notable: (i) The use of hydro-
electric power; (2) shipbuilding; and (3) the utilization of the
canalized Warrior and Tombigby rivers from the heart of the
inland mineral district to tidewater at Mobile. A private
corporation completed a great dam across the Coosa river and
was in 1920 delivering electricity for lighting and power purposes
to the chief centres of population and industry in northern and
central Alabama; and the same company in 1921 began another
great dam across the same river which would increase greatly
trie power available. In the meantime the U.S. Government
undertook the famous " Wilson dam " across the Tennessee river
at Muscle Shoals. The impetus given to shipbuilding at Mobile
continued after the World War; and the great shipyard at
Chickasaw, a suburb of Mobile, was in 1920 steadily sending
down the ways ships of heavy tonnage, made from steel fabri-
cated in the Birmingham district and barged down the Warrior
and Tombigby rivers. The growth of down-stream tonnage of
coal, iron, steel and timber on the canalized Warrior river con-
tinued for a year or two under private enterprise; but the closing
months of the year 1920 marked a new era when the first vessel
of a fleet of Government-owned and -operated self-propelling
barges made its way down the Mississippi river to New Orleans
and into the Gulf, then to Mobile and up the rivers to Birming-
ham and Cordova in the heart of the Warrior coal-fields. A
balanced tonnage, up and down stream, was steadily being
developed in 1921 by the transhipment at Mobile of manganese
ore from Brazil, for use in making high-grade steel in the Birming-
ham district, and by the establishment of an all-water freight
rate from New York and other eastern points, via Mobile, to
the various river ports.
Mineral Production. The Geological Survey of Alabama reported
a decrease in 1918, as compared with the preceding year, in quan-
tity but an increase in value of most of the mineral products of the
state. In 1918 the production of coal was 19,184,962 short tons val-
ued at $54,752,329, with a coke production of 4,892,589 short tons
valued at $28,394,272. The iron ore mined in 1918 amounted to
6,121,087 long tons with an estimated value of $15,334,561; the
gross tons of pig-iron marketed amounted to 2,645,179, valued at
$80,893,678. Another important mineral product was graphite, of
the crystalline variety, the value of which in 1918 was $999,152 as
compared with $719,575 in 1917. It is estimated that Alabama fur-
nished over 60 % of the domestic graphite used in the World War.
Education. The impetus given to public education, under the
administration of Governor Comer (190711) by the creation of a
system of county high schools and by more liberal appropriations
both for the common schools and for the institutions of higher edu-
cation, lost none of its momentum under his successors. In the
beginning of Governor Kilby's administration the Legislature
passed an Act, approved Feb. 6 1919, creating a commission of
five members, appointed by the governor, to make a study of the
educational system of the state with the object of determining
its efficiency. The commission in turn invited the U.S. Bureau
of Education to accept the task. The result was a series of Acts
passed by the Legislature in 1919, constituting the School Code
of Alabama. Among the most important of these Acts was
one providing for a state Council of Education to coordinate
the efforts of the university of Alabama at Tuscaloosa, the
Alabama Polytechnic Institute at Auburn, and the Alabama Techni-
cal Institute and College for women at Montevallo, by assigning to
each special fields for higher education. The efficiency of the pub-
lic-school system of the state was perhaps best shown by the steady
reduction of illiteracy. The total number of illiterates in 1920 was
278,082, of which number 210,690 were negroes, 65,394 native
whites, and 1,893 foreign-born whites. During the two-year period
between the school censuses of 1918 and 1920, the percentage of
literates in the total population, white and negro, between the
ages of 10 and 21 years, increased 5,2 per cent.
Taxation and Finance. Owing to the limitation in the constitu-
tion of 1901 of the rate of state taxation upon real and personal
property to 0^65% upon assessed values, the Legislature in 1919, in
an effort to increase revenues, incorporated in the general revenue
bill among the license or privilege taxes a tax of two cents per ton
on coal and three cents per ton on iron mined in the state, payable
monthly. At the same session a graduated income tax, ranging from
2 % to 4 % was levied ; but the Supreme Court decided that it was
repugnant to the constitution and null and void. By a decision of
the Supreme Court handed down Feb. 3 1921, the amendment
to the constitution hereafter noted, authorizing the issue of
$25,000,000 highway improvement bonds, was declared to have
been irregularly adopted and not a part of the constitution;
but as the decision was rendered by a divided bench of four
judges to three, an application for a rehearing was pending, and if
not granted, an effort was to be made to have the amendment re-
submitted for adoption according to the strict terms of the con-
stitution by an extra called session of the Legislature.
History. During the period from 1910 to 1921 the Government
of Alabama remained in the control of the Democratic party, with
little more than nominal opposition by the Republican party, the
educational, property and other qualifications for voters under the
state constitution of 1901 having eliminated the bulk of the negro
Republican voters. It was only in the presidential election of 1920
that there were indications of the development of a real white
Republican party in the state. In that election that party polled
practically one-third of the vote cast, 3 1-9%, thus securing the privi-
lege of a primary for the nomination of candidates in the next elec-
tion at the expense of the state Government. Before this time
factional differences in the Democratic party were fought out in the
primary elections under state supervision, and the general elections
were merely formal ratifications of the choice made in the primaries.
It was not easy to distinguish clearly between the two leading fac-
tions that developed in the dominant party, but perhaps the terms
" Conservative " and " Progressive " sufficiently indicate the line
of cleavage. The former insisted on the fullest protection to vested
financial interests, and before the adoption of the Eighteenth (pro-
hibition) Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, on
a liberal policy of " local option " in the manufacture and sale of
alcoholic beverages. The latter stood generally for strict control,
by the state, of corporate capital, especially in the matter of railway
rate regulation, and for prohibition of the liquor traffic. Several
amendments to the state constitution of 1901 were adopted during
this period, most of them dealing with matters of local interest to
counties and cities. Two, however, were general in their scope:
one providing for local option by counties and school districts as to
increased taxation in the interest of public schools ; the other author-
izing the issue of state bonds to the amount of $25,000,000 for the
construction of a complete system of highways, thus enabling the
state to secure the national appropriations in aid of that policy.
At its regular session in 1919 the state Legislature refused to ratify
the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States
providing for woman suffrage; but as soon as the requisite number
of states had made it a part of the Constitution, Governor Kilby
called a special session of the Legislature (1920), which promptly
passed an Act providing for the registration of women voters and
for otherwise carrying into effect the provisions of the Amendment.
The total number of men enlisted for the World War in the state
and inducted into the army was 73,811. As this did not include
National Guard commands or other volunteers, the Alabama De-
partment of Archives and History estimated that approximately
10% should be added. Alabama subscribed a total of $99,838,400
to the Liberty and Victory loans.
Recent governors were Braxton B. Comer (Dem.), 1907-11;
Emmet O'Neal (Dem.), 1911-5; Charles Henderson (Dem.), 1915-9;
Thomas E. Kilby (Dem.), 1919- (T. C. McC.)
ALAND ISLANDS (see 1.469). The alarm that had been felt
in Sweden for some years at Russia's projected military works in
the Aland Is. was intensified in 1915 when Russia openly began
the construction of fortifications. Sweden protested against this
breach of the Convention of Paris (1856), and Russia's assurance
that the fortifications were merely temporary did not allay
Swedish hostility towards Russia which at times threatened a
crisis. The Russian revolution of 1917 diverted attention from
the fortifications to the larger question of the sovereignty of
the islands. In Aug. 1917 the Aland islanders took steps to
consider reunion with Sweden, and as a plebiscite in Dec.
showed 95% of the population in favour of the proposal, a
petition to that effect was presented to the King of Sweden in
Feb 1918. The King in reply echoed the hope of the dep-
utation that a solution of their desires might be found " in
concert with free and independent Finland." In the same month
Sweden sent a military expedition to the islands to protect the
population from outrages by the Russian Bolshevik garrison
with which a small Finnish White force was unable to cope.
The Russians were sent to Abo and the Finnish troops to north-
ern Finland via Sweden. On the arrival early in March of
German troops by invitation of the Finnish Whites, the Swed-
ish force withdrew. The German garrison remained until Oct.
IO2
ALASKA
1918. The Treaty of B rest-Lit ovsk (March 3 1918) and the
subsequent treaty between Germany and Finland (March 7
1918) both stipulated that the fortifications on the islands
should be removed and not subsequently rebuilt. But the work
of demolition was repeatedly delayed. The Finnish Government
opposed the Alanders' wish for union with Sweden, but proposed
to compromise by making the islands into a separate Finnish
province. .The Diet persisted in this policy, and passed a bill
for self-government for Aland in May 1920. Meanwhile the
appointment of a Finnish military governor caused resentment,
which was aggravated (July 1918) by attempts to call the
Alanders for military service on the mainland. They refused to
obey, at the same time expressing their willingness to serve in
the islands under Swedish-speaking officers. Many of the
inhabitants fled to Sweden in order to escape service. In Nov.
1918 the Alanders appealed to the United States, Great
Britain, France and Italy, relying on the right of self-determina-
tion. An appeal to Finland at the same time drew an equivocal
reply. In Feb. 1919 the Alanders submitted their case to
the Supreme Council in Paris. Sweden supported their claim.
The Peace Conference declined to deal with the matter, which
was then referred to the League of Nations. A commission of
three jurists appointed by the League reported (Sept. 1920)
that the Council of the League was competent to make recom-
mendations since the dispute did not refer to a matter left by
international law to the domestic jurisdiction of Finland. The
League thereupon appointed a commission to examine the
question.
Opinion in Finland among both Finns and Swedes was strongly
opposed to the cession of the islands, and it was argued that to
yield to the demand for self-determination of a fraction of the
Swedish population of Finland (about one-tenth) would be to
reduce the doctrine to an absurdity. At the same time the
opposition of the Swedes in Finland to the Alanders' desire might
be regarded as biased by unwillingness to lose the weight of their
vote and so lessen Swedish influence in Finland. Finland also
maintained that her sovereign rights over Aland were not
affected by Russian domination in Finland or by subsequent
events, and that Finland was not one of the "new" states that
arose as a result of the World War; and that in consequence the
Aland question was purely a domestic one in which no other state
nor the League of Nations was competent to intervene. On the
other hand the Alanders showed themselves virtually unanimous
in their desire for union with Sweden, to which they were closely
allied in race, language and to a great extent in trade, and
they maintained that their islands were sufficiently distinct
from Finland geographically to give them the right of self-
determination.
The commission, after visiting Stockholm, Helsingfors, and
the Aland Is., presented its report to the Council of the League at
its session in June 1921. On June 24 the Council announced
its decision that the islands were to belong to Finland, but
that they were to be neutralized from a military point of view
and given full guarantees of unfettered autonomy. M. Branting,
on behalf of Sweden, said Sweden would bow to the League's
ruling under protest, and M. Hymans was appointed to preside
at a committee of Finns and Swedes to discuss details of the
guarantees.
For a general account of the islands reference may be made to
Handbooks prepared under the direction of the Historical Section
of the Foreign Office, No. 48, Aland Islands; also Atlas de Finlande,
with text in French (1910). The Finnish side of the present dispute
is set forth in The Aland Question and.the Rights of Finland (1920).
See also Sven Tunberg, Les lies d'Aland dans I'Histoire (1919),
and E. Sjaestcdt, La Question des lies d'Aland (1919).
(R. N. R. B.)
ALASKA (see 1.472). The most important events in the his-
tory of Alaska in the ten years ending with 1920 were: (i)
the extension of surveys and investigations of resources over
nearly half of the total area (586,400 sq. m.) 1 ; (2) the change
1 Most of the inland surveys and investigations, as well as a part
of those made along the shore line, were done by the U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey, which between 1910 and 1920 mapped about 50,000
sq. miles. The Coast and Geodetic Survey charted the general
in the public land policy, which no longer prohibited the utiliza-
tion of Alaska's coal, petroleum and water powers; (3) the
granting of a measure of home rule to the people of Alaska;
(4) the improvement of transportation by the construction of a
Government railway from an open port on the Pacific to navi-
gable waters on the Yukon river, by the construction of many
wagon roads (total roads and trails 4,900 m.) and by the in-
stallation of many lights and other aids to navigation (total 547);
and (5) the great advance of her copper and salmon-fishing
industries, and of gold mining until 1916.
Public Land Policy. The political history of Alaska has
largely centred in a struggle for more liberal land laws. In early
days it had been considered for the best interests of Alaska to
transfer the lands to private ownership as quickly as possible
without too close a scrutiny of the means employed. This
policy was completely reversed as a result of the conservation
movement inaugurated under President Roosevelt. The aim
of the movement, as first defined, was to prevent waste of
natural resources; but this issue proving too academic to make a
popular appeal, it gradually veered to a protest against corporate
control of lands and resources. Though supported in the begin-
ning by the best element in the nation, it ultimately became
involved in the bitter struggle between the Roosevelt and Taft
wings of the Republican party. As practically all the lands of the
Territory were still owned by the Government, the withholding
of the most valuable of these from settlement and development
played havoc with her industries. Curiously enough, the most
ardent of the conservationists failed to recognize the urgent
importance of conserving the salmon and halibut fisheries. As it
was, the withdrawal of coal, oil and good timber lands as well as
of water powers left the Territory with only metalliferous
deposits and fisheries on which to base its industries. A very
important by-product of the conservation movement was the
development at Washington of a mania for the establishment of
reservations in Alaska. In this way there were set aside for
various purposes, exclusive of mineral or forest withdrawals,
some 40,000 sq. miles. For many years the Alaska conservation
issue remained at a deadlock between the executive and legisla-
tive branches of the Government. Meanwhile Alaskan in-
dustries languished. With an abundant supply of fuel close at
hand, she was forced to import coal and petroleum at great cost;
her pulp wood was rotting in the forest, her water powers were
undeveloped. Only gold- and copper-mining and salmon-fishing
increased. Finally during the Wilson administration a leasing
policy for coal and oil lands and water powers was established by
law. At about the same time the shortage of paper had a liberal-
izing influence on the regulations relating to the sale of timber
from the national forest. In 1921 the new laws were too recent
to allow an estimate of their effect.
Government. The struggle of Alaska to attain representation
in Washington, lasting nearly 40 years, resulted in 1906 in the
authorization of an elected delegate to Congress. At each
biennial election which followed, home rule was the only im-
portant issue, until finally in 1912 an Act was passed granting a
territorial government. This continued the governor as a
presidential appointee, and (unwisely, though in accord with
American tradition) provided for a bi-cameral Legislature. The
upper chamber, or Senate, consisted of two senators from each
of the four judicial districts, serving four years. Sixteen repre-
sentatives formed the lower chamber, or House of Representatives,
four elected for two years from each judicial district. This
equal representation for each of the judicial districts gave the
less-populated areas of the interior an unjust preponderance in
the Legislature, and in many instances worked against the best
interests of the Territory as a whole. Congress in the organic
Act expressly retained the right of repealing all laws enacted by
the Alaska Legislature. Furthermore, the Territory was denied
the right to enact laws relating to the excise, game, fish, fur-
features along the entire coast-line and covered about 10% of it
in detailed surveys of important harbours and principal routes of
navigation. In 1913 the International Boundary Commission com-
pleted the survey of the Alaska-Canadian boundary.
ALASKA
103
bearing animals, or the existing Federal licence tax. It was
provided that the capital should be at Juneau. The first session
of the territorial Legislature was in March 1913, and the first
law passed gave the franchise to women. Since that date the
most important legislation has related to mining, hours of
labour, workmen's compensation, banking and education.
Heavy taxes were also imposed on the salmon-fishing industry,
and from these the Territory derived -a large part of its income.
In 1916 the Legislature authorized a plebiscite on the prohibition
of the sale, transportation and manufacture of all alcoholic
beverages. The vote was in the affirmative by 7,958 to 4,431.
As the Legislature had no power to change the excise law, a
petition was submitted to Congress, which passed a dry law for
Alaska in 1917.
Education. The white schools of Alaska were in 1920 under
territorial management and were supported by local taxes. Even
most of the small settlements had schools, and five of the larger
towns supported high schools. The Territory founded an agricul-
tural and mining college at Fairbanks in 1918, but as funds were
appropriated only for the erection of a building, the school had
not been opened up to 1920. In 1919 there were 62 white schools
in the Territory, with 147 teachers and 2,713 pupils. The
education of Alaskan Indians and Eskimos was in the hands of
Federal agencies. In 1919 there were in the Territory 70 Indian
schools, too few to accommodate the children of the 25,000
natives. The Federal Government also made some provision for
medical service for the natives, and maintained six small hospitals
for the purpose. In addition to the Government schools, about 35
sectarian missions were maintained by various churches for the
benefit of the natives. Many of these had boarding-schools and
a few had hospitals.
Population. In 1920 the pop. was 54,899, a decrease of 9,457,
or i4'7 %, from 64,356 in 1910. The whites numbered 29,000, as
against 36,400 in 1910; the Indians and Eskimos 25,000, as
against 25,331 in 1910; and the balance was of Mongolian and
other races. Juneau, the capital and an important mining centre,
was the largest town, with a pop. of 3,058. Ketchikan, the most
important fishing centre, had 2,458. Anchorage and Seward, on
the Government railway, had respectively 1,685 and 652.
Cordova, the coastal terminus of the Copper River railroad, had
955. Fairbanks, the chief mining town of the interior, had 1,155.
Nome, on the Seward peninsula, had 852. The white population
of Alaska steadily increased until 1915, when it exceeded 40,000.
Subsequent losses were due to: (i) enrolment in military service
of about 3,500 men, few of whom returned; (2) high wages in the
States; and (3) decrease in the gold-mining industry. While in
1915 about 9,600 men were employed in Alaska mines, there were
only about 3,000 in 1920. In addition to the permanent residents
of Alaska, between 25,000 and 30,000 men annually visit the
Territory to find employment, chiefly in fishing, but also in
mining. There were also 2,000 or 3,000 tourists each summer.
Mountaineering. The mountain ranges include a number of the
highest peaks on the continent, which have exercised a fascination
for the mountaineer. Many unsuccessful attempts were made to
reach the summit of Mt. St. Elias (18,024 ft.) before the Italian Duke of
the Abruzzi finally succeeded in 1 897. Mount VVrangell, Alaska's high-
est volcano (14,005 ft.), was ascended by Robert Dunn in 1908;
and in 1912 Dora Keen climbed Mt. Blackburn (16,140 ft.). Sev-
eral attempts were made between 1903 and 1910 to climb Mt. Mc-
Kinley, the highest peak in North America. William Taylor and
Peter Anderson, prospectors, reached the summit of the N. peak
(20,000 ft.) in 1910, and Hudson Stuck and Harry P. Karsten the
summit of the S. peak (20,300 ft), in 1912. Katmai volcano, in the
central part of the Alaska peninsula, had been entirely dormant
for more than a century previous to 1912. On June 6 of that year,
without previous warning, the top of the volcano blew off and
ejecta were thrown for at least 1,500 m., while the fine volcanic
dust encircled the world in the upper atmosphere. Though one of
the greatest eruptions in historic times, it caused no loss of life,
because the ejecta fell chiefly on the sea and in uninhabited regions.
Railways. At the close of 1910 there were 371 m. of railway
in Alaska. This included 20 m. of the White Pass Railroad (narrow
gauge) which ran inland from Skagway across the international
boundary to White Horse in the Canadian Yukon (no miles). This
line, while primarily serving Canadian territory, gave access during
the open season of navigation to the settlements on the lower Yukon.
The Copper River & North- Western Railroad (standard gauge),
extending from Cordova on the coast 'to the Chitirta copper belt
(196 m.), was completed in 1910. Another line, the Alaska Northern
Railroad (standard gauge), was built for 71 m. from the town of
Seward, and then went into bankruptcy. A narrow-gauge railway
45 m. in length, connecting the town of Fairbanks with the gold-
mines, was completed in 1904, and was later purchased by the Gov-
ernment. About 130 m. of railway were laid in various parts
of the Seward peninsula and subsequently abandoned. In 1912
Congress authorized a special commission to report upon the Alaska
railway situation. The commission recommended that 733 m. of
railway be built, estimated to cost $35,000,000. The project included
two lines: one to extend from Cordova to Fairbanks, using the
Copper River railroad, with a branch to the Bering River coal-field ;
the other to run from Seward (utilizing the existing stub line)
through the lower Susitna valley to navigable waters of the Kusko-
kwim river, with a branch into the Matanuska coal-field. In 1914
authorization for not more than 1,000 m. of railway construction,
the cost limited to $35,000,000, was granted by Congress. A new
commission was then appointed, and after extensive surveys con-
firmed in general the former estimate of cost. In 1915 the adminis-
tration announced the selection of a railway route from Seward to
Fairbanks. The estimated cost of this was about twice as much as
for the route from Cordova to Fairbanks. Railway construction was
begun in 1916, and by 1920 383 m. out of a total of 467 m. had
been completed. The entire system was to be finished by 1923. The
choice of the more expensive route and a policy of using only con-
struction of the highest type brought the cost, at war prices, up to
$52,000,000, with a probability that it would cost several millions
more.
Commerce. The value of the total products of Alaska from the
annexation in 1867 to the close of 1920 was more than $1,000,000,-
ooo. In 1919 Alaska produced minerals, furs, fish, etc., to the
value of $71,000,000. During the same year the value of her imports
was $38,925,000, of which $1,449,000 was for merchandise from for-
eign countries. In 1919 25 American vessels (tonnage 32,444) and
5 Canadian vessels (tonnage 4,870) were operated as common car-
riers to Alaska ports. These carried 295,490 tons of freight and
32,803 passengers northbound, and 278,200 tons of freight and 3 1,7 17
passengers southbound. In the same year a total of 370 private
vessels (tonnage 118,169), chiefly engaged in fisheries, were operated
in the Alaska service and carried a total of 465,000 tons of freight
(north- and southbound). Nine river steamers were operated on the
Yukon in the summer of 1919. These carried a total of 9,690 tons
of freight and 1,370 through-passengers. One steamer was operated
on the Kuskokwim river in 1919.
Mining. From its small beginning at Juneau in 1880 up to the
close of 1920 Alaska mining yielded a total value of $460,000,000.
Of this 96% is to be credited to gold and copper deposits. But the
mines have also produced silver, platinum, palladium, tin, lead,
antimony, tungsten, chromite, coal, petroleum, marble, gypsum,
graphite, barite and sulphur; and development work was done on
deposits carrying nickel, iron and molybdenite. The value of the
total annual mineral production rose from $16,890,000 in 1910 to
$22,000,000 in 1920. Alaska mines have produced $320,000,000
worth of gold, of which $220,000,000 is to be credited to the placers.
The largest gold production of any one year (1906) was $22,000,000.
Since 1916, when the value of the gold output was $17,200,000,
gold-mining has steadily declined, being only $8,000,000 in 1920.
This decrease was due to the world-wide stagnation of gold-mines
caused by the economic conditions brought on by the World War,
and to this primarily is due the loss of population already referred
to. In the past about 60% of Alaska's population has directly
or indirectly been supported by the gold-mining industry. The
U.S. Geological Survey estimated the value of the placer gold
reserves of Alaska to be at least $360,000,000. This was in addition
to the gold in vein deposits whose value could not be estimated.
Auriferous lodes have been found in many parts of Alaska and
developed in a small way. The only large gold lode mines were in
south-eastern Alaska. Before the war there were near Juneau a
number of large gold-mining enterprises operated at a lower cost
than any others in the world. The small profits per ton were off-
set by the very large tonnage of ore. With the increased cost of
labour and supplies mining greatly decreased at Juneau. Alaska
copper-mining began in 1901, and up to the close of 1920 had pro-
duced 308,000 tons of metallic copper, valued at $127,000,000.
Stimulated by the war demand and high prices, the mines made their
largest output of copper in 1916 (59,900 tons). In 1920 the Terri-
tory produced 35,000 tons of copper, chiefly from four large mines.
Copper ore's are widely distributed in Alaska, but most of the
deposits are as yet inaccessible. The richest copper-mines thus far
developed were those of the famous Kennicott group in the Chitina
district. There are high-grade bituminous coals and some anthra-
cite in both the Bering River and Matanuska fields, the latter within
reach of the Government railway. All Alaska coal lands were with-
drawn from entry in 1906, and patent was refused to all but a few
claims previously entered. This interdict lasted until 1913, when a
coal-leasing law was enacted. Coal-mining was still in the develop-
ment stage in 1921, the entire production up to that time being
only 300,000 tons. The output of 1920 was 70,000 tons, chiefly
taken from a Government mine in the Matanuska field. The total
104
ALBANIA
estimated reserves of coal in the surveyed fields of Alaska were
19,590,000,000 tons, of which 12,610,000,000 tons were lignite. Oil
seepages were found at four localities on the Pacific seaboard:
namely, Yakataga, Katalla, Iniskin Bay and Cold Bay, and also at
several places near the N. Arctic coast. Only at Katalla, 60 m.
E. of Cordova, was there any considerable drilling; here there was
some oil production from the only petroleum claim to which patent
had been granted. The withdrawal in 1911 of oil lands from entry
stopped all development.. In 1919 an oil leasing law was passed,
and the development of 'producing fields was expected to follow.
The total Alaska oil production to the close of 1920 was 60,000
barrels. Meanwhile, the Territory was consuming about 5,000,000
barrels of imported petroleum products annually. The only consid-
erable production of tin in North America was from the York dis-
trict on Bering Sea, near Cape Prince of Wales. A total of 1,000
tons of metallic tin had been mined since operations began in 1900.
Alaska had produced in all about 9,800,000 oz. of silver and 5,000
tons of lead. This had practically all been won from gold and copper
ores, for no large deposits of silver and lead had been developed.
The mining of platinum and related minerals began in 1916, since
which time about 1,500 oz. of those minerals had been produced.
Demands of the World War led to the mining of some antimony,
tungsten and chromite ores, but with the decreased value of these
metals after the peace these operations ceased. Quicksilver mining
had been carried on in a small way for many years. There were in
south-eastern Alaska extensive deposits of high-grade marble which
had been quarried on a large scale.
Fisheries. The total value of fish products which had been
marketed (1867-1919) was $418,000,000. In 1919 the output of the
fisheries brought in $50,282,000, of which $45,000,000 was for salmon.
Two small salmon canneries were built in Alaska in 1879; by 1919
the number had grown to 134. The fishing industry in 1919 em-
ployed 28,500 persons, of which 3,875 were Indians. Ninety per cent
were engaged in salmon canning. The canneries can be operated
during only from two to four months of the year, and much the larger
part of the labour is imported. About 90 % of the salmon caught in
Alaskan waters are canned. In 1911 a total of 44,000,000 salmon
were caught in Alaskan waters. This was increased in 1918 to
101,500,000, but fell to 58,000,000 in 1919. The enormous catch of
1918 was due to the stimulus of the war demands, and was undoubt-
edly in excess of the number that can be taken without permanently
impairing the industry. In the early days of the salmon-fishing
there were no restrictions, but, beginning in 1902, laws were passed
to regulate the fisheries. The latest law (1906) was a great improve-
ment on those preceding, but is by no means adequate. As an addi-
tional precautionary measure, hatcheries were established. There
were five of these operated in 1919, at which were hatched and liber-
ated 95,580,000 young salmon. In theory this should suffice to
provide for the annual catch, but in practice only a small part sur-
vive as adult fish. The importance to the nation of conserving the
Alaska salmon fisheries is indicated by the fact that in 1919 a total
of 133,680,000 Ib. of salmon were shipped from the Territory. The
halibut fisheries are being depleted even more rapidly than the sal-
mon. About 1 4,000,000 Ib. are caught in Alaska and adjacent waters
each year. The industry employs about 900 men and 90 small
vessels. The halibut is all shipped fresh ; much of it to the E. coast
markets, and some to Europe. The number of cod on the Alaska
cod banks is enormous, but as yet they have been little exploited.
The total annual catch is between 10 and 1 1 million pounds, and the
number of men employed is only a few hundred. Herring are found
in great abundance as far north as Bering Strait. Whale-fishing
along the coast, once a very important industry, is now limited to a
few shore stations, where the catch is chiefly utilized for making
fertilizer. There has been some canning of crabs and clams. The
Alaska crab, which is the same species as that found in the Pacific
waters farther south, is especially delicious.
Forest Products. The national forests of Alaska include all the
best timber lands (total area 20,000,000 acres). These are estimated
to contain 77,000,000,000 ft. (B.M.) of timber suitable for lumber
and pulp. Up to 1921 these forests had been used almost solely for
local use, though some spruce had been exported for the manufac-
ture of aeroplanes and other articles which require great toughness
of fibre. It was officially estimated that these forests were capable
of furnishing 2,000,000 cords of pulp- wood annually. A pulp- wood
industry was developed in south-eastern Alaska in 1920.
Agriculture. Alaska contains extensive farm lands adapted to
raising the hardier varieties of wheat, oats, barley, rye, potatoes
and other hardy vegetables, and forage crops. The most promising
agricultural fields were in the Tanana and Susitna valleys, both
tributary to the Government railroad. Tests in this region showed
that sugar beets' can be matured that contain a high percentage of
sugar. Extensive areas of agricultural land are also found in other
parts of the Yukon basin, and smaller patches here and there in the
Pacific coastal region. The best-developed farming area was in the
neighbourhood of Fairbanks, where about 2,000 acres of land were
under cultivation. Here a hardy variety of wheat was matured
during five successive years, and part of the flour for local consump-
tion was made in a small mill. There is an abundance of good gra-
zing land in the interior, but the period of winter feeding is about
eight months. Up to 1921 the only cattle introduced were small
herds used for dairying. The Government recently began the exper-
iment of introducing yaks into this region. The domesticated rein-
deer herds numbered in 1920 92,933 valued at $2,238,562 against
22,107 in 1910. This was the natural increase from the original
1,200 imported by the Government between 1892 and 1902. About
70 % of the herd was owned by the Eskimo, for whose support the
animals were first imported. Some reindeer meat had been ex-
ported, and the amount promised to increase.
Fur Industry. Between 1867 and 1920 Alaska produced furs to
the value of $90,400,000, of which $53,000,000 represents seal skins
taken on the Pribilof Is. in Bering Sea. Up to 1910 the Gov-
ernment leased the seal-catching privileges on the Pribilof Is.
to private corporations, which killed 2,320,028 seal and paid the
Government $9,474,000 in royalties. The land killing of seal was
properly restricted, but pelagic sealing by vessels of various nation-
alities destroyed an additional 976,000 seal. Pelagic sealing, being
on the high seas, could not be controlled by the American Govern-
ment; therefore a treaty was signed in 1911 between the United
States, Great Britain, Russia and Japan, abolishing it and provid-
ing that the United States was to pay to Great Britain and Japan
each 15% of the catch made on the islands. Since 1910 killing has
been prohibited on the Pribilof Is. except by Federal agents.
Thanks to these provisions, the seal herd has increased from 215,000
in 1912 to 524,000 in 1919. In the latter year the Government sold
'9.157 dressed seal skins, for which $1,501,600 was received. The
value of all furs shipped in 1919, besides the seal, was$l, 500,000, of
which over half is to be credited to the fox. Fur farming increased
rapidly during the World War owing chiefly to the high value of
furs. Most of the successful farms are on small islands, and practi-
cally all are devoted to the raising of foxes, though attempts have
been made to raise both mink and marten.
See Maj.-Gen. A. W. Greely, Handbook of Alaska (1909); An-
nual Reports of Governor of Alaska (1910-20); Reports of I3th
and I4th Census; Report of the International Boundary Commission
between the United States and Canada: Arctic Ocean to Mt. St. Elias,
with atlas (State Department, Washington, D. C., 1918); Railway
Routes in Alaska: Report of Alaska Railroad Commission (1913) ;
Report of the Alaska Engineering Commission (1916); Alfred H.
Brooks, "The Development of Alaska by Government Railroads,"
Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. xxviii. (1914) ; Information about
Alaska (Interior Department, 1917) ; J. L. McPherson, Alaska: Our
Frontier Wonderland (Seattle Chamber of Commerce, 1921); Alfred
H. Brooks, The Mt. McKinley Region (U.S. Geological Survey,
1911); Mountain Exploration in Alaska (American Alpine Club,
1914); Hudson Stuck, The Ascent of Denali (Mt. McKinley)
(1914); A Winter Circuit of our Arctic Coast (1920); Ernest de
K. Leffingwcll, The Canning River Region, Northern Alaska (U.S.
Geological Survey, 1919). See also the reports of U.S. Geological
Survey of U.S. Department of Agriculture, of Commissioner of
Fisheries, Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, Reports
of Governor of Alaska (Washington, D.C.), and of Commissioner
of Education for Territory of Alaska (Juneau, Alaska).
(A. H. BR.)
ALBANIA (see 1.481). Up to 1908 the policy adopted by the
national Albanian leaders may be summarized as follows:
(i) To preserve the Ottoman Empire until such time as the
Albanian national .ideal, surreptitiously propagated by the
various national societies resident abroad, had entered into
the consciousness of the Albanian people as a whole (a process
necessarily slow where 99% of the population was illiterate and
in the face of the opposition of both 'Abdul Hamid and the
Greek Patriarchate) lest a premature disruption of Turkey
might bring about the dismemberment of Albania herself at the
hands of her Christian neighbours; (2) to press in the meantime
by constitutional means for an autonomous administration of
Albania.
Prominent among those in favour of these Fabian tactics
were Ferid Pasha Vlora, the Sultan's trusted grand vizier, and
his cousin Ismael Kemal. The keen appreciation by these states-
men of their country's predicament was amply proved by sub-
sequent events. These events, however, they were unable to
control. In July 1908 the Young Turk revolution became
imminent. The Albanian mountain chiefs, throwing in their
lot with the revolutionary movement, took the lead by tele-
graphing to the Sultan to demand the revival of the constitution
of 1878. A few days later Maj. Enver Bey and the Committee
of Union and Progress proclaimed the constitution at various
places in Macedonia, and the II. and III. Army Corps threat-
ened to march upon Constantinople. On July 24 the Sultan
bowed to the inevitable. Six months later he was deposed
after his attempt at counter-revolution had failed an attempt
undertaken with the aid of his Albanian bodyguard and with the
ALBANIA
105
connivance of the Liberal union, headed by Ismael Kemal,
who had already realized that the aims of the committee were
little more liberal than the old regime's. The privilege of inform-
ing him of this decision of Parliament was reserved for another
Albanian, Essad Pasha.
The Albanians had at first hailed the Turkish revolution
with enthusiasm. It seemed to promise the fulfilment of their
most cherished aspirations: autonomy and the introduction of
means of education in the national tongue. Albanians had
never been slow to avail themselves of any opportunity of
educating themselves on national lines, as is proved by the
phenomenal progress in education that had been made within
Albania itself during the years 1879-86, when the establish-
ment of Albanian schools was tolerated, as well as in the Al-
banian colonies abroad. The names of men like the brothers
Sami and Nairn Frasheri, the first a lexicographer and historian,
the second a poet; of Wassa Pasha, founder of the society for the
publication of Albanian books in Constantinople in 1879; and
of Prenk Dochi, who became Abbot of the Mirditi in 1888,
should especially be remembered in connexion with the obscure
but heroic efforts on the part of patriotic Albanians to educate
their countrymen prior to the revolution of 1908.
A " Bessa " (pledge of honour) was taken by the mountain
tribesmen to suspend all existing blood feuds in honour of the
auspicious occasion. It soon became evident, however, that not
only was nothing to be hoped for from the Young Turks but that
the triumph of the revolutionary movement was to prove a
more formidable menace to the cause of Albanian nationality
than the obscurantist tyranny of the Sultan. The Committee
of Union and Progress had no sooner obtained a settlement of
the international questions arising out of the annexation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina and of Eastern Rumelia by Austria-Hungary
and Bulgaria respectively, than they actively set to work to
achieve their plan of Ottomanizing the subject races of Turkey.
The Albanian schools, which had recently been able to open
their doors through private contributions, were again closed,
the Albanian newspapers were again forced to migrate to foreign
lands, and the national movement was stopped. In the face
of violent protests a decree was issued that the Albanian lan-
guage might be taught with the Turkish instead of Latin
characters and a number of school-books were actually published
in this manner. But the Albanians saw through the device and
would have none of it. Heaps of the books were burned in the
market-places.
Insurrection of 1911-2. At the same time an insurrectionary
movement broke out among the Moslem tribes in the north,
headed by "Isa Boletin, a natural leader of rare prowess who
rallied the mountain tribesmen disaffected by the attempt of
the Young Turks to levy taxation from which hitherto they had
been exempt. The Turks, however, retaliated by ruthless efforts
to disarm the population. Whole villages were destroyed and
what the proud clansmen would less easily forgive their
chiefs were publicly flogged. In igri the insurrection assumed
larger dimensions. While the Moslem tribes kept quiet the
Roman Catholic Malzia and Mathe tribes, instigated by the
Montenegrins, formed armed bands, and in the spring attacked
with success the Turkish outposts on the Montenegrin frontier.
In April Torgut Shevket Pasha tried to suppress the movement
with a large army, but notwithstanding the superiority of his
forces, met with several reverses. In May Russia warned the
Ottoman Government not to extend hostilities against Monte-
negro, who was harbouring a large number of the refugees. In
June Mirdita joined the rebels, proclaiming her own autonomy
and setting up a provisional government. In the same month
there was a great meeting of rebel chiefs, who drew up a state-
ment of their grievances and a list of their demands under 12
headings, of which the most important were the recognition of
Albanian nationality and the use of the Albanian language in
the schools and in all local administration.
Balkan War, 1912-3. The Turks attempted to bribe and
cajole Mgr. Sereggi, Archbishop of Scutari, a brave and honest
patriot, to intervene. He protested that he had not the authority;
nor was it his business. The inevitable result was that the fol-
lowing year, when the Turks were fully engaged in the war with
Italy, the insurrection broke out afresh. The Albanians of
Kossovo joined in the revolt, seized Pristina, and published a
manifesto demanding a dissolution of Parliament and the holding
of fresh and fairly conducted elections. Southern Albania
joined the insurgents and success followed success. In May
Uskub was occupied. In view of trouble brewing elsewhere
the Turks had no alternative but to give in. By the terms of
the cessation of hostilities, Albania was recognized by the
Turkish Government as an autonomous administrative prov-
ince comprising the four Albanian vilayets of Scutari, Kossovo,
Yannina and Monastir, and more or less the same conditions
already granted on paper were definitely ratified. Of all these
concessions, however, by far the most important was the
recognition on the part of Turkey that Albania extended to
the four vilayets. This was the first official delimitation of
the frontiers of Albania.
The success of the Albanians was, no doubt, a considerable
factor contributing to the outbreak of hostilities between
Turkey and the Balkan League in the autumn of 1912. The
latter were encouraged by the reverses sustained by the Turkish
army under their German leaders, and the grant of autonomy,
were it allowed time to consolidate the national organization
of the country, threatened to jeopardize the aims of the league,
which envisaged the partition of Albania. The latter suffered
from possessing no effective central authority. Accordingly,
when the war broke out in Oct., the Albanians were divided as
to the right policy to pursue. The Roman Catholic Maltsors
joined the Montenegrins; the Kossovo Albanians fought half-
heartedly on the side of the Turks; the rest of the Albanians
remained neutral. The Maltsors, moreover, withdrew from
the struggle before the end of the hostilities, being enraged at
the cruel treatment by the Montenegrins of their Moslem
neighbours. In fact, apart from the defence of the two fortresses
of Yannina and Scutari, the safety of which was considered a
vital point to the life of Albania, the Albanians practically left
the Turks alone in their struggles.
During Nov. the greater part of northern and central Albania
was invaded by the Serbians and Montenegrins, and the greater
part of Epirus was in the possession of the Greeks. Albania
seemed lost. But at this juncture the prompt action of Ismael
Kemal partially saved the situation. After consulting with the
Governments of Austria-Hungary and Italy, the two Powers
interested in the maintenance of an integral Albania, he landed
in the nick of time at Durazzo before the capture of that town
by the Serbians. Thence he proceeded on horseback to Valona
and summoned there an assembly of representative notables
from all parts of Albania. On Nov. 28 1912 the national flag,
the black double-headed eagle of Scanderbeg on a blood-red
ground, was hoisted over the town and a formal proclamation
of independence was issued together with a declaration of
neutrality. This act gave the Austro-Hungarian and Italian
Governments the necessary lead for their diplomatic inter-
vention. But owing to the championship of Russia of the allies'
cause, the only immediate result of this was the menace of a
general European conflict. It was left to England, the only
Power with any pretensions to impartiality, to lend her best
offices to bring about an accommodation, and it was owing to
the untiring efforts of Sir Edward (afterwards Lord) Grey that
eventually a peaceful but by no means altogether satisfactory
compromise was arrived at. A conference of ambassadors was
assembled in London, and on Dec. 20 the principle of Albanian
autonomy was admitted. The allies agreed to leave to the Great
Powers the task of delimitating the frontiers and defining
the status of Albania and a clause was drafted to this effect
for insertion in the Treaty of London (May 1913) between the
allies and Turkey. On April 7 1913 Sir Edward Grey made the
following statement to the House of Commons: " The agree-
ment between the Powers respecting the frontiers of Albania
was reached after a long and laborious diplomatic effort. It
was decided that the littoral and Scutari should be Albanian,
io6
ALBANIA
while Ipek, Prizren, Dibra and (after much negotiation) Jakova
should be excluded from Albania. This arrangement leaves a
large tract of territory to be divided between Serbia and Monte-
negro as the fruits of victory."
" It is to be borne in mind that in making that agreement "
Sir Edward Grey added in answer to a question " the pri-
mary essential was to preserve agreement between the Powers
themselves." The natural rights of Albania were accordingly
sacrificed for the sake of the general peace of Europe.
In pursuance of this decision two international commissions
proceeded to Albania, the one to delimitate the northern and
north-eastern, the other the southern frontiers. The duties of
the first were largely of a technical character, since with the
exception of two or three small gaps the ambassadors had
themselves traced the frontiers with some precision. The
northern commission was, however, never called upon to report.
Thus half a million Albanians forming a compact ethnographical
unit within the watershed which constitutes the natural geo-
graphical boundary of Albania were left without appeal to
Montenegro and Serbia. The southern commission was given
wider powers. Under the chairmanship of Lt.-Col. Doughty
Wylie the work was undertaken conscientiously, and resulted in
the drawing of a frontier which may be considered in the cir-
cumstances a fair balance of conflicting ethnographical, geo-
graphical and economic claims.
Rule of William of Wied. Meantime the status of Albania
was defined by the ambassadors. On July 29 1913 it was agreed
to recognize her as a sovereign independent state under per-
petual neutrality guaranteed by the Powers. A foreign prince
was to be chosen as ruler. Dutch officers were commissioned for
the organization of an Albanian gendarmerie and an inter-
national commission of control was instituted, composed of one
delegate from each Power and one Albanian representative, with
authority for ten years to control the finances of the new State
and to check the Albanian Government when acting beyond
the limits of its jurisdiction.
On account of the mutual jealousies of the Powers, and
especially of those of Italy and Austria-Hungary, it had become
impossible to choose for prince any man of known purpose or
courage. Prince Charles of Rumania and the Due de Mont-
pensier were among the abler candidates turned down. Ahmet
Fuad Pasha of Egypt was suggested but Ismael Kemal let it be
clearly understood that Albania intended to become a European
State, and would not accept an Eastern ruler. The choice
eventually fell upon Prince William of Wied. ,
When the international commission of control assumed the
sovereignty of Albania at the request of Ismael Kemal in Jan.
1914 pending the arrival of the prince, the number of govern-
ments ruling over the several provinces were three. First in
priority was the Provisional Government of Ismael Kemal at
Valona. The second was the international administration of
Scutari, with Gen. Phillips in command. The third was the
Government of Essad Pasha in central Albania. This adventurer,
after bringing about the murder, so it .seems, of the Turkish
commander defending Scutari, had betrayed the city in April
1913 into the hands of the Montenegrins on condition of being
allowed to march out at the head of his armed followers. These
he kept in hand, and on the withdrawal of the Serbs from
central Albania he profited by the general discontent with the
slow-moving over-cautious Government of Valona to establish
a new government under his personal direction at Tirana.
Meantime the Montenegrins had been persuaded by the Powers
to evacuate Scutari and only the Greeks in the south remained
in occupation of Albanian territory within the new frontiers.
Essad reluctantly consented to hand over the reins to the
international commission of control on the condition that he
himself might head the deputation to Neuwied for the purpose
of offering the crown to Prince William. He continued, however,
to intrigue against his chief, who bestowed upon him after his
arrival at Durazzo (on March 7 1914) the post of Minister of
War. The general situation was at this time exceedingly con-
fused. The country was rife with disaffection due to the endless
delays before the choice and arrival of the Mpret, to the intricate
cross-currents of intrigue of Essad, Austria and Italy, and to
the ghastly terror that the Greek irregulars secretly sup-
ported but officially repudiated by the Greek Government
constituted in the south. Only a bold man capable of striking
the imagination of his people could hope to succeed in these
circumstances. Prince William, who even before his arrival
had alienated the sympathy of many for having laid himself
open to suspicion as implicated in the Austrian plots, revealed
himself before long a man of neither courage nor resolution.
He remained at Durazzo under the guns of Italian and Austrian
warships, chiefly occupying himself in making and unmaking
his Cabinet.
In the meantime Essad, who had the goodwill of the Italians,
continued to intrigue with the,object of discrediting the Prince,
while the Austrians and the Nationalist Albanian supporters of
Wied plotted with equal pertinacity for the overthrow of the
powerful Minister of War. The mistakes of the Prince were at
first entirely ascribed by the populace to Essad's machinations.
As a result, during the night of May 19, a group of armed
Nationalists surrounded his house and Prince William's Austrian
guns were trained upon it. Essad's life was only saved by the
courageous intervention of an Italian officer. He was eventually
placed upon an Italian warship and transported to Italy.
Immediately after his departure rebellion broke out among his
partisans at Tirana. It might easily have been crushed, for
Essad's followers, though well armed, were limited to a few
thousand men and were detested by the vast majority of the
people. But Prince William at first hesitated, then blundered
by bombarding the perfectly inoffensive village of Shuyak
(Shyak), which raised the whole immediate countryside in
revolt, and finally lost all caste in. the eyes of the Albanians by
ignominiously taking refuge during an abortive attack by the
insurgents on board a man-of-war. He was never again likely
to win the goodwill of his people. When the World War broke
out in Aug. 1914, he was still closely besieged in Durazzo. On
Sept. 3 he abandoned the country.
The World War. The history after the outbreak of the World
War may be very briefly told. Essad returned to Durazzo, and
with the help of his friends the Serbs was able for a short time to
reestablish his rule in central Albania. The international
occupation of Scutari was followed by a Serbian occupation.
The Greeks took possession of the south until the advent of the
Italians in 1915- The rest of the country fell under the authority
of local chiefs. Essad remained faithful to his plan which fore-
shadowed the partition of his country between the Serbs, the
Greeks, and himself, under Italian protection. In the absence
of any authoritative Albanian Government he succeeded for
a time in imposing upon the Entente Powers the notion that' he
represented the will of his countrymen. It was owing to this
fact that the articles relating to Albania in the Pact of London
were admitted and it is these articles which have given rise to
grave difficulties attendant on the settlement of the country
since the Armistice of 1918. The articles in question run as
follows:
Article 6.
Italy shall receive full sovereignty over Valona, the island of
Sasseno and surrounding territory of sufficient extent to assure
defence of these points (from the Voyusa to the N. and E., approxi-
mately to the N. boundary of the district of Chimara on the S).
Article 7.
Should Italy obtain the Trentino and Istria in accordance with
the provisions of Article 4, together with Dalmatia and, the Adriatic
Is. within the limits specineciin Article 5, and the Bay of Valona
(Article 6), and if the central portion of Albania is reserved for the
establishment of a small autonomous neutralised State, Italy shall
not oppose the division of N. and S. Albania between Montenegro,
Serbia and Greece, should France, Great Britain and Russia so
desire. The coast from the S. boundary of the Italian territory of
Valona (see Article 6) up to Cape Stylos shall be neutralised.
Italy shall be charged with the representation of the State of
Albania in its relations with foreign powers.
Italy agrees moreover to leave sufficient territory in any event to
the E. of Albania to ensure the existence of a frontier line between
Greece and Serbia to the W. of Lake Ochrida.
ALBERT I.
107
In Nov. 1916 the Italians had occupied Valona. In the
autumn of 1915 the Austro-Hungarians, after overrunning
Serbia, occupied northern and central Albania. Essad retired
to Salonika where he continued to pose for some considerable
time as the true Albanian representative until he became finally
discredited. Many Albanians adhered to the cause of the central
empires. This was not unnatural since a victory for Germany
would in all probability have given Albania an autonomous, if
not an independent, government within wider frontiers than
she could ever otherwise hope for. Under Bairam Tsuri, an
unsurpassed gucrillero, Albanian bands harassed the Allied
lines of communication which ran from Santi Quaranta to
Koritsa and Salonika.
On June 3 1917 Italy proclaimed the independence of all
Albania under Italian protection. This proclamation was sub-
sequently explained as not denoting a " protectorate," but it
could hardly be interpreted as anything but a formal repudiation
of the articles of the Pact of London. The French, who had
occupied the Ersek-Koritsa road, replied by proclaiming the
republic of Koritsa. After three months the republic was
abolished, but the district remained under French rule until
May 1918, when it was handed over to the Albanians. Then
came the retreat of the Austrians in the autumn of that year.
Thus the greater part of Albania fell under the occupation of
Italy. An inter-Allied contingent on the other hand occupied
Scutari, while Serbian troops seized Mt. Tarabosh and advanced
their line considerably west of the 1913 frontier.
In March 1920 the inter-Allied command at Scutari handed
over their powers to a small Italian contingent, which in
May 1921 still remained in the town as representing the Allied
and Associated Powers pending the formal recognition of the
Albanian State and the confirmation of its frontiers.
Meantime important events had occurred which finally
paved the way for the reestablishment of Albanian independence.
The Italians permitted the formation of a new national provi-
sional government within their area of occupation, and Albania's
case was duly presented at the Peace Conference in 1919. Her
representatives included Turchan Pasha, who had acted as
Prince William's prime minister; Dr. Tourtuli of Koritsa, the
eminent specialist in tropical diseases; Mgr. Bumci, Bishop of
Alessio; and Mehmet Bey Konitza, later Minister of Foreign
Affairs and representative of the Vatra, an important national
society of Albanians resident in America which had risen during
the last ten years under the able organization of Faik Konitza
and Mgr. Fa Noli, to take a leading part in the cause of Albanian
independence. The general complications of the Adriatic ques-
tion, however, prevented the Albanian case being concluded.
President Wilson vetoed a proposal to partition the country.
The Italians at the same time lost their initial popularity. It
was generally understood that they had provisionally accepted
a mandate for Albania. There were evident signs in any case of
an intention on their part to remain in permanent occupation.
They treated the local authorities with scant courtesy and
seriously hampered the independent working of the central
Government. The latter were also keenly aware that a per-
manent Italian occupation inevitably entailed the admission of
at least part of the Greek and Serbian claims to their territory.
It was in these circumstances that fighting broke out between
Albanian irregulars and the Italian troops, which had been
greatly reduced in numbers and were suffering badly from
malaria. The Italians accordingly concentrated within certain
strategical areas, and thus enabled a new and more representa-
tive Albanian Government to be formed in Feb. 1920, first at
Lyusna and then at Tirana, under the presidency of Suleiman
Bey Delvina. Four constitutional regents were simultaneously
appointed, namely, Mgr. Bumci, Dr. Tourtuli, Abdi Toptani
and Akif Pasha i.e. two Mussulmans, one Catholic and one
Orthodox. Later in the year the Albanians under Bairam Tsuri
again attacked the Italians, capturing many important positions
and pressing them hard within the Valona area itself. Italy
was in no mood for further wars. The economic and social con-
dition of the country forbade any hope the Italian Nationalist
parties still entertained of imposing by force of arms Italian
rule in Albania. Moreover, Giolitti had assumed power with a
large Liberal majority behind him, and he had made up his mind
to tackle the Albanian question otherwise. The result was an
agreement signed on Aug. 2 1920, by which Albania's inde-
pendence was completely recognized by Italy and the evacuation
of the country by the Italian troops assured.
The Serbs, who had attempted to profit by the occasion,
had advanced on Tirana, but after some severe fighting had
been driven back to their original positions. Yet in spite of
these successes the Government of Suleiman Bey fell in the
autumn. It was replaced by a Ministry under Illias Vrioni,
pending the election due to take place in the following spring
of a new Chamber, Mgr. Fa Noli was appointed Albanian
representative at Geneva and in Jan. 1921 Albania was formally
admitted to full membership of the League of Nations, all the
parties (Italy, Serbia and Greece), at one time interested in
her dismemberment, recording their vote in favour of the
motion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Foreign Office Manual No. 17; Constantine A.
Chekressi, Memoirs; Ismael Kemal, "Albania and the Albanians,"
Quarterly Review (July 1917); J. S. Barnes, "The Future of the
Albanian State, " Jour. Roy. Ceo. Soc. (July 1918); A. Baldacci,
Itinerari Albanesi 1892-1902 (1917); E. Barbarich. Albania (1905);
E. Durham, The Burden of the Balkans (1905; 2nd ed. 1912); High
Albania (1909); The Struggle for Scutari (1914); K. Hassert, Streif-
ziige in Ober-Albanien; Leon Lamouche, La Naissance de I'Etat
Albanais; Louis Jaray, L'Albanie inconnue (1913); Au jeune roy-
aume dAlbanie (1914); W. Peacock, Albania (1914); Sullioti,
Sei Mesi di regno in Albania (1914); Haskins and Lord, Some
Problems of the Peace Conference (1920) ; Report of Dutch Mis-
sion in Albania (1914); Report of French Ministry of War (1915);
Report of Italian Ministry of War (1915) ; Report of Italian Ministry
of Marine (1917); Karl Steinmetz, Von der Adria zum Schwarzen
Drin (1908) ; Eine Reise durch die Hochldndergaue Oberalbaniens
(1904); Ein Vorstoss in die nordalbanischen Alpen (1905); Baron
Nopcsa, Das Katholische Nordalbanien (1907); Aus Sala imd Kle-
menti; Marchese di San Giuliano, Lettere dall' Albania; Miller, The
Ottoman Empire 1801-1913, Cambridge Historical Series (1913).
(J. S. BA.)
ALBERT I., King of the Belgians (1875- ), was born at
Brussels April 8 1875, the younger son of Philip, Count of
Flanders (1837-1905), brother of Leopold II., by his marriage
with Princess Marie of Hohenzollern. The other children of
this marriage were: Baldwin (b. 1869), Henriette, afterwards
Duchess of Vendome (b. 1870), a daughter who died in infancy,
and Josephine, afterwards Princess Charles of Hohenzollern
(b. 1872). The premature death of Prince Leopold, only son of
Leopold II., on June 22 1869, made Prince Baldwin heir pre-
sumptive to the Belgian crown, but on the death of the young
prince oh Jan. 23 1891, Prince Albert became next in the
line of succession. He was carefully educated, and showed a
marked taste for engineering and mechanics, studying both naval
and aerial construction. He received his training in military
matters at the Ecole Militaire under Gen. Jungblut, and
also became a thorough all-round sportsman, taking much
interest in mountaineering and later in aviation. On Oct. 2
1900 he was married at Munich to Princess Elisabeth (b. July
25 1876, at Possenhofen), second daughter of Duke Charles
Theodore of Bavaria. Three children were born of this
marriage: Leopold, Duke of Brabant (b. Nov. 3 1901), Charles,
Count of Flanders (b. Oct. 10 1903), and Marie Jose (b. Aug. 4
1906).
Prince Albert also travelled widely, paying a visit to America
in 1898, and in 1908 visiting England in order to study naval
construction. In April 1909 he went to the Belgian Congo in
order to acquaint himself with colonial conditions, returning in
Aug. of the same year.
On the death of Leopold II. on Dec. i 1909 Prince Albert
took the oath of fidelity to the Belgian constitution and be-
came king under the name of Albert I. He occupied him-
self more especially with the organization of the army and
in May 1913. gave his assent to the law which was designed to
secure for Belgium an army of 350,000 men. He also interested
himself in various social and legal reforms, while his scientific
tastes did not prevent him from becoming a friend of art and
io8
ALBERT, DUKE ALBERTA
literature. The poet Verhaeren and the painter Laermans were
on friendly terms with the royal family, the latter receiving
personal attention from the Queen when he was threatened with
the loss of his sight.
On Aug. 2 1914, when the Germans sent their ultimatum to
Belgium, King Albert at once prepared to defend his country.
He himself took command of the army. He only left Ant-
werp at the last possible moment, and then established him-
self with the army on the Yser. During the whole of the war he
remained with the troops, having his headquarters at La Panne,
where he was exposed to the risk of enemy bombardments. He
made continual visits to the front -line trenches, and even sur-
veyed the enemy's lines from an aeroplane. The Queen remained
with him, acting as a nurse in the Hopital de 1'Ocean at La Panne.
She also interested herself deeply in the welfare of the soldiers in
the trenches, and superintended the establishment of canteens
and aid posts. Prince Leopold, King Albert's elder son, lived by
his father's wish the life of a simple soldier in the i2th Regiment.
When the general offensive of Oct. 1918 was undertaken,
King Albert was appointed commander of the northern army
groups, consisting of both Belgians and French, which captured
the forest of Houthulst, the Flandernstellung, Thourout, Ostend
and Bruges, and forced the passage of the Lys. On Nov. 13
1918 the King and Queen made their entry into Ghent, and on
Nov. 22 into Brussels, being received with enormous enthusi-
asm. Even before the signing of the Armistice the King had
summoned at Lophem a number of politicians, and arranged a
new Government containing representatives of the three more
important Belgian political parties.
After the Armistice the King occupied himself actively with
the improvement of conditions in his country, visiting the
devastated areas, and contributing considerable sums to " King
Albert's Fund," which was devoted to providing temporary
shelter for sufferers from the war. He also undertook journeys to
Brazil, Spain, France, the United States and England, with the
object of studying trade conditions and finding new outlets for
Belgian commerce. The popularity of the King and Queen, great
even before the war, steadily increased, even the Socialist party
taking many opportunities of expressing feelings of respect
towards the royal family! King Albert declined the augmen-
tation of his civil list which was offered to him by the Chamber
immediately after the war.
See P. Nothomb, Le Roi Albert; Laurent, Le Roi Albert; Baron
Buyens, Les hommes de la Guerre le Roi Albert; G. Mathys, Le
Prince Albert; Mousseau, Le Prince Albert au Congo; La Mart
de Leopold II. et VAvknement du Roi Albert (Recueil de Documents,
1909) ; Roux, Le Roi Albert; Percy, The Life Story of Albert I., King
of the Belgians (1914); MacDonnel (John de Courcy), The Life of
H.M. King Albert (1915) and Belgium: her Kings, Kingdom and
People (1914).
ALBERT, DUKE OF WURTTEMBERG (1865- ), German
general, the son of Duke Philip of Wurttemberg, was born in
Vienna on Dec. 23 1865. As the King and Queen of Wurt-
temberg had no male heir, he was as nearest agnate the heir
presumptive to the Wurttemberg throne. He passed through the
different grades of a military career and was appointed general in
command of the XI. Army Corps at Cassel in 1906 and in 1908
was entrusted with the command of the Wurttemberg Army
Corps. In 1913 he was advanced to the rank of Generaloberst
(colonel-general, immediately below field-marshal) and was
appointed Inspector-General of the 6th Army Inspection. At
the outbreak of the World War he took over the leadership of the
4th Army on the western front, was advanced to the rank of
field-marshal-general in 1916 and appointed chief-in-command of
the group of armies on the front in Alsace-Lorraine, which
fought under his leadership till the end of the war. Since then he
has lived as a private citizen on his Wurttemberg estates. He
married in 1902 the late Archduchess Margarete Sophie of
Austria, the sister of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand who was
assassinated at Sarajevo.
ALBERTA (see 1.499). The PP- of tne Canadian province
of Alberta in 1916 was 496,525. The increase since 1901 is shown
in the following table:
Year.
Male.
Female.
Total.
1901
1906
1911
1916
41,019
108,283
223,989
277,256
32,003
77,129
150,674
219,269
73,022
185,412
374,663
496.525
The urban pop. amounted in 1916 to 188,749 and the rural to
307,776, There were 119,510 families inhabiting 113,347 dwell-
ings, the average number in the family being 4-15. The origins
of the people were as follows: Canadian-born 241,357; English
70,068; Irish 36,420; Scotch 47,494; Welsh, etc., 1,500; French
17,679; German 12,486; Austro-Hungarian 11,868; Scandinavian
9,825; Dutch 2,465; Indian 14,118; Polish 1,791; Russian 6,422;
Ukrainian 4,024; others 5,197. Of U.S. immigrants of all na-
tionalities born in the United States there were 91,674, almost
precisely 50% of them being of British descent.
Edmonton is the capital, with a pop. estimated in 1920 at 60,000
(24,900 in 1911). It is beautifully situated on the N. bank of the
North Saskatchewan on a table-land overlooking and 200 ft. above
the river. It is the depdt of the fur traders of the northern forest and
the western headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company. Edmon-
ton is the terminus of the Calgary and Edmonton railway, and a
divisional point of the Canadian National railways. It owns and
operates its own electric light and power plant, waterworks, sewerage,
telephones and street railway system. It has flour mills, saw mills
and meat-packing plants.
Strathcona, on the S. bank of the North Saskatchewan river, is the
seat of the university of Alberta, and a popular residential district.
Fort Saskatchewan, Vegreville, and Vermilion are thriving trading
towns on the Canadian National railway.
Calgary, the chief city of the southern district, and the principal
business section of the province, is situated in the valley of the Bow
river. It had in 1920 a pop. estimated at 75,000 while in 1911 the
pop. was 43,704. It is on the main line of the C.P.R. and the lines
of the Canadian National railway. The manufacturing establish-
ments include meat-packing plants, flour mills, lumber mills, brick
and cement works. It is the door to the magnificent scenery of the
Rockies, and the great number of summer tourists has necessitated
the building of large modern hotels.
Medicine Hat had in 1920 an estimated pop. of 10,000, and is the
centre of a wide area of ranching and farming country. It is one of
the large flour-milling centres and is known as the natural-gas city,
haying been supplied with natural gas from the time of its inception.
Bricks and drain pipes are extensively manufactured.
The pop. of Lethbridge was estimated at 10,000. It is a thriving coal-
mining, agricultural and railway centre, and is an important neigh-
bourhood for irrigation farming, the Dominion experimental farm
being situated there.
Other local centres are Red Deer, Wetaskiwin, Bairmore, Cam-
rose, Cardston, Coleman, Lacombe, Macleod, Pincher Creek, Ray-
mond, Redcliff, Stettler, High River, Taber and Vegreville.
The Legislative Assembly of Alberta consists of 58 members,
with an Executive Council composed of eight members chosen
from the Legislature. The province is represented in the Do-
minion Parliament by 12 members in the House of Commons
and six Senators.
High schools have been opened at all the leading centres,
and normal schools for the training of teachers are in operation
at Calgary and Camrose. The province owns 250 ac. of land
at Edmonton, where a well-equipped university has been
established. Alberta College, a Methodist theological training
school, a Presbyterian theological training college, and other
denominational institutions are affiliated with the university.
Technical schools are established at Edmonton, Calgary, and
Medicine Hat. Schools of agriculture are established at different
points and there are nine demonstration farms; the university
has a faculty of agriculture.
Agriculture. Until the end of the igth century southern Alberta
was regarded as only fit for ranching, but in 1902 the first irrigation
company was formed and received its charter. Since then numerous
irrigation projects have been undertaken, and a large area of land is
now faoned with the help of the water thus made available. The
area of the land owned by the irrigation companies of southern Al-
berta made up in 1920 a total of nearly 3,000,000 ac. of which 30%
is actually irrigable land. The benefits of irrigation have been well
demonstrated in southern Alberta. Besides making it possible to
grow heavier and better crops it is possible to grow a greater variety.
On dry land grain is the characteristic crop. Under irrigation heavy
crops of alfalfa and roots are grown, which make profitable stock-
raising and stock-feeding possible without the uncertainties and loss
which accompany seasons of drought. More stock is raised in south-
ern Alberta now than was raised under ranch conditions. The chief
ALCOCK, SIR JOHN ALCOHOL
credit for developing the irrigation system belongs to the C.P.R.
company, whose scheme covers about 1,000,000 ac. in the area
around Calgary, where a heavy thick black loam of from 4 to 8 in.
in depth, with a subsoil of chocolate-coloured clay, constitutes a
region well adapted to diversified farming. The source of water
supply is the Bow river. The soils of northern Alberta are for the
most part characterized by high percentages of organic matter and
nitrogen, and are superior to those in the southern part of the prov-
ince. Southern Alberta is of a true prairie character. Northern
Alberta is to a large extent wooded, enjoying a greater rainfall, and
is naturally better adapted for mixed farming. Alberta is adapted in
varying degrees to the growing of small grains, including wheat, oats,
barley, rye, peas and flax, which can all be grown successfully and
profitably from Medicine Hat to Fort Vermilion. In 1918 the wheat
production of the province was 23,751,514 bushels. The oat produc-
tion in the same year was 60,322,717 bushels. Ninety-six different
varieties of native grasses have been identified in Alberta and of these
not less than 46 make excellent hay whilst there are at least 94 varie-
ties of sedges and rushes, many of which make good hay and all
make splendid pasture during the spring and early summer. The
true grasses occur on the uplands, and grow with wild pea, vine and
vetches. Native hay, western rye grass, blue grass, buffalo grass and
bunch grass abound in luxuriant stretches. These extend through
the passes into the mountains and fill the valleys with a luxuriant
growth of luscious plants for cattle. Such conditions constitute
Alberta as a whole an ideal live-stock country.
There is still however much land devoted to ranching in the
foothill country W. of the Calgary-Edmonton railway. This consists
of rolling land with good grasses on the knolls, excellent live springs
and running water and plenty of natural shelter. Beef is also raised
on proprietary ranches of the prairie country, on leased lands in the
eastern and central parts, and on the edges of the settled parts of
the Peace River country. The superiority of Alberta ranch beef is
accounted for by the superiority of the ranch grasses, the climate and
the use of good beef bulls. The ranch cattlemen have always bought
the best bulls obtainable of the Shorthorn, Hereford and Aberdeen-
Angus breeds. The demand for pure bred stock is very active, and
the establishment of pure bred beef herds has been going on rapidly.
Building material and fuel in almost unlimited amounts are pro-
curable in the forests of northern Alberta, the timber lands extending
hundreds of miles on the N. side of the Saskatchewan river. Poplar,
birch, pine, white and black spruce, douglas fir and larch are among
the commercial trees in these forests belts. South of the North
Saskatchewan the timber is principally cottonwood and poplar.
In the foothills and river valleys considerable spruce is found. Saw-
mills have been established at various points. The output for 1918
was valued at $473,694 and represented a capital investment of
$1,500,000. Over 26,000 sq. m. of territory have been set aside as
forest reserves and Dominion parks.
In the mountain section of the province large areas have been set
apart by the Dominion Government for forest and game preserva-
tion and for recreation. Good roads have been built through these
reservations and they are carefully guarded against both fire and
illicit hunting. Rocky Mountain park, with Banff and Lake Louise
as the chief centres, contains 3,800 sq. m., while Jasper park on the
Grand Trunk Pacific is about 600 sq. m. larger. There is also a small
reservation at Waterton lake. The Dominion Government under the
direction of the Commissioner of Parks has taken steps not only to
prevent the total extinction of the buffalo but has established parks
for the protection and breeding of these and other native animals.
The largest of these parks, 150 sq. m. in extent, is at Wainwright,
where nearly 3,800 of the former monarchs of the plains are living
secure from slaughter.
Fishing and Fur Trading. The immense lakes of northern
Alberta are heavily stocked with fish, the most important being
whitefish and pike. Trout and pickerel are also abundant. The catch
is used largely for local consumption but there is some export, and
prospects of future large developments. Fur trading is still an im-
portant industry in the northern section of the province of which
Edmonton is the centre. Otter, mink, ermine, wolverine, marten,
badger, squirrel, bearj fox, wolf and lynx all enter into the produc-
tion. Three companies, in addition to many private traders, are
engaged in the traffic.
Coal. Vast beds of coal are found extending for hundreds of miles
a short distance below the surface of the plains. It may almost be
said that the whole of the province is underlaid with coal, and it is
estimated that 16 %of the coal deposits of the world occur in Alberta.
Anthracite is only found in one small pocket near Banff, which was
opened some years ago but has not been operated for some time.
Every other grade of coal ranging from the best bituminous to
ordinary brown coal or lignite is found. Broadly, the better grades
are found next to the Rockies where the carboniferous strata have
been subject to the greatest pressure, the quality falling off as we
proceed eastward. Owing to the general movement at the time of
the formation of the mountains the strata of coal have been very
much broken up. On this account coal-mining in Alberta, although
the seams lie very close to the surface, is of a very difficult nature : the
mines must be closely timbered right up to the working face. Over
5,000,000 tons are mined annually, to a value of over $10,000,000,
the mines being equipped for an output of 15,000,000 tons.
109
Natural gas under heavy pressure is found at many points through-
out the province and is extensively used for power, fuel and light.
In the Athabasca region and near the B.C. boundary there are de-
cided indications of petroleum and a limited amount of coal oil is
now being refined. The tar sands of northern Alberta are a striking
feature in the geological resources of the province. It is estimated
that the area of tar sands amounts to at least 1,000 sq. m. which
with an average thickness of 150 ft. would give 28-4 cub. m. or
4,700,000,000 tons of bitumen or 6-5 cub. m. of tar. The sands of the
North Saskatchewan river have for years yielded some gold. The
output of clay and stone in the province is valued at over $1,000,000
annually. There are also large salt deposits in the northern part of
Alberta. The annual mineral production of the province exceeds
$15,000,000.
Manufactures. There are large and prosperous manufacturing
establishments which supply local needs and engage in export busi-
ness. Large abattoirs and meat-packing plants are located at Calgary
and Edmonton. Throughout the province there are flour and saw-
mills, brick-yards and tile works, cement works, stone quarries and
other manufacturing enterprises.
Communications. In former days the North Saskatchewan was
chiefly depended on for carrying freight by steamboats, but trans-
port has been largely transferred to the railways which extend
throughout the province in every direction. The main line of the
C.P.R. sends a branch N. to Edmonton and another S. to Macleod.
From the Edmonton branch there are two offshoots starting at
Lacombe and Wetaskiwin. Other branches diverge from the main
line at different points, extending into the new districts. The great
passes of the Yellowhead and Peace river have also been made high-
ways of traffic. The Canadian National railway lines connect
Edmonton with Winnipeg and Port Arthur on the E. and with
Vancouver and Prince Rupert on the W., the latter going through
the Yellowhead pass. The same system has also a line to Calgary
from the E. as well as extensions westward into the coal fields. Two
other railways, built principally for colonization purposes, open up
vast stretches of new country and are proving of inestimable value in
connexion with the Peace river district and the northern country.
These are the Edmonton and Great Waterways, and the Edmonton,
Dunvegan and B.C. railway; the latter has been taken over by the
C.P.R. from the Government of Alberta. Sternwheel steamers ply
on the rivers and lakes of the northern section during the summer
months.
Alberta was the first province of the Dominion to own and operate
a telephone system of its own. In the year 191 1 the province owned
and operated 3,500 m. of long-distance lines and about 2,500
m. of rural or farmers' lines, and this service has been annually
extended. (W. L. G.*)
ALCOCK, SIR JOHN (1892-1910), British airman, was born in
Manchester Nov. 6 1892. He received his technical training
there at the Empress motor works and obtained the flying
certificate of the R.A.C. in 1912. He joined the R.N.A.S. at
the beginning of the World War, being appointed instructor at
Eastchurch and, later, chief instructor to the aeronautic squad-
ron. He then went to the Turkish front, winning the D.S.O. for an
attack on three enemy seaplanes, and also establishing a record
for long-distance bombing flights. He was taken prisoner by the
Turks in 1917 and released after the Armistice. On June 15
1919 Alcock, as pilot, with Lt. A. W. Brown as observer,
won the prize offered by the London Daily Mail for the first suc-
cessful flight across the Atlantic. For this achievement both
airmen were knighted. On Dec. 18 1919 Alcock was killed
by the crashing of his aeroplane at Cote d'Evrard, north of
Rouen, in France.
ALCOHOL (see 1.525). Alcohol intended for potable purposes
has always been subject to a heavy duty in all countries. In
the United Kingdom the duty on alcohol was raised in 1920 from
303. to 723. 6d. a proof gallon. Owing to its prohibitive price,
duty-paid alcohol cannot be used for the many purposes for
which it is essential, quite apart from the production of light,
heat and power. Its earliest employment in industry was as an
illuminant, and dates back to the early part of the igth century.
In 1853 exhaustive experiments were carried out in England
with a view to ascertaining whether it would be possible so to
treat alcohol as to allow it to be used industrially without, at
the same time, any risk of the revenue being defrauded. These
experiments resulted in the legislation of 1855, when the use of
duty-free alcohol mixed with 10% by volume of wood naphtha,
known as methylated spirits, was authorized for manufacturing
purposes only. From 1861-91 methylated spirits prepared in
this way were allowed to be sold by retail in Great Britain in
small quantities for domestic purposes such as cleaning, heating
I 10
ALDEN, H. M. ALDRICH, N. W.
and lighting; but use in large quantities, or in manufacture, was
only possible under special authority and under excise super-
vision. The Netherlands legalized the use of denatured alcohol
in 1865; in 1872 France permitted its use under a special tax,
and in Germany its employment was authorized in 1879, the
other European countries following, Austria in 1888, Italy in
1889, Sweden in 1890, Norway in 1891, Switzerland in 1893,
and Belgium in 1896. In the United States the tax on distilled
spirits was repealed in 1817, but was reimposed at the outbreak
of the Civil War in 1861, and it was not until 1907 that denatured
alcohol became tax-free for general purposes. Alcohol was used
in Germany for many years before the World War in increasing
quantities as a source of heat, but its application for light and
power started about 1887. In 1895, in order to bring down its
price, a distillation tax was imposed, from which a refund was
paid on alcohol used for other than beverage purposes. About
this date the output of alcohol in Germany and its use in station-
ary internal-combustion engines increased rapidly. The chief
source was the bounty-fed potato, and the industry was an
agricultural one worked on cooperative principles.
The first competition in connexion with alcohol as a fuel for
motor vehicles took place in France in 1901, followed in the
next year by German investigations, but its employment for this
purpose did not make much headway. The subject received
little attention in the United Kingdom, owing to the relatively
high cost of home-produced alcohol as compared with that of
imported petrol; and the use of alcohol in England for generating
mechanical power was neither contemplated nor provided for
by the Legislature before 1920, when, as the result of the con-
sideration of the position by the Government, following on a
report by a Departmental Committee appointed towards the
end of 1918, clauses were inserted in the Finance Act of 1920
legalizing the use of alcohol for power purposes.
Whilst alcohol is applied in motor engines in a similar manner
to petrol, its vapour mixed with a proper proportion of air being
drawn into the cylinder where it is compressed and ignited, it
cannot be used with maximum efficiency by itself in engines
such as are fitted to modern motors because it requires a higher
degree of compression than petrol engines are usually designed
to stand, and also because, unless special arrangements are
made, a motor engine will not start readily from the cold with
alcohol alone. For these reasons alcohol has not been used to
any extent in petrol motors. Mixing with benzol and/or petrol,
or with ether in varying proportions, enables it, however, to be
employed successfully in them, until such time as engines
specially designed for its use are available. In the event of its
production being a commercial possibility it should, therefore,
form a valuable addition to the liquid-fuel resources of the world
(see FUEL).
" In the appended table are given some comparative figures in con-
nexion with commercial petrols and alcohol, taken from H. R.
Ricardo's paper on " The Influence of Various Fuels on the Per-
formance of Internal-Combustion Engines," published in 1921.
Alcohol and Petrol as Fuel.
u
2s
js
~
c ; t- /;
,9 ' S 3
la
.-^'.2
g jjjjj E
V -SS
"^2
- c
aJ
^S-s^g
E = S- 3 ^
a
fl^gj
|s^R
^ o-C
5,y-g
y cr g
E'-tn cOn
1=3 <S
1^1^
Us o
SSSS
ll&
mte
Petrols / k m
0-704
0-782
132
142
18,580
0-414
0-425
31-6
0-389
0-435
Alcohol
95 Vol. %
0-8I5
442
11,130
0-705
32-5
0-565
Alcohol is produced by fermentation from vegetable substances
containing starch or sugar, from fermentable sugars produced by
the hydrolysis of cellulosic bodies, and synthetically from calcium
carbide and from the ethylene contained in coal and coke-oven gases.
These vegetable substances may be divided into foodstuffs and non-
foodstuffs. If foodstuffs are to be employed it must be possible to
grow them in excess of food requirements, and at a cost low enough
to ensure that the price of the alcohol shall be about the same as that
1 The lower calorific value plus the latent heat of evaporation
at constant volume.
of other liquid fuels. Foodstuffs could not be grown in the United
Kingdom at sufficiently low prices, nor in sufficient quantities, to
produce alcohol commercially and on a large scale.
Investigations started in 1920 by the British Government, in
connexion with the production of alcohol for power purposes, have
shown, however, that there are large areas of suitable land in the
British Empire where the cost of production would be comparatively
low, and where it might be possible to grow vegetable substances
in excess of food requirements, and in sufficient quantities to produce
alcohol for local consumption to replace expensive petrol. It is in
this direction, which is being actively followed up in the dominions
and colonies, that the production of alcohol for use in internal-com-
bustion engines is most likely to advance so far as the British Empire
is concerned.
The use of non-foodstuffs, or cellulosic materials, such as grasses,
reeds, straws, peat, waste wood, sawdust, etc., is not yet possible,
for, although research work is in progress to discover a process that
could be worked on a commercial basis in those regions where such
materials exist in sufficient abundance, it has not so far led to any
definite results. It would appear, however, that the production of
power alcohol within the British Empire from waste materials, which
can be collected and treated at low cost, offers the best chance of the
solution of the problem of the supply to the United Kingdom of an
alternative liquid fuel for internal-combustion engines.
Its manufacture from carbide is only possible where very cheap
power is available, and its conversion from the quantities of ethylene
removable from coal and coke-oven gas, even should a cheap process
be worked out, is not likely to add very materially to the world's
liquid-fuel supplies.
Whilst the use of alcohol for power purposes, mainly in connexion
with stationary and agricultural engines, was common in Germany
before the war, its employment in Europe and also in the United
States for motor engines has not made much headway, nor was it
apparent in 1921 that any active steps were being taken outside
the British Empire to develop it for the purpose on any considerable
scale. In France, where large stocks of alcohol were left over from
the manufacture of explosives during the war, it was unable to com-
pete with petrol as regards price, and was only being used in com-
paratively small quantities, and mixed with benzol. The German
production of alcohol had fallen off very much since the war, and
little if any was being used for motors, benzol being the fuel prin-
cipally employed. The manufacture of alcohol from the sulphite
lyes of the wood-pulp industry was contemplated, but carbide, al-
though produced in increasing quantities, was not considered as a
possible raw material owing to its greater importance as a source of
the fertilizer cyanamide. An alcohol monopoly law was passed in
July 1918. With cheap water-power Switzerland has considerable
capacity for producing carbide and alcohol from it, but even in that
country the ultimate cost of alcohol made in this way was so high
that its production after the war had not paid. In Sweden, where
wood pulp is made in enormous quantities, the manufacture of alco-
hol from the waste sulphite lyes is carried on, and it was estimated
that in 1920 the probable capacity was in the neighbourhood of
8,000,000 gal.; the actual production, however, amounted to about
2,750,000 gal. only. Norway also produces sulphite lyes and alcohol
from them on a smaller scale.
There are several distilleries in the United States devoted to the
production of industrial alcohol, with an estimated capacity of about
90,000,000 gal. ; in 1919 about 100,000,000 gal. were made, represent-
ing, however, only about 2 j % of the estimated United States liquid-
fuel requirements for 1920. Some attention is also being given to the
manufacture of alcohol for power purposes in Hawaii, Porto Rico
and the Philippines; and in Cuba, from the molasses produced as a
by-product in the sugar refineries. (F. L. N.)
ALDEN HENRY MILLS (1836-1919), American editor, de-
scendant of John Alden, was born at Mt. Tabor, Vt.,.Nov. n
1836. After graduating from Williams College (1857), under the
regime of Mark Hopkins, he completed the course at the And-
over Theological Seminary (1860); but he never took orders.
He first contributed to the Atlantic Monthly two essays on
"The Eleusinia" (1859-60), and then apaper on " Pericles and
President Lincoln" (1863). These fruits of his classical studies
show the influence of De Quincey, who was the subject
of another, essay in the Atlantic (1863). He delivered twelve
lectures before the Lowell Institute in Boston, 1863-4, on
" The Structure of Paganism" He was managing editor of Har-
per's Weekly from 1863 to 1869, and then became editor of
Harper's Magazine, which position he held until his death in
New York, Oct. 6 1919.
He was author of God in His World (1890); A Study of Death
(1895) and Magazine Writing and the New Literature (1908).
ALDRICH, NELSON WILMARTH (1841-1915), American
politician (see 1.536), died in New York April 16 1915. While
chairman of the National Monetary Commission, he pro-
ALEXANDER ALEXEYEV, MIKAIL
1 1 1
posed, in 1911, far-reaching changes in the banking laws of
the United States with a view to the creation of central reserves,
a system afterwards adopted in the Federal Reserve banks.
He retired from the U.S. Senate in 1911, after 30 years' service.
ALEXANDER, King of the Hellenes (1893-1920), second son
of King Constantine and Queen Sophia, was born Aug. i 1893,
and ascended the throne of Greece, June 12 1917, on the de-
thronement of his father by the Anglo-French forces during the
World War (see CONSTANTINE). He, not unnaturally, looked
upon his position at first as a mere temporary arrangement. The
Government itself was meanwhile in the responsible hands of
Venizelos, who had the confidence of the Allies. But the defeat
of Germany, and Venizelos's diplomatic triumphs at the Peace
Conference, seemed to breathe a new spirit into the young King.
From the day of his triumphal entry into Adrianople, he evidently
took a more active personal interest in the prospect of being
the ruler of Greater Greece. This change in his attitude was
indeed so marked that his royal parents in exile in Switzerland
were said to be greatly disconcerted ; but it gave him an entirely
new popularity among the people. His sudden death on Oct. 27
1920, by blood-poisoning from the bite of a pet monkey, put a
sudden end to all such expectations, and it seriously disarranged
Venizelos's plans. King Alexander was buried amid widespread
demonstrations of popular grief; but a fortnight later, in the
general election, the Venizelist party was defeated. It is practi-
cally certain that, could this election have been postponed for
a few months and a suitable successor to the throne found,
King Constantine would never have been able to return, as he did,
to Greece. But postponement was impossible after Venizelos's
pledges to the Greek people; and, in the absence of any other
serious candidate for the Greek throne, the old sympathies for
Constantine won the day.
In Nov. 1919 King Alexander had insisted, against the advice
of Venizelos, on making a morganatic marriage with a beautiful
young Athenian lady, Aspasia Mano; and after his death a daugh-
ter was born to her in Paris on March 25 1921.
ALEXANDER I., King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
(1888- ), was born at Cettinje on Dec. 4 1888, the second
son of Prince Peter Karagjorgjevic (later King of Serbia), and
of Zorka, third daughter of Prince Nicholas of Montenegro.
His mother died in 1890, and during his early years he of course
shared the exile of his father, who lived at Geneva. In 1899 he
was'sent to be educated at St. Petersburg, and in 1904 entered the
corps des pages at the Tsar's court. It was not till 1909 (nearly
six years after his father's election to the Serbian throne, in
succession to the murdered King Alexander Obrenovic) that the
young prince came to reside permanently in Serbia. Soon after
his return his elder brother, Prince George, was obliged to
renounce the succession (March 1909), owing to his unbalanced
temperament and various incidents that occurred during the
Bosnian crisis; and Alexander was thereupon formally recognized
as crown prince. On the outbreak of the Balkan War he assumed
nominal command of the First Army, and won his spurs at the
battle of Kumanovo, subsequently serving with distinction
throughout the campaigns against Turkey and Bulgaria. On
June 24 1914 King Peter, whose health had completely broken
down, appointed him as prince regent, and he thus held- the
position of commander-in-chief when the World War broke out.
He remained permanently at army headquarters, and shared
with his soldiers all the privations of the retreat through Albania.
On reaching the coast he fell ill and underwent a serious opera-
tion, but when already convalescent resolutely declined the
proffered assistance of an Italian destroyer which had been sent
to convey him across the Adriatic; he remained till all the refugees
had been transported into safety, and eventually found his way
on foot to Durazzo. After the exiled Serbian Government had
established itself at Corfu, Prince Alexander and Mr. Pasic
paid visits to Paris and London, where the Prince was received
with warm ovations. On April 5 1916, in receiving an important
deputation of British sympathizers (led by the Archbishop of
Canterbury, the Lord Mayor, Lord Milner and Sir E. Carson),
he publicly identified the dynasty with the cause of unity,
expressing his conviction that in the final victory " our Yugo-
slav people, united in a single state, will also have their part."
During the rest of the war he remained at Serbian headquarters,
and shared his army's victorious advance in Oct. 1918. On
Dec. i delegates of the Yugo-Slav National Council in Zagreb for-
mally recognized him as regent in all the Yugo-Slav provinces of
the former dual monarchy, and he assumed the title of " Prince-
Regent of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes." The attempt made
upon his life on June 28 1921, after he had taken oath to the new
Yugo-Slav constitution, was the outcome not of any personal
unpopularity, but of the subversive aims of the Communists
and other revolutionary groups, who hoped to create confusion
in the new state, owing to the lack of a direct heir to the throne.
On Aug. 1 6 1921 Prince Alexander succeeded his father as King
of Yugoslavia.
ALEXANDER, BOYD (1873^910), British soldier and explorer,
was born at Cranbrook, Kent, Jan. 16 1873. He was educated
at Radley, and afterwards entered the army, joining the Rifle
Brigade in 1893. In 1897 he kd a scientific expedition to the
Cape Verde Is., and in 1898 went on his first African journey to
the Zambezi and Kafuk rivers. He was appointed to the Gold
Coast constabulary in 1900, and took part in the relief of Kumasi.
In 1904 he led a scientific expedition to Fernando Po, where
he ascended Mt. St. Isabel and discovered various new species
of birds. The same year saw the commencement of his
most important work the Alexander- Gosh' ng expedition across
Africa from the Niger to the Nile, which occupied three years.
During this period he surveyed the shores of Lake Chad and
explored a considerable part of eastern Nigeria, returning to
England by way of the rivers Ubangi, Shari and Nile. For his
various discoveries he received gold medals from the Royal
Geographical Societies of London and Antwerp, besides honours
from other learned societies. He returned to Africa in 1908, and
was killed by natives at Nyeri, in Wadai, April 2 1910.1
Alexander published From the Niger to the Nile (1907), besides
many articles and papers in scientific and geographical periodicals.
See Herbert Alexander, Boyd Alexander's Last Journey, with a
memoir (1912).
ALEXANDER, SIR GEORGE (1858-1918), English actor (see
1.564), died at Chorleywood, Herts., March 16 1918. He was
knighted in 1911. Among his later productions at the St.
James's theatre were R. S. Hichens's and J. B. Pagan's Bella
Donna; Pinero's The Big Drum and Louis N. Parker's The
Aristocrat; in this he made his last appearance together with
the veteran actress Genevieve Ward.
ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856-1915), American painter
(see 1.564), died in New York June i 1915. He received a
first-class medal from the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, in
1911, and a medal of honour at the Panama-Pacific Exposition in
1915. He had been president of the National Academy of Design
since 1909.
ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824-1911), Protestant Archbishop
of Armagh and primate of All Ireland (see 1.565), who resigned
his see Jan. 30 191 r, and was created G.C.V.O., died at Tor-
quay Sept. 12 1911.
ALEXEYEV, MIKAIL (1857-1918), Russian general, was born
in 1857, and entered the army in 1876. He completed his studies
at the General Staff College in 1890, and joined the Russian
General Staff. In 1904 he became a general. He took part in the
war with Turkey in 1877-8. During the Russo-Japanese War he
was the director of the operations on the staff of the II. Army.
After further staff service he became in 1912 commander of the
XIII. Army Corps. At the outbreak of the World War he was
nominated chief of the staff of the south-western front. The
first operations were skilfully carried on by him, and the great
Russian victory in Galicia in 1914 was his work. In March 1915
he was called to command the group of armies of the north-
western front. A stupendous task awaited him here; eight armies
were confided to him, but these masses were destitute of all means
of combat. The events in Galicia in April 1915 had their reper-
cussion further north, where the position became desperate,
and the army seemed lost. But by the eri'd of Aug.'the armies
I 12
ALGERIA ALLBUTT, SIR T. C.
were saved, thanks to the energy and ability of their commander.
In Aug. 1915 he was nominated chief of the headquarters of the
supreme command, and worked there with the Emperor, who
had just assumed the supreme command. He served in this
capacity during the successful campaign of 1916, until in Nov.
a breakdown, of health compelled him to give up his office.
After the revolution of March 1917 he became commander-in-
chief, but in May 1917 he was dismissed. Recalled by Kerensky
in Sept. he remained at headquarters only 12 days in order to
exercise a steadying influence during the conflict between Korni-
lov and Kerensky, and then left, being unable to work with men
who he considered had brought misfortune and shame on his
country. At the commencement of the Bolshevik regime he
went to the south of Russia, where he soon became the leader
of the " Volunteer Army, " and took the field against the
Bolsheviks. He died of heart disease Oct. 10 1918.
ALGERIA (see 1.642). The figures of the 1911 census showed
a total pop. for Algeria of 5,492,569, of whom 752,043 were
Europeans. Of these 558,572 were French, 134,746 Spaniards,
concentrated specially in the department of Oran, and 36,661
Italians, in the region of Constantine.
The administration of the country was still in 1921 in the
hands of a governor-general residing at Algiers, as supreme head
of all the civil services, with the exception of the non-Mussul-
man services of justice, worship, public instruction, treasury
and customs, which remained attached to the French ministerial
department. The governor-general has to assist him a general
secretary and a Government council. Since 1900 Algeria has
enjoyed a large measure of budgetary autonomy. The governor-
general submits a special budget to the vote of Algerian rep-
resentative assemblies, or the financial delegations which were
created in 1898. The delegations are divided into three sections,
one of which represents colonists, another non-colonising tax-
payers, and the third native Mussulmans. The budget, when
voted by the financial delegations, is submitted to the French
Parliament. The estimates for 1922, comprising both ordinary
and extraordinary revenue and expenditure, amounted to
595,000,000 francs.
The northern portion of the territory is administered under
two systems, one civil and the other military. In the civil
zone the administration is that in force in France. This zone
is divided into three departments, Oran, Algiers, and Constan-
tine, with prefects, general councils and sub-prefects as in
France. Each department elects two deputies and one senator
to the French Parliament, only French citizens having the right
to vote. The military zone is divided into three administrative
regions, under the control, subject to the governor-general, of
generals of division. These regions are cut up again into sectors
administered by officers of the Department for Native Affairs.
In accordance with the composition of the population, three
methods of local administration are employed. In the " full "
communes there are municipal councils, elected by the towns-
people; in the " mixed " communes public services are run by
an administrator, assisted by a non-elected municipal council;
the " native " communes are ruled by kaids with the assistance
of native advisers, who are appointed by the governor-general.
The colonization of Algeria was rendered difficult by the
presence of a native population which already had its own
civilization, and was nomad and warlike in its instincts. A start
was made in the region of the Tell, and then the mountains and
high plateau-lands were taken in hand. There has been a spon-
taneous flow of Italian and Spanish immigration, and a system
of land grants and other concessions have attracted large num-
bers of immigrants from the south of France who have settled
down well in the country. Between 1904 and 1914, 206,000
hectares of land had been settled, of which 91,200 were free
grants.
Agriculture has made great strides in spite of the difficulty of
irrigation. By a judicious system of barrages and canals, the tor-
rential rains have been harnessed up and spread over the land. Much
has been done.also to fight the locust, and to carry out a methodical
policy of manuring. The results obtained have been brilliant. In
the Tell wheat and wine are grown on a large scale, and indeed
Algerian wine has become a serious competitor with French wine.
In 1920 Algiers exported 2,729,551 hectolitres of wine, of which
2,418,726 went to France. The crop of cereals, which fluctuates
very much in consequence of the variable rainfall, gave in 1914, 185
million metric quintals; in 1915, 20 million; in 1916, 18 million;
in 1917, 15 million; 1918, 30 million. Olive plantations produce
about 300,000 hectolitres of oil a year. Vegetables, fruit, medicinal
plants and cork are the other chief agricultural products of the Tell.
Cotton is grown in the Oran and in Algiers, and great efforts have
been made to increase the output of tobacco, of which over 24,000
tons were produced in 1918. On the tablelands the chief produce is
alfa, which covers great areas. It is exported in very large quantities
to Great Britain, where it is used in the manufacture of good quality
paper. The alfa exports in 1916 were 811,997 quintals; in 1918,
118,900 quintals; and in 1920, 539,821 quintals, of the value of 12 j
million francs. Sheep form the chief stock of the country. Forests
cover well over two million hectares, the Woods and Forests service
alone having that area under its control. Cork trees cover over
400,000 hectares.
Mines. The country is rich in minerals, which, however, have
not been thoroughly exploited. The chief mineral resource is iron,
the exports of which in 1920 amounted to 1,114,438 tons, valued at
33.879,000 francs. There are large phosphate deposits in the Con-
stantine province, which exported 334,704 tons in 1920 to a value of
l8j million francs. There are also copper, zinc, lead, and antimony
mines. Coal deposits were discovered during the war, and the work
of British and American prospectors in the Oran indicates the
possibility of existence of oil fields of some size. In 1900, Algeria
possessed only 1,771 m. of railway; that figure had by 1921 been
brought to 2,228, and many new lines were being considered. The
three chief ports handled the following traffic in 1920: Algiers, 6,264,-
735 tons; Oran, 3,975,762 tons; Bona, 1,106,362 tons. A great deal
of work has been done in improving the road system of the country,
and motor-ways have been built from Tuggurt to Timbuktu. An
aerial postal service has also been organized.
Commerce. The general trade in 1920 amounted to 4,342,000,000
francs, and special trade, that is to say, trade arising exclusively
from the requirements and produce of the colony, amounted to
3,977,000,000 francs, of which 2,535,000,000 were imports, and 1,442,-
000,000 exports. Of this trade, France took respectively 1,991,862
francs, and 1,096,472 francs. These figures show a very large in-
crease, the general trade in 1918 amounting only to 1,529,000,000
francs, and in 1919 to 2,287,900,000 francs. In 1913, the last normal
year before the war, the figure was 1,292,000,000, of which 729,000,-
ooo were imports, and 563,000,000 were exports. In judging of
these figures, the drop in the value of money has to be Borne in
mind.
Native rights. The valuable help given by the native population
of Algiers to France during the World War led, as it did in other
parts of the French colonial empire, to a wider recognition of the
political rights of the native. A law was passed, Feb. 4 1919, con-
ferring French citizenship on any native of Algeria who had either
served in the French army or navy, was a land-owner, farmer, or
licensed trader, knew how to read and write French, or was the
possessor of a French decoration. Native Mussulmans who did
not receive French citizenship, are represented in all the deliberative
assemblies by elected members who sit with the same rights as
those enjoyed by the French members of such assemblies. With
some exceptions they are admitted to public service on the same
footing as French citizens. In the beginning of 1919 the special Arab
taxes, which were supported by the native population alone, were
done away with, and their place was taken by income and property
taxes. It was proposed to form an Algerian consulting committee in
Paris, in which natives would sit. (M. R. *)
ALLBUTT, SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD (1836- ), English
physician, was born at Dewsbury, Yorks., July 20 1836. He
was educated at St. Peter's, York, and Caius College, Cam-
bridge, where he took a first class in the natural science
tripos in 1860. He studied medicine at St. George's Hospital and
afterwards in Paris, subsequently practising in London and Leeds.
He carried out many researches on the pathology of the nervous
system, and made important studies of tetanus and hydrophobia.
He also devoted much time to the study of ophthalmoscopy, and
was the inventor of the short clinical thermometer. He was
consulting physician to many institutions, and from 1889 to 1892
was a commissioner in lunacy. In 1892 he became Regius pro-
fessor of physic at Cambridge, and in 1907 was created K.C.B.
Sir Clifford Allbutt was a member of many Government commit-
tees, including the Home Office inquiry into trade diseases, and
during the World War he was an hon. colonel in the R.A.M.C.
His published works include The Ophthalmoscope in Medicine
(1871); On Scrofula (1885); Diseases of the Heart (Lane lectures,
1896); Historical Relations of Medicine and Surgery (1905); Greek
Medicine in Rome (Fitzpatrick lectures, 1909-10); Diseases oj
the Arteries and Angina Pectoris (1915) and Science in the School
ALLEN, SIR J. ALLENBY, EDMUND H. H.
(1917). He also edited Systems of Medicine and Gynaecology (1896,
1899, 1907).
ALLEN, SIR JAMES (1855- ), New Zealand statesman,
was born in South Australia Feb. 10 1855, and went to New
Zealand about 1858. He was educated at Clifton College and
St. John's College, Cambridge, where he held a natural
science exhibition. At Cambridge he played in the Univer-
sity Rugby football fifteen and took his M.A. degree; and
he afterwards studied at the Royal School of Mines and won
the Bessemer and de la Beche medal. In 1887 he made a re-
markable entry into politics by winning the Dunedin East seat
from Sir Robert Stout, then Premier and Liberal leader, by 19
votes. Losing this seat at the general election of 1890, he repre-
sented Bruce from 1891 till his resignation in 1920. He has
always taken a special interest in educational, military and
imperial questions; was a member of the Otago University coun-
cil and served a term as chancellor; and from 1908-12 was a
member of the New Zealand University senate. He was for
many years an enthusiastic volunteer, and was promoted
lieutenant-colonel in 1902.
During the 21 years of Mr. Allen's service in opposition he
showed himself a keen critic of the Liberal administration,
especially on financial matters. On defence questions he always
spoke with authority and without party bias. The movement
for compulsory military training, which came to a head in 1909,
had his hearty support, and it is certain that the extension of the
Territorial age-limit from the 22nd to the 25th year, which Lord
Kitchener recommended, could not have been carried by the
Ward government in 1910 without the help that Mr. Allen gave
to it. When the Reform party came into power in 1912 Mr.
Allen became Mr. Massey's right-hand man. He held the three
onerous portfolios of Defence, Finance, and Education in the
first Massey administration (1912-15). His prudence and
caution inspired confidence in his budgets, and both in military
and in naval defence he gave the country a strong lead. His
proposal in 1913 to organize an Expeditionary Force of 8,000
men for oversea service was severely criticized, but its value
was duly appreciated in the following year. Regarding naval
defence he insisted strongly on the inadequacy of a mere cash
payment to the Admiralty to discharge the obligations of a
self-respecting state, and with Mr. Massey he laid, in the Naval
Defence Act, 1913, the foundations of a policy of self-reliance,
with the proviso that the Dominion's naval forces should auto-
matically pass into the control of the Admiralty in time of war.
As a member of the National Government which was formed
as a result of the Massey- Ward war coalition Sir James Allen
retained the portfolio of Defence, and he held it throughout the
life of that Government (1915-9) and until his retirement from
the succeeding Massey government in March 1920. It is im-
possible to exaggerate the value of his services in that capacity.
He faced all the problems of organizing a young and untried
democracy for the World War, first under a voluntary and then
under a compulsory system, with a resolution that never faltered,
and he saw it through. During the first year or two of the war the
Defence Minister was probably the most unpopular man in the
Dominion, but there was afterwards a strong reaction in his
favour, and towards its close the sterling value of his services was
universally recognized. There was certainly no other man to
whom the Dominion was more deeply indebted for the excellence
of its war record.
During the long absences of Mr. Massey and Sir Joseph Ward
on the business of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1916, 1917 and
1918 and of the Peace Conference in 1919 Sir James Allen had the
responsibilities of Acting-Prime Minister as well as those of
Defence. He retired from politics in 1920 in order to succeed Sir
Thomas Mackenzie as the Dominion's High Commissioner in
London on July 31. Few statesmen who have so persistently
violated the politician's rule of putting all the best goods in the
front window have been privileged to retain the confidence
of a democracy so long and to render it such admirable service.
He was made a K.C.B. in 1917. He married Mary Hill Richards
of Somerset, England, in 1877 and has two sons and three
daughters. His younger son, John Hugh Allen, was killed in
action at Gallipoli.
ALLENBY, EDMUND HENRY HYNDMAN ALLENBY, IST
VISCT. (1861- ), British field marshal, son of Hyndman
Allenby, was born April 23 1861, and joined the Inniskill-
ing Dragoons in 1882. His first few years in the army were spent
in South Africa, where he took part in the Bechuanaland ex-
pedition of 1884-5 an <l m the Zululand operations of 1888.
After returning to England with his regiment he passed through
the Staff College and in 1896 he married Adelaide Mabel Chap-
man. He went out to South Africa again as a squadron leader in
1899 and took part in the important cavalry operations by which
Kimberley was relieved, in the battle of Paardeberg, and in Lord
Roberts's advance to Pretoria and into the eastern Transvaal.
During the later phases of the South African War he made a
great name for himself as a column commander, and he was for
his services promoted brevet lieutenant -colonel and colonel
and given the C.B. He then commanded the 5th Lancers from
1902-5 and for the next four years he was at the head of a
cavalry brigade, being promoted major-general in 1909. He
became inspector of cavalry in 1910 and, as holding that position,
went out to France with the Expeditionary Force in 1914 in
charge of the cavalry division.
The work of his mounted troops during the retreat from Mons,
the subsequent advance to the Aisne, and the first battle of Ypres
won great praise, and on a second cavalry division arriving
Allenby was appointed commander of the newly constituted
Cavalry Corps. He was about the same time given the K.C.B.
In June 1915 he was transferred from this to the command of the
5th Army Corps; but he held that position for only a short time
as, in the following Oct. on Gen. Monro's proceeding to the
Near East, he succeeded that general as chief of the 3rd Army,
which he led for nearly two years. His army was not called upon
to undertake operations on any large scale during 1916, but it
shared to some extent in the later stages of the battle of the
Somme. In 1917, on the other hand, it was very heavily engaged
in the Arras region during the spring months and won much
valuable ground. Allenby had been promoted lieutenant-general
in 1916, and in June 1917 he was selected for the command of the
troops in Egypt and Palestine, where elaborate preparations had
been made for an offensive campaign; he was at the same time
promoted general.
The season was unsuitable for active operations on the borders
of the Holy Land for the first three months after his arrival in
Egypt, but these were spent in perfecting preparations for an
advance, which began at the end of Oct. with the capture of
Beersheba and the taking of Gaza a few days after. These
successes were followed up relentlessly. Jaffa fell Nov. 17,
the Turks were driven with loss out of every position that
they tried to take up, and, after vain efforts on their part to
bar the way to Jerusalem, that city was surrendered Dec. 9.
Allenby, who had been given the G.C.M.G. for these achieve-
ments, materially improved his position during the next four
months, but he was then obliged by events in France to des-
patch some of his troops to the western theatre of war.
During the summer of 1918 fresh forces from India- and
Mesopotamia took the place of the troops sent away, and in
Sept. the British commander struck with crushing effect.
By a sudden advance in great force the Turkish front was
broken, the plain of Esdraelon was flooded with mounted men,
the infantry moved irresistibly forward and, as the result of a
masterly combination of war, the enemy suffered an over-
whelming defeat. All arrangements had been made in advance
for instantly following up the anticipated victory; within a very
few weeks Damascus and Beirut had been occupied, troops had
been thrust right up to Aleppo, and not only Palestine but also
all Syria were in the hands of the Allies. Allenby's brilliant
services were recognized by his being given the G.C.B., and, on
the general distribution of honours for the war in 1919, he was
promoted field marshal and was raised to the peerage as Viscount
Allenby of Megiddo and Felixstowe; he was at the same time
awarded a grant of 50,000.
1 1 4 ALLENSTEIN-M ARIEN WERDER ALSACE-LORRAINE
While engaged in his campaigns of conquest beyond the
Egyptian borders Allenby had also been responsible for main-
taining order in the Nile delta and for its protection against
attack from without, matters that had at times given grounds
for anxiety as there was much unrest due to the abnormal
situation that existed. In 1919 he was definitely appointed
British High Commissioner in Egypt.
ALLENSTEIN-MARIENWERDER, a region composed of dis-
tricts of the former Prussian provinces of East and West Prussia,
in which a plebiscite was taken, under the Treaty of Versailles,
on June n 1920.
Art. 94-98 of the Treaty of Versailles provided that the East
Prussian Circles (Kreise) of Allenstein, Osterode, Ortelsburg, Sens-
burg, Johannisburg, Lotzen, Lyck and Neidenburg, in so far as they
had not already been ceded to Poland, and further the West Prussian
Circles of Marienwerder (east of the Vistula), Stuhm, Rosenberg
and the section of the Circle Marienburg situated east of the Nogat,
should declare by a plebiscite whether they desired to belong to Ger-
many or Poland. Until the plebiscite should take place the adminis-
tration of these Circles was taken over by interallied commissions
for East and West Prussia respectively. The commissions were com-
posed of representatives of England, France, Italy and Japan.
Troops for occupying the districts were provided by France, England
and Italy. Two German commissions conducted the negotiations
with the interallied commissions.
The whole territory has an extent of about 15,000 sq. km., and a
pop. of about 855,000, of which 695,000 belong to the East Prussian
plebiscitary area and 160,000 to the West Prussian. Racially the
population in the East Prussian region numbers 428,000 Germans,
95,000 Poles and 172,000 Masurians, who are Slavs but of the
Protestant faith. In the West Prussian region the Circle Stuhm
has 21,000 inhabitants who speak German and 15,000 who speak
Polish; the Circle Marienburg has 26,500 German-speaking and
1,500 Polish-speaking; Rosenberg 47,000 German-speaking and 3,500
Polish-speaking; Marienwerder 17,500 German-speaking and 25,000
Polish-speaking inhabitants.
The date of the plebiscite was fixed originally for June n 1920.
Long before that date a vigorous agitation was opened by both
sides. There were repeated actual encounters in different places,
mostly excited by Polish bands, the so-called Bajowkas, re-
cruited from Congress Poland, and the territory of Posnania
which has been ceded under the Treaty. The Polish agitation,
however, did not produce any marked results either in West
Prussia or in East. In both regions leagues which agitated for
Poland were from the native Polish and Masurian elements of the
population, but in the course of the plebiscitary campaign
they went over to the Germans. The plebiscite, ultimately held
on July n, resulted in an astonishing German victory.
In the East Prussian region 98 % of the population voted for
Germany, in the West Prussian 92 %. The result was celebrated by
joyous festivities in all the East and West Prussian polling centres.
Both the districts were assigned to Germany on the basis of the vote;
but, in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, a zone
50 m. broad and some 30 m. long on the east bank of the Vistula near
Marienwerder and four villages with the harbour of Kurzebrack on
the same river were assigned to Poland in order to secure for the
Polish State, at this point, the sovereignty over the course of the
Vistula accorded to it by the Treaty. The inhabitants of the adja-
cent East Prussian territory are at all times to have access for them-
selves and their boats to the Vistula. Three frontier communes in
the south-west of East Prussia were also assigned to Poland. On
Aug. 1 6 both the interallied commissions left the plebiscitary areas,
which were thus once more subjected to German administration.
The agitation in favour of Germany had been to a considerable ex-
tent conducted by the so-called Heimatsdienst, a patriotic German
society which had spread its organization over the whole of the
plebiscitary areas. (C. K. *)
ALMA-TADEMA, SIR LAURENCE (Laurens) (1836-1912),
British painter (see 1.712), died at Wiesbaden June 25 1912.
The most important of his later works was " Caracalla and
Geta " (1907). An exhibition of his works was held in London
ALPHONSO XIII. (1886- ), King of Spain (see 1.736).
On returning from a military review April 13 1913, an at-
tempt against the King's life was made by an anarchist, who
shot at him but only succeeded in wounding the horse. The
children born to the King are: Alphonso, Prince of the Asturias,
May 10 1907; Jaime, June 23 1908; Beatrix, June 22 1909;
Maria Cristina, Dec. 12 1911; Juan, June 20 1913; Gonzalo,
Oct. 24 1914. During the World War the King, as ruler of a
neutral country, though scrupulously preserving a neutral atti-
tude, rendered great services to the Allies by his intervention
on behalf of prisoners of war and his efforts to ascertain the fate
of men reported "missing." (Sec further SPAIN.)
ALSACE-LORRAINE (see 1.756). As the result of the World
War there is no longer any " Alsace-Lorraine." The erstwhile
Reichsland, conceived by Bismarck in 1871, ceased to exist in
Nov. 1918. As before 1870, there are now again the French
departments of the Bas-Rhin (Strasbourg), the Haut-Rhin
(Colmar) and the Moselle (Metz). The return of the former
Alsace-Lorraine to the French mother-country took place
amidst the indescribable pleasure of the restored populations.
In 1921 the three departments were passing through a transi-
tion period. The Germans did not occupy the country for
nearly half a century without trying to leave their mark on it,
without introducing their administrative methods and laws,
which sometimes differ completely from those of French ad-
ministration and legislation. The Government in Paris came to
the conclusion that to transplant the reconquered provinces in
a day from German to French ways would be to risk confusions
and upsets which it would be preferable to avoid; it was thought
that there was a considerable work in legislative assimilation,
adaptation and adjustment, to accomplish. It was for this
reason that after the Armistice a High Commission of the
Republic was established at Strasbourg, comprising many
departments and many different services. The General Com-
mission of the Republic is directly attached to the prime minister's
office, the affairs of the three departments being centralized in
the hands of the under-secrctary of the presidency.
The first High Commissioner, M. Georges Maringer, was
replaced in April 1919 by M. Alexandre Millerand, who went
to Strasbourg with extended powers, and the title of General
Commissioner. Called in Jan. 1920 to the premiership of
France, M. Millerand had as successor M. Gabriel Alapetite,
former resident-general for France at Tunis, and ambassador
at Madrid.
Administration. The general lines upon which French
legislation was to be introduced were fixed by the law of Oct.
17 1919, concerning the transitional administration of the re-
covered provinces. This law settles the transitional methods to
be applied to administrative, electoral and financial organiza-
tion. On the other hand, constitutional laws are not dealt with,
because they are ipso facto applicable by the reintegration of
Alsace and Lorraine with France.
The law of Oct. 17 1919 maintains in force the legislative
arrangements and local regulations (German law or special
Alsace-Lorraine law) until the introduction of French laws
shall have been effected. The authority of the military gov-
ernors of Strasbourg and Metz is subordinated to the civil
power. Article 4 of this law lays down in principle that it is for
Parliament to decide what temporary measures shall be intro-
duced pending the definitive introduction of French legislation.
The same law establishes that the French fiscal system shall
gradually be substituted for that of Germany. The electoral
system is that of France. The former Alsace-Lorraine has
kept certain laws passed during German rule; for instance,
the laws affecting social insurance. In religious matters, the
Republican Government has respected the status quo that is
to say, the Concordat is maintained, also the denominational
schools.
It is abundantly apparent that the Government is keeping
the solemn promise made during the war by French statesmen
and generals to the effect that the customs and beliefs of the
people would be respected. The mission of the Commissioner-
General is extremely delicate. He has departmental respon-
sibility in these three departments unknown in others. He has
to determine how, in what length of time, and with what pre-
cautions French laws can be successively applied there. In
submitting legislation, he has to inform Parliament as to the
gravity of the disturbance which changes must make in settled
habits and customs, and as to the difficulties accompanying
the return to French rule.
ALSACE-LORRAINE
A consultative council has been provisionally instituted in
connexion with the High Commission of the Republic. It com-
prises 35 members, of whom 3 are senators, 6 deputies, 21 loca!
councillors, and 5 named by the decision of the prime minister
This body deliberates and pronounces upon all questions which
fall outside the limits of any one public department, and are
submitted to it by the Commissioner-General. It is comp;
sorily consulted on the budget of revenue and expenditure in
Alsace-Lorraine and on all proposed modifications of the fiscal
system in force; as also on all administrative or economic bills
and regulations affecting the combined populations of the three
departments. The consultative council is convoked by the Com-
missioner-General at least four times a year. Thus the Com-
missioner-General has at hand a body in which the representa-
tives of the different populations can show forth the interests
of these latter and, by expert advice, can facilitate the study
and solution of questions common to the Haut-Rhin, the Bas-
Rhin, and the Moselle. But this body is purely consultative.
The Government of the Republic keeps its power of initiative
and its responsibilities; Parliament remains the sovereign power.
Population. -The recovered departments are administered
like the other French departments. The department of the
Bas-Rhin (prefecture Strasbourg) includes 8 arrondissements:
Strasbourg-Ville; Strasbourg-Campagne; Erstein; Haguenau;
Molsheim; Selestat; Wissembourg; Saverne. Its superficial
area is 4786-37 square kilometres. There are 561 communes.
The pop. numbers 608,116. The department of the Haut-Rhin
(prefecture Colmar) includes 6 arrondissements: Altkirch; Col-
mar; Guebwiller; Mulhouse; Ribeauville; Thann. Area 3,507-7
sq. km.; 386 communes; pop. 430,988. The department of the
Moselle (prefecture Metz) includes 9 arrondissements: Moselle-
Ville; Moselle-Campagne; Boulay; Chateau-Salins; Forbach;
Sarrebourg; Sarreguemines; Thionville-Ouest; Thionvillc-Est.
Area 6,227-8 sq. km.; 758 communes; pop. 554,445. The com-
bined population according to the census of March 6 1921 is,
therefore, 1,593,549, as against 1,874,014 at the time of the last
German census in 1910.
The falling-off in the number of the population can be attributed
in the first place to the war. Alsace and Lorraine had lost in dead and
missing about 45,000 men. Moreover, militarist Germany kept in
the three departments no less than 82,276 soldiers. The German and
Austro-Hungarian subjects domiciled in Alsace and in Lorraine
before the war numbered 301,764. The number of German civilians
who had left Alsace and Lorraine after the Armistice up to April
I 1921 was 76,467. These departures were partly balanced by the
fact that many French subjects from the home country settled in the
recovered provinces.
Before the war there were in the imperial territory 1,428,343
Catholics, 408,274 Protestants, 30,483 Jews. The percentage of
illegitimate births was 7-52. In 1921 in Strasbourg there were 165,-
835 inhabitants; in Mulhouse 98,393; Sarreguemines 14,318; in
Thionville 13,410; in Guebwiller 11,520; in Forbach 10,475; in
Selestat 9,846; in Ste. Marie-aux-Mines 9,395; and in Sarrebourg
8,290.
Agriculture. -Agricultural production in 1920 amounted to
160,755 tons of wheat, 57,351 tons of rye, 71,829 tons of barley,
126,487 tons of oats, 1,025,424 tons of potatoes, 44,174 tons of
sugar-beet. Alsace provided one-eighth of the whole world produc-
tion of hops: the crop of 1920 amounted to 3,355 tons. The wines of
Alsace are nearly all white wines, of an exquisite flavour and bou-
quet, yielding nothing to the German wines of the Moselle and the
Rhine. Rich in alcohol, they are very suitable for export. The
Moselle produces in particular vins gris and red wine. The vintage
of 1920 reached 725,000 hectolitres as against 734,000 in 1919. The
value of the 1920 vintage was 124,000,000 frs. The average tobacco
crop is 4,000,000 kilograms.
Mineral Wealth. While petroleum and potash are found in Alsace
the Moselle is rich in iron ore and coal. The oil lands stretch out to
the E. of Woerth (Worth) in the Bas-Rhin, where the Pechelbronn
field is situated. Between 1913 and 1921 about 3,000 borings were
made and over 500 pumps were installed in this field. The average
output during 1918-9 was 49,225 tons. The total yield up to 1921
had been about 900,000 tons, and the available supplies were
estimated at 5! million tons. Oil refineries with a treatment capacity
of 73,000 tons a year have been built at Pechelbronn. The State
acquired these deposits in 1921, and handed over their exploitation
to a private company, mainly formed by local interests.
The return of the department of the Upper Rhine to France de-
prives German industry of the monopoly of potash. Potash was
discovered in large quantities in 1904 in Alsace by the Alsatian
Vogt. The area concerned covers about 200 sq. km. of country and
is to the N. of Mulhouse. The output for 1919 was 512.000 tons and
for 1920 1.222,609 tons. This represents an increase of 249% over
the last pre-war figures. An annual yield of between five and six
million tons was expected before long.
By the liberation of Alsace-Lorraine France became the largest
European producer of iron ore, with an annual yield of 42 million
tons. There are 50 mines in Lorraine. Output reached its height in
1913 with 21,133,676 tons, a downward curve being shown by later
figures, which are as follows :
Year
I9H
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
Tons
14,014,137
13,286,302
13,614,139
10,477.673
7,137.206
After the Armistice there was a steady drop in output, due to
post-war difficulties of all kinds: the year 1919 was for the whole
field a period of reconstruction. Output between Jan. and Sept.
1920 amounted to six million tons. The mines employed 17,237
men in 1913 as compared with 9,523 in 1919. In 1913 German labour
was 60% of the total. In 1920 it was 32-2%.
The output of coal also reached its maximum in 1913, the figures
being :
Year Tons
1913 ........ 3,795,262
I9H . . ...... 2,856,752
1915 ........ 1,960,963
1916 ........ 2,027,684
1917 . . . . . . . . 2,636,802
1918 . ....... 2,662,046
1919 ........ 2,310,589
The fresh fall in 1919 was due to strikes and the reduction in
working hours. Seven-tenths of the coal is consumed by local in-
dustry. The Lorraine salt mines produced 28,822 tons in 1919 as
compared with 59,091 tons in 1913.
Public Instruction. Strasbourg University was opened by
President Poincare on Nov. 22 1919. By the end of 1920 the six
faculties and the Pharmaceutical School had 1,889 students. The
lectures are given in French.
Secondary education is provided by the many lycees created
throughout the country. French naturally is the chief language, but
German has been allowed to have the place which is its due in view
of the special situation of the provinces.
The language question has been more difficult to solve in primary
schools. Before 1870 France had neglected the importance of teach-
ing French in the primary schools of Alsace. Since 1920 the teaching
has been in French throughout the country. An exception is however
made for religious teaching (4 hours a week) which is given in German
in those districts where the Alsatian dialect is the mother-tongue of
the inhabitants. The religious character of schools has been re-
spected. In view of the bilingual character of the country a large
amount of time is given to the study of German in schools. The
population is very well educated. Before the war there were only
eight illiterates among the contingent of army recruits (97,694).
Industry. After 1880 Alsace-Lorraine had been turned indus-
trially towards Germany. In 1914 Alsace-Lorraine exported 1,576,-
ooo tons of goods, 908,000 tons of which went to Germany. In
1909 eight out of ten and a half million tons of exports went to
Germany, while nearly five-sixths of Alsace-Lorraine imports came
from Germany. The preponderant part of Germany is naturally
explained by the fact that while trade was free with Germany it was
impeded with France by the customs wall. It is not possible by a
stroke of the pen to change the commercial orientation of a country
nor to find at once new markets for its products. Therefore the
Treaty of Versailles laid down that for a period of five years nothing
should be changed from the customs point of view in the relations
between the recovered provinces and Germany.
In Alsace the textile industry is by far the most' important,
especially in spinning, weaving and printing. France, thanks to the
restoration of the province, finds her productive power increased
by 26 % in spinning and by 30 % in weaving. Large quantities of
sewing and embroidery thread are also produced.
In Lorraine iron and steel industries are at the head. There are
68 furnaces with an annual capacity of 3,800,000 tons of pig-iron.
The production fell from 3,460,000 tons in 1913 to 1,129,000 tons in
1919. The steel output in 1913 was 22,260,000 tons and in 1919 it
lad fallen to 871,000 tons. This drop is to be attributed entirely to
coal and coke shortage. There were 22,000 workmen employed by
the industry.
Communications. The railway system is excellent and had been
developed greatly by the Germans, mainly from a strategic point of
view. The railways have preserved their autonomy and constitute
a special system attached to the Ministry of Public Works. In 1920
he traffic amounted to 2,253,000,000 tons of goods.
The canal system is good, but the great waterway is naturally the
ihine. The port of Strasbourg with its modern equipment is the
n6
ALTMAN, BENJAMIN
chief French eastern port. It handled 1,324,177 tons of goods during
the first ten months of 1920.
Generally, the liberated provinces are among the richest o
France. Deposits in savings banks in 1919 amounted to 462,281,426
francs. The best figure during the German occupation was 289,084,451
marks.
There were no foreign consuls in Strasbourg during the period o
Germany's occupation. Since the Armistice Great Britain, thf
United States, Belgium, Poland, Holland and Spain have estab
lished consulates there.
History. There is no need, after the World War, in con
sidering the rights of France to Alsace-Lorraine, to refer to the
treaty of 1648, or to embark upon any misty historical researches
in the period before the Treaty of Verdun of 1843. Documents
and facts since the end of the Franco-German War of 1870 are
sufficiently illuminating. Bismarck, on May 2 1871 that is
to say, eight days before the signature of the Treaty of Frank-
furt, declared: " We could do nothing but take these territories
with their powerful fortresses within the framework of Ger-
many, so as to make of them a glacis of Germany against
France." On Nov. 30 1875, he again gave expression to this
idea of the glacis, saying to the Reichstag: " We have con-
quered these territories in the interest of the empire, in the
course of a good war, and a defensive war, in which we had to
save our skins. It was not for Alsace-Lorraine that our warriors
shed their blood, but for the German Empire, its unity, and the
safety of its numbers. We have annexed these provinces so that
Wissemburg shall not be the jumping-off place of the French
in the next attack which they are planning, and which may
God delay as long as possible. We have annexed these prov-
inces so as to have a glacis . . ."
This brutal glacis-theory is also expressed in a confidential
autograph letter, written by the Emperor William I., on Oct.
25 1870, in which the writer says: " After having made im-
mense sacrifices for her defence, Germany wants to be certain
that the next war shall find her better prepared to beat back the
attack which we will have to expect as soon as France has
recuperated her strength, or found allies. It is this side con-
sideration alone, and not the desire to aggrandize my country,
which is big enough, which forces me to insist upon territorial
cessions which have no other aim but to push back the starting-
point of the French armies which will attack us in future.'
German writers and historians have declared that Germany
fought in 1870 in order to regain the " old German land " of
Alsace-Lorraine, which desired to return to the Germanic fold.
The truth is much more simple, and is to be found in the words
of Bismarck and the letter of his sovereign. The people of
Alsace-Lorraine were treated as pawns, because the new Ger-
man Empire wanted a glacis. The inhabitants of the two
provinces protested through their elected representatives
against the treatment to which they were subjected. On March
i 1871, the deputies of Alsace and Lorraine raised their voices
against separation from France. In the solemn declaration
made at the Assembly of Bordeaux they said: " We have been
handed over despite all justice and by odious abuse of force,
to foreign domination, and we have one last duty to fulfil. Once
again we declare that we consider as null and void a pact which
disposes of us without our consent. The vindication of our
rights shall forever be open to us in the form and measure
dictated by our conscience. Your brothers of Alsace-Lorraine,
now separated from the common family, will keep for France,
banished from her hearths, filial affection until the day when
France again returns to take her place." On Feb. i 1874 elec-
tions were held in the Reichsland, and all the candidates who
protested against the annexation were returned. On Feb. 18
they made a protest from the tribune of the Reichsland, in
which they said: "On behalf of the inhabitants of Alsace-
Lorraine we protest against the abuse of strength of which
our country is the victim. Although in distant and comparative-
ly savage days the right of conquest may have sometimes
become an effective right; although to-day it may still be
justified when it is a question of ignorant and savage peoples,
nothing of the sort can be justified with regard to Alsace-
Lorraine. Germany has conquered us at the end of the nine-
teenth century, a century of light and progress; and the people
which she has reduced to slavery is one of those in Europe
with a most highly cultivated feeling for right and justice.
Our heart is irresistibly drawn towards our French fatherland.
In electing us our constituents have above all wished to pro-
claim their sympathy with France."
France signed the Treaty of Frankfurt, and although she
always refused to accept the justice of the annexation of Alsace-
Lorraine, she continued to honour her signature. The inhabitants
of the two provinces, however, were bound by no signature,
and their protest against their lot passed through three phases:
active protest, 1871-87; passive protest, 1887-1900; legal
protest, 1900-14. France took no official part in these move-
ments, and it may be said that the rights of France to Alsace
and Lorraine were kept alive by the inhabitants themselves.
Germany crushed the country under a system of dictatorship
until. May 1902; and it was not until 1911 that Alsace-Lorraine
was given a constitution, which, moreover, failed to satisfy any
political party. Outwardly the situation was accepted, the
inexhaustible riches of the country, especially the underground
wealth, had been exploited by the Germans; industry, making
a bound forward, had brought prosperity; but the relations
between the inhabitants and their conquerors were governed by
a purely utilitarian spirit which did not conceal the unbridgable
gulf between them.
In 1871 Alsace-Lorraine was considered as a glacis for the
defence of Germany, and this same theory again found utter-
ance in a different form on Oct. 9 1917, when Baron von Kiihl-
mann, then Minister for Foreign Affairs, declared that Alsace-
Lorraine was the shield of Germany.
The feelings of the inhabitants towards France were abun-
dantly clear at the moment of the Armistice of Nov. 1918, and
during the entry of the French troops to the capitals. On
Nov. 12 1918, the Parliament of Alsace-Lorraine, elected by
universal suffrage in 1911, transformed itself into a national
assembly, and on Dec. 5 1918 the deputies, meeting at Stras-
bourg, made the following declaration: " The deputies of Alsace
and Lorraine greet with joy the return of Alsace-Lorraine
to France. The National Assembly, faithfully interpreting the
constant and unalterable desire of the people of Alsace-Lorraine,
already expressed by its representatives at the Assembly of
Bordeaux in 1871, solemnly declares that it holds as inviolable
and indefeasible the right of the people of Alsace-Lorraine to be
made members of the family of France." The president of the
Assembly, the Abbe Delsaur, when the full declaration had
been read, exclaimed " Le referendum est fait!" Four days
later the President of the Republic, adapting M. Delsaur's his-
toric remark, closed his speech by saying " Le Plebiscite est
fait!" A year later, on Nov. 16 1919, the people of the restored
provinces took part as Frenchmen in the general elections.
These elections really constituted a plebiscite. All the differ-
:nt political parties had included in their programmes a state-
ment with regard to the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France.
The Socialist election declaration said: " To-day in com-
plete agreement with the whole population of Alsace-Lorraine,
;he Socialist party firmly and without restrictions supports
;he return of the country to France. The people of Alsace-
Lorraine are, and intend to remain, French." The Radical
proclamation contained this phrase: " We are French, France
s one and indivisible, we are a part of France, we are flesh of
ler flesh." The Catholic and Democratic parties, in their
Joint manifesto, stated: " This electoral demonstration must
>e a resounding echo of that made by your fathers in 1871.
To Europe and the world you must solemnly renew the expres-
;ion of your firm and unshakable desire to be, and to remain,
French." (P. B.)
ALTMAN, BENJAMIN (1840-1913), American merchant and
art collector, was born July 12 1840 in New York City, and
died there Oct. 7 1913. As a young man he became inter-
ested in early European paintings and in Oriental art. His
:ollection of Chinese porcelains was among the finest and his
Oriental rugs were remarkable. Of the works of Rembrandt,
ALVERSTONE AMERICAN LITERATURE
117
whom he admired above all other artists, he possessed probably
the largest private collection ever assembled. Velazquez was well
represented, as were Van Dyck, Cuyp, Ruysdael, Vermeer, and
many others. These collections he bequeathed to the Metro-
politan Museum of Art, New York City. Shortly before his
death he secured the incorporation of the Altman Foundation,
established for the welfare of the employees of the department
store of B. Altman & Co., of which he was the head, thus crown-
ing a career long devoted to unobtrusive philanthropy.
ALVERSTONE, RICHARD EVERARD WEBSTER, IST BARON
(1842-1915), Lord Chief Justice of England (see 1.775), di ed at
Cranleigh, Surrey, Dec. 15 1915.
AMADE, ALBERT GERARD LEO D' (1856- ), French
general, was born at Toulouse Dec. 27 1856. He was the son of
an officer and was educated at La Fleche prior to entering the
army in 1876. From 1887, when he became French military
attache at Peking, his military experience was peculiarly varied,
and included, besides his four years in China, service as military
attache with the British forces during the S. African War, three
years as French military attache in London, and finally, as a
general officer, the command of the expeditionary force in the
Moroccan campaign of 1907. On the outbreak of the World
War, he was, in accordance with the prepared scheme of opera-
tions which assumed Italy as an opponent, placed in charge of
the " Army of the Alps." This group, however, had only a
momentary existence. It became clear that Italy would remain
neutral. D'Amade's troops were taken to reinforce other fronts
and he himself was placed in charge of a group of forces formed
in the region of Lille and Douai to resist as best it might the
unexpectedly wide sweep of the German invasion. Weak numer-
ically, composed wholly of territorial units of the oldest classes,
improvised in point of organization and ill equipped, D'Amade's
" army " was in no condition to attempt a vigorous counter-
offensive or even a fixed defensive, and after a certain amount
of fighting in the Cambrai region it was withdrawn to the
extreme left, between Amiens and Abbeville, Gen. Maunoury's
VI. Army taking its place. In the spring of 1915, when a French
contingent was formed for service in the Levant, D'Amade was
appointed to command it, and in this capacity led the French
forces in the Dardanelles landing of April, and the trench
warfare that followed. A gallant and knightly soldier, already
experienced in the ways of his Allies, he was exceptionally well
fitted to hold a command which, half subordinate, half inde-
pendent, presented all possible opportunities of friction, and in
fact few if any inter-Allied operations of the World War were
conducted with so little friction as this. In May, however, he
was recalled to France.
AMERICAN LITERATURE (see 1.831). After the year 1910
the American novel developed mainly in the realistic manner,
and in a rather remarkable way, the year 1920 being especially
notable for the appearance of novels of distinction. The romantic
revival in English and American fiction, which began in the last
decade of the igth century, had exhausted itself before 1910.
It was succeeded by what might be called the " life " novel,
where the entire history of the hero or heroine is given; even
where this rather loose biographical method is not attempted, the
realistic novels from 1910 to 1921 were marked by a fidelity to
fact and a sincerity of composition which indicated promise for
the future development of the art. Mark Twain and O. Henry
died in 1910; Henry James in 1916; W. D. Howellsin 1920. Dur-
ing recent years no one, either in the novel or in the short story,
eclipsed the work of these men. But some important new
writers appeared and two veterans showed increasing power.
Booth Tarkington, born at Indianapolis in 1869, who had a wide
reputation after 1899, began in 1914 a series of novels superior to
anything in the preceding 15 years of his career. These later
novels may be divided into two classes those dealing with
towns and those dealing with youth. In The Turmoil (1915) and
in The Magnificent Ambersons (1918) he analyzed and described
life in American cities; in Penrod (1914) and in Seventeen (1916)
he gave a faithful analysis of the character of the American boy
and of the American youth; while in Alice Adams (1921) he por-
trays with subtlety a young girl. It should also be mentioned
that his sympathetic portraits of negroes were among the best ever
produced. Edith Wharton's Age of Innocence (1920) is her mas-
terpiece; it is a novel dealing with New York society in 1872,
valuable for its consummate art and for the accuracy of its
historical pictures. The new novelists, unknown before 1910,
deal with the single exception of Anne Douglas Sedgwick, who
lived in England wholly with American life and character.
Dorothy Canfield, born at Lawrence, Kan., in 1879, produced
two novels, The Squirrel Cage (1912) and The Bent Twig (1915),
the latter describing life in a university in the middle-west,
as well as The Brimming Cup in 1921, a remarkable study of
a woman's nature and the grounds of her marital happiness.
Zona Gale, born at Portage, Wis., in 1874, took in Miss Lulu
Belt (1920) a familiar subject and treated it with scrupulous
sincerity. The same praise may be given to Sinclair Lewis, born
at Sauk Center, Minn., in 1885, for his novel Main Street
(1920). Mrs. Mary S. Watts, born in Delaware Co., O., in 1868,
wrote a series of realistic novels of American life, of which
perhaps the best is the Rise of Jennie Gushing (1914). Henry
Sydnor Harrison, born at Sewanee, Term., in 1880, produced
one novel of unusual charm in Queed (1911), followed by another
almost equally successful, V. V.'s Eyes (1913); his prolonged war
service interrupted a promising career. Joseph Hergesheimer,
born at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1880, won his way to the front
rank of American novelists by the extraordinary beauty and
distinction of his prose style; he was a master of English
composition, as shown in The Three Black Penny s (1917) and
Java Head (1919). Another distinguished American writer was
Anne Douglas Sedgwick, born at Englewood, N.J., in 1873,
who lived in Europe from childhood. Her powers, both of
analysis and of style, appear to especial advantage in The
Encounter (1914) and The Third Window (1920), while her short
story, Autumn Crocuses (1919), is perhaps the best piece of
fiction produced by an American under the influence of the
World War. The experimental school of fiction had a repre-
sentative in Theodore Dreiser, born at Terre Haute, Ind., in
1871. His first novel, Sister Carrie (1900), is perhaps his best.
The Drama. From the literary point of view the drama was
not important. No play of universal significance has ever been
written in America, yet the work of Clyde Fitch (1865-1909)
was clever and original; his best plays illustrated very well
metropolitan society at the beginning of the zoth century.
Augustus Thomas, born at St. Louis, Mo., in 1859, wrote
many plays of western life, but his masterpiece is The Witching
Hour (1908). Booth Tarkington produced a successful and
brilliant comedy, Clarence (1919). George M. Cohan, born at
Providence, R.I., in 1878, had an astonishingly successful
career as librettist, producer and actor, which was, on the
whole, marked by a steady development; his play The Tavern
(1920) was not only original, but had distinct literary merit.
Louis K. Anspacher, born at Cincinnati, O., in 1878, produced
an excellent drama, both from the literary and theatrical point of
view, The Unchastened Woman (1915). Eugene Walter, born at
Cleveland, O., in 1874, showed talent for melodrama, and in
one play, The Easiest Way (1913), for something higher. The
death of Mark Twain made George Ade, born at Kentland,
Ind., in 1866, the leading American humorist; his Fables in
Slang (1900) struck a new note of humour and criticism; his
plays, The College Widow (1904) and Father and the Boys (1907),
exhibited a talent that the author did not choose to develop.
He might have become the leading American playwright.
Poetry. The World War had a powerful effect on the pro-
duction of poetry, but a revival had set in about the year 1910,
which in 1921 had shown no sign of abatement. The general
interest in poetry and the immense number of young poets were
notable phenomena; yet it is true that no great outstanding
figure appeared no one who for a moment could possibly rank
with Poe, Emerson or Whitman. A leader in modern verse was
Edwin Arlington Robinson, born at Head Tide, Me., in 1869,
whose first volume appeared in 1896, but whose best work was
certainly after 1910. In The Man Against the Sky (1916) and
n8
AMERY, L. C. M. S. AMIR ALI, S.
The Three Taverns (1920) he combined bold, serious thinking
with dignity and grace in expression. A poet who by examplt and
precept stimulated both the love and production of poetry all
over the country was Vachel Lindsay, born at Springfield,
111., in 1879. He was the nearest modern approach to the me-
diaeval minstrel. He tramped many hundreds of miles, paying
for lodging and meals by chanting his own verses, many of which
were written for oral effect. His four volumes of poetry, General
William Booth Enters into Heaven (1913), The Congo (1914),
The Chinese Nightingale (1917) and The Golden Whales of Cali-
fornia (1920), contain works of melody, colour, and imagination.
Robert Frost, born at San Francisco in 1875, wrote realistic verse
mainly of country life in New England, of which North of Boston
(1914) is typical. A quiet sincerity, a sharp observation, a steady
but low fire of passion and imagination characterized his work.
Edgar Lee Masters, born at Garnett, Kan., in 1869, suddenly
achieved fame by Spoon River Anthology (1915). Intellectual
vigour and irony are its distinguishing features. There is a
poetical epitaph for each of nearly 250 persons, each distinctly
portrayed, and usually with penetrating scorn. Anna Hemp-
stead Branch was born at New London, Conn., and was a
conservative poet, writing in the traditional way with high
seriousness. She had passion and imagination and was at her
best in poems of home-life. Amy Lowell, born at Brookline,
Mass., in 1874, was remarkable as an experimentalist. Her
versatility was extraordinary. She wrote much " new " poetry
in free verse and in polyphonic prose; but she was equally
fine in ballads and narrative poems, written in conventional
metres. Perhaps her best book is Sword Blades and Poppy Seed
(1914). Louis Untermeyer, born in New York in 1885, wrote
many graceful lyrics, translated extensively from Horace and
Heine, was an admirable parodist, and compiled an anthology,
Modern American Verse (1919), which gave a fair review of the
field. Among writers of parodies and composers of light verse
after the manner of Calverley should also be mentioned Franklin
P. Adams, born at Chicago in 1881. One of the foremost lyrical
poets was Sara Teasdale, born at St. Louis, Mo., in 1884.
None of her contemporaries surpassed her in the art of pure
singing. Although Henry A. Beers, born at Buffalo, N.Y.,
in 1847, wrote sporadic verses all his life, his best volume is
The Two Twilights (1917) where his qualities of meditation and
passion found full expression. Brian Hooker, born in New York
in 1880, wrote notable sonnets and a powerful commemorative
poem of the war, A.D. 1919. William Rose Benet, born at New
York in 1886, had creative imagination, shown particularly in
Merchants from Cathay (1918). His younger brother, Stephen
Vincent Benet, born in Pennsylvania in 1898, was an extremely
individualistic poet, with remarkable imaginative power, evident
in Heavens and Earth (1920). Percy Mackaye, born in New York
in 1875, published many poems and plays; his collected verse
which greatly varies in value appeared in one large volume in
1916. Conrad Aiken, born at Savannah, Ga., in 1889, had
the gift of singing speech, but his verse lacked thought. A
representative volume was Earth Triumphant (1914). William
Alexander Percy, born in Mississippi in 1885, was a lyric poet of
high distinction, much influenced by classical studies. Students
of free verse will find the extremes of the method represented
in the works of Carl Sandburg, born at Galesburg, 111., in
1878. His Chicago Poems (1916) are interesting for their local
colour and aim. America lost two poets in the war, Joyce Kilmer
(1886-1918), whose poem, Trees, seems destined to live, and
Alan Seeger (1888-1916), whose posthumous volume had the
stamp of genius. His lyric, I Have a Rendezvous with Death, was
one of the most notable poems directly produced by the war.
Many 20th-century poets are represented in the anthology called
The New Poetry, edited by Harriet Monroe and Alice Henderson,
published in 1917. The yearly anthology of magazine verse,
chosen and edited by W. S. Braithwaite, is a fair indication of
contemporary production.
In miscellaneous literature from 1910-21, the most im-
portant work in history was the continuation of the History of
the United States by James Ford Rhodes; a contribution to the
story of the development of the West was A Son of the Middle
Border (1917) by Hamlin Garland; in scholarship, the con-
tinuation of the Variorum Shakespeare by the son of Horace
Howard Furness; the most important and valuable biographical
work was the Life of Mark Twain (1912) by Albert Bigelow Paine,
followed in 1917 by the Letters; in epistolary literature the year
1920 was made memorable by the publication of the Letters of
Henry James in the spring and those of William James in the
autumn; the two best autobiographies of the period are The
Education of Henry Adams (1918) and The Americanization of
Edward Bok (1920). The most important contributions to
political literature were the addresses and state papers of
Woodrow Wilson, President during 1913-21. In addition many
books appeared dealing with various phases of the World War.
Among such may be mentioned James W. Gerard, My Four
Year sin Germany (1917) and Face to Face with Kaiserism (1918);
Bernard Baruch, The Making of the Reparation and Economic
Sections of the Treaty (1920); Adml. William S. Sims, The
Victory at Sea (1920); Brand Whitlock, Belgium: a Personal
Narrative (1919); and Robert Lansing, The Peace Negotiations
(1921).
AMERY, LEOPOLD CHARLES MAURICE STENNETT (1873-
), British politician, was born at Gorakhpur, North- West
Provinces, India, Nov. 22 1873, and was educated at Harrow
and Balliol College, Oxford. He was elected to an All Souls
fellowship in 1897, and, after travelling for a year in the
Near East, in 1899 joined the staff of The Times. He acted as
chief correspondent to that paper during the South African War,
and was also editor of The Times History of the War in South
Africa. In 1906 he stood as a Unionist and Tariff Reformer for
Wolverhampton East, but was defeated, being also unsuccessful
in 1908 and 1910. He was, however, elected to Parliament for
Sparkbrook, Birmingham, in 1911, retaining the seat at the
election of 1918. From 1914 to 1916 he served with the army,
first in France and later at Salonika, but in 1917 became assistant
secretary to the War Cabinet, and from 1917 to 1918 was on the
personal staff of the Secretary for War. In Jan. 1919 he be-
came Under-Secretary for the Colonies, and during Lord Milner's
absence in Egypt in the winter of 1919-20 was acting secretary.
In 1921 he was appointed Under-Secretary at the Admiralty.
He has published various works, including The Problem of the
Army (1903) ; Fundamental Fallacies of Free Trade (1906) ; The Great
Question (1909); Union and Strength (1912).
AMIR 'ALI, SEYYID (1849- ), Indian jurist and Moslem
leader, was born April 6 1849, of an Arab family tracing descent
from the Prophet, which migrated from Persia and settled
at Mohan in Oudh in the middle of the i8th century. At Hugli
College, Calcutta, he graduated in 1867, proceeding to his M.A.
degree a year later. Receiving a State scholarship, he came to
London and wa,s called to the bar of the Inner Temple in 1873.
He had already published A Critical Examination of the Life and
Teachings of Mahomed, the first of a series of books of Islamic
modernist interpretation and apologetics which have given him a
recognized place in English literature, viz. The Spirit of Islam
(1893), Short History of the Saracens (1899; third ed. 1921) and
Ethics of Islam (1893). For some years a lecturer on Moham-
medan law at the Presidency College, Calcutta, and afterwards
president of the Faculty of Law at the university there, his text-
books on Mohammedan law and other legal works are marked by
careful scholarship and characteristic lucidity. He was for some
time chief presidency magistrate of Calcutta, but for the most
part was engaged in practice, literature and non-official public
affairs as a member of the Bengal Legislature and later of the
Viceroy's Legislature until 1890, when he was appointed a judge of
the .Bengal High Court, being the first Mohammedan to reach
the bench in India. Retiring in 1904 and settling in England,
he was the first Indian to be sworn (Nov. 1909) of the Privy
Council and to serve (unsalaried, but later with a small indemnity
for expenses) on the Judicial Committee, where he gave the
greatest assistance to his English colleagues in elucidating
the intricacies of Indian law and custom. But his chiet ambition
in life was the advancement of the Indian Moslems, both morally
AMMUNITION
119
and materially, along practical and constitutional lines. While
cooperating with Sir Seyyid Ahmad Khan (sec 24.277) in over-
throwing cpmmunal apathy and obscurantism as regards Western
education, he deprecated his advocacy of detachment from
political activity. His establishment in 1877 of the Central
National Mohammedan Association, with branches throughout
India, the memorial to the Government of India he promoted in
1883, and the consequent resolution of the Governor- General
(Lord Dufferin) in Council in March 1885, recognizing the
strength of the Moslem claims, constituted a turning-point in the
history of the community, and paved the way for its fuller polit-
ical organization and the reservation of Moslem scats in the
legislatures under the Morley-Minto and subsequent reforms.
His sustained and anxious interest in the maintenance of Moslem
virility and influence throughout the world was shown by vig-
orous and cogent contributions to newspapers and reviews.
AMMUNITION (see 1.864-75). The period of the World
War witnessed important developments in the design of ammuni-
tion. Although the main effort was directed towards quantity
production on a scale that no one had foreseen, and therefore to
the simplification of manufacture, yet on the other hand fresh
designs were constantly called for to meet changing tactical
conditions. Air-fighting produced the need for " tracer " and
incendiary bullets of rifle calibre and the attack of localities from
the air developed the air bomb; with the free employment of
thin armour-plate, armour-piercing bullets, radically different
from the armour-piercing shell of artillery, became necessary;
instantaneous fuzes designed to explode the shell just above
ground came into general use for wire cutting; designs of grenades
and trench-mortar bombs were brought out in profusion; and
" chemical warfare " produced a varied ammunition which in
principle was quite unlike ammunition of the customary kind.
Moreover, the needs of quantity production and in many cases
the shortage of raw materials hitherto supposed to be essential
to the production of projectiles and their cartricfges, themselves
led to novelties of design, and lastly in the attempt to increase
the efficiency of older weapons brought out of the arsenals to
tide over the shortage of artillery strength, the form of pro-
jectiles was revolutionized.
The subject of munitions of war collectively the organization
of the munition effort in the principal countries, with its political,
social and industrial ramifications, is discussed in the article
MUNITIONS. The present article deals with the technical
characteristics of Projectiles for Ordnance (considered from the
point of view of [a] design and purpose, [b] ballistic form and
[c] manufacture); Cartridges (including ignition devices) and
Fuzes for Ordnance; and Ammunition for small arms and mac/tine
guns. (C. F. A.)
DESIGN OF ARTILLERY PROJECTILES
The normal modern shell, whether " monobloc " or made in
parts and assembled, has the general form of a cylindrical steel
body, hollow to receive the filling, with the base flat and the head
pointed. P'ormerly the head was usually shaped with an ogive
struck with radii equal to two calibres, or diameters of the body,
from centres on a line through the shoulders of the shell. The
shape of the fuze was formerly not considered in relation to the
contour of the shell; but when higher velocities were introduced,
more attention was given to consideration of the contour of the
fuze, as an clement of the head "Shape, to obviating of " yaw "
and to determining efficient shapes by means of experiments and
empirical results derived therefrom.
In further connexion with high velocity, long range and
accuracy, the shape of the head was made more pointed, being
struck with radii of several calibres, though the shape did not
remain truly ogival as the centres were not on the line through
the shoulders of the shell. Greater range and accuracy are
aimed at by making the outer contour of the rear part of the shell
tapered or " stream-lined " (in America the term " boat-
tailed " is used), and this again requires the head to be still more
pointed, in order to compensate for loss of range due to lessened
stability, since any stream-line, however small, necessitates the ;
driving band being placed further from the base than would be
the case with a cylindrical body, and the supporting surface of
the shell is diminished.
Besides the true stream-lined shell, that is one with the body
itself formed with a fine point and taper base, there is another
class known as " false-cap " shell which was first brought into
use on a larger scale in the German artillery, and in which a
body of normal form, 'or even not of projectile form at all is
fitted with a long thin steel hood called a " false ogive " or false
cap, or ballistic cap. This makes the shell in effect a 10-15
c.r.h. shell with its centre of gravity well towards the rear. Dur-
ing the World War this device, fitted to shells of older models,
gave important increases of ranging power in all natures of forms
in which it was applied, though the joint was not always strong
enough or accurate enough to ensure the true centring of the
projectile. The false cap is also found associated with the
taper base in some cases.
Apart from ballistic efficiency, the design of a shell is largely
determined by the stresses to which the projectile will be sub-
jected on firing. The base must be of a strength sufficient to
withstand the pressure of the propellant gases, and the walls of
such a strength and thickness as will prevent fracture or dis-
tortion under the firing and rotating stresses.
The general trend of evolution during the war may be illus-
trated by comparing the characteristics of German naval shell
designed before with those designed during the war. The former
had thick walls and fairly small bursting charges, the head being
struck with radii of less than 3 calibres and the total length being
from 2-| to 35 calibres. The latter on the contrary were made
with thinner walls to contain a powerful bursting charge; the
shape of the rear portion made stream-lined. The head was
tapered to a point and usually struck with radii of 10 calibres;
sometimes the head was formed by a false cap which in later
types was welded to an adapter ring screwed into the shell
proper. The total length was 4 to 5 calibres.
Scale of Calibres
Note- la reality the htn<ti of Hit
longer -pointed projut-let art
fat train ogitial at drawn rtcrt
**' 1 * \
U 1
line of centres
-2
i w"
through
* h
^
shoulders
O c*
^J *
^
CO
M
a
Illustrating terms used
b
to define shell form ' T?r
C(as a
A n
o s
Figure I. (which is purely diagrammatical) illustrates the gen-
eral significance and relations of parts as measured in calibres.
The diameter of the body of a shell is slightly less than that of
the " lands " of the rifled portion of the gun-barrel, this provides a
clearance or " windage " that ensures the free passage of the shell
down the gun-barrel. Pressed into a groove near the base of the
shell is a band termed the rotating or driving band; it is larger in
diameter than the rifled portion of the gun-barrel so that, on firing,
as the projectile moves, this band taking the rifling gives the neces-
sary spin to the shell to keep it point foremost in flight. In several
instances in the German and Austrian services, two or even three
driving bands have been put on to a single shell, the better to steady
the shell during its passage through the bore of a gun. 1
As a general rule the position of the band should be as near the
base of the projectile as possible, it being found that the more rear-
ward position of the band gives the most accurate shooting. On the
other hand, a minimum distance of the band from the base is fixed
by the minimum amount of material necessary for its support, for
there is naturally a great strain thrown upon the shell when the
band is forced into the grooves of the rifling and along their spiral,
tending to tear off the base of the shell. Further, with stream-lined
projectiles the band necessarily has to be placed far enough for-
ward to clear the tapered base; and in Q. F. ammunition, where
the projectile is carried fixed in 'the brass case, the band must be
'This is pnly^possible of course if the twist of the rifling remains
uniform; with " increasing" twist only a single driving band can
be used. Fig. 10 shows three different German shells with two driv-
ing bands. (C. F. A.)
I2O
AMMUNITION
sufficiently forward to allow the projectile to be firmly secured in the
case. The band must be rigidly secured to the projectile so that it
will not become detached nor turn independently of the shell.
The material employed for driving bands should be soft enough
for the band to be readily engraved by the rifling, even when using
reduced propellant charges. Such material is of course easily
dented, and as damaged driving bands lead to inaccurate shooting
and increased erosion of the gun, care is necessary to ensure undam-
aged driving bands for service. If, on the contrary, the metal be
too hard, it will throw an excessive strain on both projectile and
rifling. For all these reasons copper ring, cut from a drawn tube
and afterwards annealed, has been found to be the best and most
suitable material. A cupro-nickel band has been employed with
certain high-velocity medium guns using heavy charges. Electro-
lytic iron and bronze alloys have been experimented with; and
during the World War, owing to the scarcity of copper, the Ger-
mans tried other metals, such as zinc and white metal alloys; and
with two driving bands the upper was made of copper and the
lower of zinc. The Germans also tried a novel combination in
which the foundation of the band was a strip of ordinary carbon
steel on which was a copper covering, the two metals being so
adherent as not to be separated.
Copper bands have the drawback of causing so-called "cop-
pering," particularly with high-velocity guns. As the projectile
passes along the bore small particles of the copper band are detached
and sweated on to portions of the bore of the gun; and if this sur-
plus copper is allowed to accumulate, eventually a copper " choke "
results, making that particular portion of the rifling smaller than
the remainder, so that if windage is insufficient to accommodate it,
either the gun must expand and bulge or the walls of the projectile
set in. To get rid of copper choke it was formerly necessary to
put the gun out of action and by chemical or electro-chemical proc-
esses dissipate the adhering copper. But recently it has been discov-
ered that the copper deposit can be eliminated by using a small
quantity of tin-foil between the propellant charge and the pro-
jectile; the alloy melts, being reduced to extremely fine particles
which are deposited in the bore of the gun; and the tin combines
with the copper to form a fusible alloy which is swept away by the
next discharge. What are called " decoppering rings " have been
tried attached to the shell. The Germans employed strips of alloys
such as tin-lead and zinc-aluminium pressed into a groove round the
shell. 1 Decoppering charges or rings would be employed after the
gun has been warmed by firing; and the gun must be absolutely
free from grease or graphite material.
FIG. 2.
Generally the design of driving band as used by European con-
tinental powers, is a narrow strip somewhat rounded on top. In
the British service the band is of a more elaborate shape. The first
torm of band (fig. 2, a) was narrow, flat on top and with a front
slope so as easily to take the rifling, but excessive fringing of the
copper caused the introduction of a broader and shallower band (b)
with cannelures cut in it to receive any stripped copper. As this shal-
low band was found not to grip sufficiently with worn guns, a band
with a gas-check (c) was introduced, in which an undercut lip was
formed on an increased diameter towards the rear part of the band ;
this lip was readily expanded on firing and formed an effective seal
1 Such decoppering rings will be seen in fig. 10 below the lower
driving band in (b) and (c). (C. F. A.)
for the gas. For modern heavy high-velocity guns, driving bands
with a greater body of metal are found necessary so as to give a
better grip to the rifling; in such designs (d) a raised hump of
metal is placed near the rear of the band. Before the war the ten-
dency with medium types of guns was to have a broad band with
but small depth of metal between the highest point of the band and
the line of the shell ; but this was modified during the war period in
order to save copper, and to keep worn guns longer in use, by using
a very narrow band of increased thickness.
In addition to the ordinary driving band, a band round the
shoulders of a shell is sometimes used as a forward centring band
to steady the projectile while passing through the bore of a gun.
This band would not be of such a thickness as to be engraved by the
rifling. The same result is obtained in many designs (see fig. 53) by
swelling out the metal of the shell to a distinct shoulder, some-
times known as a bourrelet. It requires, however, very accurate
machining of the shell body at this point, and, probably for this
reason, the use of a steadying band is more favoured on the con-
tinent of Europe. 2
The weight of a shell is, to a certain extent, limited by its length
and the stresses permissible on gun and carriage. With certain guns
projectiles of different weights are used, and, provided that the
difference in weight is not excessive, such shell when fired under
similar conditions will have, at the muzzle of the gun, approxi-
mately equal energies, though they will range differently.
With different types of shell fired from the same gun, there
must be a difference in length, to ensure that the weight of all the
shell is the same. To ensure accurate shooting the shortest shell
should be not less than two calibres in length; while on the other
hand a very long shell introduces difficulties as it necessitates a
sharper twist of rifling in the gun to give the requisite rotation, and
thus imposes a greater strain on the gun. A very successful German
shell for a light field howitzer was about 4! calibres in length with
centre of gravity about if calibres from the base; had the head
struck with about 4! calibre radius; was stream-lined and weighed
about 35 Ibs. 3
All modern shell are prepared to take a fuze for igniting the explo-
sive in the shell (Sect. III. b.). Pointed shell (such as those intended
for armour-piercing) for which the head must be retained intact,
are fitted with base fuzes; other shell have the heads truncated and
fitted to take nose fuzes. In addition to the fuze a " tracer " is
sometimes employed in order to mark the trajectory while the
shell is in flight. For night use, the tracer shows a luminous spark,
for day use the tracer gives a smoky trail.
The natures of shell now used are: (a) high-explosive,
(b) shrapnel, (c) armour-piercing, (d) special shell of kinds such
as smoke, star (illuminating), gas and incendiary.
(a) A high-explosive shell may be looked upon as a travelling
mine, containing a large disruptive charge of high explosive. To
obtain satisfactory results there must be full and complete
detonation of the high-explosive bursting charge within the shell,
otherwise the general effect will be small.
Steel
el Plftle
Lyddite
ToVder Pellets ,
In Bag I Fuze hole
Exploders
FIG. 3.
The body (fig. 3) is normally of forged steel with a solid base; a
special steel plate is fitted in a recess in the base; and a socket
screwed into the head, or the head itself is threaded to take a
fuze which completes the point of the shell. If the shell body be
of considerable thickness the explosive content is reduced; but
on the other hand the shell body is stronger and there is thick
metal for man-killing splinters. A thin-walled shell with a
maximum explosive content on the other hand is adapted for the
attack of material; with an instantaneous fuze it is useful for
clearing ground of obstacles such as wire entanglements, and,
2 A German shell with a steadying band is illustrated in fig. 10 (a).
(C. F. A.)
'A useful approximate rule for comparing the weights of shells
of different guns (similarity of shape being presumed) is: half
the cube of the calibre in inches is the weight in pounds. By this
rule the weight of the shell just mentioned would be 34-5 Ib. and
that of a similar 5-g-in. shell would be 103 Ib. (C. F. A.)
AMMUNITION
121
with a delay action, for the attack of buildings or dugouts.
(A German example is shown in fig. 4.)
FIG. 4.
In the British service the explosives in general use for high-
explosive shell are T.N.T. (tri-nitro-toluene, or trotyl), a mixture
of ammonium nitrate and T.N.T. known as amatol, and mixed in
different proportions, and picric acid (lyddite). These explosives,
especially amatol, are, under proper filling conditions, inert
and safe substances, as they have to be if they are to sustain the
shock of discharge from the gun. To ensure the necessary com-
plete detonation therefore, an " exploder " : in principle a
small charge of less inert explosive is interposed between the
fuze and the bursting charge proper.
The British method of inserting the bursting charge is by melt-
ing the explosive in a hot-air chamber and pouring it, in liquid form,
through a funnel into the shell. Filling through the base seems to
be in favour in Germany; and the general method of filling is with
one or more blocks of cast, or pressed, explosive enclosed in con-
tainers of varnished cardboard, linen or paper; a more uniform den-
sity of burster can thus be obtained. In some German H.E.
shell the bursting charge is separated into two portions by a dia-
phragm which is pierced with holes for communication between the
two charges. In every case a cavity is made in the centre of the
filling, nearest the fuze, to receive the exploder which, being deto-
nated through the medium of the fuze, in turn detonates the filling
of the shell. Sometimes the relay element interposed between fuze
and main bursting charge is contained in a " gaine " screwed to the
fuse itself; the metal walls of the gaine confine the contents long
enough to secure a good detonation and so a sufficient shock to the
main charge. Between gaine and charge, if there is room, a small
exploder is inserted to make contact intimate and the propagation
of the shock more certain.
With 80/20 amatol, which in complete detonation gives practi-
cally no smoke effect, some smoke-producing mixture is included in
the filled shell to assist observation.
The bursting charges for German H.E. shells are principally
amatol of a mixture 13 to 87; frequently they are of trotyl; and
dinitrobenzene and tri-nitro-anisol have been used. Ammonal 2
and " ekrasit " have been used in Austria. With the German 17-cm.
H.E. shell the explosive is trotyl stemmed in two containers, the
exploder cavity being formed in the upper portion in which a brass
exploder container is placed; with the 24-cm. H.E. shell two explod-
ers are used.
A typical high-explosive shell is shown in fig. 5 ; the steel body is
stout, giving great strength and thick metal for fragmentation; the
amatol filling is in the form of blocks; the centre block is of T.N.T.
which when acted on by the fuze and exploder, facilitates detona-
tion and gives smoke to assist observation of fire.
Thick Steel Body
Amatol
Block
T. N.T. 1 Amatol
Exploder Gaine
FIG. 5.
(b) Shrapnel shell is essentially a man-killing projectile; but
shrapnel was employed during the World War for wire-cutting
1 With lyddite fillings the exploder system takes the form of a
bag of picric powder inserted in the cavity in the filling; the picric
powder is readily ignited by a gunpowder-filled fuze and burns
rapidly to detonation. With the other high-explosive fillings, par-
ticularly amatol which is difficult to detonate, the exploder isT. N.T.
in crystalline form, inserted in small bags or cartons. Pellet exploders
may probably take the place of exploder bags and cartons so as to
give still more intimate contact between fuze and exploder. With
T.N.T. exploders, as gunpowder-filled fuzes are not suitable, a
detonating or high-explosive-filled fuze is employed.
2 Ammonal was employed in the British service for trench-mprtar
bombs and for grenades, but not for artillery shell proper.
(C. F. A.)
and for long-range fire against observation balloons. In order to
get as many bullets as possible to be packed into the shell, the
walls are made as thin as is consistent with the shell body being
able to withstand the firing and rotational stresses which act on
it in the gun and during flight. With shrapnel fire, the normal
practice is to open the shell in the air so as to release the bullets
in a compact mass, their velocity at the moment of release
being slightly accelerated by a small opening charge of gunpow-
der placed in a recess in the base of the shell below the bullets. To
ensure the ready release of the bullets it is necessary to have
either a separate and lightly attached head (in the heavier
shell such as that in fig. 6), or a fuze socket held not too securely
(in the lighter types fig. 5 a), so that on the ignition of the small
gunpowder charge in the shell, the head or the fuze-socket is read-
ily blown clear and does not impede the release of the bullets.
The effect of a shrapnel shell depends on both the weight of
the individual bullet and the number of bullets. To obtain
high-striking energy or rather to ensure a great depth of effect
(this being defined by the point of burst of the shell and the point
at which the released bullet ceases to possess adequate striking
power) the weight of each bullet should be kept as large as
possible by the use of a heavy metal, viz. lead, hardened by an
addition of antimony. The Germans used steel shrapnel bullets
in some cases. On the other hand the larger the bullets the fewer
of them a given shell will contain. The best compromise is ob-
tained by making the bullets spherical and of a heavy metal.
The bullets for British light field shrapnel run 41 to the lb., and
for heavy field shrapnel 35 to the lb.; in special cases much
heavier bullets are used.
Steel Disc
Brown Paper Lining
Resin i Felt.Wid
CXXDC
Steel Head
-Sp
Bursting
Charge
', Bourrelet
Tin'Cup Central Tube _341 '12 oz Twisting Pins Fuze Hole
Rivets & Solder
Steel Balls
FIG.
Tin Cup
Reiin Fuz Hol
The shell consists in a light hollow steel body of which the walls
increase in thickness slightly from the top to the base, near which
the shell cavity contracts to form a ledge for the steel disc or dia-
phragm to rest on, and a chamber for the opening charge. The
opening charge is usually of fine grain gunpowder 3 whose func-
tion is to force off the head or blow out the fuze socket with fuze,
and drive out the bullets, which are thus carried forward with
slightly accelerated speed as compared with the remaining velocity of
theshell. The opening charge is placed in a tinned sheet-iron "cup"
inserted in the recess in the base of the shell; the object of this "cup"
being to prevent dangerous friction between the gunpowder and
the rough interior of the shell. Resting on the shoulder above the
tin cup is a steel disc, or diaphragm, which is screwed to receive a
brass tube which occupies the centre of the shell. This diaphragm
3 A compressed pellet of gunpowder has been tried instead of loose
fine grain gunpowder, with the idea of increasing the driving power
of the charge and therefore the velocity of the bullets, or alternative-
ly of reducing the necessary space for the driving charge, and so
gaining space for more bullets. Compressed powder charges, how-
ever, entail a separate base and lead to complications and undue
expense.
122
AMMUNITION
supports the weight of the bullets and prevents the bullets set-
ting back on the shock of firing and crushing in the tin cup. and
possibly exploding the gunpowder. In some cases the central tube
is filled with gunpowder pellets, which by burning, increase the
cone of dispersion of the bullets and give more smoke, which is
exceedingly important for the observation of bursts in air. The
interior of the shell is fitted with bullets set in resin, which, besides
holding the bullets firmly, is ignited by the opening charge and so
increases the smoke effect. The interiors of some shells are lined
with brown paper in order to prevent the resin from adhering too
firmly to the body of the shell.
The mouth of the shell is closed by a metal socket threaded
for the reception of a fuze; the top end of the central tube is soldered
to this fuze socket. When the gunpowder charge in the shell is
exploded by a flash from the fuze down the central tube, the bul-
lets are projected from the case to travel forward along the line of
flight within a cone of small apex angle. The bodies of shrapnel
are not intended to break up when the opening charge is exploded,
but merely to act as containers to convey the bullets to the point
of burst.
Another type of elongated shrapnel shell was formerly in use in
which the burster was contained in the head. In this the head was
firmly and the base very lightly attached to the body, so that on
the explosion of the opening charge, the head and body remaining
together were drawn over the bullets, and falling to the ground
allowed the bullets to proceed on their course and scatter. In this
pattern more bullets could be packed into a shell, owing to the
elimination of the diaphragm and central tube; but instead of the
closely grouped forward shower of bullets produced by the base
burster, there was an open scattering of bullets, due to the check-
ing, negative, effect of the opening charge on the bullets.
Normally field guns fire both high-explosive and shrapnel
shell. Many attempts have been made to provide a " universal
shell " which would combine the functions of both types. If the
bullets of a shrapnel shell be packed in some high explosive
instead of resin, then, on the time fuze igniting the base opening
charge, the shell would open in the ordinary way, the high
explosive (which as has already been shown is difficult to deto-
nate) merely burning and giving useful smoke. But if a gaine, ig-
nited only by the percussion portion of the fuze, be provided to
act on some high explosive in the head of the fuze, then the whole
of the high explosive, detonating on impact, would probably pro-
duce sufficient disruptive violence to shatter the whole of the
shell and destroy material.
The Germans in the World War employed a type of universal
shell having a high-explosive filling in the head, with the fuze so
arranged that when the shell is required to burst in air, the head of
the shell is blown off bodily, flies forward with the bullets, and
itself bursts when striking the ground. If, on the other hand the
whole shell is burst on impact, the disruptive effect of the high
explosive in which the bullets are packed ' breaks up the shell.
The Austrian universal shell is somewhat similar. These shell
can be used in four ways, as a percussion H.E. without or with
delay action, as a time shrapnel, and as a time H.E. The fuze is
designed accordingly.
With the universal shell, there is a distinct loss of bullet capacity,
with a consequent loss of shrapnel efficiency. It is therefore con-
sidered, in some services, more practical and effective to carry two
types of shell, high-explosive and shrapnel, and use them accord-
ing to tactical requirements, than to attempt the complications in
design and manufacture, mistakes and possibly failures in the field,
entailed by the use of a type of universal projectile. 2
(c) Armour-piercing projectiles for maximum penetration,
should be tempered so as to break rather than set up sensibly,
and the stresses in the way of perforation and of fracture should
be clearly distinguished. The main question is that of the
striking energy modified by the projectile's power of holding
together, which depends directly on the tenacity of the metal;
and the capacity for taking a bursting charge would be of less
importance than the strength of the head and walls. It appears
probable, however, that the ultimate tenacity, as well as the
limit of elasticity, would be the measure of the projectile's power.
In direct impact, on deformation commencing, all penetration
comes quickly to an end; but after commencing an injury, any
1 This packing of the shrapnel bullets in H.E. is not an in-
separable element of the design. In some universal shell, the ordi-
nary resin or other non-explosive material is used. (C. F. A.)
2 According to Schwarte (MUitiirische Lehren des Grossen Krieges)
the German pattern of universal shell proved very disappointing
in war; on the other hand the Austrian and other " Orisanz-Schrap-
nell " shell based on Ehrhardt design were most successful.
(C. F. A.)
following up of the blow at the exact spot acts in so forcible a way
that between the limit of elasticity and that of ultimate tenacity,
a sensible amount of work must exist. Generally with projectiles
for attack of soft armour, hardness is a necessity, and for attack
of hard armour, tenacity is a necessity.
Armour-piercing projectiles may be divided into two classes.
First come armour-piercing shell (fig. 7). in which the bursting charge
is comparatively small, the head and point extremely hard, and
the body softer to give greater tenacity. The success of the old
Palliser projectiles depended upon the metal used, the mode of
casting, and the form of the projectile and distribution of the metal.
With regard to these points specially selected iron was used ; the
projectiles were cast head down (to ensure density and sound-
ness) in an iron chill with the result that the molten metal rapidly
solidified and the qualities given to the head by white iron were
intense hardness and crushing strength, but considerable brittle-
ness; the form of the head was a fairly long elongated point, and
the object in manufacture was to get the metal as far forward
as possible so as to impress its momentum on the armour with-
out acting through the medium of the walls of the shell, though
the latter were necessarily thick; this method of manufacture
obviously diminished the interior capacity and consequently the
bursting charge of the shell.
As processes for hardening armour came to be introduced and
used, the material for armour-piercing shell was necessarily changed
to steel.
FIG. 7.
Owing to the liability to split spontaneously, due to the strains
set up during the hardening process, the shell are stored for several
months before being filled, and the bursting charge is contained in
a thin aluminium container. The base is removable and a base
adapter is fitted, the base being further secured by a copper gas-
check plate, steel plate cover, and steel locking ring screwed to
the adapter.
Base r-uze
Cap
Adapter
""^Primers Explosive
Bras* or Copper
Container
Driving Band
FIG. 8.
Secondly, there are semi-armour-piercing shell (fig. 8), which are
practically common shell pointed, designed to effect a certain
amount of penetration of light armour 1 , and to contain a large burst-
ing charge. The points are specially hardened, in some cases capped
(as in fig. 9) and the bursting charge is held in a metal container.
FIG. 9.
Hard-faced armour defeats a projectile simply by fracture of the
point and such fracture can in a great measure be prevented by a
cap which protects the point when it meets the hard skin of the
armour, whether the cap be hard and shattered or soft and crushed.
The first introduction of a cap was to allow a projectile to bite
armour obliquely; but it is the value of a cap as a support to the
point of the shell that has determined its use. Formerly the shapes
of caps were designed without any consideration of the contour of
AMMUNITION
123
the shell ; but in all recent types the cap is made to conform to
the contour of the head of the shell. The use of the ogival radius
determines the breadth across the front of the cap, while a certain
thickness through the point is required to give satisfactory armour-
piercing qualities, and the combined effect of these two dimensions
prevents any appreciable reduction in the weight of the cap. The
use of a cap introduces a serious disadvantage in that extra weight
is put into the head, wheteas the heavier part of a shell should be
the base. The cap is attached to the head of the shell by notches
in the shell or by interrupted ribs. The sheath of the cap may
require to be built up from two or more pieces; and with heavy
shell the cap may be in four pieces. (F. M. R.)
Fig. 10, showing typical outlines of German shell, taken from the
German Heavy-Artillery Ammunition^ Handbook of 1917, may be of
interest as illustrating the tendencies of design discussed above.
Here (a) shows the old-fashioned 2 c.r.h. shell, with a front steady-
German 15 cm Howitzer H.E.Shell. 1914 Length about 3 calibres 2 c.r.h.
Contoured Nose Fuse, Forward steadying band &2 Driving bands.
German 15 cm Howitzer Shrapnell 1916 Internal T & P Fuze. False Cap. 10 c.r.h.
6 calibres long 2 Driving bands & decoppering ring.
German 17 cm H.E.Shell. 4 7 calibres long .streamlined with False Cap, Nose Fuze,
2 Driving bands & decoppering ring, about 11 c.r.h.
FIG. 10.
ing band of copper; (b) shows a false-cap shell without stream-lined
base; (c) shows a stream-lined shell proper. (C. F. A.)
PROJECTILE FORM
The general form of the elongated projectile in use for many
years prior to the World War is illustrated in fig. i. The body
FIG. i.
(1) is cylindrical in form and of uniform diameter except that the
" bourrelet " or shoulder swell (3), intended to form a bearing on
the lands of the gun, is slightly larger in diameter. 1 Special
care is taken in accurately machining this bourrelet, and the aver-
age amount by which the diameter of the bourrelet is less than
that of the gun is i/iooo of the calibre.
It was the usual practice for many years to make the head
(2) of ogival shape, with the centre of the circular arc in or near
the plane of the front end of the body and with a radius of arc
varying from i : /2 to 2 l / 2 calibres. When a point fuze was used,
as illustrated in fig. i, its projecting end was sometimes,
but not by any means always, made to conform to the shape of
the head.
The rotating band (4) was placed at a distance of from Vis to
i calibre from the base, and its width was from '/ to V calibre.
In addition to engaging the rifling in the gun and so causing the
rotation of the projectile, other functions of the rotating band are
to provide a rear bearing for the projectile, to provide a definite
1 In many shells this bourrelet does not appear, the walls remain-
ing uniform from the driving band to the beginning of the head.
In these cases a slight outward splay is given to the upper part.
(C. F. A.)
seating for the projectile in loading, and to prevent the undue
escape of powder gas around the projectile when the gun is fired.
In fig. i, which illustrates a field projectile, the shell cavity is
either cylindrical or larger in diameter toward the front end of
the body, and the fuze is at the point.
In naval or coast-defence projectiles, where penetration of
armour is desired, the general form is as illustrated in fig. 2.
FIG. 2.
The great shock to which the projectile is subjected on impact
with armour requires thickening of the walls at the forward end
and shortening of the cavity. For the same reason the fuze can
no longer be placed in the point but must be placed in the base.
It is found that armour-piercing properties are improved by
adding a soft metal cap (7) to the hard head (2). In order to get a
smooth form of head, a hollow " false ogive " (8) was added to
the forward end of the cap.
Experiments to Improve Form. Previously to 1900, bullets for
small arms had rounded points and " square " bases. Experiments
started about that time in Russia indicated that a marked improve-
ment could be obtained in flatness of trajectory and this improve-
ment opened the way for experiments in all countries to deter-
mine forms of artillery projectiles that would give increased ranges
(or, for similar ranges, natter angles of descent and higher terminal
velocities). At that period (about 1907) the mounting of high-
power ordnance, both field and naval, did not usually permit of
elevations in excess of 20 degrees. There was a possibility of in-
creasing ranges by modifying existing mounts or building new
ones, but such a proceeding would have been expensive, and, as
will be shown, might not in many cases have increased the range
as much as the use of an improved projectile with the old elevation.
Early Improvements in Head. Even before the adoption of sharp-
pointed bullets in small arms, Pctrovitch, a Russian, had about
1902 brought out a mathematical discussion of the form of surface
which would encounter the least resistance in passing through an
elastic medium. This paper helped to encourage experiments to im-
prove the form of head. Firings were made in the United States
in 1907 from a 6-in. gun with a io6-lb. projectile having a tangent
ogive of 7 calibres radius, using a muzzle velocity of approximately
3,050 ft. per second. The outline of this projectile is shown in fig. 3.
FIG.
The range obtained was 12,800 yd. at an angle of elevation of 7,
as against 7,800 yd. obtained with the same weight of projectile
with a 2-calibre radius and fitted with an armour-piercing cap as
shown in fig. 2, without the false ogive. The muzzle velocity with
the latter projectile was 2,990 ft. per second. This increase in
range of 60 % led to other experiments. As it was desired , however,
to retain the armour-penetrating efficiency of these projectiles,
attention was principally given to the design of a form of head and
cap which would make the projectile efficient both for armour pene-
tration and for range.
Firings were made with the same projectile having the point
rounded off, as shown in the following table, which gives the cor-
responding range and coefficient of form :
Radius of Point
In.
Range
Yd.
Coefficient
of Form
o-75
1-25
1-75
12,920
1 1,940
10,730
505
600
762
It was supposed by some, at that time, that the air resistance was
principally dependent upon the form of junction of head and body;
that little additional resistance would arise if the sharp point was
rounded off: and that the rounded form of point would add to the
efficiency of the projectile in armour-piercing. The firings indicated
a marked effect on range of even a slight rounding of the point.
Armour-piercing projectiles of the form shown in fig. 3 did not seem
124
AMMUNITION
to stand up under the impact as well as those of the older form. But
by the addition to the older (2 c.r.h.) projectile of a special cap and
false ogive, it was found that not only could the excellent ballistic
properties of the 7-calibre radius ogive be retained but, on account
of the support given by the special cap, the armour-piercing ability
of the projectile was increased. Similar experiments with 12-in.
projectiles gave the following increases in ranges of the projec-
tiles with 7-calibre ogives over those with 2-calibre ogives and
blunt caps. The muzzle velocity was about 2,250 ft. per second.
Projectile
Ranges
1st series
2nd series
3rd series
Long Point
Blunt Cap
Yd.
5,365
5,020
Yd.
8,900
8,000
Yd.
13,800
11,900
Difference.
345
900
1,900
Percentage increase.
6-8
1 1 -3
16-0
It is to be noticed that the advantage of the long sharp-pointed head
increases with the range.
Similar tests made in France, England and Germany, with heads
as long as 9-calibre radius ogive, left no doubt that a very sub-
stantial increase in range could be obtained by increasing the sharp-
ness of the point through use of a longer head. As has been pointed
out, the importance of this fact was not fully appreciated until
the necessity arrived of obtaining extreme ranges from all guns.
When full advantage had been taken of increasing muzzle velocities
to the limit of the ability of the guns to withstand the necessary
pressures, and means, sometimes improvised, had been used to
permit the guns to be fired at the elevation corresponding to the
maximum range, there remained only improvement in the projectile
to further increase the range.
False Ogives, The hollow extension of the head covering the fuze
of field projectiles or the armour-piercing cap of armour-piercing
projectiles is called a false ogive. 1 Its use was first suggested in
America in 1907 by Capt. W. A. Phillips as an extension for the
blunt cap of armour-piercing projectiles. Apart from its effect in
lengthening and sharpening the head, and thus increasing the
range, no ballistic advantage was claimed for it. ^ts use with an
A.P. projectile is shown in fig. 2. As applied to] field shell the
false ogive covers the end of the fuze. It is desirable to make the
cavity of the shell as large as possible, and so the walls of the shell
proper are run forward as far as they can be, and still permit a tap
for the fuze of proper size at the front. The head is then completed
by screwing the false ogive over the fuze (see fig. 4).
FIG. 4.
The use of a light false ogive throws the centre of gravity backward
with respect to the centre of form. This is foundto be of advan-
tage in point of ranging power, providing the somewhat greater
tendency to initial yaw is sufficiently counterbalanced by increased
spin.
Improvements in Form of Base. Experiments to determine the
best form of base commenced soon after these remarkable improve-
ments in range by changes in the head were obtained. In experi-
ments made in 1913 with a 6-pr. gun use was made of ogival and
tapered bases coming to a point, the total length of base from the
start of the taper being I calibre or less.
The resulting ranges were generally less than those of the square-
based projectile of otherwise similar form and weight, and they
were less accurate. Bases of i-cafibre length tapered to a cone of
9 were then tried, but seemed to give no better results than the
square base. In both these experiments the projectiles had ogival
heads of 2-calibre radius. Experiments made in 1915 with 6-in.
projectiles of the three forms of base shown in fig. 5, fired with a
muzzle velocity of 2,675 ft. per second, at an angle of elevation of 5,
gave the following results:
Form of Base
Mean Range
Mean Dispersion
Range
Deflection
A
B
C
Yd.
8,200
8,440
8,410
Yd.
88
41
52
Yd.
9
7
6
A small increase in range and greater accuracy is shown by the
boat-tailed projectiles.
French experiments made in 1914 demonstrated that the form
of base to give the best result with any projectile is dependent upon
the form of head used, and vice versa. A similar conclusion had
been reached elsewhere.
1 Known also as the ballistic cap or " false cap."
FIG. 5.
Influence of Velocity. By comparing maximum ranges obtained
with various projectiles and velocities with ranges in vacua, we
may obtain a good idea of possible improvements in projectiles.
Fig. 6 shows vacuum range as a function of velocity plotted to a
logarithmic scale, together with other lines showing fractional parts
of the vacuum range and points showing the maximum ranges of
actual guns. The ranges of low-velocity guns fall near the vacuum
line, while those of high-velocity guns are much farther away. 2
KO
200 800 4 60780 toOO 2OOO 80OO
MUZZLE VELOCITY- FEET PER SECOND
FIG. 6.
6878 lOOOo"
The possible improvement in projectiles to be fired from low-ve-
locity guns is, therefore, very much less than in those fired from high-
velocity guns. Actual trials show that within reasonable limits
neither the form of the head nor that of the base has an important
influence on maximum range or accuracy when the velocity is less
than 1,200 ft. per second.
Improvements in Rotating Bands. Although the rotating band has
performed all its useful functions by the time the projectile has left
the gun, it still has to be reckoned with, since it is capable, if improp-
erly designed or located, of materially reducing the range and in-
creasing the dispersion. If it has a " lip " (called in Great Britain
" gas check ") or is thick at the rear, the excess metal will be wiped
back on the passage of the projectile through the bore and will form
a ragged extension; and when the projectile is free the centrifugal
force due to its rotation may be enough to cause this extension to
2 Explanation of fig. 6. Abscissae show velocities in f/s, ordi-
nates ranges in yd., oblique lines the % of theoretical vacuum range
obtained in practice. Thus the lo-in. gun, which obtains a range
of 26,500 yd. with a m.v. of 2,600 f/s in actual practice, would
obtain with the same velocity one of 63,000 in vacua. 26,500 is
42% of 63,000 and the projectile is therefore spotted between
the 40 % and the 50 % lines.
AMMUNITION
125
stand out perpendicularly to the projectile and thus immensely
increase the air resistance. Conditions are not improved by the
partial breaking-off of this extension or by its incomplete forma-
tion in the gun. It is just this irregular form and size of this exten-
sion or " fringing " of the rotating band which makes it a possible
source of great inaccuracy. Whether fringing actually takes place
depends not only on the design of the band but also on the velocity
of rotation of the projectile and the thinness and length of the
extension formed at the rear of the band. By taking all these points
into consideration it is possible to make a design which will give no
trouble from fringing. But, apart from the effect of fringing, the
rotating band may materially increase the resistance if improperly
located. While it is desirable from other considerations to have the
rotating band as near to the base of the projectile as possible, it is
found that a better position for range and accuracy, even if a square-
based projectile is used, is ] /2 calibre or more from the base. Simi-
larly, if a boat-tailed base is used, the range and accuracy are both
reduced if the band is placed just at the beginning of the taper.
It should be at least 1/8 calibre forward of this position.
Double and even triple rotating bands close together at the rear
are sometimes used, the idea being that this construction will
make the band more efficient as a gas check and that fringing is
less marked than for a single rotating of the necessary width.
Bands near the bourrelet have also been used. A more recent
development is the use of a copper bearing band at the bourrelet.
Optimum Weight of Projectile. The question of the weight of
projectile to be used with a gun of a given calibre frequently
arises. Other considerations besides that of ballistics affect the
answer. There is a practicable limit to the pitch of rifling, which has
been fixed at about one turn in 15 calibres for low-powered guns,
and one turn in 20 calibres for higher-powered guns. With some
such limit in pitch of rifling, projectiles cannot be made more than
about 5 calibres in total length and retain the necessary factor
of stability in flight. There is thus formed a certain upper limit of
length and weight. If the projectile is shortened below this
limit and the weight reduced, we may assume that, with the use of
a suitably quicker powder, the same muzzle energy and conse-
quently a higher muzzle velocity may be obtained; but while the
higher muzzle velocity would tend to increase the range, the smaller
weight and ballistic coefficient would tend to reduce it. It is evi-
dent that for each gun there is some weight of the projectile, called
the " optimum " weight, which will give the greatest range, assum-
ing the muzzle-energy constant.
*B
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
MUZZ
LE EN
ERGY-
6
FT -TO
'\
NS
.633
\
422 ,
\
\
3
i
/
LU
_l
|
/
/
g
IT
Q.
/
/
/
b.
O
H
/
i
/
t
/
WEIGh
/
/
>
/
/
^
7
/
/
/
-
^
<
RA
NGE-K
ILQME
TRES
1 12 13
14 15 1!
FIG. 7.
The weights of similar projectiles vary with the cube of the
calibre. Similar projectiles for different calibres, being the same
length in calibres, are of equal stability providing the pitch
of rifling is the same. The weights of the optimum projectiles vary
about with the square of the calibre, if based on uniform muzzle
velocities in different calibres. For high-powered guns of calibres
roughly below 5 in. the optimum weight is greater than the usually
accepted weight based on similarity, and for larger calibres it is
less. The optimum weight of projectile for any gun and muzzle
velocity may be readily worked out by the methods of exterior
ballistics, by assuming several different weights of projectiles and
working out the maximum ranges on the basis of equal muzzle
energies. Fig. 7 illustrates the maximum ranges to be expected
from a 75-mm. gun under the assumption of equal muzzle ener-
gies. It is to be noted that the optimum weight increases with the
muzzle energy and that the range changes only slowly as we
pass from the optimum weight. In the case of large-calibre naval
or coast-defence guns a reduction in weight of projectile tends
toward optimum, that is, toward increase in range; but the reduced
weight and increased velocity of the projectile lead to greater losses
of energy in flight, resulting in a smaller striking energy at a given
range. (W. H. T.)
MANUFACTURE OF SHELL
The material of which a projectile may be made depends
largely on the functions required of it.
Cast iron is brittle, more or less hard, with low elasticity,
practically no ductility, and low tenacity; consequently this
material is of no value for a shell which is required to do heavy
work at the end of its flight or to promote a good explosive effect,
and is somewhat risky when required to stand the shock of
discharge from a high-velocity gun. Cast iron, however, is
fusible and easily worked, and therefore cheap; it is consequently
sometimes used for practice shot with reduced propellant charges.
In the World War it was used for certain chemical shell where the
chemical content was liable to attack steel, and especially by
the Germans as a substitute for steel when the latter could not
be had in sufficient quantities; but its use for projectiles is almost
entirely confined to such. Wrought iron has a fair tenacity and
a good ductility, but it is quite superseded by steel which can
be manufactured as easily and cheaply.
Steel possesses the characteristics of elasticity, ductility and
tenacity, and is sufficiently hard to enable it to withstand the
stresses and shocks a modern projectile is required to sustain.
Forged steel 1 is fibrous in molecular structure, and is improved
by forging, which increases the tensile strength and minimizes
the chance of porous metal remaining; the more work put into the
forging, the better the quality of the finished material as measured
by its tensile strength in the direction of the forging. Cast steel
is crystalline in molecular structure and much harder than forged
steel and has less ductility and tenacity; it must always be
annealed after it has been allowed to cool after casting, in order
to dissipate the uneven molecular stresses set up during cooling.
In the case of steel for projectiles the composition includes from
'3S% to 0-7% of carbon and small percentages of nickel,
manganese, and silicon. With cast steel, the walls of a shell
cannot be so thin as with forged steel because the material is not
so good and there always is a risk of blow-holes and porous
metal being present.
The chemical composition of the steel for shells is generally as
follows :
Carbon .
Silicon .
Manganese .
Sulphur*
Phosphorus*
Composition : Per cent
H.E. Shell
Shrapnel
Armour-
piercing
Shell (t)
0-5
o-35
0-4 to i-o
0-08
0-08
o-75
0-3
I-O
0-04
0-06
0-5 to 0.75
o-5
1-25
0-08
0-08
Tensile strength .
Yield point .
35-49 tons
/in 2
19 tons
(Light shr.) 56 tons
/in. 2
(Heavy do.) 38 tons
/in. 2
(Light shr.) 36 tons
(Heavy do.) 24 tons
38 tons/in. 2
24 tons
* The sulphur and phosphorus are deleterious and should be as
low as possible.
t Steel for A.P. shell should have a higher percentage of carbon
in order to give harder material.
1 The term " forged steel " is still used but the process of forging
under a hammer has been discontinued for some time, the hydraulic
press being used instead. The hydraulic press is said to work the
mass more uniformly than does the hammer, while hollow-forging
on a mandril has the same advantage over solid-forging. Forging
should cease at a temperature of about i,2OOF., for if continued
below this temperature, the metal tends to become " hammer
hard " and internal strains are introduced.
126
AMMUNITION
H.E. shell are always made of forged steel; they have coned
walls, thicker at the base to give better strength to the shell.
The body requires to be as strong as possible so as not to break
up too readily and thus lose the value of the pressure set up on
detonation; also, unless the best steel is used the body is pulver-
ized instead of breaking up into pieces of a size to form effective
missiles. Pointed shell, whose general use is for the attack of
armour plate, require to be especially tough and strong.
Common shell have been made of cast iron, cast steel, and
forged steel; a disadvantage with forged steel is that, with a
bursting charge of gunpowder, the shell breaks up into a small
number of fragments; the stronger the material, the thinner can
the walls be made, and hence the larger the bursting charge.
Shrapnel shell are generally made of forged steel, though in
some larger natures they have been made of cast iron. The steel
is required to have a high yield point and breaking stress, as this
is essential in order that the body, which is made as thin as pos-
sible to provide a maximum capacity for the bullets and opening
charge, may be able to withstand the pressures set up on the
shock of discharge from the gun.
A.P. shell are made of either cast steel or forged steel; the
points are made extremely hard, and the bodies softer; great
thickness of metal is worked into the head, and the walls are
made thicker than in other shell.
The steel for projectiles is made by different methods: (i.) Cru-
cible, which is largely used on the continent of Europe, par-
ticularly in Germany. With this method there is difficulty in
obtaining uniform quality. (2.) Bessemer, which does not lend
itself to the careful control necessary for production of the steel
suitable, though the method is rapid and cheap. (3 .) Open hearth.
The acid process is preferred to the basic as more suited for pro-
duction of steel of uniform quality, and more economical. As it
does not remove the phosphorus, a purer pig-iron must be used.
The manufacture of H.E. shell (other than solid-pointed) is car-
ried out in a hydraulic press. The cast-steel ingot is heated up and
punched, care being taken to ensure a central cavity in the forging;
for larger shell several punches or drawings, with intermediate
heatings, may be necessary to produce the required dimensions.
The forging is then oil-hardened by heating up to a specified tem-
perature and quenching in oil. Analytical and mechanical tests are
next applied to samples and, if satisfactory, the forgings are sent to
the machine shop for machining and centring. The shell are then
heated to a dull red heat for the purpose of " heading " or " bot-
tling " to give the required ogive to the head; this is carried out by
forcing the head of the shell into a die by hydraulic pressure, and
can be done cold, but cracks are liable to occur at the shoulders on
account of the internal stresses. For " bottling " larger shell, it
is sometimes necessary to taper the walls of the shell previous to
carrying out thrs operation. The head is then bored and screw-
threaded to receive the fuze-hole bush, and the exact ogive given in
a " radiusing " machine, which is similar to an ordinary lathe,
except that the tool-carrier is designed so as to allow the tool to
act on the head of the shell at a variable distance. The base is then
faced and turned down to the required thickness. x There are also
other machining operations necessary, such as recessing the base to
permit of the detection of any tendency to weakness at the centre,
after which examination a steel disc is inserted in the centre of the
base and either screwed in or secured by burring some of the metal
of the shell over it by means of a pneumatic hammer. The interior
of the shell is sand-blasted, coated with copal varnish, and stoved
for six hours. This process gives a very smooth internal surface and
it prevents premature explosion from friction, in case of any move-
ment of the explosive arising from bad filling; it also prevents chem-
ical action of the filling on the metal of the shell.
The groove for the driving band is machined, the sides of the
groove being slightly undercut to assist in holding the band in place;
the bottom of the groove has three or four waved ribs cut along it
to prevent the band from rotating in the groove, and two or three
chisel-cuts are made across the ribs to permit of the escape of any
air while the band is being pressed into position.
The driving bands themselves are made from discs of copper as
free from impurities as possible, the best kind being that which
has been electrolytically deposited. The discs are formed into cups
and are then annealed and drawn alternately until drawn into a
long tube, five draws being the usual number. The copper tube is
then parted into rings, which are given a final annealing. For band-
ing, the shell are placed in a machine which consists in a circular
1 As the base is the heaviest part of the shell, it is in this opera-
tion that the various shell are brought (as nearly as possible) to
uniform weight.
holder, of which the periphery is divided into segments to which
hydraulic presses are attached; a copper band is placed over the
shell opposite the groove, and pressure is applied till the band is
firmly wedged into the groove. The driving band is then turned
to the required shape and dimensions.
Shrapnel shell are manufactured in two designs, those for larger
guns having a separate head while for smaller types the head and body
are in one. Except that the operation of " bottling " or " heading "
can be dispensed with for the larger sizes, the method of making
the body is very similar to that for H.E. shell, but from the nature '
of the design of shrapnel, the body requires some internal machin-
ing in addition.
The heads of the larger shrapnel are made of soft steel or malle-
able iron, prepared to take the fuze-hole bush (the remaining space
being filled by a block of wood), and secured to the body by pins
and rivets and soldering firmly enough to ensure that the whole
shell rotates in flight as a single body.
The cups for the opening charge are made from tin-plate, and the
steel diaphragms from discs sheared from a billet of steel, stamped
into shape, 2 and then brought to the required dimensions by grind-
ing; a hole is bored in the centre and screw-threaded to receive the
central tube, which is made from a butt-ended tube, and is turned
and screw-threaded at its lower end to fit the central orifice of the
diaphragm. The socket to receive the fuze is a brass stamping,
screw-threaded internally to take the fuze and externally to screw
into the body of the shell.
Pointed shell may be of three types, which are in Great Britain
designated common pointed, common pointed capped, and armour-
piercing. The operations in manufacture are very similar in each
case. For A.P. shell, more work is put into the steel in order to make
it as strong as possible and for this reason these shell are usually
forged. The common-pointed and common-pointed-capped shell
are punched and drawn in the usual manner. The shell then undergo
a heat treatment in order to remove any strains which may have
been set up, the temperature of the furnace being raised to about
i,looF. After treatment the usual machining operations are car-
ried out, and the shell are then heated up again and hardened by
being quenched in an oil bath. Since it is required to retain only
the head in a hardened condition, 3 the remaining part of the body
is then " let down " by being immersed in a heated bath of lead to a
short distance below the shoulder; this process removes the hard-
ening effect and leaves the body tough instead of brittle.
The hardening of the head is liable to cause the occurrence of
spontaneous splits; and shell are therefore stored in the open for a
period so as to allow time for any splits to develop before filling.
Should a split extend to the cavity of the shell when filled, the
sudden fracture might cause the explosion of the bursting charge;
consequently the shell are fitted with aluminium containers which,
as thin cones, are inserted into the shell and spun into position.
The interior of the body is then bored to its final dimensions and
the lower end of the cavity screw-threaded to receive the adapter
which carries the base fuze. The shell are then banded and the
interiors varnished.
Adapters (which vary in size from a mere fuze-hole lining to what
is almost a base in itself) are cut from the billet and screw-threaded
externally to fit the shell and internally to take the fuze. In some
cases a further organization of the adapter base is required to pre-
vent a possible inrush of propellant gas round an ill-fitting fuze into
the interior of the shell; this consists of a copper gas-check plate
over the fuze, held inside a steel cover which is bound to the adapter
base by a locking ring. In such designs the adapter base flange is
prepared accordingly during manufacture (fig. l).
FIG. i.
When caps are fitted, the usual method is to make peripheral
notches in the head of the shell before hardening ; the cap is soldered
to the shell and retained in position by indenting the lower edge into
these notches. Other methods of securing the cap are also in use.
Shell Manufacture in War Emergencies. In the adaptation of the
engineering industry to the manufacture of shell, the capability and
capacity of the plant installed in any one workshop is the ruling
factor governing the work to be allotted to that shop. The design
of the shell must of course be simplified as much as possible to suit
the existing machines. The very rapid output requisite and result-
ing from any such adaptation necessitates that the various stages
2 These diaphragms can also be made from drop-forgings.
3 In the case of common pointed, the head is not hardened.
AMMUNITION
127
in the process of manufacture must be semi-automatic at least and,
consequently, the organization of the shop and the machines having
been adjusted with that object, the labour employed must be
arranged for purely repetition work, for which it can be trained
easily and quickly.
Having regard to this, and to the capacity of an ordinary engi-
neering shop, it is essential to allocate only a certain number of stages
in any one process to any one workshop, suitably arranging the
stages to the power of that shop.
The machines mostly to be found in an engineering shop can gen-
erally be adapted for any of the operations required in the machin-
ing of shell. The ordinary engine lathe can be easily converted for
the boring and machining of larger shell, and drilling machines and
turret lathes for the same operations with smaller shell. The main
point to be considered is the provision of suitable jigs and gauges to
enable every operation to be performed by semi-skilled labour in
rapid repetition. For hydraulic-press forging of bodies of shell and
for the pressing on of driving bands, however, the machines neces-
sary are not usually to be found in the ordinary engineering shop;
and as it is not easy to find substitutes on account of the high pres-
sure requisite in working, and the manner in which it is necessary
to apply that pressure, arrangements for these operations have to
be made specially. But with a certain few specially arranged shops
of such nature, a supply of part-wrought material could be easily
put out sufficient to keep fully employed a relatively large number
of ordinary engineering shops adapted for the machining operations.
(F. M. R.)
CARTRIDGES AND PRIMERS FOR ORDNANCE
Cartridges for ordnance may be divided into two main classes
technically called " breech-loading " and " quick-firing "
and each class subdivided into gun and howitzer cartridges. All
guns are nowadays breech-loaders, and the main classes men-
tioned above are termed B.L. or Q.F. in reference to the system
of " obturation " (breech-sealing) employed with the gun. With
the B.L. obturation is effected by the breech mechanism, while
with the Q.F. it is effected by the cartridge case.
The envelope of cartridges for B.L. guns must be of a material
which will stand wear and tear when filled, not deteriorate from
chemical action of the explosive while in store, not have injurious
effects on the explosive, and be entirely consumed in the gun
when the charge is fired, leaving no debris smouldering in the gun
after the charge has been fired. Silk cloth made from the refuse
silk from the outside of cocoons has been found to be the best
material for the purpose.
The propellant explosive, according to the nature of the gun,
is either cordite, N.C.T. (nitrocellulose tubular), or ballistite.
AU smokeless powders are somewhat difficult to ignite in a
gun. Therefore, to make ignition certain and to prevent hang
fires an igniter of fine grain gunpowder is used with every
cartridge. This powder is enclosed in a bag of shalloon, which is
attached to the cartridge in such a position as to intercept the
flash from the tube.
Prior to the use of any batch of propellant for cartridges, it is
necessary to prove the propellant, as received from manufacture,
in order to ascertain whether it conforms to specification require-
ments. In a chemical test a small amount is subjected to certain
analytical tests. In a ballistic test a certain number of charges,
made up according to the intended design of cartridge, is fired in
a comparative trial against a like number of similar charges ol a
batch of propellant known as a " current standard." Current stand-
ards are compared in a similar manner with a " master standard,"
the ballistics of which have been ascertained under certain specific
conditions. By this comparison, both in the velocities given to the
projectile and in the pressures given in the gun, the variation from
the standard is found for the batch, and any adjustment in the
weight of the charge necessary for the intended cartridge can be
determined.
B.L. cordite cartridges are built up of bundles of cordite in the
form of sticks cut to the required lengths, and the bundles are tightly
tied with silk and inserted into silk cloth bags, of which the ends are
closed by discs of similar cloth. An igniter is stitched on to one or
both ends of the cartridge. The exterior is laced with silk cloth tape
so as to form a stiff cartridge. The charges for heavy guns are
made up in separate portions containing half and quarter charges
for convenience of handling and to allow of a reduced charge being
used. For some of the longer guns the exterior of the cartridge is
made cone-shaped, the coned form being produced by building up
layers round a cylindrical core. In large cartridges a silk cloth becket
runs up the centre and has a loop at the top for handling.
N.C.T. and ballistite have been used only for cartridges for
smaller natures of guns. The method of making-up need not be
described here; but it may be pointed out that, not being like cord-
ite, in the form of sticks, they do not make up into such compact
cartridges, and that ballistite does not need an igniter.
For howitzers, variable charges are required, and cartridges must
be built so that charges can be readily altered. Moreover, since a
howitzer is shorter than a gun of the same calibre a lighter charge
of cordite of smaller size is required, to ensure the charge being
usefully consumed before the projectile leaves the barrel. The car-
tridge is formed of a mushroom-shaped core made up in a bag to which
the igniter is attached. On the stalk, so as to be easily remov-
able, are placed the remaining portions of the cartridge made up in
the form of rings, attached to the stalk by silk braids or light sew-
ing. The weight of cordite in the rings is so graduated that by de-
taching one or more, the varying charges required can be obtained.
With Q.F. cartridges the charges are contained in brass cases. This
class of ammunition is of two types: (i.) " fixed ammunition" in
which the projectile is fitted into the mouth of the brass case, thus
closing it; (ii.) "separate ammunition" in which the projectile
is separate from the cartridge. The brass case itself effects obtura-
tion in the gun, for, when the cartridge is fired, the case expands
slightly and tightly fits the chamber of the gun, thus preventing
any escape of gas through the breech.
The use of the brass case influences rapidity of fire in that it obvi-
ates the necessity for sponging out the gun after each round to
remove smouldering debris; it allows of the cartridge carrying its
own means of ignition, so avoiding the separate operation required
with B.L. cartridges. The brass case also offers the advantage of
greater safety against the risks of catching fire, and double loading
of a gun is an impossibility.
This class of cartridge is especially useful for smaller natures of
guns; but with larger natures of guns the rate of fire is nowadays
not appreciably affected.
On the other hand the expense of the brass case is a serious con-
sideration; and should a case, by reason of a flaw or split, fail to
effect obturation, serious damage may be .caused to the gun. Fur-
ther, in emergencies, failure in the supply of brass might seriously
hamper output. 1 The brass case causes a large increase in weight
to the cartridge, and so entails increase in means of transport.
And as, to save material and expense, fired cases are collected,
repaired and used several times over, considerable labour is involved
in the salvage and transport.
The use of Q.F. ammunition has been restricted in the British
service principally to smaller natures of guns; but the Germans
have employed metallic cartridge cases for the largest natures of
guns, probably on account of the difficulty in ensuring trustworthy
obturation by any other means practicable with sliding-wed^e breech
mechanisms, and also in the naval service owing to their giving
greater safety from premature ignition.
The manufacture of the brass case is a lengthy process and
requires care to ensure satisfactory results. The case is made from a
disc of suitable thickness, which, being pressed through dies by
hydraulic power, is shaped first into a cup and then gradually into a
solid-ended cylinder. In order to relieve the stresses set, up the case
is annealed between each draw. The head of the case is machined
round the solid end to form a rim, by means of which extraction by
the breech mechanism of the gun is effected. And, after having
been passed through a die to give the taper required to allow of easy
loading, the case is subjected to the final operation of machining
to specified dimensions and to prepare the central hole in the head
for reception of the means of ignition.
Charges for Q.F. cartridges are made up similarly to those for
B.L. cartridges. Where necessary distance pieces of papier mache
tube and felt wads are used to fill up the space in the case, and so
prevent any movement of the charge. The lower end of the charge
is splayed out to fit round the hole for the means of- ignition, and in
cases where this is a cap a small igniter of powder enclosed in a
shalloon bag is placed next the flash hole of the cap in order to
increase its effect.
With fixed ammunition the mouth of the brass case is closed by
the projectile, which is covered on the outside, below the driving
band, with a cement to give a water-tight joint, and retained in
position either by the lip of the case being pressed over a slightly
coned portion prepared on the projectile, or by indentations in the
lip of the case being pressed into a groove on the periphery of the
projectile. With separate ammunition a cardboard disc and felt
pad are inserted above the charge, and then a lid of white metal
retained in position by small tongues turned down from the lip of
the case.
For cartridges for Q.F. howitzers the charge is made up simi-
larly, but as the charges must be easily adjustable separate ammuni-
tion must always be used, and the cartridge arranged so that the lid
of the case may be easily removable. The mouth of the case is closed
by a removable cup-shaped cardboard disc, and sometimes, as a
greater protection against moisture, by an india-rubber cap which
fits tightly round the mouth of the case (see fig. l).
In order to reduce the flash on discharge of a gun anti-flash
charges have been under experiment. A small charge of ammonium
1 Towards the end of the World War steel cartridge cases were
employed by the Germans as a substitute for brass, but only for
rifles and to some extent for light machine-guns. (C. F. A.)
128
AMMUNITION
4 oz. 13 dr. Size 2>/ 4
Leather Board Cup
...401. 5 dr. Size 4'/,
Primer
FIG. I. 4-5 in. Q. F. Howitzer Cartridge.
oxalate and mealed powder enclosed in a shalloon bag and placed
between the projectile and the cartridge was tried during the
war. The addition of mineral salts such as sodium or potassium
chloride has also been tried; but so far the results have not been very
satisfactory.
Means of Ignition. Amongst the various methods that have been
evolved for the firing of the gun only the friction tube, the percus-
sion cap, and the electric bridge are now in general use, and of these
the friction tube is practically confined to old models of guns con-
tinued in the service of various countries owing to the need of all
available material in the early and middle stages of the World War.
With the percussion tube 1 ignition of the powder in the body of
the tube is obtained from a blow on the head of the " striker,"
which drives a percussion cap against a hollow brass anvil. The cap
consists of a copper shell, cup shaped, coated on the interior with
fine varnish; this shell is Tilled with a chlorate mixture, a thin tin-
foil disc is pressed in, and a coating of varnish applied in order to
prevent excess of moisture. Internal sealing is obtained by the
shell of the cap being expanded into its seating by the force of the
explosion. 2
There are two types of electric tube, one with external wires for
joining up with the electric circuit and the other without external
wires. In the former two insulated wires are led into the interior,
and in each circuit with these there is a wire " bridge " of platinum
silver surrounded by a priming composition of gun-cotton dust and
mealed powder. On an electric current passing, the bridge is heated
to incandescence and ignites the priming composition. In the
second type (see fig. 2) the breech mechanism of the gun makes
electric contact with an insulated disc in the head of the tube;
this disc is connected by an insulated wire to an insulated brass
cone, the bridge being formed from the edge of the cone to a brass
wire soldered to the mouth of the tube; priming composition sur-
rounds the bridge. The electric current passes from the breech
mechanism to the disc in the head of the tube, thence through the
bridge to the body of the tube and through the metal of the gun.
Internal sealing is obtained by the cones being driven backwards
into conical seatings.
BRASS FULL SIZE
Paper disci and
Cork plug
Loose powder ....
Copper pole
Glazed board disc.and
Paper disc attached
Iridio-Platinum wire
Composition priming
Ebonite
Silk covered wire
Ebonite
Contact piece itiru
FIG. 2. Tube, Vent Sealing, Electric W. P.
1 In Great Britain the term " tube " is officially used to designate
the smaller firing devices of this class which are pushed into posi-
tion, and " primer " for the larger ones which are solidly screwed
into the base of Q.F. cartridge cases. In the United States the term
" primer " is common to both. (C. F. A.)
2 In some instances during the war period firing was done by
means of a cut-down service rifle screwed into the breach of a gun;
in this case an ordinary blank rifle cartridge acted as a percussion
tube. (C. F. A.)
With Q.F. cartridges the means of ignition are carried in the
base of the brass case, and may be either (a) a percussion cap, (b)
a percussion or an electric primer, (c) a percussion or an electric
tube held in an adapter. The percussion cap is precisely similar
in principle to that of a rifle cartridge and needs no description.
The primer is used with larger guns and affords easily replaceable
means of ignition. In both percussion and electric types the body
of the primer is made of an alloy resembling brass; externally it is
screw-threaded to screw into the recess prepared in the base of the
cartridge case, internally it is recessed to form a magazine. The
percussion primer is fitted with a percussion cap resting on an anvil
pierced with flash holes; the anvil is recessed to hold a copper ball
and retained by a screwed plug also pierced with flash holes. The
action is the same as with a percussion tube; internal sealing is
obtained by the copper ball being driven backwards in the coned
recess in the anvil. The electric primer is similar to the vent-sealing
electric tube in construction and action.
The primer is being superseded by a vent-sealing tube held in
an adapter externally of the shape of the primer. The adapter is
boced internally to receive the vent-sealing tube, percussion or
electric, which is retained in position by a small stud operated by
a spring. Attached to the front of the adapter is a metal container
filled with a small charge of gunpowder to augment the flash from
the tube. (F. M. R.)
FUZES
A fuze is the device or mechanism that ignites the bursting
charge of a shell fired from a gun, howitzer or mortar. Fuzes fall
into two categories, those which burst or open the projectile in
flight (time fuzes), and those which burst it on impact or graze
(percussion fuzes). Of the former all, with the exception of the
recently introduced clockwork fuzes, rely for their action on the
known speed of burning of a readily ignited composition. In
the days of muzzle-loading guns the flash of the powder charge
ignited this composition, but in the modern breech-loading guns
the passage of the burning gases is checked by the driving band
of the projectile, and other means have to be employed for its
ignition.
The percussion fuzes in nearly all cases rely for their action
on a movable pellet in the interior which held in position by a
shearing wire, centrifugal bolts, the direct pressure of the
powder gases (as in some base fuzes) or other means is released
by the shock of discharge and is free to move. The fuze is then
described as " armed." 3 The pellet is provided with a disc of
detonating composition at the end which is foremost when the
shell is in the gun and on graze or impact the pellet flies forward,
and the patch of detonating composition impinges on a sharp
point or " needle " in the front end of the fuze, the flash igniting
a charge of gunpowder or other explosive in the " magazine " and
this in turn igniting the bursting or opening charge of the shell.
In the large proportion of time fuzes the same principle, i.e.
the movable pellet and detonating patch, is relied on for the
ignition of the ring or rings of composition. A precaution is
necessary, however, with regard to these pellets when free to
move in the interior of the fuze, as it has been found that they,
not being exposed to air resistance, have a tendency to move
forward as the shell loses velocity, and thus to cause premature
bursts in flight. To counteract this tendency weak spiral or
" creep "-springs are so fitted as to control the forward move-
ment of the pellet. There are other additional devices to secure
the proper arming and subsequent action of the fuze which will
be described in due course.
All fuzes are screwed into a bush or adapter either in the head
of the shell (nose fuzes) or, in case of solid-pointed shell, into the
base (base fuzes). With certain " false-cap " shell the fuze is
internal, that is, inside the false caps, but it is in effect a nose
fuze in that it is placed in the front of the explosive container.
Percussion Fuzes. Among percussion fuzes the simplest are those
known as direct action, and a British example known as Fuze No. 44
is shown in fig. I. This fuze is provided with a safety shutter a
device to which reference will frequently be made in the sequel
and for safety in transport is fitted with a cap and with a safety-pin
which blocks the moving parts. On loading, the cap and safety-pin
8 All fuzes before acceptance as service stores are subjected to
rough-usage trials to test their powers of resistance to shocks during
transport, and it will be understood that the process of " arming "
is necessary both to secure this and to prevent premature action in
the gun.
AMMUNITION
129
attached to it are withdrawn and the head of the fuze exposed. In
this is a needle supported by a copper disc over a detonator. Under
this a pivoted shutter, kept in position by a spring, closes a channel
leading down to the magazine, which is rilled with a detonating com-
position known as " C.E." On firing, the shock of discharge does not
Safety Pin
_ Safety
Shutter
Needle
Disc Detonator
FIG. i.
affect the relation of the parts but, after a certain small interval of
time, the rotation of the shell causes the shutter to swing outwards
round its pivot, overcoming its spring and uncovering the fire channel.
On impact the needle is crushed down on the detonator, the flash
from which, travelling down the now open channel, fires the maga-
zine and explodes the shell.
Fuze No. 134 (fig. 2) exhibits some interesting characteristics.
It is a " delay-action " fuze, i.e. it is so arranged as to burst its
shell about 0-20 of a second after impact. The pellet of this fuze is
provided with three inclined projections. The construction of this
pellet, of which the upper part is bored out for the reception of the
detonator and the lower portion serves as a support for the guard
spring, will be best understood from the figure which also shows the
position of this pellet before firing and when " armed " after firing.
, Inclined Projection
Lower Guar^.___ 1 .Upper Guard
I- Detonator
on OBlonalor PeMet
Sprir-g
FIG. 2.
The action is as follows: Before firing, " ramps " or inclined sur-
faces formed on the upper guard bear against the upper portions of
the inclined projections on the detonator pellet, and are held there
by the creep-spring, while the base of the lower guard is pressed up-
wards against the bottom of these projections by the guard-spring.
The two guards and the projections being thus locked by the friction
of their surfaces, the guards completely mask the detonator. On the
shock of discharge the lower guard sets back, compressing the guard-
spring. The " ramps " on it ride down the inclined projections on the
pellet, giving the guard a slight movement of rotation. The upper
guard, impelled by the creep-spring, is then free to follow the lower,
and the detonator is unmasked. The guard-spring then reasserts
itself, and its upward pressure jams the guards in the set-back posi-
tion. On impact the pellet moves forward, overcoming the creep-
spring and carrying the detonator on to the needle. The flash from
the detonator ignites some mealed powder in the interior of the pellet
which communicates with the delay composition, this in turn, after
the momentary delay desired, igniting the magazine.
Fuze No. 18 is a simple fuze, the action of which will be understood
from fig. 3. It is protected by a strong cap which is removed at the
Detonator
C.E.Pellet
Brass Disc
Spun in
Steel/ u Ste!el Shearing
Hammer Wire
oose C.E.
FIG. 3.
last moment before loading. The fuze is quiescent in all its parts
until direct impact takes place, when the steel hammer is crushed in
and, breaking the steel shearing wire, carries its needle-point on to the
detonator. The explosion of the detonator fires the loose exploding
composition (loose C.E.) in the central channel, which in turn fires
the magazine of the fuze (C.E. pellet) and the bursting charge of the
shell.
A variation of No. 1 8 , known as No. 45 , has a pivoted safety shutter
which is similar to that of No. 44, except that when it rotates, in-
stead of merely opening communication between the detonator and
the magazine, it brings a patch of composition of its own under the
detonator to reinforce the downward flash.
In Fuze, Percussion, No. 106, which is of the instantaneous class,
the principal feature is that it is armed by the unwrapping of a steel
tape with a weighted end. The general construction will be under-
stood from fig. 4 which shows the fuze uncapped and ready for firing.
A split steel collar is interposed between the under side of the ham-
Spur Collar
Pellet of C.E.
Weight
ass Tape
Shutter
FIG. 4
Guide Pin
rass tape with weight
iteel collar
in halves
teel washer
*>pper shearing wire
:tonator
mer-head and the top face of the fuze body, and it is round this collar
that the tape is wound. On firing, the weight at the end of the tape is
gripped by the set-back of the hammer, which receives additional
support from the steel split collar. When acceleration ceases that
is, when the shell leaves the bore-ythe weight is released, flies off,
unwinding, and carrying the tape with it. The segments of the split
collar are torn away by the end of the tape, and the hammer is then
supported only by a thin shearing wire. On impact (even the slight-
est) the hammer is driven in, shearing the copper wire and the
detonator is fired. The fuze shown in the figure is a variant, No. 106
E, in which, owing to the inherent sensitiveness of fuzes of this class,
a safety shutter is introduced. This shutter, like that of No. 45
alluded to above, carries a composition relay.
No. 106 and its variants were the standard instantaneous fuzes of
the British artillery in the World War. Introduced in 1916, some
88,000,000 were made, and at the end of the war they were being
turned out at the rate of a million a week, about one-third of those
being made of cast iron.
No. 146, also armed by an unwinding tape device, is known as the
" All-ways " fuze. It is designed to act and burst its shell at what-
ever angle the latter may strike the ground. It is used only for
trench-mortar bombs. For rifled shell, which travel nose first, such
a fuze is not necessary, but for many trench-mortar bombs, which
may fall sideways or on their bases, a percussion fuze is impracticable
unless it possesses this characteristic. Fig. 5 shows the final form of
the British " All-ways " fuze developed in the war from a crude
German archetype. It is called No. 146 MK. V., or the Spigot fuze,
as it is screwed on to a spigot which projects from the bomb.
.Bracket Creep Spring
with SMeld Safety ,
Split Washer
1 ^jector Spring
Detaining Pin
fetonator Holder
.-Mud Shutter^
Mud Shutter
Tape
Retaining
ud Shutter i *= \ .
Needle Holder c - , t Magazine
& Needle Safet r Bar
itfety Pin
T . withdrawn
Tape Spring b( . fore fi^g
FIG. 5.
On firing, the shock of discharge dislodges the retaining pin and the
tape spring causes the tape to unwind, thus permitting the ejector
spring to eject the safety bar from the body of the fuze. The " mud
shutter " then drops and closes the hole in the body, thus preventing
the interior of the body from being filled with mud on falling to the
ground. Only a light strip of spring steel now keeps the detonator
and the needle apart. On impact one of two things takes place, What-
ever the angle of fall. Either the steel ball forces the needle holder
down on the detonator, or the latter moves forward carrying its de-
tonator on to the needle.
Graze Fuzes rely for their action on the check to the forward
movement of the shell that takes place on graze or impact, and not
essentially on a blow delivered to any part of the fuze. They are
therefore very sensitive and depend for their action on a pellet in-
side the fuze which moves forward on graze, causing a needle to come
in contact with a detonator. Special arrangements are provided to
guard against premature action in transport, handling and loading,
on discharge, while the shell is in the bore, and during flight before it
strikes or grazes. With these fuzes there is always a slight delay in
action, and in some cases an additional delay-action is provided which
is sufficient to cause the burst to occur well below the ground surface,
or, if the shell ricochets, I o to 50 yd. in front of the graze. In view
of the danger to equipment and to personnel in the event of such
a shell exploding prematurely there is incorporated with the fuze
either a shutter or a " delay," either of which modifications (to be
described subsequently) should ensure the burst of the shell not
taking place until it is some distance clear of the gun.
130
AMMUNITION
An example of this class is the British Fuze No. 101 E. It will be
seen in fig. 6 that the detonator is contained in the graze pellet. With
this arrangement it is possible for the needle to fire the detonator
when the cap is crushed in on impact (although the graze pellet may
not have acted).
Detent
Spring
Detent
Centrifugal
' Bolt
Cap
Shutter open
Shutter wi
Detent
leedle
inator
'Graze Pellet
FIG. 6.
The shock of discharge causes the detent to set back, compressing
its spring. Then the detent spring, reasserting itself, jams the point
of the detent under the projecting shoulder, so that it cannot return
to its original position blocking the centrifugal bolt. This bolt,
actuated by the rotation of the shell, moves outwards, freeing the
graze pellet. The latter is restrained from working forward during
flight by a creep-spring. On graze or impact the pellet, overcoming
the creep-spring, flies forward, and the detonator is fired by coming in
contact with the needle. The flash passes into the " gaine " and this
detonates the shell.
In the earliest models of the same class the detent alone was relied
upon to give safety, but in the fuze illustrated and also in others, as
an additional precaution, a shutter is introduced to mask the flash-
hole until the shell is clear of the gun. This consists of a block held
in the closed position, with its centre of gravity eccentric to the axis
of the fuze, by a compressed spring and a detent with a weighted
head. While the shell is going forward in the gun, the shutter is held
in position by the spring, but on leaving the gun the rotation of the
shell overcomes the spring, and the shutter moves outwards, uncover-
ing the flash-hole; at the same time the tail of the detent is released
from its recess in the shutter, moves to one side, and prevents the
shutter from returning and masking the flash-hole.
Plug C.E.Pellets Detonator Powder' Pellets
FIG. 7. .
High explosives used as bursting charges, being comparatively
inert and safe substances, require a violent detonation actually in
contact with them to ensure that they shall detonate and not merely
explode. This result is obtained by interposing a certain amount of
less inert explosive between the bursting charge and the magazine of
the fuze. In some cases this relay or part of it is placed in a steel or
bronze container called a " gaine," which is screwed to and forms an
integral part of the fuze.
Fuzes of the class described here are always used with a gaine
(which is screwed into an adapter and so secured to the base of the
fuze), the flash being inadequate in itself to secure detonation of the
contents of the shell without being assisted by a relay. The internal
arrangement of a gaine for use with these fuzes will be seen in fig. 7.
The flash from the fuze ignites the perforated pellet. The flame from
this passes through a flash-hole to the detonator, which, when fired,
detonates in its turn two pellets of exploding composition (C.E.)
or of picric acid, and these finally detonate an " exploder " bag
placed choke downwards below the gaine in the cavity of the bursting
charge. This train of three detonations detonates the H.E. in the
shell. When a delay composition is included it is placed at the mouth
of the gaine, above the powder pellets.
Base Fuzes. These are for use in shells having solid-pointed
heads. That in general use for common-pointed and armour-piercing
shells comes under the category of graze fuzes and is known as Fuze
Percussion, Base large, No. 1 1.
The pellet is locked by a device which primarily releases it when
acted on by the pressure of the propellant gases, its final release being
accomplished by the rotation of the projectile. Safety shutters
prevent the magazine from being fired should the detonator act
prematurely.
The pellet is locked in its rearward position by a bolt projecting
into a recess in its body, and is held in this position by the stem of the
pressure-plate. This plate is fitted into a socket, and is made accident-
proof by a steel protecting plate, perforated so that the gas pressures
may act on the pressure plate.
Protecting
rl_ ~-P
Pressure Plate
Pressure Plate
Retaining Bolt
Sealing Powder
Bolt Pellet
When the pressure plate is driven in on firing, a recess in the stem
is brought opposite to the fork of the retaining bolt, so that this is
now free to move outwards. The mushroom-headed centrifugal bolt
moves outwards on rotation being set up, and forces the end of the
retaining bolt into the recess exposed by the movement of the pres-
sure-plate stem. At the same time the tail of the centrifugal bolt
which hitherto, by engaging in a recess in the body of the fuze, has
prevented the rebound of the pellet on shock of discharge is with-
drawn and the pellet is now free, its movement being only controlled
by the creep-spring.
On impact the pcllet'moves forward and the needle penetrates the
detonator. The flash from this passes through a passage in the
pellet and centrifugal bolt, along a transverse channel, and ignites a
vertical column of compressed powder leading to the magazine.
This is a ring of compressed powder in a recess in the upper part of
the fuze body, the powder being grooved on the under side so that
the flash may pass all round and ignite the whole ring simultaneously.
The flame from the magazine passes through holes in the cap to the
bursting charge of the shell.
Premature action on this fuze is guarded against in three ways:
First, the spindle of the centrifugal bolt masks the passage through
the pellet until the shell has gained a suitable speed of rotation;
secondly, the coned seating at the base prevents the escape of flash
coming over or through the pellet; and thirdly, a ball in a seating at
the end of the transverse channel is held in position by a spring-
controlled plunger that moves outwards, the ball following it when
sufficient rotary movement has been set up.
To prevent a " blind " being caused on impact by the rebound of
the pellet there is a spring-controlled locking bolt in the side of the
pellet so arranged as to enter a recess in the body of the fuze when the
pellet has gone forward a certain distance; this permits of further
forward but no backward movement or rebound due to the creep-
spring.
One of the earliest and simplest of the base fuzes is the Base
Hotchkiss Fuze (fig. 9) used mainly for small Q.F. guns.
Lead & Tin
Alloy
Creep Spring
Needle Holder/ Needle Spun in
/Detonator
crewed
Cap
Percussion
Pellet
FIG. 9.
On the shock of discharge, the pellet sets back over the needle
holder, thus allowing the steel needle to project beyond it. The
alloy -at the bottom of the pellet cushions against the bottom of the
fuze, and a small portion of it dovetails into the undercut recess,
round the base of the needle-holder. This forms a weak connexion
between the pellet and fuze body, and assists the spring in checking
rebound action. On graze or impact, the pellet and needle set for-
ward, the needle pierces the detonator, and the flash passes through
to the bursting charge of the shell.
Time and Percussion Fuzes, as their names imply, are intended to
burst their shells either in the air in front of the target or on impact.
Setting aside for the moment the newly developed clockwork fuzes,.
theT. and P. Fuzes used in Great Britain depend for time of burning
on rings of compressed composition which are ignited at the moment
of discharge, and of which the flame is conducted by suitable passages
to the magazine. The opening charge of the shrapnel is thus fired at
a moment predetermined by the setting given to the time rings above
AMMUNITION
mentioned, one of which is movable, the other fixed to the body. The
rings are pressed together by the cap of the fuze, which is screwed
down tightly enough to prevent the movable ring from being shifted
otherwise than by a spanner called a " fuze key," so as to ensure
regular adjustment of the ring and to prevent it from slipping after
being set. Many factors govern the rate of burning of the time rings.
Primarily there is the pressure prevailing at the burning surface;
this again depends on the pressure produced by the burning com-
position at the escape outlets, and this again depends largely on the
speed of revolution and of translation, the position of the outlets
with regard to the body of the fuze, the shape of the fuze, the height
to which the shell is fired, the barometric pressure, and the nature
of the gun from which the shell is fired.
Time and percussion fuzes are used normally with shrapnel, but
rarely with H.E. shell.
Lighting
Pellet
Stirrup
Spring
Percussion
Pellet
Stirrup Spring
Double ended
Needle
; Creep Spring
.."-Magazine
FIG. 10.
In the Time and Percussion Fuze No. 80 the upper time ring is
fixed to the body by pegs, but the lower ring can be rotated for set-
ting (fig. 10). Immediately below the cap is the mechanism for
igniting the composition. This consists of a lighting pellet fitted
with a detonator and supported by a stirrup spring which keeps it
away from the needle below it.
On shock of discharge the pellet sets back, straightening out the
arms of the stirrup spring, and the detonator comes in contact with,
and is fired by, the needle. The flash from the detonator passes
through a slanting channel and ignites the composition in the upper
ring. The flame then travels in the direction in which the shell is
rotating until, after an interval of time determined by the setting, it
reaches a passage communicating with the lower time ring. Here
there is a compressed powder pellet to ensure more certain ignition.
The composition in this second ring, being thus ignited, burns in the
reverse direction until, at the time determined by the setting, it
reaches the compressed powder pellets in a passage leading to the
magazine, the flash from which, passing down a tube in the shell,
fires the opening charge.
The percussion pellet is held away from the lower point of the
needle by a ferrule supported by a stirrup spring, a creep-spring
preventing any forward movement during flight. On graze or impact
the percussion pellet flies forward, and the detonator, impinging on
the point of the needle, fires, and its flash passing through the pellet
fires the magazine.
Gas Escape
Lighting
Pellet
Time Rings;.'
Pivot of
Needle block-
Percussion
Pellet--
Centrifueral-"'
Bolts
Split -ring
Spring
"Plunger
h-rl Needle block
-- -Magazine
FlG. II.
In general arrangement Time and Percussion Fuze No. 85* greatly
resembles No. 80. There are, however, some important differences
(fig. n).
The lighting pellet is supported by a ring sprung into a groove in
the pellet and resting on the rim of a recess in the stem of the body.
On the shock of discharge the pellet escapes from the ring and sets
back on to the needle which fires it, the flash igniting the time ring as
in Fuze 80. Another interesting characteristic of this fuze is that the
1 This fuze, worked out by J. D. Gushing, was the American army
fuze before the World War, and was used in large quantities for
British field guns to supplement the available stocks of British fuzes.
gases, instead of escaping directly through holes in the rings, pass into
a series of channels before finally escaping through a circumferential
groove in the cap. With this modification the rate of burning of the
time ring is less affected by variations in barometric pressure and the
other disturbing factors above mentioned. The main difference
between these two fuzes is, however, in the percussion arrangefnent.
This consists of a pivoted needle pellet or block and a detonator
supported in the upper part of the recess. The block, which is pivoted,
is kept in position by centrifugal bolts. These in due course free the
block, which swings round on its pivot, bringing the needle opposite
the detonator. Spring -plungers prevent the pellet from creeping
forward in flight. On graze or impact it flies forward, overcoming the
spring plungers, and fires the detonator. The flash from this passes
down a passage in the body (dotted lines) and fires the magazine.
In T. and P. No. 83, a variant designed specially for medium guns
and howitzer, a special safety device is provided in the shape of a
ball, which is trapped between the ferrule and the detonator pellet
and the striker until the ferrule sets back, when the ball acts as
a temporary safety between pellet and striker. When sufficient
rotation has been set up, the ball flies up into a side channel, and the
pellet is now only held back by a creep-spring which on impact is
overcome.
Time fuzes without percussion elements are now of no special
interest except in connexion with anti-aircraft fire. It is essential to
render all shell fired at aircraft that might fail to burst in the air as
harmless as possible on impact with the ground, owing to the danger
to friendly troops and the populations of towns and villages, and
buildings. Another use of time fuzes without percussion mechanism
is with trench-mortar shell, which do not pitch nose first. In these
and a few other special cases the ordinary stirrup spring is too stiff
to arm, and a weaker spring is fitted with, as its corollary, a safety-
pin for securitv in transport. All such time fuzes are simply T. and
P. Fuzes of the various service patterns converted by the removal
of the P. mechanism.
In general the time fuzes designed before and used during the
World War were constructed to run for 22 seconds' time of night.
In fuzes for certain longer-ranging ordnance, however (e.g. No. 83),
30 and 45 seconds' run was allowed for, and the latest representative
of this class, No. 89, which has three time rings instead of two, runs
for 60 seconds. Amongst all these No. 80 was by far the most gener-
ally used, about 70,000,000 of this type having been manufactured
during the war, as well as 18,000,000 of the American No. 85 and
8,000,000 of Nos. 83, 88 and 89. As an instance of how the industry
of the country adapted itself to war needs, it is worth mention that
the average pre-war output of No. 80 was 55,000 a year, and the
output of one firm alone in 1918 250,000 a week.
Last, and for the future most important in the time-fuze category,
comes the mechanical or clockwork fuze. This almost eliminates the
variations of burst due to atmospheric conditions and to the quality
and freshness of the composition used. It had long been sought for
by inventors, but until 1916 no type had been produced which gave
satisfactory results in practice owing to the great difficulties in
designing a mechanism that would run under the conditions of shock
and of rotation that a fuze must cope with.
In 1916, however, the Germans brought into use a clockwork fuze,
(" Dopp. Z. 16") which proved very successful and has been copied,
with little variation, by the British authorities, its British designa-
tion being Fuze, Time, No. 200. The German fuze has a percussion
arrangement in addition to the clockwork; this is omitted in the
British model, which is a time fuze only.
Calth Gipi in ttinf
FIG. 12.
The description which follows must be understood as a description
of principle and arrangement only, a technical demonstration being
impossible without the actual fuze. It must be premised further
that the clockwork element is very small in size, being in diameter
about equal to an ordinary wrist watch and in thickness to two such
watches.
Fuze, Time, Mechanical, No. 200. The clock train is driven, as in
a watch, by a coiled spring in a barrel, but the escapement is original
and peculiar. A straight steel spring takes the place of the hair-spring,
132
AMMUNITION
which would be rendered useless by the effect of rotation and shock of
discharge, and as the length of the straight spring is adjustable, the
movement of the pellets of the balance, and therefore that of the
escapement wheel and the clock train, are controlled and regulated.
A horizontal hand, the position of which depends on the setting of
the fuze, has on its under surface a notch into which fits the upturned
end of the lever at the top of the striker. When the clock train is
started the hand moves round with it, but is prevented from rising
and releasing the lever by a ring attached to the conical housing of
the fuze. This ring is provided with two slots into which the hand
can fit; thus when the clock is working the rotation brings the hand
into coincidence with the slots, and when forced up by the action of a
small spring, it releases the upturned end of the lever. The striker pre-
vious to firing has been held in the safe position by a collar on it which
rests on a shoulder of the centrifugal bolt, but when this bolt is moved
away by the rotation of the shell, the outer part of this shoulder still
rests on a steel pin. When the upturned end of the lever is freed from
the notch in the lower side of the hand, as previously described, it
flies out and rotates the striker so that the collar clears the steel
pin and allows the striker to fall and fire the detonator.
The setting of the fuze and the hand is accomplished by turning
the housing with a suitable key, this housing being free to move
before firing. On discharge it is very ingeniously clamped to the body
of the fuze by means of steel pins in a ring in its under surface. This
ring sets back and the pins are driven through the flange of the clock
case, a groove being turned on its under side to thin the metal, and
thus to allow of easy penetration.
The clock train, wound up like a watch, is started at the moment
of firing by the setting-back of a detent.
The British fuzes described above illustrate sufficiently the general
principles on which fuzes are designed to serve the various require-
ments and to meet the various dangers. There are, however, many
interesting devices and expedients included in the design of French,
German and other fuzes which are not usually employed in Great
Britain, and the fuzes described below have been selected as exam-
Cles of these devices and expedients. Some of these have been copied
y British designers.
German Fuzes in general have some marked peculiarities.
In the first place, especially in pre-war designs, there is a tendency
to excessive complication, due to the desire to make one fuze
answer for several functions. Ignoring the case of fuzes for
universal shell, in which the complication resides rather in the
shell itself than in the fuze, we find fuzes designed for time, im-
pact and delay, or impact, delay and long delay, each system
having its own equipment of safety devices as well as suitable
setting arrangements. In some cases the channels bored into the
fuze body with their cross-connecting channels and sealing de-
vices are so numerous that the interior resembles a veritable
rabbit warren. One example only of these complicated fuzes will
be described here.
On the other hand, some of the devices employed are elegant
in their simplicity, notably the interlocking shutter-leaves
described in two of the examples below. Other points of special
interest found in German fuzes are in time fuzes the provision
of devices to lock the movable time ring by set-back; and in
percussion fuzes (and the percussion element of T. and P. Fuzes)
the use of pressed powder pellets or columns as a safety device
to seal the working parts until the shell is clear of the gun.
The Instantaneous Fuzes, known in Germany as " sensitive "
(empfindlich) , are quite unlike the British No. 106. Although it appears
that the unwrapping device of No. 106 and spigot fuzes originated in
a German trench-mortar fuze, it does not appear in any of the in-
stantaneous fuzes used with German guns and howitzers proper, all
of which are characterized by a projecting striker rod. This striker
rod (very long in the case of shell fitted with false cap) is only inserted
at the last moment in the socket prepared for it in the fuze. These
sensitive fuzes are all relatively simple and only instantaneous effect
is attempted.
Ricnc Acid Pellet
jn Sbuttei
MM
FIG. 13.
The Instantaneous Howitzer Fuze 16 C. (E.H.Z. 16 C., fig. 13) is
fitted with a projecting striker rod so that the fuze comes in contact
with the ground, etc., a moment before the shoulders of the shell do
so, thus detonating the shell before it has time to bury itself. The
removable rod fits into a rod which is supported by a creep-spring at
its lower end and held in position up to the moment of firing by two
centrifugal spring bolts. Below the point of the needle is a small
detonator in a holder also kept in position by two centrifugal spring
bolts. Below this again is the main detonator, to which the flash from
the smaller one is communicated through a suitable channel. This
main detonator communicates with the gaine by a fire-hole, but is
screened from it by a centrifugal brass shutter, in which out of line
with the detonator-gaine fire-hole is a charge of explosive.
On rotation being imparted to the projectile the striker needle is
freed, as is also the detonator holder below it, and these are then only
held apart by the creep-spring. The brass shutter swings outwards,
bringing the explosive patch to its position under the main de-
tonator. The fuze is now in all respects sensitive. On graze, the
detonator holder flies forward and strikes the needle, which is
solidly supported by a plate on the rod kept (by a spring) bearing
against shoulders cut in the body. Alternatively, on impact, the
striker rod is pushed in, driving the needle on to the detonator holder.
In either case the detonator is fired and the flash, relayed by the
patch in the shutter, passes to the gaine.
Metal Detonator Pellet
Detonator
Split Brass Sleeve
Qentrifugal Segments
^Needle Pellet Spring
Metal Ferrule
PLAN OF
CENTRIFUGAL SEGMENTS
"Creep Spring
Annular groove
in ferrule
In the instantaneous fuze " Granatzunder 17 '' (Gr. Z. 17), shown
in fig. 14, the body is fitted in its lower portion with a bush carrying
five centrifugal segments, a split brass sleeve and ferrule, and a detona-
tor holder, to the top of which a creep-spring is soldered. The upper
half of the fuze contains a needle pellet and spring, the upper part
of which is shaped to take the striker rod, and has projections that,
by a spring, are kept bearing on shoulders formed in the body, as in
E.H.Z. 16 C. On the shock of discharge the ferrule sets back, over-
coming the support of the brass sleeve, and is locked in its rearward
position by lugs on the sleeve which engage in an annular groove in
the inner surface of the ferrule. The centrifugal segments are now
free to take up rotation about their pivot pins, but as they are inter-
locked, owing to their shape and position, they can only move one at
a time, and thus an appreciable interval elapses before the percussion
pellet is free. The extremities of the centrifugal segments (aided by
the needle-pellet spring) take up the set-back of the needle pellet on
shock of discharge, and the creep-spring keeps the percussion pellet
away from the needle during flight. On impact the striker rod is
driven in and impels the needle pellet, which, overcoming the resist-
ance of its supporting spring, fires the detonator. Should the striker
rod meet with insufficient resistance .to drive it in on impact, the
percussion detonator will still fly forward on graze and fire its detona-
tor as it impinges on the needle, the flash passing into the shell
through the passage behind it.
CENTRIFUGAL SEGMENTS
SECTION A.A. SECTION B.B.
Detent StirrupSpring-b Powder
Detent
SECTION
PLAN
FIG. 15.
This shutter device is also found in an interesting German base
fuze (fig. 15), in combination with a detent of the same class as that
of the British 101 Fuze, but reversed.
The fuze depends for its action on the inertia of a pellet which
remains steady till impact, and then sets forward on to the needle.
In travelling, the movable pellet is confined between the shutter and
the bottom of its cavity, and set-back on discharge does not affect it.
But as soon as the shutter-leaves rotate out of the way it is perfectly
free, not even a creep-spring apparently being fitted. On firing the
detent flattens its stirrup spring, and sets back, and thereupon, under
AMMUNITION
133
centrifugal action, the leaves of the shutter, one by one, rotate clear
of the head of the inertia pellet. This is of a peculiar design, only
found in German fuzes. On two sides the mass of the pellet is con-
tinued upwards to form walls or guides, and between these guides is
the needle, mounted on a fixed bar. In the upward motion of the
pellet, therefore, the detonator carried with it is impelled straight on
to the needle. A further peculiarity is to be noticed in the top part
of the fuze. This is a delay-action fuze, and in order to damp the
violence of the detonator its flash is compelled to follow a long and
tortuous channel before it can reach the loose powder which ignites
the delay pellet.
German percussion fuzes with optional delay are generally very
elaborate; examples, however, may be given of the simple types.
In the 1916 Howitzer Fuze (H.Z. 16) shown in fig. 16 the usual
Centrifugal Bolt
Detonator
Needle
Picric Acid
Delay Channel
elements a fixed needle and a movable pellet held by centrifugal
bolts, a creep-spring and a shutter containing a relay pellet appear,
and need not be further explained. The peculiarity of the fuze lies
in the fact that between the detonator and this relay pellet the flash
has two alternative paths, one direct and the other through a delay
composition arrangement, either of which can be put into action in
the setting of the fuze. Below the fire-hole into which the flash of the
first detonator passes are two channels, into both of which it goes.
But if the direct channel is blocked by the screw-in valve, the only
passage is through the combination of powder, delay composition,
and perforated powder pellet in the delay channel; this gives the
required delay. In either case a relay detonator below the junction of
the alternative channels passes on the ignition to the patch in the
shutter and so to the gaine. The blocking or opening of the direct
channel is effected, as the drawing shows, by screwing a simple screw
valve home or out.
SECTION C. C.
NOTE In all Sections the Fuze is set to Delay
PART SECTION A. A.
Centril Delay
PART SECTION B. B.
FIG. 17.
INVERTED PLAN
Shewing positions of the three)
systems and the Main Detonator
The next example is more complicated, and introduces the device,
already alluded to, of powder safeties. It is called " 1904 Shell
Fuze without Striker Rod " (Gr. Z.O4 ohne Vorstecker), to distinguish
it from the same fuze with a long striker rod used with a false-cap
shell (fig. 17).
Above the main detonator is a powder arrangement consisting
partly of loose powder and partly of delay powder, with two per-
cussion systems of the guide and bar-needle type above described.
A hole from the pellet on one side (section A-A) leads to the central
delay, while a similar hole from the other pellet (section B-B) leads
to the loose powder under the delay, thus giving delay or direct
action as required. The two pellets are held away from the bar-
needles by brass plungers with springs pressing on the closed-up tops
of the pellet extensions, these plungers being themselves held in
position by short columns of pressed powder. From these pieces of
pressed powder, columns of powder lead to a platform at the upper
part of the fuze body. Here is a movable ring with an annular powder
channel on its under side that ignites at will both or only one of the
powder columns, in much the same way as the corresponding element
of a time fuze. In the upper part of the fuze, placed centrally, is the
ignition device. In the lower part of the fuze and in the gaine, also
centrally placed, are the main detonator and the gaine elements to be
described presently. Through the body of the fuze run three parallel
and distinct systems, each of which is seen in one of the three sections
shown in fig. 17. Each of these systems communicates with the igni-
tion device in the head, and with the main detonator and gaine below,
in a different way.
Centrally in the head of the fuze is the ignition device, analogous
to that of a time fuze and consisting of a detonator pellet controlled
by a compressed spiral spring cap, and held away from the needle
below it by a split brass sleeve. A flash-hole leads from this pellet
to the powder channel in the movable ring, and a second flash-hole
leads to the third of the internal systems, a powder column passing
down the body of the fuze body (see section C-C). This column
joins another of rather larger diameter which consists of compressed
powder, and acts as a stop to a brass retaining rod. The rod holds
down an annular or tubular container situated in the gaine which
is centred on a fixed guide rod and has beneath it a compressed spiral
spring, to impel it forward when the retaining rod above it is liber-
ated by the burning of the powder safety.
Upon shock of discharge the ignition pellet at the top of the fuze,
overcoming the resistance of the split sleeve, sets back on to the
needle and fires, the flash passing both to the powder in the movable
ring and to the powder column which retains the brass rod (section
C-C). When the movable ring is set for non-delay action, the flame
passes from the powder in the ring to both the powder columns in
sections A-A and B-B, but if set for delay it passes only to the column
leading to the delay powder (section A-A). When the compressed
powder in the columns is consumed and the plungers are freed, the
detonator pellets (or, in the case of delay, that in section A-A) can
move forward on impact and will be fired by the needles. Mean-
while, in either case the column of powder in section C-C is consumed,
the retaining rod is free to move, and the brass container moves for-
ward under the action of its spring and fits over the main detonator.
On impact, if the ring has been set for delay, one percussion detona-
tor (that in section A-A) fires and ignites the central delay, which
then burns through and ignites the loose powder below; and so in
sequence are fired the main detonator, the container fitting round it,
and the gaine. If the ring be set for non-delay, both percussion
detonators (A-A, B-B) fire, but as one (section B-B) is in direct com-
munication with the powder below the delay, the main detonator
will be fired without any pause; in other words, the fuze behaves as
one constructed for direct action on impact.
An objection common to all forms of powder safety is the risk of
the powder becoming damp in storage or transport; if the safeties
fail to ignite, the fuze will fail to act.
No attempt need be made here to describe trench-mortar fuzes;
these are in the main impact or delay fuzes of a simple type designed
to arm at low velocities. Practically all German trench mortars were
rifled, and of the rest the most important types had either a stick
or vanes to keep the shell-nose first in descent, so that the difficulty
which in England led to the production of the " All-ways " fuze
scarcely existed for them. One curious development should, how-
ever, be noted a chemical fuze giving I, 2, 24 or 48 hours' delay
according to the strength of the chemical used. 'In this, the needle
was held off the detonator, against the effort of a spring to decompress
itself, by a wire which passed through a container full of corrosive
liquid and was secured beyond it to a convenient point on or in the
crew Plug
reeping Spring
.Striker
Ferrule
Detonator
Powder Pellet
'etonator Holder
Powder
^Stirrup Spring
Wax Disc
FIG. 1 8.
body of the fuze. Kept in tension by the effort of the spring, the wire
was gradually eaten through by the corrosive liquid, and finally
134
AMMUNITION
parted, whereupon the spring drove the needle on to the detonator
and exploded the fuze. (D. D. T. O'C.)
French Fuzes, in marked contrast to German, are deliberately
simple in type and the number of types also is limited. The four
patterns described below may be taken therefore as fully represen-
tative of French practice.
The typical pre-war percussion fuze is the direct-action fuze shown
in fig. i"8. The action will be readily understood from the figure.
Before firing, a heavy ferrule is supported between a compressed
spiral spring and a stirrup spring which surrounds the detonator
pellet. On shock of discharge (aided by the decompression of the
spiral spring) the ferrule sets back, straightening the stirrup spring,
and fits over both stirrup spring and detonator pellet, being held
there by the spiral spring acting as a creep-spring. On impact the
pellet and ferrule fly forward together on to the needle, and the de-
tonator is fired. The spiral spring can be adjusted for tension by
screwing the closing plug in or out.
A more highly developed design of the same class is Fuze 24/31
P.R. model 1916, distinguished by an ingenious combination of
safety pellet and detonator holder which has been copied in the
British Fuze No. 134 (fig. 2).
As in other French fuzes, and in British, impact or delay effect is
arranged by the design of explosive filling below the main detonator
and not by that of elements in the fuze itself.
French instantaneous fuzes are characterized by simplicity and
great projection from the nose of the shell, the latter being intended to
ensure that the fuze shall act before the shoulders of the shell strike
the ground and begin to bury themselves.
Crayo
Strike
Striker hud
Safety collar
FIG. 19.
A simple representative is shown in fig. 19, which is a cheap and
effective trench-mortar fuze. (French trench-mortar projectiles are
vaned and so fall nose first.) The striker consists of a head, which in
transport is kept off the head of the fuze by a safety ring, and a long
striker which is kept centred by a wooden " crayon " in much the
same way as the lead is held in an ordinary lead-pencil. Through the
head of the striker passes a shearing wire of copper alloy (Cu 67%,
Zn 33 %). Before firing, the safety ring is removed and only the
shearing wire keeps the striker point off the detonator. This resists
the shock of discharge (which is relatively slight in a trench mortar)
but is sheared on impact. It will be observed that the fuze is not
sensitive during flight, as the German fuzes and the British No. 106
are, but relies for its instantaneous effect chiefly on the fact that the
striker head takes the ground a moment before the shoulders of the
shell do so. A fuze of this class when used with a rifled gun would
have a centrifugal unwrapping tape similar to that of the British 106
Fuze in lieu of the safety ring. The actual detonator arrangements,
not shown, may be varied in the usual way by introducing or omit-
ting a delay pellet. The lower end of the fuze is screwed to receive a
steel gaine.
I
FIG. 20.
The French T. and P. Fuze (Fusee <J double effel 23/31, fig. 20),
designed in 1897, remained in service throughout the war of 1914-8
as the standard time-shrapnel fuze for the 75-mm. field gun. Unlike
the British, German, and other T. and P. Fuzes, it is set, not by means
of a movable powder ring, but by punching a hole at the appropriate
point in a composition-filled lead tube by means of a fuze-setting
machine called a dcbouchoir.
The time composition is contained in a sealed lead tube fitting into
a spiral groove on the upper and slightly tapered portion of the body.
Over the body is a cover on which a long spiral scale is engraved,
with graduations corresponding to the appropriate points in the
composition worm which lies exactly under it. Certain points on the
scale are marked with a hole instead of a figure ; these subsequently
act as a relief for the gases and slag. To set the fuze a hole is punched
by the debouchoir through the cover, lead tube, and body, thus
making free communication with the interior. The time ignition
pellet (which carries the needle in this case) is kept away from the
fixed detonator by a coiled spring which it overcomes on shock of
discharge. The resulting flash from the detonator ignites a powder
pellet, which gives a powerful flame filling the interior of this part
of the fuze, and lighting the composition in the lead tube as it passes
through the hole punched by the fuze-setter. The composition then
burns along the tube until the flame reaches the end of the lead tube,
whence it passes by a cross channel to the magazine. (A peculiarity
of the French fuze is that the flash from the magazine, instead of
passing by a channel of its own to the interior of the shell, ignites the
detonator pellet of the percussion system, which thus acts as a relay.)
The percussion system consists essentially of : (a) a ferrule provided
externally with a collar and internally with a spring catch device ;
(6) a detonator holder, hollow to take the detonator and a magazine
of fine-grain powder underneath it, and provided externally with a
broad flange at the bottom and peripheral ratchet-like notches at the
top; and (c) a strong retaining spring and weaker creep-spring.
Until the gun is fired the retaining spring, bearing on the collar of the
ferrule, keeps this pressed up against the top of the cavity; above the
collar the creep-spring is'under a slight compression, but this does not
affect the security of the fuze. On discharge, the ferrule, overcoming
its retaining spring, sets back over the detonator holder, where its
internal spring catches engage under one or other of the peripheral
ratchet-notches on the holder. The ferrule, compressed spring and
detonator holder are now locked together. Held steady during
flight by inertia and the creep-spring, on impact they fly forward on
to the needle.
FIG. 21.
In the illustrations, which are diagrammatic, the parts are not to
scale, and details (e. g. the centring sleeve for' the ignition needle
pellet) are omitted so as to show the operation of the fuze more
clearly.
AMMUNITION
i35
The construction and operation of the debouchoir or fuze-setting
machine are in general terms as follows (figs. 21 and 22) :
A hollow rectangular box contains in its forepart a fixed socket,
threaded internally. A second movable socket (the shell holder) is
threaded externally in its lower part so as to be screwed up or down
FIG. 22.
in the fixed socket, and formed internally to take the shoulders of
the shell, the fuze projecting downwards through a hole in the bottom
of the holder. Fixed about the middle of this movable socket is a
gear-wheel, and internally, in its bottom, is a small mortise into which
a tenon on the fuze engages so that the fuze and shell always occupy a
fixed position in the holder. The shell is inserted nose downwards
in the holder, secured by the mortise and tenon, and the holder is
then, by means of suitable gear in the box operating the gear-wheel,
screwed down into the fixed socket, carrying with it the shell and
fuze, until the appropriate point in the worm scale of the fuze comes
opposite a punching tool in the fixed socket, at which point the
tool, operated by an external hand lever, punches the cover, lead
tube and body as before described. The amount of screwing-in is
determined by the number of turns (or fractions of a turn) of the
holder gear-wheel, and the internal gear of the box which actuates
this gear-wheel is so controlled by a handle on the top of the box that
the position of the handle relatively to a dial 1 on the box exactly
represents the position of the fuze scale relatively to the punching
tool in the fixed socket. (In practice the handle is set and the holder
socket screwed in first, the shell inserted and keyed next, and the
actual punching comes last.)
The French service debouchoir is made with two sets of elements
side by side having a common dial, corrector scale and setting han-
dle, but separate punching handles. This enables two fuzed shells to
be set simultaneously for the same time of burning or successively
for different times as desired.
AUTHORITIES. No recent book descriptive of fuzes has been
published, in the ordinary sense of the word. Information during the
war period was circulated only amongst those professionally con-
cerned. The information given above has been collected from various
papers and memoranda of this kind, and chiefly from those supplied
by the authorities of Woolwich Arsenal, to whom, and to Lt.-Col.
G. O. Boase in particular, thanks are due. (C. F. A.)
MACHINE GUN, RIFLE AND PISTOL
Since 1910 rapid strides have been made in the improvement
of old and development of new designs of ammunition for
machine guns, rifles and pistols, principally due to the World
War. The manufacture of small arms ammunition, used by the
various nations, may be briefly described by outlining the
operations necessary to produce a standard cartridge of any one
country. In general, these operations would apply to the
manufacture of any cartridge, although slight departures there-
from would be necessary where the designs vary. The metallic
components of a cartridge are the case, primer (without chemical
composition) and bullet.
The Cartridge Case is made of cartridge brass which, as produced
commercially, contains about 67 % copper and 33 % zinc. The brass
is furnished in strips, coiled in convenient lengths, which are passed
through automatic machines to produce metallic cups, from which
the finished cases are evolved by a series of processes generally
similar to those described for heavy gun cartridge cases.
The Primer, inserted in the head of the cartridge case, consists of a
cap made of primer brass into which is inserted a percussion compo-
sition usually weighing from -25 to -40 grain, according to the
character of the composition. After the assembly of the components,
the primer is subjected to a drying operation for a short time to
1 The zero of this dial is itself adjustable relatively to a fixed fuze-
corrector scale. For the theory of the corrector see 2.692, par.
29 and footnote.
insure that no moisture remains in the chemical mixture. After
inspection it is inserted into the primer pocket and a drop of
shellac placed in the joint between the primer and the cartridge case
to provide water-proofing.
The Bullet (unless it be of special type such as armour-piercing)
consists of a jacket surrounding a core. This jacket is made from
cupro-nickel which, as furnished commercially, contains from 80%
to 85% copper and from 15% to 20% nickel. The cupro-nickel is
furnished in coiled strips from which by automatic machines cups
are produced. These cups are subjected to a series of drawing opera-
tions after which the nose and profile of the bullet are formed by
swedging processes. The core, of lead hardened with antimony or
tin, may or may not be inserted before the bullet jacket is swedged to
form. Finally, the composite bullet is resized and prepared for union
with the cartridge case.
In assembling the complete round the primed cartridge cases
are shellacked in the mouth for water-proofing, and are loaded
by automatic machines with a propellant powder charge weighing
from 40 to 50 grains. The bullets are then inserted into the
mouths of the cartridge cases and secured by crimping the top
edges of the cases into the cannelures provided (or otherwise,
according to the design of the cartridge in question). Small
arms ammunition of the various countries is designed and loaded
to give muzzle velocities varying from 2,200 to 2,800 ft. per
second, with maximum pressures never exceeding 60,000 Ib.
(27 tons) per sq. inch. Cartridge clips for quick loading are used
in some form with practically all magazine rifles. The number of
cartridges in a clip is usually five, placed one above the other.
These clips are usually made with a body of rust-proofed steel or
brass containing a flat brass spring.
The loaded ammunition, after being weighed, inspected and
clipped, is classified and packed according to its future use. In the
United States, ammunition passed as suitable for both rifles and
ground machine guns is packed for issue in bandoleers made of olive-
drab cloth, which generally contain six boxes each holding two clips.
In most armies such individual packets of ammunition are put up in
larger, metal-lined boxes, the number of rounds packed in a box and
therefore its weight varying in different countries according to the
preferences of the military authorities in each.
Packing-boxes are provided with watertight metal liners. In the
United States the packing-box when loaded with ammunition weighs
approximately no Ib.; in Great Britain (mark VII. ammunition),
75 to 80 Ib.
A mmunition for Machine Guns may be divided into two general
classes: first, that for use in machine guns on the ground; and second,
that for use in aircraft machine guns. The extensive use of ammuni-
tion for machine guns in the World War involved no new processes
of manufacture in order to adapt it to the particular weapons. It did,
however, require a more rigid inspection system in order to insure
that the ammunition produced w^s of a quality suitable to stand the
wear and tear of machine-gun action.
Ammunition for ground machine guns is generally the same as the
standard type used in the shoulder rifle, but more rigidly inspected
and tested. Several of the belligerents in the World War developed
special types of cartridges having heavier bullets than their standard
types for use in machine-gun barrage fire.
A number of special types of machine-gun ammunition have been
developed for use by aircraft, all of which have the same overall
length as the service ammunition and may be briefly described as
follows :
The tracer cartridge, as the name implies, is loaded with a tracer
bullet for use with machine guns where, as in aircraft work, it is
essential to make the trajectory visible. The bullet differs materially
from that of the service cartridge, in that the lead core of the latter
is replaced by a conical lead slug in the nose of the tracer bullet jacket,
in the rear of which there is inserted a gilding-metal capsule which
contains the tracer composition. The ingredients used in the com-
position are dependent upon the type of trace desired. The red tracer
involves the use of strontium salts with the necessary oxidizing
agents, while the so-called white tracer gives off a greenish-white
flame and involves the use of the barium salts with oxidizing agents.
The tracer composition is compressed into the capsule at a pressure
to withstand that produced by the exploding cartridge and the
length of trace can be regulated by the adjustment of the pressure
or amount of oxidizing agents used in the chemical mixture. The
composition is ignited by the propellant powder flash and burns with
a bright light during a minimum of 500 yd. of flight. Tracer car-
tridges are generally loaded so as to give the same ballistics as the
service ammunition at 500 yards. As these cartridges are placed in
machine-gun belts, interspersed with service, incendiary and other
types of special aircraft ammunition, a distinctive marking is provided
so that inspection may be made of each ammunition belt before the
aviator goes into the, air.
Owing to the extensive use of observation balloons and dirigibles
in the war, the demand was created for an incendiary bullet which
136
AMUNDSEN, ROALD ANAESTHETICS
would ignite 1 gases or other materials with which it might come in
contact. Omitting technical detail, this form of bullet is organized
to contain a charge of yellow phosphorus coated with copper phos-
phide or aluminium dust in the head. The base is sealed, but a small
hole is punched in the side of the bullet and closed with an easily
fusible alloy containing a high percentage of bismuth. The heat
generated by the passage of the bullet through the barrel of the gun
causes this alloy to melt, at the same time causing the yellow phos-
phorus to become molten. Upon exit from the barrel, the centrifugal
force produced by the spinning of the bullet throws the molten
phosphorus through the side hole and upon contact with the air the
phosphorus burns leaving a trail of smoke and fire streaming from
the bullet. Incendiary bullets burn over a range of approximately 300
yd. and are so loaded as to shoot similarly to service ammunition at
that range. Incendiary cartridges are distinguished from other types
of ammunition by special markings.
The use of various standard-calibre incendiary bullets against ob-
servation balloons and dirigibles was supplemented by the develop-
ment of a larger calibre ( 1 1 mm.) tracer incendiary cartridge for use
at longer ranges. The bullets are generally turned out of solid brass
rod and are approximately 1-34 in. long. The tracer incendiary
composition produces a white or a red flame according to the chem-
icals used. This composition is mixed and compressed into the brass
bullets so as to withstand the pressure of the cartridge when fired.
The flame from the propellant ignites the composition, which burns
for at least 1,200 yards. The cartridge case is of the rim type and is
loaded with a propellant to give a muzzle velocity of 2,000 to 2,350
ft. per second.
Combinations of the various types of bullets described above have
been tried out experimentally with different degrees of success. The
inspection of all of these types is very rigid, as all ammunition for
aircraft use must be specially selected, in particular because hang-
fires may be dangerous in aircraft machine guns synchronized with
the propeller.
Many types of armour-piercing bullets were used during the World
War in order to attack the light armour-plate of aeroplanes, tanks, etc.
This class of bullet, with its steel core, required considerable experi-
mental work and may still be considered as in the development stage.
It consists principally of a cupro-nickel jacket, inside which is a
hardened steel core incased in a lead envelope. The action may be
briefly described as follows :
Upon striking the armour-plate, the jacket splits and a portion of
the lead in the nose of the bullet is trapped between the hardened
point of the steel core and the surface of the hardened armour-plate.
This soft mass of lead produces a protective coating for the nose of
the steel core and thus aids penetration. The bullet is loaded into the
same case as the service ammunition and is distinguished by special
markings. A larger calibre of armour-piercing ammunition was
developed by the Germans for the 13-mm. anti-tank rifle (see
RIFLES). The bullet was of the armour-piercing type and weighed
approximately 800 grains, while the cartridge case was of the semi-
rimless type with a propellant charge of about 200 grains. This
cartridge developed a muzzle velocity of about 2,450 f.s. and was
very effective against tank armour. Further developments along
this line may be expected in the future.
Ammunition for Rifles. Each country has its standard rifle car-
tridge which is of the same shape and size and is manufac-
tured in the same manner as the machine-gun ammunition above
described. Some of these cartridges are of the rimmed while others
are of the rimless type. The standard calibres vary from -25 in. to
32 inch. Various other types have been developed for guard, test,
and training purposes, such as the blank, dummy, guard, high-pres-
sure, and gallery-practice cartridges.
Ammunition for Pistols. The ammunition used in various
countries in automatic pistols is very similar, and a description of the
manufacture of the United States type may be considered to be
representative of all others. This cartridge consists of a drawn brass
case with a primer inserted in its head. The bullets, as a rule, have
jackets made from drawn gilding metal or some other suitable
material. The manufacture of the cartridge case and bullet-jacket
follows, in general, the process outlined for the manufacture of the
rifle-cartridge components except that the number of operations is
considerably reduced. The bullet is -45 calibre, weighs 230 grains
and has its jacket tinned and filled with a core of lead hardened with
about 2 % of antimony. The cartridge cases are all of the rimless
type and have a small cannelure located on the cartridge case in such
a position as to prevent a bullet from being pushed back into it. All
pistol ammunition is loaded to give low velocities as compared with
rifle ammunition. Calibre -45 cartridge, used by the United States,
has a muzzle velocity of 800 f.s. and develops a maximum pressure
of 16,000 Ib. per sq. inch. In addition to the pistol cartridges of the
service type, there are blank and high-pressure cartridges for in-
structional and testing purposes. The ammunition made for auto-
matic pistols of smaller calibre, used by travellers, police and others,
is in principle similar to that of the heavier -45 pistol. (W. L. C.)
AMUNDSEN, ROALD (1872- ), Norwegian polar explorer,
was born at Borge, Smaalenene, Norway, July 16 1872, the son
of a shipowner. He was educated at Christiania and afterwards
studied medicine for two years. Later, however, he went to sea,
and from 1897 to 1899 served as mate on the " Belgica " with
Capt. Adrien de Gerlache's Antarctic expedition. In 1901-2 he
made an expedition to the Arctic regions which resulted in some
valuable observations, and from 1903 to 1906 was in command of
the " Gjoa " on its voyage through the north-west passage
between the Arctic and Pacific oceans (see 21.953). The " Gjoa "
made a second Arctic expedition between 1910 and 1912. To-
wards the end of 1910 Amundsen started in Nansen's famous
ship, the " Fram," for the Antarctic regions. The polar con-
tinent was crossed under good conditions, the weather being
excellent, while the arrangements for food and transport worked
without a hitch. The South Pole was reached between Dec. 14
and 17 1911, the Norwegian party thus outstripping by about a
month the British expedition led by Capt. Scott (see ANTARCTIC
REGIONS). In June 1918 Amundsen left Norway in the " Maud "
with the intention of drifting across the Arctic ocean, but at the
end of 1919 was forced to abandon the attempt (see ARCTIC
REGIONS). Capt. Amundsen has published The Norlh-West
Passage (1907), and The South Pole (1912), and has received
many honours from learned societies.
ANAESTHETICS (see 1.907). In connexion with the progress
made in 1910-20, it is somewhat remarkable that the agents
for producing general surgical anaesthesia which were the first
to be introduced, that is, nitrous oxide gas, ether and chloro-
form, not only remained in general use, but actually provided in
greater part for the requirements of modern surgery. " Regional "
anaesthesia, or analgesia as some prefer to call it, had, however,
in part supplanted " general " anaesthesia. It consists in abolish-
ing sensation in a restricted part of the body without affecting
consciousness; it is effected by " blocking " the conduction of
sensation through the nerves supplying the area concerned by
applying to them a solution of a drug similar in constitution to
cocaine, or by injecting this solution into the lower part of the
spinal canal and so blocking the sensory fibres in the nerve roots
and in the spinal cord itself. Regional anaesthesia has, however,
as yet only a limited application, for although adopted as a con-
venient routine measure in some classes of cases and types of
patients, yet it has been found by experience to have certain
limitations, and in the case of spinal anaesthesia certain dan-
gers. Many persons, moreover, prefer the blissful ignorance of a
general anaesthesia to full consciousness, and passive submission
to a trying ordeal, even when they are deprived of sensation
and when the sight of the operation is hidden from them.
General anaesthesia produced by the inhalation of a gas or
vapour remains the routine procedure. The use of non-volatile
drugs, such as morphia or hedonal, introduced by the mouth or
by subcutaneous or intravenous injection, is not readily subject
to control; once introduced these substances remain in the body
until slowly excreted by the kidneys; the dose can be increased
but it cannot be decreased, and herein lies a danger. Inhalation
anaesthesia on the other hand is susceptible of the most delicate
adjustment to requirements. The pulmonary route is adapted
anatomically to meet the vital requirements of the absorption
and excretion of the blood gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide, and
is hence perfectly adapted for the passage to and from the blood
of other gases and vapours. The amount of a vapour absorbed
by the blood and the rapidity of its absorption are both propor-
tional to its concentration in the atmosphere inhaled into the lungs 1
so that the task of the anaesthetist is mainly one of adjusting the
strength of the vapour according to the result which is desired.
So also the amount which has been introduced into the blood can
be rapidly reduced; it is partially exhaled on diminishing the
strength of the vapour presented to the blood, and it becomes
totally exhaled on withdrawing the vapour entirely from the
inhaled atmosphere. This facility of the adjustment of anaes-
thesia is not shared by any other method, and it appears likely
to sustain inhalation anaesthesia in its present predominant
position for some time to come.
1 In the case of chloroform there is a deviation from the laws of
the solution of vapours, but this is negligible at the low concentra-
tions employed for anaesthetic purposes.
ANAESTHETICS
137
Nitrous Oxide. One of the surgical lessons of the World War
was that persons suffering from severe shock and loss of blood
from wounds did not progress favourably following operation
under chloroform or ether, but that the prospects of recovery were
distinctly improved when performed under the continuous inhala-
tion of nitrous oxide gas. The reasons for this cannot be stated pre-
cisely, but it may be said in general terms that nitrous oxide is less
depressing, and further that owing to its exceedingly rapid excre-
tion, consciousness and normal bodily conditions are quickly
restored after completion of the operation.
Nitrous oxide, or " laughing gas" as it was formerly termed, is
familiar as an agent for producing brief periods of narcosis, as for
the extraction of teeth. When administered thus in a pure state it
excludes the admission of air to the lungs, and if continued would
cause complete asphyxia; the problem of continuous administra-
tion is therefore the admission of sufficient oxygen to the lungs to
satisfy the needs of the body. Air contains about one-fifth of its
volume of oxygen, but if nitrous oxide were diluted to this extent
its partial pressure would be reduced to about 80%, which is too
weak for the convenient production of its full anaesthetic effect, at
least in the early stages of its administration. It is possible, how-
ever, to reduce the amount of oxygen inhaled below the normal
quantity without reducing the oxygen in the blood to the same
degree ; this is due to the fact that the absorption of oxygen by the
blood is a process of loose chemical combination with the haemo-
globin, which is not governed by the laws of the simple solution of
gases. Oxygen may in fact be reduced to a proportion of one-tenth
of an atmosphere without causing discomfort to the patient or even
under ordinary circumstances causing the discolouration of the face
known as cyanosis. It may even be reduced lower than one-tenth
and yet be capable of sustaining life. The continuous administra-
tion of nitrous oxide mixed with oxygen is thue made possible by
the provision of a sufficiently delicate mechanism to regulate and
indicate the relative proportions of the gases. One form of indicator
which has been generally adopted consists of pressure dials con-
nected with the supply tubes from the cylinders of compressed
gases; these register the pressures at which the gases are supplied,
and the proportions are in the same relation as the pressure of flow.
Another form of indicator is that known as a " sight-feed," in which
the gases bubble through a glass vessel containing water, the flow
being regulated so that one bubble of oxygen passes for a given
number of nitrous oxide bubbles according to desire.
The continuous administration of nitrous oxide and oxygen is not,
however, a method which is adapted for all classes of cases; the
relaxation of the bocly muscles is not sufficient for the convenient
performance of certain operations; the narcosis is not always suffi-
ciently deep, and it may have to be supplemented by an admixture
of ether vapour; nor is it a method absolutely free from danger.
Its advantages in the cases of profound shock referred to appear to
be undoubted, but how far it can be adapted for general purposes is
as yet undecided.
Ether. The use of ether as an anaesthetic has received consid-
erable stimulus from the introduction of the " open " method of
administration. In order to induce anaesthesia in a muscular per-
son, or to "get him under" in ordinary phraseology, a strong
vapour may be required, as strong as 25% to 30% in some cases,
and it was formerly supposed to be impossible to attain sufficient
concentration from ether sprinkled on a piece of fabric stretched on
a frame or " mask." In order to attain this end a " close " method
has been in general use, in which the patient breathes to and from a
rubber bag over a surface of ether. In this way the vapour becomes
concentrated in the bag, but at the expense of the oxygen of the
contained air, which becomes rapidly used up, so that the inhaler
must be removed periodically to allow of an inspiration of pure air
in order to obviate total asphyxia. This method is effective, but
far from ideal; the patient is generally more or less " blue " from
partial asphyxia throughout the administration, there is a profuse
secretion of slimy mucus which must be continually wiped away,
the respirations are greatly exaggerated from " re-breathing " the
carbon dioxide which accumulates in the bag, and they are often
at the same time partially obstructed from the pressure of the closely
fitting face-piece. The after-effects are generally unpleasant and
not infrequently distressing.
In the " open " ether method the breathing is noiseless, effortless,
and only slightly exaggerated, so that delicate abdominal opera-
tions can be performed with comfort. The flow of saliva is consid-
erably less than in the closed method (probably from the absence
of asphyxia) and this can be entirely abolished by the subcutaneous
injection of a minute dose of atrOpine previous to the administration.
There is no sign of cyanosis, and the patient's face remains a healthy
colour throughout; the only restriction of oxygen is by reason of
the displacement of air by ether vapour which at a maximum will
be less than one-third itsvolume, and as in the later stages of an
administration much less vapour is required the restriction becomes
entirely negligible. The after-effects of ether, such as vomiting and
malaise, are considerably less pronounced than following a " close "
administration.
: The application of the " open " method to. ether inhalation has
been brought about by an exceedingly simple adaptation. The
liquid ether is applied to a pad of open-wove fabric, such as "stock-
inette " or a number of layers of absorbent gauze, stretched over a
framework mask of which the margin is roughly adapted to the con-
tours of the face; the mask rests lightly upon the face, a soft pad
being interposed between its edges and the skin to prevent the
entrance of air in this direction. In this way the inhaled air is made
to pass through the meshes of the fabric, and in doing so every por-
tion of it comes in close contact with the ether, and takes up a
greater proportion of vapour than it would if it merely passed over
the surface of the fabric, as in the ordinary way of procedure.
The induction of anaesthesia by the open method is liable to be
somewhat prolonged, an undoubted disadvantage, but once full
anaesthesia has been produced it is maintained without difficulty,
and the results attained are in general more satisfactory than those
of any other form of inhalation anaesthesia.
The " intratracheal " method of etherization has in recent years
been in considerable requisition for special purposes. It is con-
ducted by passing a narrow tube through the larynx into the trachea
almost to the level of its bifurcation. Through this tube a continu-
ous current of air and ether vapour is forced into the lungs at a pres-
sure which keeps the lungs moderately distended, but not so much
so as to abolish the natural respiratory movements. The air returns
through the chink of the vocal cords by the side of the tube, and
this continuous return blast blows away any solid or fluid particles,
blood or pieces of tissue, in the neighbourhood, and prevents their
entering the trachea, an accident which may possibly occur in ordi-
nary inhalation methods. The advantage of intratracheal ether in
operations involving the respiratory passages is therefore obvious;
it is likewise a convenient arrangement for operations upon the face,
which is left entirely uncovered; and in operations upon the interior
of the thorax a proper aeration of the lungs can be thus insured.
Chloroform. The form of sudden de^th which is occasionally
encountered under chloroform anaesthesia has acted as a deterrent
to its more extended employment in spite of its manifest conven-
iences. An earnest endeavour was made by an influential com-
mittee appointed by the British Medical Association to find a
method of preventing these chloroform deaths, by enquiring into
the conditions of overdosage and devising apparatus for the pre-
cise limitation of chloroform vapour to essential requirements. The
final report of this committee was issued .in 1910, but the number
of deaths from chloroform has remained practically undiminished
since that time. An attempt has further been made to reduce the
risk of overdosage by diluting the chloroform with ether in vary-
ing proportions, but this has proved to be futile as a prophylactic
against death, for although the number of deaths under pure chloro-
form has fallen, the number under mixtures of chloroform has risen
ten times in a period of ten years.
It is now becoming realized that the typical sudden chloroform
fatality is not conditioned by an overdose at all. It has long been
known that the majority of deaths occur in the very early stages
of anaesthesia before the patient is fully narcotized, and further
enquiry into reports of fatalities shows that there is generally some
evidence of light anaesthesia preceding death, or else that over-
dosage can be ruled out of question.
There is a further point brought out by these reports, which was
in fact fully appreciated by John Snow in the middle of the last
century: whereas in overdose the respiration is paralyzed before the
circulation, in the typical chloroform death the outstanding feature
is an absolutely sudden failure of the circulation, and the failure
of the respiration is a secondary result.
In 1890, Dr. Robert Kirk, boldly and with strong conviction,
advanced the theory that chloroform deaths occurred from under-
dosage, and although his thesis was supported by important experi-
ments, he failed to .formulate an acceptable theoretical basis for it.
Dr. A. G. Levy, in 1911, reported certain cases of sudden cardiac
failure that he had observed in animals obviously in a light stage of
chloroform anaesthesia, and he succeeded in reproducing this death
by the intravenous injection of small doses of adrenalin in lightly
chloroformed animals, but the experiment failed under full chloro-
form narcosis. This at once accounted for those cases of syncope
and death, a number of which had been recorded, following the
injection of adrenalin into the mucous membrane of the nose for
the purposes of certain nasal operations which were always con-
ducted under light anaesthesia, the form of this syncope being the
same as in an ordinary chloroform fatality.
By following up this line of research it was shown that sudden
cardiac failure could be induced likewise by various procedures
excitation of the cardiac accelerator nerves either directly or through
a reflex mechanism, stimulating the excretion of the adrenal glands,
by intermitting the administration of chloroform, or by withhold-
ing the chloroform during excitement and struggling; the event
never occurred during deep narcosis. The underlying condition
of the cardiac syncope was shown to be that of fibrillation of the
ventricles, in which the ventricles are entirely 1 deprived of their
power of propelling the blood through the arteries. The seeming
paradox of too small a quantity of a drug being dangerous is sus-
ceptible of explanation although the theoretical points have not
been fully worked out: a relatively small proportion of chloroform
renders the heart " irritable " and liable to assume a sequence of
irregular beats which may pass into fibrillation, whereas a larger
proportion of chloroform, by reason of its depressing effect, makes
138
ANCONA, ALESSANDRO ANGOLA
the heart less irritable, and entirely annuls the tendency to fibril-
lation.
Many years ago J. A. McWilliam expressed the opinion that
ventricular fibrillation would be found to account for otherwise
unexplained sudden death met with in various conditions, and this
demonstration of its occurrence under chloroform is the first con-
firmation of his views.
On this theory the prevention of death under chloroform can be
compassed by simple precautions, by making the induction of
anaesthesia continuous and expeditious and thereafter continuously
maintaining a full degree of narcosis. Chloroform should never be
employed if the conditions of the operation forbid the observance
of these rules, and especially in those special cases in which a light
degree of anaesthesia is required. These rules are practically a rever-
sion to the injunctions of Simpson, who introduced chloroform as an
anaesthetic, and his colleague Syme, in whose experience only one
case of death occurred in 10,000 administrations.
Ventricular fibrillation is not always fatal ; probably in more than
half the cases the heart spontaneously recovers its normal beat,
but this happy result can only occur in the first minute or two fol-
lowing the onset of fibrillation. After that time the only prospect
of recovery is through the performance of cardiac " massage."
This so-called " massage" is a rhythmic manual compression of the
heart, producing an artificial circulation; it is combined with an
artificial ventilation of the lungs, and so oxygenated blood is sup-
plied to the heart muscle keeping it alive and active, and giving to
it a prolonged chance of recovery. In cats this experiment is uni-
formly successful in bringing about recovery, but in man there have
hitherto been only relatively few successes. It appears to be the
case that failures have arisen from an imperfect appreciation and
application of the principles of cardiac massage, and it is believed
that with better knowledge the majority of cases of ventricular
fibrillation should prove amenable to this form of treatment.
(A. G. L.)
ANCONA, ALESSANDRO (1835-1914), Italian man of letters
(see 1.951), died at Florence Nov. 8 1914. In 1904 he had been
made a senator. Many of the most eminent contemporary phil-
ologists and students of literary history in Italy had been his pupils.
ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT (1836-1917), English
medical practitioner (see 1.959), died at Aldeburgh, Suff.,
Dec. 17 1917.
ANDERSON, SIR ROBERT ROWAND (1834-1921), British
architect, was born at Forres in 1834, the son of a solicitor.
He was educated at Edinburgh and entered the Royal Engineers,
where he received his first training as a draughtsman. He
subsequently travelled widely in Europe, and later adopted the
profession of architect. His first important work was his success-
ful design for the Edinburgh Medical Schools (1875), and this
was followed by a succession of important commissions, in-
cluding those for the offices of the Caledonian railway, Glasgow,
and Mount Stuart, Lord Bute's house on the island of Bute
(1881-4), the Conservative Club, Edinburgh (1883), the dome of
Edinburgh University (1886) and the Scottish National Portrait
Gallery (i 886-8). He also successfully carried out a series of
restorations of Scottish cathedrals, including those of Dunblane
Cathedral, Paisley Abbey, Culross Abbey and the interior of
Dunfermline Abbey. Many of the best-known monuments in
Edinburgh are from his designs, and he was among the architects
invited to submit designs for the Imperial Institute (1887), the
Queen Victoria Memorial (1901), and the new buildings of the
British Museum (1904). In 1901 he was selected to superintend
the alterations which were being carried out at Balmoral Castle,
and in 1902 he was knighted. Sir Rowand Anderson was in 1876
elected an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy, of which he
was in 1896 elected an honorary member. He was also member
of the Royal Institute of British Architects and in 1916 was
awarded the Royal gold medal for the promotion of architec-
ture. He died at Edinburgh June i 1921.
ANDORRA (see 1.965) had, in 1913, a pop. of 5,210, distributed
in 6 communes embracing 44 villages and hamlets. Alt. ranges
from 6,562 ft. to 10,171 ft.; alt. of Andorra la Vella, the capital,
7,500 feet. The trans-Pyreneean railway from Ax-les-Thermes
(Chemin de Fer du Midi) to Ripoll will pass within 2 or 3 m. of
the frontier. A motor road, made by the French from Ax over
the Col de Puymorens (alt. about 6,300 ft.) to Bourg-Madame.on
the Spanish frontier, is tapped by a branch road (under con-
struction in 1912) entering Andorra at Port d'En-Valira (alt.
7,580 ft.), and running down the Valira valley to the capital.
The revenue of the republic, amounting to about 32,000 pesetas
per annum, is derived from the sale of wood from the state forests,
the rental of summer pastures, a tax on inns and slaughter-houses,
a small tax on cattle and a poll-tax. The two suzerain powers
receive a biennial tribute France 1,920 francs and the Bishop of
Urgel 920 pesetas; the latter also receives annual gifts in kind from
each of the six communes. The principal industry is the raising of
cattle, sheep and mules. There is a small tobacco factory at the
capital and a considerable amount, of poor quality, is exported to
Spain. Wax matches are also made. French and Spanish postage
stamps, for the north and south respectively, are in use; the tele-
graphic arrangements are French. Both French and Spanish coins
are current. France has established schools in Andorra, and French
influence is in the ascendent.
ANDRASSY, JULIUS, COUNT (1860- ), Hungarian states-
man, son of the former Minister of the Interior, was born
June 30 1860. Deputy (1885), Secretary of State for the Interior
(1892), Minister of the Court (1892), he became Minister of the
Interior in 1906. As Minister of the Interior, as well as earlier
in connexion with the language of command in the Hungarian
army and against the regime of Fejervary, he maintained a
severe struggle with the prime ministers Khuen-Hedervary and
Stephen Tisza. In 1913 he delivered three speeches in the
Hungarian Delegation against the conduct of foreign affairs,
and in Parliament he opposed the plan for the centralization of
the internal administration of Hungary. At the outbreak of
the World War he supported the Tisza ministry, but opposed
Burian, the Foreign Minister, on the Polish and the Italian
questions. In 1915 he pleaded for peace, and urged a wide
extension of the franchise. In 1918, as Foreign Minister, he
declared the alliance with Germany dissolved, and desired to
conclude a separate peace. He retired from office on Nov. 5,
was returned for Miskolcz to the National Assembly in Jan.
1920 as a non-party delegate, and later became leader of the
Christian National party. In 1904 he was made an associate of
the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, in recognition of his dis-
tinguished work as a historian.
His works include: Ungarns Ausgleich vom Jahre 1867 (Hun-
garian and German, crowned by the Academy) ; Die Ursachen des
Bestandes des Ungarischen Staates und dessen verfassungsmassiger
Freiheit (3 vols., Hungarian, crowned by the Academy) ; The De-
velopment of Hungarian Constitutional Liberty (English) ; and in
Hungarian and German Wer hat den Krieg verbrochen? Interes-
sensolidaritiit des Deutschtums und Ungartums and Diplomatic und
Weltkrieg. (E. V. W.)
ANDREE, RICHARD (1835-1912), German geographer (see
1.971), died at Leipzig Feb. 22 1912.
ANGELL, JAMES ROWLAND (1869- ), American educa-
tionist, was born at Burlington, Vt., May 8 1869. He was a son
of James Burrill Angell (d. 1916), first president of the university
of Vermont and fourth president of the university of Michigan
(1871-1901). He was educated at the universities of Michigan
(A.B. 1890; A.M. 1891) and Harvard (A.M. 1892), and spent a
year in Europe, chiefly at Berlin, and Halle. In 1913 he was
appointed instructor in philosophy at the university of Minnesota.
In 1894 he was called to the university of Chicago, remaining
there until 1920, as assistant professor of psychology and director
of the psychological laboratory, associate professor and, after
1905, professor and head of the department. He was dean of
the university faculties after 1911 and acting president dur-
ing 1918-9. In 1906 he was elected president of the American
Psychological Association, in 1914 was exchange professor at
the Sorbonne, and in 1915 was special lecturer on psychology at
Columbia. After America entered the World War in 1917 he was
connected with the adjutant-general's office as member of the
committee on classification of personnel in the army. He was
also a member of the National Research Council, serving as
chairman during 1919-20. In April 1920 he was elected president
of the Carnegie Corporation of New York. In 1921 he was
elected president of Yale to succeed Arthur T. Hadley, resigned.
He was the author of Psychology (1904; 4th ed. revised, 1908);
Chapters from Modern Philosophy (1912) and An Introduction to
Psychology (1918).
ANGOLA (PORTUGUESE WEST AFRICA) (see 2.38). A census
taken in 1914 gave the pop. as 2,124,000, but this total was based
on figures supplied by the natives for the purpose of a hut tax,
ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D' ANTARCTIC REGIONS 139
and did not include regions over which the Portuguese exercised
no authority. In 1920 the pop. was estimated, with greater ac-
curacy, at a little under 4,000,000, or eight persons per sq. mile.
There were some 30,000 whites, mostly Portuguese. Loanda
(Sao Paolo de Loanda), the capital, had 18,000 inhabitants, of
whom a third were whites.
Surveys made since 1909 showed that the part of southern
Angola suitable for European colonization was larger than had been
supposed and that the plateau, which is free from tsetse-fly, was well
adapted to stock raising. Few settlers had been, however, attracted
to this region up to 1921 and the development of the whole province
was very slow. There was nevertheless an increase in cocoa planta-
tions, chiefly in the Kabinda enclave; coffee, though gathered mainly
from wild plants, was also cultivated in the Loanda hinterland and
other areas. Rubber was obtained mostly from virgin forest, but
ceara, ficus and other trees were planted. Up to 1911 the manu-
facture of rum was the leading industry; in that year the factories
were closed by Government decree, compensation being given to
the factory owners and to the planters who grew sugar and sweet
potatoes for the production of alcohol. These planters were encour-
aged to grow sugar-cane for export, and the output for 1913 was
4,600 tons. Subsequently the industry languished. Fish-curing
and whaling are lucrative industries. The whalers are Norwegians
and Americans and their headquarters are at Lobito Bay. Forestry
and mining are both undeveloped, but the syndicate which since
1908 has worked the Kasai diamond area of the Belgian Congo has
also concessions on the Portuguese side, and in 1920 the output of
diamonds from Angola was estimated at 120,000 carats.
External trade, owing to high protective tariffs, was mainly with
Portugal; in the period of 1910-20 it was valued at from 3,500,-
ooo to 4,500,000 yearly, with a tendency for exports to decrease.
Rubber, coffee, wax, sugar and palm-kernels, dried fish and whale
oil are the chief exports.
Lack of means of transport was a principal cause of the slow prog-
ress of Angola. The most important railway (of the standard South
African 3 ft. -6 in. gauge), that from Lobito Bay by Benguella across
the southern plateau, had reached Bihe, a distance of 323 m. in
1914, when owing to the World War construction stopped. The
railway, a British enterprise, was designed to serve the copper mines
of Katanga, Belgian Congo, and work on the remaining 480 m.
to the Congo frontier began in 1921. A British company acquired
large land concessions along the line and started ranches. Farther
south a narrow gauge (60 cm.) railway III m. long goes from
Mossamedes to the Chala Mts., serving a wheat-growing region
with European settlements, including one of South African Dutch.
In northern Angola the railway (metre gauge) from Loanda was
carried to Malanje (375 m.) and was bought in July 1918 by the
Portuguese Government.
Excess of expenditure over revenue continued to be a character-
istic of the administration, partly because, except for a hut tax on
natives, there was no direct taxation. Revenue was almost entirely
derived from import and export duties. Deficits were made good
by grants made from Portugal and by transfers from the treasuries
of such Portuguese colonies as showed an excess of revenue. Annual
revenue averaged, on a rough estimate, 500,000 and expenditure
700,000.
History. Southern Angola, in 1900-11, was regarded as a
probable choice by the Jewish Territorial Association as a field
for colonization, and Portugal enacted land laws with a view to
that contingency. But Angola was rejected by the Zionists as a
home for Jews. Between 1910 and 1914 chief interest in Angola
centred in a very different scheme the efforts of Germany to
include the province in her economic and, ultimately, her
political sphere. As far back as 1898 Great Britain had recog-
nized Germany's right to " assist " the Portuguese to exploit
southern Angola, but this had not prevented a British syndicate
under Mr. Robert Williams from securing the concession for the
Benguella (Lobito Bay) railway. On the building of this line from
the coast to Bihe over 5,000,000 was spent. A new Anglo-
German agreement had been negotiated in 1913-4 and only
awaited signature when the World War put an end to the
negotiations. The new treaty would have recognized German
economic interests as supreme throughout Angola, except in its
eastern section (see AFRICA: History). Meantime the Germans
had pressed the Portuguese, and with some success, to grant them
commercial concessions, and had made offers to buy up the
British capital (90% of the whole) in the Benguella railway
offers which were rejected.
In southern Angola itself German agents and so-called
scientific missions showed much activity. Not only did its high-
lands present many advantages for European settlement; the
Kunene river valley, part of which was in German territory, was
inhabited by the Ovambo, of whom some 20,000 were recruited
by the Germans for work in the Otavi copper-mines. In 1913 the
Portuguese forbade further recruiting in Angola; the Germans
replied by presenting estimates to the Reichstag in 1914 for
150,000 towards building a railway from Otavi through the
Ovambo country and 22 m. of the railway had been built when
the World War began. Though Portugal was at the time neutral
several conflicts occurred between the Portuguese and Germans
in the frontier district. The surrender of the Germans in South-
West Africa to Gen. Botha, in July 1915, removed the German
menace to Angola and gave the province the British (South
Africans) as neighbours on the south.
In an endeavour to break with the tradition that the colonies
existed only for the benefit of Portugal the Lisbon Government in
1914 granted them a measure of autonomy. The then governor-
general of Angola, Senhor Norton de Mattos, had already in-
stituted reforms and in 1913 had created a Department for Native
Affairs, which set itself to regulate the employment of natives,
including the recruitment of labourers for the cocoa plantations
on St. Thome and Principe Islands. The result was some
improvement in the conditions of the natives, but the principle
of compulsory labour was maintained, and abuses continued.
In 1920 Portugal again endeavoured to set its colonial affairs in
order. Another autonomy measure was introduced and Senhor
Norton de Mattos was again (Oct. 1920) selected to go to Angola,
this time as high commissioner with wide powers.
See Angola (including Cabinda) (London 1920), a British Foreign
Office handbook with bibliography; Hugo Marquardsen, Angola
(Berlin 1920), a careful study of the geography and people, by the
geographer of the Reichskolonialamt ; the Anuario Colonial (Lisbon)
and the Boletim of the Lisbon Geog. Society. (F. R. C.)
ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D': see D'ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE.
ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL, IST BART. (1843-1914),
English jurist (see 2.84), died at Oxford June 4 1914. In 1909
he signed the minority report of the Divorce Commission, in
company with the Archbishop of York and Sir Lewis Dibdin.
ANTARCTIC REGIONS (see 21.960). The expedition planned
by Dr. W. S. Bruce for crossing the Antarctic continent in
1911-2, from Coats Land on the Weddell Sea to McMurdo
Sound in the Ross Sea, was not proceeded with, and two Ameri-
can expeditions which were contemplated at the same time did
not advance beyond the stage of projects.
Shirase (1910-2). A Japanese expedition to Edward VII.
Land was fitted out under the command of Lt. Shirase
in 1910 and left Japan in that year on board the " Kainan
Maru." It entered the Ross Sea too late to make a landing, and
after wintering in Sydney returned in 1911-2, when a landing was
effected on the Barrier in the Bay of Whales on Jan. 16, but
no discoveries were reported and no account appears to have
been published in any European language.
Amundsen (1910-2). Capt. Roald Amundsen sailed from
Norway in the " Fram " (which had been fitted with internal
combustion engines) in Aug. 1910 with the avowed intention
of carrying out oceanographical work in the South Atlantic
and of proceeding round Cape Horn to Bering Strait, where he
proposed to repeat Nansen's drift across the Arctic sea from a
more easterly starting-place. The announcement of Peary's
attainment of the North Pole in 1909 convinced Amundsen that
he could not raise sufficient funds for his proposed five years'
absence, and he determined to make a dash for the South Pole in
order to raise money for the greater project. His change of plan
was announced to the world at Madeira in Sept., and on Jan. 14
1911 the " Fram " was alongside the Barrier in the Bay of Whales,
lat. 78 40' S. long. 164 W. The 116 Eskimo dogs were landed
and a hut, " Framheim," erected on the Barrier 2j m. inland, the
point of departure for the Pole being that originally proposed
by Shackleton in 1907. On Feb. 15 1911 the " Fram," under
Lt. Thorvald Nilsen with nine men, sailed for an oceano-
graphical circumnavigation, with Buenos Aires as the first port of
call. Amundsen started on his first depot-laying journey on Feb.
10, and by April n had moved 3 tons of provisions to three
140
ANTARCTIC REGIONS
depots in 80, 81 and 82 S. respectively. A start for the main
south journey was made on Sept. 8 but the cold proved too
severe (-58 to -75 F.) for the dogs and the party returned to
winter quarters for a month. On Oct. 20 1911 (with temp.
-5 to -23 F.) Amundsen left again with four companions,
Helmer Hansen, Oscar Wisting, Sverre Hassel and Olav Bjaa-
land, four sledges and 52 dogs. At each original depot they rested
a day and gave the dogs a full feed from the stores; but on Nov. 8
they left the depot in lat. 82 S., carrying four months' provisions
and travelling about 30 m. a day over the smooth Barrier surface,
the men using ski. At every degree of latitude the sledges were
lightened by fornu'ng a depot of provisions for the return journey.
On Nov. 9 the mountains of South Victoria Land were sighted,
and on the nth another range of mountains was seen joining the
Victoria Land range from the direction of Edward VII. Land, and
thus forming the southern boundary of the great flat Barrier
surface, which apparently did not extend far beyond lat. 85 S.
On Nov. 17 a large depot was left in lat. 85 S. at the base of
the Queen Maud range which formed the continuation of the
Victoria Land mountains, at a point 200 m. S. of the Beardmore
glacier. From this point the climb to the Plateau began through
magnificent scenery of glaciers and peaks, the heights of which
were estimated as 10,000, 15,000 and even 19,000 feet. A way
was found to the summit of the Plateau by the Axel Heiberg
glacier which was negotiated by the dogs with much difficulty.
Four days were occupied in the ascent to a level stretch at 7,000
ft.; and severe weather compelled a halt at this point for four
days more. Here 24 dogs were killed, leaving 18 to work the three
sledges. A start due S. was made on Nov. 26 and for two days
severe blizzards made it impossible to see the surroundings, but
the course lay on a descending gradient. On Nov. 29 a depot with
six days' provisions was made at the foot of the Devil's glacier in
lat. 86 21' S. On Dec. i at a height of about 9,000 ft. the way led
over a smooth ice surface on which it was impossible to use ski,
while under the tread it sounded like walking on empty barrels,
and both men and dogs frequently broke through the thin crust of
ice. This tract, called " The Devil's Ball Room," proved the
worst travelling of the whole trip. Next day in lat. 88 S. the
highest swell of the Plateau, estimated at 11,000 ft., was passed
and in a few days the weather improved, travelling was easy, and
on Dec. 14 1911 the position of the South Pole was reached.
The total distance from Framheim of about 870 m. was accom-
plished in 49 days of actual travelling, the average daily distance
being 17 miles. After remaining two days at the Pole to secure
sufficient observations to fix the position, Amundsen and his
party returned to Framheim in 38 days, picking up the depots in
succession and making an average of 23 m. per day in fine weather
without any untoward incident. The health of the men and the
ii surviving dogs was perfect throughout the 96 days of the
double journey. During the absence of the southern party
Lt. K. Prestrud with Frederik H. Johansen and Jorgen Stubberud
made a journey to Edward VII. Land with two sledges and 14
dogs. They were absent from Framheim (where Lindstrom the
cook was left in charge) from Nov. 8 to Dec. 16 1911 and reached
Scott's Nunatak, which was found to reach a height of 1,700 ft.
and was covered with thick moss. The " Fram " returned to the
Bay of Whales on Jan. n 1912 and the whole party sailed for
home on Jan. 30, after the shortest and most successful expedi-
tion which ever wintered in the Antarctic. The one object, the
attainment of the Pole, had been accomplished quickly and
easily and the meteorological observations were of great value
in extending the conclusions of other investigators.
Scott (1910-2). Capt. Robert F. Scott's expedition, planned
with the double purpose of reaching the South Pole and complet-
ing the scientific study of the Ross Sea area, reached McMurdo
Sound in the " Terra Nova " on Jan. 4 1911 (after seeking in
vain for a safe position near Cape Crozier), and erected a com-
modious wooden house for the main base at Cape Evans on Ross
I. about half way between Shackleton's base at Cape Royds and
the Old " Discovery " headquarters at Hut Point. No polar
expedition had been fitted out with greater care for the purpose of
scientific research in'meteorology, geolbgy, glaciology and biology.
After landing the stores for the main base at Cape Evans the
Terra Nova," under Comm. Harry Pennell, left on Jan. 25
1911, proceeded eastward along the Barrier and, after failing to
land on Edward VII. Land, encountered the " Fram " in the
Bay of Whales on Feb. 3.
Scott's Northern Party (1911-2). The eastern party decided
to return with news of the Norwegian expedition to Cape Evans,
and then to proceed as a northern party to some point beyond
Cape North, but this also proved unattainable, and a landing had
to be made at Cape Adare on Feb. 18 1911. Here a hut was
erected and the northern party, under Comm. Victor L. A.
Campbell and including Surg. Gen. Murray Levick, Raymond E.
Priestley (geologist and meteorologist) petty-officers G. P. Ab-
bott, F. V. Browning and H. Dickason, were landed with stores
and sledges but no dogs. One of Borchgrevink's huts built in 1 899
was in good order, the other had been unroofed by a storm but
both were serviceable. They passed a stormy winter and con-
firmed Borchgrevink's conclusion that it was impossible to make
any extensive journeys either on the sea-ice, which frequently
blew out to sea, or by land from this base. On Jan. 4 1912 the
" Terra Nova " returned and took off the party, landing them
with six weeks' provisions a few days later in Terra Nova Bay,
just S. of Mt. Melbourne, on the lower slopes of which much
geological work was done. The ship failed to return in Feb. as ex-
pected, and the winter of 1912 had to be passed in an ice cave on
Inexpressible I. (about lat. 75 S.), the party subsisting mainly
on seal meat cooked over blubber lamps devised with much
ingenuity. This winter, spent almost without stores, was a
triumph of adaptability to the hardest possible conditions, and
although there was much illness the whole party was able to
march when a start for Cape Evans was possible on Sept. 30 1912.
The Drygalski glacier tongue was crossed and the party made its
way southward along the sea-ice close to shore. On Oct. 28 Gran-
ite Harbour was reached and stores left there by Griffith Taylor
allowed of full rations of good food for the first time for nine
months. The remainder of the 7o-m. march to Cape Evans
was assisted by several depots, and they all arrived at Hut Point
on Nov. 6 1912, after triumphing over the most difficult condi-
tions ever yet surmounted in the Antarctic.
Scott's Western Party (1911-2). During Jan., Feb. and March
1911 Griffith Taylor, with Frank Debenham, Charles S. Wright
and P. O. Edgar Evans, made an extensive geological survey and
study of the ice phenomenon of the lower valleys of the Western
Mountains, from Butter Point southward to the Koettlitz
glacier in lat. 78 20' S., and after the winter at Cape Evans,
Griffith Taylor made a second western trip with Debenham,
Lt. Tryggve Gran and P. O. Forde, completing the geological
survey of the lower mountain slopes W. of McMurdo Sound from
Butter Point northward to Granite Harbour in lat. 76 50' S.
This journey lasted from Nov. 1911 to Feb. 1912 and was rich
in scientific results.
Wilson's Winter Journey (1911). The finest adventure of
the first winter at Cape Evans was the daring journey in solstitial
darkness via Hut Point to Cape Crozier and back by Dr. Edward
A. Wilson, Lt. H. R. Bowers and Mr. Apsley Cherry-Garrard.
It lasted for 36 days from June 27 to Aug. i 1911, and the total
distance traversed by man-hauled sledges was over 100 m.,
giving an average of about 4 m. per day out and 7 m. a day home.
During a stay of ten days an effort was made to study the nesting
habits of the emperor penguin. This journey was made in the
lowest temperature ever experienced in the Antarctic: many
days had readings below -60 -F. and the worst was as low as
-77 F. The snow in places was as granular and hard to pull
through as sand, and only one sledge could be moved at a time,
so that on some days many hours' work only made 2 m. in
distance.
Scott's Journey to the South Pole (1911-2). The main object
of Capt. Scott's expedition being the great southern journey,
steps were taken at the earliest date to lay out depots for the
main expedition of the following year. The vital point being
transport, means had been taken to provide three alternatives
to man-haulage. There were landed at Cape Evans 17 Siberian
ANTARCTIC REGIONS
141
ponies, 33 Siberian sledge dogs and three motor sledges on the
design of which Scott had taken immense pains. The motors were
practically useless on account of mechanical defects and were
abandoned early in the great march. The health of the animals
was a source of unending anxiety and much trouble was ex-
perienced in driving them.
The route selected was at first about a day's march to the E.
of that taken by Shackleton and consequently far to the E. of
that followed by Scott on the " Discovery " expedition, the
reason being to get the smooth Barrier ice beyond the influence
of the great pressure ridges which disturb the surface near the
mountains. But the Plateau was to be reached by Shackleton's
way up the Beardmore glacier at which point the tracks converged.
Depots were laid out by Scott in Jan. and Feb. 1911 at Corner
Camp in lat. 78 S., Bluff Camp nearly in lat. 79 S. and at One
Ton depot which he had hoped to plant in lat. 80 S., but was
obliged by circumstances to place in lat. 79 29' S. only a
necessity which contributed to the greatest Antarctic disaster on
record. In Sept. 1911, when the temperature was usually below
-40 F., Scott's second-in-command, Lt. Edward R. A. R. Evans,
took additional stores to Corner Camp; but no more distant
depots were supplemented before the main southern journey
started.
The two motor sledges left Cape Evans on Oct. 24 1911, got
over the sea-ice to Hut Point, safely ascended to the Barrier and
broke down hopelessly, the first a few miles N. of Corner Camp,
the second a few miles S. of Corner Camp on Nov. 3. Thence-
forward the southern advance was made by 16 people in three
parties of four each, reinforced by two from the motor sledges and
two with the dogs, one party ahead breaking the trail, the others
following at intervals. Bad weather was experienced, frequent
blizzards making the advance difficult. Depots with stores were
provided for the returning parties at Mount Hooper in lat.
80 35' S. on Nov. 21 (Day and Hooper of the motor party, who
had dragged a sledge so far, left to return three days later), at the
Mid Barrier in lat. 81 35' S., at the South Barrier depot in lat.
82 47' S. on Dec. i and at the entrance to the Beardmore glacier
in lat. 83 30' S. on Dec. 10. The last of the ponies had broken
down and been shot, and from this point Meares and the dog-
teams returned northward. The party of 12 pushed on up the
Beardmore glacier with three man-hauled sledges, and after
leaving a depot in the middle of the glacier, reached the Plateau
at 8,000 ft. on Dec. 21 1911 and left the Upper Glacier depot in
lat. 85 7' S. Here Dr. Atkinson, Mr. Wright, Mr. Cherry-
Garrard and P. O. Keohane returned, and the party of eight went
on with two sledges. Ten days later Three Degree depot waa
formed in lat. 86 56' S. and at this point Lt. Evans with Crean
and Lashley returned. This party was attacked by scurvy as on
the southern march from the " Discovery " in 1902, and Lt.
Evans broke down on the Barrier and was only rescued by the
heroic exertions of his companions. The southern party now
consisting of five men: Scott, E. A. Wilson, H. R. Bowers, L. E. G.
Dates and P. O. E. Evans made one more depot in lat. 88 29' S.
and reached the South Pole on Jan. 18 1912, having made 69
marches averaging over 12 m. per day. His diary shows that in
the outward journey Scott's mind was full of care and anxiety,
while the disappointment of finding by Amundsen's record that
he was not first to reach the Pole was a shock from which his
spirits seemed never to recover.
The return journey was commenced without delay, but
without any help from animal traction it proved too much for
the men. Edgar Evans fell ill first and after causing fatal delay,
he died on Feb. 17 on the Beardmore glacier. Dates, feeling his
strength exhausted, had the heroism to sacrifice himself rather
than cause further delay, and he left the tent on March 17 in
79 50' S. never to return. The last camp was made in lat. 79
40' S., only ii m. from One Ton depot on March 19, and here
during a blizzard which raged for several days Scott, Wilson and
Bowers met their fate with heroism, Scott writing to the end.
The immediate cause of collapse seems to have been^cold, due to
the deficiency of oil fuel in the Mount Hooper depot, the reason
for which was stated to be evaporation through defective stoppers.
The Winter of 1912 at Cape Evans. During the absence of the
southern party the " Terra Nova " had reached Cape Evans in
Feb. 1912 and stores were landed, including seven mules from
India and 14 dogs. Dr. Atkinson's party, sent back by Scott
from the Beardmore glacier, arrived on Jan. 28, and after seeing
to matters at the base, Dr. Atkinson went south with the dog-
teams in time to rescue Lt. Evans near Corner Camp on Feb. 22,
and as the latter was in a serious condition Atkinson stayed with
him until he got him on board the " Terra Nova." Cherry-
Garrard and Dimitri took 'the dog-teams back to One Ton depot
to meet Scott, reaching that point on March 4 and remaining
until March 10 in weather that made a further advance S. im-
possible, and they got back to Hut Point on the i6th with great
difficulty and in a very bad state. The ship left on March 8 to
make a final attempt to relieve Campbell's northern party and
did not return, so the base party did not know what had happened
either to the northern or southern parties. On March 26 Atkinson
with P. O. Keohane set out from Hut Point and got as far as
Corner Camp, where he turned, being satisfied that Scott's party
must have perished. He made one more journey, though it was
now very late in the season, and left two weeks' provisions at
Butter Point for the northern party, returning to Hut Point on
April 23, the day the sun disappeared for the winter. There were
13 souls in the Cape Evans hut that winter, with Dr. Atkinson in
charge, Lt. Evans having returned ill to New Zealand and Dr.
G. C. Simpson, whose meteorological work had been of unique
value, having gone back to his duties in India. On Oct. 30
1912 the whole party, under Dr. Atkinson, with Mr. C. S.
Wright as guide, with seven mules and the dogs, set out from Hut
Point, an d on Nov. 12 the tent with the bodies of Scott, Wilson
and Bowers was discovered in lat. 79 50' S., and the records and
collections brought back.
During Dec. 1912 a party of six climbed Mt. Erebus, reaching
the summit on the nth, the second occasion of its ascent.
The " Terra Nova " returned on Jan. 18 1913 and a few
days later took off the entire party, reaching New Zealand
on Feb. 12. The sensation produced by the tragedy of the
expedition was profound and a large fund was subscribed for the
benefit of the relatives of the dead explorers and for the pro-
motion of polar research. The scientific results of the expedition
have been worked up and are of the highest value in all depart-
ments.
Australian Expedition (iQii~4).^An Australian expedition
was fitted out under the command of Dr. (later Sir) Douglas
Mawson, with Capt. John King Davis as commander of the ship
and second-in-command of the expedition, for the purpose of
exploring the coast of Antarctica S. of Australia. The expedition
left Hobart in the " Aurora " on Dec. 2 1911, and after landing a
party with a wireless installation on Macquarie I. (lat. 55 S.)
the ship reached Adelie Land, discovered by D'Urville in 1840,
and effected a landing in Commonwealth Bay, the position of
which was subsequently fixed by wireless time-signals as lat. 67
S., long. 142 40' E. Dr. Mawson with 17 companions was
landed here in Jan. 1912. The " Aurora " proceeded westward
close along the Antarctic circle. Balleny's Sabrina Land, D'Ur-
ville 's Cote Clarie and most of the land reported by Wilkes were
found not to exist, 'though an enormous ice-tongue which might
well have been taken for part of the continent occupied the
position of Termination Land. Just beyond this point Mr.
Frank Wild was landed on a new coast called Queen Mary Land
in lat. 66 S., long. 94 E., and left with seven companions on
Feb. 20 1912, the actual position being on a solid ice-shelf about
17 m. from the high land. The " Aurora " returned to Hobart.
At the main base in Adelie Land autumn sledging proved
impossible, and throughout the winter there was a continuous
succession of terrific blizzards, wind with an average velocity of
50 m.p.h. for the year, and sometimes with average hourly
velocity of over 100 m.p.h. poured torrents of drift snow from
the interior into the sea. Only the fact that the hut was buried
in the snowdrifts saved it from being carried away. No such
weather has been recorded from any other part of the world.
In the spring two caverns were excavated in the ice at distances
142
ANTARCTIC REGIONS
of about 5 and 12 m. respectively from the hut towards the high
inland plateau and were stored with provisions for summer sledg-
ing; the use of surface depots like those on the Ross Barrier was
impossible owing to the wind. Five sledge parties started simul-
taneously in Nov. 1912, their paths diverging so as to cover
the greatest possible area. The eastern sledging parties under
Mr. F. L. Stilwell and C. T. Madigan with Dr. A. L. Maclean and
others, mapped the coast and huge glacier tongues as far east as
long. 150 20' E., reaching the farthest point on Dec. 18. The
land, with a surface rising to 3,000 ft. above the sea, extended far
to the east and was named George V. Land. It stretched towards
Gates Land sighted by the " Terra Nova " of Scott's expedition.
Good rock exposures were found containing coal and fossils.
The magnetic pole party from the main base, under Lt. R. Bage
with E. N. Webb and J. F. Hurley, travelled out 300 m. with
man-hauled sledges and reached 6,500 ft. above sea-level at a
point only a few miles from that reached by Sir Douglas Mawson
and Sir Edgeworth David from McMurdo Sound on Sir Ernest
Shackleton's expedition. The western party from the main
base under Mr. F. H. Bickerton, with A. J. Hodgeman and
Dr. L. A. Whetter, reached a point on the Antarctic circle in long.
138 E. on Christmas Day, travelling over the Plateau at a
height of about 4,000 ft. An air tractor sledge started with this
party but broke down after 10 miles.
Dr. Mawson, with Dr. X. Mertz and Lt. B. E. S. Ninnis, using
dog sledges, set out for a long journey to the S. E. well inland of
Madigan 's party, and had very difficult ground to cover, includ-
ing many rises to over 3,000 ft. with intermediate descents to
near sea-level, where there were heavily crevassed glaciers. They
had got out about 310 m. to nearly long. 152 E. when on Dec. 14
1912 Ninnis, with his sledge and dogs, broke through the snow
covering of a crevasse of enormous depth and was instantly
killed. Many essential parts of the equipment were lost with the
sledge, and only six dogs in poor condition were left. From this
point the homeward track was laid farther S. than the outward so
as to avoid the great ups and downs, and the travellers pushed on
in frequent bad weather on short rations supplemented by the
flesh of the dogs. Both suffered severely from the insufficient
and loathsome food, and Mertz collapsed on Jan. 6 1913 and died
the following day, leaving Mawson alone 100 m. from the hut.
After three days spent in cutting down the sledge and rearranging
its load Mawson started on his lonely tramp, and after appalling
difficulties, when nearly exhausted, he stumbled on a food depot
laid out by a search party 20 m. from the hut on Jan. 29 1913.
It was Feb. 8 when he reached the hut and saw the " Aurora,"
but she was outward bound. A fresh relief party had come S. in
the ship, and a second winter had to be spent in the hut, the
isolation somewhat mitigated by wireless intercourse with
Australia via Macquarie Island.
Capt. Davis, after landing the relief party and taking off all
the others, waited for the return of Mawson as long as he dared,
having in view the necessity of relieving Wild's party in Queen
Mary Land, and the fact that every anchor on the ship had been
lost in the fight with blizzards in Commonwealth Bay. He
reached Wild's base just in time, got the party safely on board
and returned to Hobart. From their base in long. 98 E. Wild's
party had travelled W. to the Gaussberg in long. 89 E., and E.
as far as long. 101 E., mapping the glaciers which descended
from a plateau rising above 3,000 ft., as well as several islands
off the coast. The " Aurora " returned to Commonwealth Bay on
Dec. 13 1913, and after taking the base party on board made
another voyage to Queen Mary Land and carried out valuable
oceanographical work on the way back to Hobart.
W. Filchner (ign-2). Lt. Wilhelm Filchner organized a
German expedition to the Weddell Sea in 1911, and sailed from
South Georgia in the " Deutschland " (Capt. Vahsel) on
Dec. ii in that year and entered the pack seven days later in
lat. 61 S. The ship went S. approximately on the meridian of
30 W. and sighted land on Jan. 29 1912 in lat. 76 S.; about 2 S.
and 8 W. of Bruce's Coats Land. The " Deutschland " pro-
ceeded along the new coast, named Luitpold Land, to lat. 77
48' S., long. 35 W. on Feb. 2 1912, where an indentation in the
Barrier ice formed Vahsel Bay, whence the land rose to the S. and
three nunataks were observed piercing the snow. Efforts to get
farther S. on a westerly course failed, and on Feb. 6 it was
decided to erect the winter hut on an iceberg which appeared to
be firmly frozen to the Barrier and to offer an easy passage for
dog-sledges to the land. All stores were transferred to the
iceberg, when on Feb. 18 it suddenly began to move and ponies,
dogs, stores and as much of the wood as could be saved were
hurriedly reembarked. Two small depots of provisions were
afterwards laid out on the Barrier ice as a base for land parties
while the ship sought for winter quarters; but Capt. Vahsel
feared the destruction of the vessel, and induced the leader to
change his plans and return to South Georgia for the winter in
order to try again next year. The return journey was commenced
on March 4 1912, but four days later the ship was beset by
young ice in lat. 74 S., long. 31 W., and remained fast, drifting
with the winds and currents of the Weddell Sea all winter, on the
whole westward and northward until the middle of August, when
she was in lat. 66 S. and long. 44 W. Thereafter the drift was
eastward and northward until she broke out of the pack in lat.
63 40' S. and long. 36 W. on Nov. 27 1912 and proceeded for
home. The drift lasted for 264 days and no land was sighted,
although a sledge journey was made westward to long. 45 W. in
search of Morrell Land. Capt. Vahsel died during the drift, and
the expedition broke up at South Georgia.
Shackleton's Weddell Sea Party (1914-6). Sir Ernest Shackle-
ton had completed his preparations for an attempt to cross the
Antarctic regions from Weddell Sea to Ross Sea before the
outbreak of the World War, and carried out his expedition at the
direct order of the Admiralty, which declined his offer of the ships
and men for war service. He left England on Aug. 8 1914 in the
" Endurance " and sailed from South Georgia on Dec. 5, with
the intention of landing in Vahsel Bay and proceeding thence to
the South Pole after wintering on the land. The pack was
entered in lat. 57 S. and the ship worked her way S. between
long. 15 and 20 W. until on Jan. n 1915 she sighted Coats
Land, and followed new land named the Caird Coast to Luitpold
Land. Here the " Endurance " was beset in the ice on Jan. 18 in
lat. 76 34' S., long. 31 30' W. and the voyage was at an end.
The " Endurance " drifted in the pack as the " Deutschland "
had done three years before, and on a nearly parallel track,
moving N. about 10 farther W. and at almost exactly the same
rate in the same latitudes. The ice was however much heavier,
and in the terrific pressures which occurred the " Endurance "
was crushed on Oct. 27, when the expedition of 28 men with 49
dogs abandoned her and camped on the floe. This was in lat.
69 5' S.,. long. 51 30' W., and three weeks later the shattered
wreck sank through the ice. The attempt to sledge over the ice
westward towards the E. coast of Graham Land was unavailing,
as the ship's boats could not be left behind and were too heavy to
drag. The party therefore camped on the drifting floe, keeping
up scientific observations and maintaining their health and
spirits though in continual danger from the floes ridging up or
cracking asunder. The drift went on until April 9 1916 when the
floe, reduced to a triangle 100 yds. in the side, drifted into the
open sea in lat. 62 S., long. 54 W., and the party had to take to
their boats, after drifting 292 days in the ship and 165 on the bare
ice, 457 days in all. North of lat. 66 S. the drift of the " Deutsch-
land " had turned sharp to the E., but that of Sir Ernest Shackle-
ton's floe continued in the main due N. ; the difference may have
been due to the opposite seasons or to other causes. The three
boats safely reached Elephant I. in the South Shetlands, and a
shelter was rigged up of two boats, where 22 of the party were
left under the capable leadership of Mr. Frank Wild, while
Shackleton and five companions set out in the third boat, the
" James Caird," for the almost desperate attempt to reach
South Georgia. The effort succeeded in great measure through
the fine seamanship of Capt. Worsley, and the island was
reached in 16 days on May 10 after a voyage of over 800 m., but
on the side farthest from the whaling stations. After a four-days
rest Shackleton, with two companions, had recovered sufficiently
to cross the unknown snow-covered mountains, which had never
ANTHROPOLOGY
been climbed before, and a steamer was sent round for the others.
Sir Ernest Shackleton made strenuous efforts to rescue the
Elephant I. party first in a small steamer from South Georgia,
then in a trawler from Montevideo, then in a little motor schoon-
er from Punta Arenas, all of which were driven back by the ice
floes near the South Shetlands, and finally in the " Yelcho," a
tug from Punta Arenas, in which he reached the island on Aug. 30
1916 and brought back the whole party without a casualty.
Shackleton' s Ross Sea Party (1914-7). On the Ross Sea side
the " Aurora," under command of Capt. Aeneas Mackintosh,
brought an auxiliary expedition to lay out depots on the Barrier
to facilitate the latter part of Shackleton's march from the Wed-
dell Sea via the South Pole. The " Aurora " reached Cape Evans
on Jan. 16 1915, and, while she remained there with the hope of
wintering, Mackintosh and a sledge party laid out depots as far as
lat. 80 S. by Feb. 20. This was a better record than in Scott's
autumn journey of 1911 ; but it was midwinter before Mackintosh
found the ice strong enough to permit of his return to Cape Evans.
Early next summer he started S. again; was at the 80 depot on
Jan. 6 1916 and with five companions reached Mt. Hope at the
mouth of the Beardmore glacier in lat. 83 30' S. on Jan. 20 where
he left a depot. The return journey was one of terrible hardship
aggravated by scurvy, and the party narrowly escaped Scott's
fate. Mr. Spencer Smith died, but the rest reached Hut Point
on March 18 1916. In their anxiety to get back to the Cape
Evans party, Mackintosh and Hayward attempted the journey
on the sea-ice on May 8, but the ice was not strong enough and
they were lost. It was July before the rest of the southern party
reached Cape Evans.
On May 6 1915 the " Aurora," which had been frozen in and
made fast by many cables to the shore at Cape Evans, was blown
out to sea with all the ice and was held fast for 315 days, during
which time she drifted northward through Ross Sea nearly in the
same direction and at nearly the same rate as the " Endurance "
was drifting at the same time in the Weddell Sea. She had been
severely damaged by ice pressure; but Lt. J. R. Stenhouse, who
was in command, rigged a new rudder, and when she was released
on March 16 1916 in lat. 62 27' S., long. 157 30' E., he brought
the disabled vessel safely to New Zealand. The ship was repaired
by the New Zealand Government and dispatched under the
command of Capt. J. King Davis with Sir Ernest Shackleton
on board, and on Jan. 7 1917 she reached Cape Royds and rescued
the seven survivors who had come safely through their two
winters in spite of shortage of supplies, the winter stores not
having all been landed when the ship was blown away. All of the
53 men who returned from the expeditions of the " Endurance "
and " Aurora " served in the navy, army or air force during the
World War, three being killed and five wounded.
Scientific Results. The scientific results of the expeditions
described above could not yet in 1921 be adequately summarized,
for the war had retarded the investigation of the collections and
the discussion of statistics. It would be impracticable to draw
general conclusions as to the physical and biological conditions
of the Antarctic regions until the researches of all the expedi-
tions had been published in a comparable form.
All the inferences from earlier work required revision, but
specialists of different expeditions had already committed them-
selves to views which could not be reconciled in the absence of
full information from all explorers. This observation applies in
particular to the general theory of the meteorology of the South
Polar area, as expounded for the Gauss expedition by Prof.
Meinardus and for Scott's last expedition by Dr. G. C. Simpson.
The results of the Australian and German expeditions, which
were for a great part of the time synchronous with those of Scott
and Amundsen, required to be taken into consideration before a
general theory of the atmospheric circulation within the Ant-
arctic circle could be established. This is also the case as to
geology, and the bearings of geological evidence on the probable
nature and extent of the Antarctic continent, and the relations
of that land mass to the other continents.
See, in addition to the books referred to in the Ilth ed., R. Amund-
sen, The South Pole (two vols. 1912); L. Huxley, Scott's Last Expe-
dition (two vols. 1913); R. E. Priestley, Antarctic Adventure, Scott's
Northern Party (1914) ; G. Taylor, With Scott, the Silver Lining (1916) ;
Sir D. Mawson, The Home of the Blizzard (two vols. 1915); J. K.
Davis, With the "Aurora " in the Antarctic (1920) ; Sir E. Shackle-
ton, South (1919). (H. R. M.)
ANTHROPOLOGY. The earlier article (see 2.108), discussing
the problem of man's origin and the possibility of recovering
fossils which would throw further light on early types of man,
included the remarkable statement: " It seems as if anthro-
pology had in this direction reached the limits of its discoveries "
(see 2.119). This prediction has fortunately been stultified
almost every year since it was made, for later years have yielded
an abundantly rich harvest of anthropological data and a clearer
vision of their significance. In fact they have witnessed a pro-
found revolution in every branch of the study of man. New and
important information has been acquired concerning man's
ancestry, and the factors that brought the Primates into
existence and transformed one branch of the Order into the
human family. Hitherto unknown types of fossil men have
been found in the Mauer Sands near Heidelberg, at Piltdown in
Sussex, at Talgai in Queensland, at Wadjak in Java and at Bos-
kop in the Transvaal. So many examples of Neanderthal Man
have been found at Le Moustier, La Chapelle-aux-Saints, La
Quina, La Ferrassie, in Jersey and near Weimar, that we are now
able to get a very clear idea of the appearance and distinctive
features of the brutal species of man that preceded Homo
sapiens in Europe. Much new information has been acquired
of the different races of Homo sapiens that made their way into
western Europe after Homo neanderthalensis disappeared from
the scene; and the discovery of their paintings on the walls of
caverns in southern France and in Spain and their plastic art
has been an astounding revelation of the genius and skill no less
than the artistic feeling of these earliest known members of the
species to which we, and all men now living, belong.
The brilliant researches of French anthropologists have made
it possible to classify the phases of culture of the so-called
upper palaeolithic age and assign to each its distinctive features
and its chronological sequence with reference to the other
phases. Intensive studies of the older civilizations of Egypt,
Elam, Sumer (and Babylonia, which succeeded it), Crete, the
Aegean, Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor, have made it possible
to understand the origin of civilization in a way that was
undreamt of hitherto; and it is now possible confidently to sketch
out the process whereby this common civilization was diffused
into Europe, to Turkestan and India, to Siberia and China, to
Indonesia and Oceania, until finally it crossed the Pacific to
Central America and Peru. But perhaps the most profound
change that was initiated in anthropology during the decade
1910-20 was the demolition of many of the dogmas which for
half a century had paralyzed ethnological investigation and pre-
vented those who were collecting the evidence from appreciating
its real significance. This fundamental change of view had not
in 1921 been generally accepted by ethnologists, but there were
already then very obvious signs that many of them were pre-
paring to repudiate the fashionable doctrine, which had been
expressed in its most extreme form in the earlier article in this
Encyclopaedia.
The Evolution of Man. In spite of not infrequent attempts
to disprove man's kinship with the apes, recent research in
anatomy, embryology and comparative pathology, as well as
the conclusive tests of blood-relationship, has definitely estab-
lished the fact of man's close kinship with the anthropoid apes,
and especially with the gorilla. But this fundamental con-
clusion is not in any sense invalidated by the clear recognition
of the further fact that the ancestors of man and the gorilla
respectively became differentiated the one from the other at least
as early as the middle of the Miocene period. This does not mean
that man's forebears assumed their human characteristics at
the period mentioned, but rather that the ancestors of the gorillas
and chimpanzees had begun to assume their distinctive special-
izations and to fall out of the race for intellectual supremacy
which was eventually to be attained by the descendants of their
unspecialized Miocene brothers. It is in the highest degree
144
ANTHROPOLOGY
probable that throughout the Miocene, man's ancestors were
still simian. All we know of them is that certain fossil apes
found by Dr. Pilgrim in the foothills of the Himalayas reveal
curious little peculiarities of structure that serve to identify
them in his opinion as members of the group of anthropoids
from which the Hominidae were eventually derived probably
not until the latter part of the Pliocene (G. E. Pilgrim, "New
Siwalik Primates," Records of the Geological Survey of India,
xlv., 1915). But whether or not Dr. Pilgrim is justified in his
claim that the newly discovered Miocene ape which he has
called Sivapithecus is the ancestor of man or not, it is quite
certain that in Miocene times the region of the Siwalik Hills
was a great breeding-ground of anthropoid apes, and that the
great variety of species and genera which were evolved there
included the ancestors not only of the orangs, the chimpanzees
and gorillas, but also of the human family. The ancestors of
the chimpanzees and gorillas spread west with man's forerunners
and reached not only Africa, where their descendants have sur-
vived until the present day, but also Europe where the fossilized
remains of Dryopithecus are widespread. In the course of its
wanderings between northern India and Africa human char-
acteristics emerged in one of these simian forms.
The outstanding difference between the earliest member of
the human family and his simian cousin was the fact that his
brain had developed a little further than the ape's, so that he was
able to learn to perform acts of a higher degree of skill not only
with his hands but with his vocal muscles. He had acquired the
power not merely of a fuller appreciation of the symbolism of
sound, but also of arbitrarily imitating sounds and of creating a
vocal symbolism whereby he could learn from his fellows and
communicate his ideas to them. It was the enormously enhanced
power of acquiring knowledge and profiting from the experience
of his fellows that differentiated man from the apes; and the
peculiar features of the endocranial casts of the fossils Pithecan-
thropus and Eoanthropus suggest that the acquisition of the
power of speech may have been an essential part of the process
of making a man from an ape.
If India has provided us with new light on the place and
time of the separation of man's ancestors from the other apes,
Egypt has revealed the origin of the anthropoids. It was in 1901
that Dr. C. W. Andrews, of the British Museum, discovered
that the Egyptian Fayum was a veritable museum of hitherto
unknown fossil ancestors of several mammalian Orders. His
prediction that important monkeys would be found there has
been fully realized by the discovery of the very primitive Cata-
rhine Parapithecus and an anthropoid ape, Propliopithecus (M.
Schlosser, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Oligozanen Landsauge-
tiere aus dem Fayum [Aegypten]," Beitriigezur Pal. u. Geol. Oster-
reich-Ungarnsu. d. Orients, Bd.xxiv., 1911). The discovery of a
diminutive anthropoid as early as the beginning of the Oligocene
period prepares us for the fact that it presents many signs of not
distant kinship with the peculiar Eocene Tarsioidea, a Sub-Order
of Prosimiac, one of whose members, the Spectral Tarsier, stall
survives to-day in the forests of Borneo, Java and certain other
islands of the Malay Archipelago. For some years intensive
studies have been made of the anatomy and embryology of this
remarkable creature (see, for example, " the Discussion of the
Zoological Position and Affinities of Tarsius," Proc. Zool. Soc.
London, 1919, published Feb. 1920); and these investigations
have shed a great deal of light upon the factors that brought
the Primates into being and in one group of the Order initiated
further changes, especially in the cultivation of stereoscopic
vision and all that it entailed in the stimulation of brain-growth,
which ultimately culminated in the emergence of human powers
of foresight and discrimination (see Presidential Address to the
Anthropological Section of the British Association, 1912).
Fossil Remains of Extinct Members of the Human Family.
The conclusion to which the study of man's ancestry had led
investigators, that the brain led the way in the emergence of
human characters, received a dramatic confirmation in 1912,
when the late Mr. Charles Dawson and Dr. Smith Woodward
announced that the former had discovered (in a patch of gravel
alongside the path leading to Barkham Manor, the residence
of Mr. Charles Kenward, near Piltdown in Sussex) fossilized
fragments of the skull of a palaeolithic member of the human
family quite unlike anything known hitherto (C. Dawson and
A. Smith Woodward, " On the Discovery of a Palaeolithic
Skull and Mandible in a Flint-bearing Gravel overlying the
Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex),"
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. Ixix. (1913)
and vol. Ixx. (1914) ; the best photographs of these highly signif-
icant specimens will be found in A Guide to the Fossil Remains of
Man in the Department of Geology and Palaeontology in the British
Museum, first issued in 1915). Sufficient of the cranium was
recovered to restore the whole of the brain case; and it is im-
portant to remember that, although a lively altercation was
provoked in 1913 as to the proper way of reconstructing the
skull, there never was any real doubt as to the form of the brain
case on the part of those who were studying the actual fossils,
because these display the anatomical details which leave no
room for any doubt on the points at issue. The interesting fea-
ture of the cast of the interior of the cranium is the demonstra-
tion it affords that this extremely primitive " Dawn Man, "
Eoanthropus Dawsoni, as Dr. Smith Woodward has called him,
had a brain which fell definitely within the range (so far as size
is concerned) of variation of modern men's brains. But it dis-
played some remarkable deficiencies, more especially in the
singularly poor development of those frontal, parietal and
temporal areas, the noteworthy expansion of which is the
fundamental distinctive character of the human brain. Perhaps
the most interesting feature of the endocranial cast of the
Piltdown man is the remarkable localized overgrowth of that
particular part of the brain (the posterior part of the superior
temporal convolution) which in modern man is intimately
associated with the appreciation of the acoustic symbolism of
speech. As a somewhat analogous boss is found on the endo-
cranial cast of Pithecanthropus, the fossilized remains of which
were found nearly thirty years ago in Java by Dr. Eugen Dubois,
it affords grounds for the view that the acquisition of speech
may have been one of the essential elements in the transforma-
tion of an ape into a man.
It is of fundamental importance to realize that, in spite of its
size, the endocranial cast of Eoanthropus reveals these in-
dubitable traits of an extremely early phase in the attainment
of human characters; and the brain was contained in a skull of a
peculiarly distinctive type. For so simian is the form of the jaw
that many anatomists and palaeontologists refuse to admit that
it is human, and claim that a hitherto unknown chimpanzee
expired at Piltdown in Pleistocene times on the same spot as
Eoanthropus and that the former left its jaw and the latter its
skull. This view is widely held, but chiefly by non-British
anatomists (see, for example, M. Ramstrom, " Der Piltdown
Fund," Geol. Inst. of Upsala, vol. xvi., 1919) who have never
studied the actual fossils. Had they done so they would have
realized that, in spite of its form, both the mandible itself and
the teeth lodged in it display undoubted human characters.
Moreover the cranium also reveals much more primitive fea-
tures than is commonly supposed by those who have not seen
and handled it. In fact there is no reason for withholding
assent to the view that this remarkable cranium, which formerly
lodged a brain of extremely primitive character, once formed
part of the same individual whose jaw had not yet lost all the
marks of the ape.
A vast amount of writing has accumulated since 1912 with
reference to this remarkable skull, but most of this literature is
irrelevant and misleading, as the authors have not seen the
material about which they write and have no adequate realiza-
tion of the true state of affairs.
As to the age of the Piltdown skull, precise information is
lacking. It was found in an ancient river bed along, with rolled
teeth of Pliocene elephants and rhinoceros that had been washed
out of some older geological formation, and unrolled teeth of
early Pleistocene hippopotamus and beaver and the base of the
antler of a red deer. From a consideration of all the evidence it
ANTHROPOLOGY
145
is reasonable to assume that the Piltdown man lived in the
early Pleistocene period, and this inference is borne out by the
crude implements of flint and elephant-bone found along with
the skull. The crucial importance of Eoanthropus depends upon
the fact that it is so obviously close to the main line of descent
of modern man. Yet it reveals such astounding simian re-
semblances that many perhaps the majority of recent writers
want to claim its jaw as a chimpanzee's. This in itself is a strik-
ing demonstration of the closeness of the affinity of primitive
man and certain apes.
Although in 1921 it was nearly thirty years since Professor
Eugen Dubois discovered at Trinil, on the banks of the Solo
river in Java, the fossil which he regards as parts of one in-
dividual, Pithecanthropus erectus, his monograph on the subject
had not been published. Nevertheless the stream of writings
on this ape-man was still flowing unabated. In Boule's Les
Hommes Fossiles (i52i) the distinguished French palaeontol-
ogist still maintained that Pithecanthropus is not a member of
the human family, but is an ape. Dubois himself maintains
that it is neither a man nor an ape, but a creature really inter-
mediate between them. But the endocranial cast of Pithecan-
thropus reveals the fact quite definitely and surely that as regards
its size, shape and the relative proportion of parts, this so-called
ape-man of Java comes within the range of the Hominidae.
Moreover, as has already been mentioned, its endocranial cast
exhibits a fullness of the postero-superior part of the temporal
area which suggests the acquisition of the characteristically
human power of speech. The question is still debated whether
the thigh-bone found in the same bed as the skull-cap of Pithe-
canthropus really belonged to the same individual. It is so
obtrusively human that some authorities find a difficulty in
associating it with the skull: but the balance of evidence is in
favour of both being parts of one individual, the most primitive
and the earliest known member of the human family, aberrant
both in physical type and habitat. Controversy was still pro-
ceeding in 1921 as to the age of the Pithecanthropus remains,
and new evidence provided by the Selenka expedition has been
used to strengthen the hands of those who object to the claim
of Dubois that the remains belong to the Upper Pliocene and
maintain that these earliest known representatives of the human
family are to be referred definitely to the commencement of the
Pleistocene period (Selenka and Blanckenhorn, " Die Pithecan-
thropus-Schichten auf Java," Geologische und palaeontologische
Ergebnisse der Trinil-Expedition, Leipzig, 1911).
In 1905 the remains of Pithecanthropus represented the only
known member of the family Hominidae which did not belong
to the genus Homo. Since then, however, the remains of other
forms have been revealed that surely deserve generic distinction.
In 1907 a human lower jaw was found in the base of the Mauer
Sands near Heidelberg, which was described by Schoetensack as
a hitherto unknown member of the human family which he
called Homo heidelbergensis. But its age and peculiar features
remove it so far from all the members of the genus Homo that
it is more in accordance with the proper perspective to follow
Bonarelli who, has created for its reception the genus Palaeoan-
thropus. It is extremely massive and is unlike any other human
jaw, not merely by reason of its size but also in the ape-like
recession of its chin.
Neanderthal Man. The fossilized remains of part of a cranium
and some long bones found in 1856 by some workmen in the
Feldhofer Grotto in the Neanderthal Valley (between Elberfeld
and Diisseldorf in Rhenish Prussia) are now generally admitted
to represent a species of the genus Homo that is definitely
differentiated from the species sapiens, to which all the living
races of man belong. This extinct species is known as H.
neanderthalensis, a name first suggested in 1864 by Prof. King
of Galway. In 1848 a fossil skuE was found at Gibraltar by Lt.
Flint, but no attention was devoted to it until Busk described
it in 1864; and it is now commonly supposed to be a female of
the Neanderthal species; but Sera (Soc. romana di Antrop,xv.
1909) considers it to be more primitive and earlier than the true
Neanderthal people. Other examples of the Neanderthal species
have been found in the grotto of Spy (Belgium) in 1886, at
Krapina (Croatia) in 1899, at La Chapelle-aux-Saints (La
Correze, France) in 1908, Le Moustier in the Dordogne (1909)
and in the same year at La Ferrassie in the same region. Another
skull was found in the same region in 1910, and in 1911 yet
another at La Quina (Charente). To this remarkable series of
skeletons found in France, which give us so complete a picture
of the distinctive features of this brutal extinct species of our
genus, is to be added fragments of two jaws found in 1914 at
Ehringsdorf near Weimar in Germany (see Hans Virchow, Die
menschlichen Skeletreste aus dem Kdmpfischen Bruch im Travertin
von Ehringsdorf bei Weimar, Jena, 1920). The vast literature
that has accumulated with reference to the other examples of
Homo neanderthalensis will be found summarized in M. Boule's
Les Hommes Fossiles (Paris, 1921) as well as in H. F. Osborn's
Men of the Old Stone Age (New York, 1915) and W. J. Sollas's
Ancient Hunters and their Modern Representatives (London,
2nd ed. 1914).
Neanderthal man is now revealed as an uncouth race with an
enormous flattened head, very prominent eye-brow ridges and
a coarse face. The trunk is short and thick, the robust limbs are
short and thick-set: the broad and stopping shoulders lead by
a curve to the forwardly projected head set on an abnormally
thick neck. The hands are large and coarse and lack the delicate
play between thumb and fingers which is found in Homo sapiens.
The large brain is singularly defective in the frontal region.
It is clear that Neanderthal man's limbs and brain were in-
capable of performing those delicately skilled movements that
are the distinct prerogative of H . sapiens and the chief means
whereby the latter has learned by experiment to understand
the world around him, and to acquire the high powers of dis-
crimination that enabled him to compete successfully with
the brutal strength of the Neanderthal species.
The Neanderthal race of men, with their distinctive Mouster-
ian culture, suddenly disappeared from Europe, and were re-
placed by immigrants belonging to our own species, who brought
with them to Europe the germs of the phase of culture known
as Aurignacian. These newcomers were members of the Cro-
Magnon race, a very tall people with large dolichocephalic
skulls and relatively broad face. They probably entered, Europe
from the S., because their settlements are found chiefly near
the Mediterranean coastline, in northern Africa, Sicily, Italy,
southern France and Spain. The coming of this superior race of
highly intelligent men is revealed also by the sudden improve-
ment in the technique of the flint-work and the appearance,
especially in the caves of southern France, of mural paintings
revealing new powers of artistic observation and skill in depict-
ing the animals which these people hunted. There is revealed
for the first time the genius and the aesthetic feeling of members
of our own race. At a later period the members of another race
(also dolichocephalic, but with much narrower and more har-
monic face than the Cro-Magnon people) began to make their
way into Europe from the East, probably by way of Poland and
Moravia, Hungary and Bavaria, thence into France. These
people are often known as the Briinn race and their culture as
Solutrian. The skeletons are found deeply imbedded in loess
along with the bones of the woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros,
giant deer, reindeer, etc. Their culture is distinguished by the
wonderful skill in flaking flint implements. Although it lasted
only a short time in Europe and never extended as far as Spain
or the Mediterranean area, this method of stone-working spread
far and wide, to Egypt, Australia and America, and in the
latter two countries persisted until the present time. ,
After the Solutrian came the Magdalenian phase of culture,
which marked the culmination of the skill and achievement of
man before agriculture. This new development was not derived
from the Solutrian art, but was brought into Europe and re-
placed the latter. It lacked the superb skill of the Solutrian
flint-workers, but was characterized by a high degree of ability
in painting and sculpture.
. For information concerning the culture of the Magdalenian epoch
in France and Spain see,,Osborn's Msn^of th&Old Stone Age; a.\sa the
ANTHROPOLOGY
books by Dechelette, Manuel d'archeologie prehistorique, celtique et
gallo-romaine, Paris, 1910-13 and Sollas, Ancient Hunters and Their
Modern Representatives.
The Magdalenian phase of culture in western Europe was
succeeded by the Neolithic, a momentous event, which was
heraldfed by the arrival in different parts of Europe of a variety
of races: (a) an advance wave of the Mediterranean race which
was soon to introduce the distinctive elements of the Neolithic
culture, but at first introduced the Azilian-Tardenoisian in-
dustry into Spain and France; (6) another offshoot of the
Mediterranean race that made its way to Qfnet in Eastern
Bavaria; (c) a race possibly of Nordic affinities that appeared on
the coasts of the Baltic, but is known only by the Maglemose in-
dustry; and (d) a broad-headed advance guard of the so-called
Alpine or Armenoid race (distinguished as Furfooz-Grenelle)
found along with the dolichocephalic people at Ofnet and also
in Belgium.
The coming of the Neolithic people into western Europe marks
the advent there of people who brought the rudiments of the
great world civilization that was being built up in the Ancient
East. For the cultivation of barley and wheat, the making of
pottery, the weaving of linen and several other distinctive fea-
tures of the Neolithic phase of culture are clearly instances of
customs which had their origin in Egypt or its neighbourhood
at a time when western Europe was still in the so-called " Upper
Palaeolithic " phase. Towards the end of the Neolithic phase
in the W., when megalithic monuments make their appearance
as crude imitation of the stonework of the Pyramid Age in
Egypt (" The Evolution of the Rock-Cut Tomb and the Dol-
men," Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway, 1913),
we get even more definite indications of the source and date of
the cultural inspiration to build such peculiar and distinctive
structures; and the close identity of their geographical distribu-
tion with those of the ancient exploitation of flint, gold, copper,
tin, pearls, jet, amber and purple indicates clearly enough the
motives that attracted the culture-bearers to certain locah'ties
and made them foci of new developments of culture (W. J. Perry).
It is important to remember that in the home of their invention
the working of gold and copper preceded the building of stone
monuments by some centuries; but as prospectors searched for
gold and copper ores they invaded territories and obtained these
materials from them long before the metals themselves were
worked or used locally, i.e. while the latter still remained in the
stone phase of culture. These are very cogent reasons for the
belief that the working of copper first began in Upper Egypt or
Nubia (Reisner, quoted by Elliot Smith, The Ancient Egyptians,
chap.i;see also Man, Feb. 1916, p. 26) and from there spread
to Palestine and Syria, to Elam and Asia Minor, Cyprus and the
Aegean. It is probable that the making of bronze was first de-
vised early in the third millennium in the neighbourhood of the
south-eastern corner of the Caspian, perhaps near Meshed, and
from there the practice spread W. and S., and later E., until not
only western Asia and Europe passed into a Bronze Age, but
also eastern Asia and Central and S. America.
The Talgai and Wadjak Skulls. At the meeting of the British
Association in Sydney in 1914 Profs. J. T. Wilson and T. W.
Edgeworth David exhibited the fossilized skull of a boy of about
fifteen years of age, which had been picked up thirty years before
in Queensland. A full account of this skull was published in
1918 (Stewart Arthur Smith, " The Fossil Human Skull found
at Talgai, Queensland," Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society, B, vol. ccviii.). The interest of this earliest
Australian skull lies in the fact that it conforms so closely to the
type of the existing aboriginal Australian, its only peculiarity
being the exceptional size of the palate and teeth, and especially
of the large and salient canine teeth. The discovery of fossilized
dog's teeth in the cave breccias of New South Wales and Victoria
go to prove that early man accompanied by his dogs must have
ferried across Wallace's line to make his way into New Guinea
and Australia.
The publication of the account of this proto-Australian skull
stimulated Prof. Eugen Dubois to announce the information
that thirty years earlier he had found fossilized remains of
members of the same race at Wadjak in Java (" De proto-
Australische fossiele Mensch van Wadjak, Java," Koninklijke
Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Deel, xxix., May
29 1920).
Boskop Skull. About the same tune that the discovery of
the Talgai skull was announced in Australia the discovery was
recorded of a very different type of fossilized skull from Boskop
in the Transvaal (S. H. Haughton, " Preliminary Note on the
Ancient Skull Remains from the Transvaal," Transactions of
the Royal Society of South Africa, vol. vi., 1917). The fossils
consist of part of the brain case and jaw of a type of man differ-
ing profoundly from the earliest known inhabitants of S. Africa,
the Bushman and the Hottentot. They represent the remains
of a variety of Homo sapiens in some respects akin to the Cro-
Magnon race, the earliest type of Homo sapiens known in
Europe.
Oldoway Skull. In 1914 also the fossilized remains of a human
skeleton were found in Central Africa (H. Reck, " Erste vor-
laufige Mitteilung iiber den Fund eines fossilen Menschen-
skeletts aus Zentralafrica," Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft
naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin, 1914), but adequate informa-
tion concerning this discovery is still lacking.
Early Man in America. Although it is certain that at a
relatively early period in the history of Homo sapiens there
must have been an immigration (by the Bering Strait route into
N.W. America) of people sprung mainly from the proto-
Mongolian stock, living E. of the head-waters of the Yenisei
river, no remains of really early man in America have yet been
discovered. The mere finding of implements of Palaeolithic
types proves little, because the making of such implements has
survived in the East, and the art may have been carried to
America within relatively recent times. Up to 1921, the most
recent discovery of human remains supposed to be early was
made at Vero in Florida in 1916, but the geological evidence
showed that the fossilization had occurred in post- Pleistocene
times. There is, however, still great uncertainty as to the age
of these remains, which do not differ in type from many modern
American Indians.
The whole problem of early man in America has been explored in a
severely critical spirit by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, who gives a full bibliog-
raphy (" Skeletal Remains suggesting or attributed to Early Man in
N. America," Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnol-
ogy, Bull. 33, Washington, 1907; "Early Man in S. America,"
ibid., 1912; and "Recent Discoveries attributed to Early Man in
America," ibid., 1918).
It is probable that the substratum of the early population of
America consisted of a colony of a proto-Mongolian race mixed
perhaps to some extent with proto-Armenoid elements in the
original Siberian homeland. In later ages, more especially be-
tween about 300 B.C. and 1000 A.D., this population in America
has been very considerably diluted more especially on the
Pacific coast by a steady percolation of a variety of alien
elements into the N.W. coast from Asia and into Central
and South America from Polynesia and Micronesia in numbers
sufficient materially to affect the physical type of the people
of the western littoral and differentiate them from the eastern
people.
For the evidence in support of this (but with a different interpre-
tation) see Clark Wissler, The American Indian (New York, 1917).
Dr. Wissler's book is also an invaluable summary of the present
state of our knowledge of the geographical distribution of the arts
and crafts of America, and a striking demonstration of the fact that
the arts of agriculture, pottery, weaving, stone-working, metallurgy,
etc., were diffused abroad in America from one centre somewhere in
the region of Honduras. But he stoutly denies the conclusion (which
emerges so clearly from the evidence he presents) that the elements
of this exotic culture were planted in Central America by small
groups of immigrants who had crossed the Pacific Ocean via Poly-
nesia from Cambodia and Indonesia.
Classification of Existing Races. Between 1910-20 it became
increasingly clear that the generally adopted classification of
mankind and of early culture was unsatisfactory, and not in full
accordance with the facts that are now available. The intro-
duction of the terms "Palaeolithic" and "Neolithic" by Sir
ANTHROPOLOGY
147
John Lubbock (afterwards Lord Avebury) served a useful pur-
pose for a time in discriminating between the early and the
later methods of flint-working before the discovery of bronze.
But it is now known that the great break in the technique of
stone-working did not occur at the transition from the Palaeo-
lithic to the Neolithic phase,, but when the so-called " Lower
Palaeolithic" gave place to the so-called "Upper Palaeolithic."
The vast significance of this great revolution in man's history
(at any rate in western Europe) is emphasized by the fact that
it coincided with the final disappearance of the species H.
neanderthalensis and the coming of the members of the species
to which we ourselves (and all existing members of the human
family) belong, i.e. H. sapiens. The replacement of the de-
graded type of mankind with his crude Mousterian culture and
the coming of H. sapiens with his greater skill and artistic ap-
titude is surely the most significant revolution in the whole of
man's history. To discriminate between these two phases of cul-
ture, Elliot Smith has suggested the terms, " palaeanthropic "
and " neoanthropic " to apply respectively to the extinct
species and their works and H. sapiens and his achievements
("Primitive Man," Proceedings of the British Academy, 1917).
All the races of man that exist at present belong to the species
sapiens, but they differ profoundly in type and in the probable
dates of their differentiation the one from the other. The most
primitive race of all is the aboriginal Australian, who represents
the survival of the earliest phase of H. sapiens with relatively
slight change. After he separated from the rest of mankind he
found a home in India, where he formed the substratum of the
aboriginal people called pre-Dravidian. The rest of this race
wandered E. until they reached Australia, small remnants
remaining in some of the Indonesian Is. as abiding witnesses of
the ancient migration. Probably at a much later period the
Negro and Negritto became differentiated from the rest of
mankind and found their area of characterization in tropical
Africa, from which place in later times negroid peoples drifted
along the whole southern littoral of Asia to Indonesia and
Melanesia. It is probable that the Bushmen and Hottentot
races represent early differentiations from the Negro stock.
These two races, Australian and Negro, retain the black colour
of skin which originally was probably common to all mankind
and his nearest relatives, the gorilla and chimpanzee. After the
Australian and Negro had been differentiated the rest of the
human family attained a higher plane of development asso-
ciated with a bleaching of the skin, a refinement of the features
and a further growth and specialization of the brain. This pale-
faced stock became broken up during the glacial period into
four main stocks which became isolated the one from the other.
Probably the earliest to wander off and become segregated -
possibly in the region of the Yellow river was the proto-
Mongolian group which in course of time became specialized in
structure as the Mongolian race. The next group probably found
its area of characterization in N.E. Africa where it assumed the
less specialized, i.e. relatively primitive, features that dis-
tinguish the Brown or Mediterranean race. Two other groups
became isolated in the N. one, probably in Turkestan,- assumed
brachycephalic traits and developed into the so-called Alpine
or Armenoid race; the other, somewhere to the N.W., retained
its primitive dolichocephaly but developed the distinctively
blond traits that are the obtrusive characteristic of the Nordic
race. Within each of the areas of characterization groups be-
came isolated and differentiated in greater or less degree the
one from the other. Moreover at the end of the glacial period,
when the great ice-barriers disappeared there was extensive inter-
mingling not merely of the formerly isolated groups of the same
race, but also of different races. In Siberia especially there was
a complex intermixture of Armenoid, Mongolian and Nordic
peoples; and in western Asia and the Mediterranean littoral a
variety of blends of Brown and Armenoid peoples. It was prob-
ably after a certain amount of such intermixture had occurred
near the head-waters of the Yenisei that an essentially proto-
Mongolian people moved E. and crossed into America as the
first inhabitants of the New World.
The whole racial problem was in 1921 still in process of reconsider-
ation. The best collection of facts relating to the subject will be
found in the new edition of Keane's Man, Past and Present, edited
by Quiggin and Haddon (Cambridge, 1920), but the headings of the
chapters preserve the fallacies of the effete system of classification
that is now being discarded.
Only the most inveterate prejudice can blind one to the fact
that the widespread movement of small groups of people
in Polynesia (the chief ingredients in whose constitution
were elements of the Brown and Armenoid races) served to
link up America with the Old World, and to provide the means
whereby the elements of the early civilization of south-eastern
Asia were introduced into Central America and Peru. No
ethnologist doubts for a moment that the early mariners reached
Easter I., because the island is peopled, and the language and
the culture of the islanders afford proof of the fact that they came
from the West. But it must be apparent that for every ship that
chanced to strike that microscopic islet in eastern Polynesia
there must have been hundreds, if not thousands, that missed
it and were swept on to the coast of America. The whole cul-
ture of this Pacific littoral affords corroborative evidence of the
fact that these early mariners did plant in Central America and
Peru the beliefs and customs which we know them to have had.
Mr. Charles Hedley claims (Man, Jan. 1917, p. 12) that the
peoples of Oceania obtained from America the coconut and the
sweet-potato as the result of such intercourse. The recent
discovery (Chinnery) of the use of tobacco in the central high-
lands of New Guinea raises the question whether America
learned the use of tobacco from Papua or the reverse. The
very primitive and peculiar methods of smoking tobacco that Lt.
Chinnery discovered in New Guinea suggest that if introduced
from the East it must have occurred at a relatively remote
period.
The Diffusion of Culture. For half a century ethnology has
been suffering from a grave reaction which it is only now begin-
ning to overcome. Thus in the earlier article it was stated
(see 2.119):
" Anthropological researches undertaken all over the globe have
shown the necessity of abandoning the old theory that a similarity
of customs and superstitions, of arts and crafts, justifies the assump-
tion of a remote relationship, if not an identity of origin, between
races. It is now certain that there has ever been an inherent ten-
dency in man, allowing for difference of climate and material sur-
roundings, to develop culture by the same stages and in the same
way. American man, for example, need not necessarily owe the
minutest portion of his mental, religious, social or industrial develop-
ment to remote contact with Asia or Europe, though he were proved
to possess identical usages. An example in point is that of pyramid-
building. No ethnical relationship can ever have existed between
the Aztecs and the Egyptians; yet each race developed the idea of
the pyramid tomb through that psychological similarity which is as
much a characteristic of the species man as is his physique."
This once authoritative statement is cited at length to call
attention to the actual teaching in ethnology which went far
to sterilize half a century's intensive investigation; and as the
present tendency is to sweep away all such sophistry and intro-
duce into ethnology the real scientific method, it will be useful
to examine the claims of the system which has to be got rid of.
Let us take the above five sentences as quoted seriatim. As
it stands the first sentence would be altogether satisfactory if
it really meant that ethnology utterly and totally disclaimed the
view that similarity of customs implied racial kinship. The fact
that a Japanese makes a steam-engine does not transform him
into an Englishman! But as the second sentence shows, the
ethnologists were confusing race and culture. The Japanese
engineer who builds the steam-engine does not do so because
there is "an inherent tendency in man to develop culture in the
same way": the fact that the making of a steam-engine does
not transform him into an Englishman does not preclude the
recognition of the debt he owes directly or indirectly to English-
men for the idea and for the methods of putting it into practice.
Instead of it being " now certain " that there is " an inherent
tendency in man " (in other words what the psychologist calls
an instinct) to build steam-engines or pyramids, both the facts
of history and the principles of psychology teach us that there
148
ANTHROPOLOGY
is no such specialized instinct. With reference to the protest
that American man did not borrow mental, religious, social and
industrial ideas from Asia, no one has provided more cogent
illustrations of the fact that he did do so than the author of the
disclaimer himself (see, for example, " On the Diffusion of
Mythical Beliefs as Evidence in the History of Culture," Re-
port British Association, 1894, p. 774; "On the Game of Patolli,"
Journal Anthropological Institute, vol. viii., 1879, p. 128).
The series of step-pyramids that are scattered from Mesopotamia
to Ceylon, to Cambodia and Java, to Japan and Shantung, to
Tahiti and the Marquesas, to Peru and Mexico afford so striking
a demonstration, not only of the spread of a very definite and
peculiar phase of culture, but also of the route of the diffusion
that many of the reactionary school in ethnology have felt it in-
cumbent on them to get rid of evidence that was so awkward
and obtrusive.
It was formerly claimed in effect that man had a pyramid-
building instinct, which presumably was kept in check by the
vast majority of mankind, but burst its bounds in a chronolog-
ical sequence among the peoples scattered along the coasts from
Egypt to Central America. The more fully the details of these
pyramids are studied the more complete is the demonstration
of their derivation one from the other as the stream of culture
moved from West to East. In Ceylon at Polonnaruwa we find
pyramids of Mesopotamian design but built of stone like those
of the Egyptians. The less ornate Khmer pyramids, such as
Ka-Keo and Ba-Kong, of Cambodia, reproduce the Sinhalese
models with singular accuracy: and then pyramids of the same
type appear in western Peru and Equador, Central America
and Mexico, the Mississippi Valley and the south-eastern region
of the United States, the transference of the incentive across
the Pacific having been effected probably between the third
and the tenth centuries A.D.
The acceptance of ideas concerning the possibility of spon-
taneous generation with curious lack of knowledge and logic
the ethnologists called it " evolution " of similar ideas and
customs among widely distant peoples was paralyzing the study
of ethnology and removing it farther and farther from the
stimulating influence of serious discussion and honest ob-
servation. Dr. W. H. R. Rivers was mainly responsible for lead-
ing ethnology out of this morass. In his presidential address to
the Anthropological Section of the British Association in 1911
he exposed the fallacies of the popular ethnological doctrine
and insisted on the importance of the diffusion of culture. One
of the fallacies that had led ethnologists astray and facilitated
the acceptance of the weird speculation of spontaneous genera-
tion of culture was the belief that useful arts could not be lost.
One finds this view expressed in the earlier article (see 2.117):
" Had the Australians or New Zealanders, for instance, ever
possessed the potter's art, they could hardly have forgotten it."
By demonstrating the fallacy of this argument and showing that
even so vital an art as boat-building could be lost by an island
people, Dr. Rivers (Report British Association, 1912, p. 598; also
Feslsscrift Tillagnad Edvard Westcrmarck, Helsingfors, 1912,
p, 109) removed the only serious obstacle in the way of the
acceptance of the truth of the diffusion of knowledge in the way
we know it to have been spread abroad in historical times.
From a detailed s'tudy of the technique of embalming Elliot
Smith became convinced that the evidence provided by mummies
from the islands in Torres Strait was so conclusive a proof of the
influence of Egypt as to leave no possibility of doubt as to the
certainty of the spread of culture from Egypt to New Guinea
and Australia; and as the result of an examination of methods
of mummification in various parts of the world he put forward
a theory of The Migration of Early Culture (Manchester, 1915),
in which the evidence provided by the geographical distribution
of megalithic monuments, sun-worship, ear-piercing, tattooing,
couvade, artificial deformation of the head, the use of the
swastika, etc., was used to corroborate the reality of the diffusion
of the ingredients of early civilization. If, as this theory claimed,
the spread of culture took place in large measure by sea (" An-
cient Mariners," Journal of 'the Manchester Geographical Society,
1917), the Indonesian archipelago ought to preserve some evi-
dence of the movement by which the custom of building stone
monuments reached Oceania from the West. This evidence was
revealed by Mr. W. J. Perry (The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia,
Manchester, 1918), who rendered an even greater service by
explaining the motive's of the wandering peoples who were
mainly responsible for distributing abroad throughout the
world the germs of civilization. Men prospecting for gold,
copper, silver, tin and other metals, or for flint, turquoise, lapis
lazuli, amber or jet, or divers searching for pearls or pearl-shell
were the means of planting the elements of culture in outlying
places in the world and making them foci of civilization (" The
Relationship of the Geographical Distribution of Megalithic
Monuments and Ancient Mines," Mem. and Proc. Manchester
Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1915; " The Geographical Distribution of
Terraced Cultivation and Irrigation," ibid. 1916; " An Ethnolog-
ical Study of Warfare," ibid. 1917; " War and Civilization,"
Bull. John Rylands Library, vol. iv., 1918).
Since Perry put forward this illuminating suggestion its truth
has been repeatedly confirmed by investigations in the British
Is., in the Caucasus, in Hyderabad, in Siberia, in eastern Asia,
in New Guinea and Oceania, and especially in America. Work-
ing out the details of the geographical distribution of the dif-
ferent ingredients of civilization one is now able to reconstruct
the past history of the beginning of culture and its diffusion
throughout the world. We now realize that the incentive that
spurred men on to build up the artificial structure of civiliza-
tion was primarily the instinct of self-preservation. The realiza-
tion of the dangers to life impelled men to seek for materials
which they believed to be life-giving or death-averting. This
was the original value attached to pearls and gold, to incense
and jade, and to most of the things which the earliest members
of our species sought for in the belief that no adventure was too
hazardous and no danger or difficulty too great if by overcom-
ing it they could secure the elixir of life (Elliot Smith, The
Evolution of the Dragon, Manchester, 1919).
The Beginning of Agriculture. If one single event more than
another can be regarded as the foundation of civilization it is
surely the invention of agriculture. Much speculation has
been made as to where and how this crucial event was brought
about; but the breeding experiments of such investigators as
Prof. Biffen of Cambridge and the late Mr. Aaronsohn (see
Coulter, Fundamentals of Plant Breeding, 1914, p. 192) dispose
once for all of the popular view that primitive man more than
sixty centuries ago produced the barley and wheat, which has
been the staple foods of a large section of mankind since then,
by an elaborate and long-continued process of experimental
breeding. Having disposed of this anachronism, one is in a
better position to appreciate the cogency and conclusiveness of
the claim set up recently by Prof. Thomas Cherry of Melbourne
(" The Discovery of Agriculture," Proceedings of the Australian
Association for the Advancement of Science, 1921), that the Nile
valley was the place where barley was found growing in a natural
state, and that agriculture associated with basin irrigation was
invented simply by imitating the natural conditions which the
proto-Egyptians had constantly before their eyes. Dr. Cherry
has pointed out that in Egypt alone the climatic and seasonal
conditions are favourable for the natural growth of barley;
and we know that it was the staple diet of the earliest Egyptians
(G. Elliot Smith, The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, p. 41). The
climatic conditions in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Asia Minor are
such that the cultivation of barley became possible there only
when men applied' the lessons of artificial irrigation which they
had acquired in Egypt. Dr. Cherry believes that wheat must
have grown naturally on some of the smaller Aegean islands
he mentioned Melos and Naxos and was first cultivated
centuries after barley and by men who had learned the art of
agriculture directly or indirectly from Egypt. But before the
close of the fourth millennium the Egyptian technique of
agriculture and irrigation had been adopted in Sumer and
Crete and prbbably also in Syria arid Asia Minor. Soon after-
wards it was to spread N. and E. to Turkestan and Baluchistan
ANTHROPOLOGY
149
and in the W. to Europe, as one of the distinctive features of
the Neolithic Age there.
The effect of the discovery of a means of securing a certain
food supply capable of being stored for use in the lean periods
of the year not only led, for the first time in the world's history,
to a settled community and a steady increase in population
within the settlement, but in addition it gave men leisure to
think of other things than the mere struggle for existence. It is
no mere chance circumstance that the invention of agriculture is
intimately related to the development of the potter's art, to the
building of more pretentious houses, to the weaving of linen
and the domestication of milk-giving cattle. But it also pro-
vided the predisposing circumstances that compelled the
organization of labour and the assumption of control of his
fellow men by a leader who became a king, and brought about
the curious result that the chief function of this earliest ruler
was to be the irrigation engineer to the community, as we know
to have been the case both in Egypt and Sumer. As this settled
community in the Nile valley increased in numbers the necessity
was forced upon it of making more ample provision for disposing
of its dead; and out of the circumstances that attended these
events there came into existence the arts of the embalmer, the
carpenter and the stonemason. Architecture had its birth in
the proto-Egyptian necropolis. Ship-building also was in-
vented in close association with this train of events: and the
first great maritime expeditions of which any hint has survived
had for their object the obtaining of materials needed by the
embalmer and the tomb-builder. Probably in the fourth
millennium sea-going ships were already trafficking to Syria,
Asia Minor and Crete, to southern Arabia and E. Africa (Elliot
Smith, " Ancient Mariners," Journal of the Manchester Geo-
graphical Society, 1017).
The Beginning of Civilization. After many years of fluctuat-
ing diversities of opinion it is now widely admitted that there
is a very close genetic relationship between the earliest civiliza-
tions of Egypt and Babylonia. The identity of their burial
customs, their methods of agriculture and irrigation, the use of
bricks, cylinder seals and mace-heads, the use of copper and
painted pottery, the weaving of linen and the choice and methods
of preparing cosmetics, and above all their beliefs and religious
practices -these and scores of other customs reveal the fact
that the cultures of the earliest peoples of Egypt, Sumer and
Elam were derived from a common source. The recent incident
that compelled scholars frankly to admit the reality of the cul-
tural link between Egypt and Babylonia in very early times
was the acquisition by the Louvre of a predynastic flint-knife
with a handle carved from the tooth of a hippopotamus which
is said to have come from Gebel el-Arak near Nag'Hamadi in
Upper Egypt (Benedite, " Le couteau de Gebel el-Arak,"
Fondation Eugene Piot, Man. et Mem., xxii., i., 1916). The de-
sign engraved on the handle is claimed to be very un-Egyptian
and to afford certain evidence of cultural contact with Sumer.
But many scholars now claim that Egypt obtained the elements
of her civilization from Sumer (see, for example, Prof. S. Lang-
don, " Early Chronology of Sumer and Egypt," Nature, May
5 1921, p. 315)- In support of this contention Prof. Langdon
claims that " recently discovered dynastic tablets establish
the date of the earliest kingdoms of Mesopotamia as early as
5000 B.C."; whereas he attempts to fix the beginning of the first
Egyptian dynasty by comparing the methods of year-dating of
the famous Naram-Sin (2795-2739 B.C.) with those of Egypt,
arguing that Naram-Sin borrowed his system of year-dating
from Egypt and was contemporaneous with the last two kings
of the second Egyptian dynasty. He claims to have confirmed
the date circa 3200 B.C. for Menes. But a wholly unexpected
revision of Egyptian dating has come from the German school
of archaeology which was responsible for the minimal date
3200 B.C. which Prof. Langdon claims to have established by
independent evidence.
Prof. L. Borchardt has recently set forth at length a series
of arguments, mainly based on astronomical data, to prove that
the first Egyptian dynasty began in 4186 B.C. and that the
sixth dynasty lasted from 2920 to 2720 B.C. (Die Annalen und
die Festlegung des Allen Reiches der Agyptischen Geschichte,
Berlin, 1919). This new estimate, even if it should prove to be
true, would not necessarily be fatal to Langdon's claims. But
there are reasons of other kinds that demonstrate the derivation
of Sumerian and Elamite culture from Egypt.
If it can be shown that Egypt was the home of the invention of
agriculture and irrigation, of the working of gold and copper,
of the weaving of linen and the making of bricks, of the building
of sea-going ships and the use of incense it necessarily follows
that Sumer and Elam must have acquired these practices from
Egypt, especially as Prof. Langdon rightly claims that the spread
of culture took place mainly by sea-routes. As neither the
Sumerians nor the Elamites are known to have built sea-going
ships nor to have had any motives for doing so, one naturally
assumes that the Egyptians (as the builders of the earliest
known sea-going ships) took the initiative in opening up the
communication by sea with the Persian Gulf, as we know they
did with Crete and the coasts of Palestine, Syria and the Red
Sea. But the facts brought to light by the French excavations
in Elam seem to prove quite conclusively that the predynastic
civilization of Egypt was planted there, probably by miners
working the copper ore.
Perhaps the most valuable evidence bearing on the early
inter-relationships of Egypt, Elam and Sumer and the wider
spread of their cultural influence is afforded by the important
study of early painted pottery, which M. Edmond Pettier
contributed to the valuable series of reports of M. de Morgan's
Delegation en Perse (" fitude Historique et Chronologique sur
les Vases Peints de 1'Acropole de Suse," Memoires de la Delega-
tion en Perse, Tome XIII. " Recherches Archeologiques," S&mt
Serie, 1912, p. 27). According to him Susian ceramic ware is
revealed as the product of a very primitive civilization; but in
addition it recalls (or perhaps it would be more correct to say,
reveals the germ of) certain highly perfected industries such as
that of the Greeks. It is, in fact, an amazing mixture of in-
experience and skill the sort of result one might expect to find
when an industry which has been developed elsewhere is sud-
denly transplanted to a new country, and work requiring special
skill is unavoidably entrusted to the incompetent hands of
local artisans. The Susian workmanship in fact displays clearly
the fact of the derivation of the ceramic craft from elsewhere.
In the lowermost level in which there is any evidence of human
occupation at Susa, pottery was found in association with copper
and stone weapons. This suggests, according to Pettier (p. 60),
that the pottery is Eneolithic and that the first colonization of
Susa took place in the Eneolithic epoch. For in this lowest
level the evidence of the arts and crafts indicates that a fully-
developed civilization was present from the beginning of the
Susian record preserved for us to study. Linen, for example,
was found along with the weapons an association with copper
and painted pottery which further strengthens the proof of the
Egyptian origin of the imported Susian civilization. Neck-
laces of lapis lazuli and turquoise afford evidence, according to
Pettier (p. 61), of foreign relations. They suggest, in fact, the
possibility of connexions with the regions around the southern
end of the Caspian (13 and 14) where these stones are found
and were worked in very early times. .
Discussing the date of these earliest Susian remains M.
Pettier (p. 65) thinks that they are slightly earlier than any
of the known Sumerian objects: but he is not inclined to accord
them an age many centuries earlier than the time of Ur Nina
of Lagash (2800 B.C.). It seems quite clear that there are no
valid reasons for attributing to any Elamite or Sumerian re-
mains a date earlier, if indeed as early, as that of the First
Egyptian Dynasty. Now the proto-Egyptians had been working
copper, making linen and painting pottery, for many centuries
before this earliest possible date for the commencement of
Elamite and Sumerian civilization. Hence, as undoubtedly
borrowing did occur, it is clear that Elam and Sumer acquired
the germs of their civilization directly or indirectly from Egypt,
or from the same source as Egypt.
150
ANTHROPOLOGY
M. Pettier does not go so far as to make this claim, but he
submits all the evidence that makes its adoption unavoidable:
" En examinant les monuments egyptiens de 1'age prehistorique
et des premieres dynasties, tout le monde sera frappe des traits
de ressemblance nombreux qu'ils presentent avec les trouvailles
elamites des couches les plus anciennes. . . . (En Egypt) on
retrouve des formes, des sujets, des details de technique qui
evoquent aussitot le souvenir des antiquites de Suse: vases de
pierre dure et .d'albatre " (p. 82). M. Pettier discusses the
problem in its wider bearings (pp. 83-85), and elsewhere (pp.
67 et seq.) sets forth his views on the psychology of originality in
invention and of the significance and the manner of cultural
diffusion. Though he does not claim that Susa borrowed from
Egypt, he is quite clear that the proto-Elamite culture was
imported from Susa, and he sets forth the evidence which in
fact demonstrates that Egypt must have been the source of its
inspiration. On p. 66 he again discusses the antiquity of the
proto-Elamite civilization and repeats his remarks about the
earliest immigrants into Elam in these words: " Quand ces
envahisseurs s'installerent sur les faibles hauteurs, de neuf a
dix metres a peine, qui bordaient la riviere (J. de Morgan,
Revue d'Assyriologie, 1909, p. 2), ils etaient deja en possession
d'une civilization raffinee." They had copper weapons and
utensils: their women had mirrors: they had fine clothes, etc.
If it is indeed a fact that Elam was colonized before Sumer, the
question naturally suggests itself why the newcomers were not
content to exploit the fertile banks of the Tigris and Euphrates,
but should have chosen the less attractive and rocky country
of Elam for their settlement. The answer to this question has
been provided in advance by Mr. W. J. Perry's investigations
(Memoirs and Proceedings, Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 1915) which explain why civilized immigrants in other
parts of the world have chosen certain regions to exploit and
neglected apparently more attractive places. The Egyptian
immigrants into Elam were undoubtedly prospecting for copper
ore. In his book Les Premieres Civilizations de Morgan refers
to Elam as one of the two " foyers des inventions metallurgiques "
on the ground that copper implements were found in the earliest
strata there and the mountains of Elam are " riches en minerals
cuivreux " (p. 169). But it was the ore which attracted the
foreigners and induced them to settle in Elam.
There is evidence of various kinds to suggest that at or about
the time when the Elamite and Sumerian civilizations were
founded 'there was a widespread prospecting of the mineral
resources of western Asia and the lands around the eastern
Mediterranean. The objects of this search were gold and cop-
per, lapis lazuli and turquoise, pearls and shells.
We have already seen that the proto-Elamites had lapis
lazuli and turquoise and suggested that they must nave gone
as far afield as the Caspian to obtain these stones. That they
did actually exploit this region is shown by the results of the
Pumpelly Expedition (Ralph Pumpelly, Explorations in Turki-
slan, Carnegie Institution, 1908) in Russian Turkestan, where
painted pottery of proto-Elamite type was found in the neigh-
bourhood of certain ancient copper-workings. There can be no
doubt that Susian prospectors went to the Caspian area to obtain
copper ore, and incidentally got lapis lazuli and turquoise. In
the lowest stratum in the northern kurgan at Anau, Pumpelly
found hand-made painted pottery, cultivated wheat and barley,
turquoise beads, mace-heads, copper and lead, and rectangular
houses of sun-dried brick (vol. i., p. 33). At a somewhat higher
level he found in addition beads of lapis lazuli and carnelian
(p. 42). It was only at a later time (his so-called " Culture 3,"
found in the southern kurgan at Anau) that pottery turned on
the wheel was found: in the same level tin mixed with copper,
and evidence of an " intentional alloying with lead " was ob-
tained; also figurines of a goddess and a cow. Of the earliest
culture Hubert Schmidt tentatively estimates the age as " in
the third millennium," the second in the latter half of the
second millennium, and the third approximately 1000 B.C.
Pettier also summarizes (op. cit., p. 71) the whole discussion:
" According to Hubert Schmidt (Revue archeologique, 1910, i.,
p. 307) the most ancient pottery from Anau may be contempo-
rary with that of Susa, but he believes it to represent an exten-
sion of Elamite art to Turkestan." In a great part of the Trans-
caspian region of Turkestan " au dela de 1'Oxus," north of the
Pamir plateau between Samarkand and Kashgar, the finding
of objects made of metal or pottery analogous to those of
Mesopotamia (Pettier, p. 70) affords additional evidence of the
diffusion of Elamite, Sumerian and Babylonian culture in very
early times.
It is clear then that the search for copper ore, lapis lazuli
and turquoise led to the diffusion of proto-Elamite culture far
into Turkestan. But the same reasons led to its spread to
Armenia, the Caucasus and Asia Minor in the west and at least
as far as Baluchistan, and probably India, in the east.
In Armenia and the Caucasus painted Susian-like vases do
occur, but only very rarely (Pettier, p. 73). " Cette po'terie du
Caucase, dent la date n'est determinee, est sans contredit affiliee
par la tradition a la fabrique elamite " (p. 74). In Galatia and
Cappadocia painted pottery of the same type is found, which is
certainly not of Aegean inspiration (p. 74). Similar pottery is
found also in Phrygia and Mysia (p. 76); and M. Pettier sug-
gests that between early times and the period of the eighth
and seventh centuries B.C. Susian influence percolated into
Phrygia from the neighbouring lands. The geographical lines
of the spread of this culture seem to have been determined
mainly by the distribution of copper and gold. Elamite pottery
has been found north of the Black Sea in Scythia (Pettier, p. 74).
Without any definite reasons,_ so far as I understand his report,
M. Pettier thinks that, although the designs upon the painted
pottery of the Thraco-Phrygian area are similar to those of the
Susian ware, the inspiration was independent. However, he
thinks that Lydia and Caria, Syria and Palestine were in-
fluenced both by Elam and Egypt about the middle of the
third millennium. Once one admits the motive and considers
the times of the respective diffusions of culture, the process
and the lines of spread become clear enough. When gold and
copper acquired in Egypt for the first time an arbitrary value
they were sought for far and wide, not merely in the Eastern
Deserts of Egypt and Nubia, but also in Arabia and Elam, in
Asia Minor, in the Caucasus and Turkestan. From Egypt there
were two main lines of diffusion of culture one E. to Elam and
the other N. to Crete 1 and Asia Minor; 2 and from each of these
centres secondary lines of radiation were established.
One of the most striking illustrations of the extent of these
secondary radiations and of the motives which prompted them
is afforded by the remarkable centre of Elamite culture at the
little village of Nal (in the Jhalawan district of Kalat state, lat.
274o', long. 66 14') in Baluchistan (J. H. Marshall, "A New
Type of Pottery from Baluchistan," Survey of India, Annual
Report, 1904-5, Calcutta, 1908, pp. 105 et seq.; for summaries
see Revue archeologique, 1909, p. 156, also Pottier, op. cit., p. 72;
Noetling, " Ueber eine prahistorische Niederlassung im oberen
Zhob-Thal in Baluchistan," Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1898,
pp. 460-470; also " Ueber prahistorische Niederlassungen in
Baluchistan," ibid., 1899, pp. 104-107).
The pottery from Baluchistan is painted with designs clearly
analogous to those found at Susa, of the culture of which it is
clearly either a contemporary offshoot or a persistent survival.
On the evidence supplied by Marshall the latter explanation
seemed to be the just one; but Noetling has shown that the
Baluchistan pottery occurs in what he calls " Neolithic " sites,
and it is quite clear that the Elamite ceramic industry extended
as far east possibly in the third millennium. The fact that it
was found in association with gold deposits and ancient irriga-
tion works completes the proof of the motives and the identity
of the introducers of the ancient civilization. The Baluchistan
centre of Susian influence possibly represents a stage in the
migration of the knowledge of copper (from Egypt, via Susa and
Baluchistan) to India, where an early Copper Age culture
'See Diedrich Fimmen, Die Kretisch- Mykenische Kultur (1921).
* A. E. Cowley, The Hittites, The Schweich Lectures for 1918
(1920).
ANTHROPOLOGY
151
developed on the banks of the Ganges (W. Crooke, Northern-
India, 1907, p. 18: " an age of copper is well marked by finds of
implements of remarkable shapes in the Ganges Valley ").
The search for copper or gold attracted these earliest ex-
ploiters to Elam, to Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Black Sea
littoral, the southern shores of the Caspian and Transcaspia,
and to Baluchistan; but it also led them much farther afield.
So that, long before the invention of bronze the germs of ancient
civilization were planted in Turkestan and along a series of gold-
workings from the Oxus to Bukhara, to Issyk-kul and Kulja, to
Barnaul, Krasnoyarsk and Minusinsk, which became the centre
where for many centuries the civilization of central Siberia
flourished in spite of the fact that it was the lure for the greed of
a vast continent and the home of strife (W. J. Perry, " War
and Civilization," Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 1918).
But it was not merely the chain of golden sands along the line
from Bukhara to the. Yenisei that attracted the miners from the
S., but also the gold and jade in the Tarim valley in pursuit of
which the prospectors were led on from Kashgar to Kucha past
Lop-nor to Suchan, Liangshan and Lanshan until eventually
they discovered the gold and jade in the mountains S. of Si-ngan
in Shensi. Settling down to extract this wealth they incidentally
planted the germs of the civilization of China. Laufer's memoir
on The Beginnings of Porcelain in China (1917) (see also his
" Some Fundamental Ideas of Chinese Culture," Journal of
Race Development, vol. v., 1914, pp. 160-174) affords irrefutable
corroboration of the fact that " the entire economic foundation
of ancient Chinese civilization has a common foundation with
that of the West " (p. 175). " It is inconceivable that the
(potter's) wheels of India and China should be independent of
those of the West " (p. 175). All the facts brought together by
Laufer point clearly to the conclusion that the world at large
learnt the use of the potter's wheel from Egypt (pp. 174-176).
Many centuries later " the incentive for the process of glazing
pottery was received by the Chinese directly from the West,
owing to their contact with the Hellenistic world in com-
paratively late historical times. The knowledge of glazing ren-
dered the manufacture of porcelanous ware possible; yet in this
achievement the creative genius of the Chinese was not guided
by outside influence, but relied on its own powerful resources "
(p. 176).
Elamite civilization was diffused to Turkestan long before
wheel-made pottery was made, because Pumpelly's excavations
revealed the fact that in the first and second of his culture-stages
at Anau only hand-made pottery was found.
The routes followed by these early culture-bearers from
Persia to central Siberia and to China respectively are mapped
out by the remains of ancient irrigation systems. Wherever
gold was to be obtained from any of the streams or lakes these
wandering prospectors settled to wash the sands for the precious
metal: they also irrigated the land in their characteristic way
to grow crops to maintain themselves; and they left stone monu-
ments as memorials for their dead. The association of these
three classes of evidence, the presence of gold, ancient irriga-
tion and stone monuments, still blazes the paths taken by these
ancient prospectors forty or more centuries ago. Detailed
statements of two of these classes of evidence will be found
in J. Mouchkeboff's Les Richesses Minerales du Turkestan
(Paris, 1878) and H. Moser's L'Irrigation en Asie Centrale
(Paris, 1894).
There is evidence of another kind in substantiation of the
intimate cultural link between early Egypt, Elam and Sumer,
and between them and the Iranian and Turanian domains. The
religious ideas and mythology reveal the closeness of the bonds
between these ancient centres, and especially the fact that much
of so-called early Aryan beliefs and myths are really Egypto-
Sumerian in origin.
But reference has been made to the intimacy of the early
cultural bonds between Mesopotamia and Turkestan because it
has a bearing upon one of the most important episodes in the
history of civilization the invention of the alloy bronze and
the inauguration of the Bronze Age. We know that before the
invention of bronze prospectors for gold and copper exploited
the line of deposits of these metals which forms a chain linking
the valley of the Oxus to the upper Yenisei. The rich archaeo-
logical harvest collected around the sites of these ancient work-
ings establishes this fact. Now if it be true and the evidence
at present available renders it probable then the making of
bronze was invented with the help of the tin obtained from
Meshed. Ancient tin mines were discovered in this region by
P. Ogorodnikov (compare Baer, Arch. f. Anthr. [ix., p. 265],
quoted by Terrien de Lacouperie, Western Origin of Chinese
Civilization, p. 322). " Strabo declares that it (tin) was pro-
duced in Drangiana, west of the modern Afghanistan, a district
partly coinciding with Khurasan, where its presence has been
confirmed. It is also found in other parts of Persia, near Astera-
bad and Tabriz" (C. H. Read, A Guide to the Antiquities of the
Bronze Age, British Museum, 1904, p. 9.) The exact spot where
tin has been found at the south-eastern corner of the Caspian
is indicated by J. de Morgan, Mission Scientifique au Caucase
(1889).
In her important monograph on Gournia Mrs. Harriet Boyd
Hawes brings forward the following weighty arguments in
favour of the invention of bronze in the southern Caspian area.
" When the Pumpelly expedition returned from Turkestan in
1904, one of the members brought potsherds indistinguishable
at first sight from the brilliantly mottled ware found at Vasiliki
(Crete) during the same season. . . . The strong likeness
between the two fabrics ... is more reasonably explained
by intercourse than by accident. Moreover, Dr. Hubert Schmidt
. . . reports that a neighbouring tumulus (near the large
one in which the pottery was found) gave him a three-sided seal-
stone of Middle Minoan type, engraved with Minoan designs
man, lion, steer, and griffin. How shall we explain those evi-
dences of Aegean influence in southern Turkestan? They must
be brought in line with other proofs of contact. . . . We see
that at c. 2500 B.C. Asia Minor shared with the Aegean the
knowledge of bronze ... we may suggest the probability that,
long before tin was discovered in Europe, it was being brought
overland through Asia Minor, and also by way ef Transcaucasia
and the Black Sea from distant Khorassan, Strabo's Drangiana.
. . . Excavations at Elizabethpol in Transcaucasia have re-
vealed a culture in early contact with the Aegean."
One of the results of this intercourse between Turkestan and
Asia Minor was the introduction into Europe of the appre-
ciation of jade, which no doubt was responsible for stimulating
the people of Europe to hunt out and work the supplies of
nephrite which occur locally.
Terrien de Lacouperie makes the following statement :
" The precious nephrite (polished celts) is found along the route
from Khotan in Turkestan, its starting point, to the Jaxartes, to the
Oxus, then S. of the Caspian Sea, in Babylonia and Assyria, along the
Northern Asia Minor shores, bordering upon ancient Troy, then
passes to the Peloponnesus, where it directs its course to Crete, and,
not touching Egypt, passes from Greece to Italy, where it is dis-
tributed among the Helvetian Lakes, the Megalithic monuments of
Armorica, etc." (Western Origin of Chinese Civilization, p. 34.)
Chinese Civilization. There is no doubt that the cradle of
Chinese civilization was in the Shensi province early in the third
millennium, and that the inspiration of this culture was pro-
vided by miners from the W. who were exploiting the gold, copper
and jade of the mountains S. of Si-ngan-fu, and incidentally
planting in China the much modified elements of Elamite
civilization which had been handed on from one mining camp
to another on the long route to China.
The occasional use of jade for seal-cylinders in Babylonia
and the value attached to turquoise there suggests that the
people who were washing the sands of the Oxus, the Syr Daria,
Issyk-kul and the Ili for gold and the presence of distinctive
types of ancient irrigation works on the banks of these waters
proves the reality of such exploitation were also working the
Tian Shan range and the neighbourhood of Khotan and Kashgar
for jade and turquoise. What strengthens the belief in the reality
of this suggestion is the fact that the peculiarly arbitrary and
distinctive magical significance which was attached to pearls
152
ANTHROPOLOGY
and gold by the early sailors of the Erythraean Sea was acquired
also by jade. The only reasonable suggestion that explains this
remarkable circumstance is that these ideas were acquired by
the people of Turkestan from Mesopotamian miners, and that the
former came to attach to all the materials for which the im-
migrants were searching the peculiar attributes which these
immigrants themselves assigned only to certain ,of them. Hence
jade came to be regarded, like pearls, as the giver of life and
resurrection and as a preventive of putrefaction of the corpse.
The problem that must be solved in the explanation of the
symbolism of jade in China is the source of its inspiration. Why
should jade be regarded as the giver of life and resurrection, the
preserver of the dead and the bringer of good fortune ? We
know how and why the pearl came to acquire these magical
attributes. We know also that the ancient Persian word for
a pearl, margan, " the giver of life," was adopted in all the
Turanian languages; so that the word and the idea underlying
it spread E. as far as Kamchatka. The exact identity of the
ideas concerning (and the methods of using) jade suggest that
they must be derived from the pearl-symbolism, and the tenta-
tive explanation suggests itself that the people of Mesopotamia
exploited the area in the neighbourhood of the Tian Shan moun-
tains for gold and jade, and so transmitted to the people of
Chinese Turkestan ideas of the magical properties of jade which
in course of time spread due E. to the head-waters of the Hwang-
ho river.
" The mountains south of Si-ngan-fu in Shensi Province produced
jade, gold, silver, copper and iron in the first century B.C., as ex-
pressly stated in the Annals of the Former Han Dynasty , . . the
distinguished physician T'ao Hung-King (452-536 A.D.), the author
of a treatise on Materia Medica (Ming i pieh lu), states that the best
jade comes from (Lan-t'ien) : he mentions also the occurrence of
jade in Nan-yang, Honan Province, and in the Lu-jung river of
Tonking, also that brought from Khotan and Kaskgar " (Laufer's
Jade, p. 24).
Laufer denies that jade was imported into China from Turkes-
tan before the commencement of the Christian era; and also
seems to be opposed to the idea that the magical value attached
to jade in China was suggested by the West.
" While from about the Christian era Turkestan became the chief
source for the supply of jade to China, to which Yunnan and Burma
were later added, neither Turkestan nor Yunnan came into question
in very early times. The jades used in the period of the Chou, and
most of those of the Han Dynasty, were quarried on the very soil of
China proper. It was doubtless the Chinese themselves who, being
acquainted with jade in their country, probably for millenniums, gave
impetus to the jade fishing and mining industries of Turkestan.
Also this case may throw a side-light on the nephrite question of
Europe: home-sources do not exclude imports, and scarcity or ex-
haustion of sources may favor them " (Laufer, Jade, pp. 23 and 24).
But Laufer's hypothesis of the origin in China of the special
appreciation of jade will not bear examination. The search for
gold in Turkestan was certainly begun by people from the South.
There can be no doubt that the same people who washed the
sands of these rivers of Turkestan for alluvial gold and fresh-
water pearls also inaugurated the practice of "fishing for jade."
The proof of this inference is provided by the fact that
jade acquired precisely the same reputation and had attributed
to it the same remarkable repertory of magical properties as
these southern miners associated with pearls and gold.
Dr. Laufer himself puts the matter in its true perspective
when he is discussing the problem of European jade (p. 5).
His argument is so apt and incisive that it is tempting to use it
to demolish his own hypothesis:
" Nothing could induce me to the belief that primitive man of
central Europe incidentally and spontaneously embarked on the
laborious task of quarrying and working jade. The psychological
motive for this act must be supplied, and it can be deduced only from
the source of historical facts. From the standpoint of the general
development of culture in the Old World, there is absolutely no
vestige of originality in the prehistoric cultures of Europe, which
appear as an appendix to Asia. .Originality is certainly the rarest
thing in this world, and in the history of mankind the original
thoughts are appallingly sparse. There iS, in thfe light of historical
facts and experiences, no reason to credit the prehistoric and early
historic populations of Europe with any spontaneous ideas relative
to jade; they received these, as everything else, from an outside
source ; they gradually learned to appreciate the value of this tough
and compact substance, and then set to hunting for natural supplies."
Substitute " China " for " central Europe " in this admirable
statement, and it applies with equal force. For the Chinese
had no reasons for attaching a special value to jade until they
were inspired to do so by ideas which came to them from else-
where. Laufer claims that the question can only be settled
on the basis of historical fact. His argument also implies that
the idea of working jade spread from one centre. In other words,
if we accept his teaching, the use of jade in Europe during the
early Bronze Age was inspired by events in the Shensi province
of China! What historical evidence is there, first, for assigning
such a remote date for the exploitation of jade in China, and,
secondly, for the transmission of the knowledge of these events
from China to Switzerland nearly 40 centuries ago ?
In Turkestan we find definite reasons for the appreciation
of and the commencement of the working of jade. We have also
found some evidence to justify the hypothesis that the making
of bronze was invented in close proximity to Turkestan. The
people who introduced the knowledge of bronze-making into
Europe, also introduced the appreciation of jade.
If, however, we accept Laufer's view that Chinese culture
inspired the appreciation of jade in central Europe in the
second millennium B.C., or even earlier, presumably the channel
passed via Turkestan. Part of his argument (see above) was
based upon the fact that the Chinese jade traffic with Turkestan
was unknown before the beginning of the Christian era. But
if there was this early intercourse with Turkestan, the fact
that the Babylonians or whoever was exploiting the wealth of
that country, attached a special value to gold, pearls and jade
can hardly be left out of account in considering the origin of
Chinese ideas. Is it likely that the exact coincidence between
these wholly arbitrary ideas in China and Babylonia respec-
tively were independent the one of the other? Dr. Laufer him-
self rightly scouts the idea of such independent development.
If so he must admit that the Chinese ideas concerning jade
must have been inspired by the West.
Light is thrown upon these problems by the study of the
metal implements found in Siberia and elsewhere. In his ad-
mirable Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age (British
Museum, 1904), Sir Hercules Read summarizes the evidence in
an impartial manner 1 :
" At the extremities of the vast area stretching from Lake Baikal
through the southern Siberian steppes across the Ural Mountains
to the basin of the Volga, and even beyond to the valleys of the
Don and Dnieper, there have been found, generally in tombs, but
occasionally on the surface of the ground, implements and weapons
marked by the same peculiarities of form and by a single type of
decoration. These objects exhibit an undoubted affinity with those
discovered in China; but some of their distinctive features have been
traced in the Bronze industry of Hungary and the Caucasus: for
example, pierced axes and sickles have a close resemblance to Hun-
garian and Caucasian forms. The Siberian bronzes have thus rela-
tionships both in the East and West; but their kinship with Chinese
antiquities being the more obvious, it is natural to assume that
the culture which they represent is of East Asiatic origin. The
presumable antiquity of Chinese civilization (which after all is
only a presumption); the continued westward tendency of migra-
tion in historical times (which, however, were started by the dis-
turbances in the gold region of the Altai, 2 and therefore tell against
Sir Hercules Read's argument) ; and the fact that the greatest
centre of discovery lies far away to the East in the basin of the
Yenisei, in the districts of Minusinsk and Krasnoiarsk, are all
points which may be urged in support of this view."
To the objections which we have interpolated in this quota-
tion, Sir Hercules Read himself adds others. The Chinese
implements are " not of primitive forms ":
" Their prototypes are found neither in the Ural-Altaic region
itself, where some objects may indeed be simpler in design than others
but cannot be described as quite primitive; nor as yet within the
limits of China itself " (p. 107).
1 Pages 106-1 1 1 compare also the fuller and more recent summary of
the evidence in the book; by Minns, Scythians and Creeks, in which,
however, the statement is marred by an uncritical acceptance of the
dogma of independent evolution of culture.
1 See Perry's Rylands Library Lecture, War and Civilisation.
ANTHROPOLOGY
153
The true solution of the problem will be reached when it is
recognized that the basin of the Yenisei and China represent
the two termini of a stream of culture which passed N. from the
southern end of the Caspian Sea and divided at the Tian Shan
range into two branches, one of which passed more immediately
to the Yenisei and the other via Khotan and Kashgar ultimately
to China. Sir Hercules Read hints at the possibility of this ex-
planation without, however, definitely committing himself to it :
" The similarities existing between the Far Eastern and Hunga-
rian groups will not be fully explained until the Bronze Age of south-
ern Asia as a whole is far better known than it is at present (1904).
According to a view which has found some acceptance, the common
elements may have been derived from some centre in southern or
south-western Asia, from which issued two streams of influence, one
passing to the N. of the Caucasus, the other to China by a southerly
route " (p. 109).
Further, in his account of the Siberian implements, Sir Hercules
Read adds:
" The most characteristic ornament represents animals of local
species, bears, reindeers, wild goats, etc., the monsters characteristic
of the later Iron Age tombs being absent. Sometimes the heads of
animals are placed back to back so as to form the guards of daggers,
a disposition which has some resemblance to those of daggers rep-
resented upon Assyrian monuments " (p. no).
Correlating all the facts and suggestions brought together
by de Morgan, Pumpelly, Laufer, Read, Hawes and Minns,
and interpreting them in the light of Perry's illuminating
demonstration of the vital part played by the search for gold,
copper, pearls and precious stones, we find the general explana-
tion seeming to emerge quite definitely, even if the details still
remain to be worked out.
From the third millennium the mines on the S.E. of the
Caspian were being exploited and contact was established
between Babylonians, Elamites and the population of Turkestan.
The northerly extension of Mesopotamian cultural influence
established further contact with the Mediterranean in the West,
and both directly and indirectly with the strip of rich metal-
liferous country stretching along the Caucasus from the eastern
coast of the Black Sea to the Caspian. At the same time, from
the eastern and south-eastern shores of the Caspian there was
a further extension of mining activities E. and N.E. to the Oxus,
to Samarkand and Ferghana, and to the S.E. of Lake Balkash.
From the great southern Caspian centre of the Bronze industry
there were drifts of cultural influence to the Aegean and the
Black Sea, to Turkestan and China itself.
The invention of the alloy bronze was an event of most
momentous importance in the history of civilization; the deter-
mination of the exact place whence the knowledge of this pro-
cedure was diffused to the ends of the earth is therefore a point
of exceptional significance: hence the facts and arguments
which point to the neighbourhood of the Caspian early in the
third millennium as the place and time of this event have been
set forth here in some detail.
Social Organization and Totemism. One of the most potent
factors in shaping the beliefs and customs of the world at large
was the result of an ingenious device on the part of the priest-
hood of Heliopolis to attain their own selfish aims, namely, of
increasing their political power and influence and enhancing
their social status. Until the period of the Fourth Dynasty in
Egypt the royal family controlled the whole of the priestly and
administrative functions of the State. The king was the high
priest and his eldest son the grand vizier. Each of the admin-
istrative districts of the State the nomes was governed by a
member of the royal family. Hence the whole government of
the State was concentrated in the hands of one family. But from
the earliest times the priesthood of Heliopolis had played an
important part in Egypt. They were responsible for the as-
tronomical calculations necessary for the prediction of the
annual flood of the Nile, on which the welfare of the whole
country depended. At Heliopolis the first nilometer was set up,
and in all probability the first solar calendar was devised there.
In course of time it became the centre of the solar cult which
superseded (or rather adopted and profoundly modified) the
Osirian belief in the river as the source of all life. Having built
up the solar theology at the end of the Fourth Dynasty the
priesthood of Heliopolis made a bold bid for power by putting
forward the prophecy that Re, the sun god, would be the father
of the first king of the P'if th Dynasty by the wife of the high
priest of Heliopolis. Hence arose the custom of regarding the
chosen people as " children of the sun " and believing in the
virgin birth of kings and gods arbitrary elements of culture
the widespread distribution of which throughout the world is
a striking token of Egyptian influence in the upbuilding of
civilization. The ingenious device of the Heliopolitan priest-
hood to seize control of the State was not wholly successful, but
resulted in a dual organization of the Government, the Helio-
politan family controlling the priestly duties and the Memphite
(the old royal) family the civil administration. This splitting of
responsibility and control led to a rapid disintegration of the
governing power and at the end of the Sixth Dynasty the
State was reduced to a condition of anarchy. But the effect of
this remarkable experiment in government became widely
diffused beyond the boundaries of Egypt; and the dual organiza-
tion of the community and the use of such phrases as " son of
the Sun " were carried far afield, even to Oceania and America.
In the whole extent of the regions from Egypt to America we
find traces of two well-marked phases of civilization. The earlier
represents a form of social organization essentially identical
with that of Egypt of the Fifth Dynasty: sun-cult; a dual
kingship, one ruling family being concerned with secular and
another with priestly functions; and a dual division of the
State, which even extends to individual villages. It seems
probable that the priesthood which originally devised this dual
organization realized the danger of the cleavage and the risk
of disintegration inherent in it, and introduced the principle of
exogamy to maintain the coherence of the community that was
split into two conflicting moieties by compelling the members
of the divisions to intermarry.
In many places this phase of culture gave place to another
derived directly from it by a process of inevitable disintegration
following on the splitting off of daughter settlements. In this
secondary process the sun-god became known as a war-god:
the kingship ceased to be dual, and the dual organization of
the State and the village tended to disappear with greater or
less rapidity according to local circumstances.
In the early phase of dualism the two rulers were assisted
in the administration by a council, the members of which
were the representatives of local groups (the Egyptian nomes),
usually clans associated with some animal from which they
claimed descent. (The reason for this remarkable belief, known
as totemism, is probably to be found in the fact that the earliest
Egyptians regarded the milk-giving cow not merely as a foster-
mother but as the actual Great Mother of mankind. When the
nomes adopted as badges a series of distinctive animals, these
maternal functions were attributed to all of them.) Like the
kingship this totemic council was also dual, one section being
concerned with peace and the other with war. It often happened
that the ruling power disappeared and then we find that the
people deliberately maintained the council as the proper m^ans of
preserving the constitution with which they are familiar. Thus
is produced a state of affairs commonly called the dual organiza-
tion in which the country is divided into two parts with different
characteristics. Just as in Egypt one kingdom was known as the
white crown and the other as the red, so in many parts of the
world one moiety is connected with the colour white (or a
light colour) and the other with red (or a dark colour). One is
associated with the sky and with peace and is regarded as
superior, the other with the earth, the underworld, and war
and is regarded as inferior.
A feature .of the dual organization is the council of old men
the gerontocracy which is regarded as of the utmost im-
portance. The various groups of the dual organization in its
pure form appear to be what are called totemic clans. The basis
of this system is to be found in the doctrine of theogamy, which
as we have seen was invented by the priests of Heliopolis to
serve their own personal ends.
154
ANTISEPTICS
There was a vast amount of speculation during 1910-20 as
to the meaning of totemism, an impartial and full summary of
which has recently been published by Dr. Arnold van Gennep
(L'Etat Actuel du Probleme Totemique, Paris, 1920). But recent
research (and especially the unpublished researches of W. J.
Perry, which the present writer has been permitted to see and
use) makes it abundantly clear that, wherever it is found, totem-
ism has been derived directly or indirectly from the beliefs and
practices associated with the ruling classes in Egypt during the
Pyramid Age, to which reference has already been made. When
one investigates the more primitive forms of totemism and
realizes the part played in them by such ideas as matrilineal
descent from animals, virgin birth, children of the sun, and
the belief in the protective value of animal crests, there can no
longer be any doubt as to the derivation of these conceptions
from Egypt of the Fifth Dynasty.
In the foregoing account it has been claimed that a very
intimate connexion exists between the dual organization and the
system of totemic clans. This is not an accidental circumstance,
as is often assumed, but is the inevitable result of the conditions
under which the dual system arose in Egypt. No doubt this
will be regarded as a very heterodox claim; but the facts in proof
of it are certain and their meaning quite conclusive. Although
the dual organization now survives only in India, Oceania and
America, there are marriage customs with a much wider distri-
bution, notably in Africa, which point to the influence of this
social system in earlier times. In Australia there are very com-
plicated systems of rules to regulate marriage: but in many tribes
they afford a very striking demonstration of the original connex-
ion between the dual system and the totemic clans. The dual
chieftainship still persists in Polynesia and New Guinea, as it
did in Japan until the Shogunate became virtually extinct a
few years ago. According to Geza Roheim (Man, 1915, p. 26)
there are very definite traces of the same customs among the
Ural-Altaic peoples. He refers especially to the double kingship
of the Khazars as being essentially similar to the Mikado-Shogun
system of Nippon.
The vast importance of the study of social organization has
been emphasized by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers within recent years
(Kinship and Social Organization, London, 1913; History of
Melanesian Society, Cambridge, 1914), and in his hands the use
of the data relating to marriage regulations and relationship
has become a most valuable instrument for investigating the
problems of ethnology and the diffusion of culture. (G.E.S.)
ANTISEPTICS (see 2.146). During recent years the study of
antiseptics has proceeded mainly along two lines attempts have
been made to produce more efficient antiseptics for use in the
ordinary way by external application, and chemical substances
have been elaborated which when injected into the circulation
destroy the microbes with which they come in contact. At the
same time many studies have been made on the natural antisep-
tics by which the body rids itself of infection.
A ntiseptics Naturally Occurring in the Human Body. It is well
known that we are constantly coming in contact with disease-
producing microbes and yet only comparatively rarely does an
infection result. It is also well known that an individual who has
been living in a secluded spot which was comparatively free from
infection, when brought into a city where infection is common,
is very much more liable to infection than an individual who had
been living in the city. The latter by coming in contact with the
microbes has developed a partial immunity to the common
infections, so that, while the stranger will rapidly succumb to the
infecting microbe, the partially immune person will be able in
many cases to resist it. This immunity is due to an increase in
the amount of anti-bacterial substances of the body fluids, and
to a better organization for the mobilization of the defences of
the body towards the point of attack.
In the simplest cases, where microbes are introduced into the
body by the instrument which inflicts the wound, there is very
quickly produced a dilatation of the surrounding blood-vessels
which increases the blood supply to the infected region. This is
followed by an increased transudation of the fluid portion of the
blood from the vessels into the infected tissues, and by an emi-
gration from the blood of the white corpuscles or leucocytes,
which are amoeboid bodies capable of ingesting the microbes and
destroying them.
With some infecting agents such as the typhoid bacillus the
fluids of the blood have a great power of killing the microbes, but
in most of the commoner infections this power is not so manifest
and the leucocytes are the chief agents in their destruction.
The quality of the fluids even in these cases is, however, of great
importance in preventing the increase of the microbes, and in
acting on them so that the leucocytes can readily take them up
and complete their destruction. Almroth Wright has shown that
in cases of severe infection the power of the blood serum to
neutralize tryptic ferments (the antitryptic power) is much
increased, and by virtue of this increased antitryptic power the
growth of the microbes is greatly hindered in the serum. He has
shown also that the alkalinity of the blood is of great importance
in retarding the growth of some microbes such as those which
cause gas gangrene. He has also shown that the serum will act on
the microbes by virtue of its opsonic action so that they can be
taken up by the leucocytes and destroyed. These observations
on the opsonic power of the serum form the basis for modern
vaccine-therapy, which has been of such benefit in combating
many infections.
It has been shown that the leucocytes of the blood, and also
the leucocytes which exude from the blood into an infected
wound and constitute pus, have a very powerful action in
destroying the ordinary septic microbes, and these natural
antiseptics have the great advantage over the chemical anti-
septics that they act mainly on the microbes which are imbedded
in the tissues, and not merely on the microbes on the surface of
the wound. In all wounds in which an infection has been es-
tablished the majority of the microbes are in the tissues well
below the surface of the wound, and are quite inaccessible to
chemicals applied to the surface.
During recent years research has been directed to the action
of chemical antiseptics on the natural defences of the body, and
it has been shown that the cells of the body are more susceptible
to the chemicals and are more easily killed by them than are the
microbes, so that it is clearly impossible to kill by means of one
of the ordinary chemical antiseptics the microbes imbedded in
the tissues, unless at the same time the tissues are destroyed.
Chemotherapy. The ideal method of using an antiseptic is
to introduce it into the circulation so that it reaches every
portion of the infected focus and destroys the microbes. For
the ordinary bacteria this ideal had not yet been attained in 1921,
but remarkable advances had been made in this direction in cer-
tain infections. In 1910 Ehrlich prepared an organic arsenical
product which when injected into the body rapidly destroyed
the microbe of syphilis, and this product, salvarsan, or a later
and more easily administered product of somewhat similar
constitution, neo-salvarsan, has revolutionized the treatment
of this disease. Following Ehrlich, Morgenroth prepared a
chemical substance which had a remarkable affinity for the
pneumococcus (the microbe which causes pneumonia), and
destroyed it in very high dilution, whereas it had little lethal
action on other bacteria. It was found that Morgenroth's
drug (optochin) lost much of its lethal power on the pneumococcus
when injected into the animal body, and also it had certain
poisonous effects on the animal tissues, so that in practice it had
not been useful. The fact, however, that drugs can be prepared
that have a very specific action on one microbe offers some hope
that in the future there will be produced chemicals which will be
able to destroy the ordinary disease-producing bacteria, without
damaging the tissues, and so give us an easy and certain remedy
for the common infections.
Chemical Antiseptics for Application to the Wound. Prior
to the World War the use of antiseptics in surgery had been
largely discarded in favour of " aseptic " methods, in which the
aim was to prevent the access of the microbe to the wound.
During the war, however, it was found that all wounds were
infected with septic microbes, and many antiseptic methods
ANTOINE, ANDRE ANTWERP
155
were employed in the hope of destroying these microbes. At
first, antiseptics such as carbolic acid and iodine were used,
but they were found to be ineffective in preventing the spread of
the infection. Then antiseptics of the chlorine group which
were derived from bleaching powder came into vogue, and these
were found to be much more useful, although their exact value
was obscured by the great advances made in the surgery of the
wounds at the same time. These chlorine antiseptics act very
quickly on the microbes, but at the same time they are very
rapidly destroyed in the wound, so that after about 10 minutes
they have lost their antiseptic value. It was the common
practice to instil these antiseptics into a septic wound every two
hours in the hope of keeping up a constant supply of the anti-
septic, but as the active agent is destroyed in about 5 or 10
minutes it follows that for the greater part of the time there
was no antiseptic in the wound. Fleming has shown that in all
probability the beneficial action of these so-called antiseptics
was not in their power of destroying microbes but in their power
of aiding the natural antiseptic defences of the body.
In the simplest form these chlorine antiseptics were solutions
of hypochlorous acid (ensol) or sodium hypochlorite (Dakin's
fluid), but later Dakin introduced more complicated organic
preparations, such as chloramine T. and dichloramine T., which
were more stable and contained a greater percentage of the
active agent. These later applications have never attained the
popularity of the simpler compounds.
Morison introduced into war surgery a procedure in which
the wound, after being thoroughly cleansed, was rubbed over with
a paste consisting of bismuth, iodoform and paraffin (Bipp).
This obtained a considerable popularity, and it was supposed to
act by virtue of the iodoform, which is not in itself an antiseptic,
being broken down in contact with the blood fluids with the
liberation of iodine. Experiments showed, however, that there
was not sufficient iodine liberated to act as a lethal agent for
bacteria in the body fluids, and it is probable that, like the
chlorine antiseptics, this depended largely for its beneficial
action on its power of aiding and conserving the natural defences
of the body.
The last types of antiseptics to be introduced into war surgery
were the aniline dyes. The power of some of these dyes as anti-
bacterial substances had been previously investigated. Church-
man had shown that gentian violet would kill many varieties
of bacteria (those which stain with Gram's method) in a dilution
of i in 1,000,000, or less, while it had little lethal action on
other varieties which did not stain by Gram's method. Another
dye, brilliant green, had been used in bacteriological technique
for the isolation of typhoid bacilli, owing to its having a less
lethal action on these than it had on the other and more common
bacteria. Browning introduced into surgical practice another
dye of the acridine series, called by him flavine or acriflavine,
which had been originally prepared by Benda at Ehrlich's
> - suggestion for the destruction of trypanosomes (the parasites of
sleeping-sickness). Flavine differed from all the other antiseptics
in that it acted more powerfully in the presence of blood serum
than it did in water. Great hopes were therefore entertained that
it would be able to deal effectively with the bacteria in an
infected wound. It was found, however, that it was rapidly
fixed by the body tissues and by the dressing of the wound, and
in practice it was not found to have advantages over the other
antiseptics in common use.
Towards the end of the war all the chemical antiseptic solutions
fell more or less into disuse and more reliance was placed on
efficient surgery and the natural antiseptics of the body. The
greatest advance in the treatment of infected wounds was the
efficient cleansing of the wound, the removal of all dead tissues,
and the immediate closing of the wound so that the natural
antiseptic defences could exercise their functions to the greatest
advantage. It was found that when physiological salt solution
was used the results of this procedure were as good as when
chemical antiseptics were employed.
Since the war conditions have been removed antiseptics have
largely disappeared from surgical practice, and a return has
been made to " aseptic " methods, in which microbes are, as
far as possible, excluded from the wound and the natural
defences of the body are left to deal with the few microbes
which may gain access. (A. FL.)
ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858- ), French actor-manager (see
2.148), opened in 1897 his Theatre Antoine in Paris, which for 10
years he made famous as a home of modern realistic drama,
playing in particular the works of Brieux, Hauptmann and
Sudermann, and staging a French version of King Lear. He
returned to the management of the Odeon in 1906 and there
produced Julius Caesar, Coriolanus and a large number of
classical and modern dramas, but he retired in Feb. 1914. He
was subsequently engaged in writing his memoirs.
ANTWERP, Belgium (see 2.155). Pop. (1914) 313,833; but,
including Borgerhout (52,126) and Berchem (32,257), total pop.
398,216. The projected grande coupure, or cutting through the
neck of the loop in the river Scheldt immediately below Antwerp,
was abandoned, and, in place of this scheme, three extensive
wet-docks were constructed between 1903-14. In 1913, 7,142
vessels of aggregate tonnage 28,270,000 entered the port as
compared with 6,095 of 19,662,000 tons in ,1905. The decision,
taken in 1878, to change Antwerp from a fortress to a fortified
position by the construction of an outer line of 15 forts and bat-
teries at a distance varying from 6-9 m. from the enceinte was
nearly completed at the outbreak of the World War in 1914.
A proposal to connect the two banks of the river by a tunnel
under the Scheldt was about to be taken in hand in 1921.
On Aug. 17 1914 the Belgian Government left Brussels for
Antwerp, and the Belgian army withdrew before the advance of
von Beseler's army behind the fortified lines. The bombard-
ment of Antwerp began on Sept. 28 and lasted until Oct. 9,
when the city surrendered. Nine-tenths of the population fled,
mostly to Holland. Some 300 houses (especially in the Marche-
aux-Souliers, the Avenue d'Amerique and the suburbs near the
forts) were destroyed, but the older and more important public
buildings (the positions of which were known to the Germans)
escaped damage. Under the harsh occupation of the Germans,
Antwerp remained practically a dead city. On Nov. 19 1918,
the King and Queen of the Belgians entered the city in state
and attended a Te Deum in the cathedral. In Aug.-Sept. 1920,
the Olympic Games (7th Olympiad) were held in a newly
constructed stadium at Beerschot just outside the city.
THE SIEGE OF 1914
In the middle of the igth century, the steady development
of the city and its naval installations had made it necessary to
enlarge the fortress, and so disquieting were the ambitions of
the new French Empire that it was decided to erect a national
keep for the defence of Belgium at Antwerp. The new fortress
was accordingly built between 1859 and 1870 under the direction
and after the plans of the celebrated Belgian engineer, Gen.
Brialmont. 1
It comprised: (l) A line of detached forts (forts No. I to No. 8
and Fort Merxem on the right bank; Forts Cruybeke, Zwyndrecht
and Ste. Marie on the left) placed at a distance of about 2\ to 3 m.
from the agglomeration of buildings, so as to protect these against
bombardment. These forts, about 2,200 yd. apart, built both in
masonry and in earth, were big batteries which embodied the.
lessons of the siege of Sevastopol. (2) A polygonal enceinte carried
round the edge of the city.
With over 1,000 guns the entrenched camp of Antwerp was
considered the most powerful fortress in the world. After the
lessons of the sieges of 1870-1 and 1877, however, it was con-
sidered necessary to extend the fortress's sphere of influence
still further, in order to facilitate the operations of the Belgian
army when manoeuvring under its protection, and especially
to enable it to make sorties in the direction of Brussels or in that
of Louvain without being cut off. As the water-line formed by
the rivers Nethe and Rupel considerably impeded such opera-
tions between Lierre and the Scheldt (that is to say, on that part
of the front which was most convenient for them), the forts of
1 A general plan of Brialmont's fortress and details of its enceinte
will be found in 10.693-694.
156
ANTWERP
Waelhem and Lierre and the Chemin de Per redoubt were con-
structed S. of the Nethe as a sort of bridgehead. Meanwhile
the demands of the port were growing, and the city was becom-
ing cramped within its enceinte. It was therefore decided about
1900 to extend the defensive system still further.
The scheme adopted by the legislative chambers in 1906 provided
for:
(1) The creation of a principal line of defence, composed of detached
forts about 5 to 1 1 m. from the limits of the Antwerp agglomeration,
to shelter the city from bombardment by the artillery of that epoch.
This line was, on an average, about 2 m. in front of the Rupel-
Nethe water-line, thus placing the crossing points of this line out of
reach of heavy field artillery. Its total perimeter was 59 m., 46 m.
on the right bank and 13 m. on the left, of which 6 m. were protected
by inundations.
The forts, 17 in number, were disposed about 3 m. apart, and, in
principle, permanent redoubts were to be built in the intervals.
The forts were armed with one or two cupolas for twin 15-cm. guns,
two cupolas for single 12-cm. howitzers, and four or six cupolas for
single 7'5-cm. guns. The redoubts had only one 7'5-cm. cupola.
Forts and redoubts were constructed entirely of ordinary concrete,
with vaults 2-50 metres thick at the crown and surrounded by wet
ditches, 33 ft. wide. They all had traditores or " Bourges casemates "
flanking the intervals with 7'5-cm. Q.F. guns. The garrisons varied
from 100 to 500 men.
(2) The creation of an enceinte de sArete on the old fort line, the
forts being organized for small weapons. Concrete redoubts were built
at intervals of about 500 yd. and all these points d'appui were
connected by a grille. This line of defence was to be 20 m. long and
5 to 7j m. removed from the first line of defence.
(3) The demolition of the elaborate enceinte built in 1859 in the
immediate vicinity of the town.
(4) Additional defences on the Lower Scheldt, including several
coast batteries level with Doel to sweep the reaches of the river up
to the Dutch frontier.
These very extensive works had necessarily to be spread
over several years, and in 1914, on the outbreak of hostilities,
the transformation of the fortress had not been completed.
(1) Even if the organization had been carried through according
to plan, the fortress would not have come up to the standards es-
tablished by the siege of Port Arthur. The two positions of defence
were too shallow in themselves and also too far apart to support one
another. The points d'appui of these positions, in which the elements
of permanent defence were concentrated on a small ground surface,
very easy to locate, were conceived on a vicious principle. Mono-
lithic concrete is not invulnerable to present-day siege artillery;
the organs of defence should therefore be protected above all by
their dissemination, by camouflage and by their irregular dispersion
over a large surface on the principle of the Metz Feste.
The substructures and the armouring, constructed to resist theor-
em, mortar, were not calculated to face 28-cm., still less 30-5 and 42-
cm. projectiles. 1
(2) In July 1914 not one of the forts planned in 1906 was finished.
Some lacked cupolas. Others had cupolas without concrete aprons,
and these had to be improvised by pouring gravel, iron rods and
cement round the cupolas. In some cases sacks of cement soaked with
water, or even simple sandbags, had to suffice.
The transmissions and canalizations were not established either
inside or outside the forts, neither was the machinery in place.
(3) For reasons of economy the 15-cm. cupolas had been provided
with old guns, formerly on wheeled carriages, which had a range of
not more than 8,800 yd. and used black powder. The most recent
guns, amongst them those of the traditore batteries, hastily installed,
were for the most part without laying instruments. Of the other
guns available the most powerful was the 1889 model 15-cm. which
hadarangeof 1 1 ,000" yards. 2 Older guns or howitzers, of 12 ori$cm.
were also available, all using black powder. England sent six 4-7
. Q.F. guns, mounted on armoured railway trucks, and, in the last
days of the siege, six 6-in. guns. No equipment for observation of
fire and no observation posts existed, and the necessary survey
work for firing by the map was incomplete. There were ten aero-
planes and one balloon for the fortress and the field army together.
The supply of ammunition was extremely modest, the is-cm. guns
being provided with 800 rounds, the others with only 125. Some
French ammunition was hurriedly obtained, but, not being designed
for the guns, it speedily put them out of action.
(4) The fort garrisons were chiefly of the oldest classes. The
Lebel rifle with which they were armed was strange to them and
they were entirely ignorant of the machine-gun. The men of the
fortress battalions which garrisoned the intervals had had no military
1 Twenty-eight cm. howitzers were used by the Japanese at Port
Arthur 1904-5. The first German model of 30-5-011. siege howitzer
was designed as early as 1898. (C. F. A.)
2 Its 3-kgm. shell was powder-filled. An orderfor8,oooH.E. shells
had been placed in Germany in 1912, but the firm concerned failed
to deliver them.
service for 10 years or more and their fighting value was very low.
The cadres were entirely inadequate.
Unfinished works, conspicuous and concentrated, proof only
against projectiles of 21 cm.; obsolete artillery, lacking in ob-
servation-posts and in munitions; a garrison full of goodwill
but with inadequate cadres and untrained in the handling of
modern weapons such were the real means of defence of the
legendary fortress of Antwerp in 1914.
None the less the Belgians displayed, from the moment when
their territory was invaded, the utmost activity in preparing
it. The unfinished forts were put in a state of defence by any
means that came to hand. The aprons for the cupolas were
banked up as best they could be. Distribution systems were
created for motive power, lighting and telephones. The imme-
diate foreground was cleared, though this did more harm than
good, as it made the works very visible. The inundations were
prepared. Forts and redoubts were united by continuous, wire.
In the rear infantry trenches were constructed, but these in-
evitably showed well above ground on account of the water-
level in the soil, and the shelters, which were none too numerous,
were made merely with logs. The reserve artillery of the fortress
was established in battery positions, which gave an average of
five old-pattern guns, firing black powder, per km. of front. 1
A supporting position along the whole length of the Nethe
was put in hand. The old fort line, and even the enceinte (which
had been only partially demolished), were also organized as far
as possible.
The unfinished state of the fortress and the mediocrity of its
armament formed a serious handicap to the important part which
Antwerp was destined to take in the operations.
(1 ) As a great commercial metropolis, always abundantly supplied
with products of all kinds, Antwerp was an obvious centre for mili-
tary depots and stores. Containing all the army's arsenals and
supply magazines, it was a base of operations from which the army
could under no circumstances allow itself to be cut off.
(2) By reason of its situation Antwerp offered to the Belgian
field army a stronghold from which it could sally forth at any time
it chose, to threaten the lines of communication of the German
armies operating in the north of France.
(3) Through Ostend and Zeebrugge Antwerp had easy means of
communication with England. Under the shelter of the fortress and
the Scheldt English troops could safely land in Flanders, act in
liaison with the Belgian army, operate against the German lines of
commMnication, protect the Pas de Calais coast with its sea traffic,
vital to England, and prevent the Allied left wing from being turned
and enveloped.
To fulfil these important missions the fortress should have been
complete and well manned. Failing these two conditions, it was of
no importance save for the presence of the Belgian field army within
its walls.
The Belgian army had fallen back in the direction of Antwerp
when, to avoid envelopment by the German I. and II. Armies,
the Nethe position had to be evacuated (Aug. 18-20). Hence,
too, after the sortie battles of Aug. 25 (Eppeghem, Hofstade,
Werchter) and Sept. 9-12 (Aerschot, Haecht, Louvain) under-
taken for the purpose of cooperating in the battle of the Frontiers
and that of the Marne, the army returned in each case to the
fortress, resolved to stay there as long as its communications
with the sea were not in danger.
When the German I. Army wheeled through and past Brussels
on its way to France, it dropped the III. Res. Corps (v. Beseler)
to face northward as a flank-guard against the Belgian field
army at Antwerp. With some additions and changes, Beseler's
force 2 remained on the defensive, fulfilling this duty on the
line Grimberghen-Over de Vaert-Aerschot.
On Aug. 25 and again on Sept. 9 it had to meet serious sorties
of the field army in Antwerp, and on the second of these occa-
sions its situation was at one time critical. After this, for a few
days, the front was quiet. But towards Sept. 20 reports began
to come in of important German transport moves and of a
quantity of very heavy artillery moving on the roads leading
1 The artillery of the field army of course excluded.
2 Till Sept. 8 Beseler remained under command of I. Army.
From Sept. 8 to Sept. 10 his force was under the VII. Army head-
Snarters. Finally on Sept. 17 the force wasdesignated"Armeegruppe
eseler." (C. F. A.)
ANTWERP
157
from Maubeuge to the region N. of Brussels. The powerful
materiel which had laid in ruins the forts of Liege, Namur and
Maubeuge in succession was in fact now on its way to Antwerp.
Soon it was established in position in all the region between
the Dyle and the Grande Nethe, from Boortmeerbeek to Heyst-
op-den-Berg. 1 The heaviest ordnance, 30-5-011. and 42-cm.
howitzers, had not only demolishing but also ranging power.
They could install themselves in perfect safety beyond the ex-
treme range of the Belgian guns, and regulate their fire as if
on the experimental range.
SIEGE OF ANTWERP.I9I4
Positions of the defence and of the attack Artillery
German Sieg-e Artillery
L me of medium and heavy artillery dtpioymcnt
4s cm baeteri^ i , ect?f . ed a tof to sho
ons tysamebattery
RedoubtBcrendrecht
Stab
// < > '
// * S f* * ,
ft ^^//^^^LiSkmrTT 1
3 4 S k 7 MILES
1 The total artillery strength of the Germans before Antwerp was:
Field Artillery F. Gun 25 batteries 150 pieces
F. How. 6 " _36 "
Total 186 pieces
Heavy Field and Siege Artillery
Guns 10 cm. 6 batteries 24 pieces
13 cm. 4 " 16
15 cm. 2
Long guns 48 pieces
Howitzers 15 cm. 18 batteries 72 pieces
21 cm. 12 48
Howitzers 120 pieces
Super-heavy Howitzers
German and Austrian 30-5 cm. 4 batteries 9 pieces
German 42 cm. 2 4
13 piece?
(C.F. A.)
ANTWERP
On Sept. 27 the German operations assumed the character
of the beginning of a siege. The town of Malines received a
violent bombardment and was evacuated. The artillery de-
ployment of the attack was completed, and fire opened on the 28th.
The Army Group Beseler comprised at that time the 37th
Landwehr Bde. between Alost and Termonde, where it had
served in flank guard since Sept. 14; the 4th Ersatz Div. (arrived
from Lorraine on the 26-27) between Termonde and the Wille-
broeck canal; the Marine Div. between this canal and the Dyle
about Malines; the III. Res. Corps from the Dyle to the
Antwerp-Aerschot railway (5th R. Div. on left, 6th R. Div.
on right), and the 26th Landwehr Bde. N. of Aerschot, with a
group furnished by the III. Res. C. further to the right front at
Westerloo.
The specialist troops, besides the medium and heavy artillery
already alluded to, were two regiments and some additional
units of pioneers, four railway companies, three kite balloons
and a flight of aeroplanes, a survey section and two searchlight
sections. General von Beseler himself was an engineer general
and had been inspector-general of pioneers.
Field-Marshal von der Goltz, Governor-General of Occupied
Belgium, had at his disposal some brigades, of which the ist
Reserve Ersatz Bde. and the ist Bavarian Landwehr Bde.
joined the Beseler Group directly, while the 4ist Landwehr Bde.
watched the left rear between Alost and Ninove, and the 38th
Landwehr Bde. the right front near Beverloo Camp.
Siege Operations. It at once became clear that the attack
was being concentrated on the south front of the fortress. The
attack project elaborated by the Germans in peace-time had
made the east front the objective. On the other hand, an attack
against the west front would have had the advantage of isolating
the Belgians from Allied support. But von Beseler had not the
necessary forces to prosecute a siege on this side while still
covering the communications through Brussels against a sortie.
In spite, therefore, of the fact that the Nethe and its inundations
lay behind the fort line, he had decided to attack the south
front. 1 Trusting in the thrice-proved powers of his weapons
of attack, he set out to spare his infantry, to crush and throw
into confusion the lines of defence by gunfire, ruin the mechanism
of the organs of defence in the forts by methodic hammering,
controlled by aircraft, destroy the guns in their cupolas and the
garrison in their shelters more certainly than would have been
possible if they had been dispersed before giving them a chance
of fighting. These results attained, he would then cautiously
advance his infantry and gain a footing in the shattered forts
and pulverized lines of defence.
The Belgian troops were thus faced with the prospect of wait-
ing stoically and in obscurity, without hope of riposte, under
the fracas of a cyclopean bombardment, till the moment when
they should be blown up or crushed at their posts.
Under such conditions they could not hold out very long.
It was essentially a question of the number of mortars and the
quantity of munitions possessed by the assailant and of the
destructive power of each separate projectile. Actually this
unequal struggle lasted 10 days and nights without truce, and
this time was infinitely precious in retarding the moment when
the Germans rid at last of the menace of the Belgian army on
their right rear could freely and with better chances renew
their great effort to reach and envelop the left flank of the
Franco-British armies.
On Sept. 27 the Belgian field army was distributed on the
most dangerous sectors as follows: The ist and 2nd Divs.
between the Senne and the Nethe from Willebroeck to Lierre
with the sth Div. in reserve N. of the Nethe; the 6th and 3rd
Divs. between the Senne and the Scheldt; the 4th Div. at
Termonde and the cavalry division about Alost-Wetteren to
cover the communication between Antwerp and the sea.
On the morning of the 28th the German cannonade was let
loose along the whole front between Termonde and Lierre. Under
1 His request for additional forces wherewith simultaneously to
operate west of the Scheldt was refused by headquarters.
cover of this the infantry got into contact with the outposts of
the fortress. The Belgian guns replied with vigour.
Between the Scheldt and the Senne Belgian detachments
energetically repulsed their assailants (4th Ers. Div. and Mar.
Div.), notably on the outskirts of Blaesveld (S.E. of Fort
Breendonck). But E. of the Senne towards noon, the super-
heavy artillery came into action and began by engaging Forts
Waelhem and Wavre Ste. Catherine. 2 At Fort Wavre Ste.
Catherine the first 42-cm. shell pierced a concrete vault 25
metres thick. At i P.M. the gallery of the gorge front was
demolished. Other vaults, including those of the fire-control
room, suffered the same fate; a cupola was jammed, and the left
traditore battery crumbled into the ditch. The other forts
suffered less. The firing, after a pause in the evening, con-
tinued with intensity all through the night on most of the
forts. On the 2gth, W. of the Senne renewed attacks, especially
heavy about Blaesfeld, were repulsed. Between the Senne and
the Nethe the cannonade was even more violent than on the
previous day, both the trenches in the intervals and the per-
manent works being engaged. From 5 A.M. Fort Wavre Ste.
Catherine (which in fact was the point selected by von Beseler
for the break-through) received 42-cm. projectiles at regular
intervals of seven minutes, not counting those of 21 and 30-5 cm.
PLAN OP A FORT AT ANTWERP
SHOWING ALL HITS OF CALIBRES ABOVE 21 CM.
-HITS
It is difficult to imagine the terrible situation of a garrison sub-
jected to such a bombardment. The arrival of a 42-cm. projectile is
announced by a deafening roar. When it bursts in the masonry the
whole mass of the fort snakes violently and seems to sink in the
earth and to oscillate back to its original level. The blast throws
men against the walls. Poisonous fumes and clouds of cement dust
cause violent sickness and sometimes suffocation. Under such condi-
tions, and in close confinement, it is easy to see why the men lost
not only their powers of action but even, it seemed, their reason.
The men's quarters were destroyed, fires broke out, the air
became unbreathable and the greater part of the garrison took refuge
on the berm of the ditch. A 42-cm. projectile went through the dome
of one 15-cm. cupola, exploded, and tossed the voussoirs to a dis-
tance of about 30 feet. The second 15-cm. cupola was put out of
action by a 30-5. The other cupolas were either destroyed by being
laid bare or made inaccessible by the obstruction of their galleries.
One magazine was hit by a shell and blew up. The double caponier
of the capital was completely ruined.
By ii A.M. the fort had all its guns out of action and all
means of defence destroyed. The survivors of the garrison were
authorized to evacuate it as fire rendered it untenable. Forts
1 The artillery of medium and heavy calibre was deployed mostly
along the Malines-Heyst-op-den-Berg road, the rest behind Malines,
at ranges of 3,500 to 7,000 yd. from the two first and 5,000 to 9,000
from the two last-named forts. Of the super-heavy artillery two
30-5-cm. batteries (range 9,500 and 10,500 yd.) engaged Fort Wael-
hem and Chemin de Fer or Duffel redoubt; a 30-5 battery (8,500
yd.) and a 42-cm. battery (11,300 yd.) attacked Fort Wavre Ste.
Catherine ; an Austrian 30- 5-battery (range 8,800 yd.) Fort Konings-
hoyckt, and a 42-cm. battery (range 9,000 yd.) Fort Lierre. All
these were two-gun batteries except the Austrian, which had four.
The ranges here given are approximate. For positions see map.
(C. F. A.)
ANTWERP
159
Waelhem and Koningshoyckt, less heavily bombarded, continued
to reply vigorously.
On the 3oth the situation grew worse. The ist Div. deployed
between the Heyndonck inundation and Fort Wavre Ste.
Catherine was worn out by three days of bombardment and
had to abandon its ruined entrenchments and transfer the
defence to the N. bank of the Nethe, leaving Fort Waelhem to
defend itself in isolation. The right of the 2nd Div., affected
by the retreat of neighbouring troops, and itself heavily engaged,
gave way at one time.
The German infantry had not yet attacked 1 at any point,
but all the works had suffered terribly except Fort Lierre. The
artillery both of the forts and of the intervals maintained the
struggle all day against the German gunners. Between the
Senne and the Scheldt two powerful attacks on Blaesveld and
on the sector of the 6th Div. were repulsed.
The Germans, expecting that by this time Fort Waelhem,
Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine, and the defences to the N.E.
would be " ripe for storming," had fixed Oct. i as the day for
their break-through. Accordingly the Marine Div. was to
attack Fort Waelhem, the trenches adjacent, and Chemin de
Fer redoubt, and the 5th Res. Div. to storm Fort Wavre Ste.
Catherine and the Dorpveld redoubt. The attack of the Marine
Div. failed to reach Fort Waelhem (the Belgian ist Div. having
largely reoccupied the trenches evacuated the day before), but
its right captured Elsestraat, and after a sharp initial repulse
the 5th Res. Div. reached its objectives, while the Belgian 2nd
Div., after prolonged resistance under bombardment, began
retreating to the Nethe.
Meantime the works of the Senne-Nethe sector had been
subjected to a final and terrible hammering. Fort Waelhem had
been mortally wounded. A 30-5 projectile blew up a magazine
killing or grievously burning a hundred men who were sheltering
in the adjacent postern. But the fort still claimed to be in a
condition to fire, and, in fact, the assault on this fort was a
definite failure, as also was an attempt made in the night of
the ist-2nd. Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine was carried by the
German infantry in the evening of the ist. 2
The Dorpveld redoubt had been bombarded intermittently
on the 29th and soth, and on Oct. i from 8:30 A.M. Towards
5 P.M. an assault was delivered. The only 7-5-011. cupola being
out of action, the survivors of the garrison held the rampart
for half an hour, then abandoned the firing crest and took refuge
underground; a company of the enemy's infantry installed itself
in the mass of the cupola and the craters of the earthwork, but
the garrison kept up rifle-fire from the barrack windows.
The commandant of the work managed to get a friendly
field battery outside to sweep with shrapnel the enemy installed
over his head; reciprocally, his own traditore battery came into
action about 11:30 P.M. to defend the interval. On the 2nd,
towards 3:30 A.M., on their side, the Germans attacked the roof
of the fort by mining, and the concrete, which was of poor
quality, began to yield in the right-hand part of the work.
From this point the artillerymen could be of no use, and they
were withdrawn under cover of darkness one by one, under the
fire of a German machine-gun on the redoubt. Towards 5 A.M.
a second mine, still more powerful, breached the vaulting, and
the enemy took possession of the deserted floor. After defending
for some time an improvised barricade which limited the as-
sailants' progress, the commandant and 12 men, the sole sur-
vivors, were forced to surrender about 6 A.M. Fort Konings-
hoyckt, though violently attacked by 30- 5*5, took a vigorous
1 In its methodical advance it had reached the line of the Vrouwen-
vliet (Marine Div.) ; a line 700 yd. from Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine
(5th Res. Div.) ; Wavre Notre Dame and Koningshoyckt (6th Res.
Div.); Berlaer (37th Lw. Bde.). On the 3Oth the Germans were
very anxious about their right flank, owing to Belgian activity in
the region E. of Fort Kessel. _ (C. F. A.)
2 According to the German account the light flanking guns were
still in action when the fort was stormed. Authority had however
been given to the commandant (see above) to evacuate it. The fort
received 44 hits (out of 500 rounds fired) from super-heavy calibres.
Observation difficulties, due to the country, seem to have made
control of fire unsatisfactory. (C. F. A.)
part in the evening in repulsing the attack on the intervals. 3
Fort Lierre, after six hours' uninterrupted bombardment from
the 42 's, repulsed an attempted assault early in the evening.
The same night (ist-2nd) the Germans tried in vain to pierce
the interval between Fort Lierre and the Tallaert redoubt. 4
Between the Scheldt and the Senne the German infantry
made no move on this day. The artillery, however, kept up a
continuous hammering on the front of the Belgian 3rd and 5th
Divs., and especially on Fort Breendonck.
On Oct. 2 the Belgian ist and 2nd Divs. crossed the Nethe
and pushed forward to regain the intervals lost during the night,
but were checked by violent artillery fire, and King Albert there-
fore decided to transfer the defence to the north of the Nethe,
and had all crossings destroyed.
The evening was marked by the , death-struggle of Fort
Waelhem. Here the recent strengthening of the structure had
consisted chiefly in overlaying one metre of concrete on the old
brickwork of 1881, and, according to the Germans, the 2i-cm.
shell falling in large numbers on the fort contributed as much to
its ruin as the 30- 5 's of which calibre the fort received 30 effective
hits out of 556 fired. The Tallaert redoubt and Fort Konings-
hoyckt were evacuated, being in ruins, the first-named owing to
the explosion of a magazine, the second owing to the havoc of
the shells. On the fall of Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine the 42-cm.
battery hitherto engaged against that fort was turned on to
Fort Koningshoyckt, superposing its effect on that of four Aus-
trian 3o-5's. At Fort Lierre, after the fruitless attack of the
previous day, the German artillery opened fire at 7:30 A.M.
and battered successively all the organs of the fort. Several
aeroplanes aided in directing the fire, and here the single 42-
cm. battery engaged obtained a higher percentage of hits than
elsewhere (32 out of 175 rounds). All the cupolas where put out
of action, and all the chambers had to be evacuated in turn.
By 5:15 P.M. the fort was practically destroyed and shortly
afterwards it was evacuated. The Germans did not occupy it
till next day.
On the 3rd the small Duffel (Chemin de Fer) fort, armed with
six 5'7-cm. cupolas, on which the German artillerymen no
doubt disdained to waste a 42," held the enemy engaged the
whole day until its munitions were exhausted. The command-
ant then blew up his defences and brought back his gunners and
his wounded to the N. bank of the Nethe. The German infantry
of the Marine Div., which advanced during the day and the
night, occupied the ruined redoubt early on Oct. 4.
The Belgian troops now began to be seriously disheartened.
The forts, in which their confidence though misplaced had
been supreme, had in a few days been shattered under their
eyes by the blows of a monstrous artillery, and they knew that
their field artillery had nothing 6 but its own brave audacity
with which to carry on the struggle. All its efforts were con-
centrated on thwarting the enemy's active preparations for
crossing the Nethe, where the infantry hastily erected new lines
of defence.
The events of these days had left no illusions as to the fate
in store for Antwerp's fortified positions. It had been proved
that the 42-cm. or even the 30- 5-cm. shell would pierce a non-
reinforced concrete vault of 25 meters or the 24-cm. (93 in.)
chrome-nickel-steel domes of the cupolas. Once fire had been
opened on a fort it was a question not of days but of hours
to put it completely out of action. This being so, the idea
that the entrenched camp of Antwerp could constitute a definite
place of refuge for the army and the Government had to be
abandoned once for all, on pain of involving the army in the
surrender of the fortress. But another and a far more serious
3 According to the German account, the defenders were even
able to counter-attack on this part of the line.
4 Tschischwitz says that the existence of the Tallaert redoubt came
as a surprise to the Germans. (C. F. A.)
6 After the ruin of Fort Waelhem, however, a 3O-5-cm. battery
was switched on to the redoubt, against which it fired 137 rounds.
(C. F. A.)
6 Ammunition supply had become a matter of anxiety by the eve-
ning of Oct. 3.
i6o
ANTWERP
menace threatened the army more and more as the days went
on. For a fortnight past the " Race to the Sea " had been in
progress in France. Each side, hoping to envelop the outer flank
of the other or seeking to protect its own flank from the same
fate, was being led by a series of parallel and practically
synchronous efforts to displace the centre of gravity and the
decisive point of the campaign towards the sea. Thus by the end
of Sept. the battle-front had been extended from the Oise to
Arras and Bethune, and fresh German masses were traversing
Belgium in a westerly direction.
The real peril to which the Belgian army was exposed lay in
the possible failure of the Allied left to gain on the enemy's
right and join up with the Belgians on the Scheldt. Yet this
junction must be effected at all costs, even if the fortress had
to be abandoned in order to get into contact with the Allies.
The King was strongly in favour, however, of holding the
fortress until the last extremity, in order to bind the troops and
material now concentrated before it, and also to gain the maxi-
mum of time for the formation of a Franco-British-Belgian front
on the Scheldt and the Dendre the natural rampart of the
coast, the Straits and England. To prevent the Germans from
reaching the coast would be an inestimable service rendered to
the Allies, and the King was determined not to relinquish the
idea save in the last resort. Every day gained at Antwerp meant
a French port saved to-day Boulogne, the next day Calais,
the next Dunkirk and the withholding from the Germans of
the Straits of Dover, the most important maritime artery in
the world.
Mr. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty,
fully realized the capital role which the fortress might play in
the war. With great foresight and initiative he had drawn the
attention of the British War Office to the strategic importance
of Antwerp in the beginning of September. In the first days of
Oct. he came in person to the besieged fortress to take stock of
the situation. The Belgian Command gave him a frank state-
ment of its intentions, and King Albert informed him personally
of the role he proposed for the Belgian army on the extreme left
wing of the Allied front. Being entirely in agreement, Mr.
Churchill returned in all haste to London to push forward the
immediate dispatch of all the troops the French and English
Governments could spare to Antwerp and Ghent. It was ur-
gently necessary (i) to guarantee the effective union of the
Belgian army with the general Allied front and (2) to bring about
this union on a level with Antwerp, or, failing this, on a line as
far east as possible with its left resting on the Dutch frontier or
the coast, so that the enemy could in no case seize and envelop
the Allies' extreme left wing.
Given the double aim which the King had in view, that of
holding Antwerp as long as possible and not allowing himself
under any circumstances to be cut off from the Allies, there
was no time to be lost in transferring the main base of supplies
from Antwerp to Ostend, whence the army could carry out its
subsequent operations in concert with the Allies. The transport
of materials and supplies and the evacuation of the manu-
facture and storage establishments, of the wounded, the prisoners
and the recruits therefore commenced on Oct. i. Although the
only through railway connexion between the E. and W. banks
of the Scheldt was that by way of Willebroeck, Puers and Tamise
railway bridge, within range of the enemy's guns, the trains
followed one another night after night, with all lights out, until
Oct. 7 without attracting attention. West of the Scheldt the
evacuation transports and convoys were protected by the 4th
Div. round Termonde, and the Cavalry Div. round Wetteren. 1
1 A first attempt on Termonde had been made on Sept. 26 by the
37th Landwehr Bde. advancing from Alost down the left bank of the
Dendre. Not only had this been hung up at Gyseghem, half-way,
but Alost itself ,in its absence had fallen to an attack by Belgian forces
from Wetteren. The 27th and 28th were taken up in recapturing
Alost, which was thenceforward held, though the garrison was
" constantly and severely worried by cavalry, cyclists, armoured
cars and armoured trains " in the words of the German account.
A detachment of the.brigade was sent up to watch the S. side of Ter-
monde, .and one from the 4th Ers. Div. was similarly posted (not
British Assistance. The immediate result of Mr. Churchill's
personal intervention was the arrival at Antwerp, on the evening
of Oct. 3, of a brigade of 2,000 men of the British Royal Naval
Division. The apparition, at dawn on the 4th, of these the first
Allies the Belgian soldiers had set eyes on during the two months
of the war aroused a wholesome enthusiasm among the dis-
pirited defence troops. Unhappily, this assistance could be no
more than a moral stimulus for a fresh burst of energy.
Meanwhile, the German infantry E. of the Senne advanced
steadily as near to the Nethe line as the Belgian fire permitted,
while the medium and heavy artillery moved up to new posi-
tions, and the super-heavy batteries, freed by the fall of all
works between Waelhem and Fort Lierre inclusive, got into
place to attack Fort Breendonck on the left flank and Fort
Kessel on the right three German 30-5 batteries W. of Hom-
beek engaging the former, and the Austrian 3O-5's at Heykant
and one 42-cm. battery 2 at Isschot the latter. On the 4th the
six pieces concentrated upon Fort Kessel at ranges of 9,000-9,300
yd. quickly finished their work, the place being ruined and
evacuated just before midday. It was not until the 6th, however,
that fire was seriously directed upon Fort Breendonck.
Gen. von Beseler's original scheme was that each unit on
the III. Res. Corps front should strive on its own account and
at its own time to obtain a foothold beyond the Nethe, while
the Marine Div. remained echeloned back on the left, and the
26th Landwehr Bde. advanced on the right as close to Fort
Kessel as possible. The fire directed upon the half-exposed left
of the sth Res. Div., however, soon made it necessary that the
right of the Marine Div. should also attempt to advance. In
this it was unsuccessful, and during the 4th the whole of the
5th Res. Div. and part of the 6th could do no more than approach
the water-line.
On the right of the 6th Res. Div., on the contrary, a bold
advance carried the Germans into Lierre, and there began in
that town a prolonged and fierce struggle, the British Marine
Bde. deployed along the Little Nethe and the 5th Belgian Div.
on the Nethe between Lierre (excl.) and Hit Ven (excl.) com-
pletely holding up both the right of the 6th Res. Div. and those
troops of the 26th Landwehr Bde. which, on the fall of Fort
Kessel, had pushed up to Klosterheyde.
On the evening of Oct. 5 the German force in Lierre was still
pinned down by the fire of the Marine Bde. Further south,
under cover of a very heavy bombardment, they had succeeded
in crossing the river, but were held a short distance beyond it,
along the road from Hit Ven to Lierre, with only precarious com-
munications behind them.
On Oct. 6 at dawn the 5th Div. tried, by a general counter-
attack, to throw the enemy back to the S. of the Nethe. But with
the whole mass of the German artillery free to cover its infantry
the counter-attack was foredoomed. The Belgian guns vig-
orously supported it, and a determined attack near Ringenhof.
was for a moment successful and produced a crisis in the German
line. But no more could be done. The assistance of Fort
Broechem was at an end, since on this day it was taken under
fire by the 42-cms. and the Austrian 3O-5-cms. which had ruined
Fort Kessel and then advanced to their third positions at
Vythoek and Koningshoyckt respectively. More and more
German infantry was, by one means or another, got across the
Nethe, and the debris of the ist, 2nd and sth Divs. and the
English Marine Bde. fell back little by little in the afternoon
without fighting) at Baesrode. The whole force on the left was
placed under the 4th Ers. Div. staff, but until the arrival of further
troops from the governor-general's forces (ist Res. Ers. Bde.)
nothing could be done. On Oct. 4 the arrival of these troops, behind
which the 1st Bav. Lw. Bde. was also coming up, released the 37th
Lw. Bde. from Alost, and an advance was made by this brigade to
Schoonarde on the Scheldt, with a view to forcing the passage there
and reaching Termonde from the rear. On the 4th, 5th and 6th,
however, attempts to do so were repulsed by the defenders, and
throughout the critical days the Germans were unable to interfere
with movements in the Lokeren region. (C. F. A.)
2 The 42-cm. battery which had attacked Forts Wavre Ste.
Catherine and Koningshoyckt was a railway battery, and had to
remain inactive for the time being. (C. F. A.)
ANTWERP
161
to the Kne Contich-Bouchrmt, where civilian labourers and
recruits had dug some rough trenches. 1
Meanwhile, along the Scheldt, the enemy's attitude was
becoming more and more aggressive in the efforts to gain the
crossings at Baesrode, Termonde and Schoonaerde. The
situation of the Belgian 4th Div., on a front of 18 m., began to be
serious. There lay the gravest danger which threatened the
Belgian army that of being invested in the fortress. The 6th
Div., which with the 3rd Div. still held the fort line between the
Willebroeck canal and the Scheldt, now received orders to cross
the Scheldt at Tamise to reinforce the 4th Div. and safeguard
the army's communication with the west.
Withdrawal of tlie Belgian Field Army. -The defence troops
were becoming extremely fatigued, the bravest among them
being daunted by the uninterrupted bombardment and the
persistent feeling of helplessness in the face of the weapons
which had pulverized forts and lines of defence in succession.
Soon the enemy would be bringing up his batteries to bombard
the city itself. If it had taken only a week to reduce the prin-
cipal line of resistance constituted by the modern forts on the S.
of the Nethe, still less would suffice to break up the old forts of the
inner line. The fortress could now offer no prolonged resistance.
Moreover, all hope of linking the Antwerp front with that of
the Franco-British armies had to be abandoned. Two new
English naval brigades, recently formed, had arrived in the
fortress on the 5th, bringing the effective of the Royal Naval
Div. up to 10,000 men; a French naval brigade had been moved
from Dunkirk to Ghent and the British 7th Div. and 3rd
Cavalry Div. under Gen. Rawlinson had landed at Zeebrugge
and Ostend. Had these troops arrived a few days earlier a
combined operation- against the left wing of the besieging force
' might have changed the face of the war. But it was too late.
As Mr. Churchill said:" A week earlier, the result would have
been a certainty ... a little later 200,000 men could not
have carried the operation through."
On the one hand, the Germans were threatening the line of
retreat through Termonde. On the other, liaison with the Allies
was compromised, for the German right wing in France was now
hardly more than 30 m. from the sea, whereas the distance from
the Nethe to Nieuport was 85 miles. This being so, one con-
sideration now dominated all others the Belgian army must
avoid being surrounded. On the evening of Oct. 6 the King
decided to separate the lot of the main body of the army from
that of the fortress, and gave orders to cross to the left bank of
the Scheldt during the night of the 6th-yth. The troops were
then to continue their march westward. It was high time, for,
on the 7th, the Scheldt was forced at Schoonaerde, the Germans
making every effort to throw back the 4th Div. on Lokeren.
The fortress was still to be defended to the utmost by Lt.-
Gen. Deguise, the governor. The garrison proper (personnel of
the forts and fortress troops) with the 2nd Div. and the British
Naval Div., some 50,000 men, were more than enough to do what
could be done with the remains of the fortress.
The Final Resistance. On the 6th Fort Broechem, battered
all day by four 30- 5*3 and two 42-cms., had been put out of
action and dismantled. The improvised line Aertselaer-Contich-
Bouchout was merely a row of light shelter-trenches, lacking in
depth and with both flanks in the air. General Deguise con-
sidered it too risky to commit his forces, very inferior as they
were, to a determined defence of this exposed position. 2 He
therefore placed the 2nd Belgian Div. and the English Div.
on the line of forts No. i to No. 8. These two divisions stoically
endured there the usual bombardment throughout the days of
the 7th and 8th. Meanwhile the main body of the Belgian army
1 The German official account criticizes the inactivity of Gen.
Paris in not seizing the opportunity offered by the success at Ringen-
hof. Whether this criticism be well founded or not it shews that the
position at that moment was regarded by the German command as
critical.
2 On the night of the 6th the German line ran from a point S. of
Fort Broechem, along the Little Nethe and in advance of the Nethe,
to a point about I m. W. of Duffel Station. The Marine Div. was
still short of the general alignment, not having crossed the river.
On its left, the 4th Ersatz Div. faced the line of the south-western
forts, of which Fort Breendonck was beginning to be subjected to
bombardment. The left of the 4th Ersatz Div. was at St. Amand and
Baesrode on the Scheldt, in touch with the forces operating at and
above Termonde. On the extreme right, detachments were advanc-
ing in the direction of Massenhoven redoubt arid Santhoven.
(C. F. A.)
E3 German positions
covering Brusssls
p -"
. ta
jj German advance last
Belgian divisions at
outset of attack.
SIEGE OFANTWERRI9
GENERAL MAP
Position of German left wing70ct
Germanlineand movementsSOct
Movements of GermanleftloOct.
I 62
ANTWERP
was moving between the Scheldt and the Dutch frontier, seeking
contact with Rawlinson's force and the French Naval Bde. which
were collecting towards Ghent.
In the afternoon of the yth, under instructions from O.H.L.,
Gen. von Beseler informed the governor of his decision to
bombard the city of Antwerp, commencing at midnight, in
default of previous capitulation. This attempt at intimidation
had not the smallest effect upon either Gen. Deguise or on the
Communal Council which, convoked by the governor, declared
itself to be " willing to accept the consequences of prolonging
the defence to its extreme limits," and assured him, moreover,
that it never would try to influence the decision of the military
authorities responsible for such defence.
The bombardment began at midnight. 1 It was directed
especially on the gates of the enceinte. Certain quarters of the
town were attacked by long-range guns. On the same night
(yth-Sth) part of the III. Res. Corps pushed its patrols up to
the fort line of defence.
On the 8th, Gen. Paris, the English general, and Lt.-Gen.
Dassin, commanding the Belgian 2nd Div., came to the con-
clusion that resistance to a determined attack on the following
day would be hopeless. On hearing this and also that Gen.
Paris, after telephonic communication with the British Ad-
miralty, had received orders to bring away the Naval Div.,
Gen. Deguise at 5:30 P.M. gave up the idea of holding the fort
line of defence any longer, and decided to take advantage of
the night to withdraw all the troops occupying it to the left
bank of the Scheldt.
The orders were :
(1) The British Naval Div. to cross in the night and entrain at
St. Gilles Waes for Ostend.
(2) The 2nd Belgian Div. to accompany the British Div., covering
its entrainment at St. Gilles Waes against the German troops re-
ported near Lokeren (see below), then to march westward and try
to rejoin the rest of the Belgian army.
(3) The forts still intact to defend themselves individually to the
utmost.
(4) The enceinte to be handed over to the Germans when they
appeared before it, in order to save the city from unnecessary damage.
(5) A force of some 20,000 men of the garrison troops, under Gen.
Deguise himself, to hold out as long as possible in the entrenched
camp formed by the Scheldt and the forts of the left bank.
These movements took place in the night of the 8th-pth
without being disturbed by the Germans (who had no suspicion
of them), but not without a good deal of confusion. Meanwhile
the bombardment of the city continued.
On the ;th the Germans had succeeded in forcing the passage
of the Scheldt at Schoonaerde. The advance was pushed to
within 2 m. of Lokeren, where sharp resistance was again met.
The Belgian army was in fact streaming past the front of this
small force in several columns; neither side, however, was in a
position to take the initiative of an encounter battle, the Ger-
mans owing to the tactical, the Belgians owing to the strategical
risks that this action would have involved.
Next day the Belgian divisions, though the enemy did not
know it, were past the reach of attack and in touch with the
French and British forces at and north of Ghent, leaving no
baggage or stragglers to be picked up, since all impedimenta
had been removed in the transfer of base to Ostend several days
earlier.
On the pth, therefore, the three German brigades, now followed
by the rest of the 4th Ersatz Div., struck a blow in the air, while
the ist Res. Ers. Bde. from Alost advanced on Ghent, and at
Melle became involved in a very heavy fight with the French
Naval Bde. and some Belgian batteries (Oct. 9 and 10). On the
loth, wheeling inwards to invest the fortress, and thus turning
their backs to the Belgian field army, the five German brigades
N. of the Scheldt pushed on to the line St. Gilles Waes-St.
Nicolas, Kettermuit. But instead of the expected main body
of the Belgians they only encountered the 2nd Belgian Div.,
which passed under fire of their guns at Moerbeke westward
1 It was opened by a battery of 5-9 shielded guns, E. of Lierre,
16,500 yd. from the nearest point of the enceinte. Later 13-cm.
batteries were also employed. (C. F. A.)
and the two last battalions of the British Naval Div., which were
caught at St. Gilles Waes and forced over the Dutch frontier.
Thus did the greater part of the prey which the Germans
counted on capturing at Antwerp escape them.
Meanwhile Gen. Deguise was preparing to defend the en-
trenched camp on the left bank of the Scheldt. But his remain-
ing troops were of mediocre quality. The men of the fortress
battalions were old, their officers few hardly one per company
and nearly all either reserve officers or newly commissioned-
The N.C.Os. were scarce and did not know their men. In fact,
Gen. Deguise had 20,000 men in uniform rather than 20,000
combatants. On troops such as these the fury of the bombard-
ment naturally had produced a great effect, and the departure of
all field troops, and that of the English whom they had wel-
comed so hopefully, led them to look upon themselves as so
many units written off. During the whole of the 8th and gth
their lines were crossed by crowds of civilians who, carting
their families and their furniture and driving their live stock
in front of them, filled all the roads and routes leading westward,
repeating as they went the stories, a hundred times magnified,
of Vise and Louvain, of Dinant and Aerschot.
The spectacle of this deplorable exodus completed the de-
pression of the soldiers. It was no longer possible to expect this
almost shephcrdlcss flock of men at bay to defend themselves
in open trenches when they had seen armour and concrete
ruined in a few hours.
On the evening of the gth Gen. Deguise, knowing that the
Germans were near Lokeren and believing, through an erroneous
report, that they had also crossed the river at Antwerp itself,
became convinced that no further organized resistance was
possible. Officers and units were allowed to leave the fortress
at will and were to attempt to rejoin the field army. Many
acted upon this and some succeeded, the rest taking refuge in
Holland. On the loth the general sent a flag of truce to Gen.
von Beseler to enquire the conditions of surrender. But mean-
time the civil authorities, seeing the city to be empty of troops,
had acted on their own account. The situation was grave. At
about twenty points fires had been started by the bombard-
ment. The waterworks at Waelhem on the Rupel having been
in German hands for a week, the firemen could not undertake to
master the flames in the fire areas. With a sudden violent wind
the whole city might be set ablaze.
To save the city from a disaster, which could be of no advan-
tage from a military point of view, the leading townsmen had
sent a deputation to Gen. von Beseler to obtain a cessation of
the bombardment, and on the afternoon of the gth an agreement
was signed suspending the bombardment on condition of the
surrender of all the works of the fortress the following day at
noon. Gen. Deguise had no choice but to ratify this agreement.
Deep as was the impression made upon the world by the
fall of Antwerp, the material strategic gain to the Germans was
far less than had been anticipated. Although in military stores
and economic resources their booty was considerable, not only
had the whole of the Belgian field army made good its escape,
but not even the fortress troops were left to adorn the German
triumph. As to the works which had not been attacked, they
were empty and in most cases rendered useless by their com-
mandants.
Antwerp Port Arthur Verdun. The rapid fall of Antwerp
in 1914 may seem astonishing when compared with the resistance
of Port Arthur in 1904 and that of Verdun in 1916. It is neces-
sary, however, both in appreciating the resistance of the Belgian
fortress and in deducing technical lessons from the siege, to
compare the conditions of the three cases in some detail.
Although Port Arthur possessed no cupolas and several of its
forts were unfinished, yet the Russians had six months' leisure
to prepare, not a line, but a zone of defence 3 m. deep, in which
forts, trenches and redoubts formed a tangled system, cleverly
applied to very difficult ground. Dug out of hard rock, these
entrenchments offered an exceptionally good resistance to the
engines of destruction. The artillery of the defence was ample
and well distributed in the intervals. Finally, the Japanese
AOSTA, DUKE OF ARABIA
163
siege material included at first no calibres above 15 cm. It
was only after two months of the attack that 28-cm. mortars
were brought up. Of these the Japanese brought 18 pieces into
action, and their projectiles broke through the i -metre concrete
of the permanent forts. But even so the artillery played a
secondary role. Under these conditions the moral of the defence
was bound to be excellent, and the fortress was taken by Nogi
only after sapping, mining and very heavy sacrifice of life.
At Verdun the Germans used the same calibres and somewhat
the same methods of attack as at Antwerp. The bombardment
was to annihilate the defence, the infantry to reap the results
of the bombardment, and in fact the progress made during
the first days was considerable. If they failed in their under-
taking it was because the French promptly brought up a great
quantity of artillery and established a regular system of reliefs
for the troops in line 1 ; because the broken ground on the banks
of the Meuse was favourable to the defence; because the forts
had been strengthened by reinforced concrete (some of them,
notably Fort Vacherauville, were entirely of reinforced con-
crete), and because the nature of the soil allowed the garrison
to dig themselves into shelters, proof against even the 42-cm.,
right under the concrete masses of the forts.
In contrast to these conditions the fortress of Antwerp was
built on a uniformly flat site, with water only three feet below
the surface. This made it necessary to build all the fortifications
above ground and to forego the advantage of deep shelter. The
forts were of simple concrete, proof to 2i-cm. shells at most. The
whole Belgian army was in the line from the outset without hope
of reinforcements, fresh artillery, or felief. Added to this, the
army, which had at all costs to avoid being surrounded in the
fortress, had a vulnerable flank.
It will be seen, therefore, that Antwerp, Port Arthur and
Verdun represent three absolutely distinct military situations.
German Occupation: Reconstruction of the Fortress. Once masters
of Liege and Namur, the Germans had lost no time in repairing all
the works. They restored the concreted works to their original thick-
ness and filled up all fissures and craters. At Namur most of the
cupolas were replaced, but at Liege on the contrary they removed
all guns and even numerous armour parts, and proceeded to organize
the forts exclusively for infantry and machine-guns. The mechan-
ical and telephonic, installations and the ventilation system were
improved. 2 Door and window apertures were made smaller and a
great number of the latter walled up.
At Antwerp, as at Liege, the Germans converted the forts into
infantry works in accordance with the principles already applied at
Metz. They restored the earthworks of the forts, but did not as a
rule reconstruct the chambers destroyed by bombardment. Cham-
bers not taken into use were walled up. In the intervals they main-
tained only the western and northern fronts. On the west front
(Blaesveld-Bornhem and the left bank of the Scheldt) the existing
trenches were consolidated and formed into two lines joining the
gorges of the permanent works. A considerable number of small con-
crete shelters also were built here for machine-guns or observers,
and some for flanking guns. On the north front, facing Holland,
from the Lower Scheldt to Fort Schooten, the Germans took pains
to maintain in good order the old permanent forts and the interval
trenches. The latter were made into a continuous system, generally
double, with communication trenches, and concrete shelters and
posts. In front were two continuous belts of wire. The flanking was
ensured by the traditore batteries of the repaired works and by
concrete machine-gun emplacements. This line was prolonged by an
analogous organization, facing north, all along the Turnhout canal
up to and including that town.
The defence system of the river as organized by the Germans con-
sisted of the following elements (all save the last-named on the right
bank) : Santvliet gun-spur (four emplacements for railway guns on
pivot platforms, two for 28-cm. guns, two for two ly-cm. guns paired ;
near the platforms were reinforced concrete shelters for ammuni-
tion and personnel) ; Blauwgaren battery (four 12-cm. guns in separate
reinforced concrete shelters) ; Lillo battery (four 15-cm. guns without
overhead protection) ; Liefkenshoek battery (two 12-cm. guns in con-
crete shelters) ; Ste. Marie battery (six 24-cm. guns in casemates).
1 On Feb. 21 1916 there were in the Verdun system II divisions.
By July I, 545 other divisions had done duty in the line, making a
total of 653. Of this total on an average about 27 were present at
any one time. (C. F. A.)
1 Belgian and German accounts of the siege of Antwerp concur
in noting the inadequate ventilation of the forts and the effects of
this on their resisting power. (C. F. A.)
To sum up, the Germans in restoring the fortress of Antwerp
treated the permanent works on the principles applied at Metz, and
the intervals as if they formed part of an army front.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Belgian official account of the operations of
1914 appears in instalments in the Bulletin Beige des Sciences Mili-
taires. An official German account (Antwerpen 1914) by E. V. Tschi-
schwitz, senior general staff officer III. Reserve Corps at the siege,
was published in 1921 at Oldenburg. For the British part the official
naval history by Sir I ulian Corbett should be consulted.
(R. VAN O.)
AOSTA, DUKE OF (EMANUELE FILIBERTO) (1860- ),
Italian general, was born Jan. 13 1869, the eldest son of Prince
Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta (see 1.804), and Maria Vittoria,
Princess of Pozzo della Cisterna (1847-1876). In 1895 he married
Princess Helene of Orleans, daughter of the Comte de Paris.
Devoting himself seriously to the military career, he in due
course commanded the ist Div. at Turin and the X. Army Corps
at Naples. A very serious illness caused a break in his career, and
on the eve of Italy's entry into the World War he was still on the
reserve list. Following upon the clash between Cadorna and
General Zuccari, who had been appointed to the command of the
Third Army, the duke was chosen to succeed the latter, and he
retained this post throughout the war. The duke's command of
the Third Army was conspicuously successful. His task was
thankless, for the duty of his army was to hammer against the
iron ramparts of the Carso. Various notable successes were won,
though the territorial gains were very limited, and in the process
of wearing down the enemy the Third Army played a great
part. The duke's rank possibly told against him to begin with;
but the qualities which he showed speedily made it clear that he
was no figurehead, and that he held his command by merit. In
the end the fact of his being a royal prince was only a help to the
position he had established for himself, for it put him outside the
field of ordinary jealousies. He had the invaluable faculty of
establishing harmony and a spirit of cooperation among his
subordinates, and he won a great popularity among the troops,
for whose welfare he did all that lay in his power. His qualities
as a leader were so highly estimated that he would probably
have been chosen to succeed Cadorna if it had not been thought
unwise to place upon a royal prince the responsibility of so grave
a moment.
The Duchess of Aosta served throughout the war as inspectress-
general of Red Cross nurses. In spite of delicate health, she rose
superior to continuous fatigue and frequent hardship, and the
award to her of the silver medal for valour was no mere compli-
ment. Their two sons Amedeo, Duke of Apulia (b. 1898), and
Aimone, Duke of Spoleto (b. 1900), both served in the war.
APPONYI, ALBERT, COUNT (1846- ), Hungarian states-
man (see 2.226), was from 1906 to 1910 Minister of Education
in the Wekerle Cabinet. In consequence of Francis Kossuth's
illness Apponyi undertook the greater part of his business as
president of the party of Hungarian Independence, calling
itself the party of 1848. In the message sent to the party just
before his death Kossuth designated him as his most suitable
successor. At the outbreak of the World War he adopted in
Parliament the standpoint of a " truce of God." Together
with Count Julius Andrassy and Rakovszky, Apponyi was from
July 6 to Aug. 25 1916 a member of the commission estab-
lished by the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies to watch over
the conduct of foreign policy. In internal affairs Apponyi
fought for universal suffrage. After the outbreak of the Octo-
ber revolution of 1918 he retired for a time into private life.
In 1919 he was elected as a non-party deputy to the National
Assembly, and was head of the Hungarian peace delegation in
Paris. He became a member of the League of Nations Union,
and as a politician standing outside party was in 1921 perhaps
the most influential man in Hungarian politics.
His published works include: Recollections of a Statesman (1912);
Die rechtliche Natur der Beziehungen zwischen Oesterreich und Un-
garn in the Oesterreichische Rundschau (vol. xxviii) ; and in Hun-
garian Hungary in the World's Press (1915).
ARABIA (see 2.254). The political frontier of Arabia on the
N. was indeterminate in 1921 except in so far as the boundaries
between Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia, as laid down in the
1 64
ARABIA
Franco-British Convention of Dec. 23 1920, affect it (see SYRIA).
The limits of the various independent states of the peninsula,
with the exception of the N. boundary of the Aden protectorate,
all remain equally undefined. A natural frontier on the N. runs
in an irregular curve from Akaba ('Aqaba) first N.E. and then
S.E. to the Persian Gulf, following the fringe of cultivation,
which fluctuates according as the nomadic or sedentary popula-
tion is the stronger. This line excludes Kerak, but leaves the
transition area of the Hamad or Syrian Desert within Arabia, to
which, both physically and ethnographically, it seems to belong.
Topography. Up to 1914, even the best knowledge of Arabia
was sketchy, but considerable advance has since been made by
the discoveries of recent travellers and as a result, direct or
indirect, of war operations. The progress to be noted falls under
three main heads: new light has been thrown on the drainage of
the peninsula; the positions of a number of places, previously
very imperfectly known or only guessed at, have been accurately
fixed; and a vast amount of topographic and ethnographic
detail has been accumulated.
The compilation of the map of Arabia on the million scale
has kept pace with discovery. For this purpose, the route
traverse in northern and central Arabia from Huber's Journal,
extending over 3,000 m., was replotted on a large scale and
formed a groundwork on which to place the more hurried surveys
of Wallin, Palgrave, Doughty, etc. All the labours of recent
travellers, starting with Leachman (1910), and ending with Bell
(1914), were reconsidered from the originals and adjusted with
due regard to the proportionate value of each, while the in-
formation collected by Col. Lawrence during the World War
and the surveys of Philby were incorporated. The work of
compilation was undertaken by D. Carruthers in 1914 and in
1921 was still in progress. Provisional sheets covering the
northern half of the country had already been issued.
The course of the main watershed of Arabia can now be traced
with general accuracy. Prolonged northward from the highlands
of Yemen and Asir, it passes inland between Taif and Wadi Turaba
and runs E. not W. as was previously supposed of the Hejaz
railway through the Kheibar harm, or. lava outcrop. Perhaps some
of the higher peaks of the 'Aweiridh ridge overtop it.
Wadi Hamdh, the main drainage basin of the short western slope
of Arabia, previously thought to have its head-waters in the vicinity
of Medina, at about lat. 24 N., in all probability has its source in
W. 'Aqiq, at least 3 farther S., thus giving it a total length of
700 to 800 m. including windings. The 'Aqiq, rising S.W. of Taif,
passes well to the E. of Mecca and W. of Medina and is said to take
the name W. Shaiba between these two towns. Some doubt remains
whether the Shaiba discharges wholly into the Hamdh just N. of
Medina, or whether it also forms a tributary eastward in W. Rumma
(Rima). Wadi 'Ais, coming from the N., and W. Jizil from the S.,
and joining W. Hamdh in the plain of Jurf are its two main afflu-
ents, and their courses, together with the middle reaches of the
Hamdh, have been explored in great part and mapped.
Much new information has been obtained as to the drainage of
the long eastward slope effected mainly by the great wadi sys-
tems of the Dawasir, Sahaba and Rumma (naming from S. to N.).
The town of Dam, in W. Dawasir, central Arabia, previously
mapped near lat. 23 N., has had its position definitely fixed in lat.
20 27' N. and long. 44 40' E. The direction of the course of W.
Dawasir, a matter long in dispute, proves to be S.E. towards the
Ruba'el Khali, or Great Southern Desert, and not N.E. as the old
maps show. The point of junction of the important Asir wadis -
Ranya, Bisha and Tathlith is in all probability in the plain of
Hajla about 50 m. N.W. of Dam. As to W. Sahaba, which has a
practical monopoly of the surface-waters of the central mass of
Arabia and the drainage of which trends to the sea at the southern
end of El Qatar, it was found to have its remotest head-waters in
W. Sirra in the very heart of the peninsula. Under the name of
W. Birk, the Sirra breaks through the Tuwaiq plateau and, turning
northward as W. 'Ajaimi, joins W. Hanifa some 60 m. S.E. of
Riyadh (lat. 24 37' N,, long. 46 41' E.). W. Hanifa ultimately falls
into the Sahaba, but the latter probably carries no surface-water,
at any time, farther than the western fringe of the Dahana, about
long. 48 E. Wadi Subai, rising somewhere in lat. 22 N., is prob-
ably the most southern tributary of W. Rumma.
ARABIA
cfe-I:tt.OOO.OOO
9 M 100 200 300 400 MIX.
T
ARABIA
165
Jebel Tuwaiq, the salient physical feature of central Arabia, was
found to extend for some 60 m. S. of Wadi Dawasir much farther
S. than was previously suspected giving this crescent-shaped
plateau a length from Zilfi (lat. 25 N.) of over 500 m. It has an
average breadth of 20 m. and a mean elevation of nearly 3,000
ft. above sea-level and 600 ft. above the great plain on the west.
The positions of the southern Nejd oases, most of which are sit-
uated on or around the Tuwaiq plateau, have been ascertained ; and
much further light has been thrown on the limits and peculiar char-
acter of the Nefudh and Dahana sand-belts on the N. and N.E.
respectively, the former proving to be comparatively hard gravelly
plain covered at intervals with parallel sand-belts of varying width
and the latter a continuous area of deep sand forced by wind pres-
sure into high sand billows or dunes.
Exploration. The journeys of recent travellers have been
mostly confined to the central and northern parts of Arabia; but
a little new ground has also been broken in the W. and S.W.
Some of these explorers, notably Philby, Shakespear and Bell,
made route traverses by prismatic compass, checked at intervals
by determinations of lat. and long, which greatly enhanced the
value of their work (see Map).
Central Arabia. Foremost among the explorers since 1910 is
H. St. J. B. Philby. In 1917, when on a mission to the emir of Nejd,
he crossed the peninsula from sea to sea, a feat previously accom-
plished by only one other European Capt. Sadlier, in 1819
his line being from 'Oqair ('Ojair) on the Persian Gulf to Jidda, by
way of Hofuf, Riyadh and Taif. He attributes the exceptional fer-
tility of the Hofuf group of oases to the reappearance at the surface
there of the rainfall of a very large area. Beyond Riyadh, Philby
was the first European to follow, for most of the way, thegreat central
pilgrim route to Mecca. He passed Ghat Ghat, a centre of the Waha-
bist revival (see AKHWAN MOVEMENT). After 80 m. of limestone
desert alternating with belts of Dahana, his route lay across the high-
lands of Nejd, a granitic tract 150 m. in breadth, where he found
altitudes up to 3,100 ft.; this tract forms part of the great divide
between the N.E. and S.E. slopes of Arabia in which, in about
lat. 23i N. and long. 43i E., lie the head-waters of W. Sahaba.
For no less than 200 m. between the small settlement of Qusuriya,
long. 44 30' E., and Khurma, lat. 22 N., long. 42 E. a village of
mud huts on the confines of the Hejaz and a point of conflict
between the King of the Hejaz and the emir of Nejd he found no
settled habitation, but encountered vast herds of gazelles. After
crossing the Rakba plain he reached Taif and, following down the
gorge of W. Fatima, reached Jidda.
In a subsequent journey, May-June 1918, Philby explored
southern Nejd, going 300 m. southward from Riyadh to Dam and
back. His route outward lay through the previously unvisited oases
of lowland Aflaj and W. Dawasir and he returned along the crest of
Tuwaiq by way of highland Aflaj and El Fara. He determined astro-
nomically the positions of a number of places, including Riyadh
(lat. 24 37' N., long. 46 41' E.), Abu Jifan (lat. 24 29' N.), Hair
(lat. 24 21' N.), Sulaiyil (lat. 20 25' N., long. 45 29' E.) and Dam
(long. 44 40' E.), and ascertained various heights by aneroid read-
ings. As a result of the journey, the hydrography of the Tuwaiq
plateau, the backbone of central Arabia, is now as well known as
any part before the World War. Philby's estimate of the popula-
tion of Riyadh is 1215,000, and its most conspicuous buildings
are the palace of the emir and the great Wahabi mosque. The oases
of Nejd were found to comprise, usually, a nucleus town with scat-
tered hamlets, and not more lhan a few square miles of cultivated
land around in each case; and populations never exceeding 10,000.
In Aflaj and Kharj he made a notable discovery of ruin fields of
considerable area, scattered with stone circles varying from 1045
paces in diameter about heaps of rubble, in the middle of which
usually stand large blocks of stone resembling the bases of pillars.
Situated on hillsides some distance from cultivation, they suggest
burial mounds of an early era, and open up an interesting field for
investigation. In both districts, the peculiar system of irrigation
from natural reservoirs or deep well pits by means of subterranean
channels, or karez, was unexpectedly found to prevail. At Umm el
Jebel, just S. of Laila, is a lake f m. by j m., possibly the largest
sheet of permanent water in Arabia, and also a number of reservoirs
of unusual size, one measuring 500 by 600 yards. In the Makran
depression, S. of Badia (lat. 22 N.), are other perennial pools of
water surrounded by woods of well-grown trees. The oasis of Dam
(his main objective) locally known as " the wadi," Philby found to
consist of some 20 separate settlements with a total population of
9,000, mostly of negro origin or of the Dawasir tribe. Dam itself
has a population of about 3,000 and owes its importance to its situ-
ation near the line of trade between Yemen, Aden, Nejran (seven
days distant), and central Arabia.
The negative results of Philby's journeys were almost as valuable
as the positive : he found that the Nejd oases are not tropical para-
dises; that there is no chain of oases linking Nejd with either Asir
or Yemen; and that there is no region of fertility between southern
Nejd and Oman, or any settled spot between it and either Oman or
Hadhramaut.
Northern Arabia. In 1910, Lt.-Col. G. E. Leachman set out
from Kerbela for Hail (J. Shammar) and Riyadh, but, after pass-
ing Leina, he had to return to Samawa. Again, in 1912, he left
Damascus intending to cross Arabia from N. to S. He got as far
as Riyadh by way of Hazil, Leina, and Boreida, but the emir of
Nejd refusing him safe conduct, he was obliged to turn eastward
and emerged by the usual road through El Hasa to 'Oqair. As a
result of these journeys he drew attention to W. Khar, an important
affluent of the Euphrates, and discovered its possibilities as a line
of communication between Syria and Iraq via the oasis of Jauf,
noting that water is obtainable at regular intervals along it. He was
first among Europeans to visit the remarkable wells of Leina, of
which there are several hundreds, spread over an area of 56 sq.
m. ; and he is the only European who has made any record of a
journey from J. Shammar to Suq esh Shuyukh. His travels were
equally important politically, for he laid the foundations of a good
understanding between Britain and the emir of Nejd; he was
treacherously shot, Aug. 1920, in Mesopotamia.
In 1913-4, Miss Gertrude Lowthian Bell travelled alone,
except for native guides, from Damascus to the neighbourhood of
Teima. Thence she passed eastwards over new ground along the
southern margin of the Nefudh to J. Shammar and visited Hail;
then northwards by Loqa to Nejef and Bagdad. The latter part
of the route was especially valuable, as it added considerably to
knowledge of a region hitherto traversed only by Wallin in 1848.
Miss Bell is the only woman traveller in Arabia, with the exception
of Lady Anne Blunt, and one of the few women who can lay just
claim to the title " explorer," for she surveyed her route by pris-
matic compass from' start to finish.
Capt. Shakespear, British political agent at Kuwait, who
became political officer in Nejd in 1914, travelled much in northern
and central Arabia. He made compass traverses of his journeys and
left voluminous notes which proved of great value. In 1913-4
he crossed the peninsula from Kuwait to Suez by way of Riyadh,
Boreida, Haiyaniya and Jauf el 'Amr, following an entirely new
course beyond the last-named place. He was killed in action Jan.
24 1915 in a conflict between the forces of Ibn Sa'ud and Ibn
Rashid whilst on special duty with the former; his death was a
grievous loss to the Indian Political Service, to which he belonged,
and to geography.
In 1909, Douglas Carruthers went, primarily, in search of the
little known oryx beatrix, a rare antelope inhabiting the interior 01
Arabia, which hitherto had not been hunted by any European, and
he obtained a complete series of skins and horns. His route, from
Jiza (Ziza) in the Belqa, lay through an' unmapped region, Guar-
mani, in 1864, being his only forerunner, except at Teima. He sur-
veyed his route southwards to Teima, thence northwards along the
Nefudh towards Jauf el 'Amr, and back to Jiza.
Alois Musil, in 19089 and again in 1910, explored extensive
tracts between lat. 27 and 36" N. and long. 37 and 44 E., embrac-
ing the Hamad, W. Sirhan, Hajara and Wadiyan. He is reported
to have made plane-table surveys of parts of these regions which
should furnish valuable data towards the mapping of northern Ara-
bia ; he added greatly to knowledge of its ethnography, natural his-
tory and archaeology. He is the only European who may be said
to have penetrated the Hamad to any great extent.
In 1912, a journey from Kuwait through Zilfi, Boreida, and Riyadh
to Hofuf and the coast again was made by Barclay Raunkiaer on
behalf of the Danish Geographical Society; he made a prismatic
compass survey of his route which to a small extent covered new
ground. Raunkiaer died in Copenhagen, July 1915.
Capt. Aylmer and Capt. S. S. Butler, in 1907, opened up com-
paratively new ground between Bagdad and Jauf.
The Hejaz. The Arabian section of the Hejaz railway was so ill-
known before the World War that even the stations could not be
enumerated correctly. Determination, in 1917, of the lat. and long,
of Ma'an and the observation of the long, of a few stations to the S.
enabled valuable adjustments to be made in the trace of the line.
A belt of the Hejaz slope, some 300 m. in length between Wejh and
Rabugh and a smaller tract immediately S. of Akaba were pretty
thoroughly explored as a result of war operations, and a Turkish
staff map of the country within a 3O-m. radius of Medina which
fell into British hands added further useful data, so that a great
part of the Hejaz can now be mapped with fair accuracy. Much
was learnt about the Billi tribe who people the rolling country
between Wejh and the railway. They were found to be pure nomads
without a single settlement in their district except one small garden
at El Kurr; while the Juheina and Harb to the S. of them are less
nomadic.
Asir and Yemen. Towards the end of 1918, in the course of
Idrisi's final campaign against the Turks, British officers could mix
somewhat freely with his people on the coast and were able to meet
tribesmen from the least known parts of the interior, and so an
amount of knowledge, topographical, social and political, was gained.
In particular, the composition and distribution of the chief tribes
of Asir and Yemen was learnt. The position of Ibha (formerly
Menadhir), the headquarters of the Turks, was at long last ascer-
tained, though no European got there even when they surrendered.
Sabia, Idrisi's capital, about 23 m. N.N.E. of Jeizan, was visited by
an Indian medical officer who, for the first time, was able to. describe
166
ARABIA
this hut village. In Yemen, in 1909, a considerable amount of sur-
vey work was done by M. A. Beneyton, a French engineer, for a
proposed railway from Hodeida to San'a and 'Amran (see below)
and, as a result, much unexplored territory was mapped on a scale
of 1:250,000. G. Wyman Bury went from Hodeida to San'a in 1912,
and made a long stay at Menakha in the same year. He has thrown
more light than perhaps any recent traveller on the topography and
economic conditions of Yemen. A. J. Wavell visited San'a in 1911
and gave the best description of the city since Manzoni, 1884.
He found the population reduced to 18,000 as compared with
Harris's computation of 50,000 in 1891. The decline in population
and the commercial depression prevalent in Yemen may be attrib-
uted largely to the lawlessness of the intractable Zaranik and Qah-
tan tribes who occupy the country between the highlands and
Hodeida.
Aden Protectorate and Hadhramaut. There is little new infor-
mation regarding these districts. Bury, in 1911, described his
penetration of the Kaur watershed (alt. 7-9,000 ft.), N. of the Ya-
fa' Fadhli country. He visited Yeshbum (pop. 4,000), the capital of
the Upper 'Aulaqi, situated in a plain producing cotton and indigo
and carrying on an industry in cotton fabrics, and got as far as
Beihan, no m. inland of Shughra and almost in touch with Mareb.
The Red Sea Coast. The naval patrol during the World War
added much to knowledge of the very intricate coastline from
Akaba to Aden. The triple coral reef fringing it had kept this coast
almost inviolate, but the very numerous openings through the
reefs are now known and have been charted.
Political History. Before the World War, the Porte claimed
control of Arabia in its entirety as rightfully part of the Ottoman
Empire in virtue of the Sultan's authority as caliph. In actual
fact, most of the peninsula was under a number of independent
native rulers, only some of whom acknowledged Ottoman in-
fluence, and that to a limited degree, while others were under
British protection. Effectual Turkish jurisdiction was confined,
in the Hejaz, to the two Holy Cities, their ports, and the line of
railway; in Asir, to one or two small ports and the inland districts
of Ibha and Muhail; and, in Yemen, to certain garrisoned towns
in the interior and to the ports of Hodeida and Mocha and
connecting roads. The Hejaz railway, built nominally for the
benefit of pilgrims to Mecca but in reality to increase the Otto-
man hold on Arabia, did not fulfil political hopes, partly because
it served not more than a third of the territory that the Turks
claimed and partly because of the immense difficulties of its
maintenance and working; and it brought about little or no
economic development in the peninsula.
The World War marked the passing of Turkish control from
the whole of Arabia and, at the opening of 1921, there existed
the following principal autonomous elements: the kingdom of
Hejaz; the emirate of Nejd and El Hasa; the emirate of Jebel
Shammar; the principality of Sabia in Asir; the imamate of
Yemen; the sheikhdoms of Kuwait, of Bahrien Is., and of El
Qatar; the Trucial Oman; the sultanate of Muscat in Oman; the
Ka'aiti and Kathiri sultanates of Hadhramaut ; and the autono-
mous tribes under treaty with Aden. But this list does not exhaust
the autonomies, for there are many tribal communities settled,
half-settled and nomadic which owe allegiance to none but their
own local chiefs, such as certain sections of the Anaza and
Muntefiq in the N. and the Zaranik and Yam in the S. The
parcelling of the peninsula among so many separate communities
is largely the result of peculiar geographical conditions which
hardly admit of homogeneous settled life except in certain fa-
voured districts, or in oases or wadis; and it is only by virtue of
some peculiar source of wealth, some common spiritual ideal or
some external support that larger territorial dominions have been
established.
The Hejaz. War with Turkey entailed on Great Britain
and her Allies certain dangers in Arabia owing to the efforts
made by the Central Powers, through the Porte, to arouse
Moslems to a. jihad or Holy War. Whether this result followed
or not, there was every likelihood that the Turks would try to
hinder the free use of the sea route to the East and, if left in
control in western Arabia, that Aden and the possessions of the
Allies in East Africa and the Farther East would be dangerously
accessible to the enemy. Great Britain therefore turned to the
sherif of Mecca (Husein Ibn 'Ali), believing that the metro-
politan position of the Holy Cities of Islam and the venerated
lineage of the sherif would make very effective his refusal to
countenance a jihad, while if he declared against the Turks,
the geographical position of the Hejaz would make the ma-
terialization of the other dangers improbable. Sherif Husein was.
known to desire the emancipation of the Meccan emirate.
Under the Ottoman regime, the Hejaz was a vilayet, with a
oali resident at Mecca. Nominally, it included all the area S.
of Ma'an to Lith, and was subject to taxation; but the cities of
Mecca and Medina were not only tax free but were in receipt of
subsidies from the Ottoman treasury, as were also certain Harb
sheikhs who were able to interfere with the passage of pilgrims
or with the railway track. The whole vilayet was exempt from
service in the Turkish army and successfully resisted an attempt
to impose conscription in 1914. The Porte maintained forces
in the Hejaz, the normal garrison being about 7,000.
Side by side with this foreign government, existed the author-
ity of the sherif or emir of Mecca, enjoying extra-territorial
independence at Mecca and Taif with the right to keep official
representatives to watch over his interests at Medina, Jidda and
elsewhere. The emir was able, at need, to call out considerable
levies of Hejazi and other Bedouins and, by so doing, under
semblance of helping tTie Turks, successive emirs not only made
interest with the Porte but inspired it with a wholesome respect
and, at the same time, kept in touch with a fighting force which
could be used some day for their own ends.
Sherif Husein was nominated to the emirate in 1908, as a man
of pacific character, likely to serve the Forte's purpose. In 1910
he took up arms for the Turks against the Asiri revolt under
Idrisi. In the same year he extended his influence over a part of
the territory of the emir of Nejd in central Arabia. But in 1913
he began to pursue an active anti-Ottoman policy, ostensibly
opposing the extension to Mecca of the Hejaz railway and
supporting the Harb tribesmen in their resistance to this and
other Turkish projects; and he organized the Hejaz tribes
acknowledging his authority, with a view to insurrection. He
reconciled himself with Idrisi and tried (without success) to get
the support of the imam of Yemen in his anti-Ottoman aim; and,
in 1915, he sent "Abdalla, his second son, to bring about a truce
between the emirs of Nejd and J. Shammar.
In the summer of 1915, Sherif Husein declared his desire for a
revolt to the Allies, who thereupon agreed to support him with
money, munitions and supplies. A long period of inaction fol-
lowed, however, and it was not until June 1916 that the revolt
actually broke out. After the loss of Jidda, Mecca and Taif by
the Turks, Husein proclaimed himself independent of Ottoman
rule June 5 1916. To explain his attitude to the Moslem world,
he issued a proclamation (Aug. 1916) setting out a number of
indictments against the Committee of Union and Progress; and,
finding that the Ottoman Government was unable to spare any
large force to oppose his aims, he was formally proclaimed
" Sultan of the Arabs " in Oct., a large number of chiefs assem-
bling in Mecca to support him. He relinquished this title for that
of " King of the Hejaz " in Dec., and was so recognized by the
Governments of Great Britain, France and Italy. In 1917, Wejh
and Akaba being lost by the Turks, the newly established
kingdom was able to maintain its separate existence, and the
year 1918 witnessed further satisfactory developments. In spite
of the Armistice, the Turks refused to surrender Medina until
Jan. 1919. The Hejaz was represented at the Peace Conference
by the Emir Faisal, King Husein's third son, and the state was
admitted a member of the League of Nations in 1920. By the
treaty of peace with Turkey, that country renounced all rights
and titles to the Arabian peninsula and the King of the Hejaz
undertook to ensure free and easy access of all Moslems to the
holy places of Mecca and Medina. The treaty had not, however,
been ratified by the Hejaz at the beginning of 1921.
King Husein maintained friendly, but formal, relations with
the emir of Nejd during the World War; but, in 1919 and the
early part of 1920, there was frequent friction between them over
the debatable border at Khurma in the neighbourhood of Taif.
A battle at Turaba, near Taif, in May 1919, resulted in a loss of
4,500 men to the Hejaz army; but the emir of Nejd did not fol-
low up his advantage. In June 1920, relations between the dis-
ARABIA
167
putants were reported to be more friendly; but the frontier still
remained undefined in 1921.
The Central Emirates. The emirate of Nejd, capital Riyadh,
and that of Jebel Shammar to the N., capital Hail, comprise all
the country between the main northern and southern deserts of
Arabia. Between the twp emirates lie the oases of Qasim and
Sedeir, the overlordship of which has been in dispute for more
than two generations. The two emirs control, more or less
effectively, all the peoples both settled and nomadic of central
Arabia, and the authority of the emir of Nejd extends to El
Hasa on the E. and to certain tribes of the Asir border and Wadi
Dawasir on the W. and S. Wahabism, or its more modern
manifestation the Akhwan movement, supplies the moral basis of
the power of the emirate of Nejd, while the settled nature of
the population is its material basis. The emirate of J. Shammar,
on the other hand, grew out of the desert power of a great
nomadic society accustomed to maintain a group of permanent
villages and hamlets around J. Aja and Selma, which served as
rallying places and as market centres. The Shammar emirate,
while inferior to its rival in wealth and settled population and
lacking its religious tie, owes its strength to the unity existing
between its oasis folk and the tribes of the surrounding regions,
to the patriarchal tie binding them, and to the stimulus of the
steppe desert upon its life.
Nejd (see 19.351) comprises all the oasis groups situated
about or on the Tuwaiq plateau, extending well over 500 m. from
N. to S., and is directly or indirectly under the rule of Ibn Sa'ud
of Riyadh. In addition, the emir lays claim to El Hasa, on the
Persian Gulf between lat. 24 and 29 N. He drove the Turks
from this district which they had occupied as a sanjaq of Basra
since 1871 in May 1913, and was acknowledged by the Porte
as vali of Nejd and El Hasa. He, however, effectively occupies
only the Hofuf group of oases, with the ports of Qatif and
'Oqair. In 1914, Ibn Sa'ud entered into relations with the
British Government Capt. Shakespear being appointed political
officer in Riyadh and proved an unswerving ally throughout
the World War. He declared himself definitely against Ibn
Rashid, emir of J. Shammar, who had allied himself with the
Turks. He fought a drawn battle with Ibn Rashid at Mejma' in
1915, the main point in dispute being the ownership of Qasim
with the towns of 'Aneiza and Boreida; it was in this battle that
Captain Shakespear was killed. His attitude towards the Hejaz,
while war lasted, was friendly but formal. By 1918, after
intermittent and generally successful campaigns against the
emir of J. Shammar, Ibn Sa'ud had established his supremacy
in central Arabia, including Qasim and Sedeir. His relations
with the King of the Hejaz, in 1910-20, became less cordial,
frequent disputes having arisen over the frontier question.
He is believed to have steadfastly refused either spiritual or
temporal allegiance to King Husein. Early in the summer of
1920, Ibn Sa'ud turned his attention to E. Arabia and instigated
an attack on Kuwait, which port he is said to covet. Several
actions took place but without definite result, and subsequently
efforts were made on the part of the British Government to bring
about a territorial agreement between the emir and the sheikh
of Kuwait.
Before the World War, the authority of Ibn Rashid was su-
preme in the group of oases about J. Aja and J. Selma; in the
steppes N. of Qasim, from the Hejaz border (including the oasis
of Teima) almost to Kuwait; and in the oasis of Jauf el A'mr.
On the N. and E., the southern Nefudh and the Dahana formed
a neutral zone between his territory and the nomad tribes
beyond. Ibn Rashid's attitude in the World War was con-
sistently pro-Turkish, though relations between him and the
adherents of the Committee of Union and Progress were probably
never cordial. The comparative ease with which the Turks could
reach Hail, from either the Hejaz railway (at Mu'adhdham) or
from Samawa and Nejef, contributed towards making him
sensitive to Ottoman pressure. He was reported to have supplied
the Turks with large numbers of camels, especially for the
expedition against Egypt in 1915-6. As the World War pro-
ceeded, his power diminished, both territorially and economically.
While Ibn Sa'ud was fighting the Turks in El Hasa (1913), Ibn
Rashid was able to maintain his position; but, in 1915, an
attempt on his part to overrun Qasim and Sedeir resulted in the
loss of the towns of 'Aneiza and Boreida, and they were placed
under tribute to Ibn Sa'ud. The oasis of Jauf, on the caravan
road from Damascus to Hail, was seized in 1910 by the Ruweila
tribe of the Anaza under Nuri esh Sha'lan, one of the most
powerful and anti-Turkish of the nomad chiefs. Nuri had shown
himself a successful rival of Ibn Rashid, for, in spite of deter-
mined attempts on the part of the latter to regain the oasis
(notably in 1914), he was not able to reestablish his authority in
Jauf. The important oasis of Teima, also, reverted to the Hejaz
in 1917. In the same year Ibn Rashid went to reside at Medain
Salih and, for a year, did not set foot in his capital. In May
1920, his murder was reported.
Asir. The limits of this district are indeterminate, but
broadly it comprises the country lying between the territory un-
der the jurisdiction of the King of the Hejaz who claims control
of the Tihama down to Qunfuda and that of the imam of
Yemen. Its eastern limit is contiguous with Nejd. There is a
strong political and social distinction between the people of the
Tihama lowlands and those of the highlands which constitute
Asir proper; and there is no part of Arabia where the tribal
elements are so sharply defined and their boundaries less change-
able. Settled tribes are the predominant element in Asir, as the
physical conditions favour the pursuit of agriculture sufficiently
to render nomadism unnecessary. In religion, practically all the
tribes are Shafei Sunnites; Wahabism has a few adherents and its
tenets are regarded sympathetically all over the district; but
everywhere there is a strong antipathy to Zeidism.
Asir cannot be regarded as a political entity. In 1914, it fell
into four parts sections acknowledging the Turks, the Idrisi of
Abu 'Arish, and the sherif of Mecca respectively, and small
groups of nomad tribes on the E. who recognized no authority.
The Turks claimed the whole of Asir as the northern section of
the vilayet of Yemen, but never succeeded in subduing the coun-
try and, in reality, they only precariously held the inland towns
and immediate surroundings of Ibha and Muhail and the port of
Qunfuda, all of which they garrisoned. The authority of the
Idrisi was restricted to a strip of the Tihama some 80 m. long and
extending about 40 m. inland to the scarp of highland Asir,
with Sabia as capital and Jeizan and Midi as ports. The influence
of the sherif of Mecca was mostly confined to the Ghamid and
Beni Shihir tribes on the inland side of the ridge.
Interest in Asir, during the World War, was centred on the
Idrisi, Seyyid Mohammed. His aim throughout was to rid the
district of Turkish control and to extend his own influence. By
1910, he had much reduced the Ottoman hold and, in 1911-2,
subsidized and supplied by the Italians during their war with
Turkey, he consolidated his position. In 1914, failing to obtain
sufficient recognition of his power from the Turks, he declared
himself definitely against them. He concluded an agreement with
the British resident at Aden in May 1915, and was supplied by
the Allies with material. He raised part of the Zaranik tribe and
took the field, ostensibly against the Turks, with a nominal follow-
ing of some 12,000 men and overran the Tihama of Yemen, but
failed to capture Loheia, one of his main objectives.
In reality, his support of the Allies was not of a very positive
character, as he was in constant fear of attack by the imam of
Yemen; and the Turks held Ibha and Muhail, their strongholds
in the interior, until the Armistice. He kept on good terms all
the time with the King of the Hejaz. The actual extent of the
Idrisi's control of Asir, at the beginning of 1921, still remained
a matter of doubt; but his attitude towards the imam of Yemen
continued to be hostile,' though there had been short periods of
truce between them. In Feb., information reached England that
Idrisi forces had occupied Hodeida.
Yemen. As in Asir, the social contrast between the highlands
and lowlands is very marked, being the outcome of religious and
racial differences reinforced by strongly contrasted geographical
conditions. Broadly speaking, the central highland population is
Zeidite (Shiah) and accepts the authority of the imam, whereas
1 68
ARABIA
the population of the Tiharria and the extreme N. and S. is pre-
dominantly Shafei and is strongly opposed to him. In con-
sequence there has hardly ever been any semblance of adminis-
trative unity in the province. It is difficult to state the imam's
territorial title as distinct from what he claims. While the Turks
were in Yemen, there were districts or tribal groups (e.g. in the
Yemen interior) who repudiated them, but were not unwilling
to accept an imam wholly independent of them; there were
others who accepted the Turks, but would have nothing to do
with the imam except under pressure (e.g. the Isma'iliya, the
Daudiya sect along the Hodeida-San'a road, and most of the
northern Tihama tribes); and there were others again, such as
the Zaranik, between the coast and hills S. of the Hodeida-San'a
road, and the Beni Yam in the interior, who accepted neither
Turk nor imam.
The imam Yahya Ibn Mohammed came into power in 1904.
After his revolt against the Turks (see 2.270), a patched-up
peace was made between them, but in 1911 his forces again
beleaguered San' a. The city was eventually relieved by 'Izzet
Pasha, who became military governor and succeeded, after some
difficulty, in establishing an entente with the imam, " for the sake
of peace among Moslems." An imperial firman, read at San'a on
Sept. 22 1913, proclaimed a " mediatized status " or condomin-
ium, by the terms of which the imam secured the religious and
social control of all the Zeidites (roughly all the highlands from
the Asir border to the Aden frontier) together with part of the
central Yemen Tihama, but he received no sanction to impose
taxation.
On the outbreak of the World War, the imam refused to enter
into relations with Aden, and was strongly opposed to the
Idrisi. In 1915, he showed his leaning towards the Turks, by
writing a letter to Enver, " praying for the success of the Otto-
man armies." He refused to be drawn into any alliance with the
sherif of Mecca. Details of the actual happenings in Yemen
during hostilities are somewhat obscure, but the imam's chief
activity lay in attempts to tamper with the loyalty of the tribes
of the Aden protectorate and Hadhramaut, in which he met with
partial success. Later, he sought a closer understanding with the
King of the Hejaz and, at one time, an alliance seemed possible,
but did not materialize. The Turkish garrisons were withdrawn
from Yemen at the end of 1918 and a small British-Indian force
occupied Hodeida; but there was evidence that Turkish influence
did not wholly disappear at the same time. In Aug. 1919, a
British mission, sent from Hodeida in the hope of negotiating
with the imam at San'a, was captured by Quhra tribesmen at
Bajil about 25 m. inland, and was detained until Dec., when it
returned to the coast without having accomplished its purpose.
In March 1920, the garrison of Hodeida was temporarily increased
owing to the uncertainty of the attitude of the imam and some
of the Tihama tribes. In Jan. 1921, the forces of the imam, com-
manded by Mahmud Nedim Bey, the former vali of Yemen,
were reported to be attacking the Tihama regions the conquest
of which appeared to be his main objective and were threaten-
ing Hodeida. In Feb., the occupation of Hodeida by Idrisi
troops was reported.
Persian Gulf Stales. The sultanates and sheikhdoms, which
extend along the Arabian shores of the Persian Gulf, have all
come under British influence, in one form or another. Their
rulers are controlled in matters of external relations, and main-
tain their authority internally by grace of their alliance with
Great Britain. None rule effectively over territory more than
about a day's march from the coast. The states are as follow:
Oman. The Sultan of Muscat (see 20.99 and 1943), claims
overlordship of all territory extending from Hadhramaut to the
entrance of the Persian Gulf (including' Dhofar) and, inland, to
the Great Desert. In reality his direct rule is restricted to the town
of Muscat and a stretch of coast N.W. and S.E. of it. The tribes
of the interior are practically independent and have set up an
Ibadhi imamate, and if not fighting among themselves are a constant
menace to the sultanate. The sheikhs of Rostaq are among the
most powerful of these independents. In 1912, under the insistence
of the British Government, a warehouse was established at Muscat to
control the traffic in arms and ammunition through Oman ports to
the interior, which had been greatly abused. A rising of the Ibadhis
against the Sultan, for which this control was made part pretext,
took a serious form in 1913-4 and necessitated the bombard-
ment of the ports of Quryat and Barka, and an Indian force occupied
Beit el Felej near Muscat. The rebels attacked in strength in
Jan. 1915, but met with defeat, which relieved the situation. The
disaffected tribes continue to dominate the interior, and the author-
ity of the imam, rather than of the Sultan, is recognized by most.
Trucial Oman, formerly known as the Pirate Coast, extends for
over 300 m. from El Qatar almost to Ras Musandam, and receives
its name from the truce established in 1853 between the five recog-
nized ruling sheikhs of the districts of Abu Dhabi, Dibai, Sharja,
'Ajman and Umm el Qaiwan. The position of the respective sheikhs is
regulated by an agreement which, in 1892, placed all external rela-
tions under British control and made Great Britain responsible for
their protection from aggression. The sheikhdoms are very unequal
in importance those of Sharja and Abu Dhabi are the most con-
siderable territorially. The sheikh of Sharja claims to be paramount
over all Trucial Oman, but this is repudiated by the other sheikhs
and not recognized by Great Britain. An Arab political agent resides
at Sharja.
El Qatar. The sheikhdom of El Qatar comprises the peninsula
of that name on the Arabian coast E. of Bahrein, of which latter it
was formerly regarded as a dependency. Turkish control in El Qatar
ceased in 1913, when the emir of Nejd drove the Turks from El Hasa,
and the sheikh 'Abdalla ibn Jasim came into power in the same year.
He maintained friendly relations with Britain and kept on good
terms with the emir of Nejd.
Bahrein (see 3.212) consists of an archipelago, of which Bahrein
is the most important island. The rule of the sheikh is effective only
over that part of Bahrein I. adjacent to the port of Manama and
over Muharraq I.: his authority over the remaining islands is
little more than nominal. He agreed by treaty, in return for a sub-
sidy, not to alienate any part of his territory except to Britain and
to conform to British policy. A political agent, under the resident
at Bushire, is stationed at Manama. Throughout the crisis in the
pearl industry in 1913, and during the World War, the sheikh showed
much goodwill to Britain.
Kuwait. The Sultan of Kuwait (see 15.956), Salim, son of Mubar-
ak, who succeeded his brother Jabir in 1917, claimed jurisdiction
over 200 m. of territory from El Hasa almost to the head of the
Persian Gulf, and ruled nominally westward to the wells of Hafar,
where his district met that of the emir of J. Shammar on the N.E.,
and that of Nejd on the S.W. The late Sultan Mubarak formally
repudiated all relations with the Turks at the outbreak of hostilities
and his attitude towards the emir of Nejd was friendly, but towards
the emir of Shammar intermittently hostile. In 1920, a serious
attack on the independence of Kuwait arising out of the activities
of the Akhwan sect of Nejd was threatened. Sultan Salim died
early in 1921 and was succeeded by Ahmad ibn Jabir.
On March i 1921, it was stated in Parliament that matters of
policy and administration affecting Arab areas within the British
sphere of influence and Aden were transferred to the Colonial
Office; but questions regarding the Hejaz remained under the
jurisdiction of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. The
tendency was for the British Government to rely considerably
on officers of the Sudan Civil Service.
Trade. Arabia produces little for export except pearls, dates,
coffee, hides and skins; imports consist almost wholly of manu-
factured fabrics (cotton in particular) and food-stuffs (rice,
cereals, flour, sugar and tea). Besides Aden only Muscat, Mana-
ma and Kuwait carry on any considerable direct and regular
trade with the outer world the first named with Europe mainly,
and the others almost exclusively with India and the East;
and Arabian trade in general commodities tends to focus more
and more on Aden and Manama. The trade of Jidda depending
largely on the pilgrimages, and seasonal in consequence though
considerable, is of a more local nature and is mainly with Egypt,
the near African coast and the Persian Gulf, and India at farthest.
The trade of Hodeida, Jeizan, Mocha, Makalla, and the other
still smaller ports is almost entirely carried on by sailing craft,
though before the World War, Hodeida was also a port of call, at
regular intervals, for certain smaller lines of steamers. Commer-
cial enterprise at Arabian ports is mainly in the hands of Indians,
especially in Oman, Kuwait, Hadhramaut and even at Aden;
second to them come Italians, commercially predominant in
many of the Red Sea ports (notably Hodeida), Italian Somali-
land and Eritrea offering a convenient base of operations. Prior
to the World War, British and Turkish interests were political
rather than commercial: neither power had any strong hold on
the economic activities of the country, the trade relations between
Turkey and the Holy Cities excepted.
ARABIA
169
The following comparative table gives approximate trade
figures (including specie), in thousands of pounds sterling, of the
chief ports, in the years just anterior to the World War:
(a) Western Littoral
Aden '
Hodeida
Jidda
(b) Eastern Littoral
Muscat
Manama (Bahrein)
Kuwait
Year
Imports
Exports
Total
I9I3-4
1912-3
1912-3
I9I3-4
4.377
789
408
1,878
3"i
4-H9
490
272
1,740
114
8,526
1,279
1,482
680
3,618
485
The Western Littoral. Trade was much disorganized during the
World War and shifted from port to port as the exigence of the time
demanded. Normal conditions were by no means resumed even in
1921. General trade figures were not available, but the following
table gives (in round numbers) the trade movement between Aden
and the chief ports, from 1914-9:
(April I to
March 31)
I9I3-4
I9H-5
1915-6
1916-7
1917-8
1918-9
Jidda
Jeizan
Hodeida
Mocha
100,000
64,000
2,000
119,000
126,000
50,000
5,000
2,000
33,000
782,000
633,000
538,000
619,000
387,000
I,ooo
nil
nil
5,000
251,000
142,000
757,000
34,000
nil
nil
The marked increase at Jeizan was due to war operations in Asir ;
the almost total extinction of trade at Hodeida in V)i6-g and
the temporary revival of Mocha, at the expense of Hodeida, to
the blockade of the Yemen coast; and the sudden fall at Jidda in
1915-6 to the temporary blockade of the Hejaz coast just previous
to the Arab revolt. There is normally a considerable direct trade
between certain Red Sea ports and Egypt (Suez). In 1918, it
amounted to about E25p,ooo of which imports were 225,000,
chiefly cotton piece-goods (157,000), soap, dried beans, sugar and
lentils; and exports, chiefly charcoal.
The main item in the trade figures of Jidda is the export of specie
amounting, in normal times, to well over 1,000,000 annually. As
to trade in general commodities, there is always an enormous excess
of imports over exports, due largely to the requirements of pilgrims,
the Hejaz producing little. In 1911, imports included rice 233,000
(from India); maize, wheat and barley 181,000; cotton piece-goods
150,000; silk goods and sugar, and, in that year, 287 steam vessels
of 616,000 aggregate tonnage entered the port. Exports in the same
year did not exceed 50,000 and consisted of skins and hides, wool,
henna, gum and mother-of-pearl shells. The number of pilgrims
passing through Jidda in 1912 was 83,295.
Midi (Asir), 45 m. S. of Jeizan, became a port of some importance
during hostilities. In 1917, the construction of a stone pier for the
discharge of cargo was undertaken.
Hodeida was formerly the most important of the southern Red
Sea ports, but during the past decade its trade has steadily declined.
In 1909, imports amounted to 650,000 and exports to 401,000, the
latter consisting mainly of coffee, hides and skins. The Yemen coffee
trade, valued at about 200,000 in 1911-2, has passed almost
entirely to Aden on account of the greater security of the Aden routes
and the better facilities there for husking the berries, and export.
In 1921 the port was reported to be almost deserted. The scheme
for a new harbour at Khor el Kethib, a good natural inlet 10 m.
N., did not materialize.
The Eastern Littoral. The following comparative table sum-
marizes the value of the trade (including specie) of the chief ports,
from 1912-20, the figures being in thousands of pounds sterling:
Year
Muscat
Manama
Kuwait
Imp.
Exp.
Total
Imp.
Exp.
Total
Imp.
Exp.
Total
1912-3
I9I3-4
I9H-5
1915-6
1916-7
1917-8
1918-9
1919-20
464
408
328
243
167
290
301
272
275
1 88
157
242
765
680
603
431
324
532
2,240
1,878
758
,173
,530
,607
,350
,414
2,295
1,740
462
369
780
817
1,318
946
4,535
3-618
1,220
i,54 2
2,310
2,424
2,668
2,360
438
371
292
292
472
1,270
994
1,961
132
114
43
US
152
263
259
276
570
485
335
405
624
i,533
1,253
1,337
Muscat is the main trade outlet of Oman. The decline in trade
after 1913-4, shown in the table, was due partly to the opening
of Dibai in the Trucial Oman as a free port and partly to the con-
trol placed upon the arms traffic in 1912. The import of arms fell
from 180,000 to almost nil in the period 1913-5. In 1918-9,
80% of the total trade was with India, 12% with the Arabian
coast, and 4.5 % with Persian ports, and 42 steam vessels of gross
tonnage 57,837 cleared the port; the tonnage carried by sailing
vessels was 20,149. The most important article of export is dates
(123,000 in 1918-9), of which the better sorts of dry dates go
to the New York and Boston markets; of secondary importance
are pearls, mother-of-pearl and salt fish, mainly to India. Rice
from India is the chief import.
Manama holds a somewhat similar position to Aden as a place
of transhipment and centre of distribution for eastern and central
Arabia. It is the headquarters of the Persian Gulf pearl industry,
in which it is said that 5,000 boats are engaged. The exceptional
decrease of exports 1914-6 (see above table) was due to the
decline in the pearl trade, which fell in value from about 1,800,000
in 1912-3 to 320,000 in 1915-6, causing great economic stress.
In 1919-20 the chief imports were rice 406,000, piece-goods
337,000, coffee 93,000, ghi 67,000 and sugar 33,000; exports,
pearls 294,000 (318,000 in 1918 and 702,000 in 1919), rice
261,000, cotton goods 219,000, and coffee. In the same year,
75 % of the trade was directly with India and 23 % with other ports
of the Persian Gulf; and 56 steam vessels of 111,244 aggregate ton-
nage entered, of which 109,073 was British.
At Kuwait the principal imports (in 1919-20) were cotton
piece-goods 384,000, rice 117,000, coffee 21,000, sugar and tea;
and exports, rice 58,000 and ghi 14,000. In the same year, 47
steam vessels of 89,809 aggregate tonnage entered; India furnished
82-5% of the total imports, and 70% of the exports were destined
for other Arabian ports. Pearl boats valued at 27,000 were built
in 1912-3.
The Interior. The principal market centres of the interior of
Arabia are: Teima and Kheibar (Hejaz), Muhail and Khamis Mush-
eit (Asir) ; San'a (Yemen) ; Makhlaf (Nejran) ; Lahej (Aden hinter-
land) ; Shibam and Hauta (Hadhramaut) ; Sema'il, Rostaq and
Nizwa (Oman); Riyadh, Boreida and Hail (central Arabia); and
Hofuf (El Hasa). Trade at these centres consists in the collection
of the small surplus native agricultural products and in the distribu-
tion of manufactured articles and foodstuffs brought in from the
coast.
Communications. With the exception of the Hejaz line,
Arabia was still without railways at the end of 1920. Two
extensions of the Hejaz line were projected: (i) Medina-Mecca;
(2) Ma'an-Akaba. The first formed part of the original plan -
the distance direct being 280 m. and the estimated cost just under
i ,000,000. An alternative route, via Rabugh, was also considered
and construction was begun at both Medina and Rabugh, but
was abandoned. The Ma'an-Akaba scheme did not go beyond
the preliminary survey stage. In 191 1, a survey of a railway from
Mecca to Jidda was made by the Turks, but construction was
postponed. In 1909, French engineers surveyed for a railway
which the Turkish Government proposed to build from Hodeida
to San'a and 'Amran. Alternative routes were considered one
direct via Bajil and Hajla, and the other making a detour through
Zebid, Ta'izz and Yerim. As a preliminary, a French syndicate
constructed 5-6 m. of metre-gauge track, between Hodeida and a
proposed new harbour at Khor el Kethib, about 10 m. to the
north. The work and all material and plant (including several
locomotives) were destroyed in the Italian bombardment of
Hodeida, in 1912. In 1918-9 a metre-gauge military line was
extended from Sheikh "Othman to a few miles beyond Lahej, a
total distance of 25 m. from Aden; when not required for military
purposes it is available for ordinary transport.
There are no made roads of any considerable length in Arabia,
except one of 173 m. from Hodeida to San'a; but sections of
certain of the caravan tracks were adapted, during the World
War, for rough motor service, e.g. the road from Jidda to Mecca
and from Akaba to Ma'an. For purposes of trade, the old
caravan routes have still to serve. The only route of trans-
peninsular character is that from Zobeir to Boreida (379 m.),
Mecca (479 m.) and Jidda (55 m.) ; total, 913 m. For the passage
of trade as well as pilgrims, no other caravan route in Arabia
compares with it in importance.
The lines of telegraph are: Jidda - Mecca; Jidda - Rabugh -
Medina; Hodeida- San'a; Hodeida - Mocha - Sheikh Sa'id;
Hodeida - Loheia - Midi; and Mocha - Ta'izz - Yerim - San'a.
For travelling or through-trade purposes the rafiq or companion
system obtains. Each tribe has a recognized dira or range, and in
passing from the territory of one tribe to that of another a rafiq of
the last tribe is absolutely necessary for safe conduct. Inter-tribal
trade is also facilitated by the 'Uqeil, recognized carriers, who are
" franked " by all tribes and are thus able to conduct a caravan with
more or less security. They are chosen from among the tribesmen
of central Arabia and El Hasa, care being taken to exclude members
of the more powerful tribes and those who have blood feuds, so
as to preserve the neutral character of the organization.
170
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
Industries. Camel-rearing is mostly in the hands of the
Anaza in the N., the Qahtan and Shammar in the centre, and the
"Ajman and Muteir in the E.; but the herds of the first-named
tribe far outnumber those of any other. The centre of the camel
trade is in Damascus (where almost all the capital is supplied)
and to a less extent in Bagdad. In normal times, the chief
tribes are said to possess 720,000 head, but during the World War
herds were much depleted. Only the surplus, possibly numbering
45,000 per ann., and those not the best, are sold. A little horse-
breeding is carried on by the emir of Nejd and by the Shahran
tribes and there is a small export to Mesopotamia and Syria.
Considerable numbers of the white, large-boned breeds of asses
of El Hasa are sent to Egypt. The fisheries of Arabia, other than
pearl, are valuable for the supply of local needs and are capable
of development. The salting of fish is an industry at most coast
towns, but more particularly those of the Red Sea and Oman;
considerable quantities are sent into the interior. During the
war operations, some attention was paid incidentally to the study
of the Farsan pearl industry and to the possibilities of its
development. The rock salt quarries of Salif, opposite Kamaran
I., were worked under the control of the Ottoman debt and
105,000 tons of salt were exported to India and the Straits
Settlements in 1908. Just prior to the World War an English
company was working the quarries; in 1920, operations had
ceased for the time being.
Bibliography. Alois Musil, Nord Arabien, Vorbericht iiber die
Forschungsreise 1908-9 (1909), and Zur Zeitgeschichte von Arabien
(1918); G. Wyman Bury, The Land of Uz (1911), Arabia Infelix
(1915) and Pan-Islam (1919) ; A. J. B. Wavell, A Modern Pilgrim in
Mecca and a Siege in Sanaa (1912 and 1918) ; C. Snouck Hurgronjc,
The Revolt in Arabia (1917); The Holy War " made in Germany "
(1915) and Nederland en de Islam (1915); Barclay Raunkiaer, Gen-
nem Wahhabiternes Land paa Kamelryg; C. Doughty, Travels in
Arabia, new eel. with introduction by T. E. Lawrence (1920); I. D.
1128, A Handbook of Arabia, vol. i., General, compiled by the Geo-
graphical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff,
Admiralty (1915).
Among valuable contributions to the study of Arabia are the fol-
lowing papers published in the Geographical Journal: Captain S.
S. Butler, " Baghdad to Damascus via Jauf, Northern Arabia," vol.
xxxiii. (May 1909); Douglas Carruthers, "A Journey in North-
Western Arabia," vol. xxxv. (March 1910); Lt.-Col. S. B. Miles,
"On the Border of the Great Desert: a Journey in Oman, "vol. xxxvi.
(Aug. IQIO); Captain G. Leachman, A Journey in North-Eastern
Arabia, vol. xxxyii. (March 1911), and " A Journey through Central
Arabia," vol. xliii. (May 1914) ; Gertrude Lowthian Bell, " A Journey
in Northern Arabia," vol. xhv. (July 1914); H. St. J. B. Philby,
" Southern Nejd " (with map, scale 1 11,250,000), vol. Iv. (March 1920)
and "Across Arabia : From the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea" (with
map, scale i :2,ooo,ooo), vol. Ivi. (Dec. 1920) ; D. G. Hogarth, " War
and Discovery in Arabia," vol. Iv. (June 1920); and "An Account
of A. Beneyton's Railway Surveys in the Yemen, and Maps," vol.
xliii. (Jan. 1914).
Maps. Map on the scale of 1:1,000,000 compiled by the Geo-
graphical Section, General Staff, No. 2,555: Sheets 137 (Esh Sham,
Damascus 1918); 138 (Bagdad 1918); H36 (Cairo 1918); H37 (El
Djaufi9i8); H38 (Basra, 1918); 639 (Hofuf, 1920) ; 637 (Medina
1921) ; and Sheet 638 (Riyadh) was in course of preparation (1921).
Map on the scale of I :i,ooo,ooo, compiled by the Survey of India:
Sheets of Kunfida, San'a and Mukalla (1917). Map of Arabia and
the Persian Gulf, Survey of India; scale I in. =48 m., two sheets;
and scale I in. =32 m., four sheets. Yemen: Chemin de Fer Hodeidah
Sanaa et Embranchements. echelle 1-250,000, A. Beneyton, Paris
1913. (H. W. M.)
ARABI PASHA (.1839-191 1), Egyptian soldier and revolu-
tionary leader (see 2.283), died at Cairo Sept. 18 1911.
ARBER, EDWARD (1836-1912), English man of letters
(see 2. 323), was killed in a taxicab accident in London Nov. 23 1912.
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION [LABOUR] (see 2.331).
Subsequently to 1910, many countries found it necessary to
revise their position in regard to arbitration and conciliation in
industrial disputes. The growing organization of workers in
trade unions which was a marked feature of the last generation
rapidly increased as a result of the demand for labour occasioned
by the World War; and the feelings aroused by, and the con-
ditions resulting from, the war led to increasing demands on
behalf of workers in all countries, which the strong economic
position of the workers enabled them to enforce. The war
itself in certain instances necessitated exceptional measures in
order that the output of munitions of war might not be hindered
by strikes and lockouts. Further, the development of industry
has been towards more and more specialization and a still closer
inter-relation of industry, so that the effects of strikes and
lockouts extend far beyond those immediately concerned and
may have most disastrous effects on the public. For this reason
the state is forced, in the interests of the community, to take
cognisance of trade disputes.
UNITED KINGDOM
The position in the United Kingdom, at the outbreak of the
World War, was that questions affecting rates of wages and
conditions of employment were settled normally by discussion
between the parties concerned. During the course of half a
century, voluntary conciliation boards, standing joint committees
or corresponding procedure had been established in all well-
organized industries and this procedure was instrumental in
settling large numbers of disputes. In certain important in-
dustries, e.g. agriculture and transport, the workpeople and
employers were not sufficiently organized in associations to
render such permanent machinery practicable. The statutory
powers of intervention in labour disputes held by the Government
were derived solely from the Conciliation Act, 1896, an Act
framed upon a purely voluntary basis. A connecting link be-
tween the activities of the conciliation boards and those of the
Government in the settlement of labour disputes was the pro-
vision in the regulations governing the procedure of a number of
boards for the reference of differences to arbitration under the
auspices of the appropriate Government department (since 1916
the Ministry of Labour), and further by the policy of the de-
partment in not intervening in a dispute until the parties had
exhausted their efforts to bring about an amicable settlement.
During the period immediately following the passing of the
Conciliation Act, comparatively little use was made of the pro-
cedure of the Act, but the three years immediately preceding the
war were years of very marked industrial unrest in the United
Kingdom and there was a corresponding increase in the use made
of the provisions of the Act. Serious consideration was given- by
the Government to the question of strengthening their powers in
relation to labour disputes, but up to the outbreak of war no
steps had been taken to formulate legislative proposals. In this
connexion, reference may be made to the report of Sir George
(afterwards Lord) Ask with of Dec. 1912, on the Industrial
Disputes Investigation Act of Canada (Cd. 6603), and the
report of the Industrial Council on Industrial Agreements
(Cd. 6952).
Committee on Production. The needs of the war and the ab-
normal conditions arising therefrom made both necessary and
possible much stronger Government action in regard to stoppages
of work. The outburst of patriotic feeling which followed the
declaration of war resulted in employers and workpeople vol-
untarily bringing to a close the existing and pending disputes,
but the economic conditions resulting from the war soon pro-
duced a fresh series of labour difficulties. In Feb. 1915, the
Committee on Production, consisting of Sir George Askwith,
Sir Francis Hopwood (Lord Southborough) and Sir George
Gibb, representing the Board of Trade, the Admiralty and the
War Office respectively, was established by the Government to
enquire into and report as to the best steps to be taken " to
ensure that the productive power of employees in engineering and
ship-building establishments working for Government purposes
should be made fully available, so as to meet the needs of the
nation in the present emergency." With the establishment of the
Ministry of Munitions, the functions of the Committee in re-
lation to production were absorbed by that Ministry; but in
the meantime the Committee had developed, as a result of the
acceptance by the Government of one of its earlier recommenda-
tions on the subject of stoppages of work, into an arbitration
tribunal. It had no statutory position until the passing of the
first Munitions of War Act in July 1915, but it quickly developed
into the principal arbitration tribunal for the settlement of
labour disputes and attained remarkable success. In 1917 the
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
171
Committee was reorganized, representatives of employers and
workpeople being added, to sit with the independent chairman.
The Committee ceased to exist at the termination of the war
when its place was taken by the Interim Court of Arbitration
established under the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Act.
During its period of existence, it issued over 3, 7 50 awards covering
most of the important industries in the country and dealing with
all kinds of questions of wages and working conditions. In
particular, reference may be made to the agreements negotiated,
first in the engineering and allied trades and later in a large
number of other trades, whereby the associations of employers
and workpeople agreed to suspend existing agreements for the
determination of general wages questions and to refer to the
Committee on Production every four months the determination
of the question what general alteration of wages, if any, was
warranted by the abnormal conditions then existing and due to
the war, with further power to determine special district cases.
The next important development after the institution of the
Committee on Production in Feb. 1915, was the "Treasury
Agreement " on the subject of the acceleration of output on
Government work, negotiated between the Government and the
principal trade-unions in March 1915. The Government's main
proposals embodied in the Agreement were on the one hand to
limit profits and on the other to prevent stoppages of work
owing to trade disputes, and to secure the suspension during the
war of trade-union restrictions on output. Although this agree-
ment marked a definite stage of advance, real progress was not
made until the Government embodied their proposals in the
Munitions of War Act, 1915. This act was subsequently strength-
ened by two further Munitions of War Acts in 1916 and 1917.
Munitions Acts. Under the Munitions of War Acts, a stop-
page of work arising out of a difference on or in connexion with
munitions work (which expression was given a very wide inter-
pretation as the result of decisions of the High Court) became
illegal unless the difference had been reported to the Board of
Trade (subsequently to the Ministry of Labour) and had not,
within 21 days from the date of the report, been referred for
settlement. The compulsory arbitration thus introduced by the
Acts was necessarily accompanied by the statutory enforcement
of awards issued thereunder. For this purpose the existing forms
of arbitration tribunal were utilized, viz., (i) Committee on
Production; (2) single arbitrator, selected by agreement between
the parties or, failing agreement, appointed by the Board of
Trade (subsequently by the Ministry of Labour) ; and (3) ad hoc
boards of arbitration, consisting of an independent chairman, an
employers' representative and a labour representative. This last
form of tribunal had been introduced in 1908 for appointments
under the Conciliation Act in order to meet any objection on the
part of Labour that, however fair a single arbitrator might be, he
could better determine the matters at issue if there were asso-
ciated with him persons directly acquainted with the point of view
of employers and workpeople respectively. The Act of 1915
left it to the option of the Board of Trade to refer any difference
reported under the Act to arbitration; the Amending Act of 1916
required the Board of Trade to refer such a difference if satisfied
that it was bona fide. Although the definition of " munitions
work " under the Acts was very wide, it did not include some
very important industries such as mining, transport and agri-
culture, but a further provision of the 1915 Act enabled the parts
of the Act relative to the prohibition of strikes and lockouts and
compulsory arbitration to be applied to work of any description
(in addition to munitions work) by His Majesty by proclamation,
and this course was adopted in certain instances (notably, South
Wales coal miners, Lancashire card and blowing room opera-
tives, and dockers at London, Liverpool and Glasgow). It may
further be noted that the Munitions of War Acts contained no
prohibition of incitement to strike. Consideration was given to
this aspect of the problem and in Nov. 1915 the Defence of the
Realm Regulation No. 42 was amended by the addition of the
words in italics as indicated below:
If any person attempts to cause mutiny, sedition or disaffection
among any of His Majesty's forces or among the civilian population,
or to impede or restrict the production, repair or transport of war
material or any other work necessary for the prosecution of the war,
he shall be guilty of an offence against these Regulations.
The Acts also authorized the Minister of Munitions inter alia
to issue orders determining the rates of wages of particular
classes of workpeople and a considerable number of orders were
issued with regard to the rates of remuneration of women and
girls. Other orders which had widespread effects were the orders
made in Oct. 1917, giving a bonus of I2j^%on earnings to skilled
time workers in engineering establishments and in shipyards, with
a view to attempting to meet difficulties which had arisen owing
to the altered relation between the earnings of skilled time
workers and the unskilled and semi-skilled men on piece work.
Three special arbitration tribunals were established for the
determination of matters arising out of the various orders made
under the 1916 and 1917 Acts.
Under the procedure of the Munitions of War Acts, arbitration
became the normal method for the settlement of labour disputes.
From the point of view of the workpeople, it was more ex-
peditious to claim arbitration under the Acts than to endeavour
to secure a settlement by conciliation machinery or other
negotiations and, moreover, an award under the Acts was
statutorily enforceable. On the employers' side also, arbitration
was often found to be the most satisfactory procedure; when so
much work was being done for Government purposes, the em-
ployers' financial interest in the result of negotiations was dimin-
ished. A further development was that in many industries (e.g.
the railways and coal mines) the conciliation boards fell into
abeyance. During the war wages claims were necessarily deter-
mined largely in reference to the cost of living and consequently
unions made claims for national advances in place of district
claims. The net result, therefore, was a very large increase in the
number of arbitrations under Government auspices and a falling
off in conciliation settlements. During the four years 1915-8,
nearly 8,000 awards were issued by arbitration tribunals under
the Munitions of War Acts and, to a small extent, under the Con-
ciliation Act, 1896. The Munitions of War Acts also introduced
certain other features which have a considerable bearing on the
settlement of labour differences, such as the power given to the
Minister of Munitions under the Munitions of War Act, 1917, to
extend an award, applying to the greater part of an industry, to
other firms not party to the award but engaged on the same
class of work.
It may be recorded that the New Ministries and Secretaries
Act, 1916, transferred the powers of the Board of Trade under the
Conciliation Act and the Munitions of War Acts to the newly
created Ministry of Labour.
Wages Regulation Act. Immediately after the Armistice, the
Government, at a national conference of employers and work-
people on Nov. 13 1918, intimated that their post-war policy in
relation to labour disputes was to leave employers and workpeople
to adjust so far as possible their own differences. Certain pro-
posals were placed before the conference for the period of transi-
tion while industry was changing over from war to peace condi-
tions. These proposals, which were accepted by the employers
and by the trade unions, were embodied in the Wages (Tempo-
rary Regulation) Act. The broad principle of that Act was to
maintain as minimum rates, for a period of six months, the stand-
ard district rates existing at the date of the Armistice. Wages
having been regulated during the war mainly in relation to the
cost of living, they had at the date of the Armistice reached a
level far above the pre-war rate. It was not anticipated that the
cost of living would fall considerably immediately after the
Armistice, while there was a fear that rapid demobilization might
so disturb the labour market as to result in attempts at wage
reduction of a kind which would lead to great industrial unrest.
The Act repealed the prohibition of strikes and lockouts con-
tained in the Munitions of War Acts, and limited compulsory
arbitration to the wage standards dealt with in the new Act;
it continued, in the Interim Court of Arbitration, the principle
of a central arbitration tribunal which had been so successful
in the form of the Committee on Production.
172
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
The termination of the war was followed by an outburst of
unrest, and the position became so serious that in Feb. 1919, the
Government summoned a further national conference of em-
ployers and workpeople to consider the position. A committee
appointed by the conference subsequently made a number of
proposals on questions relating to hours, wages, and general
conditions of employment, unemployment and its prevention,
and the best methods of promoting cooperation between capital
and labour. As regards wages, one of the recommendations was
the continuance of the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Act, 1918
for a further period of six months, and this recommendation was
adopted by the Government in the Wages (Temporary Regula-
tion) Extension Act, 1919.
In connexion with this period of unrest, special reference
may be made to the coal-mining industry where the position
became so acute in connexion with demands of the Miners'
Federation, including a demand for the nationalization of the
industry, that in Feb. 1919 the Government set up a commission
(under the Coal Industry Commission Act) to inquire into the
position of, and conditions prevailing in, the industry. (For the
reports of this commission see Cmd. 359, 360 and 361 of 1919.)
During the war a number of committees and commissions
had been appointed by the Government to inquire into problems
connected with labour disputes. Thus, there were (i) an inquiry
by Lord Balfour of Burleigh and Sir Lynden Macassey, K.C.,
into " the cause and the circumstances of the apprehended
differences affecting munition workers in the Clyde district,"
Dec. 1915; (2) commission appointed in June 1917 to inquire
into and report upon industrial unrest and to make recommenda-
tions to the Government " reports summarized by Mr. G. N.
Barnes, M.P. (Cd. 8696); (3) committee under the chairmanship
of Mr. Justice Atkin, appointed in 1918 as a result of a strike of
omnibus workers to investigate and report as to the relations
which should be maintained between the wages of men and
women, having regard to the interests of both, as well as the value
of their work (Cd. 835); (4) committee appointed in 1918 under
the chairmanship of Mr. Justice McCardie to inquire into
matters connected with a strike of munition workers at Coventry
and elsewhere in connexion with the Government embargoes on
the transfer of employment of skilled men; and (5) committee
appointed in Oct. 1916, under the chairmanship of Mr. J. H.
Whitley, to make suggestions for securing a permanent improve-
ment in the relations between employers and employed (Cd.
9153, etc.).
Whitley Committee. The recommendations of the last-named
committee were of far-reaching importance and in fact formed
the basis of the Government's post-war policy in regard to
industrial relations and strikes and lockouts. The committee
recommended the setting up of joint industrial councils (now
sometimes called " Whitley Councils ") in trades where em-
ployers and workpeople were sufficiently organized, the extension
of trade boards for poorly organized trades, and the temporary
establishment of other bodies for " intermediate " trades. The
committee's recommendations with regard to the establishment
of joint industrial councils were prefaced by a declaration to the
effect that in the interests of the community it is vital that after
the war cooperation of all classes, established during the war,
should continue, more especially with regard to the relations
between employers and employed, and that, for securing im-
provement in the latter, it is essential that any proposals put
forward should offer to workpeople the means of attaining im-
proved conditions of employment and a higher standard of com-
fort generally, and involve the enlistment of their active and
continuous cooperation in the promotion of industry. The
committee then recommended that H.M. Government should
propose without delay to the various associations of employers
and employed the establishment for each industry of an organiza-
tion, representative of employers and workpeople, to have as its
object the regular consideration of matters affecting the progress
and well-being of the trade from the point of view of all those
engaged in it so far as this is consistent with the general interest
of the community. The committee recommended that the
national councils should be supplemented by the creation of
district councils and works committees to deal with district and
local matters respectively and they outlined the questions with
which the national councils, district councils, or works committees
might deal. The Government intimated their acceptance of the
recommendations of the Whitley Committee and at this date
(Dec. 1920) 63 joint industrial councils have been established in
various industries in the country. The Government have applied
the machinery in their own industrial establishments and also
in the civil service. The committee also issued a report on
conciliation and arbitration and their recommendations thereon
were as follows:
(1) Whilst we are opposed to any system of compulsory arbi-
tration, we are in favour of the extension of voluntary machinery for
the adjustment of disputes. Where the parties are unable to adjust
their differences, we think that there should be means by which an
independent inquiry may be made into the facts and circumstances
of the dispute and an authoritative announcement made thereon,
though we do not think that there should be any compulsory power
of delaying strikes and lockouts.
(2) We further recommend that there should be established a
standing arbitration council for cases where the parties wish to refer
any dispute to arbitration, though it is desirable that single arbi-
trators should be available where the parties so desire.
The constitution and functions of the joint industrial councils
are in many respects similar to those of conciliation boards, but
whereas the latter have dealt mainly with questions affecting
rates of wages and conditions of labour or demarcation of work
between various classes of operatives, the industrial councils are
designed to have a wider scope and can take into consideration
matters of every kind which appertain to the welfare and smooth
working of the industry. The encouragement of joint industrial
councils formed a definite part of the broad policy of the Govern-
ment to encourage industries so far as possible to settle their own
disputes. In certain large and important industries (coal-mining,
railways, agriculture) where the Government have not yet found
it possible to relinquish their special war relations, while joint
industrial councils have not been established, the Government
have taken steps to set up special conciliation machinery. For
example, in coal-mining special machinery is provided for by the
Mining Industry Act of 1920; for railways, the Government have
established special conciliation machinery, including a national
wages board; and in agriculture, wages boards have been estab-
lished under the Corn Production Act, 1917, and Agriculture Act,
1920. The voluntary conciliation machinery which was the
fundamental factor in this country before the war, but which was
in suspense during the war, is therefore now being reestablished
on a substantially wider basis and the result of the establishment
of the industrial councils has undoubtedly been greatly to increase
the opportunities for the conciliatory discussion and adjustment
of labour disputes.
The recommendation of the Whitley Committee with regard
to trade boards was also adopted by the Government and,
following the passing of the Trade Boards Act of 1918, the
Government embarked on a policy of the extension of trade
boards. These boards differ from Whitley Councils in that they
consist partly of representatives of the employers and workpeople
in the trade and partly of persons appointed by the Government;
their determinations are statutorily enforceable as minimum
rates and extend to the whole of the trade and, moreover, the
boards are established in industries where the organization of
employers and workpeople is weak. While they would not
normally be included in the definition of conciliation machinery,
it is advisable to note them in connexion therewith as, by estab-
lishing minimum rates of wages in low-paid industries, they tend
to remove one of the root causes of labour unrest. Moreover,
the meetings of employers and employed for trade board business
afford opportunities for the mutual discussion of other matters
and thus tend to improve the relations between the parties.
Industrial Courts Act. The recommendations of the Whitley
Committee on the subject of conciliation and arbitration formed
the basis of the Industrial Courts Act, which was passed in Nov.
1919, This act sets up alternative forms of tribunals to which
recourse can be had, if both parties to a dispute agree. Of these,
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
the principal tribunal is a permanent court of arbitration (called
the Industrial Court) consisting of persons appointed. by the
Minister of Labour, of whom some are independent persons,
some are persons representing employers, and some are persons
representing workmen; there are also women members. There
is a permanent president of the court and in addition there are
chairmen of divisions of the court. The other forms of tribunal
provided for by the Act are (a) single arbitrators and (b) boards
of arbitration consisting of one or more persons nominated by
the employers, an equal number nominated by the workpeople,
with an independent chairman nominated by the minister. For
the purpose of these boards of arbitration, panels of persons
(including women) suitable to act in the respective capacities are
constituted by the minister. The Industrial Courts Act further
empowers the Minister of Labour in the case of disputes, either
apprehended or existing, to appoint a court of inquiry, one of the
objects of which is to put before the public an impartial account
of the merits of the dispute. The Act continued until Sept. 30
1920 the principle of the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Acts,
1918 and 1919, that broadly speaking the wages ruling at the
time of the Armistice should remain in force as standard minimum
rates. (The Conciliation Act, 1896, continues in existence, but in
practice its provisions are covered by the Industrial Courts Act.)
The provisions in relation to the appointment of courts of
inquiry, for the purpose of making a public inquiry and public
report upon the facts and circumstances of a dispute likely to
affect seriously the public interest, is based upon the Canadian
Industrial Disputes Investigation Act, but while the British Act
(like the Canadian Act) provides for the grant to the courts of
inquiry of certain compulsory powers to secure the attendance of
witnesses, the production of documents, etc., it differs from the
Canadian Act inasmuch as it makes no attempt to prohibit a
strike or lockout pending the inquiry. The British Act relies
entirely upon the value of publicity and the effect of public
opinion. In this connexion it may be mentioned that the ex-
perience of the working of the Canadian Act has shown that it
has failed in practice to prohibit strikes or lockouts and that
its success has lain in the power to secure an impartial inquiry
and a public pronouncement upon the facts and circumstances
of the disputes concerned.
During the first year of the Industrial Courts Act over 500
cases were referred to the arbitration of the industrial court, a
number of the cases being of considerable importance as con-
cerning the wage rates of the whole industry. During the same
period courts of inquiry were appointed in three instances with
satisfactory results.
Compulsory Arbitration. Certain aspects of conciliation and
arbitration procedure in the United Kingdom have aroused
special consideration during recent years. From time to time,
proposals have been put forward in favour of declaring strikes and
lockouts illegal and instituting compulsory arbitration; at trades
union congresses, however, resolutions in favour of compulsory
arbitration have been defeated by large majorities. Laws on this
basis have existed for some time in Australasia and, under the
pressure of war conditions, legal prohibition of strikes and lock-
outs and compulsory arbitration were introduced in the United
Kingdom. Success was, however, only partial, and the experience
of this period affords no reliable guide as to what might be ex-
pected to occur under more normal conditions. A large number
of strikes and lockouts, some of considerable magnitude, did ir
fact occur, and probably the principal influence in restricting the
number of stoppages during the war period was the patriotic
spirit and the determination on the part, of all classes to bring the
war to a successful conclusion. The Whitley Committee on the
relations between employers and employed came to the following
conclusion on this subject:
We are opposed to any system of compulsory arbitration; there
is no reason to believe that such a system is generally desired by
employers and employed and, in the absence of such general accept
ance, it is obvious that its imposition would lead to unrest. Thc
experience of compulsory arbitration during the war has shown
that it is not a successful method of avoiding disputes, and in nor
mal times it would undoubtedly prove even less successful. Dis-
173
putes'can only be avoided by agreement between employers and
vorkers and by giving to the latter the greater measure of interest
n the industry, advocated in our former reports; but agreement
may naturally include the decision of both parties to refer any
pecified matter or matters to arbitration, whether this decision is
eached before or after a dispute arises.
For the same reason we do not recommend any scheme relating
o conciliation which compulsorily prevents strikes or lockouts
>ending inquiry.
Various Proposals. Another matter to which considerable
attention has been given is the question of the extension to the
whole of a trade or industry of the terms of an award or agreement
applying to a particular body of employers. In 1913 the In-
dustrial Council under the chairmanship of Sir George Askwith
reported that, subject to the agreement fulfilling certain require-
ments and to an inquiry by the appropriate Government depart-
ment, an agreement entered into between an association or
associations of employers and workpeople covering a considerable
part of the trade or district should be made applicable to the
whole of the trade or district concerned. The question was con-
sidered at trades union congresses in 1912 and 1913 and also by
the Labour party in igiz and was rejected at all these meetings.
A recommendation appended to a number of the war agreements
for four monthly arbitrations was put into effect by the Munitions
of War Act, 1917, which contained a section empowering the
Minister of Munitions to extend awards or agreements, if satis-
fied that they were binding upon the employers employing the
majority of the persons engaged on or in connexion with muni-
tions work in any trade or branch of a trade either generally or in
a particular district, and a number of orders were issued for this
purpose. Under the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Acts, the
Minister of Labour had a certain limited power of extending
awards and agreements. The report of the provisional joint
committee of the industrial conference of 1910, also contained a
recommendation for the extension of agreements providing for
minimum rates of wages. Proposals with a view to extension
were put forward at the time of the introduction of the In-
dustrial Courts Bill, but the conditions which, in the view of the
Government, must necessarily be attached to such a proposal,
were not acceptable to the workpeople's organizations and
accordingly the Industrial Courts Act did not contain any
provisions for that purpose. This subject is one upon which
there is clearly considerable divergence of opinion.
Another movement to which reference may be made is the
proposals which have been put forward from time to time for
the setting up of a national joint organization of employers and
workpeople to cover all trades. In 1911 an industrial council was
established under the chairmanship of Sir George Askwith,
consisting of 13 leading representatives of employers and 13
leading representatives of labour from all branches of industry,
but save for a report on the extension of industrial agreements,
the council did comparatively little work and in due course it
lapsed. In connexion with the industrial conference in Feb. 1919,
proposals were made for the establishment of a national joint
industrial council representative of employers and workpeople,
but so far it has not been found practicable to establish such a
body. A somewhat similar movement is the proposal, also so far
unsuccessful, to establish a national association of joint in-
dustrial councils. The lack of success which these proposals
have so far achieved would appear to suggest that the highly
organized industries prefer to be able to deal independently with
their own difficulties and are averse to intervention by outside
bodies.
The increased organization of employers and workpeople in the
United Kingdom which resulted from war conditions has had sub-
stantial effects on the machinery for conciliation and arbitration.
Labour realized from its strong economic position the power of
combination, but attempts at general strikes after the war have also
indicated the limitations of the strike weapon, and in addition
have impressed on the trade-union movement the need for coordina-
tion. This is having effect in the proposals now under discussion
for the establishment of a General Staff for labour. On the other
hand, recent strikes have produced in certain quarters demands for
the institution of some measure such as a ballot to be taken in a
manner prescribed by statute prior to a declaration of a strike,
but the trade unions are not likely willingly to forego the " lightning
174
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
strike." With organization conies the establishment of machinery
for the mutual discussion of differences, and discussion often leads
to an amicable settlement : on the other hand, with employers and
workpeople strongly organized in their respective associations, the
claims advanced on behalf of labour develop beyond claims about
wages and working conditions, and extend to questions of principle
such as labour's right to share in the management and control of
industry. Further, when a strike or lockout does occur, it often
has far-reaching effects and impresses itself on the mind of the pub-
lic, who tend to overlook the numerous differences which might
have led to stoppages of work, but were adjusted by discussion.
It is largely on the ground of the effect on the public that the State
is held to be justified in introducing restrictive legislation for deal-
ing with strikes and lockouts, particularly in the group of industries
known as " public utility " services, and, failing settlement, of
taking exceptional powers such as those conferred on the Govern-
ment under the Emergency Powers Act, 1920. A further develop-
ment of organization has been that the larger trade unions appear in
some instances to have become over-centralized, and in this con-
nexion the growth of works committees may well be worth watch-
ing. Generally it may be said that in recent years there has been in
the United Kingdom a very marked increase in the regular meetings
of employers and employed for the purpose of discussion of matters
which may be at issue between them; and while it cannot yet be
said that there is freedom from suspicion and distrust there is clear
evidence of the growth of a desire for full and frank discussion of
all matters affecting the relations between employers and employed.
The conciliation and, arbitration machinery of the British Gov-
ernment is frankly based on the acceptance of organization by
employers and workmen into their respective associations; the
joint industrial council scheme is based on organization, and the
Industrial Courts Act definitely provides that a difference shall not
be referred by the Ministry of Labour to arbitration until there has
been failure to adjust the difference by the conciliation machinery
existing in the industry.
BRITISH COLONIAL LEGISLATION
In connexion with British colonial legislation on the subject of
conciliation and arbitration, it may be recorded that in Canada
the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907 continues to
represent the legislative position of the Government.
In Australasia a considerable number of amendments have been
made. In New Zealand the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration
Act has been amended to enable awards and agreements to be
amended to meet alterations in conditions of employment and the
cost of living. Further, the existing machinery was strengthened
by the Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 1913, which provides
machinery for the investigation of disputes not coming within the
scope of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. The 1913
Act provides for conference of the parties with a view to securing
an amicable settlement, or, in the alternative, investigation by
labour disputes committees. Before a strike may lawfully take
place, a ballot of the workers is taken by the registrar of industrial
unions and the result of the ballot publicly notified. After the lapse
of seven days from the publication of such result, the workers are
free to strike, whatever the result of the ballot may have been. Simi-
lar provisions are made to apply in the case of lockouts. Most of
the states of Australia have passed new laws on this subject. In
Victoria, under the Factory and Shops Acts of 1915 and 1919, and
in Tasmania under the Wages Boards Acts of 1910, 1911, 1913 and
1917, there is a wages board system; in Victoria there is no pro-
hibition of strikes and lockouts, but in Tasmania penalties are pro-
vided for stoppages of work on account of any matter in respect of
which a board has made a determination. In Western Australia,
the Industrial Arbitration Act of 1912 provides for an Industrial
Arbitration Court and prohibits strikes and lockouts, while in New
South Wales under the Industrial Arbitration Acts of 1912, 1916,
1918 and 1919, in Queensland under the Industrial Arbitration
Act of 1916, and in South Australia under the Factory Acts of 1907,
1908, 1910 and 1915 and the Industrial Arbitration Acts of 1912,
1915 and 1916, there are both a wages board and an industrial court
system. In accordance with the provisions of the Acts in New
South Wales and Queensland, the industrial courts in those states
have been exercising the functions of wages boards, and the work of
the existing boards has been greatly curtailed. Under the industrial
court system, an industry does not technically come under review
until a dispute has actually arisen, but most of the Acts have given
the president of the court power to summon a compulsory confer-
ence. The Commonwealth of Australia has also recently amended
its procedure by means of the Industrial Peace Act, 1920, which
sets up certain advisory councils (Commonwealth and District) for
considering matters affecting the prevention and settlement of
trade disputes and further authorizes the governor-general to set
up special tribunals (Commonwealth and District) empowered to
issue enforceable awards on any industrial disputes (i) referred by
the parties to the dispute, or (2) as to which the tribunal or other
appropriate authority has convened a compulsory conference and
a complete agreement has not been reached.
OTHER COUNTRIES
The movement in the United States is dealt with in a sub-
sequent section of this article. A considerable number of other
countries have amended their laws on the subject of the settle-
ment of strikes and lockouts.
In Norway a law dated Aug. 1915 introduced for the first time in
that country machinery for the settlement of labour disputes by the
State. One noteworthy feature of the new measure was the applica-
tion of the principle of compulsory investigation and delay before a
stoppage of work takes place, in which respect it resembles the
Canadian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907. Another
noteworthy feature is the compulsory registration of trade unions
and employers' associations and the recognition and regulation of
collective agreements. Two methods of procedure are established
for the prevention and settlement of labour disputes. Questions
arising out of existing collective agreements must be brought before
a specially constituted labour court, while those originating from
other matters affecting labour are to be submitted to conciliation
boards to be set up throughout the country. This was followed in
1916 by a compulsory arbitration law. It should also be noted that
the Provisional Works Councils Act of July 1920 requires the estab-
lishment of a works council in every establishment employing regu-
larly throughout the year not less than 50 workers, on a demand of
one-fourth of the workpeople. The functions of the councils are
advisory only ; they may consider and express an opinion on matters
concerning the establishment so far as they relate to working con-
ditions, rates of remuneration, workshop regulations, welfare insti-
tutions, etc. No penalty is laid down for failure to comply with the
terms of this law.
In Sweden the law of 1906 providing for the appointment of con-
ciliators was subjected to inquiry from 1916 onwards with a view to
revision and, as a result, it was superseded by three new measures
all dated April 1920. The first is a law amending and extending
the original law in respect of the appointment of local official con-
ciliators; the second establishes a permanent Arbitration Court (con-
sisting of three impartial persons nominated by the Crown and
representatives of organized employers and workpeople) to deal
with disputes arising out of collective agreements, without recourse
to strikes or lockouts or to legal process in the ordinary courts;
whilst the third relates to the appointment, on request, of special
arbitrators for individual disputes arising out of collective agree-
ments and involving matters of minor importance. Recourse to the
Arbitration Court is voluntary.
In Rumania in Aug. 1920 a bill was passed for settling industrial
disputes. Strikes and lockouts without recourse to conciliation are
prohibited in establishments employing ten or more persons. When
a dispute arises, a conference is required to be held in the presence
of an official of the Ministry of Labour and if an agreement is reached
the decision becomes obligatory on all the parties. Arbitration may
be resorted to where conciliation fails and is compulsory in the case
of Government establishments and what might be broadly described
as " public utility " services. Provision is made for widening the
scope of the proceedings and altering the constitution of the Arbi-
tration Court so that the decision may be made applicable to all
local establishments similar to those involved in the initial dispute.
The decision arrived at is obligatory on all parties.
In Switzerland the Factory Act ot 1877, which was amended in
certain respects in 1905, was repealed and superseded by a new
labour law of June 1914, which included within its scope measures
for averting and settling industrial disputes. The Act provided, with
a view to the amicable settlement of disputes which are calculated
to lead to a strike or lockout, for the appointment of permanent
cantonal conciliation committees which might intervene either on
their own initiative or at the request of the authorities or of the
parties directly concerned. Persons summoned before these tribu-
nals are obliged, under penalty, to appear. A certain number of
employers and workpeople in any industry may mutually agree to
constitute a conciliation committee so far as those employers and
workpeople are cor.cerncd.
In Germany a decree of the new Government of Dec. 1918 con-
tinued, for the purpose of the settlement of labour disputes and
pending arrangements of further statutory regulations, the sys-
tem of district conciliation committees which had been established
during the war. The constitution, functions and powers of these
conciliation committees are similar to those of the industrial courts
which have been in existence in Germany for many years, in so far
as these latter deal with the settlement of ordinary labour dis-
putes. An Act of Jan. 1920 requires the setting up of works coun-
cils, one of whose functions it is to appeal to the conciliation com-
mittee or to an arbitration board to be agreed upon, failing a settle-
ment of disputes at the works. It may be noted that these works
councils are vested with very wide powers such as the right to demand
information of all business transactions. The works councils are to
be united in district councils whose work will be coordinated in a
federal works council; these can meet representatives of employers
in district economic councils and in a federal economic council.
A provisional federal economic council has already been established
although the subordinate organizations are not yet in existence. A
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
175
bill has been under consideration during 1920 in which it is pro-
posed to make recourse to conciliation compulsory and to make the
decisions of the conciliation boards obligatory (a)_ in public serv-
ices where they are established by law, and (b) in industries where
they exist by reason of a collective agreement; in other cases a
strike or lockout may be called in spite of a decision, if a ballot is
taken and a two-thirds majority is secured in favour of a stoppage.
Meanwhile, as the outcome of a strike of electrical workers in Ber-
lin, a presidential order was issued in Nov. 1920, relative to strikes
and lockouts in establishments supplying the community with gas,
water or electricity. Under the order lockouts and strikes in such
establishments are permissible only after the lapse of three days
from the publication of an award by the competent conciliation
committee; persons who incite to a strike or lockout, prohibited
under the order, or who, for the purpose of bringing about such a
strike, perform acts in regard to a workshop, machinery or equip-
ment by which the regular carrying on of the undertaking is ham-
pered or rendered impossible, are liable to imprisonment or a fine
liability to penalty is also incurred by anyone who proclaims a
lockout in the circumstances denned; if establishments of the
nature indicated are brought entirely or partially to a standstill
as a result of a lockout or strike, the Minister of the Interior is
empowered to take emergency measures for the maintenance of
supplies, including tRe satisfaction of justifiable demands made by
the workers. The cost of putting such measures into operation falls
upon the owner of the establishment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The principal sources of information are the
series of reports and peripdica s issued formerly by the Board of
Trade and now by the Ministry of Labour, viz. : Proceedings under
the Conciliation Act, including latterly work done under the Muni-
tions of War Acts, Wages (Temporary Regulation) Acts and the
Industrial Courts Act; Strikes and Lockouts these reports contain
some particulars of the work of voluntary conciliation and arbitra-
tion boards; second Report on Rules of Voluntary Conciliation and
Arbitration Boards and Joint Committees; fourth Abstract of Foreign
Labour Statistics. The monthly Labour Gazette continues to give
valuable information both as to the position in the United Kingdom
and abroad; and the information as to the dominions and foreign
countries is now supplemented by a new quarterly periodical en-
titled Labour Overseas. Special publications of value are the series
of reports of the Committee on the Relations between Employers and
Employed better known as the " Whitley Committee " (Cd.
9153, etc.); Memoranda issued by the Board of Trade on Laws in
the British Dominions and Foreign Countries affecting strikes and
lockouts with special reference to Public Utility Services (Cd. 6081 of
1912); Report of Sir George Askwith on the Industrial Disputes
Investigation Act of Canada in Dec. 1912 (Cd. 6603 of 1912); Report
of the Indiistrial Council of 1913 on Enquiry into Industrial Agree-
ments (Cd. 6952) ; and Reports of the Coal Industry Commission
(Cmd. 359, 360 and 361 of 1919) ; see also the reports of the various
countries, e.g. New Zealand Official Year Book; Official Year Book
of the Commonwealth of Australia; Reports of the United States
Department of Labor, etc. See also Articles on INDUSTRIAL
COUNCILS. LABOUR REGULATION, STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, TRADE
BOARDS. (H. J. W.)
UNITED STATES
In the United States the movement for state legislation
for voluntary arbitration and conciliation progressed steadily,
until in 1920 a majority of states had legislation providing for the
settlement of industrial disputes. Many of these states have
permanent boards of conciliation and arbitration with two to six
members, though three is the usual number. In some states the
labour commissioner acts as mediator, while in others a chief
mediator is appointed by industrial commissions together with
temporary boards of arbitration. Twenty states provide for
compulsory investigations, and in several others it is permitted
under varying conditions. Twelve provide for the enforcement
of an arbitration award when arbitration has been agreed upon by
both sides. In 17 states the voluntary agreement to arbitrate
must contain a promise to abstain from strikes and lockouts
during arbitration proceedings, and two states, Colorado and
Kansas, make strikes and lockouts unlawful and a ground for
fines and imprisonment. The law of 1915 gives to the Industrial
Commission of Colorado the power to compel a hearing in the
case of an industrial dispute and to deliver an award which is
not mandatory. As in the Canadian Industrial Disputes Act,
change of terms of employment, strikes and lockouts are pro-
hibited until after 30 days' notice and until after a hearing and
award, if such hearing is started within the time of notice.
Though it does not prohibit the right to strike, it delays the
strike. Kansas, an agricultural state, by creating, in 1920, a
Court of Industrial Relations, established compulsory arbitra-
tion. The law applies to industries connected with the manu-
facture of food products, clothing and wearing apparel in com-
mon use; to mining or the production of fuel; to transportation
of the above-mentioned articles; and to all public utilities and
common carriers, which are declared to be affected with a public
interest and subject to supervision by the state. The court,
which consists of three judges appointed by the governor for a
three-year term, is authorized to summon the parties to a dispute
before it, to investigate the conditions of the industry and
to make a reasonable award. It may bring suit in the Supreme
Court of the state to compel compliance with any of its orders.
Either party, if aggrieved by an award, may sue in the state
court to compel the Court of Industrial Relations to issue a
reasonable order. Though the law recognizes the right of
collective bargaining and the right of the individual to quit work,
the right of labour to enforce its claims is forbidden. In the case
of actual suspension or limitation of the operation of an industry,
the court may take it over and operate it during the emergency.
Federal Legislation. The Federal legislation on mediation
and arbitration of 1888 and 1895 applying to common carriers
has been superseded by three Acts: the Act of 1913 (the New-
lands Act); section 8 of the Act creating the Department of
Labor (1913); and title III. of the Transportation Act of 1920.
The Newlands Act provided for the appointment of a Federal
board for voluntary mediation and conciliation to consist of three
members, a Commissioner and two other Government officials,
appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the
Senate. In four years this board functioned in 71 controversies,
14 of which were settled partly or wholly by arbitration and 52
by mediation. Failure of the Act, however, to meet the railway
labour crisis in the fall of 1916 and again in March 1917 resulted
in the first instance in Congressional action in the shape of the
Adamson law granting the basic eight-hour day to trainmen, and
in the second instance in the appointment by the President of a
committee from the Council of National Defence to mediate.
This meant, in effect, the breakdown of the Newlands Act,
though it continued on the statute books subject to the limitation
imposed on it by the Transportation Act of 1920. When the
Government assumed control of the railways in Dec. 1917, a
labour policy was immediately agreed upon. A Railway Wage
Board was appointed to make recommendations to the Director-
General, and a Division of Labor, headed by a brotherhood
(union) official, was created to be the connecting link between
employees and officials on the one hand and the Railway Boards
of Adjustment. Later a permanent Advisory Board on " Rail-
way Wages and Working Conditions " was created. Successive
orders of the Director-General formulated a liberal labour policy,
and machinery for handling disputes under these orders was
established in the form of three Boards of Adjustment, composed
equally of representatives of the administration and the workers.
A similar policy was adopted in the Transportation Act of 1920,
which makes it the duty of the railways and their employees to
".exert every reasonable effort and adopt every available means
to avoid any interruption to the operation of any carrier " grow-
ing out of any dispute involving grievances, rules or working con-
ditions. In case a dispute arises, it is to be decided, if possible, in
mutual conferences of representatives of each side. Disputes that
cannot be settled in this way are to go before Railway Boards
of Labor Adjustment which may be established by agreement
between any road or group of roads and the workers. Except for
a stipulation that these boards must contain representatives of
organized labour, their size and composition are left to the dis-
cretion of the parties concerned. Matters may come before the
Adjustment Boards either upon application by the road or the
organized workers affected, or upon written petition of a hundred
organized workers, or upon the board's own motion or upon the
request of the Railroad Labor Board. This last-mentioned
board is set up by the Act as the final tribunal for the settlement
of railway labour disputes. It is composed of nine members ap-
pointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Sen-
ate to represent in equal proportion the workers, the employers
and the public. During their five-year term of office, members of
176
ARBUTHNOT, SIR ROBERT KEITH
the board must not be active members or officers of labour or-
ganizations or hold stocks or bonds of any carrier. Disputes may
come before the Railroad Labor Board either upon failure of
Adjustment Boards or directly. A majority vote is all that is
necessary to constitute a decision except on matters taken up
directly, in which case one of the members representing the public
must concur in the decision. It has power to suspend any decision
on wages made by the initial conference if, in its opinion, such a
decision involves increases in wages or salaries which would
necessitate a substantial readjustment of rates. In such cases the
board must, after hearings, affirm or modify the suspended de-
cision, and must also hold hearings on alleged violations of
decisions and publish its decisions.
The Act of March 4 1913, creating a Department of Labor,
provides that the Secretary of Labor shall have power to act
as mediator and to appoint commissioners of conciliation in
labour disputes, whenever in his judgment the interests of
industrial peace require it to be done. In case mediation fails,
arbitration may be proposed by the mediators, who cannot act
as arbitrators. During the five years inclusive, 1915-9, the
Secretary of Labor took cognizance of 3,644 cases and effected
2,539 adjustments. During 1919 alone 1,780 assignments of com-
missioners of conciliation resulted in 1,223 adjustments. In
addition to the direct efforts of the Secretary of Labor, two
other Boards of Labor Adjustment were established as part of
the war machinery of the country.
The President's Mediation Commission was appointed in the
fall of 1917 to conduct an investigation into the underlying
causes of labour unrest which was threatening the output of
material needed for war industries and to make specific adjust-
ments. The Secretary of Labor was appointed as Chairman of
the Commission. It made investigations in the copper mines of
Arizona, the California oil-fields, the Pacific Coast telephone dis-
pute, the unrest in the lumber industry of the north-west, and the
packing industry. Settlements were made in all disputes except
in the lumber industry, generally after arbitration had failed.
In Jan. 1918, the Secretary of Labor upon nomination of
representatives of capital and labour appointed a War Labor
Conference Board to devise a method of labour adjustment which
would be acceptable to employers and workers.
As a result of the Conference Board's report, the National
War Labor Board was created by Presidential proclamation in
April 1918. The membership consisted of two joint chairmen,
five representatives of employees' organizations -and five
representatives of employers' organizations. As stated in the
Proclamation, its powers and duties were " to settle by mediation
and conciliation controversies arising between employers and
workers in fields of production necessary for the effective conduct
of the war, or in other fields of national activity, delays and ob-
structions in which might, in the opinion of the National Board,
affect detrimentally such production " and to provide necessary
machinery for these purposes. Its authority did not extend to
controversies between employers and workers in any field of
industrial or other activity where there was by agreement or by
Federal law a means of settlement which had not been invoked.
Tliisprovision excluded from the jurisdiction of the Board, except
by way of appe'al, a large group of cases. The ship-building
industry had set up by agreement its own Labor Adjustment
Board; the Ordnance Department and other producing depart-
ments of the Government had created special industrial service
sections to consider the complaints of their employees; the coal-
mining industry had its labour policy controlled by agreement
of all parties with the Fuel Administration and the Government
had adopted a separate labour policy for the railways. The
statement of principles and policies contained in the report, which
governed the decisions and which became an official expression
of the Government's labour policy, was as follows: (i) abolition
of strikes and lockouts during the war; (2) equal right of
employers and workers to organize without discrimination; (3)
right of collective bargaining; (4) observance of the status quo
ante helium as to union or open shop in a given establishment and
as to union standards of wages, hours and other conditions of
employment, except that the War Labor Board might grant
improvements in labour conditions as the situation warranted;
(5) maintenance of established safeguards and regulations for the
protection of the health and safety of the workers; (6) payment of
equal wages for equal work to women in industry and allotment of
tasks proportionate to their strength; (7) recognition of the
basic eight-hour day in all cases in which existing laws required
it, in other cases settlement of the question of hours with regard
to Governmental necessities and the welfare, health and proper
comfort of the workers; (8) maintenance of maximum production;
(9) regard to be had for labour standards, wage scale and other
conditions prevailing in the localities affected, in fixing wages,
hours and conditions of labour; (10) right of all workers to a
living wage which insures subsistence of the worker and his
family in health and reasonable comfort. Provision was made for
the settlement where possible by local mediation and conciliation
and in event of failure of local machinery, for hearings before the
National Board. When the National Board found it impossible
to settle the controversy, provision was mgde for the appoint-
ment of an umpire by the National Board or by the President
from a panel of disinterested persons. In the enforcements of its
awards, the National War Labor Board had no special legal
sanction or penalty either to force any party to submit disputes
to arbitration or to enforce its awards. So outspoken however
was public opinion on the necessity of avoiding interruptions in
the war industries and so far-reaching were the wartime powers
of the Government over both the employers and workers, that the
indirect powers of the Board were sufficient. In only three cases
were the Board's awards resisted. In two instances where the
employers discriminated against the union employees and refused
to abide by the decision in favour of the men, the President was
sustained by Congress in taking over the industries. In the case
of the strike by the organized workers at Bridgeport, Conn.,
against the Board's award, the President's threat of unemploy-
ment enforced by Governmental agencies compelled the men
to return to work.
Besides legislative programmes, the Federal Government has
made several other attempts to devise plans for the adjustment
of labour disputes. In 1913 President Wilson appointed the
Industrial Relations Commission to diagnose the cause of in-
dustrial unrest, and in the fall and winter of 1919 he appointed
two industrial conferences to formulate a reconstruction labour
policy. None of the programmes suggested has been given
practical application. Experience during the war demonstrated
the possibility of successful Government intervention in in-
dustrial disputes through mediation. Even voluntary arbitration
was resorted to only in a few instances. Legislation was still
needed in 1921 to extend the field of Federal mediation with
regard to disputes involving agencies of interstate commerce and
disputes so vital and comprehensive in extent that existing state
agencies are unable to meet the situation. Though the Secretary
of Labor is empowered to intervene in such cases, his inter-
vention introduces political and trade union partizanship, which
is objectionable to the parties to the dispute. The rapid increase
of state agencies has created the need for cooperation between
the state and Federal agencies. (For collective bargaining and
arbitration in private industries see TRAIJE UNIONISM.)
Bibliography. John R. Commons and John B. Andrews, Princi-
ples of Labor Legislation (1920) ; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulle-
tins, Nos. 148, 1 66, 186, 213, 244, 257; U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, Monthly Labor Review; U.S. Secretary of Labor,
Annual Reports; American Labor Legislation Review, Annual Sum-
maries; U.S. Board of Mediation and Conciliation, Report rinder
Newlands Act, Dec. 1917; Alexander M. Bing, War-Time Strikes
and their Adjustment (1921). (J. R. Co.)
ARBUTHNOT, SIR ROBERT KEITH, 4TH BART. (1864-1916),
British sailor, was born March 23 1864, and succeeded his
father, the 3rd bart., in 1889. He entered the navy in 1877 and
was promoted commander 1897, captain 1902 and rear admiral in
the 2nd Battle Squadron 1913. Early in the World War he took
over the ist Cruiser Squadron and led it in the battle of Jutland,
flying his flag in the " Defence," which was sunk with the loss of
all on board May 31 1916.
ARCH, JOSEPH ARCHAEOLOGY
177
ARCH, JOSEPH (1826-1919), British labour leader (see 2.342),
died at Barford, Warwick, Feb. 12 1919.
ARCHAEOLOGY: EGYPT AND WESTERN ASIA. During 1910-
20 advances in Egyptian archaeological knowledge were sure if
slow. Of course, generally speaking, less advance was made than
in many previous decades, owing to the interregnum caused by
the World War, when all British, French, German, and Austrian
work was held up, and only the Americans and to a lesser degree
the so-called " Egyptian " Service of Antiquities (manned by
French and English) did any digging at all; while in all the Eu-
ropean countries the energies of all the archaeologists who were
not superannuated were transferred to the field of war, and
there was no time left to write little papers, still less big books.
And several, especially in France and Germany, made the
great sacrifice which summarily closed lives and extinguished
brains of great value to science. Nevertheless, advance was made.
In the years immediately preceding the war we have to
chronicle first a great advance in our knowledge of the begin-
nings of Egyptian history, owing mainly to the excavations
of Prof. Flinders Petrie at Tarkhan * and of the German, Prof.
Junker (working for Austria), at Tura. 2 Both these places are
in Middle Egypt, well N. ; the former being near Kafr 'Ammar
and the other just S. of Cairo, on the way to Helwan. The point
of interest is that their diggings have shown that the Horus
kings of Upper Egypt had under the " Scorpion King " (who
is not the same person as Narmer or Narmerza, as we now must
call him) extended their rule as far as the apex of the Delta, N.
of Cairo. The Delta was presumably still independent, and was
conquered by Narmerza. A point of importance as to the pre-
historic period was scored by the discovery in the same neigh-
bourhood at Gerzeh by Mr. Wainwright of iron beads on a
necklace. 3 Now as these beads are admittedly worked metallic
iron and must date before 4000 B.C., it is obvious that they are
a remarkable confirmation of those who, like the present writer,
have in opposition to Prof. Montelius always maintained that
iron was known to and occasionally used in a worked state by
the Egyptians at a period long anterior to its general intro-
duction and replacing of bronze for weapons and tools. 4 The
Old Kingdom finds of iron are now seen to be nothing very
extraordinary. But equally it is now impossible to cast any doubt
upon them. The oldest iron weapon known was hitherto sup-
posed to be an Egyptian halbert-head of the lime of Rameses
III., but Mr. Randall Maclver has recently discovered in a tomb
of the XII. dynasty at the Second Cataract an iron spearhead
which is eight centuries older; dating from about 2000 B.C. 6
Iron was in fact both worked and used sporadically long before
the " Iron Age."
Interesting conclusions as to the early ethnology of Egypt
have been derived from the systematic examination of the
necropolises of Nubia, necessitated by the heightening of the
Aswan dam, as a consequence of which the northern portion
of the valley S. of the dam became flooded, so that a complete
examination of the archaeology of the district had to be carried
out in order to save historical evidence from destruction. The
results published in the Archaeological Survey of Nubia 6 by
Messrs. Reisner & Firth have shown that the early culture of
Nubia was closely akin to that of the predynastic Egyptians,
which no doubt came from the south. After Egypt proper was
overrun by the " dynastic Egyptian " people of " Armenoid "
stock, who came from Asia and founded the kingdoms of Lower
and Upper Egypt, the old barbarous Nilotic culture continued
to exist in Nubia. We find an illustration of this in the fact that
a red and black pottery, obviously akin to the predynastic
Egyptian, but of finer make, was manufactured in Nubia in
the time of the XII. dynasty, and introduced into Egypt by
Nubian colonists, perhaps soldiers or enslaved prisoners, who
preserved also their own native (and really old Egyptian)
burial customs, interring their dead in " pan " graves much
resembling those of the primitive Egyptians of two and three
thousand years before.
Evidence is accumulating, though no completely satisfactory
theory can yet be put forward, as to the northern origin of the
dynastic Egyptians. Elliot Smith has shown 7 the existence of
the two racial stocks in Egypt, the predynastic Nilotic and the
invading " Armenoid " from Asia, the man of higher cranial
capacity to whom the blossoming of the Egyptian civilization
and art out of primitive African barbarism is to be ascribed.
This " Armenoid " stock must have come from Asia and, no
doubt, reached Egypt by the Isthmus of Suez, but whence it
came originally we do not know. Whether it was really Semitic
we also do not know: whatever its skull may be its facial type is
certainly not Semitic, whether of the fine pure Arab or the coarse
big-nosed " Hethitized " types. It is sometimes almost central
European in look.
How to equate this foreign civilizing race from Asia with ths
Semitic elements in the ancient Egyptian speech we do not yet
know. It may be that these belong in reality to the old Nilotic
inhabitants, who were probably related to the true Semites of
Arabia; but the hieroglyphic system seems to have developed
in the Delta, and is very probably to be ascribed to the " Arme-
noids." The Osiris cycle of legends seems to belong to these
people. Osiris and Isis are closely connected with Syria and the
Lebanon in legend; the Ded or sacred pillar of Osiris is doubtless
really a representation of a great cedar with its horizontally
outspreading branches; 8 another of the sacred Egyptian trees
is obviously a cypress; corn and wine are traditionally associated
with Osiris, and .it is probable that corn and wine were first
domesticated in Syria, and came thence with the gods Osiris
and Re (the sun god of Heliopolis) into the Delta. Syria in
fact is beginning to take shape in our minds as perhaps the
most ancient seat of civilization in the world, the common
source from which Babylonia and Egypt derived those items of
culture in which, in the early period, they resemble one another.
It remains for excavation to show whether this hypothesis is
or is not correct. And the question whether the " Armenoid "
conquerors of Egypt and founders of the kingdoms there, who
came from Syria, were Semites still remains unanswered. If
they were Semitic speakers, the present facial contours of the
northern Semites, which have spread all over the world, are not
Semitic at all: for the Egyptian Armenoids in the statues of the
Old Kingdom look like Europeans, and must have been of
" European " blood.
These new probabilities open up considerable possibilities in
research with regard to the relations of the early Minoans and
other Aegeans with Syria and Egypt and the undoubted fact
of the resemblances of Minoan on the one hand to Syrian and
Egyptian religions 'and funerary practices, and on the other
hand to those of the Etruscans.
The facial contours of the modern Jew are predominantly
those of the ancient Hittite, who was certainly not a Semite.
One has hitherto supposed that he was related to the Medi-
terraneans, the race to which the Bronze Age Greeks and
Italians belonged; but this supposed connexion may well break
down in the matter of skull form, as the Hittite skull, like that
of the modern Anatolian, probably inclined to be brachycephalic.
whereas that of the Mediterranean inclined in the other direction,
And now the Bohemian Assyriologist Prof. Hrozny has brought
forward evidence 9 that the cuneiform script, adopted by the
Hittites from the Mesopotamians expressed an Indo-European
tongue, nearly akin to Latin! This conclusion is not yet uni-
versally accepted, but it seems difficult on the evidence to avoid
the conclusion that Prof. Hrozny is right, and if so the curious
resemblances of some of the externals of Roman and Hittite
religion, and the legendary and other connexions between the
Etruscans and Asia Minor, are seen in a new light.
If the Hittites were Aryans, one can hardly suppose a primeval
Aryan element in Anatolia. The Indo-Europeans whom we
find in Mesopotamia (the Kassites and Mitannians) * and in
Palestine about 1400 B.C. can hardly have entered western
Asia before 2000 B.C. or thereabouts, and it is probable that
the Hittites belonged to the same wandering. On entering
* The fact that the Mitannians venerated Varuna, Indra, and the
Asvins is important as showing that Iranian and Indian Aryans
had not yet separated as late as 1400 B.C.
ARCHAEOLOGY
Anatolia they probably found the land at least as far W. as
the Halys already occupied by Semites. This Semitic population
in Anatolia is an important recent discovery. At the time of the
great dynasty of Ur (c. 2400 B.C.) in Babylonia, the whole
Argaeus region was occupied by these Semites, who seem to
have been most kin to the Assyrians. They were no doubt ex-
pelled or absorbed by the Hittites, but we have the proof of
their existence and of the fallacy of the statement that the
Semite never crossed the Taurus, in the cuneiform tablets written
in their language which have been found near Kaisariyeh and
are now being published by various scholars. 10 No doubt the
Hittites learnt the use of cuneiform from these people. Whether
the national hieroglyphic system of the Hittites expressed the
same Indo-European language as, according to Hrozny, their
cuneiform does, we do not know, as further attempts to elucidate
it made by Campbell Thompson u and Cowley, 12 while in them-
selves very interesting experiments, do not seem to take us
further than previous attempts by Sayce and others. The sup-
position that the hieroglyphic system belongs to a late age, be-
cause it is chiefly found in the loth and gth century monuments
of Carchemish, is improbable, as it bears all the characteristic
marks of Hethitic nationalism, and is evidently a native in-
vention. No people would have abandoned cuneiform for
such a clumsy method of writing.
The excavation of Carchemish, lately suspended owing to
political uncertainty in Syria, has been very interesting. The
palace with its great relief-lined court and its water-gate of
Hittite construction, the later Assyrian fortress, and the Hittite
tombs with their characteristic pottery, are important results,
and the whole work has been one of the major excavations of the
last ten years, and has been fitly carried out by the British
Museum, under the direction of Dr. Hogarth and Mr. Woolley. 13
The excavations of Dr. Garstang for the university of Liver-
pool at Sakchegozii, 14 further N., not far from Sinjirli, the seat
of earlier German work, have also produced interesting results.
The peculiar characteristics of Syro-Hittite art, and its relation
to that of Assyria, are matters of great interest to the student of
the civilization and art of the Nearer East. Equally interesting
are the relation of the Syro-Hittite with the Minoan, and we
seem to find in certain objects found in Egypt and Cyprus and
dating probably from the I4th to the loth centuries, proof of
the existence of a mixed art of Syrian origin, probably in Cilicia
(Alashiya) at that time. 15 Baron Oppenheim's excavations at
Tell Halaf have resulted in the recovery of reliefs of barbaric
style, simulating the Syro-Hittite, from the palace of a local
king, Kapara, of about the same period as Sinjirli and Sak-
chegozii (icth-gth centuries B.C.), and pottery of all ages,
going back to the chalcolithic period. 16
The neolithic and chalcolithic pottery of Mesopotamia and
Persia is one of the chief archaeological discoveries of late years
in the Near East, and attention has recently been directed to it
again by the important finds at Abu Shahrein (the ancient
Eridu) and Tell el 'Obeid, near Ur. The excavations carried
out for the British Museum at Shahrein by R. C. Thompson in
1918 " and by Hall in 1919, and at El 'Obeid by Hall in the latter
year, 18 have shown us that the painted ware of Susa and Musyan,
discovered by de Morgan was not confined to Persia, but was the
ordinary pottery of Babylonia in the prehistoric (chalcolithic)
period. It seems characteristic of the neighbourhood of the
gulf; the French excavations at Bandar Bushir 19 on the Persian
coast have revealed exactly similar ware. And small finds of it
on other sites have shown that it was usual all over Mesopotamia,
and connects on the one side with the early pot fabrics of Asia
Minor and on the other with the pottery of Anau and the
kurgans of Turkistan, found by Pumpelly. 20 Its place of origin
is not yet known. Rostortzeff in his article drawing attention
to the undoubtedly Sumerian or sumerizing " Treasure of
Astrabad " 21 in N. Persia (which, it must not be forgotten,
may have been an importation from Babylonia and not local
art at all), seems to think a northern origin as probable as any
other. But as a matter of fact an exclusively Elamite origin is
not improbable, from the fact that its earliest and first types are
found at Susa. Whether we should deduce from its common
occurrence in Babylonia the existence of an Elamite population
there in early times, later displaced by the Sumerians, we do
not know. Sumerian pottery is different, but there are traces of
a transition period. One thing, however, is pretty certain, and
that is that the enormous dates B.C. assigned to it by de Mor-
gan and Pumpelly cannot be accepted.
An argument for discontinuity of race is found in the fact
that whereas the Sumerians are nevef represented as using the
bow, their predecessors certainly made flint arrowheads. The
stone knives, arrowheads, celts, hoe-blades, hammers, nails,
awls, etc., associated with this pottery are of kinds which though
simple and often crude in type are nevertheless not early, but
date from the transition period to the age of metal and the earliest
centuries of the latter period. Flint and chert were employed for
knives, etc., but with none of the marvellous skill and artistry
of the predynastic Egyptian flint-knapper; the early Babylonian
used comparatively simple flakes and the wonderful serration
of the Egyptian knives was unknown to him though he made the
saw-blades. Obsidian and rock crystal were also used for knife
making. Celts, of the usual late neolithic type, were generally of
green jasper; hoe-blades (looking almost exactly like palaeolithic
haches d main) of chert or coarse limestone; hammers of granite;
mace-heads, of identical type with the early Egyptian, of diorite
and limestone; nails of obsidian or smoky quartz, often beau-
tifully made. All these stones were of course imported, as the
Babylonian had no stone (except a rough coral rag) at hand as
the Egyptian had. And many must have come from far afield.
In later days, in the time of the Sargonid kings of Akkad or the
monarchs of Ur, stones such as granite, basalt, diorite and
dolerite were probably brought from the Sinaitic peninsula, if
not from the western desert of Egypt, if the Red Sea coast is to
be identified, as seems very probable, with Magan, " the place
to which ships went," the land whence the Babylonians got some
of their first stones for sculpture and architecture. Magan
originally was probably a land on the S. coast of the Persian
Gulf, but as the early navigators pushed their voyages further,
the ships rounded the coast of Arabia, and came into the Red
Sea, and the names of Magan and the neighbouring Melukhkha
gradually extended westward, with the result that in late times
to the Assyrians Melukhkha meant Ethiopia. Magan, however,
probably never meant Egypt proper, the Nile land itself, or
Egypt, would have been called Magan by the Assyrians in later
times; it was called Musri then and probably in early times
also. So that we are not disposed to accept a recently pro-
pounded theory 22 that a certain King Manium of Magan who
was overthrown by the Akkadian king Naram-Sin about 2850
B.C., was none other than Menes, the earliest king of Egypt,
who is generally identified with Narmerza. " Manium " is a
common Semitic name. We need not even suppose that this
Manium was a chief of the Egyptian Red Sea coast or even of
Sinai. The Magan of which he was king need have been no fur-
ther afield than the Oman peninsula. And the whole equation
seems to break down on the matter of date, as it is quite im-
possible to bring Narmerza down to 2850 B.C. Naram-Sin
was in reality a contemporary of the kings of the V. dynasty.
The question how far connexion was kept up between early
Egypt and Babylonia by way of the Red Sea or across the desert
is a very interesting one. An important piece of evidence on this
point has recently come to light in the shape of the carved hippo-
potamus-tusk handle of an Egyptian predynastic stone knife,
said to have been found in the Wadi el "Araq, on the right bank
of the Nile opposite Nag'Hamadi, and now in the Louvre. 23
On this remarkable object, which is certainly of predynastic
Egyptian date (before 3500 B.C.), we see representations of
early Egyptians and perhaps other tribes fighting, with ships,
some like those represented on the Egyptian predynastic pots
and others different, with high prows and sterns, and we also see
a strange deity of Babylonian aspect. He is not identical with
any known Babylonian deity, but he is the god of a people
belonging to the Babylonian culture circle, probably of the
inhabitants of the Red Sea littoral. The object is of Egyptian
ARCHAEOLOGY
179
workmanship, representing this powerful deity of the foreign
sea people with whom the predynastic Nilotes no doubt often
fought. This, by the way, points to the conclusion that Baby-
lonian (Sumerian) culture and art were considerably older than
the Egyptian; but we have no definite evidence yet on this point. 24
Later points of artistic connexion may be seen when we
compare the well-known bronze statues of Pepi I. and his son
found at Hierakonpolis by Quibell with the copper lions dis-
covered at Tell el 'Obeid near Ur by Hall two years ago. 25 Dr.
Reisner is of opinion that copper was first used in Egypt, and
bronze certainly seems to have been used there first. The
lions of 'Obeid date from about the Ur-Nina period of Baby-
lonian history, i.e. about 3000 B.C. or a century or two earlier;
the Pepi statues are two or three centuries later. We see how-
ever the similarity of the metal-working of both countries at
approximately the same time; both are in the same style of
artistic development, the Egyptian perhaps the more advanced
of the two, and (if the published analysis by Mosso is to be relied
upon) with the additional technique of the alloy with tin, making
the metal bronze, and so easier for the heads to be cast. The
Sumerians cast the heads of their lions in copper, not always
with successful results, and filled them with bitumen and clay
(like the image in " Bel and the Dragon," which was " clay
within and brass without ") to give them solidity. The bodies
(or so much of them as ever existed, as only the fore parts
remained) were hammered and wrought, like the bodies of the
Egyptian figures. The eyes in both cases were inlaid, those of
the lions with red jasper, white shell and blue schist: this imita-
tion of the eyes in stone as well as metal figures was a feature
common to both arts, which were at this time assuredly not with-
out direct or indirect connexion. Whence the Egyptians and a
little later on the Babylonians got their tin for the alloy we do
not yet know.
The question as to whether copper really was first used in
Egypt is not yet resolved, and many arguments can be brought
against the theory of Egyptian origin and in favour of one in
Syria or further north. 26
Egypt has also recently been credited with being the inceptor
of the whole " megalithic (or heliolithic, as the fashionable
word now is) culture " of mankind, from Britain to China and
(literally) Peru or at any rate Mexico via the Pacific Isles. 27
The theory is that the achievements of the Egyptians in great
stone architecture at the time of the pyramid-builders so im-
pressed their contemporaries that they were imitated in the sur-
rounding lands, by the Libyans and Syrians, that the fame of
them was carried by the Phoenicians further afield, and that
early Arab and Indian traders passed on the megalithic idea to
Farther India, and thence to Polynesia and so on so that both
the teocalli of Teotihuacan and Stonehenge are ultimately
derived through cromlechs and dolmens innumerable from the
stone pyramid of Saqqara, built by Imhotep, the architect of
King Zoser, about 3100 B.C. (afterwards deified as the patron of
science and architecture). This theory of Prof. Elliot Smith's
is very plausible and " fascinating," but whether it will prove
to be true remains to be seen. The Babylonians apparently
refused to be impressed by the Egyptians in this matter, and
went on building temples in brick, probably for the good reason
that they could not get any stone. The only stone building in
southern Babylonia is the town wall of Eridu (Abu Shahrein),
which is built of rude lumps of a local coral rag. 28 The granites
and dolerites from Magan were too fine and too expensive to
build with.
Megalithic town walls were naturally common in that stony
land, Palestine, and very typical specimens of them were found
in the Palestine Exploration Fund's excavations at Bethshemesh
('Ain Shems) directed by Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, 29 whose work
also threw new light on the phenomenon of the appearance in
Palestine between the I2th and icth centuries B.C. of sub-
Mycenaean (Greek) pottery, which can only be ascribed to the
Philistines, whose historical position as a foreign invading force
from the Aegean area (Lycia and Crete-Kaphtor) is now
entirely vindicated. 30 Another important excavation in Pales-
tine in the period preceding the World War was that of Dr.
Reisner at Samaria, which is not yet fully published. Very
interesting examples of Israelite written inscriptions on potsherds,
dating from the gth century B.C. and probably from the reign
of Ahab, were found that are of great palaeographical impor-
tance. 31 Continued work at Samaria should reveal some trace
of the civilization of Israel, which we know was considerable,
unless the devastation of the Assyrian sieges has destroyed it
all. This is possibly the case with regard to the older culture of
Canaan in the preceding millennium, of which Palestinian ex-
cavations have yielded few traces, though we know it existed. 32
War destroyed it: Palestine was the cockpit of Asia. An in-
teresting discovery seems to have been made in the identifica-
tion by Drs. Gardiner and Cowley of the earliest Semitic script
in the hieroglyphic signs found in Sinai. 33
Since the war a new British school of archaeology in Jerusalem
has been founded under the direction of Prof. Garstang, who
has begun for the Palestine Exploration Fund excavations at
Ascalon, which have resulted in the discovery of interesting late
buildings 34 and this year (1921) in that of a statue of Herod the
Great. It is to be hoped that continued work will discover
traces of the Philistine period at Ascalon, and relics of the same
age will no doubt be discovered at Bethshan (Beisan), for a time
the furthest eastward outpost of the Philistines, which is about
to be explored by the American School at Jerusalem. The new
conditions in Palestine should be very favourable to archaeo-
logical work there, and it is to be hoped that in Syria the French
will give every facility for international work.
The future of archaeological study in Mesopotamia depends
upon the political conditions, which have not hitherto been
considered favourable to the resumption of excavation in that
country. The great' German excavations at Babylon 35 and
Assur (Qal'at Sherqat), 36 under the direction of Koldewey and
Andrae, will probably not be resumed for many years. They
were admirable work, and at Sherqat especially have produced
results of the greatest historical and archaeological importance.
We now know something of the early history of Assyria and of
the succession of Mer kings from monuments found at Sherqat.
It is not, however, proposed to give here a list of the newly
discovered names w of the Babylonian kings on tablets from
Nippur, published by Poebel ** and others, as results of this kind
belong to the realm of history rather than to that of archaeology.
The new series of " Creation " and " Deluge " tablets from
Nippur, published by Poebel & Langdon, 39 also belong to the realm
of the historian and anthropologist rather than to that of the
archaeologist, so are merely mentioned here; the excavation in
which they were found being now ancient history. In Mesopo-
tamia more than any other country literary results have been
regarded as archaeology, owing to the enormous mass of the
written material recovered, which has caused the study of the
art and general civilization of different periods to be neglected
in comparison with the same subjects in Egypt.
In Egypt the succession to the work of the Deutsch-Orient
Gesellschaft, which excavated Babylon and Assur, has fallen to
the Egypt Exploration Society, which has taken up the excava-
tion at Tell el Amarna where it was laid down by the Germans at
the outbreak of war, after they had recovered from the house-
ruins several wonderfully fine examples of the art of the period
of Akhenaton, now in Berlin. 40 The first season's labour, under
the direction of Prof. T. E. Peet, resulted in interesting
discoveries, some of which tend to show that the cult of the
Aten or Solardisk was not so rigidly enforced by the heretic king
Akhenaton as has been supposed, and that ordinary people were
allowed to worship other gods than the sun-disk, at any rate in
connexion with funerary ceremonies. The great excavation of
the Osireion at Abydos, begun for the Society (then the Egypt
Exploration Fund) by Prof. Edouard Naville, 41 but suspended
owing to the war, it has not been possible to resume at present,
owing to the commitments of the Amarna site and the heavy
expense of such work as that at the Osireion, which cannot yet
be contemplated. This building, the date of which is not yet
finally settled, though its excavator believes it to be of the Old
i8o
ARCHAEOLOGY
Kingdom like the temple of the Sphinx at Giza, is one of the most
remarkable in Egypt, and the completion of its excavation is
much to be desired. For such a work, however, considerable
funds are necessary, and all archaeological study has had to
struggle along with insufficient means.
Prof. Petrie resumed operations in Middle Egypt after the
war-, and made interesting discoveries (1921). By the autumn
of 1921 conditions for work were improving.
Dr. Reisner, working for Boston, was not held up by the war,
but continued his excavations in the Giza pyramid field and in
Nubia, making good finds in both places. His determination
from the study of their pyramids at Napata (the Barkal region)
of the succession of the Ethiopian kings, 42 and his revelations
of the colonial dominion of the Egyptians in Nubia under the
XII. dynasty, derived from his work at Kerma and Defufa, 43
are of great historical importance.
Other work of importance in Nubia immediately before the
war was that of Mr. Randall Maclver and Mr. Woolley for the
Eckley B. Coxe (Philadelphia) Expedition, 44 that of Oxford
at Farras, directed by Mr. F. U. Griffith, 45 which has result-
ed in an unrivalled series of Nubian pottery from the earliest
to the latest times, and that of Prof. Garstang at Meroe, 46 in
the far S., which has shown us a barbaric culture of Egyptian
origin, strongly influenced by the Ptolemaic and Roman civiliza-
tion of its time: this is the culture of the Candaces. The great
bronze head of Augustus Caesar, now in the British Museum,
is one of the trophies of this excavation, and is very interesting
as being either a trophy of war carried off perhaps from Syene,
or was actually set up at Meroe by the independent native ruler
in honour of the Emperor. Mr. Griffith has added to our
knowledge of the ancient languages of the world by his inter-
pretation of the Meroltic inscriptions, 47 to which Prof. Sayce
has also contributed. 48
Returning to the N. and early times again, we have to chroni-
cle besides Reisner's excavations, 49 those of the university of
Pennsylvania (Eckley B. Coxe Expedition), 60 and of Junker for
Vienna, 61 all in the pyramid field of Giza. These explorations of
the mastaba tombs of the III.- VI. dynasties have had interesting
results. Among other important archaeological finds of the past
decade are those of several new fragments of the " Palermo
Stone " and similar annalistic monuments of the V. dynasty, 62
which are of high importance for the early period. The New
York Museum has further investigated the Middle Kingdom
pyramid field at Lisht and its neighbourhood, 63 and Prof.
Petrie and Mr. Brunton have found fine XII. dynasty jewellery
at Lahun M (now in New York). At Thebes, New York has also
carried out work at Qurnet Murra'i and Sheikh 'Abd el Qurna,
as well as at Dra' Abul Neqqa and Deir el Bahri, 66 where the
Earl of Carnarvon, assisted by Mr. Howard Carter, has also dug
with remarkable success, recovering some of the most beautiful
relics of the art of the XII. and XVIII. dynasties that we
possess. 68 Among other tombs Lord Carnarvon has found the
long-sought sepulchre of Amenhotep I. 67 At Thebes important
work in the copying of tombs has been done by Mr. and Mrs.
de Garis Davies for Dr. A. L. Gardiner, who publishes with
them the tombs of Amenemhet and Antefoker, under the
auspices of the Egypt Exploration Society. 68 The French
Archaeological Institute at Cairo has also excavated Theban
tombs * and at Dendera a naos of the XI. dynasty, with
interesting sculptures of Neb-hepet Re (the king whose tomb
temple at Deir el Bahri was excavated by Naville and Hall
for the Egypt Exploration Fund in 1903-7) has been found, and
taken to Cairo. 60 An interesting discovery of the late period in
Upper Egypt, that of images and other temple objects of precious
metals, was also made at Dendera by the diggers for natron
(sebakh) and recovered by the Service des Antiquites for the
Cairo Museum. 61
Outside Egypt proper the work of editing and publishing all
the Egyptian inscriptions of Sinai has been begun by Dr.
Gardiner and Mr. Peet. 62
A worthy completion of the record is the wonderful exhibition
of all the finest examples of Egyptian art in Britain outside the
British and Ashmolean Museums, held by the Burlington Fine
Arts' Club in London in the summer of ig2i. 63
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) Tarkhan I. and II., 1913-4; (2) Denkschr.
der kais. Akad. Wiss. in Wien., Phil. hist. Klasse, LVI. (1912);
(3) The Labyrinth, Gerzeh, and Mazghunch, 1912; (4) Hall, Oldest
Civilisation of Greece (1901), p. 198; Man, Oct. 1903, 86, May 1905,
40; Montelius, Man, Jan. 1905, 7; (5) Buhen, p. 193, pi. 88; (6)
Survey Dept., Cairo, 1908-11; (7) The Ancient Egyptians (1911);
(8) This is the view of Mr. P. E. Newberry, with whom on
early Egyptian connexion with Syria the writer agrees. (The only
other serious explanation of the Ded is that of Sir E. Budge, who be-
lieves it to be a representation of the vertebrae of Osiris, which would
be a holy relic); (9) Hethitische Studien, I. ,11., Berlin, (1916-9); (10)
Contenau, Trente Tablettes Cappadociennes (1919); S. Smith,
Cuneiform Texts from Cappadocian Tablets in the British Museum,
1921; (11) Archaeologia, LXIV. ; (12) The Hiltiles (Schweich Lec-
tures, 1918); (13) Hogarth, Carchemish I., 1914; Proc. Brit. Acad.
V. ; Woolley, Ann. Anthr. Arch., Liverpool, IV. 87 (" Hittite Burial
Customs"); (14) Ann. Anthr. Arch. V.; (15) Hall, Manchester
Eg. Or. Journ., 1913; (16) Brit. Mus. North Semitic Gallery; (17)
Archaeologia LXX.; (18) Proc. Sac. Ant., Dec. 1919; (19) Pezard,
Mem. Deleg. Perse, XV. (1914); (20) Hall, Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch.
1909, p. 311, ff,, pll. 48, 49; King, Hist. Sum. Akk. p. 351,
ff. ; (21) Journ. Eg. Arch. VI. (1920) p. 4, ff. ; (22) Allbright, Journ.
Eg. Arch, ibid., p. 89, ff. ; VII. (1921) p. 80, ff.; Sayce and Langdon,
ibid., VI. 295 ff. ; (23) Benedite, Fond. Eug. Piot.; Man el Mem.,
XXII., I (1916); (24) Hall, in Camb. Anc. Hist, (forthcoming);
(25) Proc. Soc. Ant., Dec. 1919; Camb. Anc. Hist.; (26) Camb. Anc.
Hist.; (27) " The Influence of Ancient Egyptian Civilization in the
East and in America," Bull. John Rylands Libr., Jan.-March 1916;
(28; Proc. Soc. Ant., Dec. 1919; (29) Palestine Expl. Fund Annual,
1911, 1912-3; (30) Hall, Anc. Hist. Near East (1921), p. 71, ff.;
(31) Lyon,Haniard Theol. Rev.,)a.n. 1911; (32) Hal\,Anc. Hist. Near
Eas/,p.44i; (33) Journ. Eg. Arch. III. (1916); (34) Pat. Expl. Fund
Quarterly Statement, April 1921, p. 73; (35) Koldewey, Das wieder-
erstehende Babylon (1913) ; Excavations at Babylon, 1914; (36) Andrae,
Festungswerkcn v. Assur and Stelenreihe v. Assur (Deutsch Orient -
Gesellschaft, 1913); (37) Schroeder, Zeits. Assyr., Dec. 1920, p. 52;
(38) Historical Texts (Univ. Penna. Publ. IV., V., 1914); King,
Schweich Lectures, 1916, p. 20, ff. ; (39) Poebel, loc. cit. cf. Langdon,
ibid., X. ; Poeme du Paradis (1919); King, loc. cit., p. 52, ff.; (40)
Mittlg. der Deutsch Orient-Cese/lschaft, Nos. 55 (1914) and 57 (1917) ;
(41) Journ. Eg. Arch. I. (1914), p. 159, ff. ; (42) Harvard African
Studies, II.; Boston Museum Bulletin, Feb. 1918; Sudan Notes
and Records, II. 35, 237; (43) Boston Museum Bulletin, April 1914,
Dec. I9J5; (44) Karanog, 1910; Buhen, 1911; (45) Ann. Anthr.
Arch. viii. (1921) No. I.; (46) Meroe, 1911; (47) Griffith, in Meroe,
p. 58, ff. ; Karanog: MeroUic Inscr. 1911; (48) Meroe, p. 49, ff. ; (49)
Boston Museum Bulletin, Nov. 1913, April 1915; (50) Phila. Mus.
Journ., June 1915; (51) Journ. Eg. Arch. I. p. 250, ff. ; (52) Gautier
Musee Egyptien, 1915; Gardiner, Journ. Eg. Arch. III. p. 143, ff. ;
Petrie, Anc. Egypt, 1916; (53) N. Y. Mus. Bulletin, 1914, p. 207,
ff.; (54) N. Y. Mus. Bulletin, Dec. 1919; Brunton, Lahun I. (1920);
(55) N. Y. Museum Bulletin, 1918 (Supplements), 1920 (do.) ; Journ.
Eg. Arch. VI. p. 220; (56) Five Years' Excavations at Thebes, 1912 and
Journ. Eg. Arch, passim; (57) Carter, Journ. Eg. Arch. III. p. 147,
ff.; (58) Amenemhet, 1915; Antef-oker, 1920; (59) The Tomb of Nakht
(1916); (60) Gautier, Ann. du Service, 1920, p. I., ff.; (61) Daressy,
Ann. du Service, 1917, p. 226, ff. ; (62) Journ. Eg. Arch. V. p. 68;
(63) Inscriptions of Sinai, I. (1917); (64) Newberry and Hall,
Catalogue of an Exhibition of Ancient Egyptian Art; London, Bur-
lington Fine Arts' Club, 1921. (H. H.*)
ARCHAEOLOGY: GREECE AND GREEK SITES. All impor-
tant excavations which were in progress in Greek lands in
1911 came to an end with the beginning of the World War.
These had not yet been resumed by 1921, partly because of
the increased cost of labour, partly because of the continued
inaccessibility of sites. The numerous minor explorations, how-
ever, chiefly carried on by Government authorities and local
archaeological societies, had been less interrupted. Even the
studies of individual members of the foreign schools and in-
stitutes had been to some extent continued by these scholars in
the course of military service with one or other of the combat-
ant forces in the Near East.
PREHELLENIC PERIOD
The greatest advance during the decade 1910-20 was made
in the knowledge of prehistoric Greece, to which increasing
interest had been directed since the first discoveries of Sir
Arthur Evans in Crete in 1900.
Greek Mainland. Exploration of the Mycenaean sites of the
Greek mainland have shown that beneath the characteristic painted
pottery which is so plainly derived from the late Minoan wares,
ARCHAEOLOGY
1 8 1
there is no unbroken sequence of development such as is found at
Cnossos and elsewhere in. Crete: that is to say, the Mycenaean
civilization was not native to Greece proper, but was imposed there
in a mature form upon a more backward culture. The earliest
Cretan settlements in Greece belong to the end of the third Middle
Minoan period, about 1800 B.C. Pre-Mycenaean civilization in
Greece varied in different localities. The results of researches on
numerous prehistoric mounds in Thessaly were exhaustively pub-
lished by A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson in 1912. Sites have
also been explored in Phocis (Hagia Marina) and Boeotia, in Aetolia
(Thermon) and the Ionian Islands, in Attica, at Argos, Mycenae
and Tiryns, in the neighbourhood of Corinth, and in the islands
of Aegina, Cythera, Euboea, Melos, Paros, and Rhodes.
The results show that Thessaly was free from Cretan or other
southern influence until the late Mycenaean period developed in
isolation an advanced neolithic culture until the rest of Greece and
the Aegean Is. had come almost to the end of their age of bronze.
Western Greece appears to have been more barbarous than Thessaly,
and its outward connexions, if any, before the Mycenaean period,
were with Italy rather than with Greece. South-eastern Greece and
the Peloponnesus show (in their sequence of pottery fabrics) : (i.)
An Early Bronze Age culture (black-varnish ware, Urfirnis) similar
to that of the Cyclades and Crete but of meaner development, which
was dominated in turn by (ii.) its more progressive neighbours of
the Cyclades (dull-paint ware, Mattmalerei) and perhaps of Asia
(Minyan ware), and ultimately (iii.) of Crete (Mycenaean).
For the mainland cultures a new term " Helladic " has lately been
invented, and three chronological divisions, Early, Middle and Late
Helladic, are proposed to correspond with the parallel Cycladic and
Minoan periods. Mycenaean pottery is found to contain elements
which do not belong to Crete, but which must be attributed to the
influence of the fabrics established in Greece before it. The same
development is looked for in Mycenaean architecture. Early Hella-
dic house walls have lately been found by the American School at
Corinth (A. W. Blegen, 1921). Prehistoric buildings of the semi-
elliptical plan, which previously appeared beneath classical remains
at Olympia and at Orchomenos in Boeotia, have now been discovered
under the Mycenaean palace of Tiryns, under an Hellenic temple at
Thermon in Aetolia and in Levkas.
This new and unexpected knowledge, and modern improvements
in the science of excavation, have led to the reexploration of several
old sites. Tiryns was dug again by the German Institute (until
1914), Phylakopi in Melos (1912) and the Kamares Cave in Crete
(1913) by the British School at Athens, who also began in 1920 a
further excavation on the acropolis of Mycenae. What is chiefly
sought by such revision is better evidence for the chronology and
inter-relation of the different cultures, but much new information
has been gained in regard to plan and structure of the palaces and
fortifications of Mycenae and Tiryns. Fragments of painted wall
and floor decoration have also been recovered on these sites. Those
from Tiryns are a most remarkable series; the figure frescos which
have been reconstructed represent women in procession, a chariot
group and a boar hunt. A fresco bearing the figure of a woman hold-
ing lilies and a vase was also found in the " Palace of Cadmus "
at Thebes (1916), where many Early Mycenaean graves were also
excavated. Other discoveries at Tiryns were a beehive tomb, per-
fectly preserved and used throughout the classical period, some
Eottery vases which bear painted inscriptions in characters said to
e derived from the Cretan script, and an accidental find of My-
cenaean treasure in 1915 by a labourer employed in the agricultural
school. This consisted of bronze swords and vases, gola jewellery
with agate and other gems, bracelets, collars, a seal cylinder and
two engraved gold rings, one of which, the largest known, bears a
religious scene. Mycenaean pottery and a carved steatite vase
were found in caves in the island of Cythera in 1915. The Italian
occupation of Rhodes in 1911 was followed by a general exploration
of the island, in the course of which some graves were opened in the
Mycenaean cemetery of lalysos, which had been dug in 1868-72,
and important material is said to have been obtained. This should
be useful for establishing the date and classification of the earlier
finds, which are in the British Museum. Some Late Mycenaean
remains have been found in association with products of the local
culture in the Ionian Islands. Doerpfeld sees in the crude settle-
ments in Levkas the works of Homeric Achaeans, and continues to
identify the island with Ithaca. A search by rival theorists for evi-
dence which will prove that Cephallenia is Ithaca, has produced
nothing more convincing, and efforts to find the city of the Phaea-
cians at Cape Kephali in Corfu were also unsuccessful.
Crete. In Crete there were many excavations in progress at the
beginning of the war; at Tylisos (by the Greeks), Hagia Triada,
Phaistos and Gortyna (Italians), Pachyammos and other sites in
eastern Crete (R. B. Seager and the American School). Sir Arthur
Evans conducted supplementary excavations at Cnossos in 1912,
and the British School reexamined the Kamares Cave, where the
typical Middle Minoan polychrome pottery were first found in Crete,
in 1913. During the war only the Greek excavations were continued,
and no foreign work has yet begun again (1921). Tylisos was the
most productive site. Khatzidakis found there three large houses,
each with some twenty rooms and upper storeys, and a unique col-
lection of bronzes, an ingot, some enormous cauldrons, and a statu-
ette of a praying man. This curious figure served to identify a similar
but much finer piece of unknown origin, which had lain for many
years unrecognized in the British Museum. Another new bronze
from Crete had been lately acquired (1921) by an English collector.
It represents a man in the act of turning a somersault over the horns
of a charging bull, a unique rendering of a familiar theme in Minoan
art. Both these pieces were published in the new volume of the
Journal of Hellenic Studies (1921). The Museum of Fine Arts at
Boston also obtained in 1914 a masterpiece surreptitiously excavated
and smuggled out of Crete, an exquisite gold and ivory statuette
of the snake goddess or her votary.
The Kamares Cave was found to be a sanctuary, not a dwelling,
but the offerings consisted almost entirely of pottery of M.M. styles,
and there were no specifically votive objects such as other cave
sanctuaries have contained. The Italians at H. Triada in 1913 found
a portico bordering a courtyard of the palace, a large deposit of
inscribed clay tablets, and a well-preserved L.M. III. shrine. Two
beehive tombs, said to be Early Minoan, were found near Phaistos.
They had been plundered and were destroyed to within a metre of
the ground, but still contained some pottery and stone vases, bronze
blades, seals, and ivory fragments. At Gortyna the first pre-
historic finds of neolithic and Minoan periods were made in 1913.
The other discoveries on this site have been nearly all of Roman date.
The so-called Odeum, a circular building in which the famous code
was found, was completely cleared in 1912, and five small fragments
of the inscription were recovered.
Minoan finds were made on several lesser sites: at Plati in the
Lasithi Plain in 1914, houses and burials; in eastern Crete at
Sphoungaras in 1912, and at Pachyammos in 1914, E.M. to L.M.
cemeteries with numerous pithos burials, at Damania, in 1915, an
L.M. III. tomb of rectangular plan with converging walls closed at
the top by a single course of stones. At Gournes, near Cnossos, in
1914 an E.M. cemetery containing hand-made vases of strange
fabric was opened by Khatzidakis, who also found in 1911 fragments
of bucchero cups, in a cave sanctuary at Arkalpkhori near Lyttos.
Similar'grey pottery was found by Xanthondidis in a large E.M.
tomb at Pyrgo in 1918. Seager's brilliant discoveries at Mokhlos
were published (with coloured plates of the Early Minoan stone
vases) in 1912.
" GEOMETRIC " PERIOD
Remains of the still problematic transitional period of the
Early Iron Age were found in Crete at Atsipada in 1912, and
in a settlement at Vrokastro in 1912-3 (R. B. Seager and E.
M. Hall). Several sites of the Early Iron Age have also been
excavated in Greece, but nothing has been found to prove the
origin of the " Geometric " culture, though accumulating evi-
dence still indicates a northern source.
A Geometric cemetery was dug by the Germans at Tiryns, and
their finds have been accurately published (1912). Some graves
were opened at Eretria in Euboea in 1915. More important are the
remains of buildings of this period. A temple built of sun-dried
brick and timber has been found at Thebes underlying an archaic
temple of Ismenian Apollo and standing on Mycenaean tombs
(Keramopoullos, 1916), and a more extensive settlement was found
at Thermon in Aetolia (Romaics, 191 1-3). This lies similarly under-
neath an archaic Greek temple of Apollo, which was built apparently
in the 7th century to replace the " Geometric " temple, an elliptical
structure with an exterior ring of columns. Smaller elliptical houses
were found near by, with geometric potsherds, bronzes, and a few
iron weapons. Below again are Mycenaean and pre-Mycenaean
settlements, with houses built of sticks and mud. The value of the
site is its continuity from prehistoric to Hellenic times. The strati-
fication is said to be like that of the settlements at Olympia, but
undisturbed.
Halos was added to the number of Early Iron Age sites in Thessaly
in 1912 (Wace and Thompson). A tumulus and cist graves were dug
containing weapons, fibulae, and pottery of sub-Mycenaean type like
that previously found at Theotoku. In Macedonia during the war
some finds of the same period were made by British troops on mounds
in the Vardar valley, and a cemetery was opened by the Y.M.C.A.
at Chauchitsa (Causica) near Lake Doiran. These graves have been
further examined since the war, and have yielded material which is
said to connect with Thessaly and Hallstatt (S. Casson, 1921).
Some bronzes from Chauchitsa are in the Royal Scottish Museum at
Edinburgh.
CLASSICAL PERIOD
Recent excavations of classical sites in Greece proper have
been of minor importance. At Argos, A. Vollgraff continued
his researches, but found little besides inscriptions. These
are always the most numerous finds on classical Greek sites,
and their importance is mainly historical. New inscriptions
and the general progress of Greek epigraphy have been
minutely recorded from year to year by M. N. Tod in the
Journal of Hellenic Studies.
182
ARCHAEOLOGY
Greece. There has been most archaeological activity at Athens,
where its results have been mainly topographical. The cemetery of
Kerameikos outside the Dipylon Gate was being extensively ex-
cavated and restored, so far as possible, to its original 5th-century
appearance by the German Institute in 1914. Ostraka inscribed with
familiar political names were found in the course of the work. An
examination of the Pnyx in 1911 showed that the supporting wall
is no earlier than the 4th century. A search for the Odeion of Pericles
on the south-east slope of the Acropolis was inconclusive. Some
pieces of sculpture were found here, among them fragments of the
Parthenon and a singular relief of Asclepius with a kneeling woman
suppliant. Sculpture was also found in excavating the Stoa of the
Giants and the Roman agora. A cemetery at Phaleron dating from
the 7th century was examined. A curious find was a grave containing
burials of eighteen men fettered with iron collars and shackles. At
Sunium the west end, pediment, and roof of the temple of Poseidon
was rebuilt with excavated fragments. A circular building identified
(by Svoronos) as the Attic niint in the Peloponnesian War, was
cleared, and a fine archaic relief of an ephebe crowning himself was
discovered. A hoard of about 1,600 silver coins, found at Carditsa in
1914, was acquired by the National Museum of Athens. The coins
are chiefly Theban, of all dates down to 315 B.C. There are about
loo archaic Aeginetan staters, and some other rare coins.
The important excavations of the American School at prehistoric
sites near Corinth have been mentioned. Work in the city had not
been resumed after the war up to 1921 ; the last finds in 1914 were
two colossal portrait statues of members of the Julio-Claudian
family, perhaps Gaius and Lucius Caesar. The reexamination of
Delphi by the French School was still going on in 1921, but on a small
scale, while the publication of the first discoveries, made in 1892, was
still unfinished. Among other details, the interior arrangements of
the temple were studied, and it was established that there was no
natural cave, but an artificial recess in the sanctuary, of which the
walls still remain. The excavator also claimed to have found the
omphalos itself. The pediment sculptures were reconsidered with
fresh fragments and a better knowledge of the tympanon, an3 a new
restoration of the eastern group has been proposed (F. Courby,
1914). A popular but scholarly account of Delphi was translated
into English from the Danish of F. Poulsen in 1920.
Halae in Locris was dug by Americans in 1911. The cemetery,
extending from archaic Greek to Roman times, and the acropolis
were explored. The sanctuary of Apollo Corynthos at Longas was
excavated in 1911. Five temples were found, and, among small
objects, a number of bronzes. Material for reconstructing the
megaron or Hearth of Despoina was found at Lycosura. The monu-
ment was an open-air altar, a terrace with portico, dated about 200
B.C. Many votive terra-cotta statuettes were obtained, the com-
monest being the figure of a sheep dressed as a woman, erect with a
basket on its head, no doubt a ceremonial costume of worshippers.
In the Roman city of Nikopolis the temple built by Octavian to
Mars and Neptune, in commemoration of the battle of Actium, was
excavated in 1912, and fragments of its structure were recovered.
Further examination of towers in the town wall of Pagasae (or
Demetrias) led to the discovery of many more painted grave-
stones, like those first found in 1907. The town was explored in
19,12, and the cemetery from which the stelae came was found. The
graves are mostly of the 3rd century B.C. At Tanagra a large series
of graves was opened by the Greek authorities in 191 1, but the finds,
though numerous, were poor. There were more than a hundred
terra-cotta statuettes, but none of fine quality.
Thessaly and Macedonia.. Thessaly has been consistently studied
by Arbamtopoullos in his capacity as Ephor of Antiquities and as a
soldier in the Balkan wars (1912-3). The new territory here and in
Macedonia was surveyed as soon as acquired, and a central museum
for Thessaly was established in the former Turkish custom-house
at Elassona before the cessation of hostilities. The sites of Pella
and Dion were examined by the Greeks, and the French began to
excavate the necropolis and theatre of Philippi in 1914. In the next
war, the landing of the Allied forces at Salonica led to some ar-
chaeological discoveries in the occupied territory. Reports of the work
of British and French troops were published in the Annual of the
British School at Athens in 1919. The results were scanty, as would
be expected during a military campaign. Prehistoric sites were
located on the characteristic mounds of the country, and some were
superficially excavated; but most finds were accidental and un-
recorded, and many were dispersed and lost. The antiquities col-
lected at the headquarters of the British Salonica force were pre-
sented to the nation by the Greek Government, and are now in the
British Museum. Shortly before the war a double-chamber tomb
was excavated in a tumulus at Langaza. This is the best example
of the Macedonian tumulus-tombs, which seem all to be of I lellenistic
date. One was excavated by the French in the town of Salonica, and
another by the British on the Monastir road in 1919. The Langaza
tomb had unusually elaborate architectural ornaments and two
pairs of doors, one of wood, the other of marble. The doors were
removed to the Ottoman Museum at Constantinople. A series of
papers dealing with the little-known antiquities of Thrace has been
published by G. Seure in the Revue A rcheologique since 1911.
South Russia. The sites of the colonies in South Russia used to
be a copious source of Greek antiquities of all periods, but the supply
has ceased at the present time. From 1911 to 1914 Kerch (Panti-
capaion), Old and New Chersonesos, Tanais, Olbia, a town on the
Is. of Berezan, and a cemetery on the peninsula of Taman were
being excavated. The results were annually reported by A. Pharma-
kovski in the Archaeologischer Anzeiger of the Jahrbuch of the
German Archaeological Institute. The typical objects from South
Russia were jewellery, pottery, terra-cottas, and glass, mostly of
florid Greek style. A remarkable glass bowl with coloured reliefs,
said to be Alexandrian work, was found at Olbia in 1913. A glass
cup with reliefs carved in the blue and white technique of the Port-
land Vase, representing a pastoral sacrifice, which was sold by auc-
tion in Paris in 1912 for 64,000 francs, was said to have come from
Heraclea Pontica. The most valuable historical material from the
Pontic colonies is archaic Ionian pottery from Berezan. An unusual
find was a Scythian royal grave in a tumulus at Solokha, in 1913.
The burial was richly furnished with barbaric jewellery, a gold comb,
a bow-case and some vases decorated with Graeco-Scythian reliefs.
A welcome work on Scythians and Greeks, interpreting material
which has long lain inaccessible in Russian books and periodicals,
was published by E. H. Minns, in 1913.
Greek Islands. Among the Greek islands Corfu has produced the
most notable find. At Goritsa, the ancient Corcyra, in 1911, the
Greek Archaeological Society discovered an early archaic temple of
Artemis, the excavation of which was continued until 1914 by
Doerpfeld at the expense of the former Emperor of Germany. The
striking feature of the building is the sculpture of the west pediment,
carved in high relief on limestone slabs. The subjects are, between
two panthers, a central group of a gigantic Medusa with her two
diminutive children, Pegasus and Chrysaor, and corner groups of
apparently unconnected battle scenes. A large altar stood before
the west front. The small Ionic temple at Kardaki in Corfu was
recleared in 1912. The French have made good progress in their
work at Delos, where the town site is now said to be a Hellenistic
Pompeii, its houses still preserving their mosaic floors and fresco-
painted walls. When Mytilene was recovered by the Greeks it was
proposed to establish there a central museum for the Aegean islands,
except Thasos, and the removal of antiquities was in progress
in 1913. The Italian occupation of Rhodes put an end to the im-
portant work of the Carlsberg Expedition, and caused the loss of
much of the material which had been collected at Lindos by the
Danes, but the valuable finds from the archaic town and cemetery
at Vroulia were fortunately recorded by K. F. Kinch before their
dispersal, and were published in 1914. Greek efforts to recover the
Dodecanese led to the publication of a lavishly illustrated book
describing the Hellenic antiquities of Rhodes, for the information
of the Peace Conference. The Germans began to excavate the
great temple of Hera at Samos in 1910. This was a stone building
with outer columns of marble, not in the Doric style, as Vitruvius
said. It was begun in the 6th century B.C. and never finished.
Considerable work was done in Thasos by the French School in
1910 and later. Five gates of the city wall were cleared. They were
decorated with archaic reliefs, some of which were previously known.
Other important finds were seven statues of women from a sanctuary
of Artemis Polo, a temple and altar of Apollo Pythius, decorative
terra-cottas from an archaic Prytaneion, a cemetery with carved
and painted tombstones, and remains of a triumphal arch of Caracalla.
Asia Minor. Political conditions in Asia Minor still prevented
up to 1921 the reopening of the great city sites. During the war some
show of general work was made by members of the German Archae-
ological Commission with the Turkish forces, but this came to
little more than notes on the preservation or destruction of well-
known monuments. The French had lately renewed their arrange-
ments for the excavation of Colophon, but no results had been ob-
tained up to 1921 on the site. Very little was done in 1913-4; the
" temple of Apollo Clarius " was found to be an exedra and a propy-
laea, and an oracular grotto of the god was discovered in the hills.
It contained potsherds which are said to range from " Troy I." to
the Roman period. A small collection of pottery and implements
made by H. A. Ormerod during journeys in Pisidia is a useful addi-
tion to the scanty prehistoric material from Asia Minor, and shows
that the characteristic fabrics of Troy and Yortan extend across the
peninsula to Cyprus. A prehistoric settlement was found on Kilik
Tepe at Miletus. The last excavations at Ephesus, Miletus and
Pergamon produced (besides inscriptions) little more than archi-
tectural remains of Hellenistic and Roman date. A report of the
work done at Ephesus by the Austrian Archaeological Institute since
1909 was issued in 1913. The results of the German excavations at
Miletus after the same year were published in 1911. The enormous
temple at Didymi was cleared and all its columns were found to be
standing to the height of several metres. The excavation of Miletus
was completed in 1914. At Pergamon the Germans cleared two
Hellenistic temples, in one of which a broken statue, identified as a
portrait of Attalus II., was found. Another volume was added to
the lengthy publication of the work at Pergamon.
The most brilliant results in Asia were obtained by American
archaeologists at Sardis. Excavations were begun by the Princeton
Syrian Expedition (H. C. Butler and W. H. Buckler) in 1910, and
were continued actively for five seasons. The city lay between a
mountain (its acropolis) and the river Pactolus, and its site was
marked by two great Ionic columns standing deep in earth. The
ARCHITECTURE
183
excavators began by driving a level platform from the river bank
towards the acropolis on the line of the two columns. They therefore
had to deal with a constantly increasing mass of soil, for the moun-
tain has been washed down to the river in a continuous slope. A
hundred metres from the columns they struck the west end of a
temple, and found that more of the structure was preserved as the
covering of soil became deeper. The temple, which (as inscriptions
show) was dedicated to Artemis, had been half-buried by a landslip
from the acropolis hill in the historic earthquake of 17 A.D. It is
a 4th-century Greek building of rich Ionic style, and was still un-
finished at the time of the earthquake, then cleared and partially
rebuilt, and finally used as a water reservoir in the Byzantine period.
At the west end, to which the two standing columns belong, some of
the other shafts are still preserved to the height of 30 feet. Great
efforts were made to remove the deep deposit of earth from the
surrounding precinct, and the temple now stands in a wide, open
space; but on its east front, where the cut face of the slope is 50 ft.
high, progress was checked by a solid mass of the hill which had come
near to wrecking the building altogether, having finished its slide
less than 100 ft. from the portico. This mass had buried a great
part of the Lydiarr and Greek cities, but on a protected slope some
undisturbed Lydian strata were found. Here the pottery sequence
goes back through sub-Mycenaean wares to simpler geometric and
plain black and grey fabrics. These provide means for classifying
the rich finds from the cemetery which was excavated on the other
bank of the river. The tombs, which are chambers cut in tiers in
the hard clay of the hillside, were used with few exceptions for
repeated burials, and the ejected offerings had been scattered down
the slope. Two tumuli were dug in the necropolis of Bin Tepe with-
out result. Great quantities of jewellery were found in the tombs, the
gold work said to resemble the Etruscan. Especially noteworthy
are numbers of engraved gems in Graeco-Persian (no doubt Lydian)
style. These are all of the highest quality. Many bronze mirrors
were found. The local pottery is marked in form by a conical
base, in technique by a white slip, like the archaic Greek wares of
Asia. Some important sculpture was found, and a large num-
ber of inscriptions, the most valuable being two bilingual texts,
in Lydian-Aramaic and Lydian-Greek. These have not, however,
given the key to the Lydian language, nor do they support the
theory that Etruscan was derived from Lydian. Annual reports
of the excavations were published in the American Journal of
Archaeology.
Africa. Next in importance after Sardis among ancient sites
explored in 1910-20 is the Greek city of Cyrene, also opened by
American enterprise. An expedition, led by R. Norton, made its
way there in 1910, but, owing to organized hostility among the
natives, its first progress was slow and difficult. In 1911 H. F. de
Cou was murdered by hired Arabs, but work was continued until
the end of the first season, and before the second season could
begin, the country was seized by Italians. The coming of this na-
tion here as in Rhodes put an end to the work of others, and the
American excavation has been continued by the Italian Government
on a larger scale and with the protection of a military force. The
principal finds, as in the earlier British search by R. Murdoch Smith
and E. A. Porcher, are Graeco-Roman statues. About twenty had
been found up to 1921, among them Zeus with the aegis, Hermes,
Alexander as a Dioscurus, Eros stringing a bow, three groups of the
Graces, two satyrs, a headless Aphrodite, and a head of Athena
found by the Americans. Most of the sculpture decorated a bath
restored by Hadrian. The Aphrodite, which is thought to be the
finest piece, was removed to the Museo delle Terme in Rome; the
rest are at Bengazi.
Some more pieces of Graeco-Roman sculpture have been recovered
by the French from the sunken ship off Mahdia. The finest bronzes
which had been found before 1910 were published in Monuments
Piot, vols. xvii., xviii. Among the new finds are a head of Athena, a
large statuette of Hermes, and a dog. Archaeological work in Africa
met with little or no interruption during the war, either in French
or Italian territory. Prisoners of war have indeed done scientific
service as labourers on certain sites. But except at Cyrene, the new
material from Africa is Punic or Roman, and not Greek.
Sicily and Italy. In Sicily there has been continuous work on
Greek sites at Camarina, Catania, Messina, and Syracuse; the most
important results were obtained at Syracuse. There the temple of
Athena was excavated by P. Orsi from 1912 to 1917. A pre-Hellenic
settlement was found under the temple, marked by incised and
painted geometric pottery. This was followed by archaic Greek
remains of the early colonists, Asiatic and Protocorinthian pottery,
and some carved ivories. Fragments of the temple included a
series of terra-cotta architectural ornaments. Among Sicilian dis-
coveries must be counted a remarkable archaic statue of a seated
goddess which was in Paris at the outbreak of war, and was soon
afterwards acquired by the Berlin Museum.
Researches in South Italy have produced new evidence of the
foundation and early relations of the Greek colonies. At Caulonia
in 1912 Orsi found prehistoric remains, the Greek city defences, a
Doric temple, houses and a cemetery. Here, as elsewhere in Magna
Graecia, the architectural terra-cpttas are a valuable part of the
finds. The sanctuary of Hera Lacinia at Croton was located in 1912.
E. Gabriel's extensive researches at Cumae were published in 1913.
A temple of Zeus was excavated on a terrace of the acropolis; the
great temple of Apollo crowned the summit of the hill. Here, too,
the date of the earliest remains goes bac <: before the Hellenic settle-
ment, to the nth century B.C. In one of three Greek temples
excavated at Locri were tiles inscribed in Greek with the name of
Clodius Pulcher. A cemetery at Locri yielded large numbers of poor
Greek vases, and some exceptionally fine bronze mirrors.
Etruria. A few mirrors and some Greek vases were found in
Etruria at Vignanello in 1913, and from an Etruscan tomb at Todi
in 1915 there were obtained some bronzes and more than 70 red-
figure vases. The best bronze was a helmet with reliefs on the cheek-
pieces ; the finest vase an Attic kylix signed by Pamphaios. Etruscan
antiquities are receiving closer study, but its first results will prob-
ably tend more to controversy than to agreement. A paper by F.
Weege (in Jahrbuch, 1916) on the two most important series of
paintings at Corneto argues that these were executed in the archaic
style of North Ionia by a Greek artist who had lived among the
Etruscans long enough to understand their national life and spirit.
To Greeks also we shall perhaps attribute the splendid terra-cotta
figures found at Veii in 1916. These had been piously buried near
a Roman road. The best preserved is an archaic Apollo, whose arms
only are missing. Fragments of other figures indicate that the com-
plete work was a group, not for architectural decoration, represent-
ing a contest of Apollo and Heracles about a hind in the presence of
Hermes and Artemis. That the archaic art of Etruria was wholly
Greek it is hard to believe. It is still equally hard to distinguish
Greek work from Etruscan art inspired by Greek models.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Periodicals: (American) American Journal of
Archaeology; Classical Journal; (Austrian) Jahreshefte des Oster-
reichischen Archdologischen Instituts; (British) Annals of Archae-
ology and Anthropology; Annual of the British School at Athens;
Antiquaries Journal; Archaeologia; Journal of Hellenic Studies;
Year's Work in Classical Studies; (French) Bulletin de Carres pondance
Hellenique; Comptes Rendus de l'Acadcmie_ des Inscriptions et Belles-
Leltres; Revue Archcologique; Revue des Etudes Grecques; (German)
Jahrbuch and Athenische Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archdologischen
Instituts; (Greek) 'Apx<"oXoyu-A>' AeXriov, 'A/>x<"oXo7i7 'E<t>ri/j.epis
and npaxTiKa of the Athenian Archaeological Society; (Ital-
ian) Annuario della R. Scuola Archeologica di Atene; Atene e Roma;
Ausonia; Bolleltinp d'Arte; Cronaca di Belle Arti; Monument i Antichi;
Notizie degli Scavi di Antichitct and Rendiconti della R. Accademia del
Lincei. Special Publications, Prehistoric Period : R. B. Seager,
Explorations in the Island of Mochlos (1912); R. M. Burrows, The
Discoveries in Crete (1913); E. H. Hall, Aegean Archaeology (1915);
Excavations in Eastern Crete: Sphoungaras (1912) ; Vrokastro (1914) ;
R. B. Seager, The Cemetery of Pachyammos, Crete (1916); A. J. B.
Wace and M. S. Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly (1912); German
Archaeological Institute, Tiryns, vols. i., ii. (1912) ; Classical Period:
F. H. Marshall, Discovery in Greek Lands (1920) ; Cyrene, Noti-
ziario Archeologico del Ministero delle Colonie (1915) ; Ecole Francaisa
d'Athenes, Exploration Archcologique de Dclos (1911-4); J. Keil,
Ephesos, FiihrerdurchdieRiiinensldtte (1915) ; Austrian Archaeological
Institute, Forschimgen in Ephesos (vol. ii., 1912); Th. Wiegand, f im
Vorldufigen Bericht uber Milet und Didyma (1911); Milet (vol. i.,
parts iii., iv., v., vol. iii., part i., 1913-9); Altertumer von Pergamon
(vol. i., parts i.-iii., 1912-3); F. Kinch, Fouilles de Vroulia, Rhodes
(1914); Sardis (vol. vi., part i.) ; E. Littmann, Lydian Inscriptions,
(vol. xi.); H. W. Bell, Coins (1916); E. H. Minns, Scythians and
Greeks (1913); Th. Wiegand, Wissenschaftliche Veroffentlichungen
des deulsch-tiirkischen Denkmalschutz-Kommandos (1920).
(E. J. F.)
ARCHITECTURE (see 2.369). UNITED KINGDOM. The years
1910-4 were years of great building activity in England.
Money was plentiful and only faint rumblings of the impending
storm of labour troubles were heard. Many of the recently
incorporated municipalities, whose activities were constantly
increasing and were hampered by the inadequacy of the old
borough council offices to accommodate their increasing staffs,
were desirous of obtaining municipal buildings worthy of their
civic dignity. The large commercial firms were meditating
building new offices of ever-increasing splendour, and the
newly enriched, who have always had the ambition to possess
land and become county magnates, were planning palatial
residences for their newly acquired estates. The war put a stop to
all these activities with a suddenness that could hardly have been
contemplated. So many years had elapsed since the last great
European war that its effects had been forgotten. In fact,
opinions were by no means at one as to the effect of war on the
arts generally. On the one hand there is no doubt that in the
ancient and mediaeval monarchies and republics the arts
flourished vigorously during the stirring times when these states
were consolidating their power by conquest, some of their finest
works having been erected as records in stone of victories over
their enemies and their cities having been embellished with
184
ARCHITECTURE
objects of art taken as spoils from the vanquished. On the other
hand it may be argued that a lengthy peace, when man's energies
lack the outlet which war provides, may tend to turn those
energies in quite other directions and cause an outburst of ex-
uberant originality too often mistaken for genius in all the
arts that almost inevitably leads to such a decadence as is
evidenced in " Dada " poetry, futurist and cubist painting and
the bizarre extravagances of the late Baroque style of architecture.
But war as waged by the ancients or in fact down to the end of
the i gth century was a very different thing from what it is now.
In the early part of last century the opinion was growing that
war was in course of being modified, softened and civilized, made
as Leigh Hunt says- a thing of courtesy and consideration.
Now, however, "frightfulness" is the predominating idea in war.
The perfection of modern engineering skill, the enormously
increased calibre and range of modern artillery, the conquest
of the air as a medium for rapid transport and a fierce velocity of
attack never before dreamed of have resulted in a completeness
of material devastation that must be seen to be realized. In
France alone during the World War 250,000 buildings, including
1,500 schools, 1,200 churches and 377 public buildings, were
destroyed so completely that no restoration was possible; while
the enormous cost of modern warfare impoverishes all the
combatants to such an extent that the spoils which used to go
to the victors and be employed in adorning their cities are non-
existent.
These are the direct effects of war on the creative arts of man,
and the indirect effects are no less harmful. The dragging away
from their ordinary peaceful pursuits of all the workers, and the
consequent necessity of restricting the output of everything but
what is needed for carrying on the war, puts a stop to all con-
structive effort of an artistic kind. This restriction continues
afterwards partly through the scarcity of materials and partly
through the demoralization of labour caused by war.
War Buildings. It seems clear therefore that modern war
must have a crippling effect on the arts of peace, especially with
regard to architecture. Statistics show that in the first nine
months of the year 1914 building plans were submitted for ap-
proval to local authorities in England involving an outlay of
12,200,000, whereas in the same period of 1916 the figures were
only 5,870,000, out of which as much as 3,000,000 was for
temporary workshops and factories for war materials. These
buildings, and others of a temporary character for housing the
largely increased staff of Government employees the cost of
which in London alone in the year 1916 was 156,000 were
practically the only structures which the British Government
allowed to be proceeded with during the last three years of the
war. In these temporary buildings celerity in construction was
the great desideratum, the materials used being of a non-
permanent character, such as wood treated with solignum,
uralite and asbestos boarding, variety being obtained by breaking
the line of frontage and varying the sky line by a judicious
alternation of hipped and gabled roofs. In some cases, however,
a more elaborate scheme was adopted, involving a carefully
planned lay-out and variety in the treatment and grouping of
the buildings, which resulted in a picturesque architectural
effect. The most important of these special groups of buildings
carried out by the Government was at Gretna, where was built
the largest explosives factory in the world. Here the factory
proper was in two portions separated by an area within which was
located the accommodation for the operatives during construction
and for the permanent workers. The site chosen for this town-
shipfor such it was providing for about 20,000 inhabitants,
was close to the old Gretna Green village, within easy distance
of two railway stations, the new accommodation roads linking
up with the main road from Carlisle to Glasgow. The buildings
comprised no less than five churches, ten schools, three recreation
halls, hospitals, cinemas, and fire stations in addition to the
houses. The work was carried out under the general direction
of Raymond Unwin, assisted by several other architects, and the
whole scheme reflects great credit on all who were associated
with it.
A similar but smaller building scheme was carried out during
the war at Chepstow, where a site of 28 ac. was acquired for the
employees of Finch & Co.'s engineering and shipbuilding works.
This site offered considerable difficulties in that there was a fall
of 88 ft. from one end to the other, but this irregularity has
resulted in the creation of a very picturesque village. The
houses, which number ten to the acre, are of various sizes
planned to meet the requirements of individual families, the
walls being constructed of two solid 4-in. blocks of concrete
separated by an air cavity of three inches.
Among buildings specially connected with the modern develop-
ments of war may be mentioned those for the construction and
housing of non-rigid airships. At the commencement of the war
Great Britain possessed only six of these buildings, but 61 have
been constructed since. Although of no particular architectural
interest the large size of these buildings renders them worth a
passing notice. Mr. Learmouth states that one of these buildings
covers about 8 ac. in area, is 750 ft. long, 130 ft. in height and
each bay has a clear roof span of 150 feet.
Post-war Housing. One of the most interesting developments
of post-war building on the part of the British Government was in
connexion with land settlement for ex-service men provided for by
the Land Settlement (Facilities) Act of 1919. Up to 1914 the
various county councils had been empowered to raise local loans
for the purpose of providing small holdings under the Small
Holdings and Allotments Act of 1908. This work was suspended
during the war, and after its termination the Ministry of Agri-
culture purchased estates and conducted extensive building
operations all over the country, the settlement at Sutton Bridge
in Lines, being the most important. The work subsequently
devolved on the county councils under the supervision of the
Ministry. Between Jan. 1919 and the spring of 1921 upwards of
13,500 small holdings have been erected in England and Wales,
consisting of a homestead and farm buildings, involving already
an expenditure of over 2,000,000. It was hoped eventually to
accommodate over 30,000 settlers. Local materials are used in
the construction, and these naturally influence their style. There
is naturally not much scope for architectural display, but the
planning and aspect of the rooms always receive careful attention.
The Ministry placed the supervision of this work in the hands of
competent architects under Maj. H. P. Maule.
The cessation of building during the war caused a great short-
age of houses, and a large number of housing schemes were
started under the Housing Act of 1919 (see HOUSING). Garden
cities, garden villages and garden suburbs sprang up in all
directions. One of the most important features in these new
schemes was the limitation of the number of houses to the acre,
only twelve being allowed as a rule in urban and eight in rural
districts. This is a great improvement on the earlier garden
cities, where the close proximity of the houses practically destroys
all privacy. It is impossible however to lay out a site on this
lavish scale in urban districts where slum property has been
demolished and the occupants have to be housed in tenements.
In such cases, with three-storey blocks properly separated from
one another, perfect hygienic conditions can be obtained, with
ample fresh air and sunlight, if there are 60 separate tenements
to the acre. Among the rural housing schemes started after the
war may be mentioned that near Woolwich carried out by H.M.
Office of Works, the Borough of Croydon housing schemes at
Norbury, Woodside and Waddon, the Welwyn Garden City, and
the interesting village at Burhill, near Walton on the Thames,
for aged men and women workers. This was erected in accord-
ance with the provisions of the will of the late William Whiteley,
and comprises a village hall, a church and about 300 cottages.
Sir Aston Webb, Sir Ernest George, Sir R. Blomfield and other
eminent architects collaborated in the scheme.
The urban tenement schemes comprise those at St. Pancras,
which were in course of being carried out in 1921, at Islington
and St. Marylebone. The much increased cost of building made
it very difficult to carry out these schemes on an economic basis.
Churches. The completion of the interior of Bentley's re-
markable Roman Catholic cathedral at Westminster progressed
PLATE III.
ARCHITECTURE
FIG. i. Woolworth Building, New York.
FIG. 2. Lincoln Memorial, Washington.
FIG. 3. Carmelite Convent, Santa Clara, Cal.
FIG. 4. Nebraska State Capitol, Lincoln, Neb.
ARCHITECTURE
185
but slowly during 1910-20. Some of the mosaics of the side
chapels had been finished by 1921, but very little had been done
with the pavements, for which the architect prepared many
beautiful designs worked out with the most meticulous detail
both of form and colour; if these designs are eventually carried
out the marble mosaic floor will not suffer in comparison with
the best of the older examples.
The Liverpool cathedral by G. Gilbert Scott, which was much
delayed during the war, was making fair progress in 1921, and
when completed will be a most interesting example of modern
Gothic, and from its commanding position, it will be a striking
monumental building as seen from the Mersey. That Gothic
still holds its own for ecclesiastical buildings is shown by many
modern churches, of which St. Mark's, Walsall, by the late Temple
Moore, one of the greatest of the modern Gothicists, and a
church at Gretna by Geoffry Lucas, may be taken as types.
Municipal Buildings. Among municipal buildings the enor-
mous London County Hall on the south side of the river was
approaching completion in 1921; the Marylebone town hall by
Cooper and the offices of the Metropolitan Water Board by
Austen Hall had been completed, and the large building for the
Port of London offices occupying a commanding site on Tower
Hill was well advanced.
Commercial. Among recent commercial buildings one of the
most noteworthy is the Cunard building at Liverpool by Willink
and Thicknesse. This is one of three important buildings on one
of the finest sites in England, with wide spaces all round it,
opposite the landing-stage, occupying the position of a small
dock that had been reclaimed from the estuary and was closed
in the year 1900. The Italian Renaissance style was adopted for
this building, the total length of which is 330 ft., and the average
breadth 183 ft., the height above the pavement being 120 feet.
The building is constructed of reinforced concrete faced with
Portland stone rock-faced, heavily rusticated and battered up to
the first-floor level and with dressed portland stone above, the
first and second floors forming a piano nobile. A very heavy
cornice projecting about 7 ft. from the wall face crowns the
building and above this is a screen wall about 10 ft. high. It is a
matter for regret that there is a lack of harmony in the elevations
of the three buildings on this splendid site. Other large commer-
cial London buildings recently completed in 1921 were the
Wolseley Motor Car offices in Piccadilly, by Curtis Green;
Australia House in the Strand, by Marshall Mackenzie & Son;
and the Kodak building in Kingsway, by Sir John Burnet, which
in its unadorned severity is an excellent example of the proper
way to treat a skeleton steel structure.
Street architecture in the business centre of a town offers to
the architect one of the most difficult problems with which he has
to deal. It seems almost impossible to disabuse the mind of the
ordinary large retail tradesman of the idee fixe that the more
space he has for outside show of the articles he deals in, the
better it is for his business. The consequence is that in most
cases the architect has to start his design on the first floor and
to all appearances to carry his structure on a thin plate of glass
on the ground floor. This is of course fatal to good architecture.
Fortunately the idea has been growing though very slowly
that a more artistic and alluring display of goods can be made
if the various articles are framed in panels separated by bold
structural piers of stone. Among the best of recent shop fronts in
London treated architecturally from top to bottom may be
mentioned the Sclfridge building in Oxford Street, and Messrs.
Real's premises in Tottenham Court Road. In these buildings
the supports of the superstructure are carried down through the
ground floor.
The decade 1910-20 saw the commencement of the passing
of the Regent Street which had been familiar to Londoners for
over a hundred years. Whatever may be thought of stucco
design in imitation of stone, there can be no doubt that Nash
achieved a really fine effect in the fagades of this street, which were
dignified, harmonious and free from monotony, and one cannot
repress a feeling of regret to see these old fronts replaced by lofty
new buildings which, whatever their individual merits may be,
do not seem likely to group together so as to give the street an
effect of architectural eongruity.
Factories. The effect of their daily surroundings on the
workers in factories has been the subject of careful attention.
Anyone who knows the majority of the old mills and factories
in the Manchester district, with their tall brick walls and square
windows with no attempt to break their hideous uniformity,
cannot but be impressed with the horribly depressing effect which
these buildings must have upon those who are employed in them.
The planning of factories now demands almost as much care as
the design for a hospital. Ample light, preferably from the north,
is provided and variegated glazed-brick linings are used for the
walls of the work-rooms to break their monotony, the junction
of the walls and floors being rounded off to avoid dust accumulat-
ing. Mess-rooms and changing-rooms are provided and in these
are often placed separate lock-up clothes lockers for each female
worker. Employers have begun to recognize the fact that
expenditure on these refinements is well repaid by a greatly
increased output from the employees.
As another example of the way in which the welfare of em-
ployees is cared for may be instanced a building recently erected
in Gower Street as a hostel for the female employees of a firm of
drapers. Included in this building, which contains about 350
bedrooms, are a lounge, reading-room and library and a large
hall with stage for concerts and amateur theatrical performances.
This marks an interesting new departure in what may be called
domestic commercial buildings.
A considerable amount of discussion has taken place as to the
desirability of removing the restriction laid down by the London
County Council that no building shall be erected of a greater
height than 80 ft. from the pavement, exclusive of two storeys in
the roof, and allowing sky-scrapers on the lines of those in New
York. Granted the existence of an open space of sufficient extent
on all sides, there would be no harm in erecting a building 200 or
250 ft. high, but unfortunately where high buildings are most
urgently required is in the congested area of. the city and here
their erection would result in a complete overshadowing of the
lower buildings, which would entirely destroy their amenities and
practically render them unusable except by artificial light. Any
general relaxation of the restrictions is to be deprecated, but in
exceptional positions there is no doubt that the rules might be
modified with advantage.
Domestic. Domestic architecture, in which England has
always excelled, came almost to a standstill during 1910-20,
mainly owing to the enormous cost of building. Among recent
examples may be mentioned Heath Lodge, Headley Common, by
Dawber; a very picturesque house in Avenue Road, St. John's
Wood, by Baillie Scott; a house near Goring, a typical example of
Ernest Newton's refined work; and a house at Shotton Mill,
Surrey, by E. J. May.
Memorials. War memorials are of various kinds; isolated mon-
uments such as crosses and obelisks; shrines or chantry chapels
added to a church; mural tablets; and occasionally what may
be called a utilitarian building erected as a memorial but only
indirectly associated with those whose deaths are memorialized.
The number of these erected all over the United Kingdom as well
as in France and Belgium is so great that it is impossible to
mention more than a few. Among the isolated monuments the
first place must be given to Lutyens's Cenotaph in Whitehall,
which, for dignity and simplicity combined, cannot easily be
surpassed; the all-India memorial at Delhi (see DELHI) by the
same architect will be one of the most important features of the
new capital of India. Sir R. Blomfield has designed a number of
memorial crosses, of which it may be said that the bigger the
scale on which they are executed the better is their effect. A
very graceful example of a memorial cross is one at King's
Lynn by O. P. Milne which stands on a large pedestal on the
sides of which are engraved in panels the names of those who fell
in the war.
The War Memorial Chapel in Ely cathedral by Dawber; the
memorial screen and organ designed for Merton College chapel,
Oxford, by Sir R. Lorimer, which shows the Gothic tradition still
i86
ARCHITECTURE
surviving; the Memorial Gateway at Radley College by Sir
T. G. Jackson; the Lifford Memorial Hall at Broadway, the
Marlborough College Memorial Hall by Ernest Newton & Sons
and the Kitchener Memorial Chapel in St. Paul's cathedral may
be instanced as good examples of other types.
Mural tablets do not call for much remark; the chief things to
be aimed at in these are good lettering and judicious spacing,
many of these tablets being far too crowded. An ornate example
of these in cast bronze enriched with precious stones is the
Regimental War Memorial to the King's Own Yorkshire Light
Infantry in York minster by Voysey.
Architectural Education. A generation ago no systematized
scheme of architectural training existed in England. In Paris an
Academy of Architecture was established as long ago as 1671, and
there can be little doubt that the excellence of the public build-
ings all over France in the iSth century was largely due to the
supervision which that academy exercised over the training
of young architects. The foundation of the Ecole des Beaux Arts
in the beginning of the igth century carried on the work of the
academy, and the institution of the Grand Prix de Rome
the blue ribbon of the architectural student, the training for
which is spread over from ten to fourteen years and the gaining
of which ensured official recognition offered an incentive to
hard work and study which had most beneficial results. In Great
Britain until the establishment by the Royal Institute of British
Architects in 1887 under Royal Charter of a compulsory exam-
ination for all who wished to become members of that body, archi-
tectural education was of the most haphazard kind. The new
charter empowered the institute to grant certificates and diplo-
mas to those who passed its examinations, and although this pol-
icy met with some opposition at first, there can be no doubt that
it laid the foundation for systematized architectural education,
the full effect of which has only been realized during the last
decade. This has been brought about by the increase in the
numbers of provincial universities unhampered by old traditions.
These bodies, following the lead of similar institutions in the
United States, have all recognized the fact that architecture,
which is both an art and a science, may fitly be included in the
subjects of study for a university degree. In addition to the
universities several technical colleges have instituted courses of
study in architecture, and there were in 1921 ; n the United King-
dom ten schools of architecture which were recognized by the
Royal Institute and whose certificates exempt those students
who gain them from its examinations. These schools are the
Architectural Association, London; the universities of London,
Liverpool, Sheffield, and Manchester; the Robert Gordon Tech-
nical College, Aberdeen; the Technical College, Cardiff; the
Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh; and the Glasgow School of
Architecture. The university of Cambridge has established a
school of architectural studies, but the examination in the sub-
jects comprised in the school curriculum is not associated at
present with any diploma; the R.I.B.A., however, exempts
certificated students from a certain part of its' obligatory
examinations.
In Liverpool a special degree in architecture (B. Arch.) has
been instituted, but the other universities named include
architecture as one of the subjects for an Arts degree. The
Liverpool course which may be taken as a typical one extends
over five years and comprises design in accordance with the
methods of the Ecole des Beaux Arts; the history of architecture;
physics; geology; sanitation and hygiene; building construction
and strength of materials as demonstrated in laboratory tests;
specifications, etc. Similar courses slightly varying in detail are
given at the other schools. In the university of London (Univer-
sity College) a separate professorship of town planning has been
instituted. The Architectural Association, London which was
really the pioneer in architectural education in this country has
a very comprehensive course under a complete staff of lecturers,
and the studios and class-rooms in its new premises in Bedford
Square are admirably equipped.
All these courses enable the young architect to acquire not only
facility in design, but also the special technical knowledge now
required in consequence of the development of steel construction,
and the fact that so many engineering problems are involved in
the erection of any large building; and as all the degree courses
involve the passing of a matriculation examination which en-
sures that the student has first obtained a good general educa-
tion, one may confidently hope that the reproach so often
levelled against architects of a lack of scholarly training is in a
fair way of being removed.
Architectural Research. No record of recent architectural
developments would be complete without reference to the
researches of Mr. Jay Hambidge of New York on the scale of
proportion adopted by the Greeks in the design of their most
celebrated temples. These must have been designed on some
plan, but hitherto all attempts to discover any relation between
length and breadth or between the size of the Cella and the whole
temple had failed. Mr. Hambidge claims to have established the
fact that whereas down to the first quarter of the 6th century
B.C. Greek craftsmen used a unit of measurement in which
commensurability of line was an essential feature; subsequently
a new proportion came into use based on commensurability of
area; and this he calls " dynamic " symmetry as opposed to
static; in other words geometric and not arithmetic proportion.
There is always a danger of a pet theory becoming a sort of
Procrustes bed to which facts have to be strained to fit, but Mr.
Hambidge has certainly taken great pains to avoid this by having
numerous measurements taken independently and checked.
Mr. Hambidgo's theory may be described briefly as follows:
The diagonal of a right-angled triangle of which one side is unity
and the other 2 is Vs, or 2-236.
d
FIG. i
q
(- f-OU ->
- O S'T
,- O-69I ->
g f
<- --^.2-138
FIG. 2
In fig. I a b = l, and b c 2, so that a c Vs; if we make a d = a c
and af=l and complete the rectangle a d e /, this will be a V5
rectangle made up of a square d g, and two rectangles g k and kj,
each of which is V =0-618. Mr. Hambidge maintains that
in the Temple of Apollo at Bassae designed by Ictinus the propor-
tions are based on this rectangle and its multiples and submulti-
plcs. In the case of the Parthenon a more elaborate basis is adopted ;
in fig. 2 abed is a V 5 rectangle and if its long side be taken as
unity the short side will be 0-447. If to a (i the long side of this rec-
tangle we apply a square the side of which is I we get a rectangle
e b cf of which one side = I and the other 1-447. The reciprocal
of this latter figure is
1-447
= 0-691 ; and if we apply to e/a rec-
tangle f eh g the area of which is 0-691 we shall obtain a large
rectangle h b c g the area of which is 2-138, which comprises a rec-
tangle e b cf whose area is 1-447 and a smaller one e f g h of area
0-691. This last rectangle is in all respects similar to e b c f and if
g PSf then / g p q will be a square and h e p q a Vs rectangle.
Now whatever we may think of this somewhat elaborate basis of
measurement it is remarkable in how many cases the ratios con-
nected with the figures 2-138, 1-447 and 0-691 fit within very small
fractions actual measurements of the Parthenon, which, as well as
the temple at Bassae, was designed by Ictinus. For example the
actual breadth over all of the base of the Parthenon according to
Penrose is 111,341 ft. and this figure multiplied by 2-1382 gives
238-069 as the length, the actual measurement so far as can now
be ascertained being 238-154, a variation of less than one inch.
Mr. Hambidge has applied this theory to Greek statues and
vases with as he claims the same results. Those who are inter-
ested in the subject may be referred to two papers read before the
Royal Institute of British Architects on March 30 1920 and March 5
1921.
The prospect for architectural development in the immediate
future was not altogether a bright one in 1921. Although many
building schemes both in London and the Provinces were ripe
for carrying out, they were kept in abeyance owing to the
enormous cost of building and uncertainty as to the action of
Labour. Also official architecture was spreading. Large Govern-
ARCHITECTURE
187
ment departments, which used to invite competitive designs for
their new buildings with excellent results, were increasingly
tending to prepare their own designs. This must lead to a
stereotyped style and is not in the best interests of architecture
or architects. Design as far as plan is concerned has un-
doubtedly improved immensely, but as to the style which will
be adopted for future buildings prophecy would be rash. In
1830 Quartermere de Quincy, in the preface to his Biographic dcs
plus celebres Architectes, uses these words: " Comme nous ne
reconnaissons de veritable art d' architecture que celui qui . . .
a du son origine, ses progres, ses principes, ses lois, sa theorie et
sa pratique aux Grecs . . . nous devons prevenir qu'on ne trouvcra
dans notre recueil aucune notion d'aucun ouvrage du genre appele
Gothique.'-' This seems typical of much modern criticism. The
author was surrounded by some of the most beautiful examples
of mediaeval art, but ignored them utterly, and yet 25 years
later the Gothic revival was in full swing. In 1900 Penrose said
that it was impossible to find any one who took the slightest
interest in Greek architecture, yet a few years later Neo-Grec
and a bastard sort of classic was all the rage in England, while in
America many of the finest new buildings are in the purest classic
style. Now a free renaissance is in vogue, but how long it will
last and what will be its developments no one can tell. The hope
is that the complication of modern requirements and the exigen-
cies of modern construction combined with wider knowledge and
closer study of ancient examples may lead to the working-out
of the great main principles which underlie all the old styles,
so as to adapt them to modern necessities without slavish
copying of their forms and features. (J. SL.)
UNITED STATES
The Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia (1876) had revealed
to a somewhat self-centred and self-satisfied United States the
flagrant grossness of its current architecture; the Chicago World's
Fair (1893) less than 20 years later disclosed both the possibilities
of architecture and the capacity of a new generation of architects.
Its influence was widespread so far as the public was concerned,
and gave architects themselves new ideals and greater confidence.
From 1890 to 1900 the architectural product of the United States
was vast in bulk and high in quality. The American Institute
of Architects (founded in 1857) broadened its scope and in-
fluence, while schools of architecture associated with universities
and technical institutes offered wide opportunities for architec-
tural education. The results were evident in the first decade of
the 2oth century. The Boston Public Library and the Rhode
Island State Capitol of McKim, Mead and White were the
forerunners and inspiration of many other structures of similar
nature and quality, the New York Public Library of Carrere and
Hastings and the Minnesota State Capitol of Cass Gilbert being
the most notable. In the same category must be ranked many of
the club houses of New York, notably the Union and University,
as well as sumptuous residences in the larger cities and summer
resorts. The Gothic revival, largely determined by Henry Vaughn
and Cram, Goodhue and Ferguson, was meanwhile taking to
itself practically the whole field of church building and the larger
part of college architecture. Beginning with the Episcopal
Church, the adoption of Gothic of some English type (usually
Perpendicular) extended throughout the Protestant denomina-
tions until within 20 years Presbyterians, Congregationalists
and Unitarians were also erecting consistent and magnificent
Gothic churches. From the work of Cope and Stewardson at
Princeton University the same influence spread through the
institutions of higher learning, until Tudor or " Collegiate
Gothic," as it is called, usurped almost the whole field, though
the " McKim Classic " of Columbia and the revived Colonial of
Harvard and many of the smaller colleges and schools still
maintained themselves as potent forces and in the latter cases a
growing force. The rivalry of Classic and Gothic played little
part in the two fields of work where American architecture
achieved its most vital and original results, the " sky-scraper "
and the private house. Steel and reinforced concrete are, as
structural elements in buildings, essentially American. Used at
first as substitutes or hidden devices clothed with traditional
architectural forms, they subsequently developed and established
what may be called a " steel frame style." Many daring ex-
ponents led the way, including Cass Gilbert, who in the Wool-
worth Building produced a masterpiece. All the great cities
(except Boston which prohibits " sky-scrapers ") possess many
examples of this brilliant and original work, and in New York
in particular there is an extraordinary display of towers.
By 1920, however, there were signs that the vogue of 5o-storey
buildings was passing, and probably would take its place in
history as a brief but sensational episode that brought out some
of the most daring exploits, and gave play to the most exuberant
fancy, in the architectural record. At the opposite pole stood the
domestic architecture of the zoth century. Between 1850 and
1880 this had fallen to the lowest depths, and the influence of
H. H. Richardson, distorted after his death by incompetent
imitators, was deplorable. Fortunately there came a sudden
return to the Colonial models of the i8th century, together with
a new study of the domestic buildings of England of the 1 5th and
i6th centuries; and though at first the adaptations were crude
and unintelligent, the improvement was rapid, and an extraordi-
nary level of excellence was achieved. No one exerted a wider
influence in this direction than Charles A. Platt. So vast was the
architectural product of the United States during the first 1 5
years of the century, that it would be impossible to catalogue the
examples of the highest excellence. Among the more distin-
guished public buildings, in addition to those noted, should be
included Henry Bacon's masterly Lincoln Memorial in Washing-
ton and B. G. Goodhue's revolutionary design for the Nebraska
Capitol. In this field, however, politics were apt to enter with
disastrous effects, as for example in the Pennsylvania Capitol.
In the work of the national Government there was a serious
retrogression during 1910-20, and Government architecture was
in grave danger of slipping back to the deplorably low level of the
20 years following the Civil War. Where the political element
was eliminated, public architecture achieved a high standard,
particularly noticeable in art galleries, libraries and museums.
Amongst the first were the Buffalo gallery by Green and Wicks,
that at Minneapolis by McKim, Mead and White, and that at
Boston by Guy Lowell. One of the most admirable of recent
libraries was in Indianapolis, the work of Paul Cret and Zant-
zinger, Borie and Medary, associate architects, while the Pan-
American Building in Washington, by Albert Kelsey and Paul
Cret, was an unusual example of vital and personal design. Close-
ly allied were many fine club houses such as the Grand Army Hall
in Pittsburgh by Henry Hornbostel, and the Masonic Temple of
the Scottish Rite in Washington by John Russell Pope, a building
of strikingly noble proportions and majesty of design. In all
these buildings classical motives were general, but they were
handled with suppleness and originality. Such structures as
the Indianapolis library and the Scottish Rite Temple in Wash-
ington, D.C., evinced a vital and creative art. Many buildings for
universities and colleges, and for schools both public and private,
showed equal freedom based on penetrating knowledge of prec-
edents, though the models were almost exclusively English
Tudor or American Colonial. Cope and Stewardson initiated the
vogue of the former at Princeton, continuing it at Bryn Mawr,
Pa., and at Washington University, St. Louis, and it swept over
the whole eastern part of the country. Cram, Goodhue, and
Ferguson took up the line of development in the vast, fortress-like
U.S. Military Academy at West Point and continued it at Prince-
ton in the Graduate College, as well as in other educational in-
stitutions, north and south. Day and Klauder gave it new force
in the Sage dormitories and freshman dining halls at Princeton,
in the new buildings at Cornell University, and at Wellesley
College, while James Gamble Rogers contributed the most
magnificent exposition of the style in the enormous quadrangle
nearing completion in 1920 at Yale. Colonial work achieved
notable results at Harvard in the shape of new dormitories by
Coolidge and Shattuck, but it was more prevalent in the smaller
colleges and preparatory schools, as for instance, Williams Col-
lege and Phillips Academy, Exeter, where the architects worked
i88
ARCHITECTURE
along English Georgian lines in the one case, New England
Colonial in the other. With the recovery of the delicate pro-
portions and grave simplicity of the early American style, quite
distinct in character from contemporary work in England, this
style became almost fixed as the standard type for the eastern
states, in public and private schools, a result in great measure due
to the influence of E. M. Wheelwright. In the Middle West the
Tudor motive, popularized by W. B. Ittner in many public
schools, held the field; in the south and on the Pacific coast the
early style of the Franciscan missions, sometimes touched by
Italian influence, was admirably adapted to modern and local
conditions by such architects as the Allisons of Los Angeles;
while in Texas, Rice Institute was being worked out by Cram
& Ferguson in a curious style with no particular prototype but
epitomizing a dozen Mediterranean impulses, the principal
effects being attained by combination of coloured marbles and
iridescent tiles.
Church building during the period 1910-20 was exceedingly
active. Cathedrals, both Roman Catholic and Episcopal, some
rivalling in size those of France and England, Were building in
many places. Amongst the former were the great Byzantine
cathedral of St. Louis, Barnett, Haynes and Barnett architects,
and that in St. Paul by Paul Masqueray. The Episcopal cathe-
dral, still under way in 1921 in Washington, an immense struc-
ture in Decorated Gothic, was designed from the plans which were
made by the late George F. Bodley of London, and Henry
Vaughn. B. G. Goodhue's Baltimore cathedral promised to be
an original and vivid adaptation of English Gothic, while the
cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York must, when com-
pleted, take rank as the third in size of the cathedrals of the
world. Begun in 1891 by Heins and La Farge in a modified
Romanesque, it was continued by. other architects in an adapta-
tion of the French Gothic of the i3th century, though diverging
widely from the standard type. The latter architects also built
the bishop's palace, deanery and synod house for the same see,
as well as the cathedral in Detroit. The parish churches, both
Roman Catholic and Episcopal, were many and generally of high
order; it is doubtful if anywhere a loftier standard had been
attained. Roman Catholic architecture in the United States,
until after 1900, was of a debased quality, even worse perhaps
than that of the Protestant denominations. By 1920 such work
as that of Maginnis and Walsh in St. Catherine's, Somerville,
Mass.; the convent of Notre Dame in Boston, and that of the
Carmelites in California; and John T. Comes' churches of St.
Agnes, Cleveland, St. Mary's, McKeesport, Pa., and St. Moni-
ca's, Rochester, N.Y.; also St. Agnes', Pittsburgh, Pa., restored
the balance, a result due almost wholly to these architects. An
example of Catholic architecture at its best was B. G. Goodhue's
Dominican Church of St. Vincent Ferrer in New York. As for
the Episcopal church, St. Thomas's and the Church of the
Intercession in New York, both designed by Cram, Goodhue &
Ferguson, were indicative of the advance made in the 10 years
ending with 1920 toward developing a style which should at the
same time preserve the best traditions of Christian art and be
mobile in its adaptability to modern times and conditions. Apart
from the Christian Scientists, who built widely during the same
period and usually in a form of Classic closely allied with that of
the standard type of Carnegie library, the Protestant trend has
been largely towards Gothic of one sort or another. More and
more the new work approached the standards, methods and
forms of Catholic art, as for example in Allen and Collens's Con-
gregational church in Newton and the Fourth Presbyterian
church in Chicago by Cram, Goodhue and Ferguson and Howard
Shaw. Occasionally remarkable re-creations of Colonial work
were achieved, chiefly for Congregationalists and Unitarians.
The Baptists, Methodists and Lutherans showed only sporad-
ically an inclination towards higher standards, and in the south
and south-west decidedly infer-ior structures were still produced.
The Swedenborgians always stood for high architectural ideals and
were well served during his lifetime by Prof. Langford Warren.
They built at Bryn Athyn, Pa., a " cathedral " which was
closely modelled on the lines of the richest type of a large English
parish church of the early isth century. Here for the first time
in America the architects (Cram and Ferguson) undertook to
put into practice the old " guild " methods of building of the
Middle Ages.
With its vast area, its widely varying climatic conditions, its
many racial strains, and its groups of independent traditions, the
United States has produced as varied an assortment of domestic
architecture as might have been expected. Some of the notable
palaces of New York and the fine villas set in beautiful gardens
and parks in attractive country areas rival the most splendid
examples of the Italian, French or English Renaissance, not only
in their architecture but in their priceless collections of art of
every kind. It is in the more modest dwellings of those not in the
multi-millionaire class that recent architecture has scored its
greatest triumph. American architects have always been adepts
at planning, and American inventors ingenious in devising, new
conveniences and luxuries of domestic life. Now that the stand-
ard of style has been established and steadily maintained, it may
be claimed that the American dwelling equals if it does not sur-
pass all its competitors. The most notable schools of this period
were those of Philadelphia, the Middle West, New England and
the Pacific coast. The first was initiated by Wilson Ayre, Frank
Miles Day and Cope and Stewardson, of whom only the first was
alive and working in 1920. But they were followed by a large
group of younger men, and the results were striking in originality,
consistency and taste. With the local Colonial style as a basis,
something was added from the best modern English revival of
Tudor architecture, something from the subtle Georgian of Mr.
Platt, something from the Italianesque of Mr. McKim, though
the dominant note still remained essentially Pennsylvania!!.
Colour, detail, texture all played their part in a romantic yet
honest expression of domesticity, and so universal was its accept-
ance that even the speculative builder employed the best ex-
ponents of this style to develop whole communities along con-
sistent lines. It would be impossible to name all the men who
created this significant expression of the best in modern American
domestic architecture, but Robert McGoodwin, together with
Mellor, Meigs and Howe, Willing and Sims, Edward Gilchrist,
and Duhring, Okie and Ziegler, may be mentioned. In the Middle
West, there were two tendencies, one with a mathematical basis,
the other almost purely poetic. The first seems to have been
started by Louis Sullivan, with his strange and vivid motifs in
geometrical decoration. Frank Lloyd Wright continued and
developed this along extraordinary lines with an exaggeration
of horizontal elements that seem to have grown out of decorative
forms rather than from material requirements. Claude Bragdon
and Pond & Pond also contributed to this movement. The other
tendency in the Middle West was best represented by Howard
Shaw, and was marked by pure beauty, both in form and detail,
measurably Italian yet adapted to local conditions. The New
England school was primarily Colonial, for it was in New England
that the greatest quantity of this early type of work had been
preserved. Its recovery and reconstruction were initiated by
Arthur Little, but as in the case of Philadelphia, many younger
architects, such as Bigelow and Wadsworth, continued the process.
Generically allied with New England was New York, which had
many masters of domestic design, if no clearly defined school.
Perhaps the most brilliant work, because the most direct, delicate
and intrinsically beautiful, was that of Delano and Aldrich, John
Russell Pope, and Trowbridge and Ackerman. The school, or
schools, of the Pacific coast were at the same time the most
baffling and the most stimulating, for strange influences crept in
from across the Pacific, mingling with the Spanish traditions of
the southern border and yielding alluring results. During the
10 years ending with 1920 the coasts and mountain valleys of
southern California blossomed into Persian, Italian and Spanish
gardens set with architecture that is so pictorial as to be almost
sensational in its appeal, yet with few exceptions it is natural and
even naive. The foundations were laid by Willis Polk, Myron
Hunt, Elmer Gray and John Galen Howard, but to them have
been added many of a younger generation, especially the Allisons,
Robert David Farquhar and Bernard R. Maybeck.
ARCTIC REGIONS
18.9
Commercial architecture, hotels, shops, railway stations,
financial and office buildings, remain to be considered. In
view of the vast expansion of American wealth between 1905
and 1920, commercial architecture was of importance, and the
standard was of the highest. During this period, thanks to such
men as Warren and Wetmore, York and Sawyer, Trowbridge
and Livingston, Bonn Barber, Robert D. Kohn, John Russell
Pope, Starrett and Van Vleck, and to many others, hotels
became exhibitions of architectural refinement and good taste,
however sumptuous; railway stations became imposing and
august monuments (witness the magnificent Grand Central by
Warren and Wetmore and the Pennsylvania by McKim, Mead
and White, both in New York), while an endless number of shop-
fronts and office buildings were delicate and scholarly essays in
pure design. Individualism, rampant and uncurbed, largely on
the part of the many owners, prevented any approach to unity
and consistency in street frontages, but taken each by itself the
shop-fronts of Fifth Avenue, in New York, for example, formed
an epitome of the best (as well as the earlier worst) to be found
in the architecture of America.
The conclusion that must be drawn from a survey of archi-
tecture in the United States during the 2oth century is that the
great regeneration initiated during the eighties of the igth
century went steadily forward until architecture became almost
of vital interest to a general public that demanded the best that
the profession could give. American architects had an advantage
over European in the large demand for their services. Good
architecture became the fashion, and this was due largely to
three factors: the influence of the American Institute of Architects,
the training of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and the dozen or more
great schools of architecture in different parts of the country.
Behind this, however, lay the fact that apparently American
architects as a whole were drawn from the class that possessed the
finest traditions and the soundest standards, and that they were
able by sheer force of character and excellence of attainment to
impose on the public their own ideals and their own standards of
value. The World War was an interlude of non-production, but
not, apparently, of non-development, and by 1920 a recovery was
being effected, while there was evidently an unfailing supply of
younger practitioners to carry on the movement that had already
achieved such notable results. (R. A. C.)
ARCTIC REGIONS (see 21.938). The discovery of the North
Pole by Peary in 1909 put a check on sensational endeavours, and
turned exploration of the Arctic regions along more strictly
scientific lines.
Greenland. The exploration of Greenland has been continued,
with few exceptions, by Danes who, besides throwing much
light on problems in physical geography and Eskimo ethnography,
have practically completed the map of the coasts.
In 1910 Knud Rasmussen founded the station of Thule in North
Star Bay, Wolstenhplme Sound, as a trading station and a base for
researches. On April 6 1912, accompanied by P. Freuchen and two
Eskimo, he set out with dog sledges from Inglefield Gulf to cross the
inland ice in search of E. Mikkelsen, from whom nothing had been
heard for three years. Rasmussen reached the head of Danmark
Fjord on May 9, travelled down the fjord and up Independence
Fjord to Navy Cliff, which he left on Aug. 8 to return across the
inland ice. The greatest alt. in the march across the interior was
7,300 ft. This expedition confirmed by cartographical evidence the
non-existence of Peary Channel, a fact established by M. Erichsen
in 1907 but not known until his records were brought home in 1912.
In order to recover M. Erichsen's lost diaries a small expedition
in the sloop " Alabama " went to East Greenland in 1909. After
wintering at Shannon I., E. Mikkejsen, the leader, and I. Iversen
made a journey of 1 ,400 m. which in length and difficulty was one
of the most remarkable Arctic journeys on record. Their course
was over the inland ice to Danmark Fjord, where Erichsen's records
were found. These included his discovery that Peary Channel
does not exist and Mikkelsen therefore had to abandon his plan
of returning via the W. coast. After mapping Danmark Fjord he
and Iversen returned S. by North-East Cape and the coast, eventu-
ally reaching their base, where they had to wait nearly two years
for a ship to take them home. In 1912 a Swiss expedition under
Dr. A. de Quervain made a successful journey across the southern
part of the ice-cap, travelling with the help of dog sledges from Tor-
sukatak. Fjord on Disco Bay to Angmagsalik in about 30 days.
Their greatest alt. was 8,364 ft,
In 1913 another traverse was made through the heart of Green-
land by Capt. J. P. de Koch, Dr. A. Wegener and a Danish seaman.
After a winter on the E. coast near Danmark Harbour, during which
they mapped Louise Land, they left their base on April 20 with
ponies to draw their sledges, and reached Lakse Fjord near Proven
on Aug. I. The greatest alt. on the crossing was 9,500 ft.
The second Thule expedition was led by K. Rasmussen in 1916 for
the exploration of the N.W. coast of Greenland. Rasmussen was
accompanied by Lauge Koch, Dr. Thorild Wulff, H. Olsen and
several Eskimo. After an arduous journey of over 700 m. across
the ice-cap from Thule, work was started in the neighbourhood of
St. George Fjord. Surveys were carried out to De Long Fjord, where
they linked up with previous work of Peary. On the return journey
Dr. Wulff and Olsen succumbed to the privation of scanty food and
bad weather, and the survivors had difficulty in reaching Etah.
This expedition found that Nordenskjold Inlet, the supposed west-
ern end of Peary Channel, is only 14 m. long. The inland ice in the
N.W. of Greenland was found to extend nearly to the coast: con-
sequently the hunting grounds are poor and there are few traces
of Eskimo migration. Rasmussen considered it very doubtful if
Eskimo ever succeeded in reaching the E. coast via the N. of Green-
land.
A third Thule expedition started in 1920 under the leadership
of Lauge Koch, who proposed to explore the interior of Peary Land
and to fill in certain gaps in the chart of the N.W. coast of Green-
land. The expedition established its headquarters in Inglefield Gulf,
and it was expected to stay in the field until 1922.
The American Crocker Land expedition, from its base at Etah,
surveyed part of the coast between Etah and Hall Basin in 1914-5
and made an hydrographic survey of Foulke Fjord. Its principal
work, however, was in Ellesmere Land.
The American Crocker Land Expedition. This expedition was
sent in 1913 by the American Geographical Society and other
bodies in the United States to search for Crocker Land, which
had been reported by Peary in 1906 as lying to the W. of Grant
Land.
D. B. MacMillan, the leader, had with him W. E. Ekblaw and
M. C. Tanquary, naturalists, and Lt. F. Green, cartographer. Fail-
ing to reach either Pim I. or Flager Bay in Ellesmere Land, winter
quarters were established at Etah, where a meteorological station
was maintained throughout the duration of the expedition. In
March 1914 MacMillan and Green crossed Smith Sound on the ice,
traversed Ellesmere Land, and, passing by Bay Fjord and Nansen
Sound, reached Cape Thomas Hubbard. Thence a journey N.W.
over rough sea ice for 150 m. failed to reveal any trace of land, and
the party returned to Etah by the same route. The farthest point
reached was lat. 82 30' N., long. 108 22' 30" W. The members of
this expedition made several other long journeys. In 1916 Ekblaw
crossed Ellesmere Land from Cape Sabine to Bay Fjord and, passing
by Nansen Sound, Greely Fjord and Lake Hazen, reached Fort
Conger, Greely's former station on Robeson Channel. He returned
to Etah across Kennedy Channel and along the shores of Kane
Basin. The same year MacMillan made a long journey to Amund
Ringnes I. and Christian I. In 1917 a detailed survey was made of
the coast of Ellesmere Land from Cape Sabine to Clarence Head,
which considerably altered the charts based on the rough surveys
of Inglefield, Kane and Hayes. Several expeditions were sent to
relieve the explorers at Etah. The first in 1915 met with an acci-
dent, and had to winter in North Star Bay; the second in 1916
failed to get through Melville Bay, but the third in 1917 brought
back safely those members of the expedition who had not pre-
viously returned via the Danish settlements in Greenland.
Beaufort Sea. Much exploration has been done in and around
the Beaufort Sea, although the greater part of that sea is still a
blank on our maps.
The ambitious Anglo-American Arctic expedition of 1906-7
achieved relatively little real polar work except a journey from
March to May 1907 by E. de K. Leffingwell, E. Mikkelsen, and
S. Storkersen from the coast in long. 149 W. across the sea ice to
lat. 72 03' N., long. 149 44' W. where they got a sounding of no
bottom in 620 fathoms. V. Stefansson, who was nominally a mem-
ber of the expedition, spent his time with the Eskimo in the Macken-
zie delta, learning their habits and language in order to equip him-
self for future explorations. During 1908-12 V. Stefansson and R. M.
Anderson were studying the Eskimo in and around Victoria I.,
where they discovered the so-called blonde Eskimo, who had never
previously encountered white men. Stefansson's successful explora-
tions must be attributed largely to his methods. He lived in Eskimo
fashion using only Eskimo diet, which enabled him to travel light
and avoid the necessity of falling back on a base for supplies. Simi-
lar methods have been employed with equal success by Rasmussen
and other Danes in Greenland.
In July 1913 Stefansson sailed from Nome with a large expedi-
tion, supported by the Canadian Government, for the exploration
of the Beaufort Sea and the N.W. shores of Arctic Canada. Capt.
R. A. Bartlett was in command of the chief ship, the " Karluk,"
190
ARCTIC REGIONS
and the scientific staff included J. Murray, R. M. Anderson and
F. Jqhansen, naturalists; G. S. Malloch, B. Mamen, and J. J.
O'Neill, geologists; H. Beuchat and D. Jenness, anthropologists;
W. McKinley and B. M. McConnel, meteorologists; and Dr. Forbes
Mackay, surgeon. The " Karluk,' with most of the northern party
on board, was caught in the ice 20 m. N.E. of Flaxman I. on Aug. 12.
The vessel drifted W. until, Sept. 20, when Stefansson and several
men were ashore hunting, it broke away during a heavy gale, drifted
with the pack until it was crushed, and sank in lat. 72 8' N., long.
173 50' W., 60 m. N.E. of Herald I., on Jan. n 1914. All hands
and ample stores were got safely on to the ice. After the loss of a
reconnoitring party sent south, Bartlett decided to await the
return of daylight before making a move, but Murray, Forbes
Mackay, Beuchat and a sailor, eager to attempt the journey, set off
for the land, with Bartlett's permission but contrary to his advice.
They were seen some days later and never heard of again. On
March 12 the survivors landed on Wrangell I. and a week later
Bartlett, accompanied by an Eskimo and his crew and seven dogs,
set out for the mainland, 160 m. across the ice, to seek help. He
reached the shores of Siberia in 17 days, and travelling along the
coast via Cape North, reached Emma Harbour, whence he crossed
in a whaler to St. Michael. The " King and Wing " rescued the
survivors on Wrangell I., and the " Bear " brought them to Nome.
Malloch, Mamen and another man had died on the island. The
remainder of the expedition, employing several small sloops, did a
great deal of useful work. Stefansson, with two companions and a
dog team, left Martin Point, Alaska, on March 22 1914, reached
lat. 73 N., long. 140 W., and then turned E. to Banks I., landing
near Cape Prince Alfred on June 26 and joining his vessel at Cape
Kellett. In Feb. 1915 with three companions, Stefansson reached
Prince Patrick I., and completed the charting of the coasts. Pushing
on he discovered a new island in Gustav Adolf Sea. In 1916 he
reached this island, and discovered a second smaller island N. of
Ellef Ringnes I. and a third, also small, E. of the first and N. of Mel-
ville Island. Ellef Ringnes I. was found to be two islands, and
Christian I. was found to be much smaller than had been supposed.
Much survey work was also done in Banks I., Victoria I. and the
coasts of Dolphin and Union Straits. In 1918 a severe attack of
fever compelled Stefansson to hand over the command for the last
season's work to S. Storkersen. Storkersen, setting out from Cross I.
on the coast of Alaska, travelled over the sea ice to lat. 73 58' N.,
long. 147 50' W. and then returned to the mainland. This journey
practically removed from the map the doubtful Keenan Land
(reported vaguely in the 'seventies of last century), while soundings
taken during the drift of the " Karluk " and other journeys of the
expedition show a narrow continental shelf, and reduce the prob-
ability of land existing in the western part of the Beaufort Sea.
On the other hand a sounding of only 275 fathoms, about loo m.
N.W. of Isachsen I., indicates the possible occurrence of land in the
eastern part of that sea, although Crocker Land has turned out to
be a myth. Stefansson's expedition also brought back many observa-
tions in anthropology and geology.
Russian Expeditions. Several ambitious but ill-equipped Russian
expeditions sailed for Arctic regions in 1912, but came to grief and
accomplished little or nothing. G. L. Sedoff hoped to make Franz
Josef Land a base for a march to the Pole. He left Archangel in
the " Phoca " and wintered at the Pankratiev Is. in the N. of
Noyaya Zemlya. Next summer the " Phoca " (rechristened the " Su-
vorin ") reached Hooker I., Franz Josef Land. Sedoff set out for
the Pole with two companions and 24 dogs. On the death of the
leader in the vicinity of Rudolf I. the journey was abandoned.
G. L. Brusilov sailed in July 1912 to attempt the north-east passage
in the " Santa Anna." The vessel was beset in the ice in the Kara
Sea in lat. 71 N. and drifted a year and a half to the vicinity of
Franz Josef Land. Eleven men left the ship in April 1914 in lat. 83
N., long. 63 E. Two of these reached Cape Flora, where the
" Phoca " found them; the others perished on the way. Nothing
has since been heard of the ship and the remainder of its crew.
V. A. Rusanov in the "Hercules" was last heard of in 1912 in
Matochkin Shar on his way to the Kara Sea on a voyage of explora-
tion. The Russian Government in 1914 sent the " Eclipse " under
Otto Sverdrup to search for Brusilov and Rusanov. Sverdrup
passed through the Kara Sea searching the coast eastward to Tai-
mir Land where he wintered in lat. 74 45' N., long. 92 E. He was
able to be of some service to Vilkitski's expedition wintering about
180 m. to the east, but returned to Archangel in Sept. 1915 without
having found any trace of the missing expeditions.
Russian efforts to explore the N. coast of Asia in ice-breakers
were far more successful, but unfortunately there is every likeli-
hood of the detailed observations which were sent to the Ministry
of Marine having been lost. The " Taimir " and " Vaigach,"
which Capt. Sergiev had taken from Petropavlovsk to near Cape
Chelyuskin the previous Sept., left Anadir in July 1913 under Comm.
B. A. Vilkitski and Comrn. P. A. Novopashennoi for an hydrographic
survey of the Arctic coast of Siberia. After charting Chaun Bay the
vessels separated, the " Vaigach " following the coast westward and
the " Taimir " turning N. for the New Siberia Islands. A small new
island was discovered E. of this group and named General Vilkitski
Island. Bennett I. v.-as found to be much smaller than had been
supposed, and no sign of Sannikov Land (reported on more than
one occasion to have been seen from Kotelnoi, New Siberia I.) was
discovered on the route to Taimir Land. Here the two vessels met,
and continued the coast survey. New land was discovered N.W.
of Cape Chelyuskin. Nikolas Land extends from lat. 77 50' N.,
long. 99 E., to at least lat. 81 N. It was surveyed on the east,
where a landing was made in lat. 80 04' N. The land rises to 1 ,500
ft., is heavily glaciated, and in geological structure is similar to the
mainland. Between Nikolas Land and the mainland two islands
were discovered and named Alexis and Starokadomski, each with a
greatest width of about 6 miles. The existence of these lands helps
to account for the usual obstruction of pack-ice in the waters of the
Nordenskjold Archipelago and the Kara Sea. The vessels being
prevented by ice from going farther westward, returned eastward
along the N. of the New Siberia Is. to Koliuchin Bay (Sept. 29)
and back to Vladivostok. In July 1914 Vilkitski set out again with
the same vessels. Ice prevented a search of Wrangell I. for Ste-
fansson's men. A new island was discovered in lat. 76 10' N.,
long. 153 E., and surveyed. The vessels passed N. of the New
Siberia Is., again seeing no sign of Sannikov Land, and reached
Cape Chelyuskin late in August. Some further surveys of Nikolas
Land were made, but ice conditions were bad. Attempts to push
westward failed, and by the middle of Sept. winter quarters were
found about loo m. W. of Cape Chelyuskin, the Taimir " in
lat. 76 41' N., long. 100 50' E. and the " Vaigach " in lat. 76
54' N., long. 100 13' E. The vessels got clear of the ice, and pro-
ceeded early in Aug., passed through the Kara Sea without encoun-
tering ice, and reached Archangel in Sept. 1915.
Roald Amundsen. The long-deferred expedition of Roald
Amundsen to the polar basin left Norway in June 1918 in the
" Maud," built on an improved model of the " Fram."
The first winter was passed near Cape Chelyuskin. From there
two men were sent home with dispatches via Siberia, but have not
been heard of again. In Sept. 1919 the " Maud " continued her
voyage through the ice-encumbered Nordenskjold Sea and Laptev
Strait. East of the New Siberia Is. Amundsen pushed his vessel
into the pack in order to begin his drift across the Arctic Ocean, but
on finding that the current was setting S. he abandoned the attempt
for the year, and sought winter quarters at Aion I., Chaun Bay.
In July 1920 he arrived at Nome in Alaska having completed the
north-east passage. Soon after he left for the north to resume his
original plan. The " Maud " may be expected to emerge between
Greenland and Spitsbergen not later than 1923. The Norwegian
Government has arranged for depots of food to be laid on the N.
coasts of Greenland and Grant Land. The work was done in 1920
by the Dane, G. Hansen.
See also the article SPITSBERGEN.
Claims to Sovereignty. During the last ten years practically all
unclaimed Arctic lands have come under the sovereignty of one or
other State. The treaty transferring the Danish West Indies to
the United States (1917) contained a clause recognizing Denmark's
right to extend her economic and political sphere over the whole of
Greenland. Soon after the outbreak of the World War Russia noti-
fied a formal claim to the Arctic islands lying N. of Asia. In Aug.
1914 Capt. Isliamov hoisted the Russian flag on Franz Josef Land
in anticipation of any claim that Austria might sustain by right of
discovery. The Supreme Council in 1919 conferred the sovereignty
of Spitsbergen and Bear I. on Norway. All the islands of the Ameri-
can Arctic Archipelago are claimed by Canada.
Bibliography. F. Nansen, In Nortliern Mists (1911), throws new
light on the early history of Arctic exploration. A bibliography of
much use but limited scope is by J. M. Hulth, " Swedish Arctic
and Antarctic Explorations," 17581910, K. Svenska Vet. Akad.
Arsbok for 1910. Les Expeditions polaires depuis 1800: Liste des
Etats-Major, by J. Denuce (1911) covers both Arctic and Antarctic.
A useful general " Map of the Arctic Regions " with a list of author-
ities, appeared in Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc. 45 (1913). The Danish work
in Greenland is recorded mainly in Meddelelser om Gronland; in
vol. xli. (1913) G. Amdrup, " Report on the Danmark Expedition,
1906-1908 "; in vol. lii. (1915) E. Mikkelsen, " Report on the Ala-
bama Expedition, 1909-1912 "; in vol. li. (1915), K. Rasmussen,
" Report on the First Thule Expedition, 1912 "; in vol. liii. (1917),
H. P. Steensby, " An Anthropogeographical Study of the Origin of
the Greenland Eskimo." For other Danish work see K. Rasmussen
and others, Gronland langs polhavet, udforskningen af Gronland fra
Melvillebugten til Kap Morris Jesup : Skildring af den II. Thule
Expedition, 1916-18 (1919), also E. Mikkelsen, Lost in the Arctic
(1913). Official reports of the Stefansson expedition in Report of
the Dept. of Naval Service, Ottawa, 1915, 1916, 1917 and 1918; also
Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18 (10 vols. Ottawa,
in course of publication) ; " The Activities of the Canadian Arctic
Expedition from 1916-1918," V. Stefansson, Geog. Rev. Oct. 1918;
V. Stefansson, My Life with the Eskimo (1913), and R. A. Bartlett
and R. T. Hale, The Last Voyage of the Karluk (1916). For Vilkitski's
work see translation from Russian in Geog. Journal vol. liv. pp. 367-
375 (1919) an d Pelermanns Mitteilungen, vol. lx.. I, 1914. pp. 197-
8. Accounts of the Crocker Land expedition are to be found in
the Geog. Rev. from 1913 onwards and in 7.5. Naval Inst. Proc.
vol. xliii., 1917, and vol. xliv., 1918. F. Nansen, " Spitsbergen
ARDILAUN ARGENTINA
191
Waters," Videnskabs. Selskabets Shrifter No. 2 (Kristiania 1915),
contains oceanographical investigations in the Barents and Green-
land seas. (R. N. R. B.)
ARDILAUN, ARTHUR EDWARD GUINNESS, IST BARON
(1840-1915), Irish philanthropist and politician, was born at
St. Anne's, Clontarf, Nov. i 1840, the eldest son of Sir Benjamin
Lee Guinness, ist bart., head of the famous brewing firm of
Guinness. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Dublin,
and in 1868 succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his
father. He then became head of the firm of Guinness, but shortly
afterwards retired. He entered Parliament in 1874 as Con-
servative member for the city of Dublin, holding the seat till
1880, when he was raised to the peerage. In 1891 he bought
St. Stephen's Green, Dublin, and converted it into a charming
park, which he presented to the city. He also bought up various
blocks of slum dwellings and converted them into model tene-
ments, with the object of improving the conditions of the poorer
classes of Dublin. Lord Ardilaun, who married in 1871 Lady
Olivia White, daughter of the 3rd Earl of Bantry, died at Clontarf
Jan. 20 1915.
ARENSKY, ANTON STEPHANOVITCH (1861-1906), Russian
musical composer, was born at Novgorod July 31 1861, and after
studying with various teachers finally became a pupil of Rimsky-
Korsakov at the conservatoire of St. Petersburg. In 1882 he
became a professor at the Moscow conservatoire, and from 1894
to 1901 was director of music in the imperial chapel at St.
Petersburg. His works consist largely of chamber music, includ-
ing the well-known trio, besides several operas, the chief of which
are Ttie Dream on the Volga (1890) ; Raphael (1894) ; and Nal and
Damayanti (1899). He-died at Terioki, Finland, Feb. 25 1906.
ARGENTINA (see 2.460). The pop. of the republic in 1920,
according to the calculation made by the Census Bureau,
was 8,533,431. The latest census which had then been taken, that
of 1914, gave the pop. at that time as 7,885,237, indicating an
increase during 1914-9 of 648,194, or 8-2 %. The pop. of the
political divisions was as follows:
Parana
Corrientes
Salta
36,089
28,681
28,436
The nationalities most largely represented in the pop., accord-
ing to the census of 1914, were:
Argentines " 5,527,285
Italians . 929,863
Spaniards .
Russians
Uruguayans
French
Turks (mostly Syrians)
British
Germans
Swiss .
Portuguese .
829,701
93,634
86,428
79,491
64,639
27,692
26,995
14,345
H-I43
Lucerne (alfalfa)
Maize (Indian corn)
Oats .
Linseed
Barley .
Vines .
Peanuts
Cotton
Tobacco
Sugar-cane
Potatoes
1920
Calculation by
IQI4
Census Bureau
( National
Dec. 31 1920
Census
Federal Capital 1,676,041
1,575,814
783
Isla Martin Garcia
Provinces :
Buenos Aires 2,336,507
2,066,165
Santa Fe . . 1,007,512
899,640
Entre Rios
475,236
425,373
Corrientes
371,815
347,055
Cordoba .
805,940
735,472
San Luis .
I2 9,655
116,266
Santiago del Estero
298,110
261,678
Tucuman .
350,681
332,933
Mendoza .
3",740
277,535
San Juan .
131,179
119,252
La Rioja .
b
84,643
79.754
Catamarca
108,544
. Salta ....
146,903
140,927
Jujuy
76,506
76,631
Territories :
Chaco
.
52,258
46,274
Chubut
.
28,813
23,065
Formosa .
21,880
19,281
La Pampa
124,294
101,338
Los Andes
2,671
2,487
Misiones .
62,159
53,563
Nuequen . ' .
33,574
28,866
Rio Negro
.
47,693
42,242
Santa Cruz
1 1 ,603
9,948
Tferra del Fuego
2,559
2,54
Total
8,698,516
The pop. of the chief cities, according to the latest statistics
available, was as follows:
Buenos Aires I
,668,072
Rosario
222,592
Cordoba
156,000
La Plata
105,000
Tucuman
91,216
Santa Fe
59,574
Mendoza
58,790
Bahia Blanca
44. 1 41
There were also about 15,000 Indians and 500 negroes then in
Argentina.
Agricultural and Mineral Production. The total area under
cultivation in Argentina was 20,367,082 hectares (50,330,096 ac.)
in the season 1910-11 and 24,784,892 hectares (61,218,683 ac.)
in the season 1917-8, an increase of 10,889,587 ac., or 21-6 %.
The area under the principal crops for the season 1917-8 was:
Hectares.
Wheat . . . 7,234,000
8,052,805
3,527,000
1,295,000
1,308,600
244,355
116,145
26,725
H.775
10,725
93,3io
134-645
The development of cotton-growing in Argentina is especially
noticeable, the area under cultivation having increased from 879
hectares in 1895 to 3,300 in 1914 and 11,775 f r tne 1917-8 crop.
The Government has devoted much time and money to its
development and has sent young men to the United States to
study cotton-growing. Exports of wheat totalled 2,996,408 tons
in 1918, maize 664,683 tons, oats 542,097 tons and linseed 391, 382
tons, lack of shipping preventing greater exports. These figures
may be compared with those for 1908 when 3,636,294 tons of
wheat (more than ever before), 1,055,650 tons of linseed (also
more than ever before), 1,711,804 tons of maize and 440,041 tons
of oats were exported.
Argentina was in 1920 the world's largest exporter of linseed
and maize (Indian corn), and third in exports of wheat, being
only exceeded in the latter commodity by the United States and
Canada. Her crop nearly equalled Canada's for several years
preceding 1921. It has been estimated that approximately 80%
of the soil of the republic is capable of yielding some form of
economic return, but that only about a quarter of such land was
in 1920 under any form of cultivation, while practically no part
of Argentina is under intensive husbandry. Agricultural educa-
tion in its various phases greatly progressed in Argentina during
the 10 years 1910-20 under the guidance of Dr. Jose Leon Suarez
in respect of national education and under such local leaders as
Dr. Juan B. Teran at Tucuman in the provinces. The inaugura-
tion of the university of Tucuman in May 1914 and the develop-
ment of its instruction in the production of sugar, cotton and
other products suited to northern Argentina has been of great
benefit to a large section of the country.
In 1917 there were 860 creameries, 470 cheese factories, 27
butter factories and 689 " mixed " establishments, the export
of cheese having increased greatly during the World War. There
were 408 flour mills, capitalized at $36,933,659. Most of these
were in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe and Cordoba.
Exports of wheat flour increased from 118,486 tons in 1911 to
176,445 tons in 1918. Argentina produces approximately 350,000
bales annually of wool and there are 14 wool-washing establish-
ments in the country. There were 29 breweries in 1914, and
4,663 establishments for the production of wine in 1917. The
wine industry centres in the provinces of Mendoza and San Juan.
192
ARGENTINA
The output of all the packing and curing houses in 1914 was
$114,960,886. The petroleum output at Comodoro Rivadavia
increased from 14,784 kg. in 1907 to 198,672,698 kg. in 1918.
Foreign Commerce. The imports and exports for the years
1914-8 are shown in the following table:
Imports. Exports.
1914 64,505,992 80,626,303
1915 61,097,601 116,435,855
1916 73,226,114 114,599,904
1917 76,064,235 110,034,009
1918 99,325,943 159,021,120
The amount of trade with each of the five countries with
which Argentina does her chief foreign business is shown for the
year 1918 in the following table, the amounts being in pounds
sterling:
Imports from Exports to
United Kingdom 24,819,739
United States
France
Italy
Brazil
60,690,730
32,768,180
22,430,986
7,992,252
6,616,380
Revenue.
34,602,288
34,602,288
32,962,569
32,860,306
34,969,953
39,255,764
Expenditure.
34,572,625
34,572,625
33,973,357
34,409,000
35,671,023
39,245,706
33,632,331
5,149,700
3,969,995
9,796,341
Although Germany ranked second after Great Britain in
imports into Argentina in 1913, her trade sank to practically
nothing during the World War; it has since shown signs of
increasing. The chief articles imported by Argentina are cottons
and woollens, iron and steel, hardware, machinery, railway
equipment of all kinds, lumber and coal. The chief exports are
agricultural: wheat, maize, linseed, oats, wool, and meats, chiefly
beef and mutton. The customs receipts were 19,795,749 in 1913;
12,135,528 in 1914; 9,901,664 in 1915; 10,726,026 in 1916 and
9,800,114 in 1917. The commercial depression which began
about the middle of 1920 proved very injurious to Argentine
foreign trade, curtailing both imports and exports.
Finances. The expenditure and revenue of Argentina for the
years 1915-20 are shown in the following table, the amounts
being in pounds sterling:
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
The 1919 and 1920 figures are budget estimates.
Railways. Argentina in 1920 was tenth among the nations of
the world and third among American nations in respect of her
railway mileage. In 1910 the total was 17,403 m.; in 1915,
21,551 m.; and in 1920, 21,915 m.
Army and Navy. The estimated army budget for 1920 was
3,000,000 and the naval budget 2,004,611. The total peace
establishment of the army was in 1920 approximately 1,751
officers and 18,000 men. In addition there was a trained reserve
of 300,000 men, 150,000 of whom were of the first line, and 150,-
ooo of the special reserve. A territorial reserve was in process of
formation. The navy consisted of two Dreadnoughts, two pre-
Dreadnoughts, four armoured cruisers, and one old light cruiser.
There were also seven destroyers, being with the Dreadnoughts
the only modern units in the Argentine navy. The Dreadnoughts
" Moreno " and " Rivadavia " were built in the United States
and launched in 1917. Their displacement is 27,940 tons each
and their nominal speed 22-5 knots. The personnel of the navy
included 316 executive and 97 engineer officers, 23 electrical en-
gineers, and from 5,000 to 6,000 men. There was also a coast
artillery corps of 450 men.
The addition of the " Rivadavia " and the " Moreno " to the
Argentine navy was by far the most important event in its
development since 1910. Since 1914 the German influences in
the Argentine army have somewhat abated with the return of
the German military instructors to Europe. Both the army and
the navy seemed in 1920 to turn more toward British, French
and U.S. methods; no less than 23 naval officers were in that year
undergoing instruction in the United States.
History. The administration of President Jose Figueroa
Alcorta came to an end Oct. 12 1920, when the inauguration of
Roque Saenz Pena took place. Although early in 1910 an at-
tempt had been made to conduct a campaign on behalf of Guiller-
mo Udaondo, former governor of the province of Buenos Aires, as
an opposition candidate to Saenz Pena, this movement did not
develop much strength and Saenz Pena was elected without
opposition. He was the son of Luis Saenz Pena, who had been
President from 1892 to 1895, but was of a more cosmopolitan
type, having spent much time in the Argentine diplomatic
service, in both Europe and America. Victorino de la Plaza, who
had been Minister of Foreign Affairs in the administration of
Figueroa Alcorta, now became Vice-President. His long residence
in England as Argentina's financial representative had placed him
in close touch with sources of foreign investment which mean
much to Argentina, and had given him a sympathetic point of
view as regards foreign interests and affairs. Saenz Pena's
Cabinet was a strong one. Dr. Indalecio Gomez, who had been
Argentine minister to Germany, was Minister of the Interior and
continued in this office throughout Saenz Pena's administration,
while the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was filled by Dr. Ernesto
Bosch, who had also been in the diplomatic service. Saenz Pena
had no less than four Secretaries of the Treasury, beginning with
Dr. Jose Maria Rosa, who had put Argentina's finances on a gold
basis when Minister of the Treasury in Roca's administration in
1899 and possessed much knowledge of financial affairs. His
successors were E. S. Perez, Norberto Pinero and Lorenzo Ana-
don. Dr. Juan M. Garro and Dr. Carlos Ibarguren were Saenz
Pena's Ministers of Public Instruction and Worship, Gen.
Gregorio Velez and Rear-Adml. Saenz Valiente holding the War
and Navy portfolios throughout the Administration. Esquiel
Ramos Mejia, who had been in the Cabinet in the previous
Administration, and Carlos Meyer were the Ministers of Public
Works, and Adolfo Mujica Minister of Agriculture.
President Roque Saenz Pena died Aug. 9 1914, Vice-President
de la Plaza succeeding him. An entirely new Cabinet, except for
the Navy portfolio, which continued to be held by Adml. Saenz
Valiente, came into office Aug. 9 1914. Manuel Ortiz became
Minister of the Interior; Jose Luis Murature, who had long been
an editor of La Nation, one of the most prominent Buenos Aires
newspapers, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Worship; Manuel
Moyana Minister of Public Works; Horacio Calderon Minister of
Agriculture; and Gen. Angel P. Allaria Minister of War. The
Treasury portfolio was held successively by Dr. Alejandro Carbo
and by Dr. E. E. Oliver, and that of Justice and Public Instruc-
tion by T. R. Cullen and M. E. Lamas. The period of de la
Plaza's presidency almost exactly coincided with the first two
years of the World War. When it broke out England stood first
in Argentine foreign trade, with Germany a close second. The
English also led in the amount of foreign capital invested in
Argentina, although French and German investments were also
considerable. Through his term of office President de la Plaza
maintained an attitude of strict neutrality on behalf of his
country, though his personal preference and certain of his
official acts showed an inclination toward the Allies.
In 1916, when de la Plaza's successor was to be chosen,
divisions in the old Government party, which had been so long in
power under various names, made it powerless to prevent the
nomination and election of the candidate of the Radical party,
Hipolito Irigoyen, who had never before held public office. For
the first time in Argentine history the Radical party was in con-
trol of the Government and for the aristocrats (from whose ranks
almost all the higher officials had been chosen) it substituted as
members of the Cabinet either politicians of their own party or
practical business men, such as Domingo Salaverry, the able
Minister of the Treasury. Although the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and Worship was nominally filled, first by Dr. Carlos A.
Becu, who resigned Feb. 3 1917, and then by Honorio Pueyrredon,
who had previously been Minister of Agriculture, the able young
Under-Secretary, Diego Luis Molinari, who had travelled in the
United States and Europe, practically directed the actual
management of Argentina's foreign relations during the first five
years of Irigoyen's administration. -Pueyrredon was not formally
made Minister of Foreign Affairs until Sept. 13 1918. The
ARGONNE
Interior Department was directed by Dr. Ramon Gomez through-
out Irigoyen's term, the Ministry of Justice and Public In-
struction by Jose S. Salinas, and that of Public Works by Pablo
Torello. For the first time in the history of Argentina the
Ministry of War was filled by civilians, Dr. Elpidio Gonzales
(until 1918) and his successor Dr. Julio Moreno. An engineer of
some distinction, Federico Alvarez de Toledo, was Minister of
Marine until his resignation in 1919, when Julio Moreno was
entrusted with the Navy portfolio also. After Pueyrredon left the
Ministry of Agriculture in 1917 Alfredo Demarchi, an engineer,
assumed charge of that Department. The Vice-President, Dr.
Pelagio B. Luna, from the province of La Rioja, who was sup-
posed to represent the Radical influence in the interior of the
country, died June 25 1919. Benito Villanueva then became
president of the Senate and therefore next in succession to the
presidency, although he did not belong to the President's
political party. The elections in 1919 strengthened the hold of
the President and the Radical party over both Houses of Con-
gress and gave the Radicals reason to hope that they would
continue in power and win the 1922 presidential elections, in
spite of differences of opinion among some of the leaders in the
party and the inevitable disputes as to who should be the
candidate.
With the entry of the United States into the World War in
April 1917, the attitude of Argentina, like that of many other
Latin-American countries, became divided. One strong party
desired a rupture of relations with Germany, while another
believed that Argentina's future position of independence should
be safeguarded by a strict neutrality. The general mass of the
population was strongly in sympathy with the Allies, with the
natural exception of the 26,000 German subjects and the 40,000
others of German origin. Their influence was particularly
strong in Argentina because of the excellent German organiza-
tion there and because of the feebleness of the Allied propaganda
until the war was nearly over. For some time after the outbreak
of the war in 1914 it had been feared that all the skilled workers
and other immigrants of the better class would return to fight for
their native lands; and during 1917, 1918 and 1919 44,285 more
persons did leave the country as steerage passengers than entered
it ; at the same time the cost of living rapidly advanced, and there
was a corresponding spread of social unrest, partly due to the
popular feeling that the President had espoused the cause of
labour and so was disposed to listen sympathetically to the
claims of the various labour organizations. This attitude brought
him into conflict with the English-owned railways, which com-
prised 74% of the railways of Argentina, and did not discourage
the serious strikes of 1917, which were supposed to have been
instigated by German agents. The most disastrous of these was
the general railway strike which paralyzed traffic throughout the
country from Sept. 23 to Oct. 17 1917. Moreover, labour
agitations and strikes of all kinds continued to develop in all
parts of the country. They distracted public attention from
international to local issues.
On Sunday, Sept. 8 1917, the Buenos Aires newspapers
published certain cablegrams which had been sent in May and
June 1917 by the German Minister at Buenos Aires, Count
Luxburg, to the German Foreign Office, in one of which he said :
" As regards Argentina's ships, I advise that they be compelled
to go back or that they be sunk without leaving any trace
(spurlos versenkt) or not allowed to pass." Four Argentine
merchant vessels, the " Oriana," " Monte Protegido," " Toro "
and " Curumalan," were sunk by the Germans. The publication
of these cablegrams caused great excitement in Buenos Aires and
four days later, on Sept. 12, Honorio Pueyrredon, the acting
Minister of Foreign Affairs, notified Luxburg that he was
persona non grata to the Argentine Government. Pueyrredon had
been personally offended by Luxburg's allusion to him as a
" notorious ass " in the published telegrams. On the evening of
the same day a large mob destroyed the largest German club in
Buenos Aires, attacked the premises of the three pro-German
newspapers and seriously damaged a number of German business
establishments. Popular indignation was increased by the opera-
Federal Government . . $15,480,305.69
Provinces:
Buenos Aires
3,632,227.56
Santa Fe"
700,801.00
Entre Rios
519,465.82
Corrientes
250,764.76
Cordoba
819,297.89
San Luis
101,851.41
Mendoza
325,362.18
San Juan
177,035-17
La Rioja
101,947.90
Catamarca
116,512-30
Santiago del Estero
304,034.24
Tucuman .
414*165.50
Salta ... . . . 236,389.30
tion of a high-powered German radiograph station near Buenos
Aires designed to communicate with Nauen, near Berlin. Pam-
phlets and leaflets were circulated telling of German designs on
South America. Intense excitement reigned in the Argentine
capital, and on Sept. 19 the Argentine Senate voted by 23 to i in
favour of breaking diplomatic relations with Germany. On
Sept. 24 the Chamber of Deputies voted a like resolution by 53 to
1 8. A large number of senators and other prominent persons took
part in a large and significant pro-Ally parade on Sept. 20, which
was one of the most notable demonstrations in the history of
Buenos Aires. In spite of all this anti-German manifestation,
however, the President maintained an attitude of strict neutral-
ity and the German legation continued to function in Buenos
Aires under Count Donhoff as charge d'affaires, while German
intrigues in Argentina continued unabated, spreading thence
throughout Latin America. But a large number of volunteers
joined the Allied armies, and all the Argentine communities gave
freely to Allied Red Cross and relief funds.
Education. The following table gives the amounts appro-
priated for Education in 1910, 1915 and 1920 in U.S. dollars.
1915
$21,943,708.46
4,464,213.73
1,182,212.82
762,557.19
435,858.42
979,644.96
101,831.41
325,463.18
144,670.41
105,506.30
127,041.00
285,990.00
710,032.00
251,956.37
165,009.00
1920
$28,280,897.60
6,262,464.92
1,173,831.87
1,074,034.91
467,749.36
1.509,741-94
88,430.76
459,559-00
300,069.47
97,476.73
125,619.29
306,418.93
775,495-15
213,838.40
167,882.79
$23,300,133.66 $31,985,696.15 $41,303,511.12
(C. L. C.)
ARGONNE, BATTLES IN THE, 1914-6. On Sept. 14 1914 at
early dawn the advanced guards of the French II. Army Corps
left Ste. Menehould with orders to reach Grandpre the same day.
The II. Corps was en fleche, about half a day's march ahead of
the IV. Army Corps, which was on its left, and of the left corps
of the III. Army on its right. At about 12 o'clock one of the
advanced guards of the II. Corps carried, by a forced attack, the
village of St. Thomas, a kind of natural fortress dominating the
valley of the Biesme. A German staff officer was killed, on whom
was found an order of the IV. German Army commanding them
to hold the " fortified positions marked by La Justice (2 km.
south of Cernay), hills 147 and 148, height 140 (between Servon
and the Bois de Cernay), the Mare auxBceufs, Bagatelle . . ."
In the evening of the i4th the French Colonial Corps was stopped
by the resistance of the enemy at Ville-sur-Tourbe; the II. Corps
carried Servon, but, isolated by the delay of the III. Army and
the check to the Colonial Corps, it could not emerge therefrom.
It may be said that on the evening of Sept. 14 mobile warfare
ceased in Argonne and trench warfare began.
The German staff had left the valley of the Biesme to take up
its positions farther back; this decision seems to have been
speedily regretted, for on the morning of the i $th great efforts
were rpade by the Germans to regain the heights dominating the
Biesme. The French forces tried at first to continue their north-
ward march, but they soon felt the uselessness of their efforts.
Then position warfare was accepted, but so regretfully that
immobility was found difficult to observe; time was wasted, and,
in war, time is blood. Nevertheless, the return towards the
Biesme attempted by the Germans as early as Sept. 15 had not
yet been completely successful by July 1918, at which moment
the debacle for Germany began. On Sept. 15 1914 the Germans
retook Servon, but could not debouch from it. Their efforts to
do so remained fruitless during the whole of the war.
Further westwards the II. Corps in vain attempted to reach
Binarville. The Germans retook the south edge of that village
and gained ground in the woods of La Grurie; but they came up
against the most tenacious resistance and were never able to
seize Vienne-le-Chateau, of which they did not leave a stone
194
ARIZONA
standing. More to the east obstinate fighting took place all
through the winter of 1914 and the spring of 1915 at Bagatelle,
a small ruined hunting-box. Bagatelle fell into the hands of the
Germans, but although the latter penetrated into the woods as
far as La Harazee, they were unable to cross the Biesme there.
The right of the IV. Army was at a spot called St. Hubert, near
the Meurissons stream which ends at Le Four de Paris. Le
Four de Paris was under the authority of the III. Army, com-
manded by Gen. Sarrail. The V. Army Corps, left of the III.
Army, had not been so rapid in its pursuit as the II. Corps; the
liaison of the two armies could, therefore, not take place, as had
been planned and was desirable, at the crossing-point of La
Viergette on the Haute Chevauchee; the crossing-point was
taken by the Germans. On Sept. 23 and 24 the V. Corps, which
had succeeded in reaching Montblainville, gave way, lost
Varennes and allowed the enemy to approach Meurissons and
Le Four de Paris.
On Sept. 29 the XVI. German Corps attacked La Chalade,
Le Four de Paris and La Harazee simultaneously, and reached
the vicinity of the Biesme. It must be noted that, at that same
time, Gen. von Strantz's army forced the Hauts de Meuse,
entered St. Mihiel, seized Fort Camp des Remains, crossed the
Meuse and endeavoured to advance westwards, beyond Chau-
voncourt. This meant the envelopment of Verdun, by St. Mihiel
and by the Biesme, and was the most critical period of the strug-
gle in Argonne. But on Sept. 30 the German g8th was taken by
surprise near La Chalade, two of its battalions being completely
destroyed, or nearly so. The Germans were driven back to and
beyond St. Hubert. Furious fighting went on at Bois de Bolante,
La Fille Morte, and Courtes-Chanvres. From Oct. 6 the front
was practically fixed in these parts.
On Nov. 20 1914 the roth Div. of the French V. Corps, which
was under Gen. Gouraud, became attached to the II. Corps.
General Gerard, commanding the II. Corps, then became the
real defender of Argonne, while the German facing him was
Gen. von Mudra. On Jan. 5 1915 Gen. Gouraud made a suc-
cessful attack at Courtes-Chanvres.
The Germans had been greatly assisted, at the outset, by a
special trench-warfare materiel from Metz. On the French side
the materiel and special mine-warfare units had to be improvised.
During the winter of 1914-5 there were no projectiles even for
the guns, and those manufactured in haste made the British
75-mm. guns explode.
Shortly after the II. Corps had settled in Argonne the French
general-in-chief shifted the limit of the armies. The Aisne now
marked the right of the IV. Army, commanded by Gen. de
Langle de Gary, and the left of the III. Army, under Gen.
Sarrail, whose headquarters were at Ste. Menehould. Ste.
Menehould on one side and Varennes on the other were the
fountain-head of all orders. Gen. Sarrail in the south, the Ger-
man Crown Prince in the north, organized the combats that
were more often sacrifices. The Aisne in the west, the Oise and
the Verdun region in the east, were the limits of that bloody bat-
tlefield where the fighting was conducted in the woods, in trenches
which were little more than streams, owing to the extreme damp-
ness of the soil. The men were dying from cold and frozen feet ;
they were so worn out that the slightest wound became mortal.
It would be tedious to enumerate the units, both large and
small, that passed through Argonne, won fame and wore them-
selves out. Nevertheless, mention must be made of the Gari-
baldi brothers and their legionaries, who, with heroic courage,
showed the Germans in a fierce assault that Italian steel is as
good as its men.
General Gerard was replaced, on Jan. 15 1915, by Gen. Hum-
bert. The latter was appointed commander of the III. Army,
after Gen. Sarrail's reverse, in the month of July 1915.
By the month of Feb. 1916 Verdun had become the centre of
the gigantic struggle; Argonne was never quite calm, but the
fighting there henceforth took the second place; large numbers of
men were no longer sacrificed as at the outset. The armaments
balanced little by little and, in Argonne especially, when the
Germans had no materiel superiority, they no longer dominated
in any way.
By a close examination of facts, one may convince oneself that
the value of the German armies was due much more to the
German war preparations, German material organization for war,
than to the value of the soldiers and those in command. Had the
Germans been obliged to improvise the defence of Argonne as
the French were, they would have been defeated at a very early
stage. (V. L. E. C.)
ARIZONA (see 2.544). In 1920 the pop. was 334,162 as against
204,354 in 1910, an increase of 129,808, or 63-5%. This was the
largest percentage of increase shown by any state. The pop. of
the chief cities was as follows: Tucson, 20,292 (13,193 in 1910),
Douglas, 9,916 (6,437 in 191), Bisbee, 9,205 (9,019 in 1910).
The average number of inhabitants to the square mile in 1920
was 2-9 as compared with 1-8 in 1910. The rural pop. con-
stituted 64-8% of the whole in 1920 as against 69% in 1910.
Agriculture. During the decade ending in 1920 agriculture under-
went remarkable changes. There was a considerable increase in the
number of acres irrigated, from 320,051 ac. in 1909 to 467,349 ac.
in 1919, a gain of 46%. Almost a third of this gain was in Yuma
county as a result of the Laguna Dam; the greater portion of the
remainder was the result of pumping in other counties. The greatest
change was the transition from dairy farming to cotton growing.
In 1916 the dairy business reached its height, when the dairy cattle
in the Salt River Valley were estimated at 60,000. The introduction
of long staple cotton reduced this number to about 8,000 at the end
of 1920. The development of the cotton industry was notable; in
1914 there were 13,300 ac. under cultivation, and in 1920, accord-
ing to estimate, 180,000 ac. This increase, coupled with the great
rise in the price of cotton, caused cotton land to rise from $300 and
$400 to $700 and in some instances to $1,000 an acre. The great
fall in the price of cotton was expected, if it proved permanent, to
result in a return to dairy farming and lower land values.
Minerals. In 1910 Arizona's production of 297,250,538 Ib. of
copper placed her first among the producing states. This increased
to 559,235,000 Ib. in 1920. The tendency during 1910-20 was
toward the development of grade deposits, the Miami Copper Co.,
the Inspiration Copper Co., the New Cornelia Copper Co., and the
Ray Consolidated Copper Co. being conspicuous for this type of
work. The older companies such as the Copper Queen, the United
Verde, and the Calumet and Arizona copper companies still had high-
grade deposits in 1920; but the Copper Queen turned in the direction
of low-grade ores, having completed the stripping of Sacramento Hill
near Bisbee. The plant for handling this huge low-grade deposit
was to be completed in 1921. The yield of gold and silver was not
unimportant. Gold production increased from 152,350 oz. in 1910
to 380,034 oz. in 1920; and silver from 2,566,528 oz. in 1910 to
6,098,251 oz. in 1920. Gold production increased mainly because
of the output of the Tom Reed and the United Eastern mining
companies, the latter producing one-fourth of the total for the
state in 1920. Considerable amounts of gold and silver were also
obtained in treating copper ore.
Manufactures. The following table shows the growth of manufac-
tures:
Number of establishments .
Proprietors and firm members .
Salaried employees ....
Wage earners, average number .
1919
480
416
1.403
8,528
1909
311
261
500
6,441
Capital $101,486,070 $32,872,935
Salaries 3,111,838 798,141
Wages . 12,014,769 5.505,183
Cost of materials 92,645,437 33,600,240
Value of products 120,769,112 50,256,694
Value added by manufacture . . 28,123,675 16,656,454
The principal industries in 1920 were the smelting and refining of
copper, cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam rail-
way companies, flour-mill and gristmill products, lumber and timber
products.
Education. The progress in public education in the decade 1910
20 was greater than the increase in population. In 1916 a high school
of the state was for the first time admitted to the North Central
Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. In 1920 there were
in the association Id. of the 29 high schools of the state. The growth
of the normal schools at Tempe and Flagstaff kept pace in enrolment
and equipment with the growth of the public schools. In 1910 there
was organized a state school for the deaf, affiliated with the university
of Arizona and under its direction. The university of Arizona
increased from an enrolment of 84 regular college students in 1910-
II to one of 892 for the first semester of 19201. This institution in
1921 was composed of three colleges and two schools on the campus
at Tucson: college of Letters, Arts and Sciences; college of Mines
and Engineering; college of Agriculture; school of Law and school
of Education. The Agricultural Experiment Station, the Arizona
bureau of mines, the state pure food laboratory and the state museum
were also on the campus. In 1916 the university of Arizona waa
ARKANSAS
195
admitted to the North Central Association, and in 1919 it became a
member of the Association of American Colleges.
History. During the years 1910-20 Arizona provided two
issues of national interest. The first of these was her admission
to the Union. As provided by the Enabling Act signed by Presi-
dent Taft June 30 1910, a constitutional convention met at
Phoenix from Oct. 10 to Dec. 9 1910 to frame a constitution. The
constitution then adopted provided that one-fourth of the
electors of a judicial district might, by petition, demand the
recall of a judge. If he did not then resign a special election
could be held to determine whether he should be recalled.
In Aug. 1911 the National House of Representatives by a vote
of 214 to 57 passed a joint resolution providing for the admission
of Arizona on condition that the constitutional provision for
recall be submitted to a vote of the people. President Taft had
already informed Congress that he would not sign the bill, and in
a message to Congress took the position that he must veto the
measure or assume responsibility for the recall of judges. Later
in August he approved a resolution granting statehood on con-
dition that the voters in the general fall election strike out the
provision for recall. This they did ; and on Feb . 141912 President
Taft signed the proclamation admitting Arizona. After the state
was admitted the people amended the constitution, inserting the
original clause providing for the recall of judges. The presidential
vote in 1912 was 10,324 for Wilson, 6,949 for Roosevelt, and
3,021 for Taft; in 1916, 33,170 for Wilson and 20,524 for Hughes;
in 1920, 37,016 for Harding and 29,546 for Cox. Arizona's Alien
Labour law provided the other issue of national interest. The
voters of the State, 1914, by a majority of 10,684, enacted a law
providing that when any corporation, company, partnership, or
individual employed more than 5 workers, 80% of these should
be qualified electors or native born citizens. The ambassadors of
Great Britain and Italy claimed that the law violated existing
treaties. The U.S. District Court declared the law unconstitu-
tional as conflicting with the Fourteenth Amendment. On ap-
peal the U.S. Supreme Court upheld this decision, Nov. i 1915.
Justice Hughes in the final decision said that it had already been
established that aliens were entitled to equal protection of our
laws. The election of Nov. 1916 resulted in a gubernatorial con-
test that aroused high party feeling. Governor Hunt, supported
by a Democratic assembly, had been elected for two terms. He
ran for a third time in 1916. On the face of the returns Campbell,
the Republican candidate, was elected; but both candidates came
to Phoenix in Jan. to be inaugurated, and Hunt refused to leave
the executive office. Later he was compelled to surrender the
office to Campbell, but assumed it again in Dec. 1917 after the
state Supreme Court had declared him the legally elected
governor. At the next election in 1918 Campbell was chosen
governor, and he was reelected in 1920. The bitter political
struggle was largely the outgrowth of an industrial situation that
culminated in a number of strikes throughout the state. That at
Clifton and Morenci beginning in Sept. 1915 roused the widest
interest. This strike, conducted for the most part by Mexican
labour, was organized and at first directed by agents of the
Western Federation of Miners. The unique characteristic of the
struggle was the sympathy for the strikers shown by the chief
executive of the state, Governor Hunt having ordered in the
early days of the strike that no strike-breaker should be admitted
into the district. Another singular characteristic was the absence
of the usual violence. This was attributed to the action of the
sheriff who deputized strikers themselves to protect the property
of the company. There was no loss of life, and although a large
concentration plant at Clifton was destroyed by fire, this was not
proved to be the work of strikers. After repeated attempts at
conference, no settlement was reached till the Western Federation
of Miners withdrew, leaving the Arizona State Federation of
Labor in charge. An increase of wages was granted; but the
managers asserted that this was the natural result of the in-
creased price of copper, and that they had in no way yielded to
the strikers. The industrial strife reached even a more crucial
stage in the summer of 1917 when the Bisbee deportation incident
occurred. The employees in several of the mines had struck for
higher wages and better working conditions, claiming that they
had been the losers in the general rise in prices, and that they
had not shared in the profits due to the increased value of copper.
There was a general fear that violence would result from the
activities of the Industrial Workers of the World. Sheriff Wheel-
er, supported by the conservative citizens of Bisbee, took the
position that the members of the I.W.W. and their sympathizers
were vagrants, traitors, and disturbers of the peace of the county.
In July 1917 the sheriff and his many deputies rounded up over
1,100 of the alleged offenders and deported them to Columbus,
N.M. President Wilson at once warned Governor Campbell of
the danger of such a precedent; and two months later, at the
solicitation of Samuel Gompers, he appointed a committee, of
which Secretary Wilson of the Federal Department of Labor was
chairman, to investigate and adjust the industrial disputes. This
committee found that there was no machinery whereby the
grievances could have been adjusted, since the managers refused
to recognize certain labour organizations. The committee
further recommended that Congress make future deportations a
Federal offence. A number of indictments against Wheeler and
his deputies were secured; and one case, the State of Arizona i>.
H. E. Wootton, came to trial. The defendant was freed on the
plea of the "law of necessity"; the other cases were not pressed.
The last territorial governor was Richard E. Sloan, 1909-11.
State governors were George W. P. Hunt (Dem.), 1911-9;
Thomas E. Campbell (Rep.), 1919-
Bibliography. Mining: Publications of U.S. Geological Survey
and Bureau of the Mint (1920). Recall of Judges: Congressional
Record, vol. xlvii., pt. 4, pp. 3964-3966. Cases: Hunt v. Campbell,
Pacific Reporter 169; Arizona's Alien Labor Law, 2,19 Federal;
and 239 U.S., Bisbee Deportation; U.S. Labor Department, Re-
port on Bisbee Deportation (pub. 1918). Histories: McClintock,
Arizona the Youngest State; Beard, Contemporary American History.
(H. A. H.)
ARKANSAS (see 2.551). In 1920 the pop. was 1,752,204 as
against 1,574,449 in 1910, an increase of 177,755, or H'3%-
Of the total pop. in 1920, 1,265,782, or 72-2%, were native
whites, 472,220, or 27%, negroes, and only 13,975, or 0-8%,
foreign-born whites. There were 121,837 illiterates, of whom
79,245 were negroes, 41,411 native whites, and 1,145 foreign-born
whites. The pop. was decidedly rural, only 290,497, or less than
one-sixth, being classed as urban. The average number of
inhabitants per square mile in 1920 was 33-4 as against 30 in
1910. Little Rock was the largest city, with a pop. of 65, 142
(45,941 in 1910), of whom 17,477 were negroes. The pop. of the
other leading cities was as follows: Fort Smith 28,870 (23,975 in
1910), Pine Bluff 19,280 (15,102 in 1910), and Hot Springs
11,695 (i4,434 in ipio).
Agriculture. Agriculture was still the leading industry in 1920
and, in spite of the ravages of the boll-weevil, cotton was the leading
crop. In 1916 2,635,000 acres produced 1,134,000 bales, valued at
$111,135,000, and 504,000 tons of seed. The crop of 1919 was con-
siderably less, 869,550 bales, but was valued at $159,960,400; that
of 1920, 1,177,095 bales. Arkansas cotton is of a high quality, the
price paid for it being exceeded in America only by that of Florida,
California, Arizona and Mississippi. In recent years there has been
considerable agitation in favour of diversified farming, and this has
caused an increase in the production of cereal crops and hay. The
corn crop of 1919 (34,226,935 bus.) was valued at $61,608,482. The
development of the rice industry has been very rapid. Introduced
in 1904, the production was 2,400,000 bus. in 1910, 6,797,126 in
1919, and 7,780,000 in 1920. The state ranked high in the produc-
tion of apples, both in quality and quantity. In the production of
peaches it ranked next after California, Texas and, Georgia and was
said to contain the largest of all orchards. The crop was 3,340,823
bus. in 1919. The strawberry crop was valued at over a million dol-
lars a year. The state ranked fourth in the acreage devoted to vine-
yards. In 1921 plants were erected for the making of grape-juice.
In the last few years considerable attention has been given to the
introduction of pure-bred live stock. The total value of the farm
products in 1919 was estimated at $341,565,356 as compared with
$175,057,000 in 1916.
Manufactures. In 1909 there were 2,925 manufacturing estab-
lishments employing 44,982 workers and turning out products val-
ued at $74,916,000; the value in 1919 was estimated at $100,000,000.
Lumber was the leading industry, cotton-seed oil the second. Sixty
different kinds of trees are cut for the market, hardwood and pine
being the most common. The annual cut was about 5.000,000,000
board ft., of which 2,111,200,000 was lumber. The supply of standing
196
ARMENIA
timber wasestimated in 1920 at 78, 700,000,000 feet. The chief centres
of manufacturing were Little Rock, Fort Smith, Pine Bluff, North
Little Rock, Helena and Hot Springs. A considerable impetus was
given to manufactures, especially in glass, in Fort Smith by the
discovery of gas.
Banks and Finance. In 1920 there were 404 state and private
bank and trust companies and 76 national banks with capital and
reserves amounting to $29,549,357 and resources amounting to
$273,915,676. The state banks had 389,383 depositors. There were
no separate savings banks, but the savings deposits in the banks
amounted to $12,450,710. The increase in the ratio of the banking
resources of the state to those of the nation during the years 190919
was exceeded only by Oklahoma and Nevada. There were few bank
failures for several years and depositors lost little, though there was
no guarantee law. The state budget amounted to $6,546,470. The
recognized debt amounted to about $2,000,000 provided for by spe-
cial tax. Revenue was derived mainly from the general property
tax, but a considerable sum was secured from licenses and poll taxes.
In 1920 the assessed valuation, real and personal, was $612,426,000,
which is only a small part of the real value. The appropriations for
1921-3 total $14,241,395, which was well within the estimated
revenue. The largest item, apart from the state aid to public
schools, was $2,400,000 for pensions to Confederate veterans.
Education. The school population was in 1920 676,009, of whom
483,172 attended school. For support of the schools the state and
districts expended $7,600,000 annually. The state university is
supported by a special tax which in 1912 was one mill per $1 of
assessed valuation. An amendment to the constitution, submitted
by initiative, removing the limit on taxes for school purposes, was to
be voted on in 1922.
Transportation. In 1910 the state had 4,876 m. of steam railway;
in 1920, 55,220 m. There were in 1920 eight electric street and
inter-urban lines with 152 m. of track. In the same year 59,058
motor-cars, trucks and tractors were licensed. By the close of 1920
the road-building programme comprised 9,000 m. at an estimated
cost of $108,000,000, about half of which was under construction
or contract. Dissatisfaction, partly over the cost and partly over
the fact that only real estate was assessed to pay for these roads,
led to the abandonment of many of those projected. Some of the
roads were to be asphalt or concrete, but the prevailing type was
gravel. As the counties were forbidden to issue bonds the work was
carried on by improvement districts with state and Federal aid.
The total amount of state aid available 1917-21 was $1,400,000;
Federal, $4,615,210. To secure this aid the work done by the dis-
tricts had to meet the approval of the state highway department.
Minerals and Mining. -The bauxite industry continued to develop,
growing from 115,837 long tons in 1900 to 532,000 in 1918. All the
other states together produced only 32,000 tons. Platinum was dis-
covered near Batesville in 1920. The output of coal rose from
13,195 tons in 1880 to 1,701,748 tons in 1910 and to 1,994,738 tons
in 1913; after this there was a slight falling off. The production of
natural gas was small (125,000 ft. from six wells) until 1915, when
the first strong well was opened in Crawford county. The output
of the wells near Fort Smith was in 19^0 about 200,000,000 ft., only
one-fifth of which was used. In 1921 a strong well was developed
near El Dorado; also, oil was discovered in the same region
early in 1921, and by Aug. the production has risen to over a
million barrels a month. The state ranks first in the production
of whet-stones, which are made from the famous " Arkansas "
and " Ouachita " oilstones. The clay in Saline county is used for
making pottery of a very artistic type.
History. The state continued under control of the Demo-
cratic party without interruption from 1874 to 1921. Several
attempts have been made to amend the conservative constitution,
most of which have ended in failure, owing to the requirement
of a majority of the total vote to adopt any amendment. An
initiative and referendum amendment was adopted in 1910, but
a part of it was declared unworkable by the Supreme Court. In
1916 a new initiative and referendum, submitted by petition, was
voted down; in 1920 it received a large majority of the vote cast,
but not a majority of the total vote. It was again submitted by
petition and will be voted on in 1922. In 1912 an amendment
submitted under the initiative limited the pay of legislators to a
session of 60 days, with half pay for an extra session of 15 days.
The previous session had been long and expensive. The Legisla-
ture of 1917 called a constitutional convention. When the con-
vention met, the United States had just entered the World War
and a strong effort was made to adjourn without doing anything.
As a compromise the convention adjourned to July 1918. It
then met and submitted a revised edition of the old constitution.
This was rejected by the people. Important legislation during
the period 1910-20 included abolition of the convict lease system
(convicts may now be worked on the roads) ; provision for a state
farm for convicts;- reform schools; state-wide prohibition (1915);
inheritance tax; minimum wage; restricting child-labour; com-
pulsory education; and abolition of the " fellow servants " rule.
In 1917 women were by statute given the right to vote in, primary
elections; in 1920, before the adoption of the national woman
suffrage amendment, an amendment to the state constitution
giving full rights of suffrage and the right to hold office was sub-
mitted to the voters, but failed to receive a majority of the total
vote. A legislative Act of 1921 gave women the right to hold
office. In 1921 Gov. McRae induced the Legislature to make a
beginning of reform in the state administration by abolishing a
number of offices and commissions. The governors of the state
since 1909 have been: George W. Donaghey, 1909-13; Joseph T.
Robinson, Jan. 8-March 1913; W. K. Oldham (acting), March
8-23; J. M. Futrell (acting), March 23~Aug. 6; G. W. Hayes,
Aug. 6 1913-7; C. H. Brough, 1917-21^. T. McRae, 1921-
(D. Y. T.)
ARMENIA (see 2.564). The years between 1914 and 1921
are, perhaps, the most important of any in the modern history
of the Armenian people. The bloodless Turkish revolution of
1908, followed by the assembling of a representative Parlia-
ment, opened a period in which, for a time, racial animosities
seemed to have disappeared from the greater part of the Ottoman
Empire. Armenians hailed the change as the end of their
troubles, and massacre and oppression became dim memories.
They appeared content henceforward to be citizens of a reformed
Turkey and anxious to bear their part in all the duties of citizen-
ship. Some, indeed, went so far in their new-formed patriotism
as to call themselves Osmanlis, seeking to make a national
name of the term hitherto used only by Turkish Moslems a
term embodying in the past the very spirit of Turkish conquest
and oppression. Nor was it merely the rank and file of the
Armenian people who so readily accepted the prospect of a new
Turkey. Leaders of Armenian revolutionary societies organiza-
tions whose purpose was to achieve Armenian independence,
the Hunchakists by constitutional means, the Dashnakists by
violence themselves believed that the Young Turk movement
deserved well of the Armenian people, and that the revolution
should receive Armenian support. We need not enquire too
closely into the causes of this sudden confidence. The Young
Turks possessed, as yet, little experience in organization;
they were deficient in means: they therefore courted leading
Armenians and the Armenian secret societies, from which
sources, to some extent, experience and financial aid could be
obtained. On their part Armenians held that any change which
diminished the power of the Sultan 'Abdul Hamid and his
creatures was so much to the good; and their leaders felt them-
selves competent to use the Young Turks for Armenian ends,
and to go with them only so far as Armenian interests required.
It is, indeed, a singular fact that the Young Turks and the
Dashnakists continue to find some degree of usefulness in each
other to the present time.
Cilician Massacres. But disillusionment on the part of the
Armenian people in general was not long delayed. The first
free Ottoman Parliament met on Dec. 27 1908: in April 1909
massacre broke out at Adana, in the rich Cilician plain. After
the first outbreak troops of the Young Turk army were hurriedly
brought from Salonika, and the affair seemed to have been
stamped out by the promptitude of the Government. But after
a few days it flared up again, in consequence, it is stated, of
Armenians having fired on the soldiery, who thereupon took
an active part in the work of killing and burning. From Adana
massacre spread to various towns of the vilayet of Adana, and
into northern Syria, particularly at Antioch, Kirk Khan, and
Mar'ash. Though thousands perished in the towns, a greater
number were slaughtered in remote villages and on lonely
roads; for it was the time when Armenians from the mountains
were on their way to the annual harvesting on the fertile
Cilician plain. It is believed that in all not less than 20,000 lost
their lives in this unexpected and disastrous outbreak.
Origins of the Cilician Massacre of /pop. The origins of
these massacres remain obscure; that some form of official
prompting lay behind them, however, cannot be doubted. Not
ARMENIA
197
once but often it has been proved that Turkish authorities
find no difficulty in preventing outbreaks-of the kind if they
choose; that, in fact, massacre is, at bottom, the result of
official connivance more or less direct. The Cilician massacres
have been charged to "Abdul Hamid and his satellites, as an
effort by him to discredit the government of the Young Turks.
They have been charged to the Young Turks, as an effort by them
to discredit 'Abdul Hamid, who had been deposed on April 9
just one week before the affair at Adana. Notwithstanding the
vehement disavowal of cojnplicity by the Government, and their
ostentatious endeavours to compensate sufferers and provide
for orphaned Armenians; notwithstanding the Turkish Commis-
sion of Inquiry, and the impartial hanging of Moslems and
Armenians, time brings the guilt home more and more definitely
to Young Turk leaders.
That the Armenians of Cilicia were blameless cannot be
maintained. After the first fraternal demonstrations of the
revolution they had adopted a manner toward their Moslem
fellow citizens provocative and unwise beyond belief. They had
indulged in Armenian national processions, displaying the flag
of an independent Armenia; had publicly boasted that Cilicia
itself was soon to become an independent Armenia; had insulted
and beaten Moslems in the streets of Adana. To the fatal
influence of these follies were added the economic facts that
Armenian land-owners, already in possession of the richest
areas of the Cilician plain, were rapidly increasing their holdings;
and that the Armenian population prospered and multiplied
while the Moslem population declined. The Moslems of Cilicia,
indeed, were gloomily brooding over Armenian affronts to their
patriotism, and economic Armenian encroachments on their
position as the dominant and ruling race. These matters com-
bined formed a mass of highly inflammable material.
Armenian Political Position. As the Young Turk Govern-
ment consolidated itself, and its control passed finally into the
hands of the Subterranean Committee of Union and Progress,
so the prospect of Armenians receiving equal treatment within
the Empire disappeared. Armenian representation in Parliament
was curtailed by means both direct and indirect. The total
number of Armenians who might sit in the Chamber was
arbitrarily fixed, irrespective of election results. The lists of
voters were compiled under conditions that weighed against
Armenians obtaining the vote in the proportion to which their
numbers entitled them. In common with other Ottoman
Christians the place of Armenians in the State became, in effect,
that of undesirable aliens.
Turkish Wars of 1911-3.- The Italo-Turkish War of 1911-2
passed without changing the Armenian position. Nor did the
first Balkan War, 1912-3, greatly affect the race except as to
military service. During these wars it seemed, indeed, that
massacre did not suit the policy of the Government, the desire
being to stand well with the Powers. None therefore took place.
In the Balkan War, however, military service fell heavily
upon the Armenian subjects of the Empire for the first time.
They were not permitted to serve forming Armenian units,
but were distributed throughout the army; and the most labo-
rious and dangerous duties are said to have been assigned them
as a matter of policy. In these circumstances desertions were
numerous, as might have been expected. But with none of the
incentives usually prompting the soldier to high performance,
with everything, indeed, against them, the Armenian elements,
as a whole, earned the commendation of Nazim Pasha, the
Turkish commander-in-chief, who declared in one of his des-
patches that the Armenian soldiers had performed their duty
loyally and with courage.
Attempts by the Powers to ameliorate the political situation
of the Armenian people were continued after the close of the
Balkan War. Agreement with the Turkish Government seemed
promising at the beginning of 1914, on the basis of an increased
number of Armenian deputies for the Ottoman Parliament, and
for the supervision of Ottoman officials in the " Six Vilayets "
of Eastern Turkey-in-Asia by two European inspectors general
to be selected by the Powers. There was also to be equal
representation of Moslems and Christians on the councils of
the vilayets of Van and Bitlis, in which districts the Armenian
population was presumed to equal the Moslem. But the proposed
reforms came to nothing. The Young Turk Government already
had prevision of great events to come, and were temporizing
in anticipation of developments.
The World War. Between Oct. 29 and Nov. 5 1914, the
action of the Young Turk Government resulted in war being
declared on Turkey by Great Britain, Russia, France and Serbia.
In committing their country to support of the Germanic Powers
the Young Turk leaders saw, as they thought, the great occasion
for recovering lost Turkish provinces and reestablishing the
Ottoman Empire on the widest foundations, with corresponding
advantage to themselves. They believed that with Germanic
support they were speculating in certainties. They resolved to
use the fortunate opportunity thus presenting itself for making
an end of Ottoman internal difficulties as they saw them. Chief
among these was the question of the Christian people, of Asia
Minor, the Ottoman Greeks and the Armenians, who cherished
national aspirations incompatible with Ottoman sovereignty.
The " Turkification " of the whole population of Asia Minor
the creation of a single homogeneous race for this great area was
the underlying purpose.
Policy of Massacre and Deportation. Row the policy for deal-
ing with the Armenian part of the question took form we do not
know. Probably Tal'at Pasha and Enver Pasha had as much to
do with it as any Tal'at at least is credited with its application
but they only sought to follow, on a greater scale, the example
set in past years by 'Abdul Hamid. A preposterous and cynical
scheme of compulsory colonization as part of the policy has been
attributed to German theorists; but it was not even a mask
except as affording greater opportunities for destroying the
Armenian population. Described in a few words the policy
was that of deportation coupled with extermination. The
Armenian race was to be uprooted from the wide territories
of Asia Minor beyond hope of continuance or return. From
convenient areas those of the people able to march were to be
deported to Mesopotamia and eastern Syria. Being an industri-
ous and prolific race they might, in Mesopotamia, at least, do
something toward creating a profitable, taxpaying province in
place of one requiring incessant Ottoman outlay. Armenians
from provinces too distant for deportation to be practicable
were to be exterminated or driven to a fugitive existence.
Statistics of Armenian Population. The following figures
show the numbers and distribution of the Armenian race in
Trans-Caucasia and Asia Minor, the destruction of which, or
at least of the portion contained in Ottoman territory, was to
be encompassed. In Russian Armenia the figures are those of
the Russian census of 1916. For the Turkish vilayets they are,
in the absence of any authoritative and reliable statistics, an
exhaustive and impartial estimate for the period immediately
before the war:
Districts forming the Armenian Republic of Erivan: Armenians, 795,000; Moslems, 575,000; other elements, 140,000; total, 1,510,000.
Areas claimed by Erivan, but claimed also by Georgia or Azerbaijan: Armenians, 410,000; Moslems, 460,000; other elements, 36,000;
total, 906,000.
The six Armenian Vilayets of Asia Minor in 1914.
Bitlis.
Diarbekr.
Erzerum.
Mamut
el Aziz.
Sivas.
Van.
Totals.
Armenians
Moslems
Other elements
185,000
261,000
19,000
82,000
400,000
78,000
205,000
540,000
15,000
130,000
480,000
2,000
200,000
977,000
108,000
190,000
260,000
133,000
992,000
2,918,000
355-ooo
Totals .
465,000
560,000
760,000
612,000
1,285,000
583,000
4,265,000
198
ARMENIA
The Policy in Execution. It is unnecessary to follow in
detail the execution of -the infamous policy for the destruction
of the Armenian population of Asia Minor. Suffice to say it was
begun soon after the outbreak of war by concocting reports of
Armenian revolutionary plots in support of the Allied Powers;
and then, as far as possible, by a general disarmament of
Ottoman Armenians. Though British operations in Gallipoli
and Mesopotamia, and Russian operations against the eastern
vilayets, kept the Turks occupied in a military sense, they did
not prevent Turkish activity against Armenians. During the
spring and summer of 1915, indeed, when the fate of
Constantinople and Turkey hung in the balance and inhabitants
of the Imperial City daily scanned the Sea of Marmora for signs
of an approaching British fleet, the Young Turk Government
prosecuted their Armenian policy with the utmost rigour. But
when the Gallipoli operations had plainly failed, and the outcome
of the war was thought to be no longer in doubt, a Turkish
defeat in Russian Armenia, attributed by Enver Pasha to the
Armenians, was revenged upon the race by massacres of even
greater ferocity. From first to last they were organized and
carried out systematically. Massacres on the largest scale took
place at Bitlis, Mush, Sivas, Kharput, Trebizond wherever,
in fact, a considerable and more or less defenceless Armenian
population existed. The people were butchered in masses,
butchered in groups, drowned in the Black Sea and in rivers,
burnt in buildings killed by whatever processes were found
most ready and convenient. Girls were placed in Turkish harems.
It should not be supposed, however, that no resistance was
offered, that the Armenian people sold their lives cheaply.
Although supposed to have been disarmed, weapons remained,
and on numberless occasions, in untold villages and towns, a
hopeless resistance inflicted severe losses on the attackers.
Deportation, too, became an easy indirect means of destroying
Armenian life. On the long routes of eastern Asia Minor by
which movement took place; on the subsidiary roads leading
to these routes; at the great concentration centres on which the
columns of suffering humanity were directed, the Armenian
people died of hunger, exhaustion, exposure, disease, in tens of
thousands, perhaps in hundreds of thousands. Only a com-
paratively small proportion of those who set out reached the
destination assigned them. The policy of transferring an
Armenian population to Mesopotamia and Syria became in
execution a wholesale means for destroying those who were
despatched.
Estimated Loss of Armenian Life. The Armenian policy
of the Young Turks failed, however, in that part ofTurkey-in-
Asia lying between Erzerum and Bitlis and the Russian frontier.
In this region, where the Armenian inhabitants were compar-
atively numerous, they ,were able to pass into Trans-Caucasia,
or were preserved by the advance of the Russian armies. Within
the stricken areas of Asia Minor, too, many escaped many
more than are generally supposed. Kurdish tribes gave friendly
shelter; even Turks were not without compassion; the nature
of the country, itself, afforded opportunities for escape and
concealment on a large scale. And in the Anti-Taurus mountains
were Armenian fastnesses unreached by Turkish forces.
Armenian estimates of the losses suffered by their people as
the result of the Young Turk measures are liable to be excessive.
It is in the nature of things that they should be. But if we
place the loss of life directly and indirectly caused by massacre
and deportation since the year 1914 as being in the neighbour-
hood of three-quarters of a million we cannot be very far from
the truth. In addition are what may be called the legitimate
losses of war, and these, in proportion to the manhood of the
Armenian race, were enormous.
As regards the Armenian population, not only of Asia Minor,
but of Trans-Caucasia as well, from first to last Russia is
believed to have sent 160,000 Armenian troops from Trans-
Caucasia to her battle-fronts in Europe, of whom less than
30,000 survived. For operations in Asia Minor she subsequently
raised an Armenian volunteer army, and swept into it refugees
from Turkish territory. From 1914 to 1921 Armenians were
fighting incessantly in Asia for Russia; for the French in
Cilicia and Syria, where many thousands were embodied; and
for themselves in Trans-Caucasia. Probably not less than one-
sixth of the males of the whole race perished in warfare, in
addition to loss by massacre and deportation.
Russian Policy. A brief outline must now be given of the
military operations of Tsarist Russia against the Ottoman
Empire during 1914-6, for they deeply affected Armenia and the
Armenians. For more than two centuries it had been the tradi-
tional policy of Russia to obtain possession of Constantinople
and the waterway between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
In the last 40 years she had seen her line of approach through the
Balkan Peninsula made impracticable. Correspondingly her
line of approach from Trans-Caucasia had gained immensely in
importance. She had further established her naval supremacy
in the Black Sea over any Turkish force that could be con-
centrated in those waters. With this as her policy, and in these
circumstances, Russia, both openly and covertly, opposed all
measures encouraging the development of Armenian national
sentiment and aspirations, not only among the Armenian
population under her rule in Trans-Caucasia, but also in Turkish
Armenia. Tsarist Russia, in fact, desired Armenians in Turkey
to remain a discordant disintegrating element in the Ottoman
Empire, particularly in the eastern vilayets, until such time
as she should be able to make further annexations. An inde-
pendent Armenia, it thus appears, was impracticable during the
existence of Tsarist Russia.
When war broke out between the Allied Powers and Turkey
Russia recognized that the supreme opportunity for achieving
her dearest ambition had arrived. Following the decision of
the British and French Governments to send a military expedi-
tion to the Dardanelles, she made a formal request to her Allies
that her claim to possession of Constantinople and the Straits
at the conclusion of the war should be admitted in advance.
A week later the Western Powers agreed to the proposal, and the
destiny of the greatest strategical position in the world, and with
it the destiny of Armenia, seemed to be definitely settled.
Russian Invasion of Turkish Armenia, 1914. Russian troops
crossed the frontiers on Nov. 4 1914, two days after the declara-
tion of war, and advanced towards the great Turkish fortress
of Erzerum. But the movement had no weight; it ceased after
a few weeks of indecisive fighting, and the Turks launched a
daring counter-offensive against Ardahan and Kars, in Russian
Armenia. This reckless movement was ended, however, by the
battle of Sarikamish (Dec. 29 1914 to Jan. i 1915) at which, and
at the battle of Kara Urgan in the subsequent retreat, the
Turkish army was almost destroyed. In revenge for the disaster,
attributed by Enver Pasha and the Young Turks to Armenian
elements in the Russian army, and to support and intelligence
given by Armenians generally, exterminatory measures against
the Armenian population of Asia Minor were redoubled at the
beginning of April 1915. It was at this stage that the British
and French Governments issued (May 24 1915) a declaration
that they would hold Ottoman ministers personally responsible
for the massacres.
Armenian Troops in the Russian Armies. Here it may be
remarked that when Russia mobilized in Aug. 1914 for the
World War, her Armenian troops, numbering, it is said, more
than 120,000 men, were despatched to European fronts. When
war with Turkey demanded great armies in Trans-Caucasia
these troops were not available. But as a matter of policy
Russia raised an auxiliary volunteer army of Armenians,
including many thousands of refugees from Asia Minor, for
service against the mortal enemy of their race. To these and
other Armenians in the Russian armies of Trans-Caucasia
natives of the region, inured to its climatic conditions, between
them familiar with every road and mountain path, and animated
by every incentive to fierce and resolute combat must be
credited no small measure of the success which attended
Russian arms against the Turks. Not without cause did Turkish
leaders attribute their Caucasian disasters to their Armenian
enemies.
ARMENIA
199
Capture of Erzerum. Stagnation followed on the Erzerum
front for more than a year after the battle of Sarikamish. But
during the spring and summer of 1915 a Russian army, operating
in the neighbourhood of Lake Van, invaded and occupied the
greater part of the Turkish vilayets of Van and Bitlis, peopled
largely by Armenians. This southern campaign, however, had
no serious importance except to distract Turkish attention and
save an Armenian population. The one line of military advance
from Trans- Caucasia into Asia Minor lay through Erzerum;
and Russia was preparing for an unexpected spring upon this
eastern bulwark of Anatolia. A great Russian army, including
Siberian and Armenian troops, was concentrated within striking
distance of the Erzerum position in the middle of winter. It
advanced on Jan. n 1916, and two weeks later had reached
the outposts of the fortress, a march of some 80 m., with guns
and supplies, through deep snow, at high altitudes, in temper-
atures often below zero. On Feb. 14-16 various commanding
mountain forts, the main defences of Erzerum, some of them
9,000 ft. above sea-level, were taken by storm. The city was
captured on Feb. 16 its fall a resounding disaster for the
Ottoman Empire.
Invasion of Anatolia. When the spring of 1916 came the
Russians continued their operations westward, and by the end
of July had captured the Black Sea port of Trebizond and the
important military position of Erzinjan. They had reached a
line about 30 m. west of Erzinjan, stretching from the Black
Sea to the Euphrates and thence eastward to Lake Van and
the Persian frontier, a line embracing the chief areas of Armenian
population in Asia Minor. The line so held was nearly the same
as that subsequently awarded by President Wilson as the western
and southern frontiers of Armenia.
The Russian Collapse. But this was Russia's farthest. She
was weakening at home, where symptoms of upheaval were
already appearing. On March 14 1917, a Provisional Govern-
ment was proclaimed; the Tsar abdicated the following day;
in September Russia was a republic, and on Nov. 17 Lenin
and Trotsky seized, the reins of power. The Treaty of Brest
Litovsk, in which Germany imposed terms on her beaten and
exhausted enemy, was signed on March 3 1918. The armed
forces of Russia engaged in the war in western Asia lost their
fighting value in 1917. The fleet at Sevastopol mutinied in June
of that year and removed its officers; and the armies in Asia
Minor were in process of disintegration at the same time. When
the treaty of Brest Litovsk was signed these armies were only
held together by the great personal influence of the Grand Duke
Nicholas, viceroy and commander-in-chief in Caucasia, but
had already voluntarily retired behind the Russo-Turkish
frontier of 1914.
Treaty of Brest Litovsk. In the Treaty of Brest Litovsk
Turkish claims were not overlooked, in fact the treaty gave
fulfilment to some of the wider ambitions which had developed
in the Young Turk party. It provided, in effect, that between
Russia and Turkey the frontiers should be those existing prior
to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-8; under this provision,
therefore, the old provinces of Arda,han, Kars and Batum were
to be returned to Turkey. Of these, Ardahan and Kars formed
part of Russian Armenia, or Erivan.
Even prior to the signing of the Treaty of Brest Litovsk
Turkey had been able to take advantage of the growing weakness
of Russia. As early as Aug. 1916 she had recaptured the towns
of Mush and Bitlis. But immediately after the signature of the
Treaty she pushed her troops forward and between March 12
1918 and April 27 reoccupied in rapid succession Erzerum,
Sarikamish, Van, Batum and Kars. The liberation of Turkish
Armenia by Russia had failed, and the disaster involved the
return to Turkish rule of a large part of Russian Armenia. The
only hope for the Armenian people now lay in themselves in
whatever of wise prevision, unity and sacrifice they could
command.
Federal Republic of Trans-Caucasia. Steps in the right
direction had, indeed, already been taken. The approaching
collapse of Russia became apparent to Trans-Caucasian people
early in 1917. On Sept. 20 1917 a Council of the Trans-Caucasian
Peoples of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia assembled at
Tiflis, proclaimed Trans-Caucasia a Federal Republic, and
formed a Provisional Government. When Turkey, after the
Treaty of Brest Litovsk, proceeded to overrun western Trans-
Caucasia this Government attempted to negotiate a peace
but found the endeavour fruitless. Not only were the Turkish
leaders obdurate but the republic had no real unity among its
parts. Azerbaijan, with a Moslem population, though desirous
enough of maintaining its independence, saw no great danger in
Turkey recovering lost provinces at the expense of the Christian
Armenians of Erivan; Erivan feared veiled annexation by
Georgia under the guise of federation; and all three peoples
were widely at variance upon questions of territory to which
each thought itself entitled.
On April 13 1918 the Federal Republic broke off relations
with Turkey and declared war, two days later the Turks occupied
Batum, and on April 22 the Council of the Republic decided to
proclaim its independence, but also to resume negotiations with
Turkey for peace. With such waverings of policy the republic
was likely to be short-lived.
The end came even sooner than was expectedl On May 26
1918 the three states of the republic fell apart, each declaring
its independence as a separate republic, and organizing a
national Government of its own.
Armenian Republic of Erivan. We now reach the point
where the story of Armenia, hitherto the story of a dispersed
people without a country, crystallizes into a story of an inde-
pendent Armenian state a state born to misfortune and blood-
shed, surrounded by enemies, and inaccessible to its friends,
a state whose survival and growth are matters more for hope
than for confidence.
The territory of the republic of Erivan, excluding the districts
in dispute with the adjoining republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan,
comprised the two Russian provinces of Erivan and Kars,
possessing an area of some 17,500 sq. miles. By the census of
1916 these provinces contained, in round figures, a population of
1,510,000 of whom 795,000 were Armenians, 575,000 Moslems,
and 140,000 of various other races. But the effective territory
and population of the Erivan Republic were even less at the
time its independence was declared, for nearly one-third of its
whole area was in Turkish occupation under the terms of the
Treaty of Brest Litovsk. De facto recognition, however, was
accorded the republic by the Allied Powers.
Outside the confines of the state so indicated lay other ter-
ritories claimed by it, but claimed also by Georgia or Azerbaijan.
Rather more than 2,000 sq. m. were thus in dispute with Georgia,
and some 12,000 with Azerbaijan. The census of 1916 gave the
disputed areas a population of about 900,000 equally divided
between Armenians and Moslems. Part of the area claimed
both by Erivan and Azerbaijan were the mountainous districts
of Zangezur and Karabagh, peopled by Armenian highlanders,
perhaps the finest representatives of their race. These, however,
were separated from Erivan by an area in which a Moslem
population predominated.
At best the territory occupied by the republic was an unfruitful
region of treeless mountains and valleys containing little
cultivated land, few resources, and a people reduced to the edge
of poverty. Even in time of peace it had raised barely sufficient
food for the needs of its thrifty population, but now when 400,000
refugees had poured into it, chiefly from Turkish Armenia, the
question of supplies became more and more acute. The existence
of the republic, indeed, was eventually affected by the difficulty
of obtaining supplies, not only of food but of munitions and fuel.
But the republic was faced with many other difficulties, some
external, others internal; the greater number immeasurably
intensified by the country's unfortunate geographical position.
Erivan was, in fact, an Asiatic Switzerland, though far more
remote from the sea and more inaccessible. The only line of
railway communication towards the western world ran through
Georgian territory to the Black Sea port of Batum, the only
roadway to the sea was also through Georgia to Batum. And
200
ARMENIA
Batum at this time was in the hands of the Turks, and the
Allies were still shut out from the Black Sea.
External difficulties were the active and veiled hostility of
neighbouring states. Between Erivan and Turkey was the
traditional hatred of Armenian and Turk, now inflamed to the
desperation of a life-and-death struggle. Between Erivan and
Azerbaijan was the standing enmity of Armenian and Moslem,
given definite point by the massacre of Armenians at Baku some
15 years earlier, and of Moslems by Armenians during the months
following the declaration of Armenian independence. There
was also the acute question of territory in dispute, accompanied
by incessant border fighting. Between Erivan and Georgia
trouble, at the moment, was chiefly upon opposing territorial
claims. Another hostile external influence was, a little later,
exerted by Gen. Denikin and his supporters, who aimed at
destroying the independence of the Caucasian republics and
reuniting them to a resurrected Russia.
Internal difficulties, apart from poverty and questions of the
supply of food, clothing, munitions and medical stores, were
caused, also, by the absence of administrative experience among
Armenian leaders and the sinister influence wielded by the
Dashnakists. This Armenian secret revolutionary society held
an extreme socialism; it was thus to a large extent in sympathy
with the Bolsheviks of Russia. At the same time it stood for
an aggressive military policy by the Erivan Republic and the
extension of territory at the expense of adjoining states.
British Expedition to Baku. Operations which might have
had far-reaching results for Erivan and other Caucasian states
led to the occupation of Baku in the republic of Azerbaijan,
on July 28 1918, by a small British force. It had come from
Mesopotamia through Persia, and thence up the Caspian Sea
a hazardous expedition intended to prevent, if possible, the
despatch of German or Turkish detachments from Caucasia
into Central Asia, and to open communications with the Cau-
casian republics. It had relied upon receiving local Armenian
support at Baku, but this hope failed owing to the extreme war-
weariness of the Armenian population. The Turkish troops
which had already entered Azerbaijan received reinforcements
early in September, and then attacked the town and compelled
the British force to reembark on Sept. 15.
Armistice of Mudros. The Armistice of Mudros, signed on
Oct. 30 1918, ended hostilities between the Allied Powers and
Turkey. Better days seemed now to be in sight for the Armenian
race. Turkey was crushed, the Young Turk Government had
fallen into disrepute, the chief leaders were in flight, and it
was the avowed purpose of the Allies to free the subject races
of the Ottoman Empire from Turkish rule. The Armistice con-
tained conditions that speedily relieved the position for
Armenians. The Straits were opened, Allied warships reached
Caucasian ports and Allied and American relief work was begun.
Trans-Caucasia was to be evacuated by Turkish troops, an
Allied garrison placed in Batum and elsewhere if necessary, and
Armenian prisoners-of-war and interned Armenians released
forthwith. Another clause provided for Allied occupation,
in whole or part, of the six Armenian vilayets of Asia Minor
in case of disturbances arising.
War Between Georgia and Erivan, 1919. The collapse of
Germany and the Armistice of Nov. n 1918, marking the com-
plete victory of the Western Powers, seemed to promise the
eventual creation of an Armenian state containing a majority
of the race. But with Turkish occupation ended the Caucasian
republics fell out more seriously among themselves. In spite
of Allied efforts to prevent hostilities war broke out between
Georgia and Erivan in Jan. 1919; fighting also continued between
the Armenians of Karabagh and Moslems of Azerbaijan. At
this time, too, the intrigues attending Gen. Denikin's movement
went far to embroiling the republics. These unfortunate strug-
gles did not, however, last long, nor were military operations
undertaken on a serious scale, but the old causes of enmity
remained, increased now between Georgia and Erivan by
disputes regarding use of the Batum-Erivan railway, and the
customs dues levied by Georgia on goods for Erivan.
Paris Peace Conference. On Jan. 19 1919 the Peace Conference
at Paris began its deliberations, from which, when Eastern
problems could be reached, it was hoped that a satisfactory
settlement of Armenian affairs might emerge. Each of the
Caucasian republics was permitted a delegation to lay its claims
before the Conference. Meanwhile the Supreme Council,
acting as an executive body, despatched an Allied High Commis-
sioner to Erivan to compose, if possible, the urgent differences
between the rival republics.
Armenians of Erivan had agreed to join Armenians of Turkey
in seeking the creation of a single Armenian state; the Armenian
delegation at Paris therefore represented the whole Armenian
race. The claim advanced by the delegation was, in brief, that
to Erivan should be added the eastern districts of Asia Minor in
which a considerable Armenian population had existed prior
to 1914, and that these districts should include Cilicia as being
the " Lesser Armenia " of mediaeval history.
But this comparatively moderate proposal bristled with
difficulties, and traversed principles to which the Conference
professed adherence. Ancient and mediaeval history offered
feeble arguments for the recovery of territory from a race
which could show effective occupation for the past 400 years.
Nor did any juggling with ethnological figures assist the Armenian
case, for the plain fact remained that in no vilayet of Asia
Minor, even before the massacres and deportations, was there
an Armenian majority over Moslems. The principle of self-
determination by inhabitants would therefore, if applied, de-
stroy Armenian claims.
The Armenian case stands, indeed, on firmer ground than
doubtful historical sanctions and self-determination by a
mosaic of local populations. Based on justice and high ex-
pediency it becomes a cause which no amount of theory can set
aside.
Stated plainly the case for Armenia put forward by the
delegation was that by race, language, faith, old history, serv-
ices in the Allied interest, and barbarous treatment at the
hand of the Ottoman Government over a long period, the Arme-
nian people had shown themselves entitled to separate existence
as an independent nation. And further, owing to their numbers
having been artificially reduced by calculated and systematic
massacre, justice required that their dead should be taken into
account against the principle of self-determination within any
Turkish territory to be allotted to an Armenian state. Expediency
lay in the prospect that by the erection of an effective Greater
Armenia a definite settlement of the Armenian problem would
follow a problem likely, otherwise, to remain insoluble. And
yet more, that an Armenian state, extending from the Black
Sea to the Mediterranean, would, with Allied aid, soon become
a stable, self-reliant, civilized power in the midst of one of the
chief danger-zones of the world.
The chief difficulty confronting the Armenian proposal was
that the state to be created could not at first stand alone. It
would require large financial and military support to set it on
its feet and to maintain it during the earlier years of its existence
it was doubtful even if it could police its own territory at the
outset. These difficulties were to be overcome, it was hoped,
by placing the proposed state in the charge of a mandatory
Power.
Throughout the year 1919 and the earlier half of 1920 the
prospect of finding a Power who would undertake the onerous
and costly task of mandatory grew less and less favourable.
It had been hoped that America would accept the responsibility.
The American people had shown much sympathy with the
Armenian cause; politically America was disinterested and stood
outside the jealousies of European powers; her prestige was great;
her resources unimpaired; to the Armenian people she would
have been their first choice as mandatory power. But the
American Senate rejected the. offer, fearing entanglement in
Old World affairs. Great Britain, France, Italy, each felt unable
to undertake the position war had left them more or less
exhausted; and their peoples would not incur the certainty of
additional outlay of blood and resources. The Supreme Council
ARMENIA
2OI
proposed that Armenia should be placed under the League of
Nations; the League decided that the acceptance of mandates
did not fall within its purpose. And when , at a later date, Armenia
applied for admission to the League membership was refused
her.
Treaty of Sevres and Armenia. The Treaty of Sevres, imposed
upon Turkey and signed on Aug. 20 1920, provided for the
creation of an enlarged Armenian state and for the settlement
of its boundaries. In Caucasia they were to be adjusted by
direct agreement between the states concerned or, in failure of
that method, by the Allied Powers. In Turkey they were to be
defined by President Wilson as arbitrator; and the Treaty
bound Turkey to accept his decision, but limited the area
subject to award to the whole or parts of the vilayets of Trebizond,
Erzerum, Van and Bitlis. The interests of Armenians remaining
in Turkish territory were safeguarded under the Protection of
Minorities clauses of the Treaty.
President Wilson's Award. The award defining the Turkish
frontiers of Armenia was given by President Wilson in March
1921. It assigned to Armenia the greater part of the vilayets
of Trebizond and Erzerum, and the whole of the vilayets of
Bitlis and Van in all an area of about 30,000 sq. miles. The
award gave the territory essential to the creation and develop-
ment of a self-supporting state. It included the greater part of
the eastern districts of Asia Minor containing the bulk of the
Armenian population in Turkey. It provided a coastline for the
state of about 150 m., and included the historic seaport of
Trebizond on which north-eastern Asia Minor depends for
access to the sea. And while fulfilling these conditions it brought
within Armenian territory as small a proportion of Turkish
Moslems as might be.
Wrecking of the Award. But however admirable in itself,
President Wilson's decision took Armenia little further towards
actual possession of the territory awarded under the terms of
the Treaty of Sevres. The Peace Conference might assign the
territory by treaty; the Turkish Government at Constantinople
might accept and sign the treaty; and President Wilson might
define the boundaries; but for Armenia to gain possession was
another matter. It was on this difficulty a difficulty to be
overcome only by use of a great military force that the fair
prospect of an enlarged and independent Armenia was wrecked.
Even before the acceptance of the Treaty of Sevres by the
Constantinople Government the Turkish Nationalist movement
had appeared in Asia Minor. Its chief purpose was to offer
armed resistance to the execution of any treaty involving the
transfer of Ottoman territory to Greece and Armenia. Whether
the movement originated with the discredited Young Turk
leaders or was a genuine movement recognized by them as a
promising means to their own restoration to power, is not clear.
But the movement grew rapidly in strength. Within a year the
Nationalist Government, organized at Angora, was sovereign
not only in Asia Minor, but had overshadowed the Constantinople
Government and become the real rulers of the whole of Turkey.
And as the movement gained in strength so the old Young Turk
leaders reappeared Tal'at Pasha, Enver Pasha, Kemal Pasha,
and others promoting an alliance with Bolshevik Russia;
urging Pan-Islamic ambitions, and apparently forming with
their followers the extremist Left wing of the Nationalist move-
ment. To suppress this rival Government, even had there been
no secret concord between the two, was beyond the power of the
Government at Constantinople. Nor were the Allied Powers in
a position to enforce a treaty by a great new war involving vast
expense. Still less was any single Power willing to undertake
the task. Beaten and dismembered though the Ottoman
Empire was, there still remained in Anatolia a reserve of strength,
which, in combination with the great military difficulties
presented by the country, and aided by Bolshevik Russia, was
able to defy and thwart the decisions of the Peace Conference.
Greece, indeed, her own territorial gains at stake, and sup-
ported by the Allies, commenced military operations against
the Nationalists in May 1920; and it seemed probable that the
Armenian cause might benefit. The republic of Erivan there-
fore prepared to send troops into the territory assigned her by
the Treaty of Sevres, and desultory fighting occurred. Turkish
strength in eastern Asia Minor, however, was too great for the
small force Erivan could spare from other fronts to have any
prospect of success, and no actual invasion of Turkish territory
took place. Meanwhile Greek armies encountered little resist-
ance and occupied a large area of western Asia Minor. These
operations, however, in no way crushed the Nationalist power.
In Feb. 1921, Greece undertook yet greater operations; this
time unsupported by the Allies, and in defiance of their wishes.
She aimed at destroying the Nationalist forces and capturing
Angora; but by the end of March her armies were driven back,
and she found that an offensive on a vastly greater scale would
be necessary to ensure success. To this yet more serious cam-
paign she definitely committed herself in the summer of 1921.
Bolshevik Invasion of Caucasia. To complete this historical
sketch, it is only necessary to glance more particularly at the
unhappy events in Caucasia and south-eastern Asia Minor
during 1920-1, for in this period the tragedy of the Armenian
race seemed to have reached its climax.
The Bolshevik occupation of Baku, at the close of April 1920,
ended the independence of the republic of Azerbaijan and
established a Soviet Government in alliance with Moscow; it
also brought Bolshevik forces into an area whence they could
apply pressure to Georgia and Erivan. Bolshevik Russia and
Nationalist Turkey were even now working together. Apart
from strictly Bolshevik aims the common purpose existed of
establishing direct communication between Russia, via Baku,
and Nationalist Turkey. This could only be done through
Erivan and Georgia by railway, or through Erivan by road;
the republic of Erivan, in fact, completely barred both routes.
In spite of Bolshevik propaganda in Erivan the people as a
whole were strongly opposed to Bolshevism, and when in May
Bolshevik forces in Azerbaijan attacked Erivan they encountered
a vigorous defence, and were repulsed. Moscow now endeavoured
to negotiate a treaty of alliance with Erivan, but the terms
offered were too severe. They included: the right of transit
through Erivan by rail for Soviet troops; the cession of the
disputed districts of Karabagh, Zangezur and Nakhichevan to
Bolshevik Azerbaijan; and the control of the foreign policy of
Erivan by the Moscow Soviet. Erivan refused, but in July was
served with an ultimatum requiring it to evacuate the three
districts just named.
The isolated republic had been in desperate straits for food,
fuel for its railways, munitions and clothing for its troops; but
supplies of munitions and uniforms, sent from England, reached
the country just before the ultimatum was presented. For
allowing the passage of these vital supplies through Georgia that
republic, however, had insisted on retaining 20% of everything
by way of toll.
While Soviet Russia applied pressure upon Erivan from the
east, Nationalist Turkey did likewise from the west. The
outcome was that the republic agreed to the occupation of
Karabagh, Zangezur and Nakhichevan by Bolshevik troops, thus
giving direct road communication between Azerbaijan and
Nationalist Turkey. With the very existence of Erivan thus
threatened and conscious that the same danger hung over their
own country the Georgian people might have been expected
to make common cause with their Armenian neighbours. The
danger, however, seemed to them less; they had open communi-
cation by sea and could, they thought, await developments. They
mobilized troops on their frontiers; but gave no active assistance
to Erivan.
Fall of Republic of Erivan. By Sept. everything was in readi-
ness for the next act in the tragedy. At the end of the month
a Turkish Nationalist army suddenly attacked and captured
Olti on the western frontier of Erivan. In the meantime
Bolshevik forces in Azerbaijan were massed along the railway
skirting the northern frontier of the unfortunate Armenian
Republic. An overwhelming Turkish advance was then made
along the railway upon the great fortress of Kars in the heart of
Erivan. Armenian troops checked the advance for a time, and
2O2
ARMIN, F. S. V. ARMOURED CARS
compelled a Turkish retreat, but it was only a temporary set-
back; Kars fell, and the advancing Nationalists captured
Alexandropol in November. Bolshevik risings broke out in the
capital and other towns; the resistance of the republic collapsed,
and the city of Erivan was speedily occupied by Turkish troops.
At this stage a Soviet Government was set up, and the republic
of Erivan became, in name, a Soviet Republic in alliance with
Moscow. But even so it was a republic much reduced in area.
In agreement with Moscow Turkey took possession once again
of the districts of- Kars and Ardahan, from which the Allied
Powers had ejected her in Nov. 1918; and to this territory was
added enough to bring the railway from Azerbaijan to Erzerum
within Turkish possession. Only in the region of Karabagh was
any vestige of Armenian independence preserved; there, indeed,
the Armenian mountaineers repudiated Soviet Government and,
so far, seem to have retained a precarious but independent
existence.
With Turkish forces in occupation of Erivan, a state which
had striven to form a Great Armenia by the acquisition of
Turkish territory, massacre might have been foretold. It was
hoped, however, that Soviet influence would prevent great
bloodshed, but the hope had no real ground for existence. At
Olti, Kars, Alexandropol, and then in the city of Erivan, mas-
sacres on a scale comparable only with those of 1915-6 took
place; and if this policy was followed in the towns it was followed
in the villages as well. The total loss of life cannot be estimated,
but was certainly great. When the snow melted in the spring of
1921 thousands of Armenian corpses were revealed, heaped
together, just as they had fallen in the closing months of 1920.
Cilicia and S.E. Asia Minor. In Feb. 19 20 Turkish National-
ist forces began serious operations against Cilicia, then in
occupation by French troops as part of the French sphere of
influence. They defeated various French detachments, captured
the large town of Mar'ash, and there, and elsewhere in Cilicia
as opportunity offered, resumed a systematic massacre of the
Armenian population. The position was the more disastrous
because, relying upon French protection for the future, a
great immigration of Armenians into Cilicia had taken place;
it was credibly reported, indeed, that some 20,000 of the race
perished in south-eastern Asia Minor during the spring of 1920.
At this stage the Allied Powers, who had recently decided that
Constantinople should remain in Turkish hands, threatened to
reconsider their decision unless effective Turkish protection were
given to non-Moslem elements of the population in Asia Minor.
The warning seemed to have some effect at the time, though
later developments diminished its influence.
A definite Nationalist policy lay in the Cilician operations,
however haphazard and casual they may appear. The idea had
been broached, chiefly among Armenians, of creating a Franco-
Armenian State in south-eastern Asia Minor of, in fact, reviv-
ing the Lesser Armenia of history, and placing it under French
protection. The hope that this scheme would mature was one
of the influences which brought a large Armenian population
into Cilicia in 1919. Nationalist operations in this region were
designed to thwart the project by exterminating the Armenians,
and involving the French in irritating and costly hostilities in
defence of the territory. Warfare on a small scale continued
during the greater part of 1920; for not only had the French
their hands full in Syria, but they were anxious to avoid pushing
matters to extremes with the Nationalists. They hoped, in
fact, for an arrangement.
Siege of Hajin. One of the most unhappy affairs of the
Cilician War was the siege and capture of Hajin by the
Nationalists. The town, a remote Armenian stronghold among
the Anti-Taurus mountains, was held by its inhabitants against
all Turkish attacks until Oct. 1920. Ammunition, however, ran
out; expected relief never came; and in the end the town was
stormed, and the greater portion of the population, numbering
several thousands, perished in the usual massacre.
French Negotiations with Nationalists. At the beginning
of 1921 the French and the Nationalists came to an agreement
by which, in return for important economic concessions in
wide areas of Asia Minor, France was to vacate Cilicia. The
National Assembly at Angora refused to ratify the agreement,
on the grounds that it surrendered too much and obtained
too little. They desired, in fact, possession of the port of
Alexandretta which the French had retained. Negotiations,
however, were continued. The hope that a Franco-Armenian
State might be established in Cilicia had small prospect of
realization unless a change should take place in French policy
in these regions. (W. J. C.*)
ARMIN, FRIEDRICH SIXT VON (1851- ), German general,
was born at Wetzlar Nov. 27 1851. He took part in the war of
1870-1 and was severely wounded at St. Privat. After having oc-
cupied different positions on the General Staff, he was appointed
in 1903 Director of the General Department of War in the
Prussian War Ministry, and in 1911 General-in-Command of the
IV. Army Corps at Magdeburg. During the World War he led
his corps as a part of the First and of the Sixth Army; he was
appointed in 1917 Chief -in-Command of the Fourth Army in
Flanders, where he succeeded, in the spring offensive in 1918, in
taking Armentieres and the Kemmel Hill. At the close of the war
he retired from the army.
ARMOUR [JONATHAN], OGDEN (1863- ), American mer-
chant and capitalist, was born in Milwaukee, Wis., Nov. n 1863.
Preparing for college in Chicago, where his father, Philip D.
Armour (see 2. 578), was a pioneer in the meat-packing industry,
he entered Yale in 1881 but did not finish his course. In 1883 he
entered the business of Armour & Co., and was made a partner
the following year. After the death of his father in 1901 he became
president and general manager of Armour & Co., which had been
incorporated in Illinois in 1900. Under his guidance the business
widely expanded. In 1918 in the United States alone it owned 14
slaughtering plants and 392 branch houses, with refrigeration
capacity of 15,170 tons per day; the sum paid for live stock in one
year was $517,951,026. The company was also engaged in the
preparation of by-products, such as fertilizer, glue, soap and hair.
Total sales grew from about $250,000,000 in 1910 to about
$1,038,000,000 in 1919; total net income from $9,808,303 to
$27,186,124. On Feb. 27 1920 an agreement with the Govern-
ment, resulting from a threatened suit, was filed in the Supreme
Court of the District of Columbia requiring Armour & Co.
(as well as Swift & Co., Morris & Co., Wilson & Co. and the
Cudahy Packing Company, all together popularly called the
" Big Five " packers) to begin immediately and within two years
finish the sale of " all their holdings in public stock-yards, stock-
yard railroads and terminals, and their interests in market news-
papers and public cold-storage warehouses, and forever to dis-
sociate themselves from the retail meat business and food lines
unrelated to meat packing." This would restrict them to
wholesale business in meat, poultry, eggs, butter and cheese,
j ARMOURED CARS. The armoured car is a mechanically
propelled vehicle equipped with protective armour and adapted
as a fighting machine. Its first form consisted of a motor
chassis with iron-plated sides fitted with loopholes for the crew
to fire from. It rapidly developed into a miniature armoured
fort on wheels with machine-guns and searchlights mounted in
the most effective manner. This first type was liable to be put
out of action by bombs thrown over the iron plating or from the
windows of houses, and the iron plating was not proof against
modern high-velocity rifle fire. The next improvement, there-
fore, was to place armour over the top. It was soon found that
the requirements in the armament and arrangement of armoured
cars were similar to the practice in the navy, and that, provided
a car could be kept mobile, the next main essentials were a good
range of observation and an all-round field of fire. This soon
produced the turreted cars, with a single revolving turret and
one Vickers machine-gun; and subsequently a type of car with
two turrets abreast of each other, and containing each a
Hotchkiss gun, was evolved. The advantage of a second gun in
action was evident when it was found that bullets hitting the
single gun penetrated the water jacket and thus rendered the
gun useless. On the other hand the extra weight of the double
turret placed a load on the chassis, which was already loaded
ARMOURED TRAINS ARMOUR PLATE
203
to its full capacity in order to carry armour that would be proof
against modern fire.
The use of the armoured car is limited to the roads, although
in some seasons in open countries it is possible to operate over
large areas of terrain away from the roads. Obstacles can hinder
the progress of cars to a certain extent, but with determined and
skilful drivers, and well-trained crews, there are very few roads
over which cars cannot be taken. In civilized warfare the
maintenance of large armies necessitates roads being kept open
for wheeled transport, and once the line formed by the fighting
troops is overcome there is very great scope for the employment
of armoured cars if placed under the control of a skilful and
enterprising commander.
At the outbreak of the World War in 1914 several well-designed
types of armoured cars were produced, but the enormous demands
for motor transport on the part of all the combatants to equip
their rapidly increasing forces prevented the production and
development of armoured cars in sufficient numbers to do
effective work at the beginning of the war. During the fighting
in the autumn of 1914 there were many opportunities for their
use, and a few naval cars and some small units did very useful
work in France and Belgium, but when the armies on the
western front settled down to trench warfare the blocking of the
roads prevented the further effective use of armoured cars on
that front. The armoured cars that had been made were then
sent to the distant fields of operation in Egypt, Mesopotamia,
East and South-West Africa, while the detachment of naval
armoured cars that fought in Belgium were employed in Rumania
and southern Russia, where they were almost the only represen-
tatives of the British army in those countries. During the periods
in which the contending armies were stationary and gathering
their forces for the decisive contest there was no scope for the
armoured cars, owing to the shell-torn roads, trenches and
barbed wire, but the value of the armoured protection, mobility
and fire-power of the armoured car contained the basis of the
idea which was to have considerable effect on the latter phases
of the war. In the stationary warfare of trenches the deciding
factors were machine-gun fire, wire and mud. The armoured
car could withstand the first by its armour protection, and
could return it on equal terms with its own machine-gun fire.
If it could be made to cross mud and wire the attack could
then meet the defence of trenches on more than equal terms.
The best machine for crossing soft and broken ground at that
time was the tractor with the endless steel belt, and by a com-
promise of the armoured car and the tractor the British tank
was evolved (see TANKS).
Under peace conditions armoured cars form an essential
part of most standing armies. As a means of policing the
enormous areas in which the British army is responsible for
keeping the peace the armoured car provides a unit which can
be kept mobile, ready to move at the shortest notice, and can
cover the greatest distances with the minimum fatigue and the
maximum speed. It can only be exceeded in these respects by
the aeroplane, but, unlike that machine, the armoured car unit
can provide the armoured protection of a miniature mobile
fort, equipped with machine-guns, searchlights, a plentiful sup-
ply of ammunition, food and water, that can hold its ground
until a well-organized and well-equipped enemy has been
assembled to meet it. In cases of civil disturbances, apart from
armed rebellion, the armoured car provides a means by which
the civil forces of the law can penetrate into the middle of a
crowd in a way that would be impossible under ordinary condi-
tions of police duty.
ARMOURED TRAINS. In the earliest days of the applica-
tion of railways to war uses, the idea presented itself both to
inventors and to practical soldiers of utilizing the weight-carry-
ing capacity of the railway and the pulling power of the locomo-
tive for tactical as well as for strategic purposes. " Railroad
batteries " figured in the American Civil War, and in the war
of 1870; and armoured trains have appeared thereafter sporad-
ically in most wars. Their utility, though it was confined within
rather narrow limit?, was unquestionable until the development
of mechanical road transport. Nowadays, however, in countries
where the rail system is sufficiently developed to give such
trains real freedom of movement there exists an even fuller
system of main roads on which armoured cars can operate,
and in the World War period the fighting train has only figured
in such theatres as those of the Russian civil wars, in which
roads fit for heavy traffic are as a rule rarer than railways. As
against the armoured car working on good roads the train must
always suffer from being limited to certain tracks which are very
easily interrupted by raids, air bombing, or artillery fire, and
in the future, as cars of the four-wheel drive or caterpillar types
improve, the freedom of movement of the armoured car cannot
but increase even in theatres of war in which roads are few.
Considered as a self-contained fighting unit, therefore, it is im-
probable that the armoured train will be of much practical
utility in the future.
On the other hand, the old " railroad battery " considered
as a form of gun-mounting possessed, and more than ever
now possesses, many intrinsic advantages over other forms of
mounting heavy ordnance for field warfare. In the well-laid
bed of a railway track, organized to distribute heavy strains
equably, such mountings have their firing platform ready made,
and the power of the locomotive gives heavy artillery a mobility
that otherwise it would lack. In this form, then, the train
represents the battery vehicles of horsed or motor artillery.
The central member is the heavy truck carrying the gun, and
the others are arranged for ammunition and for the accommoda-
tion of the gun personnel. Light armour is frequently used for
the protection of the vehicles against shrapnel bullets, and in
some cases the gun itself is provided with a shield. These rail-
way mountings are referred to under ORDNANCE.
ARMOUR PLATE (see 2.578). The history of armour plate
during the years 1909-21 differs from that of most other mate-
rials used in warfare, inasmuch as the period of greatest progress
and activity occurred before the World War and was followed
by a period of rest amounting almost to stagnation. The actual
years of the war, which constituted a period of intensive culture
as regards guns, shell, airships, aeroplanes, tanks, etc., added
no stimulus to progress in the manufacture of armour plate.
The efforts of British shipbuilders were devoted to the building
of light, fast cruisers and destroyers for which there was urgent
and immediate need, rather than to heavily armed battleships
which would take three years to complete.
During the years immediately preceding the war, however,
the manufacture of armour plate had made steady progress, and
the improvement in quality was marked. There were no radical
alterations such as the employment of a new alloy steel, or the
introduction of a new process of manufacture; but in the applica-
tion of scientific principles to the details of manufacture, and
the various heat treatments through which the plate passes,
immense improvements had been made and were apparent in
the quality of the finished plate. In this connexion it can be
recorded that a long series of trials have proved beyond doubt
that British armour made immediately before the war was greatly
superior in ballistic qualities to that manufactured in Germany,
in spite of the fact that the process of armour-plate manufacture
originally came from Germany. For example, a German i2-in.
plate was found to be no better than a British g-in. under the
same test, while a German lo-in. plate was only equal to the
British 8-in. The plates tested were taken from the ex-German
battleship " Baden," and are therefore thoroughly representative
of the German product.
TABLE I. British and German Armour.
Thickness of plate in
Ib. per sq. in.
Index number representing limiting ve-
locity of penetration
320 Ib. armour
400 " "
480 "
560 "
British
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
German
940
less than 895
less than 835
915
In Table I the average limiting
British plates is taken to be 1,000
velocity of penetration for
ft. per second in each case;
2O4
ARMOUR PLATE
the third column shows the comparative figures for German
plates. The projectiles used at these trials were of similar mark
and quality to those used in testing British plates of the same
thickness.
In the case of the 400 and 48o-lb. plates the actual limiting
velocities were not reached, the projectiles, at the velocities
indicated by the index figures, passing through the plates in a
practically undamaged condition. Tests carried out on turret
roof plates of i6o-lb. and 2oo-lb. thickness also showed a marked
superiority in favour of the British plates. These results may be
accounted for to some extent at least by the fact that the manu-
facture of armour in Germany was a monopoly, and to all in-
tents and purposes a State monopoly, whereas in Great Britain
there were five rival firms of manufacturers and an Admiralty
always asking for something better.
The necessity for improvement has been constant owing to
the introduction of larger and more powerful guns the i3-5-in.
in the ships of the 1909-10 programme and the i5-in. in those of
the 1912-3 programme.
Tables II and III, compiled from information contained in a
paper read by Sir Eustace d'Eyncourt before the Institution
of Naval Architects, show the increase in the thickness of armour
on British and German battleships in answer to the challenge
of the new guns.
TABLE II. British Armour v. German Guns.
Programme
Guns on
German ships
Main armour on
British ships
Gun-houses
1906-7
n in. 45 calibre
10 in. and 8 in.
II in.
1907-8
1 1 in. 45 calibre
10 in. and 8 in.
II in.
1908-9
12 in. 50 calibre
II in. and 8 in.
II in.
1909-10
12 in. 50 calibre
12 in., 9 in. and
II in.
8 in.
1910-11
12 in. 50 calibre
12 in., 9 in. and
8 in.
II in.
1911-2
12 in. 50 calibre
12 in., 9 in. and
8 in.
II in.
1912-3
12 in. 50 calibre
13 in. tapering
to 8 in. bottom
and 6 in. top.
13 in.
I9I3-4
15 in.
1-3 in. and 6 in.
13 in.
TABLE III. German Armour v. British Guns.
Programme
Guns on
British ships
Main armour on
German ships
Gun-houses
1906-7
12 in. 45 calibre
1 1 -8 in. tapering
to 6-3 in.
II in.
1907-8
12 in. 50 calibre
1 1 -8 in. tapering
to 6-3 in.
II in.
1908-9
12 in. 50 calibre
1 1 -8 in. tapering
to 6-7 in.
II J in.
1909-10
13-5 in.
13-8 in. tapering
to 9 in.
I if in.
1910-11
13-5 in.
13-8 in. tapering
to 9 in.
ll| in.
1911-2
13-5 in.
14 in., 10 in.
and 7-9 in.
14 in.
1912-3
15 in.
14 in., 10 in.
and 7-9 in.
14 in.
I9I3-4
15 in.
13 J in. tapering
to 10 in.
13! in.
Any increase in the thickness of armour presents very serious
problems to the naval architect on account of the great additional
weight to be carried, and it is therefore of vital importance that
the quality of the armour should be of the best. It is not only
in regard to increase in thickness, however, that progress has
been made. The superficial area of plates has also been increased,
and plates measuring 15 to 20 ft. in length and 10 to 12 ft. wide
are now not uncommon. Large plates are in fact a necessity in
modern battleship construction. The striking energy of a large
shell is so great that the resistance opposed to it must be dis-
tributed over as large an area as possible. As an example of the
forces involved the striking energy of a is-in. shell at a range of
10 m. is 30,000 foot tons, or in other words its energy is equivalent
to that of an express train weighing 250 tons and travelling at
60 m. an hour. There is grave danger, therefore, that a small
plate, even if it succeeds in stopping the shell, may be driven
bodily into the ship. Moreover, it is as true to-day as ever it was
that the weakest point in any armour is the joint. A heavy shell
striking a plate near an edge or corner is liable to break off and
carry away a piece of the plate with disastrous results, and it is
therefore desirable to eliminate this risk as far as possible by
reducing the number of joints to a minimum, that is to say by
increasing the size of the individual plates. At the present time
the size of plate capable of being placed on a ship is only limited
by the carrying capacity of the railways.
No substantial alteration in the process of manufacture of
armour has taken place since 1910, and the description given
in the earlier article in this Encyclopaedia requires neither modi-
fication nor addition. In other respects, however, much has
been learned, and some of the views held in 1911 require revision.
For example, the statement that " plates sometimes vary con-
siderably and are not of uniform hardness throughout " can
scarcely be said to be true to-day, in spite of the great increase in
size of modern plates over those made in the years previous to 1 9 1 1 .
It is impossible to discuss improvements in armour plate
without at the same time taking into consideration the improve-
ments which have been made in armour-piercing shell, and also
the changes which have taken place in the nature of the attack.
Conditions during recent years have been constantly changing.
The introduction of capped projectiles, and the substitution of
" unbacked " for " backed " trials, each presented problems
for the armour-plate manufacturer. Moreover it has only been
possible to solve these problems by the laborious process of trial
and error, for there is no exact knowledge on the subject, and
theories (of which there are many) have proved sadly misleading.
For example, the action of the cap has been, and still is, a subject
for discussion. It was for some time believed that the action
of the cap was only effective at velocities over 1,700 ft. per
second, whereas actual experiment has proved that it is equally
effective at velocities of 1,000 ft. per second and even less.
Constant alterations in the size, weight, and design, as well as in
the quality of steel used in the manufacture of the cap, have
further complicated the problem from the armour-plate manu-
facturer's point of view.
Interesting as the theoretical aspect of the subject undoubtedly
is, there are at present too many unknown factors, both as re-
gards shell and armour, to enable it to be regarded as an exact
science; and recent experience has only served to confirm the
statement made by an early authority, Maj.-Gen. Inglis, R.E.,
in 1880, that-" in no subject that has ever been^raised has mere
opinion unsupported by practical experience proved so worth-
less as in this."
Bullet-proof Armour. While there was a lull in the activity
of armour-plate manufacture for naval purposes during the war,
there was greatly increased activity in the production of light
or bullet-proof armour. When the armies on the western front
dug themselves in and the fighting resolved itself into trench
warfare there was an insistent demand for some means of pro-
tection for the men who had to face rifle fire at close quarters.
Innumerable suggestions were made and a vast number of
experiments carried out with a view to producing a bullet-proof
material of reasonable weight. The ordinary service bullet,
consisting of a cupro-nickel (or in some cases a mild steel) case
filled with lead, breaks up fairly easily on a plate of hard steel;
but the Germans soon discovered that if the bullet is removed
from the cartridge and reversed (i.e. so that the bullet travels
with the base or blunt end in front instead of the pointed end)
it did not break up but punched a hole in the plate.
Every effort was made to defeat this attack, but it was found
that even with the use of the best quality of alloy steel available a
minimum thickness of half an inch was necessary to stop the
reversed bullet at short range. AD sorts of materials were em-
ployed, but steels were found to be the most efficient, and of
these nickel, chrome, manganese, vanadium, molybdenum and
zirconium, both singly and in combination, were all tried. The
best results, however, were obtained from nickel-chrome plates,
sometimes with an addition of one of the rarer metals.
While these experiments were being carried out in England
the Germans were busy endeavouring to produce something
ARMSTRONG ARMY
205
more satisfactory than the reversed bullet which was only
effective at short range. In this they were completely successful,
and they produced the K or armour-piercing bullet. This con-.
sists of an outer envelope of mild steel of the same size and dimen-
sions as the ordinary bullet. In the centre of the envelope is the
bullet proper, made of hardened tungsten steel 30 mm. long,
6 mm. in diameter, and pointed at one end. The space between
the envelope and the hard bullet is filled with lead. On striking
a hard steel plate the outer envelope breaks up, but it and the
lead lining appear to perform the function of a cap, and the
hardened steel bullet perforates the plate.
At ranges up to 60 yd. with a good rifle, and more than this
with a rifle in which the rifling has been worn, the armour-piercing
bullet is not effective, owing to unsteadiness in flight, but at
longer ranges nothing less than half an inch of the best steel is of
any use as a protection against a direct hit at the normal. The
action of the armour-piercing bullet, however, differs from that
of the reversed bullet. The former is a clean penetration of the
plate, whereas the latter punches a hole and removes a portion
of the plate in the form of a small cylinder. Both at long and
short ranges, therefore, a plate of at least half an inch in thickness
was found to be necessary to give any real protection, and as
plates of this thickness weigh 20 Ib. per sq. ft. it was obvious that
a soldier could not carry his own means of protection in addition
to a rifle and the other impedimenta which he took into action.
It became necessary then to devise some mechanical method of
carrying protection, and the combined efforts of many minds in
this direction finally resulted in that weapon of offence and de-
fence which was afterwards known as a " tank " (see TANKS).
From the nature of the requirements it will be seen that the
practice of the armouring of the tanks was by no means an easy
one. In the first place the plates in an untreated condition had
to be soft enough to be easily machinable, while after treatment
they were required to withstand the penetration of the armour-
piercing bullet and the punching action of the reversed bullet.
This necessitated a very hard plate, but on the other hand it was
essential that they should be sufficiently tough to prevent crack-
ing or the breaking off of portions of the plate even when struck
near an edge or corner. In addition the plates were to be capable
of being riveted to the body of the tank or to one another, and
finally they must be of the minimum thickness, as the question
of weight was all-important.
These requirements were met by the use of nickel-chrome
steel, which possesses properties of hardness and toughness to a
remarkable degree. Steel containing 0-3 to 0-5% of carbon with
3 to 4% of nickel and 1-5% to 2-0% of chromium was largely
used, and in some cases improved by the addition of one of the
rarer metals.
In view of the work which the tanks were designed to carry
out it was of the utmost importance that they should be perfectly
bullet-proof, and it is perhaps not generally known that every
plate was tested by firing trial against the German bullet before
it was built into the tank. Under this severe but necessary test
a very high degree of excellence in the quality of the plates was
attained. The manufacturers had their own rifle ranges where
the plates were tested under Government supervision before they
were dispatched. (E. F. L.)
ARMSTRONG, SIR WALTER (1850-1918), British art critic
and writer, was born in Roxburghshire Feb. 7 1850. He was
educated at Harrow and Exeter College, Oxford. On leaving
the university he became well known as a writer on art, and his
judgment of pictures was considered of great value. From 1880
to 1892 he was art critic to various newspapers, among them
being the Pall Mall Gazette, St. James's Gazette and Manchester
Guardian. In 1892 he became director of the National Gallery
of Ireland, a post which he held for more than twenty years. He
was knighted in 1899. Sir Walter Armstrong was more espe-
cially an authority on the Dutch 17th-century and English i8th-
century periods. He was the author of many works on art, of
which the chief are: Gainsborough and his Place in English Art
(1898); Sir Joshua Reynolds (1900); J. M. W. Turner (1901);
Sir Henry Raeburn (1901) and Art in the British Isles (1909);
besides Lives of Alfred Stevens, Peter de Wint, Gainsborough
and Velasquez. He was also co-editor of Bryan's Dictionary of
Painters. He died in London Aug. 8 1918.
ARMY (see 2.592). In different sections which follow under
this heading, the later history and organization of some of the
powerful national armies which figured prominently in the
World War are dealt with. In the articles on countries details
of the post-war organization are given, and the object here is
to explain the functioning of their armies in 1914-9.
I. THE BRITISH ARMY
Command and Administration. In 1910 the British army
was commanded and administered by an Army Council, a sys-
tem first instituted on Feb. 6 1904. The constitution of this
council was: the Secretary of State for War; the chief of the
general staff (whose designation was altered in 1909 to that of
" chief of the Imperial general staff "); the adjutant-general to
the forces; the quartermaster-general to the forces; the master-
general of the ordnance; the finance member of the Council;
the civil member of the Council (later known July 1916 as
" under-secretary of State for War "); and the secretary of the
War Office (as secretary). Outside the headquarters staff an
inspector-general of the forces was appointed, whose duties were
to review generally and to report to the Army Council on the
practical results of the policy of that Council; and for that pur-
pose to inspect and report upon the training and efficiency of
all troops, on the condition of fortifications and defences and
generally on the readiness and fitness of the army for war.
On Aug. 2 1910 the duties of the inspector-general of the
forces were divided between the inspector-general of the home
forces and the inspector-general of the overseas forces (the gen-
eral officer commanding-in-chief in the Mediterranean). Both
appointments lapsed on the outbreak of war in 1914.
The above constitution of the Army Council continued until
the outbreak of the war, after which it was varied from time to
time by the following additions: the deputy chief of the Imperial
general staff (Dec. 1915); the director-general of military aero-
nautics (Feb. 1916); the* director-general of movements and
railways (Feb. 1917); the surveyor-general of supply (May
1917). The director-general of military aeronautics, who was
first appointed in 1913 directly under the Secretary of State,
ceased to be a member on the institution of the Air Council
on Dec. 21 1917. Another variation took place on Feb. 27 1918,
when the permanent British military representative, British
section, Supreme War Council of the Allied Governments, was
added; but he again was removed on April 20 of the same year.
The assignment of duties varied somewhat under the suc-
cessive Orders in Council, but the general principles were as
follows: Duties in relation to operations were allotted to the
chief of the general staff; those relating to organization, dis-
position, personnel, armament and maintenance, to the adjutant-
general, quartermaster-general and master-general of the
ordnance; those relating to the Territorial Force Associations,
the Volunteer Force and War Department lands, to the civil
member; finance duties, to the finance member; transportation,
to the director-general of movements and railways; business
relating to the commercial administration of army supplies,
not under the control of the Ministry of Munitions, to the
surveyor-general of supply.
In more detail the responsibilities of the military members of
Council were as follows: The general staff dealt with the prepara-
tions for and the execution of military operations, including the
estimates of forces required, the organization and establishments of
these forces from the broader aspect, also with all matters connected
with military intelligence and questions of staff duties, including
training and education. The adjutant-general was responsible for
all questions relating to personnel (except that of the Army Service
Corps, Army Ordnance Corps, Army Pay Corps and Chaplains
Department) and discipline, for organization, establishments in
detail, mobilization, recruiting, discharges and for the control of
the Army Medical Service. The quartermaster-general was re-
sponsible for supplies, transport, clothing and equipment (including
personnel and organization), for movements, quartering, remounts
and the Army Veterinary Service. The master-general of the
206
ARMY
ordnance was responsible for armaments, the manufacture of
ammunition and for the Fortifications and Works Department.
In the organization of the armies in the field a partitioning of
responsibilities similar to that arranged among military members
of the Council was adhered to though some modification was
necessary because the staff in the field was organized under
three principal staff officers only: The chief of the general
staff, the adjutant-general, and the quartermaster-general; the
master-general of the ordnance had no direct representation
at G.H.Q. The major portion of the latter's duties in the field
came under the control of the quartermaster-general, while the
engineer-in-chief (a special field appointment) absorbed such
of the duties of the director of fortifications and works as were
required in the field. The quartermaster-general in the field
controlled the paymaster-in-chief, and had the assistance of the
financial adviser to the commander-in-chief, while the adjutant-
general in the field controlled the Chaplains Department. It is
noteworthy that it was not until April 1917 that the director-
general of movements and railways was appointed to the Army
Council, involving the removal of these duties from the quarter-
master-general's control; a'similar change was effected simul-
taneously in the field armies by the addition to the commander-
in-chief's staff of an inspector-general of transportation, inde-
pendent of the quartermaster-general. Similarly, the appoint-
ment of a surveyor-general of supply, anticipated by that of an
additional civil member of Council to supervise army contracts
in Dec. 1914, took, for coordination purposes, from the control
of the quartermaster-general, the master-general of the ord-
nance and the finance member, such functions as related to the
commercial side of the business of supplying the army.
The military departments concerned retained responsibility for
design, specification and testing as well as for research and ex-
perimental work. The director of army contracts was brought under
the surveyor-general of supply, and later there was added the direc-
torate of army priority which absorbed the branch known as " Al-
lies' Munitions Requirements " from the Department of the Civil
Member. A director of wool textile production was added in Dec.
1917, and in Feb. 1918 the Army Salvage Branch developed and
was placed jointly under the quartermaster-general and the surveyor-
general of supply. The only other appointment of interest is that
of the military secretary. This office has always existed ; at one time
it was under the direct control of the commander-in-chief and
later under the Secretary of State for War. The exact functions
have varied from time to time. Broadly speaking, the branch, both
in the War Office and at a G.H.Q. in the field, dealt with appoint-
ments and promotions of officers, and with honours and rewards
for all ranks. Other changes which removed certain duties and
responsibilities from the Army Council to newly formed ministries
were effected by the creation of the Ministry of Munitions (June
1915), the Ministry of Pensions (Feb. 1917), and the Ministry of
National Service (Oct. 1917). Thus, on its formation, the Ministry
of Munitions took over responsibility for the supply of munitions,
leaving the question of design to the War Office. About June 1915,
however, the Ministry of Munitions became responsible for design
in so far as part of chemical warfare and trench warfare was con-
cerned, and in the following Oct. it took over responsibility for
design in other directions. The director of artillery became indeed
nothing more than the military representative of the War Office
and the Front, responsible for making demands affecting both
design and supply on the Ministry of Munitions.
In the original design for the British armies in the field, the
inspector-general of communications held the status of a com-
mander, but by a process of gradual absorption he eventually passed,
except for defence duties on the lines of communication, under the
command of the adjutant-general (for reinforcements and casualties)
and the quartermaster-general (for supply and maintenance).
It is unnecessary to describe in detail the organization of army
headquarters in India, but it should be said that, so far as Indian
army troops cooperating with British troops in the various theatres
were concerned, the system of command and administration was
generally similar to that described above, the chief difference being
that in India the medical, ordnance and military works branches
were each of them independent branches, working directly under
the commander-in-chief. As for the dominions, Crown colonies
and protectorates other than India, it had been unanimously agreed
at the Imperial Conference of 1909 that the organization of all the
forces of the Empire should be assimilated as far as possible. In
Canada there existed a permanent militia and an active militia, each
serving on a three-year term of engagement. They were organized as
7 mounted brigades, 10 brigades of field artillery, 23 infantry
brigades, with the necessary ancillary services. In Australia a
Military Training Act had been passed, rendering liable for service
in time of emergency all males between the ages of 1 8 and 60, and
imposing compulsory training in the militia on all males between the
ages of 18 and 26. The permanent force comprised only three field,
batteries, 13 companies of garrison artillery, with certain engineers
and a nucleus of departmental services. This force, serving on a
five-year engagement, and the militia forces, serving on a three-
year term, were organized in both mounted and infantry brigades
with establishments similar to those of the British army. In 1913-4
the militia comprised 23 mounted regiments, 22 batteries of field
artillery and 50 battalions of infantry, with proportionate ancillary
services. In New Zealand all males between the ages of 17 and 55
were liable for service in time of war, those between 18 and 25 under-
going training and those between 25 and 30 passing to the reserve:
The permanent force (sufficient only for instructional purposes)
serving on an eight-year engagement, and the territorial force, on
a seven-year engagement, consisted of 12 mounted regiments, 9
batteries of field artillery, 9 batteries of garrison artillery and 16
battalions of infantry with the necessary ancillary services. In the
Union of South Africa the permanent force on a five-year engage-
ment consisted of five mounted regiments and five batteries of
artillery. There were also a small coast -defence force and an active
citizen force, serving on a four-year engagement, comprising nine
mounted regiments, four dismounted regiments, three batteries of
field artillery, 12 battalions of infantry and the necessary ancillary
services. No other colony or protectorate maintained a force of any
appreciable size, but all had some force of armed police or volunteers
in some sort of military organization. In certain of the protectorates,
such as East Africa, Nyassaland, Somaliland, Uganda, Gambia,
Gold Coast, Nigeria and Sierra Leone, permanent coloured troops,
officered by officers seconded from the regular army, were maintained
for local service. In all the dominion forces the armament was in
the main identical with that of the British army, the only important
exception being that Canada in lieu of the Lee-Enfield -303 rifle had
the Ross of the same calibre. The latter was discarded early in
the war.
Forces Available. Until the end of the ipth century the
British forces, always limited by the expense entailed, were
maintained for the following purposes: (a) Garrisons of trained
troops for the outlying colonies and protectorates (including
India); (b) a force available for the prosecution of punitive
expeditions, or for the maintenance of order in those colonies
and protectorates or on their frontiers; (c) the first-line defence
of the United Kingdom in the event of invasion. The South
African War, however, of 1899-1902 proved such a severe strain
on home military resources that assistance offered by the self-
governing dominions was gratefully accepted; and the rendering
of this assistance marks a definite and important step forward
in the military organization of the Empire as a whole. Owing
to the trend of European politics at the beginning of the 2oth
century, the purposes for which the military forces were main-
tained underwent a definite change, and the organization still
limited by the costliness of a purely voluntary system of service
was subjected to a series of reforms based on the following
possible requirements: (a) a small striking force capable of taking
the field in Europe at short notice; (b) garrisons for colonies and
protectorates (including India) and reinforcements for the
prosecution of punitive and other campaigns in connexion there-
with; (c) the defence of the United Kingdom against invasion
during the possible absence of the striking force referred to
above. This change in policy, due to the possibility of inter-
vention in a European war, involved the absorption in the
striking force of the whole of the regular forces serving at home,
and thus the provision of additional organized forces adequate
for defence against invasion became a vital necessity.
During the years 1910 to 1914, therefore, military effort was
concentrated on the organization of this small striking force of
regulars (which received the title of " Expeditionary Force ")
and of the Home Defence Force of territorial troops. The
focussing, at the outbreak of war, of the whole regular military
energy and experience on a small expeditionary force, and the
consequent neglect of preparations to make use of the untrained
masses of the male population capable of bearing arms, led,
however, to a temporary paralysis of the powers of expansion.
The regular expeditionary force was permanently organized in
its field formations of divisions; and up to the outbreak of the
World War no higher formations, such as army corps and armies,
had been definitely organized, although the staffs and head-
quarter units for a general headquarters and two armies (or
ARMY
207
army corps) were detailed to be formed on mobilization. In
addition the lines-of-communication troops provided were cal-
culated to a minimum, which in practice soon proved inadequate.
As regards personnel, the peace establishments of the units
composing the force were, in the interests of financial economy,
based rather upon the numbers required annually to provide
the drafts necessary to maintain the strengths of the garrisons
in colonies and protectorates than upon the requirements of the
Expeditionary Force when it should take the field.
As must be the case with any army raised and maintained
upon a voluntary basis and paid as economically as possible,
a constant and large percentage of the individuals included in
the home establishments were " immature," either because
their training had only lately begun or because they had been
accepted when still youths with a view to their gradual develop-
ment; so that in order to put this Expeditionary Force in the
field it was always necessary that there should exist reserves not
only sufficient to make up the difference between peace and war
establishments, but also sufficient to replace the " immatures "
included in the peace establishments and to provide replace-
ments for early casualties up to 10% of the force. But, in spite
of continued and varied campaigning, the British army had
never been called upon to replace any great number of casualties;
and therefore the necessity for providing numerous trained
reserves in excess of those required for first mobilization, although
foreseen, was not sufficiently realized by the country as a whole.
The actual organization maintained, then, during this period
was as follows: (a) The regular army at home, organized to
place in the field, at very short notice, one cavalry division
(four to five brigades), six infantry divisions (with a minimum
of lines-of-communication troops), and certain coast-defence
troops (for home defence). To meet the deficiences in per-
sonnel there existed: (6) the regular reserve, composed of men
who had been fully trained by service in the regular forces;
(c) the special reserve (known as " militia " until 1908), organ-
ized in units and composed of men who had merely received a
recruit's training and subsequent annual trainings of 27 days
in their special reserve unit, and certain skilled tradesmen who
did not require and did not receive a military training (these
were not organized in units). The special reserve units proper
formed the infantry of the coast-defence garrisons. It was further
proposed that certain of these special reserve units (known as
" extra-special reserve units ") should be used as units (not
draft-finding) either on the lines of communication of the Expe-
ditionary Force or to relieve regular units on foreign service in
order that they might join the Expeditionary Force, should it
be so desired, (d) The Territorial Force, organized in 14
mounted brigades, 14 infantry divisions and certain coast-
defence troops. Being designed for home defence only, the
peace establishment of the Territorial Force was intended to be
that at which it would take up its defence duties in war. And
not only was the strength of the Territorial Force seriously
deficient, but much of the personnel were inadequately trained,
and, moreover, included a large percentage of men who were
too old or too young or physically unfit for active campaigning.
The Territorial Force Reserve was so weak as to be negligible
(661 officers and 1,421 other ranks on July i 1914).
Other forces which existed or came into being during the years
1910 to 1914 which may be termed the preparatory period for the
World War were, in addition to the Territorial Force Reserve:
(a) the Technical Reserve; (b) the Veteran Reserve. When these
forces were first formed in 1910 they were intended to be part of the
Territorial Force Reserve, but in 1911 they were reorganized, and
the Territorial Force Reserve was relegated to its own force, the
other two reserves becoming distinct formations, the Veteran Re-
serve being renamed the " National Reserve." Neither of these
forces had any definite liability for service unless undertaken by
individual members in some other capacity. The functions of the
Technical Reserve were to supply expert and skilled workers to
assist the national forces in time of national emergency. For this
purpose there were registered a number of owner-drivers of motor
vehicles, a few of whom were eventually attached to the Expedition-
ary Force, the larger number, however, being utilized at home.
The " Voluntary Aid Detachment " scheme also was instituted as
part of this reserve, and in accordance with the Geneva Convention.
Originally designed to supply the personnel for " casualty clearing
stations " it was finally used for the purpose of supplying personnel
(almost entirely female) for military hospitals at home and overseas,
each individual taking service on a personal engagement. The
organization also provided and maintained a considerable number
of hospitals and convalescent establishments at home.
Training of Youths. Cadet units had been in existence for
many years. as a part of the old volunteer system, and were
broadly divided into two classes: those raised and maintained by
universities and schools, and those raised and maintained locally
at the expense of individuals. On the formation of the Terri-
torial Force the former class were formed into Officers' Training
Corps, and in 1908 were removed from the jurisdiction of the
Territorial Force Associations and came directly under the War
Office. The latter units, however, were taken over by the Terri-
torial Force Associations. The Officers' Training Corps existed
primarily to provide officers for the special reserve and the
Territorial Force; they were divided into senior and junior divi-
sions by ages, the former being practically confined to the uni-
versities. Members of these corps could obtain a first certifi-
cate in either division, but the second, and qualifying, certificate
could only be obtained in the senior division. The number of
O.T.C. contingents in 1910 was 171 and in 1913, 182; but the
numbers composing the units had increased in 1913 to 25,208.
That efficiency was also growing is shown by the fact that, in
1910, 2,665 certificates were obtained, and in 1913, 8,303 the
attendances at Annual Camp in each year exceeding 10,000.
In 1910 there were 340 officers commissioned direct from these
Officers' Training Corps, and in 1913, 2,096.
During the war period the Officers' Training Corps were con-
tinued, and considerable use was made of their personnel in
supplying the deficiency of instructors for the formation of the
new armies and also in meeting the grave shortage of junior
officers throughout the regulars, territorials and new armies.
The normal work of the corps more especially of the senior
division in granting certificates and supplying officers for the
Territorial Force and special reserve continued throughout 1915;
but at the end of that year those members who attained 18
years of age were called upon to be attested as privates, and
were then immediately passed to the reserve. They were,
however, continued as members of their O.T.C. until the age of
19, when they were summoned to the Colours. This continua-
tion of their training enabled them to be rapidly brought forward
for commissions, if duly recom'mended by their O.T.C.
The cadet units provided for the training of boys with a view to
their eventually joining the ranks of the Territorial Force, and for
this purpose there was a recognized affiliation between the cadet
unit and the appropriate Territorial Force unit. In 1910 there were
39 such cadet units, comprising 53 companies, rising gradually to
258 units, comprising 848 companies, in 1914. During the war a
very large increase took place, there being in 1915 312 units, com-
prising 1,007 companies, with a total strength of 41,108; which in
1919 had risen to 890 units of 2,464 companies, with a total strength
of 102,500 cadets. Though by no means an Officers' Training Corps,
the 28th Batt. of the London Regt. (Artists' Rifles) was in Dec.
1914 selected by the commander-in-chief to act as an officers'
training battalion for the armies in France ; it was withdrawn to the
neighbourhood of general headquarters, and to it were attached for
training all candidates for commissions from the ranks of the Ter-
ritorial Force units in the field.
During 1916 the deficiency in officers became even more acute,
and early in that year a cadet school was established in France at
which N.C.O.'s and men selected from units actually in the field
were trained with a view to their obtaining temporary commissions.
Simultaneously the Army Council decided that in future except
in certain technical branches no temporary special reserve or
Territorial Force commissions would be granted to any candidate
who had not passed through the ranks of a cadet school (latterly
designated " cadet battalion ") unless he had previous military ex-
perience as an officer. This necessitated the formation at home of a
number of cadet battalions specially designed to prepare candidates
for commissions. They must not be confused with the Officers'
Training Corps of the cadet units normally existing in peace; in
fact, members of both senior and junior divisions of the Officers'
Training Corps were compelled to pass through these new cadet
battalions before being considered for commissions.
Organization. Certain reorganizations in the regular army
itself took place immediately prior to 1914. The system of
communication was greatly improved by the formation of signal
208
ARMY
companies, Royal Engineers (telegraph, telephone, visual and
despatch-riding). One such company was allotted to each
division, the headquarters section being with divisional head-
quarters, and a section with each infantry or cavalry brigade
headquarters, units maintaining their own signallers for internal
communication. In the field artillery 2 howitzer brigades and
6 divisional ammunition columns were added, the, result being
that each of the 6 Expeditionary Force divisions was provided
with a complete howitzer brigade of 3 batteries, in place of
the brigade of 2 batteries which had hitherto existed. In con-
sequence of these additions, an increased number of army
reservists were required for mobilization; and to provide them
a certain number of recruits for field artillery were taken for
a short period of Colour service in order that they might be
rapidly trained and passed to the reserve. In this way it was
possible to reduce the number of special reservists of the field
artillery, and the training brigades hitherto maintained for
these special reservists became available to form the divisional
ammunition columns on mobilization. The' number of field-
artillery depots was increased from 4 to 6. The infantry organ-
ization was also altered from 8 to 4 companies per battalion.
This reorganization had not taken place in the Territorial Force
when mobilization occurred, but was then introduced. A com-
plete revision of the system of supply and transport in the field
was also made. The divisional train system (organized in 4
companies, each composed of a technical headquarters and
the baggage and supply wagons of units, manned by Army
Service Corps drivers) was introduced, and the chain of supply
to railhead was completed by the introduction of a mechanical
transport supply column of 3-ton lorries for each division. This
unit, plying between railhead and the refilling point, daily
refilled the supply wagons of the train. The cavalry division did
not form a train but was served by two mechanical transport
supply columns of 3o-cwt. lorries delivering on alternate days.
The supply of ammunition was organized in a similar manner,
the divisional ammunition column (horsed) refilled units and
was itself refilled from railhead by a mechanical transport
ammunition park (one per division). (For the FLYING CORPS, see
the article under that heading.)
In the organization adopted for war the division was designed
to be the tactical and administrative unit, self-contained in
that it was composed of all arms (except the Flying Corps) and
was provided with all the ancillary services required for its
maintenance in the field. This system obtained throughout
the British armies during the war, the divisions as self-con-
tained units being allotted to army corps as occasion required,
and these in turn to armies; the only deviation was in the case
of the Australian and the Canadian army corps, in which the
corps itself, once formed, remained intact and in certain respects
became the " unit of administration."
The division in detail consisted of: headquarters (including
the commander and staff, the commanders of artillery and engi-
neer troops and the directors of medical, veterinary and ord-
nance services) ; 3 infantry brigades each of 4 battalions, re-
duced in the winter of 1917-8 to 3 owing to shortage of personnel;
4 artillery brigades each of three 6-gun batteries (three bri-
gades were i8-pounder guns and one was4-s-in. howitzers); one
heavy battery and ammunition column four 6o-pounder guns,
horse-drawn; one divisional ammunition column (carrying
ammunition for all arms); 3 field ambulances each comprising
bearer and tent divisions; 2 field companies Royal Engineers
(a third added later) ; one signal company R.E. (sections distrib-
uted to headquarters of divisions and infantry brigades); the
divisional train (carrying baggage and supplies and executing all
supply arrangements between refilling points and the troops
themselves); one mobile veterinary section; one cavalry squad-
ron (withdrawn almost immediately to reenforce the cavalry
corps). Thus it had a strength (excluding details at the base at
the rate of 10% of strength) of 585 officers, 17,488 other ranks,
5,592 horses, 76 guns, 24 machine-guns.
The organization of a cavalry division followed the same lines,
but comprised 4 brigades each of 3 regiments, in place of 3
brigades each of 4 battalions in the infantry division. The
strength (excluding details at the base at the rate of 10% of
strength) was 439 officers, 8,830 other ranks, 9,815 horses, 24
guns (i3-pounder), 24 machine-guns.
Administration of Personnel. The record of services of all per-
sonnel (except officers) together with necessary personal details
were kept track of through the " record offices." In these offices
were filed the original attestation forms, on which all "casualties"
affecting the rank and file (e.g. promotion, postings, transfers,
alteration of original terms of service, wounds, rewards, punish-
ments, and details of marriage, children ancj next-of-kin) were
entered on receipt of the notification of the " casualty " from the
unit concerned. This system continued in war as in peace. All such
notifications in war, however, passed through the 3rd echelon of
general headquarters of the theatre and were also entered on a
special war army form which followed the individual throughout his
service during the war period. By this means general headquarters
could be kept informed of the state of their forces in bulk or detail
and the War Office of the general strength of the armies. The
careers of officers were followed in a somewhat similar manner, but
certain War Office branches acted as record offices.
Payments to officers were made through agents (bankers), and
special army cheques made out by an officer could be cashed within
defined limits by field cashiers accompanying the troops. Payments
to men were reported on " acquittance rolls " and entered in the
personal pay book carried by every man. These payments
together with credits, counter-charges and claims received from
any source or resulting from casualties reported to record offices
were brought to account by the regimental paymaster at home in
charge of the accounts of the men affiliated to each record office.
This system, prepared shortly before the outbreak of war and first
tested therein, obtained for all theatres except India and Mesopo-
tamia, and proved very successful the maximum personnel en-
gaged at any time being 1,942 directing staff (of whom 250 were
females) and 44,676 subordinates (of whom 30,000 were females).
Mobilization. Preparations for mobilization had received
most careful and detailed consideration during the years im-
mediately preceding the war; and it may be truly said, in
respect of the Expeditionary Force, that when mobilization
was ordered in Aug. 1914 everything was ready " down to the
last gaiter button." These mobilization preparations were con-
fined entirely to that Expeditionary Force; the embodiment of
the special reserve and the Territorial Force being merely a
calling-up of existing personnel and not in any sense a " mobil-
ization." The stages in the prepared plan of mobilization were
minutely followed, and comprised, first, the initiation of what
was termed the " precautionary period," followed almost at
once by that termed " general mobilization." The " precau-
tionary period " scheme was based on the necessity for defending
the United Kingdom against the possibility of invasion or raids
a primary danger in the case of an island power. For this
purpose the role of the navy was of first importance; and defence
was required for all harbours and dockyards called into use.
The plan was briefly that all standing defences (artillery and
its ancillary services of electric lights, etc.) should be immediately
placed on a war footing the personnel being completed by
regular reservists who, on the first day of mobilization, joined
the units detailed for standing defence duties. These units
again were augmented by units of the special reserve and Terri-
torial Force accustomed to train annually at the defences for
which they were intended and which they actually manned at
the outset of the " precautionary period." The mobile force
associated with these defences was in the first instance formed of
infantry and artillery units composing their peace garrisons,
reenforced temporarily in many cases by detachments of serving
personnel from units stationed farther inland and actually
mobilizing. On the embodiment of the Territorial Force, cer-
tain of its units proceeded, according to programme, to their
coast defences (known as their " war stations "), thus replacing
units of the regular army temporarily forming mobile garrisons
but actually destined for the Expeditionary Force; these Terri-
torial Force units were sufficient not only to form the garrisons,
but also to furnish small mobile columns. Later, certain of
these units chiefly those detailed for fixed defences were in
turn relieved by special reserve infantry units, who proceeded to
their allotted coast defences or " war stations " after embodi-
ment at depots, where they had shed their Expeditionary Force
ARMY
209
personnel and absorbed any surplus regular reservists and sick
and immature men of the mobilized regular units. In addition
to the manning of the coast defences, certain vulnerable points
e.g. possible landing-places for small raiding-parties, cable
landing stations, wireless receiving stations, vital railway bridges
required watching or protection at the inception of the
precautionary period. This was undertaken as an additional
obligation by the special service sections of the Territorial Force,
each being allotted a particular war station. Those units of the
Territorial Force not absorbed either at once or after relief by
the special reserve units in coast defences, were assembled for
training in their infantry divisions and mounted brigades;' and
preparations were completed for their rapid conveyance to any
threatened point.
In actual fact a slight variation from the original scheme was
made for a few days in respect of the disposition of the 4th Reg-
ular Division of the Expeditionary Force. This division, whose
normal peace stations were in Woolwich, Shorncliffe, Dover,
Chatham and Colchester, was ordered on the third day of mobil-
ization to send small forces of infantry and artillery to Norfolk,
Yorkshire and Edinburgh. Its headquarters were later moved to
Bury St. Edmunds, and took over for some days the command
of the east coast (excluding coast defences), until a Territorial
mounted division was sufficiently organized to release the 4th
Division for the Expeditionary Force in France. Similarly,
the 6th Division from Ireland was brought over to England and
assembled as a support to the Territorial formations guarding
the east coast. This division, an integral part of the Expedi-
tionary Force, was retained at home for this defensive purpose
until the beginning of Sept. and only then followed the Expedi-
tionary Force, joining it on the Aisne. General mobilization was,
therefore, really confined to the regular units comprising the
Expeditionary Force.
To deal first with personnel. As a constant preparation for
mobilization, each unit during peace compiled twice yearly a
mobilization form, showing the personnel actually available with
the unit, less those required for duty elsewhere and those immature
or insufficiently trained for the field. This form was passed to the
record office concerned, which, after stating the number of reservists
detailed for the unit and its first reinforcements (which invariably
accompany it overseas), and any deficiency or surplus of reservists,
passed on the form to the War Office for investigation and informa-
tion. The only action taken in the War Office was to detail the
requisite number of officers from the reserve of officers and special
reserve. The proclamation of mobilization and simultaneous issue
of posters and individual notices summoned all reservists to rejoin
the Colours -those of cavalry and artillery to allotted depots;
those of infantry to regimental depots, where they were clothed,
armed, equipped and dispatched as required to units, the residue
remaining at depots for incorporation in special reserve units in
course of embodiment. Those of other arms rejoined their units
direct, there to be clothed, armed and equipped ; any surplus or
deficiency being adjusted by their corps depots, where the surplus
unallotted reservists rejoined. As regards materiel, each unit of the
Regular Expeditionary Force (with the exception of certain mechan-
ical transport units of the Army Service Corps) possessed the
mobilization vehicles, arms and equipment required to pass from
peace to war scale; and it was merely a question of issue and
taking into use. As regards horses, the whole system had under-
gone revision only just in time for actual mobilization. This
system was that commands made a classified census of suitable
horses available among the civil population. Any surplus over
and above that required by units mobilizing in one command
was re-allotted by the War Office to meet deficiencies in other com-
mands e.g. the Aldershot command, which has practically no
territorial area, obtained most of its horses from the London
district, which mobilized very few troops. The system involved
sending for the horses, but the loyal cooperation of inhabitants in
voluntarily bringing their horses to named centres to a certain
extent overcame this defect. Certain large firms had for some
years received annual subsidies under a contract to provide on
emergency a given number of horses of specified classes suited to
military requirements.
The War Period. Owing to the special conditions of warfare
which prevailed from 1914 onwards, to the progress of inventions,
and to the variety of theatres in which operations took place,
the standard organization of the original Expeditionary Force
proved inadequate to meet the various requirements. It is,
however, noteworthy that the structure of the infantry divi-
sion the main basis of organization remained substantially
intact, though the strengths and the proportions of arms and
services underwent modification, according to changing condi-
tions and the special needs of certain theatres. Thus, to the
divisional organization were added, for example, an employ-
ment company and a salvage section.
Royal Engineers. In the later stages of the war the need in
connexion with artillery-ranging for more accurate ground sur-
veying than was afforded by the field-maps became evident. The
three field survey companies employed prior to mobilization by the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries on the continuous survey of the
United Kingdom were therefore expanded into field survey
battalions, France receiving one per army and other theatres a
due proportion. These included specialist sections termed topo-
graphical, map, observation, sound-ranging and meteorological.
When mine warfare was added to trench warfare above ground,
25 special " tunnelling companies," recruited from coal-miners,
were formed, each with an establishment of 14 officers and 307
other ranks. This was later raised, in the case of all but 5 companies,
by 4 officers and 223 other ranks per company, by the attachment of
infantry working parties.
Artisan works companies to the number of five were formed in
France for the construction of hutting and other engineering work.
Eleven forestry units, for the purpose of obtaining timber in France,
were raised, and in addition a considerable number formed in
Canada were employed in France, Scotland and Wales. Seven army
tramway and foreway companies were formed in France to con-
struct, maintain and operate trench tramways and light railways,
and these eventually became transportation (R.E.) units. A
" special works " unit (Camouflage Park) was formed in 1916 and
operated throughout the armies. A small inundation section was
formed in France in 1918.
Chemical Warfare. After the German gas attack at Ypres in
April 1915 a start was at once made to select, organize and train the
personnel who were to be concerned with the use of this new lethal
weapon. The first special company of the Royal Engineers was
formed for the purpose in July 1915, and numbered 186, and three
other companies were in existence by Sept. of that year, taking part
in the battle of Loos. Rapid progress continued ; during the winter
1915-6 the 4-in. Stokes mortar and an improved flame-thrower were
developed, and in Oct. the special companies were expanded into a
special brigade R.E., which was composed of a special (cylinder)
company R.E., with an establishment of 8 officers and 250 other ranks,
a special (mortar) company R.E., of 18 officers and 310 other ranks,
and special sections R.E. (for flame-throwers) which, however, were
never fully equipped or up to strength, the use of this weapon being
soon abandoned. During 1917 this organization was again revised,
and each of the five armies then in existence in France was provided
with a headquarters special company R.E.- the various technical
companies being allotted as required by the tactical situation.
The above was the organization for offensive action. Defensive
measures against gas were first organized by the director-general of
the army medical services; and in June and July of 1915 specialist
officers were appointed to the headquarters of each army, where
anti-gas schools were established. These officers were at first called
" chemical officers," then " gas officers," and finally " chemical
advisers." In March 1916 the defensive measures were taken over
by the director of gas services for coordination with the offensive
measures, and gas officers were appointed to all divisional head-
quarters where anti-gas schools were established. The special
brigade R.E. also provided non-commissioned officers to infantry
brigades for the purpose of checking the fitness or otherwise of the
respirators and for supervising the general state of gas defence. In
March 1917, chemical advisers were appointed to each corps head-
quarters. The gas services eventually expanded to a total of 490
officers and 6,875 other ranks.
Royal Artillery. In the original Expeditionary Force the ratio
of guns to infantry was approximately 6 per 1,000 rifles, but as the
war progressed so did gun-power show a marked increase; and
whereas in Aug. 1914 Royal Artillery personnel throughout the world
totalled 92,920, by Aug. 1918 it had reached 548,780. Taken in
detail the horse artillery made but slight increase, the number of
batteries rising from 26 to a maximum of 28 in 1918; field artillery
increased from 153 to a maximum of 722 batteries in 1915. This
number, however, was subsequently reduced to just over 600 6-gun
batteries by the assimilation of a certain number of 4-gun batteries.
A considerable reorganization took place later when the field artillery
brigades were reclassed as " divisional " and " army." In the
Royal Garrison Artillery, which manned the medium and heavy
guns and howitzers as well as the few mountain batteries, the
number of heavy batteries rose from 12 to a maximum of 100 in
1916; siege batteries from 3 to a maximum of 425 in 1917; mountain
batteries from 9 to a maximum of 17 in 1918. Anti-aircraft sections,
non-existent in 1914, reached a maximum of 275 in 1918. Trench
mortar batteries, first formed in 1916, reached their maximum of
142 in 1917.
Machine-Gun Corps. In the autumn of 1915 the formation of the
Machine-Gun Corps was decided upon. Originally consisting in
2IO
ARMY
separate companies, the corps was reorganized in the winter of 1917-8
on a battalion basis. Eventually one machine-gun battalion was
attached to each division, and other battalions were army troops.
A battalion comprised 4 companies, and a company consisted of
4 sections each of four guns (total 64 guns). A portion of this
corps eventually became the nucleus of the Tank Corps.
Tank Corps. In June 1916, the heavy section of the Machine-
Gun Corps in France was organized in six companies as the nucleus
of the Tank Corps. Each company consisted of 4 sections, each of 6
tanks, three " male " and three " female," with one spare tank per
company. The crew of a tank was one officer and seven other ranks.
In Sept. of the same year expansion was decided upon. An adminis-
trative branch was to be formed in England and a fighting branch
in France, consisting* of 4 companies designed to become 4 battalions
as the tanks became available. At the same time 2 companies were
formed in England with the intention of their development into 5
battalions. By Nov. 1916, the first 4 battalions in France were
grouped in 2 brigades, and in April 1917, the 3rd brigade of 2 bat-
talions was transferred there from England. Expansion continued,
and in June 1917, the title of " Tank Corps " was definitely be-
stowed on the corps.
In April 1918 -after various vicissitudes and delays, due some-
times to difficulties of manufacture and sometimes to shortage of
personnel a portion of the corps was formed into armoured car
battalions; and at the time of the Armistice plans were in hand for
an establishment of 6,000 tanks in 1919. The original Tank Com-
mittee which had handled the design and manufacture of tanks was
replaced early in 1918 by a Tank Board including official representa-
tives of the Ministry of Munitions, Admiralty and War Office and
individual experts, thus ensuring for the new arm a concentration of
expert naval, military and industrial knowledge.
Medical. On the outbreak of war steps were taken to prohibit
the export of drugs and to encourage the manufacture in Great
Britain of certain drugs which before the war were largely imported
from Germany. Elaborate arrangements were made to meet very
large demands for medical and surgical stores, and there was no
lack of the essential remedies and appliances required for the treat-
ment of the sick and wounded. The Army Medical Stores at Wool-
wich were expanded and depots were established throughout the
country for the supply of medical stores to home hospitals. The
use of certain acids, etc., for medicinal purposes was either stopped
or restricted and substitutes employed so that these substances
might be available for the manufacture of explosives. Stocks of
quinine were commandeered to meet heavy demands, and during
the early part of the malarial season of 1917 the average monthly
issues of this drug were over 5^ tons. A total of 1,088,000,000
tablets of compressed drugs were supplied, and some 34,000,000
doses of various vaccines and sera were issued for the prevention and
treatment of disease. Practically all the vaccines were manufactured
in the laboratory of the Royal Army Medical College. An army
spectacle depot was established in London for the supply of spectacles,
etc., to the troops, and this depot eventually supplied all the artificial
eyes and ophthalmological apparatus required. Over 350,000 pairs
of spectacles and 22,386 artificial eyes were supplied, and 528
X-ray outfits of various types were issued. Splint-making shops
were established in France, Egypt and Salonika, the output of
which was supplemented by the supply from Great Britain to the
armies in the field of 1,675,000 standard splints. Enormous quanti-
ties of surgical dressings were issued during the war, including over
108,000,000 bandages, over 87,700 m. of gauze and over 7,250 tons
of cottonwool and lint. At the beginning of Aug. 1914, hospital
accommodation in the United Kingdom amounted to approximately
7,000 beds, distributed in some 200 hospitals of varying sizes. On
the mobilization of the Territorial Force the hospital accommodation
was increased by 11,960 beds in 23 general hospitals (subsequently
increased to 25) which were rapidly established in buildings which
had been earmarked previously for the purpose, chiefly in university
towns. The permanent military hospitals, with the 23 Territorial
Force general hospitals, formed the nucleus of the war hospital
accommodation in the United Kingdom. This accommodation was
expanded as occasion demanded by means of hospitals organized
by Voluntary Aid Detachments or private effort, by the conversion
of asylums, poor-law institutions, and other large public and private
buildings into temporary military hospitals, and by the allocation
of beds in civil hospitals and the erection of large nutted hospitals
in the various training centres. At the time of the Armistice the
hospital accommodation in the United Kingdom had been expanded
to a total of 364,133 beds in 2,426 hospitals and there were then 333,-
074 patients in these hospitals. During the period Aug. 28 1914 to
July 31 1919 there were received from overseas and distributed to
hospitals in the United Kingdom 2,640,650 sick and wounded.
One hundred hospital ships was the maximum number ever em-
ployed, and 56 fully equipped and extemporized ambulance
trains were in use at home. In 1914 the strength of the R.A.M.C.
was i ,068 officers, 3,895 other ranks, 463 nursing sisters; while
at the time of the Armistice its strength had risen to 13,045 offi-
cers, 131,361 other ranks, 12,769 nursing sisters, and 10,897 V.A.D.'s
Dental Service. Prior to the war no dental treatment was pro-
vided for in the military organization, necessary work being carried
out by contracts with civil dental surgeons. The reduction of the
standards for enlistment necessitated by the war resulted in a small
organization being formed, and later the introduction of com-
pulsory service increased the needs for dental treatment enormously,
and the lack of sufficient army personnel to cope with the work
at one time seriously affected the preparation of drafts for overseas.
In 1918 it was calculated that 70% of slightly over 1,000,000 men at
home required dental treatment before being dispatched overseas,
and in July 1918 it was found necessary to call up for service all
civil dental surgeons who were liable and to employ them profes-
sionally with the troops. The number of dental surgeons commis-
sioned for professional work rose from 36 in 1915 to 850 in Nov. 1918.
Army Service Corps (renamed Royal Army Service Corps on
Nov. 27 1918). From 1910 until the close of the war extensive
development and expansion of the Army Service Corps took place,
the former being a process of slow evolution during the four years
preceding the outbreak of war; the latter being necessarily rapid, and
the direct result of the war itself. The strength of the corps in 1914
was 498 officers and 5,933 men; and on Armistice Day 1918 it had
grown to 11,564 officers and 314,824 men. The creation of the new
armies in 1914 necessitated a large and rapid increase of Army
Service Corps officers; and a number of " direct " temporary com-
missions were granted to applicants whose experience in civil life
was such as to fit them for the miscellaneous duties of the corps.
The numbers obtained were so great that transfer to the fighting arms
was encouraged, and later, for younger men, insisted on. The trans-
fers totalled 1,200. Similar steps were taken as regards other
ranks 82,000 being replaced in the Army Service Corps by men
of other services who had become unfit for the trenches, by women
and by coloured personnel. The sub-division of the duties of the
Army Service Corps into animal transport, mechanical transport,
and supplies continued. As regards animal transport, although the
period from 1910 to 1914 showed a decrease, owing to the gradual
introduction of mechanical propulsion, the expansion of animal
transport during the late war was both colossal and varied, in that
horses, mules, camels, donkeys, bullocks, reindeer, and dogs were
all utilized to meet the divergent requirements of the various
theatres. In France the Army Service Corps were responsible for
the provision of personnel and the upkeep of all divisional trains,
reserve parks, auxiliary horse transport companies, and horsed
ambulances; and they even extended their scope in that in their
advanced horse transport depots, in addition to maintaining their
own formations, they held complete turn-outs for every arm of the
service, technical and non-technical. In Egypt and Palestine, in
addition to extensive employment of normal horsed transport,
40,000 camels and 8,000 donkeys were used. In E. Africa also, as
far as animal transport was possible in that theatre (owing to tsetse),
in addition to the horsed transport, bujlock transport and carrier
transport were largely used ; and in north Russia the horse and mule
were largely substituted by reindeer and dogs drawing sleighs. The
outstanding feature, prior to the war, was the growth of mechanical
transport, and during the war the intensive use of the internal-
combustion engine in place of steam propulsion. The expansion of
the mechanical-transport branch of the Army Service Corps can
best be appreciated by the fact that in 1910 the total number of
mechanical vehicles was approximately 175; in 1914, 248 four-
wheeled vehicles and 24 motor-cycles; and in 1918, 86,837 four-
wheeled vehicles and 34,865 motor-cycles. Concurrently with the
large increase in vehicles, a corresponding development had of
necessity to take place to ensure their maintenance. Mobile repair
units were established in the field, light repair shops in the advanced
areas and heavy repair shops at the bases. Advanced mechanical-
transport store depots were likewise formed in the forward areas,
also main mechanical transport depots at the bases. At the com-
mencement of the war a portion of the large number of vehicles
required were obtained through the medium ofa subsidy scheme dur-
ing peace, but, as the subsidy scheme was in its infancy, the major
portion had to be obtained by impressment, the result being that
vehicles were a heterogeneous collection of condition and makes. The
resources of the United Kingdom were developed to their maximum,
and had of necessity to be supplemented largely through purchases
abroad. Every endeavour was made to standardize the vehicles in
each formation, and to eliminate non-standard makes at the earliest
possible date; and the efficiency of the mechanical transport was
largely due to the thoroughness with which this was carried put.
In the case of supplies, prior to the war the soldier at home received
a daily issue of bread and meat only, the remaining items com-
prising his ration being provided by means of a daily cash allowance
expended under regimental arrangements. On the outbreak of war
the troops both at home and abroad passed automatically to the
" field " scale of rations, and the Army Service Corps was at once
responsible for the provision and .distribution of all the items com-
prised therein, as well as for many categories of medical comforts
for hospital use, and, in addition, the provision of forage and petrol.
As the armies increased in size, and included many different na-
tionalities among their personnel, special treatment in diet was re-
quired, so that a remarkable diversity of commodities had to be
provided ; the number of these at the cessation of hostilities amounted
to approximately 500 different articles, mostly perishable, as com-
ARMY
21 I
pared with about 60 in 1914. During the war daily feeding strengths
in all theatres reached approximately 5,400,000 men and 867,000
animals, and to meet these numbers the daily tonnage in foodstuffs
was 1 1 ,000 tons, and in forage 8,000 tons. To ensure this maintenance,
supplies were drawn from every quarter of the globe, a fact which
co.nbined with the effects of submarine warfare necessitated pro-
vision being made months ahead, so that a steady flow to the various
theatres of war should continue with the minimum of interruption.
Further, it was necessary to establish large bakeries, build frozen-
meat stores, or increase the existing accommodation for frozen meat,
and develop the local resources of each theatre to the fullest extent,
with the view of economizing shipping. The Army Service Corps
also undertook the manufacture of certain commodities, such as
pearl barley, sausages, beef stew, tibben, jam, ghi, and tinned
chicken; in addition to agricultural developments for the provision
of vegetables, potatoes, barley, maize and wheat. They also ar-
ranged bulk installations for petrol, and the necessary provision of
tinplating and case-boarding for canning and packing.
Army Ordnance Services. In 1910, and onwards till 1914, the
ordnance services of the army were carried on by a staff of 251
officers and 2,341 other ranks, reenforced by some 4,300 civilian
subordinates. The " other ranks " were formed in 9 companies of
widely varying strengths, and in a number of small detachments
distributed throughout the army. The holding of bulk supplies of
ordnance stores and clothing was restricted to _ Woolwich and
Pimlico respectively. To these two places were consigned the stores
and clothing manufactured or supplied by the Government factories
or the trade, and from them distribution was made to the local
ordnance depots for issue to the troops. Reserves of warlike stores
and clothing for one cavalry division, one cavalry brigade and 6
infantry divisions were held in ordnance charge at Woolwich, Pim-
lico or elsewhere together with mobilization equipment for those
units which, while non-existent in peace-time, would be required to
place the Expeditionary Force on a complete war footing. As
regards the organization of the ordnance services for war, this was
almost exclusively confined to functions on the lines of communica-
tion. The personnel allotted to the frontal area was limited to a
deputy director (and a small staff) with Expeditionary Force
headquarters, a deputy-assistant director with each division, and
a warrant officer with each brigade. The director of ordnance serv-
ices was to be on the staff of the I.G.C. lines of communication.
The personnel for lines-of-communication duties was to be found
by forming ordnance companies each with an establishment of 2
officers and 164 other ranks, additional officers being allotted ac-
cording to the number of companies mobilized. When, in Aug. 1914,
the Expeditionary Force embarked for France, 8 of these ordnance
companies with 32 additional officers accompanied it to the bases,
where were also dispatched the war reserves of stores and clothing.
The rapid expansion of the army in the field, and the multiplication
of various expeditionary forces in widely separated parts of the globe,
not only called for great increases in ordnance personnel but also
revolutionized the organization of the services in the field. The
main alteration lay in the recognition of the necessity for extending
the principle of an ordnance officer with a division to an ordnance
organization with the headquarters of each corps and army. More-
over, the immense use made of artillery throughout the campaign
called into existence a number of mobile ordnance workshops, the
main functions of which were to bridge the gap between the artillery
front and the large workshops at the base. These field workshops,
which were all mechanically propelled or drawn, were of three
categories, light, medium and heavy, their nomenclature indicating
the nature of the repairs to be undertaken, as also their relative
degree of mobility. Though frequently " pooled " to meet any
particular set of circumstances, they were organized on a scale of
two light per three divisions, one medium per corps and one heavy
per army. The value of these mobile shops will be the better ap-
preciated when it is stated that but for them something like 45,000
guns and carriages would have had to be relegated some distance to
the rear, if not to the base, for repair.
At the date of the Armistice there were in existence 60 of the light,
25 of the medium and 6 of the heavy variety. Other novel formations
at the front included gun parks, railhead detachments, ammunition
sections, and officers' clothirig depots, while there were added to the
normal organizations on the lines of communication institutions
such as schools of instruction in ammunition, ammunition repair
factories and repair depots at the bases. The effect of this wide
expansion of ordnance functions and of the magnitude of the opera-
tions in the different theatres of war was to call for a very great in-
crease in personnel, both officers and men. In the case of the former,
employment was from the commencement offered to retired officers
who, by taking over the work at home, released the active offi-
cers for service abroad. As soon as it was seen that many more officers
would be required, a scheme was set on foot to obtain " temporary "
officers from suitable professions in civil life, and to train them in
ordnance duties. As for the other ranks, large numbers of pensioned
warrant and non-commissioned officers of the corps offered their
services, the remainder required being obtained by direct enlist-
ment. At the date of the Armistice 2,342 officers and 38,193 other
ranks were doing duty with the ordnance services, in 144 companies
and other formations. The majority of this personnel was serving
overseas; the balance were at the home depots, where they formed
the nucleus of a mass of civilian labour, which reached a maximum
of 48,000, nearly one-half being women.
Turning to the store side of the question, the original war re-
serves were early exhausted, and it became necessary to evolve
storage schemes in this country of far wider dimensions than were
offered by the original depots at Woolwich and Pimlico. Each of
these parent institutions set up subsidiary depots up and down the
country, as far as possible devoting each to the storage of the class of
article supplied by the trade of the particular locality. From these
sub-depots supplies in bulk were sent overseas direct as ordered,
thus materially reducing transport and double handling. Moreover,
inspection hitherto carried out only at the respective headquarters
was decentralized so as to enable inspection to take place either at
these sub-depots or at contractors' works. In addition to these ex-
pansions an entirely new depot of very large capacity was erected
at Didcot and worked independently of Woolwich. A separate
organization was called into existence to deal with the vast quantities
of ammunition and explosives turned out by the national filling
factories. A number of " dumps " were formed in various parts of
the kingdom, and in addition an ordnance depot was attached to
each factory and took over its daily output for dispatch as ordered.
Some idea of the magnitude of the task imposed upon the ordnance
services can be had when it is stated that the following quantities
of the items named were dealt with: 6-inch (and larger) guns,
5,756; 6o-pounder guns (and under), 21,160; machine-guns, 230,000;
gun-ammunition rounds, 2 17,000,000 ; small-arm-ammunition rounds,
9,150,000,000; blankets, 40,674,773; personal equipment sets, about
6,500,000; jackets, upwards of 27,000,000; trousers, 27,000,000
pairs; pantaloons, 8,000,000 pairs; boots, 40,000,000 pairs.
Labour. The density of armies i.e. the number of men to the
acre in the area of active operations increased to a degree never
imagined in previous wars; and this, with the long period of static
warfare and the introduction of mechanical transport, by which
alone it was possible to cope with the movement of the vast amount
of ammunition, stores and supplies required, made road maintenance
of paramount importance. The need for personnel to create and
maintain the road communications became so acute that, in June
1915, labour battalions of navvies were formed. At first all the
personnel was over military age, and 1 1 battalions attached to the
Royal Engineers were formed; but these, together with the Army
Service Corps companies which had gradually become necessary for
work in the docks and stores, were all transferred en bloc to the La-
bour Corps in 1917. In this year also the importation of coloured
labour, including Chinese and S. African, was introduced. When the
French railways became so congested as to be on the verge of a
breakdown, this Labour Corps was augmented from every possible
source, and a large number of companies of prisoners-of-war were
affiliated with it. The basis of organization was the company of 500
men; the total personnel actually raised for labour purposes being
approximately 900,000, including 95,000 Chinese. In addition to
the requirements for the theatres of operations, smaller companies,
known as Agricultural Companies, composed of unfit and over-age
men, were formed to assist agriculture at home.
Expansion. No plan existed in 1914 for the expansion of
the regular forces, beyond the automatic embodiment of the
special reserve units. These were already included in the scheme
for Home Defence, with the exception of certain extra-special
reserve units which were earmarked for other service. The only
step taken towards expansion during the mobilization period
was to withdraw prior to embarkation 3 officers and 8 non-
commissioned officers from each infantry unit of the Expedi-
tionary Force. The next step was to call home regular units
from overseas garrisons, relieving them by extra-special reserve
units and territorial units who volunteered for the duty. These
regular units on arrival from overseas were reorganized. The
additional mounted brigades thus formed, with existing avail-
able mounted troops, enabled the cavalry to be reorganized as
a corps of 3 divisions, each of 4 cavalry brigades. The 5 addi-
tional infantry divisions were completed as to other arms by the
mobilization of artillery and engineer units existing at home
surplus to the Expeditionary Force; but horse artillery and for-
tress engineer companies had to be used in some instances to
make good deficiencies.
Lord Kitchener, on assuming control as Secretary of State
for War, at once grasped the need for immediate and immense
expansion, but there remained no regular army basis on which
to build, and three alternative courses presented themselves:
(a) To expand the special reserve, which was partially regular
owing to the inclusion of the regular depot establishments; (6)
to use the Territorial Force organization, which provided a frame-
work of 14 mounted brigades and 14 infantry divisions; (c) to
212
ARMY
create entirely new formations. The objections to the first
course were that it would disorganize the maintenance organiza-
tion (the special reserve) of the regular forces already engaged
in the campaign, that the number of special reserve units was
too small and that they consisted of practically nothing but
infantry. The main objection to the second was the inadequacy
of the framework upon which to construct the necessary 100
infantry divisions; duplication and reduplication of these small
nuclei would eventually entail practically new formations; their
duplication and reduplication for dilution by the inclusion of the
untrained manhood of the country would render them immobile
and temporarily disorganize them for any purpose whatsoever.
Home Defence would thereby be paralyzed and the possibility
of using any units already existing and organized for reenforce-
ments would be neutralized. Lord Kitchener therefore decided
to create new divisions forthwith, retaining the special reserve
for its maintenance functions and simultaneously fostering the
training and recruiting (and eventual duplication) of the Terri-
torial Force in order to relieve regular army units in garrisons
overseas and to supply immediate unit reinforcements to the
field army; and further, as soon as the territorial divisions, not
broken up for the above two purposes, were sufficiently trained,
to put them into the field as complete divisions. The new
divisions were to be created as armies (popularly termed Kitchener
armies), each of 100,000 men; and the nucleus of the I. New
Army was at once commenced by forming the unit organization
of 6 divisions (numbered 9 to 14) and drafting into them the
necessary personnel. The II. and III. Armies began to form in
Sept. 1914 and comprised the divisions numbered 15, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21-26 and 37. The IV. Army (soth to 35th Divs.)
began to form in Oct. and Nov. but never took the field in divi-
sions, being converted in April 1915 to draft-finding duties. The
V. Army (Divs. 16, 36, 38, 39, 40 and 41), begun in Dec., even-
tually took the divisional numbers of the IV. Army. The Terri-
torial Force divisions used to relieve regular troops overseas were
the ist Wessex, ist Home Counties and 2nd Wessex. These
were never re-formed as divisions. Units of the W. Lanes, and
ist London Divs. used as unit reinforcements to the Expedi-
tionary Force in France, were eventually reassembled in their
divisions there. Those who took the field later as complete
formations did so at first under their territorial designations but
were eventually numbered so that the final divisional enumera-
tion of the Field Army Divisions included all regular, territorial,
New Army, Indian (embracing British and Indian native units)
and Dominion contingents.
Recruiting During the War. With the exception of a certain
number of officers (who had had experience in the army and in
many cases experience of minor campaigns) and of a certain
number of older men whose period of army and reserve service
had expired, there existed no reservoir of men who had under-
gone regular military training to arms, owing to the fact that
the army had always been maintained by voluntary enlistment.
This was a considerable handicap; but, on the other hand, the
fact that a number of ex-officers and older men had had previous
campaigning experience was an advantage, though, of course,
they were insufficient in numbers to deal with the man-power
of the nation as a whole.
Directly mobilization was ordered voluntary recruits offered
themselves in such numbers that the recruiting machine was
for a time paralyzed and unable to deal with the applicants.
The intake, which, prior to the outbreak of war, was from 70
to 80 per day, rose immediately to 6,000 per day from Aug. 5
to 22; to 9,000 per day from Aug. 22 to 30; and by Sept. 3 it had
reached 33,000 per day. On Sept. 10, owing to lack of accommo-
dation in barracks and deficiencies in stores and equipment,
the standards had to be raised considerably. This was correctly
interpreted as meaning that the urgent need for men was over;
and the numbers fell to 2,500 per day. On Nov. 6 the standard
was again lowered, and recruiting rose to 3,000 a day.
Towards the end of the year when it became evident that
more men would be required a parliamentary recruiting com-
mittee was formed, and a recruiting campaign was undertaken
throughout the country, resulting in an intake of some 60,000
men. In July 1915, a National Registration Act was passed,
and the Local Government Board were allotted the task of
supplying the particulars of all males between the ages of 18
and 41. From these, registers were compiled in various recruit- ,
ing areas; and in Oct. 1915, the " Derby Scheme " or " Group
System " was initiated by Lord Derby on his appointment as
Director-General of Recruiting. Under this system men were
to be enlisted for one day and immediately passed into the
reserve with liability to be called to the Colours when required.
Between Oct. 25 and the middle of Dec. 2,000,000 men were
attested under this system, of whom 50% were married men;
but as the Government had given a pledge that single men would
be called up before married men, and it became clear that the
single men of the nation had not responded, it was decided to
introduce compulsory service.
The first Military Service Act received the royal assent at the
end of Jan. 1916, rendering liable for military service all single
men between the ages of 18 and 41; and calling to the Colours
under this Act commenced on March 3. The Act was later
extended to include married men, who began to be called up
on June 24. Complaints were rife against the decisions of the
examining medical officers; and medical boards were substituted
in May 1917. This was followed by the transfer of recruiting
from the military to the civil authorities and the creation of the
Ministry of National Service as a civil authority for recruiting.
This new ministry took over all recruiting duties for the navy,
army and air force on Nov. i 1917. A further Military Service
Act was introduced in April 1918, rendering liable for military
service all men between the ages of 18 and 51; but in actual
practice the calling-up of the older men produced small results.
Under the authority of the War Office 2,631,313 men volun-
tarily enlisted between Aug. 4 1914 and the end of Feb. 1916;
and from March i 1914 to end of Oct. 1917, 1,790,381 men were
called to the Colours; this gives a total of 4,421,694. Subse-
quently, under the authority of the Ministry of National Service,
from Nov. i 1917 to the Armistice (Nov. n 1918) 549,208 men
were called to the Colours. After the Armistice enlistment
again became voluntary, and the ministry enlisted 1,138 men
into the regular army up to Jan. 15 1919, when recruiting was
retransferred to the War Office.
Higher Formations by Theatres of War. The gradual expan-
sion of the British armies in the various theatres, and variations
in the strategical situation, led to changes in the organization of
higher commands and to movements of the minor formations
from one theatre to another. It is only necessary here to deal
with the changes in organization of the higher commands,
theatre by theatre.
France (and United Kingdom). The first Expeditionary Force
was organized as one army, sub-divided into 3 army corps. The
I. and II. Army Corps and cavalry division took their place on the
left of the French army in Aug. 1914, and fighting had commenced
before the arrival of the 4th Div. and the III. Army Corps head-
quarters to which this division was allotted. These, however, took
part in the operations from Le Cateau onwards, the igth Inf.
Bde. (composed of battalions originally allotted to the lines of
communication) for the time being taking the place in the III.
Army Corps of the 6th Div., which did not join the army in the field
until the middle of September. The army was commanded by
Field-Marshal Sir J. D. P. French, with Lt.-Gen. Sir A. J. Murray
as chief of the general staff, Lt.-Gen. Sir C. F. N. Macready as
adjutant-general, Lt.-Gen. Sir W. R. Robertson as quartermaster-
general, and Maj.-Gen. Sir F. S. Robb as inspector-general of the
lines of communication. The I. Army Corps was commanded by
Lt.-Gen. Sir D. Haig, and was composed of the ist and 2nd Divisions.
The II. Army Corps originally commanded by Lt.-Gen. Sir J. M.
Grierson, who died in France en route to the position of assembly
was commanded by Gen. Sir H. L. Smith- Dorrien, and was com-
posed of the 3rd and 5th Divisions. The III. Army Corps was
commanded by Lt.-Gen. W. P. Pulteney, and was composed of the
4th and 6th Divisions. The cavalry division was commanded by
Maj.-Gen. E. H. H. Allenby.
In Oct. 1914 the 7th Div. and the 3rd Cav. Div. landed at Ostend
under the command of Maj.-Gen. Sir H. S. Rawlinson.
By Nov. 1914 the cavalry had been expanded to a corps of three
divisions under Lt.-Gen. Allenby. Two Indian cavalry divisions
composed of British and Indian units arrived shortly afterwards.
ARMY
213
The remainder of the army was organized as follows: I. Army
Corps (Haig), II. Army Corps (Smith-Dorrien), III. Army Corps
(Pulteney), IV. Army Corps (Rawlinson), Indian Army Corps
(Lt.-Gen. Sir J. Wilcocks). There was shortly added the V. Army
Corps (Gen. Sir H. C. O. Plumer). The Expeditionary Force had
now attained dimensions which necessitated its further sub-division,
and the term " Army " was introduced on Dec. 26 1914, after
which the army corps were designated " Corps." General Sir
Douglas Haig was appointed to command the I. Army and Gen.
Sir H. Smith-Dorrien, who was shortly succeeded by Gen. Sir
H. C. O. Plumer, the II. Army. Lt.-Gen. Sir W. R. Robertson became
chief of the general staff in France in Jan. 1915, and Lt.-Gen. R. C.
Maxwell succeeded him as quartermaster-general. The III. Army
was formed in July 1915, and Gen. Sir C. C. Monro appointed
to the command; he was succeeded by Gen. Sir E. H. H. Allenby, in
Oct., on his appointment to the command-in-chief in the Dardanelles.
In Oct. 1915 the composition of the British armies was: G.H.Q.
troops; Royal Flying Corps (Trenchard) in three wings; Cavalry
Corps (Bingham) of three divisions; I. Army (Haig) I. Corps
(H. Gough), III. Corps (Pulteney), IV. Corps (Rawlinson), Indian
Corps (C. B. Anderson); II. Army (Plumer) II. Corps (Fergus-
son), V. Corps (H. D. Fanshawe), VI. Corps (Keir); III. Army
(Monro, then Allenby) two Indian cavalry divisions (Barrow
and Cookson), VII. Corps (Snow), X. Corps (Morland), Cana-
dian Corps (Alderson), XI. Corps (Haking).
On Dec. 19 1915 Gen. Sir Douglas Haig succeeded Field-Marshal
Sir John French in command of the British armies in France, and
Lt.-Gen. L. E. Kiggell became chief of the general staff. In Feb.
1916, Lt.-Gen. G. H. Fowke became adjutant-general. Field-Marshal
Sir J. French was appointed commander-in-chief of the Home Forces.
In Dec. 1915 the reorganization of the War Office staff at home,
necessitated by the enormous expansion of the British army and
the increasing number of theatres of war, caused considerable
changes. Lt.-Gen. Sir W. Robertson succeeded Lt.-Gen. Sir A. J.
Murray, as C. I. G. S. Lt.-Gen. Sir C. F. N. Macready succeeded Lt.-
Gen. Sir H. C. Sclater as adjutant-general to the forces in Feb. 1916.
Lt.-Gen. Sir J. Cowans continued as quartermaster-general to the
forces a position which he had occupied since the commencement
of the war and which he held until the end. In Feb. 1916 Gen. Sir
C. C. Monro took command of the I. Army in France.
In Sept. 1916 the British Expeditionary Force in France continuing
its expansion was reorganized into five armies, comprising: G.H.Q.
troops; Royal Flying Corps (Trenchard) in five brigades; I. Army
(Monro, then Home)!., IV., XL Corps, totalling 10 divisions;
II. Army (Plumer) VIII., IX., I. Anzac, II. Anzac Corps, totalling
13 divisions and including 1st, 2nd, 4th and 5th Australian and 4th
Canadian Divs.; III. Army (Allenby) 2nd Cav. and 1st (Indian)
Cav. Divs., VI., VII., XVII. Corps, totalling I cavalry division and
6 divisions; IV. Army (Rawlinson) ist Cav. and 2nd (Indian)
Cav. Divs., III., X., XIV., XV. Corps, totalling 2 cavalry divisions
and 17 divisions (including the Guards and New Zealand Divs )
Reserve (later V.) Army (Gough) 3rd Cav. Div., II., V., XIII. and
Canadian Corps, totalling I cavalry division and 10 divisions.
In Oct. 1916 Gen. Sir C. Monro was appointed commander-in-
chief in India and was succeeded in command of the I. Army by Gen.
Sir H. S. Home. In June 1917 Gen. Sir E. H. H. Allenby was ap-
pointed commander-in-chief in Egypt and Palestine, and was suc-
ceeded in command of the III. Army by Gen. Sir J. H. G. Byng.
In Aug. 1917 the organization of five armies still held good. The
Cav. Corps had been reconstituted, and comprised the ist, 2nd,, 3rd
and 5th Cav. Divs.; the Indian units of the Indian cavalry divisions
having been transferred to Egypt and Palestine, and the remainder
of the cavalry reenforced by mounted yeomanry having been
reorganized into the above divisions. The I. Army (Home), con-
taining the I., XI, XIII., Canadian and Portuguese Corps, totalled
13 divisions the 4 Canadian divisions being now in one corps and
the 2 Portuguese divisions which had joined the Allies being or-
ganized with the British forces. The II. Army (Plumer) comprised
the IX., X., I. Anzac and II. Anzac Corps, totalling 12 divisions;
the 1st, 2nd and 5th Australian Divs., constituting the I. Anzac
Corps and the 3rd and 4th Australian Divs., with the New Zealand
Division, the II. Anzac Corps. The III. Army (Byng) comprised the
III., IV., VI., VII., and XVII. Corps and the 4 th Cav. Div.
totalling I cavalry division and 15 divisions. The IV. Army (Raw-
linson) temporarily comprised only the XV. Corps of 4 divisions,
and the 1st Div., not incorporated in a corps. The V. Army (Gough)
comprised the II., V., VIII., XIV., XVIII. and XIX. Corps.
In Nov. 1917 Gen. Sir H. Plumer was appointed to command the
British troops in Italy, and Gen. Sir H. Rawlinson was transferred
from the command of the IV. Army to that of the II. until within a
fortnight of Gen. Plumer's return in March 1918. General Sir H.
Rawlinson was, in Feb. 1918, appointed British military representa-
tive on the Supreme War Council (recently instituted) and a member
of the Army Council. In March, however, he was recalled to com-
mand the V. Army in the crisis following the German offensive of
March 21, and in the following month resumed command of the IV.
Army. In Dec. 1917 Lt.-Gen. Sir T. E. Clarke was appointed
quartermaster-general, and in Jan. 1918 Lt.-Gen. Sir H. A.
Lawrence chief of the general staff in France.
In Feb. 1918 Lt.-Gen. Sir H. H. Wilson was appointed chief of
the imperial general staff at the War Office, and Gen. Sir W. Robert-
son shortly afterwards replaced Field-Marshal Viscount French (on
the latter's appointment as viceroy of Ireland) as commander-in-
chief in Great Britain. In Sept. 1918 Maj.-Gen. Sir G. M. W.
Macdonogh succeeded Gen. Sir C. F. N. Macready as adjutant-
general to the forces at the War Office, on the latter's appointment as
chief commissioner of the metropolitan police.
In Aug. 1918 there were still five armies, the cavalry corps having
been reduced to the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Divs., and the XIV. and XVIII.
Corps broken up. These changes were due to the diminished person-
nel available. The composition of the divisions, too, had been
weakened by the reduction of infantry brigades to 3 instead of 4
battalions.^ The Royal Flying Corps (now designated " The Royal
Air Force ") in France had been increased by the creation of the
Independent Air Force (Trenchard), which took up positions in
rear of the French and was concerned with long-distance bombing.
At the time of the Armistice on Nov. II 1918 the order of battle
comprised: G.H.Q. troops; Royal Air Force (T. M. Salmond),
Headquarters Squadron and 9th Bde. (directly under G.H.Q.), with
the 8th Bde. in the Independent Air Force (Trenchard) ; Cavalry
Corps (Kavanagh) of three divisions; I. Army (Home) VII., VIII.,
XXII. and Canadian Corps, and 1st Bde., R.A.F. ; II. Army
(Plumer) II., X., XV., XIX. Corps and 2nd Bde., R.A.F. ; III.
Army (Byng) IV., V., VI., XVII. Corps and 3rd Bde., R.A.F.;
IV. Army (Rawlinson) IX., XIII. Australian Corps and 5th Bde.,
R.A.F.; V. Army (Birdwood) I., III., XL, Portuguese Corps and
loth Bde., R.A.F.
After the conclusion of the Armistice the bulk of the armies were
demobilized or transferred home, the remainder forming, with young
soldier battalions from home, the army of the Rhine and the neces-
sary clearing-up forces in France and Belgium.
Italy. In Nov. 1917, in the crisis following Caporetto, British
and French reenforcements were sent from France. The British
troops were allotted the Montello sector of the defence of the Piave,
which was the hinge linking the portion of the line facing N. in the
Alps with that facing E. in the plain and covering Venice. General
Sir H. Plumer, until then commanding the II. Army in France, was
appointed to the independent command of the British troops in
Italy. On Dec. 4 the line allotted was taken over. The troops com-
posing the force were: XIV. Corps (Lord Cavan); 5th, 7th, 23rd,
4 ist and 48th Divisions. Later, when it was decided not to maintain
as large a force in Italy as was originally intended, Gen. Plumer
returned to France and was succeedad in command on March 10
1918 by Gen. the Earl of Cavan. Lt.-Gen. Sir J. M. Babington
assumed command of the XIV. Corps. The 4ist Div. returned to
France in March, followed by the 5th Div. in April. In Oct. the X.
Italian Army including the XIV. British Corps (less 48th Div.),
and the XL Italian Corps, later temporarily reenforced by the XVIII.
Italian Corps was placed under the orders of Lord Cavan for what
proved to be the final offensive. The 48th Div. was temporarily
attached to the XII. Italian Corps.
Egypt. In Jan. 1915 the garrison of Egypt had been enlarged by
the arrival of troops from England, India, Australia, and New Zea-
land to a total strength of 68,000. They were at that time organized
as: Army Troops; Indian Expeditionary Force consisting of the
loth and nth Indian Divs. composed of British and Indian units;
East Lancashire (Territorial) Div.; Australian and New Zealand
Army Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir W. Birdwood), comprising the 1st Aus-
tralian and the New Zealand and Australian Divs. The garrison
at the outbreak of war was commanded by Maj.-Gen. the Hon.
J. H. Byng, who was relieved in the increased command at the end
of Sept. 1914 by Lt.-Gen. Sir J. G. Maxwell. In March 1915 the
expedition to the Gallipoli peninsula was launched from Egypt
(which acted as lines of communication to the force), and the
remainder of the troops were organized for the defence of the Suez
Canal. Lt.-Gen. Sir. A. J. Murray was appointed to the command
in Jan. 1916 with Maj.-Gen. A. Lynden Bell as chief of the general
staff, Maj.-Gen. W. Campbell as senior administrative staff officer,
and Maj.-Gen. E. A. Altham as inspector-general of communica-
tions for the whole Mediterranean. Lt.-Gen. Sir J. G. Maxwell
retained the position of High Commissioner.
The forces, reenforced by the withdrawal of the Dardanelles
Expeditionary Force and from France, were organized for the
defence of the Suez Canal, with the XV. Corps (Home) at Port
Said, the IX. Corps (Byng) at Suez, the Anzac Corps (Godley) at
Ismai'lia, and the VIII. Corps (Davies) in reserve. The 2nd and 4th
Australian Divs. were in process of formation. The 46th Div.
arrived from France but returned before being incorporated in a
corps. After the abortive Turkish attack the following reductions
and changes took place gradually.
In 1916 the VIII., XV. and IX. Corps H.Q. returned to France,
where they were reconstituted, the 42nd Div. (Feb.), 3lst, 1st and
2nd Australian (March), New Zealand (April), 2nd and 4th Aus-
tralian (June) and nth (July) Divs., proceeding to France in the
months shown, and the I3th Div. to Mesopotamia in March.
In June 1917, after the first battle of Gaza, Gen. Sir E. H. H.
Allenby replaced Lt.-Gen. Sir A. Murray in the chief command,
and in July the Eastern Force was under Lt.-Gen. Sir P. W. Chet-
214
ARMY
wode, and the desert column under Maj.-Gen. Sir H. G. Chauvel.
In the early part of 1918 further reorganization became necessary,
and in Aug. 1918, prior to the final offensive, the forces were or-
ganized as: G.H.Q. troops; Desert Mounted Corps (Lt.-Gen.
Sir H. G. Chauvel), 4th and 5th Cav. Divs., Australian and New
Zealand Mounted Div., Australian Mounted Div. ; XX. Army
Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir P. W. Chetwode), loth, 53rd, 6oth Divs.;
XXI. Army Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir E. S. Bulfin), 3rd (Lahore), 7th
(Meerut), 54th and 75th Divs.; Palestine lines of communications;
forces in Egypt force troops (including Sollum District), Alex-
andria District.
Saltnika. The Allied forces, in anticipation of the Greek nation
joining the Entente Powers, commenced to assemble in this theatre
of war in Oct. 1915, under the command of Gen. Sarrail of the French
army. In this first phase of operations (the attempted relief of
Serbia, and the withdrawal to and the defence of the Salonika
region), the British forces engaged were under the command of
Lt.-Gen. Sir B. T. Mahon, and included the loth, 22nd, 27th and 28th
Divs. The 27th Div. was transferred to Egypt at the end of Oct.
but returned to Salonika in Nov. 1915. These were followed by the
26th Div. from France in Jan. 1916. In April 1916 the British forces
were organized as: Army Troops (including Royal Flying Corps
and a mounted brigade) ; XII. Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir H. F. M. Wilson),
22nd, 26th and 28th Divs.; XVI. Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir G. Milne),
loth and 27th Divs.; garrisons of the islands of Mudros, Imbros,
Tenedos and Thasos. Gen. Sir G. Milne assumed command of the
British forces in May 1916, and Lt.-Gen. Sir C. J. Briggs took
command of the XVI. Corps. The 6oth Div. was transferred to
Salonika from France in Jan. 1917 for the spring offensive of that
year, but proceeded to Egypt in June of the same year. In Aug.
1917 the force was further reduced by the withdrawal of the loth
Div. to Egypt. Other transfers and changes of organization did not
affect the major formations; but the strength of the divisions re-
maining was of course diminished when the brigades, as in other
theatres, were reduced from 4 to 3 battalions in the spring of 1918.
These 4 divisions later formed the " Army of the Black Sea."
They were gradually diminished by the course of demobilization,
and as the result of events and decisions on Middle Eastern policy.
During 1918 and 1919 various British forces operated in the Cau-
casus, Persia and Transcaucasia, and a military mission accom-
panied Gen. Denikin's (afterwards Gen. Wrangel's) operations in
South Russia in 1919-20.
Mesopotamia. Early in Feb. 1915 an Indian Expeditionary
Force (known as " Force D ") was dispatched from India under
the command of Lt.-Gen. Sir A. A. Barrett (who was shortly suc-
ceeded by Gen. Sir J. E. Nixon). This force seized Basra as a base
and advanced on Bagdad. The total strength of the force at this
period was 6,717 British and 19,245 Indian combatants, 5,895 non-
combatants and 11,000 animals, including camels and mules. In
Jan. 1916 Lt.-Gen. Sir P. H. N. Lake succeeded to the command,
and the 3rd Lahore and 7th Meerut Divs. were transferred from
France. Then followed the battle of Ctesiphon, the retreat to Kut
and the surrender there of the 6th Poona Div. in April 1916. The
force (6th Cav. Bde., 3rd, 7th and later I3th Indian Divs.) or-
ganized to relieve Kut was commanded by Lt.-Gen. Sir F. J. Ayl-
mer, who was shortly succeeded by Lt.-Gen. Sir. G. F. Gorringe.
On Aug. 28 1916 Lt.-Gen. Sir Stanley Maude was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the force. It was now organized as: base and
lines of communication; Bushire detachment; Euphrates line
I5th Indian Div.; Tigris Corps -(Lt.-Gen. A. S. Cobbe), comprising
6th Indian Cav. Bde., 3rd Lahore and 7th Meerut Divs., I3th and
I4th Indian Divs. Shortly afterwards the Tigris Corps was re-
organized as the I. Indian Corps (Cobbe), comprising 6th Indian
Cav. Bde., 3rd Lahore and 7th Meerut Divs.; and the III. Indian
Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir W. R. Marshall), comprising the I3th and I4th
Indian Divs. On Nov. 18 1917 Lt.-Gen. W. R. Marshall was ap-
pointed commander-in-chief owing to the death of Sir Stanley Maude.
The 3rd Lahore and 7th Meerut Divs. were transferred to Egypt in
April and Jan. 1918 respectively. Various reenforcements had been
added to the force from time to time. By Nov. 1918 there were
present an Indian cavalry div. (6th, 7th, nth, and later 3rd Indian
Cav. Bdes.); I. Indian Army Corps (Cobbe), l?th and l8th Indian
Divs.; III. Indian Army Corps (Sir R. G. Egerton), I3th and I4th
Indian Divs.; I5th Indian Div.; North Persian Force (Maj.-Gen.
L. C. Dunsterville), 36th and jgth Indian Inf. Bdes.
North-West Frontier of India. From 1914 to 1917 frequent
risings took place on the N.W. frontier, followed by punitive ex-
peditions which in many cases were of considerable strength (one
or two mixed brigades and sometimes more). Three divisions were
maintained as war strength on the frontier throughout the period
of the World War, and these divisional headquarters acted as con-
trolling headquarters or groups of columns formed substantially by
their respective divisions, though the order of battle was modified as
required. The 1918 operations in Persia and in the Caspian region
were carried out very largely by forces working under the orders of
the 4th Quetta Div. of the Indian Army.
North Russia. Operations in this theatre took the form, initially,
of occupying Kela and various points along the Murman railway
and adjacent regions in the spring and summer of 1918, in order to
prevent the Germans and the Finns from doing so. The Allied forces
were small, and were to form a nucleus for an army to be created
from Russian and Czechoslovak sources. In Aug. 1918 operations
extended to Archangel and to the Archangel-Vologva railway by
another force. This too, though larger than that on the Murman
line (numbering some 14,000 organized troops), was meant chiefly
as a nucleus upon which a Russian army could be built up for opera-
tions against the Soviet Government. In May 1919 two reenforcing
brigades, specially formed, were sent to Archangel, and somewhat
later a small additional force was dispatched. In the spring of 1919
it had been decided to evacuate both North Russian theatres of
operations, and Gen. Lord Rawlinson was sent as commander-in-
chief to coordinate the two operations of withdrawal. The evacuation
was successfully completed on Sept. 27 for Archangel and on Oct. 12
for Murmansk.
Other Theatres. It is unnecessary here to deal in detail with the
organization of the British forces in other theatres of war. Under
DARDANELLES, EAST AFRICA, and similar headings, the facts are
given elsewhere. Some idea of the variety and complexity of the
tasks which British and British Dominion military organization had
to cope with in the years 1914-20 is afforded by the fact that the sub-
sidiary theatres included Cameroon, Togoland, German South-
West Africa, Tsingtau (China), South Russia, the Caucasus, North
and South Persia, Aden, the Gulf of Oman, Baluchistan, Burma,
Samoa, and New Guinea.
Statistics. In Aug. 1914 the total strength of the British
army, in all theatres of action, was as follows: regular army,
officers 10,800, other ranks 236,632; army reserve, 145,347;
special reserve, officers 2,557, other ranks 61,376; Channel
Isles and militia, officers 176, other ranks 5,437; territorial
force, officers 10,684, other ranks 258,093; territorial force
reserve, officers 661, other ranks 1,421; Bermuda and Isle of
Man volunteers, officers 18, other ranks 312 a total of 24,896
officers and 708,618 other ranks.
In Nov. 1918 the army figures showed a grand total of 193,102
officers and 4,755,242 other ranks (excluding 388,599 Indian
troops). The expeditionary forces alone comprised 112,200
officers and 3, 1 14, 679 other ranks; among the officers were 93,608
British, 13,382 Colonial, 4,991 Indian native, and 217 Egyptian;
and among the other ranks were 1,981,667 British, 291,018
Colonial, and 254,457 Indian native. In the United Kingdom
there were 61,694 British officers, 1,321,617 British troops of
other ranks, 9,720 Colonial officers and 210,353 Colonial troops
of other ranks. The remainder were in India and foreign gar-
risons and dependent ports.
The total casualties reported up to March 14 1920 comprised:
killed (including died from wounds and other causes, but not
including 101,000 among the "missing" now "presumed
dead "), 42,348 officers and 724,500 other ranks; wounded,
97,908 officers and 1,993,081 other ranks; and "missing,"
4,211 officers and 242,772 other ranks (of these 101,000 had been
"presumed dead" on lapse of time, but are not included in the
figure for " killed "). (B. B.-H.)
Demobilization. Practically the whole man-power of the
nation had been mobilized during the years of the World
War. Demobilization was not therefore an exclusively military
problem. It was as much an economic and industrial one; and
the reestablishment of particular industries on a peace foot-
ing would depend on the order of priority of release observed.
It is, indeed, impossible, in formulating a modern scheme of
demobilization, to reconcile entirely the antipathetic claims of
the individual and of the State; and the War Office Army
Demobilization Committee which was representative of civil
as well as military interests decided, after considering all phases
of the problem, that in the national interest a soldier's entitle-
ment to priority of release must depend on his civil occupation
rather than on the nature and length of his service with the
Colours (see DEMOBILIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT). The Com-
mittee went further. They decided that two particular classes of
men called " Demobilizers " and " Pivotal Men " respectively
must be released in advance even of the period of general demo-
bilization. To the early release of " Demobilizers " that is,
the men actually required in putting through the demobiliza-
tion process no objection was, or could be, raised; but the
release of " Pivotal Men " that is, men either of special tech-
nical or administrative capacity or belonging to " key " indus-
ARMY
215
tries, as agriculturalists and miners met with much opposition.
Many of the men of this class, of course, had been the subject of
appeal after appeal to tribunals for exemption and had little
military service to their credit. Why then, it was contended,
should they be released before men who had served four and five
years in the army? Pivotalism indeed was called " favouritism."
But it should be remembered that the maximum number of
" Pivotal Men " to be released was fixed at not more than
150,000 (a figure which included the " Demobilizers " as well)
and that they were granted priority solely for the purpose of
assisting in the reorganization of the various industries and
thereby of increasing the capacity to provide employment for
the less highly qualified men. On the other hand, it is true that
some men of 19 and 20 years of age, with little or no technical
experience, were certified as " Pivotal " by the Ministry of Labour
and given early release, while some bona fide " Pivotal Men "
were not released until long after the general demobilization
period had begun.
As early as January 1915 the question of demobilization had
been given consideration. It was not, however, until February
1917 that a draft scheme was drawn up. This scheme, appli-
cable to troops serving in France only, was a mere outline, but
formed the basis of the detailed " Regulations " finally adopted.
It provided that men should be withdrawn individually from
units (in an order of priority previously determined but depend-
ing in the main on individual industrial qualification) and formed
into special parties called " Dispersal Drafts." These drafts
would be sent to appropriate " Dispersal Stations " in the
United Kingdom and there demobilized; each draft for a par-
ticular " Dispersal Station " being, so far as possible, composed
of men whose homes were in the " Dispersal Area " (the United
Kingdom being, for demobilization purposes, divided into 18
special areas called " Dispersal Areas ") in which the " Dispersal
Station " was situated. When, by this process of individual
withdrawal of personnel, a unit had been reduced to a " cadre "
strength such strength depending upon the number of men
that would be required to bring home the unit's vehicles, animals
and regimental equipment-*-it would be brought to the United
Kingdom and disbanded or re-formed, as the case might be, and
the remaining demobilizable personnel sent for dispersal.
The scheme did not receive War Cabinet approval until November
1917, but Cabinet sanction was taken for granted; and in March
1917 an Army Order was issued providing that the " Industrial
Group " of each soldier, his particular trade or calling, and whether
he was married or single, should be recorded either in his Army Book
64 (if he was serving in a theatre of war) or his Army Form 6103
(if he was serving at home or in an overseas garrison). The purpose
of this Order, of course, was to provide an authentic record of each
soldier's_pre-war occupation, which would serve as a basis in apply-
ing the industrial priority principle. But the priority which, in the
national interest, ought to be granted, on demobilization, to men of
particular industries and professions had also to be determined.
This was a matter for the Ministry of Labour, not the War Office;
and a departmental " Demobilization Priority Committee " was
therefore convened for the purpose of drawing up an industrial
priority schedule. A further committee was set up, for the purpose
not only of securing executive coordination but of determining,
during the demobilization period, such revised instructions on pri-
ority as might be deemed necessary on public grounds or from the
state of employment in particular industries.
In December 1918 Parts I. and II. of Army Demobilization Regu-
lations were issued and circulated under cover of Army Order 7 of
1919. These Regulations set forth every detail of the dispersal
procedure. Of the actual executive machinery set up in connection
with the scheme it may be said that it worked throughout with
unfailing smoothness and precision, in spite of arbitrary and unex-
pected fluctuations in the rate of dispersal. One detail of procedure
must also be specially noted. In the original scheme of which the
basic principle was priority according to individual industrial qualifi-
cation it was provided that ten per cent of each dispersal draft
should consist of men who, irrespective of their civil qualifications,
had served longest in the theatre of war or overseas command con-
cerned. After the Armistice, however, the demand for a speeding-up
of the rate of dispersal became so insistent that the strict order of the
Regulations could not be adhered to. The hands of the military
authorities were forced and many new classes of men were made
eligible for early release. The result was that the promised ten per
cent of long service men could not always be included in dispersal
drafts; and the Field Marshal Commanding-in-Chief in France
wrote pointing this fact out and insisting that, as the original scheme
had been explained to the men, it might seriously affect their dis-
cipline if it were departed from.
After the Armistice, of course, demobilization became a matter
of immediate public concern, and as a General Election was pending
the demand for more speedy release acquired a political significance.
The initial slowness in the rate of dispersal was, to a great extent,
inevitable, and was due to shortage of transport and to finely strung
lines of communication in the theatres of war; but it must also be
remembered that the War Cabinet order to accelerate the speed at
which demobilization was proceeding was not given until December
8 1918. Certain influential critics however preferred to attribute the
early delays to a malignant unwillingness of the army authorities
to let the men go; and considerable unrest was aroused not only
amongst the public but amongst the troops themselves. Many
letters were, in fact, received in the War Office from individual sol-
diers complaining that their commanding officers were deliberately
refraining from taking steps to effect their demobilization.
The agitation continued and the situation was verging on the
critical. Difficulties with the soldiers occurred at Folkestone and
elsewhere. Something had to be done to stem the flood of discontent.
On January 29 1919 an Army Order was issued abolishing the
principle of industrial priority and substituting that of release on
grounds of age or length of service. The good effect of this order was
instantaneous. Yet the new Army Order wrought no fundamental
change. The principle of release by age and length of service had
always been recognized and had been embodied in the original
scheme. The machinery of dispersal was in no way altered; the
transport problem was not solved; in short, the maximum rate at
which dispersal could be carried out remained as before. Just so
many men as were released under the new Army Order could have
been released under the old rules. And that the demand for release
was as acute as ever was proved by the statistics of letters received
at the War Office. After the issue of the Army Order the weekly
numbers of letters received asking for the release of particular sol-
diers increased rapidly in one branch only, from 4,821 for the week
ending Jan. 25 1919 to 17,506 for the week ending May 10 1919.
In view of these facts, it would appear difficult to explain the sudden
soothing effect of the Army Order. But indeed the reason is not far
to seek. The Order was accompanied by a Royal Warrant (Army
Order 54 of 1919) increasing the rates of pay of men in the army, and
the increases were on a generous scale. The mere changing of the
principle underlying the releases would have been ineffectual was,
indeed, unnecessary. What was needed was some unmistakable
proof that the military authorities were not acting in any arbi-
trary or obstructive manner. The idea had got abroad that men were
being deliberately retained; and the issue of the warrant, coupled
with the frank statement (accompanying Army Order 55) by the
Secretary of State for War, threw a very different light upon the whole
matter.
The total number of men (inclusive of Royal Air Force personnel)
demobilized from November II 1918 to September 29 1920 -the
date for which the last official Bulletin was issued was 196,920
officers and 3,866,668 other ranks. (E. S. H.*)
II. THE FRENCH ARMY
Although the decree of Aug. 23 1793 brought into being the
principle of the nation in arms, it was not until after the war of
1870-1 that the principle of personal service for all was estab-
lished in practice (law of July 27 1872). Thenceforth no one
could take the place of another. Inequalities in peace-time serv-
ice, however, still existed, through the operation of the ballot
and certain concessions allowed to men on account of family
circumstances, or educational qualifications. In 1889 a second
stage was reached. Military service in peace-time was reduced
to three years, but many categories of citizens, e.g. students and
supporters of families, would serve only six months. In the
event of war every citizen between the ages of 20 and 45 would
be called, as all having served would be able to participate in the
first engagements.
By the law of March 21 1905, the inequalities in the duration
of military service in peace-time disappeared. Henceforth in
France military service was declared personal and equal for all
in peace-time as in war. Service in peace-time, however, was
reduced to two years. The reduction of the duration of service
to two years, together with the decrease of the French birth-rate,
placed the French army in peace-time in conspicuous inferiority
by comparison with the German army on a peace footing; and
in 1910 an increasing volume of opinion demanded a return to
three years' service.
In 1913 the German danger was apparent to the great majority
of the French people. After bitter and prolonged discussions,
2l6
ARMY
personal and equal service for everybody for three years in
times of peace was adopted (law of Aug. 7 1913). Thanks to this
law, France, with a pop. of about 40 millions (39,601,599), was
able to raise an effective force of 3,780,000 men in a period of
15 days (Aug. i to 15 1914) by the calling up of 2,887,000.
In 1914, the French army on a peace footing was increased to
823,251 men of whom 777,215 were metropolitan troops and
46,036 colonial. The metropolitan troops were thus classified:
775,681 hommes de troupes (of whom 43,486 were in Morocco),
viz. 47,251 sous-officiers, 48,357 corporals, and 680,073 privates,
and in addition 1,534 administrative employes. The colonial
troops comprised 45,932 hommes de troupes (of whom 20,420
were in Morocco), viz. 4,756 sous-officiers, 3,690 corporals and
37,506 privates. Eighty-four non-commissioned officers were
employed at the headquarters of the colonial army. The term
hommes de troupes corresponds in France to that of " other
ranks " in Great Britain, viz. all ranks exclusive of commissioned
officers. The exclusion of officers accounts for the difference
between 2,887,000+823,251 and the total of 3,780,000 shown as
the strength on mobilization.
From Aug. 16 1914 to June 30 1915, a further 2,700,000 men
were called up to the army. From the class 1889 to the class
1916 all men were called to the colours; this amounted to a recall
of 6,444,000 men. The three years' law and the previous military
laws had thus given France (i) a covering army which made her
front inviolable, or at least which determined the Germans to
seek to envelop a wing rather than attempt to break the front ;
(2) a peace army able either to absorb or to provide cadres for a
considerable number of reservists and of men of the territorial
army. The rapid influx of so great a number of men caused high
hopes in France of a happy and rapid solution of the war, when
it started in 1914. But as things turned out its only result was
to enable her to await, without disaster, the coming into line of
Italy on the one hand, and the formation of a great English
army on the other.
In Aug. 1915, when the war had already lasted one year, it
was realized in France that Lord Kitchener was right in antici-
pating a war of several years. He himself had undertaken to
form a military organization for a duration of three years; and
France, having already called up numerous classes of reservists
and of young soldiers, now became less hasty in calling to the
colours those who remained. Thus from Aug. i 1914 to June 30
1915 there were mobilized 5,587,000 men, which brought the
total up to 6,444,000 men; from July 1915 to Oct. i 1915 there
were mobilized only 1,440,000 men in small batches.
The enrolments made by France in the course of the war
reached a total of 7,842,000 French and 475,000 N. African and
colonial troops, making a grand total of 8,317,000 men.
In the course of the war losses in killed, wounded, prisoners,
deaths from sickness and sick made the numbers vary of men
mobilized in the army and outside it. The need of food supplies
also made it necessary to send back a certain number of indi-
viduals and parties of agriculturists who were recalled to service
from time to time and then again released to work on the land.
At the beginning of July 1915 there began the process of with-
drawing from the front men capable of working in munition
factories. Such men were no longer, strictly speaking, mobilized,
but they remained " mobilizable," and were recalled to the front
when there was no longer any fear of a shortage of munitions, or
when the need of the front line became dominant, as when
Clemenceau at the beginning of 1918 withdrew the young
workers from the factories. The following table shows by
categories variations of strength.
Mobilized
strength.
Men liable to
mobilization
employed in
the interior.
Agricultural
gangs, and
agricultur-
ists on leave.
Aug. 15 1914 .
July i 1915 .
I 1916 .
I 1917 .
i 1918 .
Nov. i 1918
3,781,000
4,978,000
4,677,000
4,512,000
4,340,000
4,143,000
465,000
122,000
595,000
1,183,000
1,374,000
1,387,000
30,000
70,000
100,000
45,000
25,000
I On Aug. 15 1914 the French army at the front had reached
the strength that Joffre used in the battles of the Ardennes, the
Marne, and the " Race to the Sea." July i 1915 stands for the
period at which it was hoped to pierce the front in Champagne.
More men were made available for the armies, and also for the
work preparatory to the offensive (which was to take place in
September); no heed was paid to the needs of the country,
since it was hoped the war would very soon end.
The 465,000 men who had been allowed to return to the inte-
rior in Aug. 1914, for public services, for the guarding of lines of
communication, and for administration, were recalled to the
army in July 1915. Although there remained in the interior
122,000 men (besides 30,000 agricultural workers), these 122,000
were mobilized men in the factories, and the need for munitions
and for artillery was very great. From the beginning of July
1916 the English army brought a great aid and relief to France,
where exhaustion was beginning to make itself felt. The mobi-
lized strength was beginning to fall away; it was not possible to
replace the dead by calling up fresh men. Moreover, it became
obvious that the conditions of the war needed munitions on an
ever-increasing scale, and so the munition factories were crammed
with workers.
The definitive losses sustained by the French army in the
World War reached a total of 1,317,000 French and 66,000
native troops, making in all 1,383,000 dead. As shown by the
following table the losses in killed were very heavy in 1914 and
in 1915, heavy in 1916, relatively light in 1917, and heavy again
in 1918.
Killed, or
died of wounds.
Average
per month.
Percentage of
monthly losses
in comparison
with strength.
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
301.350
348,850
252,300
163,700
250,800
60,270
29,070
21,020
13,640
22,100
2-95%
1-09%
0-71 %
0-46%
0-77%
In 1914 a Frenchman belonging to the army had two chances
of life and one of being killed; he had hardly any chance of
remaining without a wound. In 1915, this man had six chances
of living to one of being killed, while the chances of being or not
being wounded were nearly equal (two to one and a half). It
was during the year 1917 that the dangers were the least; on an
average one had six times as great a chance as in 1914 of not
being killed.
If one takes into account the combatants in each of the arms
of which the French army was composed, one sees diminishing
little by little, but in a very perceptible manner, the number of
infantry and cavalry, while the strength of the engineers main-
tained itself without great change. But the combatant strength
of the artillery and air service was augmented in number by two
to one in the case of the artillery and by six to one in that of the
air service.
Combatant Strength
Arm.
May i
I9I5-
July i
1916.
Oct. i
1917.
Oct i
1918.
Infantry ....
Cavalry ....
Artillery ....
Engineers
Air Service
1,525,000
102,000
395,ooo
104,000
8,000
1,447,000
93,500
495,000
125,000
24,000
1,142,000
71,000
522,000
121,000
35,000
850,000
63,000
601,000
117,000
52,000
The army evolved towards material power, the rifle lost
ground to the machine-gun, but the machine-guns more and
more took second place to the artillery. As for the air service, it
grew to an extraordinary extent. If, taking a table of numbers,
a mathematician were to establish a rising curve, he would
come promptly to the conclusion that in a limited number of
years there would be more men fighting in the air than on the
ground. And if in fact, despite the mounting numbers of the
artillery and of the air service, the infantry remained queen of
battles, the queen's retinue was no longer one of men on horse-
ARMY
217
back, but one of great masses of cannon and machine-guns
moving by her side and over her head.
So far we have dealt with the strength: the examination of
the losses is still more conclusive.
Losses
Arm.
I9H-
1915-
1916.
1917.
1918.
Infantry .
Cavalry . . .
Artillery . . .
Engineers
Air Service
283,320
3,79
8,560
2,880
32
323,160
3,620
11,100
6,960
260
221,920
2,830
16,800
5,475
620
I34,7io
3,180
I5,5oo
4,415
820
182,120
7,690
27,725
7,155
1,965
The variations in the losses of the cavalry are practically without
meaning, for the cavalry fought sometimes as infantry in the
trenches, sometimes on foot, at other times on horse. Still it
should be noted that in 1914 as in 1918, when the cavalry had
occasion to engage in open warfare, i.e. to work as mounted men,
their losses were considerably increased. During the pursuit-
battles of 1918 the losses were particularly heavy.
Whilst the strength of the artillery increased from May 1915
to Oct. 1918 in the ratio of four to six, the proportion of the
losses rose in ratio eleven to twenty-seven. For the air service
the strength increased in the ratio of 8 to 52, that is to say i to
6-5 the losses increased in the proportion of 260 to 1,965, i.e.
i to 8. The queen of battles, magnificently escorted in 1918 by
the gun and the aeroplane, suffered less than before; it was she,
however, who still ran relatively the greatest danger. She
remained queen. It is of interest also to notice that the war of
movement was more murderous than trench warfare. The year
1916 was for the French army the year of Verdun and the Somme,
fantastic battles when artillery projectiles fell like rain in a
storm. However, this battle of a year cost far less than the six
months' battle in 1914, although the strengths engaged were
practically the same. In 1918 the infantry lost 182,000 men out
of a strength of 850,000 men; in 1916 the proportion was 220,000
out of a strength of 1,450,000. Strong souls were and always
will be needed to lead men in the battle of open warfare; and the
education of an army must be directed accordingly.
Man-Power. The evolution of the French army from 1910 to 1914
would not be sufficiently indicated, nor would one understand the
defeats from Aug. 18-24 1914, followed by the victories of Sept.
5-12, if one were only to study a table of strengths. How could it
happen, one might say, that Gen. Joffre, to whom by Aug. 15 1914
France had entrusted 3,780,000 men not to mention the precious
aid and increment of strength brought by the British and the
Belgians was beaten in the battles of the Frontiers? On the Sam-
bre, the French army, swelled by reserve divisions attached to it,
had during Aug. 22-23 a numerical equality with the troops of the
German II. Army to whom they were opposed. In the Woevre the
III. French Army, augmented by the reserve divisions attached
to it, was equivalent in strength to the opposing V. German Army.
In many places in the great battle that took place from Mulhausen to
Maubeuge, German units triumphed easily over French units of the
same strength. At the Marne the contrary happened.
To find the explanation of this curious paradox, it is sufficient to
follow the evolution of the French army before the war, and to
compare the age of the combatants who were fighting respectively
in the two camps. To obtain the numbers sent to her armies France
had to incorporate all the recruit classes from class 1889 (men born
in 1869) to the 1916 class. The men of the classes 1889-1905 had
done three years' service, or in certain cases six months only. Re-
called twice for a period of 28 days, and once for a period of 13 days,
the men who had remained with the colours for a short time were not
in Aug. 1914 sufficiently trained to be battle-worthy. That is why
the army given to Gen. d'Amade for ensuring the defence of France
between the Oise and the sea was valueless. Field-Marshal French
obviously could not count on it for ensuring the protection of his left
flank. It was necessary to have several months of war to give any
fighting value to the units of the territorial army. 1 The men belong-
ing to the classes 1905-13 had uniformly served two years with the
colours, and would have been able without difficulty to bear their
share in battle if they had had proper cadres. But even though two
years' training suffices to make an excellent soldier, one cannot in
that time turn out good non-commissioned officers with the aptitude
to command sufficiently well established to be recovered quickly
after several years spent in civil life. . As the army in times of peace
had not enough cadres of N.C.O.'s and of subalterns to give suffi-
1 In France the " territorial army " is formed on mobilization from
reservists (officers and men) of the older classes.
cient for the formation of reserves, these reserve formations had to
acquire cohesion before being in a state fit for fighting. To command
these territorial and reserve units it was necessary to draw officers
from civil life or older officers from the active army. In the reserve
divisions, indeed, it had been possible to place a certain number of
officers of the active army. But no steps had been taken to provide
any for the territorial army. The profession of a soldier, like any
other, requires an apprenticeship ; but officers of the reserve or terri-
torial army in times of peace might have resigned if compelled to
attend frequent trainings; and so there was nothing for it but for
them to serve their apprenticeship in war a matter of many weeks.
As for the older officers of the active army, retired under the age
limit, they were not sufficiently young to pass on their energy to the
others. The reserve divisions in Aug. 1914, therefore, were not in a
condition to be considered as combatant, for lack of good cadres and
also lack of youth.
The three years' law was expected to furnish the cadres which the
two years' law had failed to give ; but having been voted only the year
previous to the war, it was not able to produce the effect which was
hoped from this point of view. The three years' law called up the
1913 class in advance. Prior to this law the men of a class were
called to the colours in the month of Oct. of the following year.
Thus, under the regime of the two years' law, men born in 1893,
being 20 years old in 1913, were called the 1913 class. Had they been
summoned on Oct. I 1914 they would not have taken part in the
battles of the Frontiers or those of the Marne. When the three
years' law came into force these young men joined the colours in the
month of Oct. 1913, and in consequence, at the moment of the com-
mencement of the campaign, they had between nine and ten months'
service, and they did splendidly in the battles of the Frontiers and
the Marne. It will be noted that these young men were 20 years
old at enrolment, instead of 21 as under the previous laws. Fears,
therefore, had been entertained that enrolment at so early an age
would adversely affect them. For this reason the calling-up was
postponed in the case of any conscript whose physical condition
left anything to be desired. The 1913 class did not provide, there-
fore, at the moment of enrolment, more than 170,000 men instead
of 210,000, which was the usual figure. Nevertheless, the three years'
law was welcome at the moment, since it gave both the mobilized
army and, in particular, the peace-time army an addition of strength
equivalent to four army corps. From this aspect the vote of the
three years' law was the capital point of the French army's evolution
from 1910 to 1914.
The Germans, thanks to the greater size of their population and
to their higher birth-rate, were able to increase each year their
strength in peace-time; and, because in Germany the uniform was
popular, the candidates for officers and non-commissioned rank of the
active army and of the reserve were superabundant.
In these conditions it was feared in France that the weak units
of the protective forces in the frontier regions might be suddenly
overwhelmed, and the concentration of the armies behind them
thereby made impossible. To build up in peace-time the strength
of the units forming part of the couyerture, and to increase the number
of units assigned to it, was the principal aim of the three years' law.
Commencing in the month of Oct. 1913, the corps of the Covering
Force were filled up with the numerous contingents of young soldiers
of the 1912 and 1913 classes; this increase was so considerable that
the peace strength became almost that of a war footing. The period
of Oct. 1913 to May 1914 was extremely critical, owing partly to
the overcrowding in the old barracks or in those being constructed
and partly to the want of instructional facilities for the increased
number of recruits. If the war had broken out during the transitional
phase, difficulties without number would have had to be overcome.
Fortunately, this did not happen.
At the same time that the three years' law increased the strength
in men, it increased also the number of horses in the cavalry and
artillery. In consequence of this, the units of the Covering Force
found themselves able to take the field almost with their peace-time
organization. The difference between peace and war strengths was
about four to five. This allowed the reservist element to be easily
absorbed in the active element. At no point in the immense field of
battle of Aug. 1914 did any weakness manifest itself amongst the
troops of the Covering Force; on the contrary, the II. Corps, XX.
Corps, and Hache's Diy. of the VI. Corps displayed prodigies of
valour and saved some situations which were extremely delicate.
The formations of the Covering Force were favoured with regard
to cadres, in comparison with other units of the interior. Since they
were liable to be attacked immediately after, and perhaps without,
a declaration of war, it was desirable in the meanwhile to maintain
them almost on a war footing not only with men but with cadres.
But, without denying the value of the advantage of possessing cadres
almost at war strength which the Covering Force enjoyed at the
expense of the army of the interior, it must be recognized that
the preponderant influence is the age of the troops. The corps of the
Covering Force were younger than the corps of the interior, the latter
were younger than the reserve divisions, and the divisions of the re-
serve had not the age of the territorial army. This is not the place
to argue that age freezes the courage that question lies in the
domain of psychology and must be left to research in that branch of
study. It may be affirmed, however, that the process of acclimatiza-
218
ARMY
tion necessary in turning from the habits of peace to the trials of war
is harder in proportion as youth has passed and the instruction ac-
quired during the years of service with the colours has been effaced
by time. If this applies to the French it is equally true of the Ger-
mans. In the early days of the war, when of equal ages, the French
and Germans found themselves on an equal footing; but where the
Germans were younger they won.
Now, in any case, the French population consisting of 40 million
souls, and the German of 70 million, in one mobilization class
Germany had seven soldiers to France's four. But, further, it was
especially in the 30 years prior to the war that the difference in the
birth-rates made itself felt. One can say then without appreciable
error that the last classes called to the colours gave eight to Germany
and only four to France.
The army corps of the French Covering Force, in which 80 % of the
personnel consisted of the three youngest classes, had a mean age of
22-22! years. The army corps of the interior, composed half of men
of the younger classes and half of reservists, had a mean age of 25-26
years. The reserve divisions had a mean age of 31-32 years. The
army corps of the German active army had a mean age of no more
than 22 years in the Covering Force, and 2324 years in the interior,
while the German reserve army corps had one of not more than 25-26
years. In brief, all the army corps of the Germans, whether active or
of the reserve, were still under the influence of the lessons acquired
during their active military service, while the French reserve divi-
sions had everything to relearn.
Therefore, if one is to compare the strengths present in the
Frontier battles, one must not count the divisions of French reserve
any more than the reserve brigades which followed the active army
corps, or only count them as of very small value. For battle purposes
the numerical superiority must be considered in the first encounters
to have been in favour of the Germans. But the reserve divisions
quickly recovered themselves; their acclimatization was rapid.
Already at the battle of the Meuse there was notable progress; at
the Marne, where they were led vigorously, they called forth the
respect of the enemy.
In 1914 France was organized to place under arms the whole
population capable of carrying arms. It has already been remarked
that the stages of evolution towards the ideal of 1793 were slow.
Even after Sedan, Gambetta was able only to call up men by cate-
gories first the unmarried, then married men without children.
Only in 1905 did service become obligatory, personal and equal, and
it was not until 1913 that the law was reached which saved France
by giving, with equality, a strong peace army which could absorb
the number of reservists and cover the mobilization and concentra-
tion. It is important to note the fact that while on Aug. 22 1914
that is to say, three weeks after the order of mobilization the army
corps of the Covering Force were complete, the army corps of the inte-
rior were only just ready, the divisions of the reserve were not up to the
mark, and the units of the territorial army were still valueless. This
respite of three weeks which the French army enjoyed arose from
two causes: the resistance at Liege and the extension which the Ger-
mans gave to their enveloping manoeuvre. It may fairly be asserted
that it was the reenforcement of the French Covering Force, much
more than the value of the French fortresses, which caused the
German staff to seek to gain the valley of the Oise by the right of
*he army before the attack. And the resistance of Liege aggravated
the effect of the delay inherent in this place of attack.
The evolution of the French army from 1910 to 1914 in respect
of its strength, the reenforcement of the Covering Force and the
peace-time order of battle, thus saved France in spite of the absence
of a natural frontier which exposed her to the greatest difficulties, if
not to actual defeat.
When the war of movement ended and trench warfare commenced,
it was bitterly regretted that the factories had been emptied of all
their mobilizable workers; the very principles which had governed
the evolution of the army towards universal, personal and equal
service were blamed. It was deplored that these men had not been
left at work in their workshops whilst the others went to fight.
It may be that these reproaches were ill-founded. If the 559,000
men who on July I 1917 were in factories had remained there in Aug.
and Sept. 1914 instead of going to the war, perhaps there would have
been munitions in the arsenals, but perhaps also the French army
might not have had need of them, because they would have been
beaten by the numbers of the enemy.
It is. not justifiable, then, to say that the evolution of the army
between 1910 and 1914 was on wrong lines. It was because the Ger-
mans gave so wide a sweep to their enveloping movement that space
and time allowed the French commander-in-chief to place on his
left wing the V. Army and a group of reserve divisions, and to get in
touch with the English army. This space and time Prussia had meant
to refuse to France in 1871 in drawing the new frontier. To gain
space and time had been the object of those who had organized the
defences of the mutilated frontier ; it was the purpose, equally, of the
troops of the Covering Force. To lessen the allowance of space and
time required for the French army to mobilize and concentrate on
the frontier was the constant preoccupation of the staff from 1875
up to the month of Aug. 1914.
The Covering Force. It is not possible here to deal with the organi-
zation of the fortresses which gave a military frontier to France,
deprived as she was of every natural frontier. We shall limit our-
selves to defining the operations which had for their object the crea-
tion of a strong Covering Force. These operations determined the
order of battle of the French army.
In the first place there was built up one higher formation to which
almost exclusively was entrusted the duty of forming a Covering
Force to face Germany; the VI. Corps was this great unit. Alone,
this army corps watched over the frontier in 1875. Next, Germany
having placed in Alsace-Lorraine very large numbers, France, in
order to keep the balance, had to augment the number of units of
the VI. Corps. This, becoming too cumbersome, was divided into two
- the VI. (headquarters Ch&lons) and the XX. (headquarters
Nancy). At the same time the region of the VII. Corps (Besancon)
was extended to the N. of Belfort as far as the Upper Moselle. This
was the position in 1910, when, since Germany showed herself not
only more and more aggressive but also more and more strong, it was
decided to give the frontier, by the organization of the Covering
Force, the means of gaining, if not space, at least the time necessary
to put in position in a prearranged order of battle the great military
units mobilized by France. For this purpose it was necessary to have
the men whom the three years' law provided. When they were
promised, a new order of battle was adopted. A new army corps, the
XXL, was created, with the duty of providing the covering force
in the region of the Vosges. The II. Corps (Amiens), which was a
corps of the army of the interior, had its regional limits completely
altered ; the district adjoining Belgium (Givet to Thionville) was
allotted to it, and one of its divisions increased to three brigades
furnished the Covering Force from Briey to Givet.
Each corps of the Covering Force became in a fashion the advanced
guard of an army. The XXI. Corps was the advanced guard of the
I. Army ; the XX. Corps that of the II. Army ; the VI. Corps that of
the III. Army; and the II. Corps became on Aug. 9 1914 the ad-
vanced guard of the IV. Army. The I. Corps acted as an advanced
guard to the V. Army, sent towards the Sambre, and on the other
flank the VII. Corps, when strongly reenforced, became the army
of Gen. Pau, operating towards Miilhausen. Behind this formidable
system of the six corps of the Covering Force, the commander-in-
chief under Plan 17 could put his armies into position. Immediately
prior to the war, Gen. Joffre had improved in detail the measures
taken for mobilization and concentration in order to avoid as far as
possible any loss of time; he sought to gain even hours, in the hope
of saving the corps of the Covering Force from having to give ground,
by speeding up the intervening stages between the date of the open-
ing of hostilities and the time at which the armies would be strategi-
cally concentrated.
Strength. The French army in peace-time consisted of 21 army
corps and three divisions of colonial troops available for service on
the frontiers. Of these 21 army corps, the arrival of the XIX.
Corps, stationed in Algeria, in time for the first battles was counted
upon, though problematical. In addition there were 10 divisions of
cavalry. On mobilization the units of the active army were brought
to their war strength by the influx of reservists; there was created on
an average one division of reserve for an army corps.
In the Frontier battle, Gen. Joffre had under his command not
only the 44 divisions of the active army at home but also three
active divisions drawn from N. Africa and the Alps, and 25 reserve
divisions a total of 72 divisions of infantry and in addition 10
divisions of cavalry, giving a total of 2,669,000 men for the armies
of the north-east.
By Sept. I 1914 the French army comprised: 21 army corps, 50
active divisions, 25 reserve divisions, 12 territorial divisions, 10
cavalry divisions, army troops, and line-of-communication troops.
Altogether there were 62,145 officers and 2,689,000 men 1,135,000
rifles, 25,000 carbines, 106,200 sabres, 2,158 machine-guns, 4,098
field guns, 389 heavy guns, 192 mountain guns, 200 aeroplanes and
1 8 balloons.
If in addition to the troops which Gen. Joffre was able to place in
the battle of the Frontiers, there are added the Belgian army of 6
infantry divisions and one cavalry division, the 4 British infantry
divisions which in the first place Field-Marshal French brought,
with one and a half divisions of British cavalry, the conclusion is
reached that the loss of this battle was caused, not by dispropor-
tionate numbers, but by various other factors, amongst which, as
already noted, the initial lack of efficiency of the French reserve
divisions must be given a prior place.
The order of battle of the French army comprised five armies,
allowing four armies to be placed side by side in the first line, and
one army in reserve behind the centre and left centre. Each army
had at least one division of cavalry in reserve. On the left near the
Belgian frontier there had been assembled a cavalry corps. Reserve
divisions were placed in the centre of the battle front, between the
II. and III. Armies, to carry out the investment of the fortified
region of Metz-Thionville or to bar the enemy from the Meuse
heights between Verdun and Toul as required. Other reserve divi-
sions were entrusted, concurrently with certain active forces, with
the defence of the region of Ste. Genevieve, in front of Nancy and
Frouard. A " group " of reserve divisions was brought to the right
rear, and a similar group to the left rear of the long line. Belfort,
Epinal, Toul, Verdun, Maubeuge received their war garrisons.
Lille was declared an " open town by the Ministry of War. Lastly,
ARMY
219
a group of territorial divisions under the command of Gen. d'Amade
in the region W. of the Oise was dignified by the name of an army.
Each army had a number of army corps varying according to the
different missions of these corps. Thus, for example, the IV. Army,
which under Plan 17 (wherein this army was in reserve) had only
3 army corps, had 6 army corps in the Ardennes battles, with, in
addition, 2 reserve divisions. A temporary army was formed for
the invasion of Alsace under Gen. Pau ; this was broken up when
Joffre observed how seriously the left flank of the Allies was com-
promised. An army, called the Lorraine Army, existed for some days
in Woevre; it was broken up before even the neighbouring forces
knew of its existence. A sixth army was organized near Amiens; this
was the army which, reconstituted at Paris, fought the battle of the
Ourcq. A ninth army, which at first was an "army detachment"
under the IV. Army, was formed during the retreat and fought glori-
ously at the Marne. In the course of the war, armies were created,
broken up, and created anew as the needs of the case demanded.
Thus there was formed at Salonika an Army of the East.
After the loss of the Meuse heights, which followed the loss of
St. Mihiel, the commander of the III. Army was for a time brought
under the authority of the commander of the I. Army. This was the
origin of the creation of " Groups of Armies." These had the ad-
vantage of simplifying the task of the commander-in-chief, which
had become heavier and heavier; but it was evident during the
offensive of April 1917 that this part of the machinery was capable of
bringing its movement to a standstill. Opinions formed on this
subject seem unanimous in considering the army group a temporary
formation intended to achieve coordination of movement when many
armies were seeking the same objective while the commander-in-
chief had too many other urgent occupations to act himself. In 1915
there were three groups of armies, East, Centre, North. For the
offensive of 1917, and again for the spring campaign of 1918, groups
of armies designated " reserve " (G.A.R.) were formed. In the
final advance of Sept.-Oct. 1918 a group of armies of Flanders was
formed of Belgian, French and British troops under King Albert.
An " Army Corps " in principle was composed of two divisions
of the active army and corps troops and included especially one
brigade of the reserve. But certain army corps in Aug. 1914 had 3
divisions the VI. Army Corps for example. The II. Corps mobi-
lized 5 brigades, but it lost almost at once the 8th Bde., which was
attached to the cavalry corps. In the course of the campaign during
the stationary period, an army corps was often no more than a sector
where troops collected either for battle or for enjoying a period of
comparative rest. The number of divisions was extremely variable,
as was also the allotment of artillery in a sector.
An infantry " division " originally consisted of 2 brigades of
infantry, a company of engineers and a regiment of artillery. In
order to give greater mobility and to decrease the proportion of
infantry in comparison to the number of guns, one regiment of
infantry was suppressed. The ternary order prevailed not only in
the regiment of infantry but also in the battalion. The cavalry divi-
sion did not undergo any great change during the war, although in
1915 two sections of machine-guns were added. The proportion of
engineers was increased while many regiments of cavalry were dis-
mounted or broken up.
A cavalry corps was composed of a variable number of divisions
of cavalry. On the left wing of the French army the general-in-chief
constituted, from the concentration, a cavalry corps in strength of
3 divisions. During the battle of the Meuse, the commander of the
IV. Army created a cavalry corps from 2 divisions which had been
at that moment attached to him. In front of the I. and II. Armies
a cavalry corps was also created for a brief time. In fact, the cavalry
corps did not exist as an organized formation ; when two or more divi-
sions of cavalry were placed under the same commander the group
thus formed was often called a cavalry corps. A division of cavalry
had 3 brigades of cavalry and a group of batteries.
Many were the variations through which the order of battle
passed in the course of the war. But it is of special interest to mention
what the French army of 1914 had become in 1918 when the war was
ended ; the numbers can be compared with those shown above.
In 1918 there were at the front: 88,488 officers and 2,846,000
men 450,000 rifles only (about one-third of the number in 1914),
400,000 carbines, 33,500 sabres, 19,149 heavy machine-guns, 46,800
light machine-guns (an arm which had not been employed in 1914),
936 guns of 37 mm. calibre, 1,872 Stokes mortars, 36 motor-mounted
37 mm. guns, 208 motor-mounted machine-guns, 6,618 field guns
(75 mm.), 7,100 heavy guns, 260 mountain guns, 2,275 guns of
position and trench artillery, 3,379 aeroplanes (which the programme
for 1919 increased to 6,000), 77 balloons, and 2,385 (a little later
4,626) tanks. In 1914 the army had 19,000 vehicles; in 1918 there
were 88,500.
Under the law of Dec. 23 1912, the French infantry in peace-time
comprised 173 regiments, of which 164 had 3 battalions of 4 com-
panies each; 8 "fortress" regiments had 4 battalions, and one
regiment stationed in Corsica had a variable number of battalions.
There were 31 battalions of chasseurs-d-pied, of which 18 (6-com-
pany) battalions were on the N.E. frontier and 13 were Alpine
battalions (6-company also). Four regiments of Zouaves had a
variable number of battalions (^-company). Twelve regiments of
native tirailleurs were composed like the Zouave regiments, but with
a depot company in addition. Further, there were 2 foreign regi-
ments, 5 battalions of African light infantry and a number of Sahara
companies. The single regiment of firemen engineers of Paris fur-
nished excellent cadres for the units dispatched to the front when
after the Marne a shortage occurred of non-commissioned officers
and subaltern officers. In principle each active regiment of infantry
formed a reserve regiment of 2 battalions. The territorial army was
formed of 145 regiments of varying composition according to the
resources of the recruiting district ; it included 7 territorial bat-
talions of Chasseurs, and 12 territorial battalions of Zouaves.
The infantry was armed with the Lebel rifle, model 1886-93. There
was one machine-gun section for each battalion of infantry and
Chasseurs. Owing to the slowness with which the French Parliament
granted the necessary sums, territorial units were not provided with
machine-guns at the outset of the war.
The cavalry was composed of 91 regiments, of which 10 were
African troops. Each regiment had 5 squadrons in peace and 4 in
war. However, the 6 Spahi regiments continued with 5 squadrons.
In principle each army corps had a regiment of cavalry, and each
division of infantry had a squadron. The other regiments of cavalry
formed 10 divisions of cavalry of 6 regiments each. The term
" Heavy Cayalry Division " was sometimes applied to those com-
prising 4 regiments of dragoons and 2 regiments of cuirassiers; that
of " Mixed Division " to those composed of 2 regiments of cuiras-
siers, 2 regiments of dragoons and 2 of light cavalry; and that of
" Light Division " to those of 4 regiments of dragoons and 2 of light
cavalry. The cavalry was armed with the sabre, carbine, and, in
certain regiments of dragoons, with the lance. Each division of
cavalry was allotted a group of horse artillery and a cyclist company.
The artillery comprised 62 regiments of field artillery, in 3 or 4
groups of 3 four-gun batteries and 5 autonomous groups in Algeria
and Tunis. There were 635 field batteries, 24 batteries of mobile
medium howitzers, 35 batteries of heavy artillery, 22 batteries of
mountain guns, 30 batteries of horse artillery, 75 batteries of foot
artillery altogether 820 batteries.
The engineers were composed of 8 regiments, of which one was a
railway and one a telegraph regiment. These regiments formed 26
battalions, varying from 3 to 7 companies.
The air force had 4 balloon companies and 3 aviation companies;
and in addition 10 aeronautical sections and one transport company.
The colonial troops formed 16 regiments of colonial infantry, of
which 12 were in France and 4 in the colonies. There were 5 in-
dependent battalions and 2 independent companies in the colonies;
one regiment of Annam rifles, 4 regiments of Tonkin rifles, 4 regi-
ments and 8 battalions of Senegal rifles, 3 regiments of Madagascar
rifles. The colonial cavalry consisted of 2 squadrons of Senegal
Spahis, one squadron of natives of Congo and Chari, and one squad-
ron of Indo-China natives. The colonial artillery comprised in
France 3 regiments forming 36 batteries, of which 18 were field and 6
mountain ; in the colonies were 4 regiments and 2 independent groups.
Finally in Morocco there were 6 mixed regiments with 3 battalions, of
which one was a colonial battalion and 2 were Senegal rifles.
The French army had 21 army corps, but the XIX. Corps (Al-
geria) was not, during the World War, brought into the field armies
as such. However, 2 African divisions were brought over and at-
tached to the V. Army, so that the troops figured at the front.
The active divisions of the metropolitan army (including 19 corps)
were numbered from I to 43 ; some special designations were given
to new divisions formed on mobilization from active troops not
included in the 20 corps of the metropolitan army present in France.
The reserve divisions were numbered from 51 to 75- The designation
" reserve " was abolished in 1915. Territorial divisions were given
numbers above 80. Higher-numbered divisions were formed by
reconstitutions from existing divisions, from 1915 onwards. These
had numbers above 100.
The only exterior theatres of war in which France employed large
formations were the Dardanelles, Salonika and Italy.
In the Dardanelles campaign the expeditionary force was even-
tually of about the strength of 2 divisions. These were afterwards
regularly constituted as the I56th and the I7th Colonial Divs.
At Salonika there were, in addition to the two Gallipoli divisions, the
57th Div. and the I22nd and nth Colonial Divs., to which were
added in 1917 the l6th Colonial, 3Oth and 76th Divs. In Italy, in
the winter of 1917-8, there were 6 divisions detached from the
French front, of which 2 remained to the end of the war, being re-
placed in France by 2 Italian divisions. Smaller forces were em-
ployed at Cyprus (1916), and in Syria and Palestine; in the African
campaigns; in North Russia, and elsewhere. (V. L. E. C.)
III. BELGIAN ARMY
In 1910 recruiting for the Belgian army was still regulated,
under legislation of 1902, on a voluntary basis, completed by
drawing by lot. The peace effective strength was 42,800 men,
and the effective total of the field army on mobilization was
fixed at 100,000 men.
By the statute of 1913 Parliament established the principle that
the defence of the home country was an obligation charge on the
family. Each family must furnish one son at least for military serv-
22O
ARMY
ice. This reform placed at the disposal of the army an annual
contingent of about 33,000 men. This increased considerably the
effectives subject to recall on mobilization, and caused a complete
reform of the army organization. The new organization was chiefly
instituted from a desire of assuring during times of peace a direct
liaison between the two principal arms infantry and artillery. This
was achieved by the formation of a mixed brigade which was formed
from a regiment of infantry and a group of field artillery.
On a war footing, under the reorganization now effected, there
would be 6 army divisions and one cavalry division. This was the
scheme under which the Belgian army found itself involved in war
in 1914. It provided for an effective strength of 350,000 men, of
which 100,000 were fortress troops; but this would not be reached
before 1918, when the recruiting law would have been applied to 6
classes of militia. As in 1914 the total of 8 junior classes recallable
to the coloars did not provide more than a total of 1 17,000 men, it was
found that the field army, while mobilizing so vast a cadre, yet pos-
sessed effective units of extreme weakness only. Further, at the
outset of the campaign the infantry units did not count in soldiers
but in cadres or half only of their strength. In fact the war sur-
prised the Belgian army in the midst of reorganization, (i) The order
for heavy Maxim machine-guns had only been completed in part;
a certain number of companies in the field army were equipped with
Hotchkiss machine-guns which were taken from the armament of the
fortresses. Owing to the lack of a fixed regimental scale of tiansport,
all machine-guns were carried in requisitioned transport and this
paralyzed their use. (2) It was intended that the divisional artillery
regiment would have a group of field guns and two groups of 9>5-in.
howitzers. When war was declared there existed in the whole army
only one group of howitzers; the artillery of the whole army was
equipped only with 75-mm. guns. The adoption of a 15-cm. howitzer
was still under consideration. (3) The number of cavalry regiments
should have been raised from 8 to 12, but only 3 of the 4 new regi-
ments had been created ; the cavalry divisions possessed 2 brigades
instead of 3. (4) The Air Force possessed a single squadron of
one dozen aeroplanes. The infantry were armed with the Mauser
rifle of 1889 type, firing an ordinary pointed bullet.
After the battle of the Yser the Belgian army consisted of only
32,000 rifles. This excessive reduction of effectives caused the sup-
pression of the mixed brigades. Each army division consisted of 3
mixed regiments (one regiment of infantry and one group of artillery).
The 3rd Div. alone had 3 mixed brigades. It was with this com-
position that the army spent the whole winter 19145. The excess of
artillery permitted the placing of 2 regiments of this arm at the dis-
posal of the 27th and 28th Divs. (British) in the Ypres salient.
A few days after mobilization the Government had decreed the
calling-up of the 1914 class. This contingent, and voluntary enlist-
ments at the outbreak of war, formed a feeding reserve of 50,000
men, who were at first collected in the depots around Antwerp and
later taken to the district of the Pas-de-Calais after the evacuation
of that fortress.
In the spring of 1917 the army was reorganized in view of its
participation in the general offensive projected by Gen. Nivelle.
The number of machine-guns employed was considerably increased.
Ignoring a similarity of type of weapon, but keeping to a single
type of machine-gun in each division, companies of 6 machine-guns
were raised for each battalion of infantry. The adoption of the
French light machine-gun at the rate of 6, and later of 9, weapons
per company, allowed a reduction of the effectives in the company
to about 180 men. As a result it was possible to increase the regi-
ments to 4 battalions of 1,000 men in a brigade of 2 regiments of 3
battalions, each battalion being formed of 3 companies of infantry
and one company of machine-guns. Later, the acquisition of a
certain number of howitzers permitted each division to possess some
fairly heavy material, and created further a brigade of 2 regiments
of heavy artillery. Hence the composition of an army division in
1917 was: headquarters; 3 brigades of infantry of 2 regiments
of 3 battalions; one brigade of artillery; one regiment of engineers
of 2 battalions; one light group of 2 squadrons of cavalry, and one
company of cyclists. Thus formed, the Belgian army at the front on
Sept. I 1917 at the period of the British offensive at Ypres, had
168,000 men, of whom 5,700 were officers.
In order to maintain the strength now reached, and to prepare for
the normal wastage of stationary warfare, it was decreed by law that
personal service was obligatory for all Belgians between the ages of
1 8 and 40 years living outside the invaded territory.
The Belgian army found itself ready a year later in Sept. 1918
to join in the offensive attack in Flanders with 170,000 men, despite
the fact that 30,000 were serving in the hospitals, in military fac-
tories, in munition parks, and other subsidiary services.
The organization of the Belgian military system which developed
after the war as a permanent element in the institutions of the
country may be summarized here. The royal decree of July 1917
made army service universal and obligatory, but till the end of the
war it had been possible to apply it only to those Belgians living in
the uninvaded territory ; that is to say, to a very small Traction of the
annual contingent. Immediately after demobilization it was decided
that all men of the classes 1914-5-6^-7-8 of the invaded portion of
the country who had not served during the war should be called in
succession under arms, each military contingent following the other
at about 6 months' interval. This measure was in 1921 in process
of being carried out.
The term of service with the colours was that ordered by the law
of 1912, viz.: Infantry and engineers, 1 5 months; field artillery, 21
months; horse artillery, 24 months. However, "breadwinners,"
i.e. the married men or those of good conduct who supported
families, were allowed to return to their homes after 4 months of
instruction only.
In Oct. 1920 the Minister of War, yielding to the pressure of
public opinion which favoured a reduction of military expenses, de-
cided that in the transitory period until the completion of training
of the backward classes, i.e. until 1922 (having regard to the fact
that during this period 2 whole classes would be under arms), the
terms of active service were to be reduced for the time being to 10
months for infantry, 12 months for engineers and fortress artillery,
17 months for cavalry and horse artillery.
The Peace and War Organization. The constitution of " army
divisions " (practically equivalent to army corps) is as shown below.
Certain modifications, however, were under consideration in 1921
with a view (a) to augmenting the number of machine-guns, with the
final object of forming a machine-gun battalion per infantry divi-
sion, (b) to developing the technical services, (c) to increasing the
aviation and the heavy artillery of the army.
Army divisions (6 in number) consist each of 2 infantry divisions
and other troops. The infantry division consists of 3 infantry regi-
ments, one artillery regiment, and one engineer battalion. The
corps troops, as they may be called, consist of a battalion of cyclists,
a regiment of cavalry, a regiment of heavy artillery, and a battalion
of engineers.
There is one cavalry division consisting of 3 brigades (each of 2
regiments) with divisional troops (one group horse artillery, one
group of motor automatic guns, two battalions cyclists, one cyclist
company of engineers).
Army troops not assigned to army divisions are: a brigade of 3
heavy-artillery regiments, an air force of one balloon battalion and 2
aeroplane squadrons, a telegraph battalion, a searchlight battalion,
a bridging battalion and a railway battalion. (R. VAN O.)
IV. THE RUSSIAN ARMY
Under the Imperial Russian Government, the Ministry of
War, on its military side, included (a) the chief council of the
general staff, which controlled all questions relating to the devel-
opment of the armed forces of the empire and the use of them in
the event of war, and (b) the general staff itself, which controlled
the conditions of military service and the inner life of the army.
The chief council of the general staff was only formed in 1905,
after the Russo-Japanese War. This allocation of the more
important questions to a special body, presided over by the chief
of the general staff, was a measure highly important for ensuring
the carrying-out of basic reforms and improvements. At first
the head of the general staff was exempted from subordination
to the War Ministry and reported directly to the Tsar on ques-
tions under its jurisdiction, but after 3 years the existence of 2
bodies reporting on military matters was acknowledged to be
inconvenient, and the chief council of the general staff was again
included in the composition of the War Ministry. In it there
were gradually concentrated questions relating to the constitu-
tion of the army and the working-out of war plans. The first
head of the Russian general staff was Gen. Palitsin, who occupied
this position from 1905 to the end of 1908; he was subsequently
succeeded by Gens. Sukhomlinov, Mishlaevsky, Gerngros.
Jilinsky and Jenushkevitch; the last named was appointed only
a few months before the outbreak of the World War. With the
advent of war, the troops assigned for military operations were
entirely removed from the control of the War Ministry; the con-
trol of them was organized according to a special " Order for the
control of troops in the field in war time." This order was con-
firmed by the Tsar on July 16-29 1914. *' m y 3 days before
the declaration of war on Russia on the part of Germany. The
order mentioned fixed the organization of the higher command,
the arrangement of the rear of the troops assigned for military
operations, as well as the duties, rights and sphere of jurisdiction
of the commands in the field.
The highest troop division in peace time in Russia was the corps.
Though the corps often formed part of the military district, this
unit had rather a territorial than an operative character, and its
commanding personnel served only as the basis for forming the higher
commands in war time. The order on command in the field provided
for the grouping of the corps in armies, and of armies into larger
combinations, called " fronts." The whole of the troops, those
ARMY
221
forming the composition of a " front," as well as those remaining in
the composition of separate armies and even corps, formed the
operating army.
The supreme command of all the forces was, in the event of the
Tsar not wishing to assume it personally, entrusted to a supreme
commander-in-chief, who had the right to order military activities
according to his own independent judgment. No Government
institution, nor any person in the empire, with the exception of the
Tsar, had the right to give the supreme commander-in-chief orders,
or to hold him to account. At the head of a " front " there was a
commander-in-chief, and at the head of each " army " a com-
mander, who also enjoyed very extensive responsibilities. The
supreme commander-in-chief had to fix his attention mainly on the
conduct of military operations. The question of the supply of his
troops with all necessities, in the broadest sense of the word, was left
to the care of the supply bodies of the War Ministry, who were
entrusted with general requirements only. Besides the conduct of
military operations, the supreme commander-in-chief retained the
higher command in the exploitation of the net of railways in the
theatre of military operations, a control which was highly important,
in view of Russia's poverty in railways generally. The staff of the
supreme commander-in-chief was very limited ; it consisted of 45
officers, 10 civil servants and 2 men of medical rank.
The commander-in-chief of a " front " was a man who controlled
not only the military operations of his front, but was likewise
responsible for the provision of all the requirements of the armies
subordinated to him. To make it possible to carry out the second
half of his duties there was subordinated to him a part of the terri-
tory forming the theatre of military operations with all the materials
in that territory ; this formed the rear of the army of the given front ;
everything'that could not be procured on the spot had to be ordered,
in good time, from the interior of the empire through the supply
bodies of the War Ministry. His headquarters consisted of a staff
and a series of commands, subordinated to the head of supply, who
carried out all the plans of the commander-in-chief relating to
domestic administration. The territory composing the rear of the
army of the front formed one or more military districts, the com-
manders of which were subordinated to the commander-in-chief
through the head of supply. Lastly, the headquarters of the com-
mander of an army was regarded and organized as the executive
organ of operations.
The system created by these regulations did not suffer any material
changes in the course of the first two years of the World War. It
was only in 1916 that the personnel of the supreme commander-in-
chief 's staff began to increase; it was found expedient to include in it
a whole series of new departments for which no need was felt in the
first two years of war.
The basis of the Russian military system was the regulation relat-
ing to military obligation, which fixed the terms of military service.
To turn fully to account one of the main advantages of Russia over
the other European Powers, the numerical superiority of her reserve
man-pcwer, and also to carry out other improvements, the general
council of the general staff elaborated in 1911-2 a new scheme of
compulsory service, which was approved by the imperial Duma and
the Senate. According to this, military obligation was extended
over the whole of a population which counted 150 million, the fit
male population (between the ages of 18 and 43) consisting of over
26 million. This was the reservoir on which Russia could depend
for the replenishment of her army in time of war. It could have
been further increased by calling up the different classes even before
their time, as well as by extending military obligations to the differ-
ent races in the country and to men of over 43, but the two latter
methods were difficult to carry out, owing to the conditions of
Russian life.
The new organization of the army was completed in 1910. It
brought many changes, but was not successful in fully realizing the
scheme mentioned, as, in carrying out the fundamental part of the
work, two grave limitations were set. These were that the new
arrangement of troops must bring no change in the yearly contingent
of recruits and in the amount of permanent expenses allocated for
the maintenance of the army. These conditions resulted in the
infantry being left with 4-battalion regiments and the field artillery
with 8-gun batteries. These defects in organization were rectified
later, but only during war itself.
The principal reform carried out in the infantry consisted rather
in a considerable increase in the numerical composition of the field-
infantry units than in a material strengthening of the cadres of the
first-line units, who formed the kernel of the army in war time.
Machine-gun and communication units were introduced. The re-
casting of the peace organization of reserve units enabled 7 new field
divisions to be created. Lastly, in the formation of the second-line
units, with an order for mobilization, the so-called system of " secret
cadre " was adopted. Under this system, when the troops passed
to a war footing, from each first-line unit there were taken a certain
number of officers and men, who formed the cadre on which the
second-line units were built up. This system was applied also to the
field artillery. The organization of the cavalry and horse artillery
remained, on the whole, unchanged. Howitzers were introduced into
the field-artillery organization, and a beginning was made with the
formation of heavy artillery. In technical resources the army was
insufficiently supplied, owing to the lack of credits and the difficulty
of manufacturing the necessary materials in home factories.
In the middle of 1914 the Russian army was composed as follows:
Of infantry there were 70 field divisions (ist, 2nd and 3rd Guard;
1st, 2nd, 3rd and the Circassian Grenadiers; 1st to sad infantry;
1st to nth Siberian), each with 4 regiments of 4-battalion strength ;
18 light or " rifle " brigades (Guard; 1st to 5th; 1st to Ath Finnish;
1st and 2nd Circassian; ist to 6th Turkestan and Kuban-Plastun
brigade; 16 light brigades of 4, and 2 light brigades of 3 2-battalion
regiments; the Kuban-Plastun brigade had 6 Plastun battalions. In
war time there would be formed another 36 second-line infantry
divisions (53rd to 8sth infantry and I2th to I4th Siberian) ; in addi-
tion, certain infantry brigades of varying establishment would be so
formed as to be able to expand into divisions. Of cavalry there were
24 divisions (ist and 2nd Guard; 1st to I5th and Circassian cavalry;
ist and 2nd Cossacks, 1st to 3rd Circassian Cossacks, ist Turkestan
Cossacks), each consisting of 4 (6-squadron or 6-sotnia) regiments,
excepting the ist Guard Div., which had 7 regiments; 8 independent
brigades (Guard; 1st to 3rd cavalry;' 4th Cossack), each having
2 or 3 regiments; and a few smaller units. In war time the number
of cavalry units was not increased ; the number of Cossack cavalry
units was supplemented by the formation of Cossack units of the
2nd and 3rd class from reserve men. In each infantry division was
included an artillery brigade (6-8 batteries); in every light brigade
an artillery group (3 batteries). The cavalry and Cossack divisions
had attached horse artillery groups of two 6-gun batteries. All the
troops mentioned were, in peace-time, formed into 37 army corps
(Guard; Grenadier; I. -XXV. Army; I. -1 1 1. Circassian; I. a"nd II.
Turkestan and I.-V. Siberian). The normal corps consisted of two
infantry and one cavalry division. Several corps had no cavalry at
all; others had two cavalry divisions and an extra light brigade. In
war time cavalry divisions fell out of the corps strength, and were
worked as independent cavalry, by divisions. The army corps was
supplied with corps cavalry, mostly of Cossack units of the second
and third class. On the strength of every corps there was, besides
the field-gun establishment, one mortar (howitzer) division of two
4-gun batteries and one sapper detachment. There were also several
heavy-artillery units as well as pontoon battalions, railway, trans-
port and air units, which were distributed in war time, according to
a special plan, among the armies. Draft-finding units of infantry,
artillery and engineers were formed only on mobilization by creating
cadres from the corresponding field units. As for the cavalry cadres,
draft-finding units were already maintained in peace-time as reserve
cavalry regiments and divisions.
All the troops indicated above were not, in peace-time, evenly
distributed over the territories of the empire, but were mostly
concentrated on the frontiers, on the western frontier in particular.
This system of distribution had been in existence from olden times,
owing to the lack of railways and a desire to protect the frontiers
as much as possible. The system, however, greatly complicated
mobilization, as the principal sources for war expansion were nearer
to the centre of the empire, and therefore, with an order for mobiliza-
tion, the necessity arose of carrying out a considerable movement of
drafts over long distances. In proportion as the net of railways
developed, ensuring a quick supply of troops from the centre to the
frontiers if -required, one could observe a withdrawal in the perma-
nent quarters of the troops from the frontier regions nearer to the
sources for completion. This change was particularly marked in
1910, when 7 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions, with 2 staffs of corps,
were moved from the western frontiers to the interior of the empire.
This withdrawal aroused alarm at the time in France, and suitable
explanations had to be made.
The whole territory of the empire was, for military-administrative
purposes, divided into military districts (12 in number), at the head
of which was the commander of the troops of the district. The
distribution of the corps in the military districts was as follows :
1. St. Petersburg M. District Guard, I., XVIII. , XXII. Corps
2. Vilna II., III., IV., XX. Corps
3. Warsaw VI., XIV., XV., XIX., XXIII.
Corps
4. Kiev IX., X., XL, XII., XXI. Corps
5. Odessa VII., VIII. Corps
6. Moscow Grenad.V., XIII., XVII. , XXV.
7- Kazan XVI., XXIV.
8. Caucasus I. C., II. C., III. C.
9. Turkestan I. T., II. T.
10. Omsk loth Siberian Rifle Div.
11. Irkutsk II. Sib., III. Sib.
12. Pri-Amur I. Sib., IV. Sib., VI. Sib.
The local administration in Cossack districts was organized on a
special basis. Of Cossack " armies " i.e. autonomous forces on
Russian territory there were II, namely the Don, Kuban, Terek,
Astrakhan, Orenburg, Ural, Siberia, Semerechensk, Trans-Baikal,
Amur and Ussuri.
The Russian army was placed on a war footing in 1914 on the
" mobilization plan of 1910." A new mobilization plan, revised in
certain respects, and known as " mobilization plan No. 20," had
been drawn up in 1913, but in July 1914 full effect had not yet been
222
ARMY
given to this; it was found necessary to discard it and to carry out
mobilization by the somewhat out-of-date plan of 1910.
As every war is usually preceded by a more or less lengthy period
of political complications, then, in order to safeguard mobilization, a
declaration was previously prepared, called the " period preparatory
to war," during which each unit and command was required to over-
haul its mobilization scheme and complete any deficiencies, and to
recall all ranks on leave or on detachment. This was proclaimed on
July 26 1914.
There were in Russia in 1914 the following permanent fortresses
or forts: (a) Land: Kovno, Olita, Osovets, Lomza, fortifications on
the river Narev, Zegrzh, Novogeorgievsk, Warsaw, Ivangorod,
Brest-Litovsk, Kars, Kushk; (b) Maritime: Kronstadt, Viborg,
Sveaborg, Libava, Ochakov, Sevastopol, Kerch, Batum, Vladivostok,
Nikolayevsk-on-Amur. Modern developments in military engineer-
ing had made all these fortresses very antiquated. The profiles of
the fortifications were weak and could not withstand the power of
the modern gun ; camouflage practically did not exist. The artillery
was of the most varied and of extremely antiquated types and
ammunition was limited. In a condition such as this, the fortresses
could not be a support for manoeuvre in the field, nor for that
matter for operations at sea ; on the contrary, they themselves needed
the support of a living force. They demanded considerable num-
bers for their garrisons, and so further weakened the army in the
field. Of the land fortresses, those of foremost significance were
held to be the fortresses of Kovno, Osovets and Brest-Litovsk.
In 1914 the quicker mobilization and concentration of the German
and Austro-Hungarian armies made it impossible to carry out the
strategic deployment of the main forces of the Russian army on the
Vistula. Thus, all the forts and fortifications on the river just men-
tioned, as well as on the Narev, were, to a certain extent, cut off.
Their position, combined with the scarcity of means for reconstruc-
tion, as well as with the difficulty of carrying on defence from such a
populous point as Warsaw and the necessity of providing large forces
as garrisons, compelled the abandonment of reconstruction. An
exception was made only in the case of Novogeorgievsk, which
seemed to have future possibilities as a means of enhancing freedom
of manoeuvre on both flanks of the Vistula.
In the case of the maritime fortresses, attention was practically
concentrated on Kronstadt, Sevastopol and Vladivostok; Kerch
and Libava were suppressed. _
In respect of railways Russia was very deficient, notwithstanding
the fact that in the years immediately preceding the war several
new lines were built, of which the most important, from a military
point of view, was the new double-track line Bologoe Sedlets.
Taking the data of 1913, the density of railway lines in European
Russia (l km. per 100 sq.km.) was only one-twelfth of what it was
in Great Britain. The amount of double-track lines was also small,
altogether about 25 % of the whole, when in other European states
the percentage was as high as fifty. Rolling stock was likewise
limited; to every kilometre there were hardly above 7 carriages,
while in other countries of Western Europe it was twice and three
times as much.
Macadam roads were sufficiently frequent in the main frontier
regions adjacent to Germany, but away from those regions com-
mon roads only were available. The front adjoining Austria-
Hungary had no macadam roads at all.
The war with Japan had to a large extent used up the military
stores that Russia possessed and the provision of new technical
resources of war such as heavy artillery, means of communication,
motor-cars, wire, machine-guns, air craft involved the assignment
of fresh large credits, and the manufacture of the necessary stores
had to be spread over a number of years. Moreover, as industry in
Russia was in a poor state of development orders had to be placed
abroad and the execution of these was complicated by questions of
financial procedure. This state of things resulted in the army, at the
beginning of the war, being poorly supplied both with technical
resources and reserves of armament. In certain respects the latter
were not up to the recognized pre-war standards, low as these some-
times were (e.g. 1,000 rounds in reserve per light gun and per rifle).
In the beginning of 1914 the War Ministry had brought before
the Legislature a bill for the allocation of credits for the further
development of the armed forces, the so-called " great programme."
The bill provided for the further strengthening of the cadres in the
infantry and artillery, the supply of the army with heavy artillery
in a larger proportion and the creation of new units which would be
formed into two new corps. The bill was passed, but the advent of
the war prevented its provisions from being actually carried out.
(Y. D.)
It is not possible to follow put in detail the development of the
Russian army after the mobilization of 1914. The strength of the
armies of the N.W., W., and S.W. " fronts, at different periods, is
given by Gen. von Falkenhayn as follows ' :
Combatants only
Mid Sept. 1914 ' . 950,ooo
End Dec. 1914 1,688,000
End Jan. 1915 1,843,000
End April 1915 1,767,000
End May 1916 2,240,000
The last date may be considered as the high-water mark of
Russia's military effort. In spite of the enormous losses in men,
material and territory of the campaign of May-Sept. 1915 Russia
placed in the field for the combined Allied offensive of 1916 half a
million more combatants than at any previous date.
The great Galician offensive was launched in June 1916. Its
brilliant successes were won at very heavy cost, notably in the
battles about Kovel. The effort died away into trench warfare.
The Rumanian defeats stimulated a fresh spasm of activity in the
winter of 1916-7, but the spring revolution of 1917 found the mass
of the army, no less than the people at large, war-weary and dis-
pirited by great sacrifices which seemingly brought peace no nearer.
As is well known, the main contributory cause of the disasters of
1915 was shortage of ammunition, and it was only by the expenditure
of lives instead of material that the Russian command was able to
limit, as it did, the consequences of these disasters. What is less well
known, but historically almost as important, is the fact that even
in 1916 the material equipment of the fronts was at a low level. The
victories of that year were won by the same methods as those which
stemmed the tide of defeat in 1915 ruthless expenditure of lives. A
great effort to remedy material deficiencies had indeed set in at the
eleventh hour. Between July 1915 and the end of 1916, the ill-
developed industries of Russia were revolutionized the Tula rifle
factory, for instance, having an output in 1916 six times as great as
its output in the year of the war with Japan, besides turning out
1,140 machine-guns per month. At one period the output of gas
shell was comparable to that in Great Britain. Owing, however, to
the immense extent of the front, even the utmost possible develop-
ments of Russian industry would not have sufficed, and assistance
from Great Britain and France was necessary to supplement it.
This assistance, taken together with home output and the aid of
America, as an ally, would probably have placed the Russian army
on a satisfactory basis as regards equipment by the early autumn of
1917. But before the home effort could bear fruit and Allied assist-
ance was available, the strain on the army had become too heavy. 2
In the conditions, the disintegration of the Russian army which
followed the spring revolution of 1917 scarcely requires explanation.
An iron discipline, far more inflexible than that of any army of West-
ern or even Central Europe, had been strained to the utmost, when
its foundations suddenly crumbled, and the chance of creating a
new discipline, such as was created by Carnot in the French army
of 1793-4, was let slip in the chaos of conflicting ideals and policies
which constitutes the tragic history of 1917, both inside and outside
Russia. The last effort of the old army, the Galician offensive of
July I, for a moment shook the solidity of the Austro-German
defence. But once more Germany was able to transfer troops (14
divisions) to the East, for the French offensive had collapsed and the
moral of the French army was passing through a crisis which com-
pelled inaction. This time the German command determined to
finish matters in the East. First-quality divisions, employed on
well-chosen parts of the front and using new methods of attack,
closed the history of the eastern-front campaigns in the battles of
the Sereth (July 19) and Riga (Sept. l).
During 1918 the final dissolution of the old army completed itself
in the civil wars. The original military forces of the Soviet Govern-
ment were a militia the so-called Red Guard; this was replaced
gradually by a regular army. But neither the " Red Army " nor
the armies raised by the different counter-revolutionary leaders,
derive directly from the imperial army. Thousands, perhaps hun-
dreds of thousands, of individual ex-officers and ex-soldiers figured
in these new organizations and imparted to them the routine prac-
tices, the uniforms, and many of the characteristic customs of the
old army. But no organic continuity exists between old and new.
The peace of Brest-Litovsk and the civil wars constitute not a new
chapter but a new book in the history of Russian military institutions.
No detailed information is available as to the losses of the Russian
army from 1914 to the peace of Brest-Litovsk. The most probable
estimates give 1 , 700,000 de'ad and 2, 500,000 prisoners as " definitive "
losses, i.e. exclusive of wounded, but in the absenceof the data from
which those estimates are built up, all that can be said is that
Russia lost more heavily in men than any other belligerent on
either side. (C. F. A.)
1 No information is available as to the total ration strength of the
Russian armies at different periods of the war, nor of the combatant
strength of the forces on the Caucasus-Persia front.
2 The contrast between Eastern and Western standards of arma-
ment may be illustrated by comparing the French artillery strength
at the battle of the Somme (July I 1916) and the Russian artillery
strength at the battle of the Strypa (Yastoviet) on June 6 1916, both
being deliberately prepared offensives against an entrenched front:
Somme
Frontage of
VI. Army
10 m.
444 field
guns
645 medium and
heavy guns and
howitzers
Strypa
Frontage of
II. Corps
14 m.
1 60 field
guns and
howitzers
23 medium guns
and howitzers
ARMY
223
V. ITALIAN ARMY
At the outbreak of the World War the Italian army was in a
very unsatisfactory condition. Political leaders, and Parliament
and public opinion generally in Italy, had for years held the
view that the era of great wars was past, and that in any case
pacific intentions gave a practical assurance of peace. For this
reason it was judged sufficient to have an army which was strong
enough to preserve order in the country and give to foreigners
the impression that Italy was not completely disarmed. As a
consequence the State had neglected the army, and its efficiency
in comparison with those of its neighbours, to which continued
attention had been paid and on which expenditure had continu-
ally increased, had been gradually diminishing. In 1907, however,
the Government of the day had been induced to nominate a
commission to study the faults and gaps in the military organism
and suggest means to remedy them. In 1910 this commission
had presented a programme fitted to the financial capacity of
the country and its ideas; that is to say, a very modest scheme.
But the Government found that the proposals were excessive
and decided to adopt a reduced programme. And, as if that
were not enough, the Government was so slow in carrying out
this programme that in 1914 it was not yet completed. It was
in April of that year that Gen. Porro refused to go to the Ministry
of War unless a new programme were adopted, involving the
expenditure of 600 million lire, spread over a period of six years.
The programme was cut down by two-thirds and Gen. Porro
declined the war portfolio.
In 191 1 the Italo-Turkish War broke out. In the course of the
war only two classes of reservists were called up, and as a result
the units which were mobilized could not fill up with their own
reservists. They were brought up to strength with men belonging
to classes already under arms, and taken from units remaining in
Italy, whose strengths were thus reduced to a miserably low
level. Owing to the notable deficiency of the material detailed
for mobilization the same system had to be followed in order to
equip and refurnish the mobilized units. As a result the stocks
in Italy were quickly reduced to a level quite inadequate for
general mobilization. Little was done subsequently to fill the
gaps, so that these remained.
The Army in August 1914. The situation of the Italian army at
the beginning of Aug. 1914 was as follows. Its financial resources
were very limited. The estimates f6r the year 19145 provided 428
million lire (17,120,000) which included not only ordinary main-
tenance expenses, but extraordinary expenditure for the rearmament
of the artillery, for fortifications, etc.
All citizens were liable to military service for 19 years, from the
2Oth to the 39th year. They were divided into three categories, and
only those belonging to the first category underwent the full term of
service (two years). Men of the second category received a few
months' instruction. Men of the third category received no instruc-
tion at all, and were destined for " third-line " service, even if they
belonged to young classes. At the outbreak of war in 1914, owing to
the large proportion of recruits yearly passed to the third ^category,
there were in Italy, out of the total number of those of military age
and fit for military service, only 1,400,000 men who had received
military training. The rest, some 1,600,000 men, had received
no military instruction of any kind.
The whole number of citizens liable to military service was
divided, mainly according to age, between three organizations:
permanent army, mobile militia, and territorial militia. The
permanent army was composed of units existing on the peace basis.
In peace-time it was composed of professional officers and non-
commissioned officers, and of men of the first and second categories.
The force on the estimates for the financial year 1914-5 consisted
of 14,000 officers and 275,000 men. The number of permanent officers
was insufficient even for peace requirements. Reserve officers were
taken from among the recruits of the levy who had passed certain
examinations and who applied to serve as officers. They underwent
regimental courses, and those taken completed their service as
officers. Permanent and reserve officers together fell short by 13,000
of the number required for general mobilization. The greatest short-
age was among the artillery officers, who could only total 56 % of the
number required, and the sanitary services, who were more than 50 %
short. Professional non-commissioned officers were almost entirely
lacking. The law passed in 1910 in the hope of securing an adequate
supply had not had the result hoped for. Most of the few who had
adopted the army as a career were employed on special service out-
side the units.
Strengths were very low, so that the smaller units had barely
sufficient troops to assure the performance of the ordinary everyday
duties of barrack or field life. The troops, and especially the infan-
try, were continually employed in police duty ; units were often split
up into small detachments; drafts had to be furnished for Libya.
In the circumstances it is easy to understand how complete and
systematic training was impossible. Combined training of all arms
was out of the question for a great part of the army, the troops of
the various arms being stationed in such a way that whole divisions
had neither cavalry, artillery nor engineers in their districts.
Owing to the low strengths, the units of the permanent army, in
order to reach a war footing, had to incorporate a large proportion of
reservists. As the trained reservists of each class were relatively few
in number, many classes of reservists had to be incorporated on
mobilization. In this way the units had to be completed with men
at once older and less recently trained than was the case with the
armies of France and Austria-Hungary. Complete mobilization in
Aug. 1914 would have meant calling up no fewer than 13 classes.
The mobile and territorial militia units were intended to be
formed at given centres, on mobilization, from reservists only. The
number of these units and their character was to be decided accord-
ing to requirements, by royal decree. The mobile militia was
designed to operate with the permanent army, but to perform more
modest duties than the permanent units. In order to facilitate its
organization in case of need, it was decided in 1910 to maintain in
peace-time, attached to every line regiment, Alpine battalion and
field-artillery regiment, a permanent mobile militia nucleus, to fill
up with reservists in case of war and so form the new units. But in
1914 many of these nuclei were not yet formed, and the others were
at such low strength as to constitute a mere pretence. Mobile militia
units were very rarely embodied for training in peace-time, so that,
everything considered, it would have been necessary to improvise
the whole organization. In the case of the territorial militia, destined
for use on lines of communication or for duty at home, there was still
less preparation ; units were practically never embodied in peace-time.
Armaments were deficient both in quality and quantity. The
infantry had an excellent rifle (1891 model), but the reserves and the
output of the factories were not sufficient to meet the probable
requirements of war. Machine-guns were almost entirely lacking.
Only a few regiments had one section of two guns. Many artillery
regiments were still armed with the old " rigid " gun. About 100
batteries had been armed with the Krupp 75-mm. Q.F. (1906
model), but before rearmament was completed it had been decided
to adopt a new pattern (Deport 75-mm. 1911 model), and these
were not yet ready. A considerable part of the mountain artillery
was also unprovided with a quick-firing gun. The programme of
1910, providing for 40 batteries of heavy field artillery, had not
been completed. Twenty-eight 4-gun batteries of 149-mm. field
howitzers were all the heavy field artillery available. The siege
train consisted only of a few big guns and 134 medium guns, gener-
ally of an obsolete pattern. The supply of ammunition was scanty.
Motor transport was deficient.
The supply of uniforms, equipment, material for artillery and
engineers, as well as for sanitary services, was lacking in quantity and
quality. To sum up, the condition of the Italian army at the out-
break of war was as follows. The permanent army was lacking
chiefly in instruction, machine-guns, heavy field artillery, siege train
and material for air warfare. Strengths were very low, and the army
had to mobilize with a very high percentage of reservists. Officers,
both active and reserve, were too few, and there were scarcely any
permanent non-commissioned officers. The units of mobile and
territorial militias had to be altogether improvised, with the same
bad results but on a larger scale as in the case of the permanent
army. There was an enormous deficiency of animal and mechanical
transport, of ammunition and of material of all kinds.
The Neutrality Period (Aug. igi4~May 24 /p/5). Up to May 2 A
1915, when Italy joined in the war, an intense activity was displayed
to make up the deficiencies of the army and enable it to meet with
success its traditional foe. Rapid courses for officers were established
in the recruiting-schools whereby the number of subaltern officers
required to meet the immediate needs of the mobilized army was
obtained. On Aug. I 1914, three classes were with the colours, those
of 1892 and 1893 the two levies in course and the 1891 class which
had been recalled for service. On Aug. 8 the 1889 and 1890 classes
were called up; on Sept. 7 the young 1894 class, and in Jan. 1915 the
1895 class. Thus the force under arms was 700,000 men. Other
classes were called up later on, but with certain limitations as to
categories, employment, etc. Reservists were not called up by public
notice but by individual summons. Thus existing units were
strengthened and new ones formed. Progressively, all the army,
army corps, and divisional commands were formed side by side with
the territorial commands already in existence. The latter con-
tinued to discharge their duties with the staff allotted to them for
the period of the war. Provision was made with regard to staff and
material required for the establishment of the principal offices
charged with the various services.
Several regiments of the permanent army, provided for by the
1910 programme but not yet formed (chiefly field artillery), were
organized. The majority of the mobile militia units provided for
224
ARMY
were formed, with this important innovation that, instead of
incorporating the comparatively old reservists, they were formed of
levy men and young reservists, viz. with the same elements as the
permanent army. This measure practically meant the suppression
of the mobile militia, especially as the reservists destined formerly
to the militia were assigned indiscriminately to all first-line units.
Finally, the air-service units were, one may say, actually created.
The number of machine-guns and of small and medium calibre
guns was increased, and the conditions of the siege train were
improved to some extent. Means of transport, ammunition, and
sundry other material were greatly increased by bringing up to a
maximum the output of the military factories and by placing big
orders both at home and abroad. In this way the most striking
deficiencies of pre-war times were as far as possible made good.
But this was not all. From the very beginning of the neutrality
period units were stationed along the frontier " in advanced occupa-
tion," and later on were grouped together under commands of the
larger units which had been formed in the meantime.
It may be said, therefore, that when mobilization was officially
announced (May 23 1915) a large portion of the army was already
mobilized and assembled at the frontier. The mobilization of
auxiliary services was, however, much belated in comparison with
that of the combatant troops. This was due to causes connected
with materiel as well as to the fact that the reservists detailed to
such services could not be called up at so early a date. The mobiliza-
tion plans existing in 1914, which presupposed conditions of forces
and materiel quite different from those in which the army actually
found itself, had to be modified substantially during the neutrality
period. At the same time the troops underwent a continuous and
intense training which remedied in part former deficiencies, espe-
cially among the reservists, and imparted the first lessons of the
war which had already been fought for months on the Allied fronts.
Notwithstanding all this, in May 1915 the Italian army was not
yet in an ideal condition as regards numbers and materiel. There
were still serious gaps in the number of officers, in the supply of
machine-guns and of artillery, as well as in the engineers, the Air
Service, etc. The responsibility, however, of this state of things
cannot attach to those who reorganized the army during the neu-
trality period ; for they had not only to prepare, in many cases they
had to create from nothing. The state in which the army had been
left for so many years could not be remedied in ten months.
From May zp/5 to November 1918. The momentous work accom-
plished during the neutrality period did not cease when the war
began, but continued in ever-increasing proportions while the army
was engaged in fighting. The military authorities, efficiently sup-
ported by Government and nation, not only succeeded in filling up
the gaps caused by losses and in remedying the deficiencies shown by
the army in 1915, but strengthened it in men, weapons and material,
and formed numerous new units and special troops instructed in the
use of modern means of warfare. The magnitude of the effort on the
part of army and nation appears more evident when one takes into
consideration the enormous loss of men, animals and material which
Italy sustained during the retreat of Oct. 1917 (Caporetto), and
which had to be covered most rapidly. In that unfortunate event
the army lost in round figures 8,500 officers, 300,000 men, 70,000
horses and mules, 3,100 guns (among which were two-thirds of all
her heavy guns and half of the medium calibres), 1,700 trench mor-
tars, 3,000 machine-guns, 2,000 machine-pistols, about 1,000,000
rifles, 22 aviation parks, 1,500 motor lorries, an enormous number of
motor-cycles, etc. It follows that, when examining the data relating
to the Italian army in Nov. 1918, it must be borne in mind what that
same army had lost a year before. It can then be realized that Italy's
effort has been a double one and that her army has to a great extent
been formed twice.
According to pre-war provisions, the Italian army consisted of 19
classes. During the war, however, by calling up the younger classes
and keeping the older ones, the number of classes with the colours
was increased. At the moment of the Armistice the army included
27 classes (from 1874 to 1900). The oldest men were 44 and the
youngest 18 years old. These classes gave a total of 5,200,000 men,
who at the beginning of Nov. 1918 were made up as follows: 2,500,-
ooo in the army operating in Italy, in the Balkans and in France;
1,200,000 belonging to units, and detailed for services, in the coun-
try; 1,500,000 losses (killed, discharged for wounds or sickness,
prisoners). During the war no account was taken of the distribution
of men as fixed by the old law in 3 categories and 3 army lines; all
the men formed one single mass, and were distributed as follows :
in the war zone, 21 classes, that is, men from 19 to 39 (these classes
were detailed, according to age, to the first line, to the services of
the first line, to the second line and to the services of the second line) ;
on service between the war zone and the country (lines behind the
army), 3 classes, that is, men of 40, 41 and 42 ; in the country, 3
classes, that is, men of 43 and 44 and recruits of 18 who were being
trained for service. The provisions which contributed principally to
increase the number of drafts from each class were the adoption of
a lower standard of physical fitness for military service and the
consequent revision of all those who in the years preceding the war
had been declared unfit for service.
The supply of drafts was provided for in the following manner.
Up to the beginning of 1917 men called or recalled to colours, or
returning after medical treatment, were instructed or assembled in
the depots from whence they were posted direct to the fighting units.
At the beginning of 1917 each infantry brigade was given a reserve
battalion from which gaps in the battalions of the brigade were
filled up. The reserve battalion was, in its turn, replenished by
march units detailed in the war zone (battalions, regiments, bri-
gades) which received men from hospitals, etc., or from the interior
of the country. During the last year of the war matters were so
arranged that the men, however restored, returned to their own
unit through the above-mentioned channel. This system was
applied also to the Bersaglieri, to the Alpine troops, and to the
infantry machine-gunners. The supply of drafts to other arms and
to the various services continued to be secured under the system in
force previous to 1917, that is, from the depots in the country. The
scarcity of officers, especially of experience, with which the army
entered the campaign, was continually aggravated by losses, and
was felt during the whole period of the war. The gaps in the higher
grades were filled by promotion, and the Italian army soon secured a
prominent place among the belligerent armies in respect of the
youthfulness of its generals. A certain number of battalion, com-
pany or battery commanders were taken from the cavalry officers.
Vacancies in the lower grades were filled by means of rapid courses
with the corps, the big units, and the recruiting schools in the
country. Towards the end of the war only the latter system of
recruiting was resorted to, and participation in the courses, which
was first voluntary, became compulsory for all those who had gone
through a certain curriculum of study.
When the army began its campaign it consisted of 14 army corps,
25 divisions of infantry, 4 divisions of cavalry, all in Italy. Its
maximum strength was reached in Oct. 1917 with 26 army corps,
of which one was in Albania; 65 divisions of infantry, of which 2
were in Albania and one in Macedonia (the Macedonian division
consisted of 4 brigades and had therefore the strength of a corps) ;
4 divisions of cavalry. At the end of the war the army consisted of
24 army corps, of which one was in Albania and one in France; 57
divisions of infantry, of which 3 were in Albania, one in Macedonia
and 2 in France ; 4 divisions of cavalry. The army corps were grouped
in a number of armies which increased from 4 at the beginning of the
war to a maximum of nine.
The infantry strength at the beginning of the war was 560 bat-
talions; on Oct. I 1917 it was 800 battalions; on Oct. I 1918 it was
700 battalions. The infantry battalion at the beginning of the war
consisted of 4 companies, or 1,000 men, armed only with rifles.
The few machine-guns available had been allotted to the regiments,
generally 2 guns per regiment, rarely four. At the end of the war
each battalion consisted of 3 companies of rifles (each with 2
machine-pistols), one company of machine-gunners (with 8 heavy
machine-guns), one section of bombardiers (with 4 Stokes mortars,
or 4 torpedo mortars), one section of sappers. The total strength of
the battalion was 780 men.
While each battalion was transformed, each regiment was allotted
a section of 37-mm. guns and a section of flame-ejectors.
Each brigade received two Companies of heavy machine-guns,
while four were assigned to each division. Taking into account only
the heavy machine-guns, the infantry started the campaign with
about 700 machine-guns. On Oct. I 1917, these had increased to
7,000, and on Oct. I 1918, to 12,000. In 1916 special Alpine bat-
talions were formed, all consisting of men on skis, clothed and
equipped in white and organized so that they could act independent-
ly, but they were not given many opportunities for action on skis.
In 1917 assault groups were formed consisting of " arditi " young
and very active men who had undergone a most intense and severe
training in gymnastics, bomb-throwing, and marching behind
artillery or machine-gun barrage. These groups formed a splendid
and characteristic attacking force used chiefly for surprise actions
and desperate raids. Each group was of practically the same
strength as an infantry battalion, but had a larger number of
machine-guns and machine-pistols, and a few flame-ejectors. The
" arditi " were armed with carbine, dagger and hand grenades. Each
army corps had its own assault group and in 1918 a special army
corps consisting exclusively of " arditi " was formed. In the same
year each infantry regiment formed its own assault platoon (plotone
d'assalto). During the war the infantry formed 17 groups of auto-
machine guns each consisting of 4 or 6 guns and 5 companies of
motor machine-guns each having 6 guns. No tank units were formed
because the nature of the Italian front did not call for their use.
The most important transformation undergone by the cavalry
during the war was the dismounting of two divisions which were
used on the Isonzo and Carso fronts from the spring to the end of
1916; later on these divisions were mounted again. In the earlier
stages of the war the cavalry supplied its machine-gun sections to
the infantry. With its surplus reservists it furnished afterwards
dismounted machine-gun companies which were used at the front.
In May 1915 the field artillery was the best armed among the
different special corps and, therefore, underwent less and minor
modifications. At the beginning of the war there were 360 batteries
of 4 guns, on Oct. I 1917 there were 440 batteries of 4 guns, on Oct. I
1918 there were 490 batteries of 4 guns. No change was made with
regard to the guns the75-mm. 1906 model and the 1911 model of
the same calibre. Both guns were of the deformation pattern. The
ARMY
225
1911 model had a carriage which when in position opened into two,
allowing of important changes of target without moving the gun.
This was a great advantage in view of the broken nature of the
ground on the Italian front. Guns were drawn by animals, but at
the time of the Armistice there were two regiments with guns on
motor carriages. The mountain artillery and mule batteries were
both supplied with light dismountable guns carried on mules. At
the beginning of the war the mountain batteries, served by numerous
men and animals and abundantly equipped, were armed with the
modern 65-mm. gun and employed in the Alpine districts, generally
remaining in position; while the mule batteries, much less complex
than the others, were armed with the rigid yo-mm. gun, and used in
the plains or in hilly country, accompanying the infantry. Gradually,
however, these batteries were equipped with the 65-mm. gun and
the difference between the two kinds of batteries disappeared. In
1918 they had become of the same type. When Italy entered into
the war there were 60 mountain batteries of 4 guns, and 20 batteries
on mules of 4 guns. On Oct. I 1917 there were 90 mountain batteries
of 4 guns and 80 batteries on mules of 4 guns. On Oct. I 1918 there
were 170 batteries of the single type.
At the beginning of the war the heavy artillery was so scarce that
it could not be assigned to any army corps, but was scattered, some-
times in single batteries, along the more important sectors of the
front. It was armed with the 149 A howitzer, deformation pattern,
with animal transport. Later on it was furnished with !O5-mm.
guns, also drawn by animals, and with 102- and iO5-mm. guns drawn
by motors. This innovation together with an increase in the num-
ber of 149-mm. howitzers made it possible, at the end of 1917, to
allot to each army corps a mixed group of 149 A howitzers and of
iO5-mm. guns (two groups of three batteries) drawn by animals. All
the groups drawn by motor and some of the others were left at the
disposal of the supreme command. Towards the end of the war a
group of three batteries of 149-mm. howitzers was assigned to each
infantry division. The heavy field artillery consisted, on May 24
1914, of 30 batteries of 4 guns; on Oct. I 1917, of 200 batteries of 4
guns; on Oct. I 1918, of 280 batteries of 4 guns.
At the outbreak of the war the siege train was absolutely insuffi-
cient, both in quantity and quality. This state of affairs was im-
proved by transporting to the front the majority of the guns mostly
of ancient pattern belonging to fortresses, and by placing big
orders with home factories. Thus the number of guns was increased
and the obsolete batteries were replaced. At the same time the
batteries were supplied with motor tractors. From the beginning
of 1917 a well-supplied park of tractors was formed. After Caporetto,
where a great portion of the old material was lost, the guns were
replaced by modern guns made in Italy and in the Allied countries,
and new complete permanent groups of guns of the same type were
formed, while previously these groups were variable. The principal
types of siege artillery in use at the end of the war were guns of 381,
I55> I5 2 > 149 an d 120 mm. ; howitzers of 305 and 152 mm. ; mortars
of 260 and 210 mm. Besides these, smaller calibres of antiquated
patterns were used as fortress artillery. At the outbreak of the war
the siege artillery consisted of 40 batteries; on Oct. I 1917, of 750
batteries; on Oct. I 1918, of 830 batteries. The siege batteries of big
and medium calibres had from 2 to 6 guns each ; those of small calibre
had 8. On Oct. I 1918 the total number of big- and medium-calibre
guns was 2,550.
There were no anti-aircraft guns at the beginning of the war, and
for some time field and mountain guns were adapted for use as anti-
aircraft artillery. Later, batteries of 75-mm. guns mounted on
motor-cars were formed, and the defence against enemy raids was
organized. The anti-aircraft artillery consisted of 100 guns on v
Oct. I 1917, and 130 on Oct. I 1918.
Trench mortars (bombardes) were a creation of the war, their orig-
inal object being to destroy wire entanglements by their curved
trajectory and heavy bursting charge, and they proved most suc-
cessful at the battle of Gorizia in 1916, after which their number and
efficiency were greatly increased. During the retreat of Caporetto
the bombardiers had to abandon, for lack of transport, nearly all
their mortars and they were, therefore, temporarily grouped in a
division which fought with the infantry; but as new material became
available their battalions were reorganized. The principal mortars
used were the 58 A, 58 B, 240 C, 240 L and 240 LA, formed into bat-
teries or groups. On Oct. I 1917 the batteries numbered 200 and as
many autonomous sections; each consisted of 6 to 12 mortars.
To sum up, the Italian artillery was enormously strengthened,
from the beginning of the war onward, in number and quality of
guns and by the formation of new specialties. Its organization was
also improved. The campaign was entered into with a little more
than 500 batteries, that is, less than one battery for each infantry
battalion. On Oct. I 1917, there were nearly 2,000 batteries, or
2j batteries per infantry battalion. During the retreat of Caporetto
3,100 guns and 1,700 bomb-mortars were lost (something over 1,000
batteries). Nevertheless, on Oct. I 1918 the army had more than
2,000 batteries.
The corps of engineers also was increased in numbers and trans-
formed during the war. The sappers at the outbreak of hostilities
were formed into companies; each infantry division had one com-
pany with a pontoon section and a telephone section. Later on
battalions of sappers were formed of 3 companies each (one of which
with pontoon section), and a battalion was assigned to each infantry
division, other units doing telephone service. On May 24 1915 there
were 42 companies, on Oct. I 1917, 72 battalions (223 companies), on
Oct. I 1918, 78 battalions (234 companies).
During the war the following special corps were formed: tel-
pherists; motorists detailed to the numerous drilling-machines used
on the front, for digging caves, trenches and ways of communication
in the rocky districts; gas specialists, whose chief duty was to ex-
amine and make experiments on the use of gas and the means of
protection against it; flame-throwers, or detachments furnished with
heavy flame-ejectors of position.
One may say that the aeronautical service, especially as regards
aviation, was created during the war, at the beginning of which the
army had only 24 squadrons of aeroplanes with about 60 machines
fit only for observation purposes. Later on, thanks to the enormous
increment of the home industry, the number of the machines was
increased, and different groups for raids, chasing and observation
were formed. In 1918 there were 51 groups with 1,400 machines.
The balloon parks increased from ip to 39. Airships varied as to
type; but their number was always limited to six.
The medical service consisted originally of only 800 medical officers
of the permanent army. Numerous officers of the reserve were
drafted and new officers commissioned so that the total number
reached 9,100. Field and other hospitals allotted to the fighting
units increased from 300 to 500, to which should be added those of
the Red Cross and of the Knights of Malta, as well as the up-to-date
surgical and other establishments scattered along the front. Trains
fitted for the transport of sick and wounded were increased from 36
to 74. Medical establishments within the country rose from 75 to
1,500 and the number of beds from 90,000 to 400,000.
Motor transport was enormously developed during the war, in
consequence not only of the ever-increasing requirement of the war
operations but also of the deficiency of animals. Motor traction was
used for artillery, camp kitchens, pontoon equipment, etc. On Oct. I
1918 the officers numbered 3,000, men 130,000.
Losses. The first preliminary calculations of the losses suffered
by the Italian army during the World War made immediately after
the Armistice gave the following results in round figures: Dead,
460,000, of which number 330,000 died on the battlefield or in conse-
quence of wounds, 85,000 died of sickness, 45,000 died while pris-
oners; wounded, 900,000 and sick, 2,400,000, of whom 2,430,000
had resumed service, 300,000 were under treatment and expected to
recover, 570,000 were invalided and permanently unfit for service.
The severest losses were sustained in 1917. The other years fol-
lowed in this order: 1916, 1915 and 1918. The number of dead
given corresponds to 1-27% of Italy's total population in Jan. 1915
(36,000,000). Subsequent more accurate calculations proved that
the actual losses had been underestimated. Senator Giorgio Mortara
in his Prospettive economiche, published in 1921, quotes the following
figures :
Killed on the battlefield 3l7,o
Died in hospital of wounds 5 1 ' 000
Died in hospital of sickness 106,000
Prisoners who died of wounds 10,000
Prisoners who died of sickness 80,000
Total
564,000
This gives a percentage of dead to population of 1-56.
If one adds to the above total 25,000 released sick prisoners who
died during the period of demobilization, and 62,000 who died of
disease during the same period, the number of deaths rises to 651,000.
A revision and control of data dealing with losses was in 1921 being
attended to, but the partial results already then known led to the
belief that the first set of figures given was far inferior to the
reality, and that even those given by Senator Mortara would have
to be increased rather than diminished.
Demobilization. On the cessation of hostilities the army began the
reduction of its forces to something approaching pre-war strength.
Demobilization could not be immediate or rapid owing to the
necessity of keeping sufficient troops on the Armistice line and in
foreign territories; of haying many troops under arms in the country
to repress the disorders likely to occur after such a war; of regulating
the discharge of troops in accordance with means of transport avail-
able, taking into account also the probability of emigration on the
part of some of the men discharged and the possibility of employ-
ment at home for others. It was also advisable to keep numerous
units in the redeemed territories to employ them in urgent works of
reconstruction. These and other considerations imposed a gradual
demobilization of men as well as of animals and material. Demo-
bilization involved not only a reduction but also a transformation
inasmuch as the army had to be organized on lines different from
those of 1914 and in accordance with the lessons of the war.
The older classes of reservists were discharged first. The men were
given an insurance policy, a parcel of mufti clothes or a corresponding
sum of money and their fare to return to their residence in Italy or
abroad. Officers were discharged after the men of their class.
Medical officers especially were kept in the army to attend on
wounded and sick men and prisoners returning from internment.
By the end of June 1919, 14 classes had been discharged as follows:
226
ARMY
classes 187410 1876 in Nov. 1918; classes 187710 1884 in Dec. 1918;
classes 1885 and 1886 in March 1919; class 1887 in April 1919. The
1900 class which was the last called up during the war and which
had not fought was discharged on leave and called up again at the
end of 1919 and the beginning of 1920. With the discharge of these
classes, and with that of other special categories of the younger
classes, the total number of men with the colours, which in Nov.
1918 exceeded 3,500,000, was reduced on July I 1919 to about
900,000, of whom 72,000 were in the colonies, 54,000 in Albania,
27,000 in Macedonia, 9,000 in Asia Minor, 7,500 in France, and 2,000
in Russia. By the same date 225 generals and 76,000 other officers
had been discharged.
During the latter part of 1919 nine other classes were discharged,
as follows: class 1888 at the end of June, class 1889 at the end of
July, classes 1890 to 1892 at the end of Aug., classes 1893 and 1894
at the end of Sept., class 1895 at the end of Oct., class 1896 at the
end of December. Immediately afterwards men belonging to the
pre-war second and third categories of classes 1897 to 1899 were
discharged, so that at the beginning of 1920 the Italian army con-
sisted only of men of the first category of 1897, 1898 and 1899
classes. At the same time 130,000 reserve officers out of the 165,000
in service at the time of the Armistice had been discharged. The
principal reductions in the different units of the army up to the
beginning of 1920 consisted of the breaking-up of 5 commands of
army, 21 commands of army corps, 45 commands of infantry divi-
sion, one command of cavalry division, 31 infantry brigades, 6 bri-
gades of bersaglieri, 49 Alpine battalions, 12 squadrons of cavalry, 180
field batteries, 80 mountain batteries, 105 heavy field batteries,
600 siege batteries. All the men of the 1897, 1898 and 1899
classes were discharged in Feb. 1921, when only the 1900 and the
1901 classes (the latter had been called up in Nov. 1920) were with
the colours. By this date the last men who had fought in the World
War had left the army.
VI. UNITED STATES
In 1911 the actual strength of the U.S. regular army was 4,888
officers and 70,250 men, of whom 56,753 officers and men were
stationed in the United States. Deducting the coast artillery,
there was left, in the United States, a mobile army of only
31,850 officers and men. This small force was distributed among
49 army posts in 24 states and territories with an average
strength of 700 men to each post, only one post having a capacity
for a brigade. The result was a regular army extraordinarily
expensive to maintain, the separate units of which had no organ-
ization higher than the regiment. There was no opportunity for
manoeuvres on a large scale, little opportunity for the joint
training of the several arms, and no practical experience for the
officers of the staff- work and leadership necessary to the handling
of larger commands. A partial concentration of troops on the
Mexican border in 1911 gave the U.S. army its first opportunity
for a division manoeuvre.
Under the Act of 1901 the National Guard of the different
states had been assimilated to the regular army in organization
and equipment, and was receiving financial assistance from the
Federal Government in the shape of equipment and pay for
manoeuvres and the loan of officers from the regular army for
training. In 1911 this force was in far better condition than it
had been at the outbreak of the Spanish-American War (1898),
but it was still locally organized, was made up of men whose
military association and activity were merely an incident added
by interest and preference to their ordinary civilian occupation,
and was affected by traditions and associations based upon state
rather than national service. In 1911 the reported strength of
the National Guard was 117,980 officers and men, and an Act of
Congress authorized the president to increase the army estab-
lishment so as to provide 200 officers of the active list of the
regular army for duty as inspectors and instructors of the
organized militia and National Guard.
Reorganization of 1916. Successive Secretaries of War had vainly
urged upon Congress the necessity of a reorganization of the regular
army on the basis of larger tactical units. In June 1916 there was
finally passed and approved the bill known as the National Defense
Act. This provided for an increase of the regular army to a total
not to exceed 1 1,450 officers and 175,000 troops of the line, including
the Ordnance Department, 42,750 non-combatant troops and un-
assigned recruits, and 5,733 Philippine Scouts, in all about 235,000
officers and men. The number of regiments was to be increased to
65 of infantry, 25 of cavalry, 21 of field artillery, 7 of engineers, with
an additional 2 battalions of mounted engineers. These increases
were to be carried out by July 1921 and five annual increments, but the
President was authorized, in case of emergency, to put them into
immediate effect. The general officers of the line were increased in
number from 7 to II major-generals and from 17 to 36 brigadier-
generals to provide the necessary general officers for the contem-
plated divisions and brigades and higher staff appointments. The
period of enlistment in the regular army was altered to 3 years with
the colours and 4 in the reserve. The National Defense Act also
provided for bringing the organized militia of the several states into a
single national guard, the entire expenses of which were assumed by
the Federal Government. It was estimated that this force would
ultimately reach in peace-time a strength of 17,000 officers and 440,-
ooo men of all arms, so apportioned that when assembled at the call
of the Government it would constitute 16 divisions. The Act further
authorized (a) an Officers' Reserve Corps, to be selected, trained and
commissioned in time of peace for use in war only, up to and in-
cluding the grade of major, and (6) an Enlisted Reserve Corps,
specialists for the technical departments of the army, to be recruited
in time of peace for use in war only.
The General Staff Corps. Before 1903 the American army had
possessed no general staff. Since the early history of the country
there had been a commanding-general of the army and a system of
semi-independent War Department bureaus, loosely coordinated
either with each Other or with the line of the army, and there had
always existed uncertainty and dispute as to the respective functions
and authority of the Secretary of War, the commanding-general and
the bureaus. In Feb. 1903 a Congressional Act abolished the office
of commanding-general and created a General Staff Corps, to be
composed of 45 officers, with a chief -of-staff who, under the direction
of the President and the Secretary of War, was charged with the
supervision of all troops of the line and all the War Department
bureaus. In actual practice, however, the separate and combined
jealousies of the long-established bureaus, and still more the initial
lack of training and experience in the first officers detailed to the
new general staff reduced the latter almost to complete uselessness
and impotence. Nevertheless, the traditional national distrust of
anything savouring of a military oligarchy caused Congress in
1912 to decrease the number of general staff officers to 36. The
National Defense Act raised this number to 57 to be reached, how-
ever, only in five annual increments, and with the proviso that not
more than half of these officers should be " at any time stationed, or
assigned to or employed upon any duty in or near the District of
Columbia."
In connexion with the army legislation of 1916 Congress created
also a Council of National Defense, to consist of the Secretaries of
War, the Navy, the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce and Labor,
with an advisory commission of 7 specially qualified citizens;. and
to this Council was committed the task of studying and coordinating
the military, industrial and commercial resources of the nation in
connexion with its defense.
The disorders in Mexico since 1911 had made almost continually
necessary the patrolling of the long international boundary by the
bulk of the regular army. In March 1916 a raid into U.S. territory
by Villa had led to the calling-out of the National Guard and its
concentration along the border, while an expeditionary force of
regular troops under Gen. Pershing was sent into Mexico. In Feb.
1917 the expeditionary column was withdrawn and the National
Guard organizations returned to their respective states. The close
of this emergency, almost coincident with the entry of the United
States into the World War, left the regular army with a large per-
centage of its men due for discharge because of expiration of their
terms of enlistment and left the National Guard in the throes of a
combined demobilization and reorganization.
1917 to 1919. In March 1917 the actual strength of the regular
army was 5,791 officers and 121,797 men, of the National Guard
3,199 officers and 76,713 men, a total of 207,500 officers and men.
In addition there were' 97, 295 enlisted men of the National Guard who
had not yet taken the oath of federalization. The General Staff
Corps, though by this date composed of trained and competent
officers, had a total strength of only 41 members, of whom, under the
law, only 19 could be stationed in or near Washington. Soon after
the declaration of war by the United States, April 61917, the evident
and acknowledged military unpreparedness of the United States
led to tentative suggestions from the Allied Powers that such
forces as the United States had at its disposal be at least temporarily
merged into the more experienced units of the Allied armies. But
the Government in Washington considered that, in spite of popular
enthusiasm, American sentiment would not tolerate any such ab-
sorption. Accordingly, the order appointing Gen. Pershing command-
er-in-chief of the American Expeditionary Force specifically charged
him, while cooperating in all ways with the Allied military authori-
ties, to " reserve the identity of the U.S. force." It was further
thoroughly understood and agreed on by the U.S. authorities that
the mission of the overseas force was to be an offensive one. These
two conceptions, maintained throughout the war, governed all war
plans and activities of the United States both at home and abroad.
It was immediately decided, as a tentative programme, (a)
to send overseas promptly a small but complete body of American
troops, in the form of one tactical division to serve as a nucleus for
the organization and training of American overseas troops and in
order that some American troops might be put into the trenches at
the earliest possible moment, and (6) to follow this by an expedition-
ARMY
227
ary force of sufficient size, if the shipping situation permitted, to
make American military participation an effective factor in, the
prosecution of the war. Accordingly, on May 28 1917 Gen. Pershing,
with a small staff, sailed for Europe and in June the 1st Div. regular
army, 12,261 men, accompanied by 2,798 marines, was embarked.
Mobilization. On May 18 1917 there was passed and approved
the Congressional Act known as the Selective Service law. It
provided that, in addition to the regular army and the National
Guard, there be raised for the emergency a national army, by selec-
tive conscription of men between the ages of 21 and 30, of which
army the President was empowered to summon two units of 500,000
men each at such time as he should deem wise. The same Act
removed, for the period of the emergency only, all restrictions as to
the numbers and location of officers of the general staff. On July 3
the President called into service the entire National Guard and 1 6
divisional camps were established for their concentration and train-
ing. The first registration under the Selective Service law, June 5
1917, was carried out in the main by the voluntary efforts of citizens
and gave a total of 9,587,000 registrants. The actual drafting into
service was delayed by the necessity of waiting for the construction
of the 16 divisional cantonments planned for the national army,
and by the lack of equipment and especially of woollen clothing. The
first draft, Sept. 1917, inducted into military service 296,678 men,
and up to Dec. I 1917 there had been drafted from this first registra-
tion 496,043 men. On Dec. 15 voluntary enlistments of men be-
tween 21 and 30 were discontinued. From that date also all regis-
trants were arranged in five classes according to their importance to
the economic interests of the nation and the support of dependents.
The men thus placed in Class I. were first rendered liable for military
service, and in the sequel the four " deferred " classes were never
called upon. In May 1918 Congress provided that the quotas of
the various states should be apportioned according to the number
of registrants in Class I. instead of according to population. The
final total registered, including those coming of age during
the operation of the scheme, was upwards of . 10,481,000 men.
Of these there had been, on Nov. II 1918, inducted into military
service by the draft 2,801,635, or about 25 per cent. In July 1918 it
became evident that the then extended military programme would
soon lead to the exhaustion of Class I. In order to prevent the in-
dustrial disturbance and economic hardships incidental to calls on
the deferred classes, Congress provided for the registration of all
males betwei the ages of 18 and 45, both inclusive, and made
registrants liaole to service in the navy and the Marine Corps as well
as in the army. This registration, held Sept. 12 1918, yielded an
additional total of 13,228,000 registrants, but owing to the close of
the war these were never drawn upon. .The following table shows, in
round numbers, the recruiting from month to month:
Month.
Drafted.
Voluntary
Enlistments.
All Ages.
Aggregate.
1917
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec. ....
297,000
164,000
36,000
20,000
24,000
31,000
46,000
142,000
321,000
195,000
82,000
162,000
1918
Jan
Feb
23,000
84,000
Outside
Draft Ages
41,000
26,000
64,000
I IO OOO
March .
April .
May .
June
July .
Aug. .
Sept. .
Oct
132,000
174,000
373.000
302,000
401,000
283,000
263,000
107,000
25,000
23,000
26,000
28,000
19,000
11,000
157,000
197,000
399,000
330,000
420,000
294,000
263,000
107,000
Nov
7,000
7,000
Replacements. In April 1918 there were added to the 32 training-
camps already functioning in the United States nine replacement
camps of various arms. These were intended to supply the necessary
replacements (British "drafts") for the overseas troops, calculated
at from 10 % to 25 % a month, and to obviate the necessity of draw-
ing upon divisions already organized and in training.
New Officers. One of the most serious problems which confronted
the War Department, in April 1917, was the securing of a sufficient
number of officers. To meet this need a first series of 16 officers'
training-camps was opened on May 15 1917. Officers previously
commissioned in the Reserve Corps were required to attend and in
addition some 30,000 selected voluntary candidates were admitted.
In Aug. there were graduated from this first series 27,341 officers, a
number sufficient to meet immediate needs. A second series was
opened in Aug. 1917 and a third in Jan. 1918. The first two classes
were essentially civilian in character and largely from the university
element, and because of the need for officers of all grades commissions
were granted up to the grade of colonel. The third class drew
90 % of its candidates from the enlisted ranks of the regular army and
its graduates were commissioned as second lieutenants. These first
three classes had supplied, to April 1918, a total of 57,307 new officers.
War Department Organization. Gen. Pershing, who had been
given the greatest latitude in the carrying-out of his mission, had
very early established the general staff of the Expeditionary Force,
selecting from the British and the French systems those features
which seemed best adapted to the basic organization of the American
army. But the War Department in Washington was in this matter
dependent upon Congressional legislation. As the war progressed
the system of separate and independent bureaus eventually and
inevitably developed a condition of affairs which threatened to
jeopardize the success of the military programme. Each bureau,
absorbed in the sudden expansion of its personnel, and in its own
problems of supply, concentrated its efforts on its own needs without
reference in general to the requirements of other bureaus or services
or of the army programme as a whole. It was not until May 20
1918 that a Congressional Act made it possible to provide for: (a)
a redistribution of the functions of already existing bureaus; (6)
the creation of certain new agencies and services made necessary as
the result of the development and experiences of the army overseas;
(c) the reorganization of the general staff into five main divisions
in such a manner as to enable it to perform its proper functions of an
effective central controlling agency.
The American Expeditionary Force. The original tentative
programme had contemplated in a general way the placing in
France by the end of 1918 of approximately 1 ,000,000 men. Between
July and Oct. 1917, after consultation with the Allies and a study
by Gen. Pershing and his staff of Allied organizations, a more
definite programme was drawn up. In order that the services of the
rear might keep pace with the arrival of the combat troops this plan
was divided into six phases and contemplated the placing in France
by Dec. 31 1918 of 1,372,399 troops consisting of 30 divisions, or-
ganized into 5 corps of 6 divisions each (4 combat, one training, one
replacement), with 2 regiments of cavalry, the necessary corps troops,
army troops, service of supply troops, and replacements. It was
decided that the American combat division should consist of 4
regiments of infantry (of 3,000 men each, with 3 battalions to a
regiment and 4 companies of 250 men each to a battalion); one ar-
tillery brigade, of 3 regiments; one machine-gun battalion; one en-
gineer regiment ; one trench-mortar battery ; one signal battalion ;
wagon trains; and the headquarters staffs and military police.
These with the medical and other units for each division made a
total of over 28,000 or practically double the size of the French or
German division. With 4 divisions fully trained a corps could take
over an American sector with 2 divisions in line and 2 in the reserve,
with the depot and replacement divisions prepared to fill the gaps in
the ranks.
In July 1918 an extension of the original programme was adopted
contemplating, by July 30 1919, 80 divisions in France and 18 at
home, based on a total strength of the American army of 4,850,000.
A further extension, approved Sept. 3 1918, was communicated to
the supply departments. It provided for an army of 4,260,000 (100
combat divisions) in France, with 1,290,000 (12 combat divisions)
in the United States, a total of 5,550,000 to be reached by June 30
1920. Up to the signing of the Armistice the troops were being
transported to France in accordance with the July 1918 progiamme.
The needs of training in the overseas forces, and especially of first
constructing the necessary facilities for the services of the rear for
an independent American army', at first greatly delayed the entry
into line of American troops. On Dec. 31 1917 there were in France
only 176,665 American troops and but one division had appeared
on the front. On Nov. n 1918, 40 American divisions had reached
Fi-ance (7 regular army, 17 National Guard, 16 national army). At
this date the American troops represented 31 % of the ration strength
of the Allied forces in France and held 22 % of the length of the
western front. Toward the later stages of the war 2 American
divisions cooperated with the Australian corps; 2 divisions assisted
the French IV. Corps; and 2 divisions fought with the French VI.
Army in Belgium. During the Meuse-Argonne battle 29 combat
divisions operated on the American front. Nov. 20 1918 Gen.
Pershing, after estimating losses, reported in France 1,338,169
combatant troops. Of the 40 combat divisions which had arrived the
infantry personnel of 10 had been used as replacement troops,
leaving at that time in France 30 divisions organized into 3 armies of
3 corps each. Of these forces approximately 44% had been trans-
ported overseas in American, 51 % in British, 3 % in Italian and 2 %
in French ships.
Losses and Casualties. To Nov. 18 1918 the losses were: killed
in action, 35,556; died of battle wounds, 15,130; of other wounds,
5,669; of disease, 24,786; total deaths, 81,141; wounded, 179,625;
missing, 1,160; prisoners, 2,163. Total casualties, 264,089. Of the
wounded about half suffered very slight injuries.
Other Fronts. In addition to its military effort in Europe the
United States remained throughout the war under the necessity of
maintaining its patrol organizations along the Mexican border.
The bulk of its cavalry with some artillery was thus employed. In
Sept. 1918 an expeditionary force of 10,000 was sent to Siberia in
cooperation with other Allied troops. A small force of 5,000 men
sent with the Allied expedition to Murmansk formed part of the
A.E.F. organization. One U.S. regiment served in Italy.
228
ARMY
Growth in strength and variety of services between March 1917 and
Nov. 1918 {in round numbers.)
Service.
Old Army
March 1917.
New Army
Nov. 1918.
Infantry
85,000
974,000
Engineer
3,000
394,000
Field Artillery and Ammunition
Train
9,000
389,000
Medical
7,000
300,000
euartermaster
8,000
228,000
oast Artillery . . . . .<
21,000
137,000
Ordnance
1,000
64,000
Signal
3,000
52,000
Cavalry
22,000
29,000
Air
none
202,000
Motor Transport ....
103,000
Militia Bureau
27,000
Chemical Warfare ....
18,000
Tank
14,000
In Training
549,000
All Other
31,000
185,000
190,000
3,665,000
Demobilization. The problem of demobilizing was simpler for
the United States than for other countries. Pivotal or key men had
not been withdrawn from industry nor had the man-power been
drafted to the same extent. Moreover, since all units contained a
fair proportion of men from all trades and commercial activities, it
had already been decided to demobilize by complete units as they
could be spared. A few priority exceptions were made in the case
of coal-miners, railroad men, certain post-office employees, etc.
Demobilization of emergency units still in the United States began
immediately. The chief difficulties were met in the regular army,
where only a few thousand men were still serving under enlistment
contracts entered into prior to 1917, and in the National Guard,
where recruits and replacements had infiltrated every organization
with drafted men. As under these conditions rapid demobilization
would have meant the disbanding of practically all organized military
forces in the United States, authority was granted by Congress, in
Feb. 1919, to reopen voluntary enlistments for the regular army and
National Guard. To insure the return of all men as speedily as
possible to their former places in the economic life of the nation, the
general plan provided for the transportation of each man, previous to
discharge, to the demobilization camp in or nearest to the state from
which he had entered the service. For this purpose 31 former train-
ing-camps were utilized. On arrival in the United States, unless sick
or wounded, the men were immediately distributed to their proper
discharge camps. There each soldier, after a final physical examina-
tion and other routine processes, was discharged, paid and en-
trained for his home or place of entry. Men sick or still suffering
from wounds or infectious diseases were not discharged until cured
or otherwise provided for. The initial lack of American tonnage
delayed for a time the return and discharge of the overseas troops,
but between Nov. II 1918 and June 30 1919 there were returned from
France 1,610,07^ men and officers, of which number 84 % were trans-
ported in American ships. The record for the month of June was
434,786 men, the greatest number shipped across in any one month.
In Nov. 1919 there had been discharged, in all, 179,800 officers and
3,236,266 men. The discharge of men in the ranks was practically
completed on April I 1920. (A. L. C.)*
VII. BALKAN ARMIES
_ (l) Serbia. In 1911 the Serbian army consisted of 5 infantry di-
visions each of 4 regiments, one cavalry division, and special forma-
tions of mountain and siege artillery. The army thus comprised 20
infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, 4 cavalry regiments of
4 squadrons, 7 f.a. regiments (45 batteries f.a., 2 batteries horse
artillery, 9 mountain and 6 how.), 2 battalions of siege artillery, 2j
battalions engineers, a cavalry telegraph section. The peace strength
of the army was 2,033 officers, 4,338 under-officers, 22,559 men.
From 1901 the Serbian army was raised on the compulsory system,
by which all able-bodied Serbs became liable for military service on
attaining 21 years, and remained so till the completion of their 4&th
year. The first two years were supposed to be spent with the colours,
though in practice this was reduced to one and a half, after which the
soldier passed to the 1st line reserve for nine years. He then passed
to the 2nd line reserve for six years, and to the 3rd line for the
remainder of his period of liability. The yearly quota of recruits was
during the years immediately preceding 1910 about 25,000.
The infantry was equipped with a 7-mm. Mauser with a range of
2,000 metres. Each man carried 150 rounds on his person. The
artillery before the outbreak of the Balkan War was in process of
being equipped with the modern French field gun (75-mm. field
and 7O-mm. mountain guns). The older weapons which were
being replaced were the 85-mm. de Bange. There were no field
howitzers, but there was a siege train with 12- and is-cm. howitzers.
The war strength of the mobilized field army thus comprised 5
active infantry divisions, 5 divisions 2nd line reserve, 5 divisions
3rd line reserve, one Ersatz division of 1st line reservists approx-
imating in composition to an active division. In addition the com-
mander-in-chief had for his own disposal one cavalry division, one
guard detachment (2 squadrons), one heavy field-artillery regiment,
one siege-artillery regiment, some railway and balloon troops. The
total mobilized strength, representing the maximum effort of the
country, was about 260,000 men.
As a result of the Balkan War the 5 divisions of the standing
army were increased by another 5 (the Kosovo, Vardar, Monastir,
Shtip, and Ibar divisions), all formed from the new territory ac-
quired. The artillery was also increased by 10 batteries. Owing,
however, to the very short time of peace which elapsed between the
close of the 2nd Balkan War (July 1913) and the outbreak of the
World War, the reorganization which had been contemplated could
only be carried out in part.
On being mobilized at the end of July 1914, when Austria-Hun-
gary declared war, the Serbian army totalled about 350,000 men,
and it was organized, now for the first time, in four armies of three
divisions each.
(2) Bulgaria. In 1911 the Bulgarian army was organized in 9
infantry divisions of 4 regiments (formed into 3 army inspectorates
which on mobilization formed 3 armies), and n cavalry regiments.
The army thus comprised, on a peace footing, 36 infantry regiments
(each consisting of 2 battalions, one non-combatant company, and
one machine-gun section), II cavalry regiments (each of 3 squad-
rons), 9 field-artillery regiments (each of 6 batteries), 3 mountain-
artillery regiments (each of 4 batteries), 3 field-howitzer batteries, 3
siege-artillery groups, 3 pioneer battalions, a telegraph, pontoon,
and railway battalion, one mechanical transport company, one
cyclist company, one balloon company, 3 army service corps detach-
ments, 16 frontier companies. The total strength of the army was
3,891 officers and 55,709 men. The army was raised on the compul-
sory service system. Every Bulgarian was liable to military service
from his 2Oth to his 46th year. The classes were called up annually
and a man normally served two years in the active army (or three
in the case of the special arms), and then passed to the reserve until
the completion of his 46th year.
The infantry were armed with the 8-mm. Mannlicher with a range
of 2,100 metres. A few Russian Berdan rifles were to be found. Each
man carried 150 rounds on his person. The cavalry ha^ Mannlicher
carbines ; only the guard cavalry had lances. The artillery was mostly
of French pattern: the 75-mm. Schneider-Creuzot field gun, 10-5-
cm. field howitzer (Schneider-Creuzot), and 75-mm. Schneider
mountain gun, with a few 12-cm. and 15-cm. Krupp and Creuzot
howitzers.
On mobilization each of the 9 peace infantry divisions split into 2.
Each of the 4 companies of the 72 infantry battalions expanded,
into a battalion. The II cavalry regiments, reenforced by mounted
police, formed one cavalry division of 6 regiments, and the
(infantry) divisional cavalry. An infantry division on a war
footing thus consisted of 4 regiments of 4 battalions each ; 24
machine-gun companies; 10 batteries of 4 or 6 guns; 2 squadrons
cavalry ; one howitzer battery ; 2 engineer companies. The mobilized
strength of the field army was about 350,000 men. In addition 72
battalions of older men (500 strong) were formed for garrison and
L. of C. duties. There were thus about 400,000 men under arms.
After the Balkan War the permanent strength of the Bulgarian
army was slightly increased, proportionately to the increment of
population. A loth division the Aegean or White Sea Div. 1 was
raised, and the army on a peace footing numbered 85,000 men.
In Sept. 1915, 10 divisions of 24,000 men each were mobilized
according to plan, but as the World War progressed other formations
were added. In 1916 an nth Macedonian division was raised,
mainly of Macedonians in the conquered territory of Serbia. Later
a 1 2th division was raised, and towards the end of the war there
were 14 divisions in the field. The system of splitting peace divisions
into two, which had been followed in the Balkan War, had been
dropped, but a division formed 6 regiments, instead of 4. A Bul-
garian division of full strength was thus 24 battalions 24,000
rifles and 2 regiments of artillery. An order of battle published by
the Bulgarian general staff on Sept. 15 1918 two weeks before the
Armistice shows a grand total of 877,000 men of all ranks under
arms.
(3) Greece. In 1911 an Act was passed which provided for the
reorganization of the Greek army. This reorganization contemplated
3 large divisions of infantry (27 battalions each), corresponding much
more to army corps than divisions, a cavalry division, a heavy
artillery regiment, and technical troops. At the outbreak of the
Balkan War in 1912 the total number of units which took the field
was: 44 battalions of infantry, 16 cavalry squadrons, 47 batteries
of field and mountain artillery. These were organized into 4 (ac-
tive) divisions, each consisting of: 3 regiments (of 3 battalions, and
3 machine-gun companies each), 2 battalions of evzones (rifles), one
cavalry squadron, 9 batteries field artillery or mountain artillery, 2
companies pioneers. The remaining cavalry was formed into a cavalry
division. In addition to these 4 active divisions there were also
or 4 reserve divisions, similarly constituted. The army thus mo-
ilized had a combatant strength of about 120,000 and a ration
I
ARMY
229
strength of about 185,000. The total number of men with the
colours at the end of the war was 210,000.
The infantry were armed with the Mannlicher-Schonauer rifle
6-5 mm., or the French n-mm. Gras rifle. The cavalry had lances,
and carbines of the same pattern as the infantry rifle. The field and
mountain artillery were armed with the 75-mm. Schneider-Creusot,
though some of the mountain batteries had the 7'5-mm. Schneider-
Danglis (" screw-gun "). The heavy artillery was all of old pattern.
At the conclusion of the Balkan War a thorough reorganization
of the army was undertaken. By the end of 1914 the army was, on
paper, organized into 5 army corps of 3 divisions each, an inde-
pendent cavalry brigade of 2 regiments, and a regiment of fortress
artillery and fortress engineers. A Greek corps thus consisted of
the following: 3 infantry divisions (of 3 regiments and one group of
mountain artillery), one cavalry regiment, one field-artillery regi-
ment, one regiment engineers, medical and intendance units. The
total strength of a corps was about 30,000 combatants. The artillery
organization was somewhat peculiar. Infantry divisions were pro-
vided with only 3 batteries of mountain artillery, field artillery being
retained as corps troops. There was practically no heavy field or
siege artillery. On Bulgaria joining the Central Powers in Sept.
1915 the Greek army was mobilized as a precautionary measure. The
total strength mobilized was about 150,000 combatants. When in
June 1917 Greece joined the Allies, 3 divisions (about 20,000 rifles)
were already in being at Salonika, and it was expected that 10
divisions would finally be raised to take part in operations on the
Salonika front. By the Armistice there were actually (in Macedonia)
9 divisions (3 corps) of about 60,000 combatants in line. They had
been practically entirely armed and equipped by the Allies at Sa-
lonika. They participated and gave a good account of themselves
in the final offensive against Bulgaria in Sept. 1918.
(4.) Rumania. Under the Army law of 1908, amended in 1910,
military service was universal, and lasted from the completion of the
2ist to that of the 42nd year, 7 years being spent with the col-
ours, 10 in the reserve, and 4 in the militia.
In May 1913 a new recruiting law increased the total length of
service to 25 years from the 2 1st to the 46th year of age. The new
term included 7 years with the colours, 12 years with the reserve, and
6 years with the militia. In 1913, out of a pop. of seven and a half
millions, Rumania took 0-66% as recruits, and the peace establish-
ment of the army amounted to 1-17%, without counting officers or
administrative staffs. It was intended to increase the number of
recruits to 52,000 in 1914. The peace strength of the army in 1913
showed 5,029 officers, 979 officials, 5,476 reengaged non-commis-
sioned officers, 85,791 men. In connexion with the new recruiting
law, it was also decided in May 1913 that the " army of operations "
should consist of the active army (ist line) and the reserve (2nd
line) while the militia (3rd line) was designed for employment in the
interior of the country, as well as in rear of the army of operations.
In 1913, before the mobilization against Bulgaria, the infantry con-
sisted of 40 regiments, of which 32 had 3 and 8 had 2 field batta-
lions to one Ersatz battalion. To each regiment there were one ma-
chine-gun section with 3 guns; 9 Jager battalions, each with one
machine-gun section of 2 guns; 12 frontier guard companies; 2
gendarmerie companies; 80 reserve battalion cadres. In 1913 these
would form, for war purposes as first-line troops: 40 infantry regi-
ments of 3 battalions, 18 Jager battalions, 12 frontier guard com-
panies. The second-line troops would comprise 40 reserve infantry
regiments of 2 battalions, and the third line 40 militia battalions.
In war-time one machine-gun section (2 guns) would be formed for
each first-line battalion. The armament of the line and reserve
troops consisted of Mannlicher repeating rifles, mark 93, calibre
6'5 mm. The field artillery was being extensively developed up to
the summer of 1913. By the summer of 1913 the artillery establish-
ment had reached the following numbers: 10 artillery brigade com-
mandos; 20 field-artillery regiments, each of 6 field batteries and
one Ersatz battery; 5 field-howitzer detachments of 3 field batteries
and one Ersatz battery ; one mounted artillery detachment of 2 bat-
teries; one heavy howitzer detachment of 2 batteries; one mountain-
artillery regiment of 4 batteries. In war-time 4 reserve field-artillery
divisions of 3 foot batteries were to be formed for the reserve divi-
sions of the infantry. The artillery armament included 7'5-cm.
Krupp quick-firing guns, mark 1904 for foot, mark 1908 for mounted
batteries; 12-cm. Krupp light field howitzers, afterwards gradually
replaced by io-5-cm. field howitzers, and 6-3-cm. Armstrong moun-
tain guns. For heavy (fortress) artillery in 1910 there were two regi-
ments, each of 2 battalions of 8 and 1 1 companies respectively. By
1913 this arm had been increased by 3 companies.
In 1913, when Rumania mobilized in case of intervention becoming
necessary against Bulgaria, the war muster of the field army included
8,500 officers and 373,500 men. There were, in addition, 45,000 men
of the territorial commandos in the interior of the country, and
about 55,000 men not embodied. The total number called up was
thus about 473,000 men.
In Aug. 1914 Rumania, in view of the political situation, suc-
cessively called up all the men of the previous seven-year classes.
In Oct., however, the Government decided for armed neutrality,
and the army reverted to a peace footing. The strengthening of the
army proceeded nevertheless at an increasing rate up to the time
of Rumania's entry into the war. At the end of Aug. 1916 the total
war strength of the Rumanian army included 330-340 battalions of
first- and second-line infantry, 80 battalions of third-line infantry, and
112 squadrons of cavalry, while the artillery of the field army in-
cluded 768 modern guns. The total number of trained men available
when Rumania entered the war in 1916 was about 860,000. Of
these 700,000 men were taken for the field army, so that there re-
mained for use as Ersatz troops 160,000 trained men in addition to
about 150,000 not yet trained.
On Aug. 27, when Rumania declared war on Austria-Hungary, the
mobilization and marching forward of the army had proceeded so
far that the advance against Siebenbiirgen immediately followed the
declaration of war. Rumania put four armies in the field, one
operating in the Dobrudja and three against Siebenbiirgen. The
field troops were formed into 23 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions.
After the decisive defeat in Dec. 1916 the reconstruction of the army
was seen to be a pressing necessity, and this was effected under a
French military mission. The work of reorganization carried out by
the French mission had excellent results. From July 1917 onwards
the I. Army was again at the front. In the battles fought between
the end of July and the middle of Sept. 1917, the' army possessed
an actually greater battle strength than when it entered the war.
VIII. THE GERMAN ARMY
In the four years up to the outbreak of the World War,
intensified progress was made in the German army along normal
lines, but in Aug. 1914 there began and continued an astounding
military effort which in many ways differed from that which the
peace-time system had led observers to expect. To attempt to
understand that effort, therefore, one must return to fundamen-
tals. General Ludendorff, in his War Memories, in saying that
each of the various component states produced good divisions
and poor divisions, adds " Wiirttemberg and Baden had only
good ones." In this judgment the Entente intelligence staffs,
whose specialty was study of the opponent's quality, would
concur. Yet in 1870 these two contingents had a very small
share in victory, and in earlier times their troops, though figuring
in many wars as components of this or that federal army, never
won for themselves an outstanding reputation for high quality.
On the contrary, these countries were the very home of the old
German GemutlichkeU, and in the i8th century Burke quoted
Wiirttemberg as a model of a peacefully and constitutionally
governed country.
In reality, two cultural waves, so to say, contributed to make
the German army what it was: first, the tide of Germanic civiliza-
tion which spread from the upper Rhine and Danube countries
N.E. over the mountains and into the great plain of the Slavs,
and secondly, the tide of Prussian " objectivity " and efficiency
which in the igth century set in in the reverse direction, from
N.E. to S.W. And it can be said without forcing the facts, that
the military quality of Germany was fundamentally soundest at
those two moments in history when, in 1813, the sense of civiliza-
tion and nationality worked for the first time strongly upon the
hard " East-Elbians," and when in 1914-5 the spirit of business
and duty imposed by these East-Elbians upon the peaceful
S.W. made their inborn nationalism an effective instead of an
ineffective thing.
The study of these currents is, of course, practically the same
as the study of German history. But one thing may here be
emphasized. No other basic hypothesis than that of continuing
national characters can account for the fact that these two
comfortable S. German states were awarded primacy in military
quality by a Prussian commander-in-chief . Were it otherwise,
the quality of the various contingents would simply have been
measured by the length of the period during which their respective
states had been subjected to the civil and military training of
Prussia. Such a criterion has in fact been applied, but it proved
false even in respect of the active army of peace-time. Neverthe-
less, as Prussian military ideas and methods provided the skele-
ton on which this spirit was made flesh, and which fortified the
flesh against weakness, an objective account of the German
army of the war period must begin with a schematic presentation
of that skeleton.
Higher Formations in Peace. The growth of the Prussian-
German military organization from 1815 to 1914 is shown by the
accompanying Table A (The Roman numerals indicate the
corps to which a division belonged at the time considered. When
230
ARMY
the corps numeral is in brackets, the division is attached to that
corps as a third division.)
It must be premised that the corps numbers indicate territorial
districts as well as military commands. The six " Brigade "
districts of Prussia during the period of army limitation imposed
by Napoleon became corps districts after 1815, and two others
were added when for the first time Prussia acquired Rhine
possessions adjacent to France. The annexations of 1866 pro-
duced three other Prussian corps and corps districts, and there-
after the course of evolution is sufficiently indicated in the table.
After 1871, of course, all new districts were carved out of the
existing ones. It will be seen from Table A that during the
organization of 1912 there had been bitter controversy the
general staff demanding five new army corps and the Reichstag
conceding only two and no fewer than 17 supernumerary
regiments (more than the infantry complement of two army
corps) were left ungrouped after the 2oth and 2ist Corps had
been formed. These 17 were a fifth brigade and an eleventh
regiment in the Guard, fifth brigades in the frontier corps regions
5th, 6th, 7th, pth, I4th, and ninth regiments in the 2nd,
I3th, i8th and 2ist Corps.
There were, therefore, in the active army of 1914, 50 divisions
(two Guard, 1-42, and 1-6 Bavarian) and 17 supernumerary
infantry regiments.
TABLE A. Growth from 1813 to 1914.
Prussia
1815-60.
N.
German
Confed.
1867.
1871.
1880.
German Empire
1900.
1912.
1885.
1890.
I Prussian Guard Div
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
2 Prussian Guard Div.
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
I Div.
/ I.
I.
I.
I.
I.
I.
I.
I.
2 Div.
East Prussia
il
I.
I.
I.
I.
I.
I.
I.
3 Div.
/I I.
II.
II.
II.
II.
II.
II.
II.
CO
4 Div.
Pomerania
ill.
II.
II.
II.
II.
II.
II.
II.
5 Div.
nil.
III.
III.
III.
III.
III.
III.
III.
s
6 Div.
Brandenburg ....
tin.
III.
III.
III.
III.
III.
III.
III.
g
7 Div.
) iv.
IV.
IV.
IV.
IV.
IV.
IV.
IV.
fi
8 Div.
Prussian Saxony ....
I iv.
IV.
IV.
IV.
IV.
IV.
IV.
IV.
9 Div.
rv.
V.
V.
V.
V.
V.
V.
V.
10 Div.
Posen
IV
V.
V.
V.
V.
V.
V.
V.
II Div.
fVi.
VI.
VI.
VI.
VI.
VI.
VI.
VI.
12 Div.
' Silesia
\VI.
VI.
VI.
VI.
VI.
VI.
VI.
VI.
= 1 fl3 Div.
/VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
S% ?} H Div.
Westphalia
1 VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
VII.
B'g.'S 1 15 Div.
/VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
==f I 16 Div.
Rhineland
\VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
VIII.
17 Div.
Schleswig-Holstein }
IX.
IX.
IX.
IX.
IX.
IX.
IX.
1
1 8 Div.
Mecklenburg, [ .
IX.
IX.
IX.
IX.
IX.
IX.
IX.
>o
(8 o
19 Div.
Hansa towns
X.
X.
X.
X.
X.
X.
X.
V ^S '
20 Div.
Hanover
X.
X.
X.
X.
X.
X.
X.
<
21 Div.
XI.
XI.
XI.
XI.
XI.
XVIII.
XVIII.
22 Div.
Kur-Hessen and Frankfurt
XI.
XI.
XI.
XI.
XI.
XI.
XI.
G~4
* 'yi D\-\r
XII.
XII.
XII.
XII.
XII.
XII.
XII.
rt ^ *"O *-'**
2 s 1 2^ Oiv.
Kingdom of Saxony
1 '.'.
XII.
XII.
XII.
XII.
XII.
XIX.
XIX.
1
O(J
25 Div.
26 Div.
Grand Duchy Hesse-Darmstadt
/
(XI.)
(XI.)
XIII.
(XI.)
XIII.
(XI.)
XIII.
(XI.)
XIII.
XVIII.
XIII.
XVIII.
XIII.
27 Div.
Wurttemberg ....
1-
XIII.
XIII.
XIII.
XLI.
XIII.
XIII.
/
28 Div.
I ..
XIV.
XIV.
XIV.
XIV.
XIV.
XIV.
29 Div.
Baden . . . . .
XIV.
XIV.
XIV.
XIV.
XIV.
XIV.
30 Div.
Alsace-Lorraine
) ::
XV.
XV.
XV.
XV.
XV.
31 Div.
32 Div.
33 Div.
(Alsace)
Kingdom of Saxony .
. Alsace-Lorraine
\..
( ::
.'. -
XV.
XV.
(XII.)
(XV.)
XV.
(XII.)
XVI.
XV.
XII.
XVI.
XXI.
XII.
XVI.
4
34 Div. I (Lorraine) ....
ic Div 1
XVI.
XVII.
XVI.
XVII.
XVI.
XVII.
E
H
36 Div!} West Prussia . . . .
(::
XVII.
XVII.
XVII.
c
37 Div. East Prussia
(I.)
(I.)
XX.
1
38 Div. N. Kur-Hessen ....
XI.
XI.
V
O
39 Div. S. Alsace
(XIV.)
XV.
40 Div. Kingdom of Saxony .
XIX.
XIX.
41 Div. E. Prussia
f f
. .
XX.
42 Div. Lorraine
, ,
XXI.
i Bav.
'IB.
'IB.
'IB.
'IB.
IB.
IB.
2 Bav.
IB.
IB.
IIB.
IB.
IB.
IB.
3 Bav.
Kingdom of Bavaria (including
j - .
IIB.
IIB.
IIB.
IIB.
IIB.
IIB.
4 Bav.
Bav. Palatinate)
i
IIB.
IIB.
IIB.
IIB.
IIB.
IIB.
5 Bav.
IIIB.
IIIB.
IIIB.
6 Bav.
IIIB.
IIIB.
IIIB.
N.B. Two Bavarian army corps (4 divs.), one Wurttemberg and one Baden division took part in the war of 1870-1 as allies of the
N. German Confederation.
Empire period the typical form of growth had been the creation
of third divisions in certain corps (usually frontier corps) and
which from time to time coalesced in corps possessing districts of
their own. These third divisions themselves were the product of a
gradual growth. Resources in men, and from time to time the
favour of the Reichstag, allowed the formation, now here now
there, of regiments and brigades supernumerary to the standard
corps establishment (2 divs. = 4 bdes. = 8 regts.). In each of
the greater reorganizations these supernumeraries had been
swept together to form new divisions. But over the last re-
Units in Peace. Each of the 217 infantry regiments had an
establishment of three battalions and a machine-gun company of
six guns. The field artillery consisted of a brigade of two regiments
(in all 12 batteries) per division, one quarter of these batteries being
of field howitzers. 1 There were therefore 600 batteries in all. The
cavalry, with its recent additions and groupings, numbered no regi-
ments, of which in principle 66 were in war to form 1 1 cavalry with
33 batteries of horse artillery and II cavalry machine-gun detach-
1 These establishments were, in many cases, hurriedly brought in
force at the last moment; the law of 1913 had authorized the neces-
sary recruiting and equipment but had spread it over a term of years.
ARMY
231
ments (of 6 guns each). The remainder of the cavalry was to be
allotted to the infantry, as divisional cavalry. The foot artillery had
been, or was on mobilization, brought to a strength of 25 regiments,
out of which came on mobilization a " battalion " of four heavy field
batteries per army corps, and also mobile siege trains of considerable
strength, the remainder being fortress and coast artillery. For the
mobile defence of fortresses there had also been created 16 fortress
machine-gun detachments of 6 guns each. The pioneers (engineers)
had a strength in 1914 of 32 battalions. Other technical formations
are here ignored, owing to considerations of space, but it should be
remarked that the most recent laws, those of 1912 and 1913, had
provided for considerable expansions in these branches.
One other category of combatant troops remains to be noted, the
Jagers (light infantry). In all, 18 Jager battalions were in existence,
some of them specialized to mountain warfare and the remainder
(provided with a cyclist company each) to cooperation with the
cavalry divisions.
Strength and Recruiting. Although service was universal and
obligatory in principle, yet in practice the growth of military
establishments had naturally not kept pace with the growth of
population, and quite half of the able-bodied males of military
age had received no military training whatsoever.
The liabilities of the German citizen to military service are
shown in Table B. 1
With a growing population, and with the competition of the
navy for available funds, it was inevitable that there should be
this divergence between the theory and the practice of universal
service. The reductio ad absurdum was reached when, with a
population more numerous than that of France in the ratio of
seven to four, and in a period of feverish war preparation through-
out Europe, Germany was not able to maintain as many soldiers
under arms as France. This was the case from 1913 onwards, and
it was due primarily to the expenses of the competition in naval
armaments. Within the army itself there was no remedy, short
of reducing the term of service, and all political and military
tradition and influences combined to make this impossible. It
was for the court and militarists in Germany an article of faith
that the " barrack-army " was the blind instrument of govern-
ment to be used against external or internal foes. This theory
presupposes a discipline like in kind to that of a professional
army; the civic characters inseparable from a nation in arms,
however highly trained, were obstacles to that discipline, and
any move towards converting the army into a citizen force was
anathema, even in the year in which the centenary of 1813 was
celebrated in a fever of national pride. Yet in Germany, as
17 to ist
muster
Lsm. I.
Men selected at 1st muster for infantry <
do. for cavalry
TABLE B. Liability to Service.
22-27! :
Reserve
20-23
, Active
23-27!
Reserve
22-24
Active
22-25
A ctive
Men put back twice and selected at / 20-22
3rd muster for infantry . \ Lsm. I.
do. for cavalry f 20-22
\ Lsm. I.
Men allotted to trained Ersatz reserve ) 20-32! _..
at 1st muster \ Ers. Res. Lwhr. II.
Men allotted to untrained Ersatz re- / 20-22 22-32!
serve at 3rd muster . \ Lsm. I. Ers. Res.
Men finally assigned to Landsturm I. / 20-22 22-38!
at 3rd muster \ Lsm. I. Lsm. I.
Lwhr. I.
Lwhr. I.
24-29!
Reserve
25-29!
Reserve
Lsm. I.
Lwhr. II.
Lwhr. II.
Lwhr. I.
Lwhr. I.
341-38!
Lwhr. II.
Lwhr. II.
381-45
Lsm. II.
It will be noted that the Landwehr is exclusively a force of
trained men, and Landsturm I. consists wholly of untrained
men. The Ersatz reserve, originally intended to produce part-
trained drafts for the active army and always legally on that
basis was in practice a category into which the physically
fittest of the men excused from training were put, the remainder
going into (or rather staying in) Landsturm I.
Table C gives statistics for recruiting in 1911 and 1912
(the outbreak of war prevented those of 1913 from being pub-
lished) showing the practical application of the system.
TABLE C. Recruiting, 1911-2.
(All figures include navy as well as army.)
Muster: 191*
Men of 20, first appearance .... 563,024
Men of 21, second appearance . . . 367,688
Men of 22, third appearance . . . 289,089
Older special cases 51,574
1.271,384
70/2
557,6o8
385,163
294,825
52,272
Disposal:
(a) Struck off
" Excluded "
nently unfit '
(criminals, etc.), " perma-
826
1,289,868
916
35,500
36,326
(6) Put back to following year (aged 20 and
2I 2 )
(c) Assigned to active service. Voluntarily
enlisted (not including volunteers below
muster age) 39.53 1
Levied 3 ........ 223,925
263,456
(d) Definitely assigned to inactive categories
Ersatz reserve 4 94, 73 2
Landsturm I. 4 142,307
237,039
Total o(a,T>,c,d 1,271,384
40,413
239.717
280,130
90,207
137,922
228,129
1,289,868
elsewhere, a few realized that the prevalent competition in peace
strengths was leading nowhere, and that a great European war
would be won or lost by nations and not by selected and specialized
percentages of nations. Schlieffen, the ablest soldier Germany
had produced for 50 years, was one of these. Instead of 50 high-
quality divisions, followed after an interval by garrison forma-
tions, he proposed to defeat France by the immediate bringing
into line of more than 100 divisions in which active and reserve
elements were intimately mingled.
As this view, though opposed to the prevailing opinion, proved
to be correct, it is unnecessary here to discuss the last stages of
competition in peace preparedness before war came in 1914. It
is, however, important to note that reservists were called up for
refresher trainings in increasing numbers, and that a proportion
of the professional officer cadre was set aside for the command of
reserve formations in war. Still, these two facts did not indicate
with certainty that reserve formations were to appear along with
the active, on the first battle-fields. In France, similar measures
were taken without any such implication.
When, therefore, the German masses poured through Belgium
in Aug. 1914, precious time elapsed before the French G.O.C.
became aware that with nearly every identified active corps on
the wheeling wing of their opponents was a duplicate reserve
corps. The surprise was great, for though it was a matter of
1 The retention of men in the reserve and other categories for an
additional half-year was meant to provide for the event of mobiliza-
tion between Oct. and March, in which months the youngest class
with the colours was still too little trained to mobilize with the rest.
2 At a man's third appearance his case was bound to be disposed of
definitely.
3 Of whom roughly half, each year, were of the 2o-year-old class
mustered for the first time.
4 By far the greater number in these categories had been put back
twice.
232
ARMY
calculation that men, equipment and officers were available, the
professional soldier could not believe that the most rigidly
soldierly army of the Continent would put such formations into
the front line when there had hardly been time even to establish
military routine, let alone to revive the habit of march and
manoeuvre in the men.
Yet so it was. Schlieffen's ideas of mass and force, though
watered down by his successor Moltke, were translated into
practice. Two months later, an even more surprising move was
made in the same direction the employment of troops 75% of
whom were entirely untrained at the outset.
In Aug. 1914, the seven armies deployed in the W. included all
the 25 active corps except the ist, i;th and 2oth, 10 out of n
cavalry divisions (Gd., Bav., 2-9), and the following reserve
corps: Guard Res. Corps (3 Guard Divs. made up of super-
numerary active units and ist Gd. Res. Div.); 3rd Res. Corps
(Sth and 6th Res. Divs.), 4th Res. Corps (yth and 22nd Res. Divs.),
5th Res. Corps (pin. and loth Res. Divs.), 6th Res. Corps(nthand
I2th Res. Divs.), yth Res. Corps (i3th and i4th Res. Divs.), Sth
Res. Corps (isth and i6th Res. Divs.), loth Res. Corps (igth
Res. Div. of Corps area, and 2nd Gd. Res. Div. so-called 1 ), i2th
Res. Corps (23rd and 24th Res. Divs., from the two Saxon Corps
regions), I4th Res. Corps (26th and 28th Res. Divs. from
Wurttemberg and Baden), i8th Res. Corps (2ist and 25th Res.
Divs. from the two Hesse, Frankfort and Darmstadt Corps
areas), and ist Bav. Res. Corps (ist and i8th Res. Divs.).
After guarding the N. German coast for, some weeks the gth
Res. Corps followed these (iyth and iSth Res. Divs.). In the
W. also were the 33rd Res. Div. formed at Metz, and the 3oth
Res. Div. formed at Strassburg, and three momentarily indepen-
dent Bavarian Res. Bdes. 2
The VIII. Army in the E. consisted of the ist, I7th and 2oth
active Corps, the ist Cav. Div., the ist Res. Corps (ist Res.
Div. and 36th Res. Div.), the 3rd Res. Div. formed in the II.
Corps district.
Thus, in the W., the theatre of the first great decision, 73^
battle divisions were gathered of which 2g} were reserve forma-
tions, and in the E. (E. Prussia) six active and three reserve
divisions were left to meet the attack of the Russian Vilna and
Warsaw armies.
The 17 supernumerary infantry regiments also mentioned
were absorbed in these reserve formations (with one exception)
and the Instructional Battalion (afterwards famous as the
" Lehr Regiment ") was expanded to provide the i2th active unit
of the Guard. Otherwise these formations were created entirely
at the moment of mobilization. Their organization was similar
to those of the active army, but for want of guns they were pro-
vided only with six batteries per division and had no heavy
artillery of their own. In some reserve regiments machine-
gun companies did not exist. In sum, and allowing for the
active units incorporated, one-third of the first battle forces
were reserve (though certainly not improvised) formations.
There were, however, yet other formations not so prepared
in advance which found themselves fighting before the end of
August. On general mobilization, the reserve, Landwehr, Ersatz
reserve and trained men of Landsturm II., up to 42 years of age,
had been called out. Landsturm I. the pool of untrained men of
all ages -was left alone, but volunteers presented themselves in
enormous numbers. There were thus far more men than the
depots could accommodate, and the volunteers were for the
moment only registered. Enough men remained in the trained
categories and in the Ersatz reserve not only to fill the active and
reserve, but create (a) Landwehr and (b) so-called Ersatz forma-
tions, as well as units of Landsturm for guarding railways and
other sensitive points and for the sedentary garrisons of forts.
Landwehr. Landwehr brigades were formed to carry out the
secondary duties which, it had been supposed, would fall to reserve
divisions. The Ersatz, and to some extent the reserve formations,
having absorbed part of the resources of Landwehr I., these brigades
1 Staff was guard, but not troops.
* Other formations called " Reserve " detailed later were so only
in name.
were constituted with the remainder and principally with Landwehr
II., that is, trained men up to the age of 385. Each army corps dis-
trict, according to the resources of the region and also according to
its output of " Ersatz " formation, 3 produced two or three Landwehr
brigades, nearly all with a proportion of artillery and cavalry and
engineers attached. In all, 99 regiments and some other units, mak-
ing 314 battalions in all, mobilized in early Aug. 1914. Of these, 30
brigades were assigned to the W. to follow the various armies or to
constitute the garrisons of fortresses (Metz, Strassburg, upper Rhine
defences). Nearly all the remainder (about 17 brigades and several
regiments as well), in the E., formed fortress garrisons and frontier
guards which were very quickly drawn into the battles indeed one
whole corps, the Landwehr Corps (3rd and 4th Landwehr Divs.),
was constituted as a field formation at the outset, and others also
were formed into divisions. In connexion with these brigades and
their coming into line, it should be added that just as they had
relieved field troops of the necessity of occupying territory and guard-
ing communications, so in turn they were after a short time'relieved
by Landsturm battalions, formed all over the empire from what
remained of Landwehr II. and from the trained men of Landsturm II.
up to 42 years of age.
Ersatz. The term " ersatz " (replacement or substitute) was
confined hi normal usage to the category of reservists who were
simply registered, not (as a rule) trained, and kept at call to fill gaps
in the active army. It was, further, the official designation of the
depot battalions which were formed on mobilization to provide drafts
for active reserve or Landwehr units on service. But the resources of
Ersatz battalions at the moment of mobilization were such that, in
addition to allocating drafts for the field units, it was possible to
create new units on a large scale. The principle followed in the case
of the infantry which was applied to other arms with suitable
modifications was for the Ersatz battalion of each regimental dis-
trict to form and equip two service companies. Thus each brigade
district was able to produce a battalion (known as a brigade Ersatz
battalion), and the sum of these " B.E.Bs." with analogous units
of the other arms, appeared in the field in the last days of Aug. 1914
as " Ersatz Divisions " (Guard, 4th, 8th, loth, igth and Bavarian).
These divisions had an irregular organization ; they consisted of two
to four mixed brigades, each brigade having four or five battalions,
four batteries, a half squadron of cavalry and an engineer unit. 4 In
addition, the Ersatz battalions of a few reserve and Landwehr regi-
ments also constituted B.E.Bs., and those of the reserve were
grouped in two mixed brigades (Res. Ersatz Bdes.).
The six divisions cited above all took part in the western campaign
after the first few days of battle. They were provided wholly by the
Ersatz battalions of the western and central corps regions. In the E.
a different system was followed.
It has been mentioned that three active corps, one and a half
reserve corps and about 17 Landwehr brigades had been assigned to
the eastern theatre. But in the alarm created by the Russian
advance on E. Prussia, an instant augmentation became necessary.
The formation of " B.E.Bs." was not attempted in the I., XX.
and XVII. regions and only partially and temporarily tried in the V.
and VI. Instead, the Ersatz battalions themselves were mobilized,
every man who could be equipped being sent into the field, and only
the surplus remaining behind to form the nucleus of new draft-
finding battalions. The German general staff, in this as in all other
cases, took great risks in improvising formations in the east. Not
only Landwehr and Ersatz battalions but the most diverse units of
all categories were put together in provisional regiments, brigades
and divisions, first as mobile fortress garrisons but soon as field
troops. 6 It was no doubt considered that racial passion would give
such forces a military value as against the Russians that would
compensate for their deficiencies of training equipment. These
miscellaneous eastern formations constituted the Thorn, Breslau,
Graudenz, Posen and Konigsberg " Reserves " or " Corps," of which
the two last named were equivalent to two divisions each, the others
to one each. The formation of the Silesian Landwehr Corps of two
divisions has already been mentioned. Further, one so-called " re-
serve " division, the (original) 35th, was created from the readiest
elements of the Thorn mobile garrison, and yet another division was
thrown off before the Thorn reserve as such became fixed as a
division. The five fortresses named in fact were so to say volcanoes
from which in various pulsations regiments, brigades, and divisions
were successively discharged.
By the end of Aug., therefore, the German forces in the field
consisted of several categories the active divisions of peace-
time, the reserve divisions nearly equivalent to the active in
3 No Guard Landwehr infantry regiments were formed.
4 Most Landwehr brigades were also constituted as mixed bri-
gades in their case two regiments with troops of other arms
attached.
6 As an example, Runge's regiment of Griepenkerl's detachment,
Thorn Corps, which in the winter of 1914-5 seems to have consisted
of half a mobile Ersatz battalion from the XVII. Corps region, half a
mobile Ersatz battalion from the II. region, the mobile Ersatz
battalions of the lOlst and lO7th Saxons and parts of three Land-
sturm battalions from Posen province and Alsace.
ARMY
233
solidity of organization, the Ersatz and Landwehr divisions, im-
provised but composed wholly of trained men and organized
according to scheme; and wholly improvised, divisions hurriedly
put together from miscellaneous sources in the fortresses of the
east. Further, there were a number of mixed Landwehr brigades,
both in the W. and the E., in addition to those forming parts of
divisions, and a large number of Landsturm units, serving wholly
as garrison troops in the W. but not uncommonly incorporated
in mobile Ersatz formations in the east.
The operating forces as apart from the fortress garrisons and
the troops allotted to occupied territory and lines of communica-
tion were divided into eight armies, I. VII. in France and Bel-
gium (in numerical order from right to left), and VIII. in E.
Prussia. The Silcsian Landwehr Corps (under Woyrsch) formed
a separate command operating with the Austro-Hungarian
armies.
The command was exercised by the Kaiser nominally, by the
chief of the general staff (Moltke, Falkenhayn, Hindenburg)
actually. In addition to supervising the eastern front and con-
trolling war policy, the great general staff in its war form (the
" supreme army direction," Oberste Heeresleitung or O.H.L.)
directly commanded operations in France. From first to last no
special commander-in-chief was appointed for the western front.
In the E. the VIII. Army grew into a great organization,
comprising at one time in 1915 seven German armies, without
counting Austrian armies included in its scope, or the German
Southern Army which was outside it. This organization was under
the commander-in-chief E. (Obcrbcfehlshabcr ost or Oberost), under
whose headquarters the armies were grouped in two or more
groups of armies 1 (Heeresgrupperi). But in spite of his title, the
commander-in-chief E. exercised no powers of command over the
Austrian front. Not until much later indeed was there unity of
command in any form. As in the case of the Entente armies in
the W., combined operations had always to be arranged between
the German commander-in-chief E., through the chief of the
general staff, with the Austrian higher command. Crises due to
differences of opinion between the three authorities concerned
were naturally frequent, and only gradually, by providing more
and more assistance by direct reinforcements, 2 did the German
command obtain an ascendency that was effective, and then it
was the chief of the staff of the army and not the commander-in-
chief E. who obtained and exercised it.
In the W., there was a strong case for the formation of groups
of armies from the outset. The expedient of placing one army
under the orders of another was tried occasionally, with unsatis-
factory results. Otherwise, the control of events in the Marne
campaign was in the hands of a distant O.H.L. into whose busi-
ness the eastern front constantly thrust itself and which at one
time (late Sept. 1914) seems to have had two heads. It was not
until trench warfare had set in that groups of armies were formed
in France. In sum, then, partly through events and partly from
unwillingness to appoint a commander-in-chief in the only
theatre in which German forces were employed exclusively, the
offices of chief-of-staff and of commander-in-chief E. came to be
overloaded with a mass of very varied functions which ranged
from advising on economic policy and negotiating with Turkish
staff officers and Lithuanian clergymen to weighing the pros and
cons of a two-division operation. This was a considerable factor
in the final defeat.
The strength in units of the three arms for both fronts and for
the interior in Aug. 1914 may be taken, inclusive of Landsturm,
as 1,700 battalions, 980 field and horse batteries, and 450-500
heavy (including immobile fortress) batteries.
Of these, approximately 987 battalions, 490 squadrons, and
820 field batteries of active, reserve and Ersatz formations, with,
1 Heer in German implies always the army as a whole, the " Host."
The Heeresgruppe is a major subdivision of the Heer, and consists of
several Armeen (armies) or A rmeegruppen (army-groups, i.e. groups
of corps either are small or too temporary in character to be
regularly constituted as " armies " with defined areas and lines of
communication).
1 Finally, by allocating individual German battalions to Austrian
divisions.
behind them, some 165 battalions and 28 squadrons and 30 field
batteries of Landwehr, formed the western forces. To these
should be added about 120 mobile batteries of heavy artillery
(6-in. howitzers, 4-in. gun and upward). In order to arrive at a
criterion of combatant strength it has become customary to use
the infantry division as the unit, and to count unattached forces
as equivalent to so many divisions, chiefly according to their
infantry strength. It is calculated that there were in existence in
the first weeks of the war 123 German divisions, or their equiva-
lents in Landwehr and fortress brigades. Of these 77 constituted
divisions and the Landwehr, etc., equivalent of 20 more were in
the western theatre on Aug. 23 (the date of " high water " in the
first phase), and 26 divisions or equivalents in the field and the
fortresses (chiefly the latter) in the E., of which 13 at most
could be considered as constituted divisions. In Sept. a naval
division (shortly afterwards expanded to a corps) was formed
and added to the forces in Belgium, for military duty and (later)
for coast defence also.
Including engineers, communication troops, administrative
troops and others of all categories, the total ration strength of
the army immediately after mobilization may be taken at about
5,000,000. The number of untrained men liable to service (in-
cluding youths of 17-20) was about the same.
The New Formations of Sept. 1914. The organization of all the
above forces was either existing or deliberately prepared for in
peace, with the exception of the Ersatz formations, and even as
regards these latter, the idea of creating and employing them
dates back to Schlieffen's tenure of office. But, especially, all had
the common characteristic that they consisted wholly of men
trained with the colours in peace.
The next pulsation of the national effort, in the last days of
Aug. 1914, was the creation of a series of reserve divisions in
which 75% of the rank and file were totally untrained. It has
been noted that the Kriegsfreiwilligen, who presented themselves
to the number of about a million, had merely been registered. As
soon as the mobilization tide had receded and the depots were
free, viz. about the middle of Aug., these men were called up, and
formed, with a percentage of trained men (chiefly Landwehr II.),
into new " Reserve " units numbered in the case of the infantry
regiments from 201 upwards. These units were assembled in
training camps, officered by such retired and reserve officers as
were still available, constituted into brigades, divisions and
army corps, and within six to eight weeks of formation thrown
into the furnace of battle at Ypres and Lodz.
There were 13 of these divisions (43-54 R.D. and 6th Bav.
R.D.), 12 constituting the 6 corps 22 R.-27 R. They have been
described by German writers as " the glory of the country and
the shame of the general staff " the glory of the country in that
the flower of its young men composed them, and. the shame of
the general staff in that, with a universal-service system existing
in law and in practice, it had been unable to devise a system of
service that would absorb and train them. These were the
" levies " who advanced in masses, singing, under the rifle fire of
the British Expeditionary Force at Ypres and of the Fusiliers
Marins at Dixmude, and who at Lodz, with the Guard Res.
Corps, first broke into the Russian positions and then extricated
themselves from the most extraordinary " pocket " recorded in
the history of the war. The story of these divisions may be
interpreted in several ways. It will suffice here to say that their
effort was the culminating point of the attempt to win the war
outright, and that with its failure to do so, the German nation,
not less than the army authorities, began to realize that the war
would be a contest of endurance.
One more series of new divisions was created, however, before
the policy of preparing for a war of endurance was applied to
recruiting. The class of recruits who would normally have joined
for training in Oct. 1914 were called up when the depots were
clear of the first " new reserve " regiments. These (infantry regi-
ments 249-273 R.) with the remainder of the Kriegsfreiwilligen,
were, unlike the preceding divisions, held back for intensive
training before being put in the field. They constituted the
75th-82nd Res. Divs. {38-41 R. Corps) and 8th Bav. Res. Div.,
234
ARMY
and were not put into the field till the "winter battle of Masuria"
in Feb. 1915.
These divisions (except the Bavarian) were constituted on a
new organic basis that of three infantry regiments under one
brigade staff instead of four in two brigades, a form which, as will
appear presently, came to be adopted throughout the whole army.
In artillery strength they were however superior to all previous
reserve formations. The original reserve divisions had only six
6-gun batteries, and the first new reserve divisions, hurriedly
mobilized as they were, had nine 4-gun batteries. In these
second new reserves, the number of batteries was increased to
12 (as in active formations, but with 4 guns in lieu of 6 per
battery).
With the creation of these divisions expansion proper ceased.
Until 1917 no further divisions were formed otherwise than by
regrouping existing units, and the intake of recruits of successive
classes was, with very few exceptions, used for maintenance only.
The end of Jan. 1915, therefore, marks the close of the expansion
period. At that date there were 147 infantry divisions, or equiva-
lents of infantry divisions.
Regrouping had naturally as its object the better strategic
and tactical utilization of these 147 divisions. The first step was
to sort out the miscellaneous formations of Ersatz and Landwehr,
especially in the east. Accordingly, the Posen, Thorn, etc., corps
were recast, divorced from the fortresses from which they had
already become separated, and constituted as the 83rd-8gth
Divisions. These were on the 4-regiment basis, and the regiments
after reorganization took the numbers 320-354 and 372-381
save that Landwehr units comprised in these divisions retained
their original designations.
The battalions of Ersatz on the W. front (the "B.E.Bs.")
were regimented chiefly with numbers between 357 and 371.
On both western and eastern fronts the Landwehr brigades still
unattached were used to form divisions, bringing the number of
this category up to 19 (1-5, 6th Bav., 7-18, ist Bavarian.)
The next step was a more important one. It had become clear,
first of all, that the army corps, as a working unit, was not supple
enough, and as early as Sept. 1914 the practice had set in, both
with the Germans and with the French, of regarding the corps
headquarters as an organ for the tactical and administrative
management of any two or more divisions which might be assigned
to it. This led in sedentary warfare to the corps becoming an
area or sector command, and in open warfare or for the handling
of battle reserves as a headquarters told off to carry out a par-
ticular mission. In either case, the inferiority of the German num-
bers in both theatres of war enforced a better arrangement of
the corps commander's forces than the 2X2 system gave. In
the spring of 1915, therefore, two series of divisions, numbered
50-58 (even numbers), 101-107 * an< l 111-123 (odd numbers), 4th
Guard and loth and nth Bav., were formed by taking a regi-
ment each, and also one-quarter of the divisional artillery, from
50 or more existing active or reserve divisions. Thenceforward
practically half the divisions of the army were on the new basis.
One other formation of the spring of 1915 must be mentioned.
This was the Alpenkorps, a division formed for high mountain
work when it became evident that Italy would enter the war.
This corps d'tlite served in every theatre, not only in mountainous
country, and at the last moment of the war was dispatched from
France to attempt to stop the Allied advance in Serbia. It was
exclusively Bavarian in composition.
During the spring and summer of 1915, to ensure against
accidents, the effectives of units in 3-regiment divisions were
considerably increased, company strengths of over 300 being
frequent. Later, however, the precaution being seen to be un-
necessary, some new divisions were formed out of this surplus;
these were the 183, 185, 187 and 192, originally called flying
(i.e. non-sector) " brigades," but from the outset practically
equivalent to divisions of the new type.
Practically no further additions were made till the battle of
the Somme and the intervention of Rumania created a new
1 The 108 and 109 were improvised during the eastern offensive of
spring 1915.
situation. The creation of the so-called sth Ersatz Div. and the
25th and 47th Landwehr Divs. (all three mixed brigades reen-
forced to the status of new type divisions) hardly amounted to
more than a change of name.
The total of divisions and " equivalents " (the latter always
diminishing as formations were regularized) remained stationary
at the figure of 172 from July 1915 to the end of May 1916. The
ration strength of the army was on March 31 1915, 5,029,672,
and on March 31 1916, 6,767,144; and the losses had been as
follows: (8 months up to) March 31 1915, 281,389 "killed,
205,048 missing, 835,612 wounded, 13,402 died of disease, etc. ;
(12 months up to) March 31 1916, 376,954 killed, 121,040 miss-
ing, 897,475 wounded, 29,840 died of disease, etc. The "defini-
tive " losses dead, missing, wounded discharged as unfit
are difficult to establish; but if we take for wounded not
returned to duty the figure of 29% (which is a high one), we
arrive at a total of " definitive " losses of all kinds of about
1,780,000 for the whole period. To repair these losses, and to
increase the ration strength by some 1,750,000 men as well, the
intake of recruits necessary would be about 2,500,000. These
recruits were (a) the Kriegsfreiwilligen, (b) the class 1914, called
up somewhat after the normal date, (c) the class 1915 called up
before the normal date, and (d) the class 1916 called up before
the normal year.
As early as the autumn of 1915, in fact, Germany had been
compelled to anticipate the conscription, to bring youths of 19
as well as those of 20 to muster, and to shorten the period of
training to the minimum.
The general policy followed was to consider a class collectively
as a means to be allotted to specific ends. Later in the war the
practice was carried to the extent that even when called up,
trained and ready, a class was under embargo and could not be
sent into the front line until the chief-of-staff, in consultation
with the Government, should issue an order removing the ban.
What may be called routine losses and wastage were made good
as a rule by returned sick and wounded or other experienced
men rather than by recruits.
Early in 1915, partly in order to have a reserve at hand, and
partly in order to ensure an intensive training under realistic condi-
tions, the system of " Field Recruit Depots " was gradually intro-
duced. When these had been established, men spent only half or
less than half of the abbreviated training period allowed in the
Ersatz battalion at home and the remainder in the Field Recruit
Depot a few miles behind the front. Eventually there was one
depot per division, with an establishment (in 1917) of 1,350, of whom
900 were recruits under training and the rest training staff and re-
turned wounded waiting allocation. Further, as pools to meet losses
which could not be covered by the depots of the divisions affected,
large training centres were created at Beverloo (the peace training
camp of the Belgian army) and at Warsaw. The training
camps in Germany were of course utilized for home training, and in
them from time to time new batches of divisions were created and
assembled. The period spent by the soldier in training varied con-
siderably: sometimes it was as little as one month in the Ersatz
battalion and two or three weeks in the Field Recruit Depot or at
Beverloo; in less critical times it might be four to five months in all.
Hitherto, it will be noticed, little or no call had been made on
the 5,000,000 men composing the untrained half of the male
population of military age. This was because the maintenance
of the country's economic life was more necessary than ever as the
blockade tightened its pressure. Nevertheless, a certain combing-
out of agriculture and industries began in the winter of 1915-16.
Further, a law was passed in 1916 for the reexamination of men
who had been rejected by the annual muster commissions as
permanently unfit.
From the summer of 1916 the situation of the German army
became very critical. The costly offensive of Verdun had been
followed by the Allied offensive on the Somme, the Russian
break-through at Lutsk, the sixth Isonzo battle, and immediately
thereafter Rumania's declaration of war. For the first time since
1914 the Central Powers were face to face with a simultaneous
and prolonged strain on all fronts.
Before describing the measures taken to deal with this crisis,
it is convenient to review the changes which had taken place in
the meantime in the constitution of the fighting units themselves.
ARMY
235
The new type divisional organization has already been set forth,
but within the infantry regiment itself there had been important
changes, and there had grown up, besides, a great force of non-
divisional troops, which were in some cases a pool from which
allocations were temporarily made to armies as required, and in
others were sector troops permanently allotted to particular
parts of the front irrespective of the divisions occupying them.
By now, the process of moving divisions into line and out to rest
had become thoroughly established, though Verdun was the
first battle in which the relief process was reduced to an almost
mechanical system.
The changes may best be dealt with by arms.
Artillery. It has been noted above that in the great reorgani-
zation of the spring of 1915 the field artillery had been recast on the
basis of the 4-gun battery. The number of batteries therefore shows
a large increase in that year, corresponding to the creation of
new divisions. But in the main, the number of field guns and
howitzers remained at the same level as in the spring of 1915. It
was in the heavy and medium artillery (these were not differentiated
in Germany) that expansion, as distinct from regrouping, occurred.
The fortress guns were made mobile by various methods and old
field guns of 9 cm. were brought out and emplaced as position guns
on the less important parts of the front, pending the production of
modern weapons; and in these and other ways the number of bat-
teries of " foot artillery " actually in the field was increased from
about 150 in Aug. 1914 to about 1,100 by the autumn of 1915 and
1,200 by the summer of 1916. The batteries received various de-
scriptions, which need not be given here; substantially, they were
grouped as required under " battalion " staffs, and when actually in
line were under control of the divisional artillery command of the
sector. Thus was initiated a principle of organization which pres-
ently became general in the belligerent armies and was applied to
field artillery also that of dividing the artillery into a portion which
belonged organically to divisions and moved in and out of line with
them, and a portion which was under higher control ; this portion was
partly emplaced in the various sectors as a normal allocation, partly
kept in reserve to bring up the normal artillery strength of this or
that sector to battle standard, as required.
Machine-guns. Probably no legend of the war period obtained a
wider circulation or was averred with more authority than the
assertion that Germany put into the field in 1914 an enormously
superior force of machine-guns. The facts, however, were known
throughout to the Allied intelligence staffs, and are, as regards
1914-5, in no way extraordinary.
At the outset, Germany had only just completed the equipment of
the active infantry with two guns per 1,000 rifles the same scale as
that of the British and French and Russian armies. The only
difference was that they were employed in batteries, regimentally,
instead of by sections battalion-wise as on the side of the Entente,
and this no doubt produced a battle-field impression of inferiority on
the British and French side since where German guns were used at
all, they were used in mass. There were further some 16 (on mobiliza-
tion 32) fortress machine-gun detachments, and II horsed machine-
gun detachments allotted to the II cavalry divisions.
On mobilization, the majority of the reserve regiments were also
provided with machine-gun companies, but for the armament of the
remainder and of Ersatz and Landwehr units the fortress machine-
gun detachments were called into the field at once. The first and
second new reserves were sent into the field with one section of two
guns per regiment. From all sources, the total of machine-guns in
service at the end of 1914 was not more than 2,000, as against a peace
establishment of 1,600.
But the Germans were the first to recognize the predominant r&le
of the machine-gun in trench warfare. Manufacture was started on
a scale then considered adequate, and during 1915 there were large
additions. The regimental companies, where missing, were created,
and further a number of " field sections " or " supplementary sec-
tions " were formed and attached to regiments as required. Thus
by the end of 1915 every regiment had, either in organic companies
or in attached sections, a force of 9 to 12 guns, though it was
not until after the middle of 1916 that the latter figure was reached
universally.
Meantime, a new type of machine-gun organization had come into
existence, the " M.G. Sharpshooter Troops," each troop having six
guns. These were selected from the " sections " of 1915, specially
trained, grouped in permanent " detachments " (Abteilungen) and
attached to divisions as required for battle. Their debut was at
Verdun in March 1916. By that date the number of guns in service
had increased to about 8,000, and by the end of 1916 this figure
was doubled.
At the period here considered, the light machine-gun, afterwards
the primary armament of all German infantry, had hardly come
into existence. Experiments had been made in the battle of Cham-
pagne (Sept.-Oct. 1915) and elsewhere with units armed with the
Madsen gun and styled " Musketenbataillone," but the results were
not promising. The success of the French fusil mitrailleur and the
British Lewis gun, however, made action imperative, and towards
the end of 1915, to save the time which would have been lost in
trying out and manufacturing a new model, the service heavy
machine-gun was lightened sufficiently for use as an infantry
weapon. This was not issued on a large scale till the end of 1916.
Trench Mortars (Minenwerfer). At the outset of the war, the
trench mortar (adopted as the result of the siege of Port Arthur)
was a close combat weapon of siege warfare handled by sappers; in
this r61e it figured at the sieges of Liege and Antwerp, where its
bombs were highly effective. It was, however, the needs of
trench warfare which brought it prominently to the front. As in
other armies, the infantry felt the want of some short-range weapon
which would enable them by curved fire to destroy and to harass the
opposite trenches, and the creation of trench-mortar units soon
followed. The Germans had here a real advantage in that they
already possessed experience of the design and manufacture of these
weapons, and for a considerable period they had the upper hand in
this respect. The standard organization was by sections of heavy,
medium, and light Minenwerfer which belonged to the pioneer arm,
which were permanently assigned to divisions and were allotted
within the division as required. Other Minenwerfer units were
grouped in battalions and constituted a G.H.Q. reserve. Later the
light Minenwerfer sections were permanently assigned to regiments,
the others continuing as divisional troops.
Infantry organization as such remained unaltered, though the
establishment was reduced in 1916, in order to meet the demands for
men which were created by machine-gun and Minenwerfer expansion.
At the same time a process began which in the long run proved
injurious to quality but for the moment justified itself, the forma-
tion of " Assault " or " Storm " battalions. These were created, in
anticipation of the Verdun offensive, in the winter of 1915-6, and
were so successful that presently all infantry regiments and even
battalions and companies raised their own assault detachments or
squads. In the assault battalions proper, all trench warfare means
were combined within the unit infantry guns, trench mortars,
machine-guns and light flamethrowers. The separation of this elite
from the bulk of the infantry was recognized by privileges and
distinctions of dress. The net result, however, was to deprive the
infantry of a leaven of first-class men, who in 1918 could no longer
be spared from the ranks pf their units. Towards the close of the
war, therefore, the assault battalions were broken up one by one,
and all assault units came to be regarded as schools of offensive
tactics rather than as battle units.
Cavalry. Little change had occurred in the cavalry between 1914
and 1916. Divisional cavalry was gradually reduced. All the
cavalry divisions which had figured in the campaign of the Marne
were sent E. by 1915, and there they played a conspicuous part in
the operations both mounted and in the trenches. At the period now
being considered (middle of 1916) they were still true mounted
forces, though employed in the line like others. Cavalry regiments
were each provided with a machine-gun squadron in 1915.
Pioneers. Besides the Minenwerfer and chemical-warfare troops
which had come into existence, other special services had been added
to the pioneers, notably a large number of searchlight sections.
Survey and sound-ranging units formed part of the artillery and not,
as in the British service, pf the engineers. The proportion of the
pioneers themselves (British " field companies R.E.") was also
augmented, and much use was made in 1915 of semi-permanent
" Infantry Pioneer Companies " which were in reality infantry
working parties detailed for particular pieces of constructional work,
and retained as units till these were completed. From 1916, a large
number of new Landsturm battalions were formed, as labour
battalions.
The possibility of Rumanian intervention had been foreseen
for some time, and in preparation for it four new divisions had
been created by regroupings in the eastern theatre. These were
the ipsth, igyth, iggth and 2ooth; all these were principally
composed of Jager battalions assembled in regiments, and the
last named, like the Alpenkorps, was specialized for mountain
work. A little later the Qist, 92nd, 9jrd Divs.were formed in
Poland for quiet parts of the front. Several mixed Landwehr
brigades were also expanded into Landwehr divisions for the
same service. At the same time the 1917 class was called up
gradually (May- Aug. 1916) for training, 15 months before the
normal time, and the product of the March comb-out of industry
was brought under training at the same time.
These measures, however, were not sufficient. To meet the
pressure on all fronts not only men were needed, but, still more,
increased flexibility of manoeuvre, and it became essential,
therefore, to create new battle-worthy divisions. These were
obtained partly by regrouping, and partly in the early months
of 1917 by creating another batch of wholly new divisions.
During the crisis itself, which extended from July i to Dec.,
and then, with a brief respite, from Feb. to May 1917, it was
236
ARMY
impossible to carry out regrouping with the smooth regularity of
March 1915; the measures taken, therefore, extend over the
whole period. They were as follows: (a) The constitution of new
divisions (201-204 and I2th Bav.) out of odd units existing in
various theatres and of " combings " obtained in the lines of
communication, the Ersatz battalions and other military es-
tablishments in Germany. The infantry regiments of these
divisions were numbered 401-416 and 26-28 Bavarian, (b) The
regrouping of all old divisions still remaining on the 4-regiment
basis as 3-regiment formations of the new standard type i.e.
the completion of the process which had been half carried out in
March 1915. This yielded the divisions 205-226, the 5th Guard
Div., the 3rd Marine Div., and the Bavarian divisions i4th, i6th,
and igth Reserve in all 27, apart from some additional Land-
wehr divisions obtained in the same way. Certain divisions, which
lost not one but two regiments in this regrouping process, were
compensated by new regiments numbered 389-400, 417-441 and
477, these being formed by grouping experienced companies taken
from existing regiments of every kind. Somewhat later, on the
verge of the offensive of Caporetto, the Jager battalions still
available and unallotted were grouped in a " Jager Division," the
last high-quality formation created in the war. (c) The creation
of a series of new divisions, in somewhat the same way as the old
first and second new reserves, at training camps in Germany.
The quality of these was, however, far below that of the
new armies of 1914. Although 50% were returned wounded
men and men drafted back from the fronts, the remainder
were of the class 1918, called up nearly two years in advance.
(</) The numbers of these divisions were 231-242 and ijth Bav.
(regiments 442-476, and 30-32 Bav.). At the time of the crea-
tion of these, the old 8th Ersatz Div. took the number 243.
The creation of a series of divisions for home defences and gar-
rison duty, which in effect were only groupings of existing
Landsturm (in some cases Landwehr) resources. Of these only
the 25151, 252nd, and 253rd were actually formed as such. The
Metz mobile reserve which had existed since Aug. 1914, was
numbered into this series; later it was freed from all connexion
with the fortress, and a new Metz mobile reserve was formed in
the last months of the war.
These measures, in their ensemble, increased the number of
divisions or " equivalents " (the last being by now very few)
from 172 to 213 in Jan. 1917, and 223 in May 1917, the final
total reached being 238 in Oct. 1917. The 1917 class, the combed
men of March 1916, and the soldiers who could be claimed from
back areas, by no means sufficed to cover the needs of these new
formations, at the same time as they made good the losses of
Verdun, the Somme, Rumania and Russia, not to mention
Arras and the Aisne. Already in Aug. 1916 there began the
examination muster of the 1918 class, and by mid-November
it began to join for training, though not one of its members had
reached the age of 19. By now, too, the effective value of a
" class " had sunk considerably, because of the percentage
which had to be rejected not only for immaturity but for malnu-
trition as well.
The ration strength of the army, taken on the same basis
as the previous figures, had grown by March 31 1917 to 7,630,456,
but the loss of 311,034 killed, 26,016 dead of disease, 192,380
missing and about 250,000 disabled (of 875,107 wounded), in all
about 775,000, had compelled the recruiting authorities to find
some 1,643,000 recruits in the 12 months. And it was precisely
at this period (Oct. 1916) that, under the energetic pressure of
Hindenburg and Ludendorff who had succeeded Falkenhayn
at the moment of the Rumanian crisis a great munition produc-
tion campaign was started in Germany, which necessitated the
recall to the factories of a large number (125,000 men in the
armies '16-17) f mobilized workmen and a check to the process
of combing-out. On the eve of the battle of the Somme, the
strength of the German army in combatants only was 2,260,000
in the W. and 590,000 in the E., or (neglecting the small forces in
the Balkans and Turkey) 2,850,000 on all fronts.
In spite of the fact that the line had held both in the W. and
in the E., and that Rumania, with its material resources, had
been conquered into the bargain, the outlook for rcjr/ was dark.
The Russian Revolution came, with its enigmas; unrestricted
submarine warfare was proclaimed with the foreseen result of
bringing America into the war on the side of the Entente; and
the British and French offensive was planned in a hope, almost
amounting to certainty, that the defence would break down.
Skilful defence, ajid sins of omission and commission on the side
of the Entente_, weathered this crisis for Germany, with a lower
figure of losses than in any previous year; and Hindenburg and
Ludendorff were able to collect such free reserves as allowed them
to check the last Russian offensive, inflict two defeats which
ended the war in the E., and to carry through the Caporetto
offensive that so nearly ruined Italy.
This they were enabled to achieve so far as the factors were un-
der their own control by using up the class of 1918, by creating
as many manoeuvre units as possible, by employing every means
that presented itself to stiffen the sinking moral of the war-weary
army, and by new tactical methods, of which the most characteris-
tic element was the light machine-gun. These guns were already
in the spring of 1917 available on the scale of three per company.
By the close of the year most companies had six, and during 1918
the issue of both light and heavy machine-guns for defence
against low-flying aeroplanes was extended to batteries and to
transport columns of every sort. Heavy machine-guns, too, had
risen in number to one company of 1012 guns per infantry
battalion, besides those of the divisional "M.G. Sharpshooter
detachment" which numbered 36.
The characteristic of the army of 1917-8 therefore became
economy of man-power, through constant augmentation of
machine-gun power. Whereas in 1914 a i2-battalion active
division possessed 24 machine-guns, in the winter of 1917-8 a
9-battalion division possessed 216 light and 142 heavy, or 358 in
all. The rifle strength of the standard battle unit had been
halved, and the machine-gun strength multiplied 15 times in
about three and a half years, even without taking, anti-aircraft
machine-guns into account. The ratio of fire-power to men
exposed had very nearly trebled.
At this point, when the stage was being set for the final act,
it is desirable to summarize in tabular form the number and
distribution of German divisions (and " equivalents ") during
the first three years in which manoeuvre on interior lines was
constant. Table D forms, rightly understood, a summary of the
history of the World War, so far as Europe is concerned.
Directly or indirectly, it reflects all its vicissitudes,
Amongst these divisions a certain classification in respect of
quality had been set up. In 1914 Landwehr and Ersatz and new
reserve formations had been differentiated from active and re-
serve and from each other in composition and role, but with the
constant and, till 1917, somewhat haphazard replacements of
casualties, differences based on provenance had disappeared.
Instead, differences based on battle experience had come into
force, and though largely accidental at the outset, they had be-
come effective through the machinery of replacements. Divisions
recognized as " shock-troops " (a legacy of the trench-warfare
period) were dignified by the name of Grosskampfdivisionen in
their offensive aspect and Eingreifsdimsionen (" Intervention " or
counter-attack divisions) on their defensive; and they received
the pick of the recruits and returned wounded. The rest, forma-
tions fit to hold the line merely, were currently called " sector "
divisions, and received, in the main, less battle- worthy elements
in their drafts. A real, though admittedly undesirable, distinc-
tion was thus established. The Entente intelligence staff rated
the 203 divisions of the western front with which it was concerned
in 1918 thus: 61 "very good," 103 " average," 22 " poor."
The difference was not reflected in organization, except in the
sense that " shock " divisions were the first to be equipped to
any new scale that had been decided upon. Thus, such divisions
were the first to receive their complement of six light machine-
guns per company. In 1918 they received a fuller allowance
of transport, and also, as part of their " organic " artillery,
a group of medium guns (two batteries is-cm. howitzers and
one battery lo-cm. long guns) in addition to their field artillery.
ARMY
237
TABLE D. Distribution of Divisions.
Western
Theatre.
Eastern
Theatre.
Other
Theatres.
Total
divisions
or
equiva-
lents.
1914
Aug. begin .
97
26
.
123
Aug. end
93
30
123
Sept. "
93
3
.
123
Oct. " . .
1 06
32
138
Nov. "
104
34
.
138
Dec. " . .
98
40
.
138
1915
Jan. end
IOI
46
,
147
Feb. "
99
48
H7
March "
IOI
53
154
April
i5
56
161
May
1 06
64
I (Ital.)
171
June
1 06
64
I
171
July . . .
i5
65
I
171
Aug.
104
67
I "
172
Sept. .
107
56
8 (Balk.)
172
Oct.
114
47
II
172
Nov. .
117
46
9
172
Dec. .
1 18
47
7 "
172
1916
Jan.
118
47
7 "
172
Feb. .
121
47
4
172
March .
123
46
3 "
172
April
124
45
3
172
May
125
45
2
172
June
122
49
2
173
July . . .
123
52
2
177
Aug.
119
62
2 "
183
Sept. .
128
68
2 "
198
Oct. . . .
128
75
2 "
205
Nov.
130
73
2 "
205
Dec.
135
72
2 "
209
1917
Jan.
139
71
3 "
213 .
Feb. .
144
68
3
215
March .
151
72
3
226
April
156
72
3
231
May
155
75
3
233
June
155
78
3
236
July . . .
148
85
3
236
Aug.
147
86
3
236
Sept. .
149
82
3 (Balk.)
3 dtal.)
237
Oct.
147
81
3 (Balk.)
7 dtal.)
238
Nov.
153
74
3 (Balk.)
8 (Ital.)
238
Dec.
1 68
61
3 (Balk.)
6 (Ital.)
238
1918
Jan.
174
57
/ 3 (Balk.) \
14 (Ital.) /
238
Feb.
185
49
J3 (Balk.)l
1 i (Ital.) /
238
March .
197
39
2 (Balk.)
238
April
202
34
I "
237
May
208
32
240
Otherwise, the equipment and organization of all the divisions
assembled in France in March 1918 was the same: three infan-
try regiments, each regiment with its three battalions, three
machine-gun companies, and three light Minenwerfer detach-
ments, the whole under an infantry brigade staff ; one field artillery
regiment of two groups guns and one group howitzers (in all nine
batteries), which (with sector artillery or reenforcing artillery)
was under the divisional artillery staff; (one M.G. Sharpshooter
detachment of 36 M.G.); three heavy and medium Minenwerfer
batteries which, a little later, were reformed, with the light
M.W. units, as infantry regimental companies. In the case of
attack divisions, a group of three batteries of medium artillery
was included organically and up to 40 or 45 army batteries at-
tached for the purposes of a particular battle. In one respect
only was material preparation wanting. Tanks were not looked
upon with favour, only a few units being constituted.
All cavalry divisions in the W. were dismounted and acting as
infantry in quiet parts of the line. They were in process of
reconstitution as infantry under the name of Schutzen.
The divisions in line were under corps staffs which though
long fixed in sector still retained the old numbers they had had
in the open warfare of 1914-5, with a district or personal designa-
tion (e.g. Gruppe Lille, Gruppe Conta) as well. Certain corps
staffs numbered above 50, which had neither troops nor home
regions of their own, had been created in 1915-6 as reserve head-
quarters available for the control of particular operations. The
corps or " group " were allotted to armies which from right to
left (2 m. to Switzerland) were as follows: IV. (Flanders), VI.
(Artois), XVII. (Artois), II. (Picardy), XVIII. (N. of Oise),
VII. (S. of Oise), I. (Reims), III. (Champagne), V. (Verdun);
and thence to the Swiss border a series of army groups (small
armies) known as C., XIX. Army, A., B.
These armies were grouped in groups of armies (Heeres-
gruppen) known by the names of their commanders Prince
Rupprecht (IV., VI., XVII., II.), German Crown Prince (XVIII.,
VII., I., III.), Gallwitz (V., C.), Duke Albrecht (XIX., A., B.).
During Aug. 1918 a Heeresgruppe Boehn was created, between
Rupprecht and the German Crown Prince, comprising the
XVIII., the IX. (staff brought over from Russia) and the VII.,
but did not last long. The XVIII. Army was then assigned to
Rupprecht and the IX. staff was withdrawn, and the VII. re-
turned to the German Crown Prince's group of armies.
Some 40 divisions remained on the eastern front to overawe
the Soviet Government to " prevent the formation of an Anglo-
Bolshevik front," and to occupy the corn lands of S. Russia.
These were gradually " milked " of their best elements, and had
a reduced artillery strength.
At this date (end of March 1918) the ration strength of the
whole German army had increased to 7,917,1 70. The losses of the
period April r 1917 to March 31 1918 which must include some
at any rate of the casualties of the " Michael " offensive had
been 257,748 killed, 37,004 died of disease, 138,070 missing,
679,777 wounded; and the " definitive " losses may be taken at
650,000. Comparison of these figures with those for 1916-7
gives a measure of the relief which was afforded to Germany by
the success of her defence and the breakdown of the Entente's
1917 offensive. Only about 900,000 recruits had to be found
instead of 1,600,000 as in 1916-7. Recruiting policy was accord-
ingly less desperate. The 1919 class was called to the colours
without haste though still two years in advance of the proper
time trained carefully, and acclimatized to war conditions on
the quiet Russian front, in the winter of 1917-8. It was regarded
by Ludendorff collectively as the means of replacing the casual-
ties to be expected in his great offensive. A great effort was made
by drastic combing-out of industries not only to obtain comba-
tants but also substitutes for every battle-fit man who was still
serving in rear areas and on quiet fronts. Even the Alsatians and
Lorrainers, hitherto employed almost exclusively on the eastern
front, were to be brought over and incorporated in Rhineland
units, in whose provincial patriotism it was thought that the
Alsatians and Lorrainers might be brought to share. This was
only an extension of a practice which had already been begun
in 1916 of re-sorting the personnel of units according to their
province of origin, as in the pre-war army.
The moral of the army was still good. In spite of war-weari-
ness, it was felt that in one last effort peace could be won. For
the first time the Germans enjoyed a numerical superiority and
leisure for thorough battle training. If at home discontent was
ready to break out in revolt, the effects were not at that period
felt at the front, owing to an industrious propaganda, assiduous
" welfare work," and largely to the disappearance of peace-time
social barriers between men and officers the latter, indeed,
being now for the most part either commissioned or made acting
officers from the ranks.
The offensive of March 1918 was launched, and was successful,
but at heavy cost, and it did not win the war. Others followed
it, always with the same result. By the end of April the 1919
class was largely absorbed, and preparations were being made
for the call-up of the 1920 class. By the end of July 1919 men
were practically exhausted, and the now incessant battle casual-
ties had to be made good by returned wounded. Meantime
238
ARMY
numerical superiority disappeared with the accelerated arrival of
American divisions in France. By July i the rifle strength of the
Germans was 100,000 below that of the Allies. Two Austrian
divisions, and converted cavalry divisions, which were brought
into action during the summer, were hardly more than a drop in
the bucket. Company strengths could no longer be maintained.
More and more the army became an army of machine-gunners,
practising the infiltration method in attack and the elastic method
in defence, but in its growing disillusionment becoming less and
less apt for either form, since both demanded a high moral in
the isolated squad which formed the fighting unit.
As early as May it was decided to break up certain formations
and to use their personnel as drafts for others. This process was
carried out on a large scale from the end of July; 13 divisions
disappeared by the end of Aug., 10 more in Sept. and 3 more in
the first days of Oct. The 1920 class, called up and trained,
reached the field depots from Aug. onwards, but for political
reasons sanction was refused for its employment in the front
line. This was the last resource, for unless a winter's respite
could be obtained, the most complete combing-out of home in-
dustries and agriculture now in any case impossible owing to
the political situation would not have yielded a sufficient sup-
ply of trained combatants.
The sinking of moral in the army manifested itself in the
" black day " of Aug. 8. During that month and Sept., in spite
of the stout resistance of many formations, the sentiment of
defeat spread. At the last a final effort of propaganda convinced
the army that by fighting hard, and only so, it might obtain
honourable terms of peace. But it was too late. The end had
come in Germany.
With the evacuation of occupied territory and the march home
to demobilization in most cases self-demobilization the his-
tory of the Prussian and German army system built up by
Frederick the Great, Scharnhorst and Moltke, came to an end.
The losses in the concluding year, from April i 1918 to March
31 1919, are stated at 303,923 killed, 48,751 died of disease, 334,-
802 missing, and 823,498 wounded, representing a " definitive "
loss of about 940,000.
In the whole war, the losses amounted to 1,531,048 killed,
155,013 died of disease, 991,340 missing, 4,211,469 wounded; or
a total of 6,888,870 for recorded military casualties.
(C. F. A.)
IX. THE AusxRO-HuNGARiAN ARMY
Till a few years before the World War it could be said that no
great state took as little care for its army as the Dual Monarchy.
National differences and constant party conflict prevented any-
thing more than the barest necessities of maintenance being
provided for, and stagnation and even retrogression ruled in the
army itself in consequence. This was especially true during the
period 1903-6, in which the constitutional conflicts in Hungary
focussed themselves principally upon the question of the Com-
mon Army and led to difficulties of which the consequences were
serious indeed. There were, however, in the last few years
two causes at work which led to important developments. The
first of these was the eternal Balkan question, which on two
occasions the Annexation Crisis of the spring of 1909 and the
Balkan War of 1912-3 brought Austria-Hungary to the verge
of war. Each time Austria-Hungary was unready for war. But
the long-deferred modernization of the military system was,
under the pressure of circumstances, taken in hand, at any rate
so far as patching up the more obvious defects was concerned.
The greatest sins of omission in the past had been those
affecting the artillery; the danger of war in the south-east led to
these being repaired, at any rate so far as the limited means
allocated allowed of it, and also to machine-guns being pro-
vided. The latter had been under experiment with cavalry and
mounted troops since 1903, and it was not until 1908 that their
employment became general.
The second important influence was that of the two-years'-
service scheme introduced in July 1912. This was only brought
into effect after a prolonged parliamentary conflict, for the Hun-
garian opposition had used the opportunity to try to obtain, by
tactics of obstruction,' the separation of the Common Army into
two parts, and, at the least, the acceptance of Hungarian as a
language of command. In these struggles the ministerial party
finally had its way, but the reforms it sought to bring about were
shorn in the process of most of their efficacy. Indeed, so low was
the agreed peace effective of the units that the army, compared
with those of the other military powers, might fairly be regarded
as having a militia character. The two-years'-service principle
was, however, made law and applied to all parts of the armed
forces of the Dual Monarchy.
These parts were five in number: (a) the Common or Imperial
and Royal (K.u.K.) Army; (b) the Imperial Royal (K.K.)
Austrian Landwehr; (c) the Royal Hungarian Landwehr (Hon-
ved); (d) the Austrian (K.K.), and (e) the Royal Hungarian
Landsturms. The basic principle of this partition was that the
Common Army would form the first line in an external war, the
two Landwehrs the second, and the two Landsturms the third.
An especial function of the last named was the garrisoning of for-
tresses and duty on lines of communication and in the interior.
But in the last 20 years before 1914 the two Landwehrs had been
brought on to the same organic and tactical level as that of the
Common Army, excepting only that their peace effective within
the unit was considerably lower. They were therefore in 1914 fit
to be put into the first line at the outset, like the Common Army
as indeed it was essential that they should be, in view of the
enormous numerical superiority that had to be faced. As it
turned out, even the Landsturm, which had no peace-time exis-
tence at all, was sent into action at once, newly formed and ill
equipped, on many parts of the front. The enthusiasm of the
younger and the quiet resolution of the older Landsturm
men, however, showed their worthiness in spite of all defects.
But the experiment was a costly one in lives.
At the outbreak of war in 1914 the constitution of these forces
was as follows: under the Supreme Command of the Emperor,
and the direction of the War Ministry for the Common Army
(and the Navy), the Austrian Ministry of Defence for the K.K.
Landwehr and Landsturm, and the Hungarian " Honved Minis-
try " for the Honved and Hungarian Landsturm. There were
six general inspectorates, and 16 corps commands each with its
own territorial region.
Common Army. Infantry: 32 Inf. Troops Divs. (I.T.D.), each
of 12-16 battalions and 7-8 batteries with 74 inf. or mountain bdes.
Cavalry: 8 Cav. Troops Divs. (K.T.D.), each of 24 squadrons and
3 batteries; 19 cav. bdes. Artillery: 14 field and 3 mountain bdes., 42
field-gun regts. (each 5-6 batteries and a depot cadre), 14 field-
howitzer regts. (each 4 batteries and a depot cadre), 14 heavy-how-
itzer divs. (each of 2 batteries), 10 horse-artillery divs. (each of 3
batteries), 10 mountain-artillery regts. (each of 4 batteries of guns or
howitzers, and depot cadre). Fortress artillery: 5 bdes.; 6 regts.
(each of 2-3 battalions, and depot cadre) ; 8 independent battalions.
Technical troops: 14 sapper battalions, 8 pioneer battalions; one
railway and one telegraph regt. ; bridging battalion ; flying depot
cadre. Train: 16 battalions and mechanical transport cadres.
K.K. Landwehr. Infantry: 8 Landwehr divs.; 16 bdes.; 40
Schiitzen (Landesschiitzen) regts. (as in Common Army but of 3
battalions each). Cavalry: one cav. div. ; 2 bdes. ; 6 regts. mounted
Schiitzen (organized as Common Army cav. regts.) detachments each
of 3 squadrons in Tirol and Dalmatia. Artillery: 8 divs. field how-
itzers (each of 2 batteries).
Honved. Infantry : 7 district divs., and one non-territorial div. ;
1 6 bdes.; 28 regts. (each of 3 battalions). Cavalry: 2 cav. divs.; 4
cav. bdes. ; 10 cav. regts. (organized as in Common Army). Artillery:
2 field-gun regts. (each of 8 batteries and depot cadre).
The infantry was armed with the 1895 8-mm. magazine rifle,
except in the case of third-line units which were largely armed
with rifles of the 86, 86/88, and 90/91 patterns. The field gun
was an 8-cm. Q.F., the field howitzer a io-cm., of old model (as
were also the heavy howitzers), but of good power. All these
guns were of steel-bronze and therefore inferior, especially in
range, to those of other powers. The siege artillery included
i2-cm. guns, 24-cm. mortars, and 3O-5-cm. tractor-drawn mor-
tars the last-named remarkable weapons which found employ-
ment in field as well as in siege warfare. There were, further,
the fortress armaments. The cavalry was uniformly equipped
(sword and carbine), and well horsed. Theoretical training was
ARMY
239
carried to a very high degree, but its application to practice was
not perfect. The directing organs General Staff, Intendance
were adequate and well trained.
In general it may be said that no army suffered from such
unfavourable conditions for the formation and development of a
sound and uniform military spirit as the Austro-Hungarian. All
the more remarkable, then, is its actual performance in the
World War, a performance which, in view of the handicaps, must
be regarded as unique in history and can only be explained by
the existence of a sentiment of military virtue, rooted in age-long
traditions, which carried the army through to the very end.
Mobilization. In spite of the fairly evident attitude of Russia,
it was hoped in Austria-Hungary that the crisis of 1914 would
be confined to a war against Serbia and Montenegro. Three
armies were formed in the south-east. But when on July 30 the
first combats were taking place on the Drina and the strategic
deployment was in full swing, Russia came on the scene. The
mobilization, hitherto partial only, became general, and the bulk
of the forces of the Dual Monarchy formed up in Galicia, nine
corps proceeding thither direct while three corps already engaged
against the Serbs, or about to do so, were drawn off to the north.
Mobilization and concentration, as such, were carried out without
a hitch, and the transfer of the II. Army to the N. also produced
no delays worth mentioning.
Infantry during the War. The infantry worthily sustained its
part as the " keystone of battle," and this is true not only of those
serving with the colours at the outbreak of war but of reservists,
Landwehr men, Landsturm men of all kinds who far surpassed
expectations. Apart from inconsiderable changes, the infantry
organization of 1914 was much the same as in 1910. The peace
effective had, however, been augmented by the increase in the recruit
contingent. New drill regulations had appeared in 1911, and new
field-service regulations in 1912.
In Aug. 1914 the Common Army included 102 infantry regts.,
4 Bosno-Herzegovinian regts., 4 Tirolese Kaiserjager regts. (all at 4
four-company battalions), also 29 Feldjager battalions, one Bbsn.-
Herz. Feldjager battalion, and 6 frontier companies in Bosnia
and Herzegovina. The first reenforcement to replace casualties
was provided for by 28 "march" regts., which followed the army
into the field. The Austrian Landwehr had 37 inf. and 3 Tirolese
Landesschtitzen regts., and the Honved, 32 inf. regts. all these
being on a 3-battalion footing. The Austrian Landwehr possessed
no "march" regiments, the Honved on the contrary had 16. On the
outbreak of war, from the 1st and 2nd bans of the Landsturm there
were formed 38 Austrian and 32 Hungarian Landsturm regiments,
as well as many independent Landsturm units, the number of
which was temporarily augmented later when the Landsturm age
limits were extended to 18-55 years.
Battalion strength was about 1,000 rifles, except in march bat-
talions, which varied from 800 to 1,000, and in Landsturm battalions
which rarely exceeded 800.
Reinforcements were provided for in the war by sending up
monthly one march battalion per regiment. Thus, in the course of
the war, 48 march battalions were sent into the field for each in-
fantry regiment. Five regiments (including the 3 Tirolese) of the
Austrian Landwehr were organized as mountain troops. Indepen-
dent Jager battalions were organized like infantry battalions, and
had "march companies "as their reenforcement organ. Machine-gun
detachments had been in process of formation for some years, and
by 1913 all infantry battalions (and cavalry divisions) had them.
The detachment was of 2 guns in the case of the infantry, 4 in those
of the cavalry. In 1915 Landsturm machine-gun detachments were
gradually formed for certain Landsturm battalions. In 1916 the
number of guns in a detachment was doubled, in 1917 trebled. The
last year also saw the introduction of the hand machine-gun (light
machine-gun), each battalion forming a Zug of four Schwdrme
(squads), each Schwarm having 2 guns.
The introduction of new methods and weapons in the war, of
course, led in due course to the grenade, the shrapnel helmet and the
gas mask being added to the infantryman's equipment. At the out-
set of the war regiments and independent battalions had pioneer
sections, but the available stores were inadequate and had at once
to be increased. After 1916 the pioneer sections were expanded into
" technical companies " (one per regiment or independent battalion)
and consisting each of an infantry searchlight, a trench mortar and a
bombthrower section. The usefulness of these units, which possessed
also some bridging material, was three or four times as great as that
of the original pioneer section. The telephone equipment, introduced
in 1911 but treated as a stepchild, was augmented considerably in
the war, and towards the end each regiment had a section and each
battalion a squad (Schwarm) of telephones, the first named having
26 posts and 52 km. of cable, the second 6 posts and 12 km. of cable.
A further technical development was the introduction of the 37-
mm. infantry gun.
Numerically, the organization of the infantry remained unchanged
till the middle of 1915. In the second half of that year three Feld-
jager, two Bosn.-Herz. Jager battalions, a combined infantry regiment
and the iO3rd Regt. were formed, and also a number of fortress bat-
talions for service in the Bosno-Herzegovinian forts. The last
named, however, were dissolved in 1916.
In Jan. 1916 the iO4th Regt., and the 4th-8th Bosn.-Herz. Jager
battalions were created. In June the frontier companies were ex-
panded into battalions and in Sept. the 5th Bosn.-Herz. regt. was
formed. In Jan. 1917 the 29th and 37th reserve infantry regts., the
losth logth infantry regts., and some combined " half-regiments "
were created from various sources. <B*^
The creation of all these units was more or jess in the nature
of a temporary expedient imposed by the necessity of manning an
ever-growing front. It was evidently desirable to systematize the
process of expansion, and therefore in Oct. 1917 a complete reorga-
nization of the infantry was taken in hand, concurrently with a
reorganization of the infantry division itself. All regiments were now
uniformly organized on a three-battalion footing, and from the
fourth battalions available and the four newest Bosn.-Herz. Jager
battalions, new three-battalion regiments were created. At the
beginning of 1918, therefore, there were 138 infantry, 4 Tirolese
Kaiserjager, and 8 Bosn.-Herz. regts., each of three battalions. In
May 1918 a I39th regt. was added. The number of Feldjager bat-
talions, the (four) Bosn.-Herz. Jager battalions and the frontier
Jager battalions remained the same.
In the Austrian Landwehr there was no change in numbers, but
in the spring of 1917 the regiments were renamed Schiitzen regiments,
the Tirolese Landesschiitzen became Kaiserschiitzen, and the two
Austrian regiments, 4th and 27th, formed as mountain troops, were
renamed 1st and 2nd mountain regiments. The Hungarian Land-
wehr (officially styled Honved after the spring of 1917) formed in
the course of the war 17 new regiments, numbered 300-316. At the
end of the war the Landsturm formations in existence were 15 regi-
ments, 41 independent battalions, 4 Tirolese battalions, and in
Hungary 8 regiments and 16 independent battalions. Lastly there
were 91 Austrian and 65 Hungarian Landsturm line-of-communica-
tion battalions.
Storm Battalions. Patrols (squads) of picked men trained to
grenade work and employed for special enterprises were already in
existence in the spring of 1916, especially on the Isonzo front. These
were followed in the latter part of 1917 by storm troops proper, and
at the beginning of 1918 each infantry division headquarters pos-
sessed a storm battalion and each cavalry division headquarters
and each independent infantry brigade a corresponding unit, all
these being formed from the storm troops of regiments, brigades, etc.
High mountain and guide companies were formed to train guides
for troops engaged in the more difficult Alpine work. These num-
bered 20 and 13 respectively at the end of the war. Cyclist units
existed even before the war (Jan. 1912), four companies from certain
Jager battalions being assembled as a unit. This unit did very well,
and in the war cyclist battalions were created in the Hungarian
Honved, in both Landsturms (and in the Navy). Early in 1918 the
three battalions were named 1st and 2nd, and Honved cyclists.
Cavalry. The Austro-Hungarian cavalry was, according to the
ideas and standards prevailing before the war, superbly trained.
Officers, men and horses were first-class. But the ideas and standards
were out-of-date. The principle of using cavalry as a battle-arm still
prevailed, whereas the Russian cavalry, having absorbed the lessons
of the most recent wars, rarely showed themselves in big masses, but
worked in mixed groups consisting of cavalry, machine-gun detach-
ments, artillery and cyclists.
In 1910 Austria-Hungary had possessed eight cavalry divisions
of the Common Army, to which in 1912 were added two Honved
cavalry divisions, and on the outbreak of war a gth Cav. Div. formed
in the Austrian Landwehr. The regiments were: 15 Dragoon, 16
Hussar, II Ulan, 6 K.K. Lwhr. Ulan (these renamed mounted
Schiitzen in 1917), 10 Hungarian Honved Hussar regts., and smaller
units in Tirol and Dalmatia. At the outbreak of war Hungary formed
10 Hussar half-regts. of Landsturm. In each regiment further 1st
and 2nd reserve squadrons were formed. The bulk of this mounted
force was grouped in II divisions (at 4 regiments per division) and
the rest, including the reserve squadrons, allotted in pairs or threes
as divisional cavalry to the infantry divisions or corps. The r&le
of the cavalry divisions was exploration and screening, that of the
divisional squadrons liaison and local scouting with the infantry.
In both cases the performance of these functions met with unexpec-
tedly great difficulties owing to the thoroughly modern tactics em-
ployed by the Russian cavalry, which employed all the methods of
dismounted fire fighting and rarely came to open mounted shock.
This imposed at once a restriction in the cavalry methods of the
Austrians. Little stress had been laid on fire fighting in peace, but
when position warfare set in in 1915, and still more when horses
became scarce in 1917, mounted work fell more and more into the
background. The equipment was revolutionized. The soldier was
provided with wire cutters, grenades, obstacle material, etc. Already
in the spring of 1915 the unserviceable uniforms of peace-time had
given way to grey. The useless sabre was replaced by the bayonet.
Thus, and in other ways, the arm rapidly adjusted itself to the
new conditions. Even in the winter 1914-5 certain formations had
240
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created dismounted sections, and these in time became the basis of
Schiitzen divisionen of cavalry, analogous to infantry battalions.
In the winter 1917-8 a thorough reorganization was carried out.
The regiment which at the outset had comprised 6 squadrons of 150
sabres each, one pioneer section, and one telegraph patrol, was re-
constituted on the basis of 2 half-regiments each of 4 squadrons dis-
mounted ; 2 machine-gun squadrons (8 guns each), 2 hand machine-
gun sections and a technical squadron, besides an infantry gun
section comprising 2 trench mortar squads, 2 bombthrower squads,
one searchlight squad, and one cavalry telephone squad. The equip-
ment of the individual man was assimilated to that of the infantry
soldier. In each infantry and cavalry division there only remained
mounted one squadron of divisional cavalry.
The cav. div., which had originally comprised 2 brigades, 4 regi-
ments, 1-2 machine-gun detachments, and a horse artillery divi-
sion (three 4-gun batteries), consisted on the new basis of one (or 2)
brigade headquarters, 4 dismounted regiments, one storm regiment,
one sapper section, one telegraph company (if required, one radio
company) and one mounted squadron. From the available horse
artillery were formed " mounted field artillery " regts., each of 2
gun, 4 howitzer, and I trench mortar batteries. In 1918 it was
planned to create brigades of horse art.illery for the cavalry divisions,
each consisting of one of the horse regts. and a heavy artillery regiment.
In March 1918 a I2th (mounted Schiitzen) Div. was created out of
4 regiments of that category.
Artillery. No arm in any .army was so completely transformed in
the war as the Austro-Hungarian artillery. Though worthy of its
ancient reputation in point of science and training, it suffered at the
outset from inferior material. Whereas Russia and Serbia taking to
heart the lessons of Manchuria had modernized their guns, in
Austria-Hungary these necessities were burked on political and
financial grounds.
It is true that the gun introduced in 1905 was a. modern Q.F.
equipment, equivalent to Russian and Serbian weapons of the same
class. But the field and heavy howitzers, dating from 1880 and 1899
were, like the mountain guns and howitzers, obsolete and ineffective.
Inadequate, too, was the fortress artillery. Apart from some 3O-5-cm.
mortar batteries, sent at the outbreak of war to the western front,
and some 24-cm. mortar batteries, only quite obsolete guns were
available.
In the years preceding the war, indeed, the most urgently neces-
sary steps had been taken towards modernizing of the artillery. In
the first place numerical increase was necessary. As against the 7254
guns per division of other powers Austria-Hungary had only 42.
After various augmentations in the last two years the artillery
consisted at the outbreak of war of 42 army, 8 Landwehr and 8
Honved field-gun regiments, each of 5 batteries (4 in the Landwehr
and Honved divisions) ; 28 army and 8 Landwehr field howitzer
divisions (each of 2 batteries) ; 9 army and one Honved horse artil-
lery divisions (each 3 batteries) ; 14 heavy artillery divisions (each
2 batteries) ; 10 mountain artillery regiments (each of 4 gun and 2
howitzer batteries), and one independent mountain division 1 ; 6
regiments and 7 battalions of fortress artillery.
During the war the development of the artillery was naturally
ceaseless. It began with the replacement of old-pattern guns and
increases in the available numbers of field guns. At the beginning of
1915 the old field and heavy howitzers were replaced by Q.F. 10-
cm. and 15-cm. weapons, and a modern io-4-cm. long gun ranging
to 12 km. was brought out. Further, two completely modern
mountain equipments (7'5-cm. gun and lo-cm. howitzer models 1915,
ranging to 7 and 8 km.) gradually supplanted the older types.
In the course of the war the former ratio of howitzers to guns was
greatly modified, till finally the former preponderated. In succession,
batteries were taken from the field-gun regiments and re-formed in
new howitzer regiments. The heavy howitzer divisions were aug-
mented and in part armed with the new 15-cm. equipment, and,
further, II io-4-cm. heavy-gun batteries, as well as some heavy
howitzer divisions in both Landwehrs, were created.
By the end of 1915 the proportion of howitzers had come to be
about 50 %, and at the end of the war there were three times as many
howitzers as there were guns.
Up to the end of 1915 the mountain artillery had been augmented
by 5 regiments, the fortress artillery by one battalion, while the
number of 3O-5-cm. batteries increased to 20. At that date the for-
mation was in progress of motorized batteries of 15-cm. guns and
howitzers (ranging to 18 and 12 km. respectively). At the beginning
of 1916 all K.K. and Hungarian Landwehr howitzer divisions were
grouped, by fours in the case of the light, by threes in that of the
heavy, into regiments. At the same time greater attention was paid
to the anti-aircraft artillery, which received modern as well as im-
provised weapons.
At the end of 1916 there were: 28 army, 8 Landwehr, 8 Honved, 14
army reserve, 3 Honved reserve field-gun regiments, 9 horse artillery
divisions; 28 army, 8 Landwehr, 8 Honved, 14 army reserve, 4
Landwehr reserve, 3 Honved reserve field howitzer regiments;
45 anti-aircraft batteries; 30 army, 8 Landwehr, 8 Honved, 3 army
1 Each of the 10 regiments formed an additional battery of guns
on mobilization.
reserve, one Honved reserve heavy field artillery regiments; 28
army, 4 Landwehr, 3 Honved mountain artillery regiments.
At this period the introduction of 2i-cm. mortars, of 38- and 42-
cm. mortars and of 24- and 35-cm. long guns into the armament of the
fortress artillery was in progress. These were completely modern
guns, were motorized, and ranged to 15 km. in the case of the mortans
and to 26-32 km. in that of the guns. Twelve trench mortar batteries
were also added to the fortress artillery.
This organization remained substantially unaltered during 1917,
the only noteworthy change being the transformation of the horse
artillery already alluded to (summer 1917), the steady augmentation
in the number of fortress batteries and the increased employment of
heavy naval guns.
In connexion with the reorganization of the infantry divisions at
the end of 1917 the artillery was of course recast also. In peace-time
the artillery regiments, etc., had been so arranged that in each corps
area an artillery brigadier commanded all units of the arm in that
area. In war each infantry division had originally a brigade of
artillery (one regiment field guns, one division howitzers 2 ). In Feb.
1918 the organization took up its final form. The artillery regiments
were uniformly reorganized with gun and howitzer batterie^ in each ;
and the designation " Field Artillery " was adopted by all. Each
artillery brigade (one per division, i.e. 66) henceforth consisted of 2
field artillery regiments, one heavy field artillery regiment and one
mountain artillery group. The field regiments had 2 gun and 3
howitzer batteries, and either a trench mortar or an anti-aircraft
battery. The heavy field artillery regiment had 45 batteries, one
only being armed with io-4-cm. guns and the others with 15-cm.
howitzers. The mountain artillery group had 2 gun and one howitzer
battery.
The artillery, with cavalry divisions, was similarly reorganized and
gradually provided with heavy artillery units.
After providing for the above-mentioned mountain groups, there
remained 14 independent regiments of that branch. These were con-
stituted as a G.H.Q. reserve, and each consisted of 6 gun and 3
howitzer batteries.
At the end of the war the field and mountain artillery of the Austro-
Hungarian army amounted to a total of 864 light, 328 heavy, and
324 mountain batteries, as against 369 light, 28 heavy and 74 moun-
tain at the outset.
The fortress artillery was also reorganized, and renamed " heavy
artillery." Hitherto its organization had varied according to its-
allocation to fortresses, but thenceforward it was formed in 14 regi-
ments each of 4 groups at 4 batteries. On the verge of the Armistice
4 independent groups were created at Trieste, in Dalmatia, and in
Montenegro.
Technical Troops. In 1893 the previously existing engineer and
pioneer corps were reconstituted as a single pioneer corps carrying
out all engineer duties; this corps consisted of 15 battalions. In 1912
a new subdivision was introduced. " Pioneers " were allocated to
water work and " Sappers " to land and fortress work as had been
the case before 1893. The pioneer corps then consisted of 8 four-
company battalions and the sapper corps of 14 three-company bat-
talions. At the same time a special bridging battalion (for semi-
permanent work) and a river-mining company were created. Both
corps did their work well in the war, but they were far too small.
At the beginning of the war a o,th Pioneer Battalion was in exis-
tence, and the number of companies in each battalion had risen to 5
in the pioneer, 6 in the sapper battalions. The army was accom-
panied in the field by a variety of technical formations such as tool
columns and mobile parks. The bridging equipment consisted of
126 units, each capable of 53. miles of bridging.
The inadequacy of numbers was made good immediately after the
outbreak of war by creating Landsturm sapper companies and
numerous works detachments.
In the middle of 1915 a second bridging battalion was raised, and
by the end of that year trench mortar, bombthrower and electro-
technical units were in existence. The pioneer battalions had now
up to six companies and the sapper battalions up to ten. In 1917 a
special battalion was formed for offensive gas warfare. Other tech-
nical branches were created to deal with close-combat means (air-
mining, powder-mining, bombthrower sections, compressed air,
oxygen and air-liquifying stations); electro-technical matters
(searchlights, live-wire obstacles, accumulators, drinking water and
pumping machinery, ventilators, boring tools) and other things, and
these were constantly augmented.
The thoroughgoing reorganization of winter 1917-8 affected also
the technical troops. The pioneers were abolished, and all technical
services placed in the hands of the sappers while close-combat means
and searchlights were transferred to infantry, cavalry and artillery
formations. Thenceforward the sapper corps consisted of 60 three-
company battalions (l per division and the remainder to corps, etc.),
I flamethrower battalion, and numerous bridging tool and other units.
To the sappers now belonged also the well-boring and the electro
1 In the 8 K.K. Landwehr divisions an army gun regiment of 4
batteries, a Landwehr gun division of 2, and a Landwehr howitzer
division of 2. In the 8 Honved divisions, 1-2 divisions of an army
gun regiment and one Honved gun regiment.
ARMY
241
formations. Searchlight units now consisted of one company (2
horsed 35-cm., 2 motorized 6o-cm., 2 motorized no-cm, projectors)
per division, as well as a number of similar units under G.H.Q.,
and odd formations; further, each technical company or squadron
of an infantry or dismounted cavalry regiment included a search-
light squad.
Communication Troops. Till May 1912 only one combined rail-
way and telegraph regiment existed. This was divided at that date
into two. The railway regiment consisted of 3 battalions, depot
cadres for personnel, track and for locomotives, and fortress light
railway cadres at Przemysl, Cracow and Pola. The companies
constituting these battalions were charged in war with the construc-
tion, operation and destruction both of standard gauge and of light
railways. Consisting at the outset of 30 railway and 4 railway oper-
ating companies, this branch had risen at the end of the war to a
strength of 39 railway and 32 field railway companies. In occupied
territory under Austro-Hungarian control 4 army railway commands
were set up (Poland, Serbia, Italy, Rumania) which had at their
disposal 8 operating battalions and 28 operating companies. For
transport in mountain regions (Alps, Rumania, Albania) there were
40 telpher operating and 9 telpher building companies. The light
railway service consisted at the end of the war of 3 locomotive and
21 motor and one horse operating sections, as well as 3 operating
sections at Pola. Associated with the railway troops were some
bridging detachments provided with iron-bridge equipment.
Lastly should be mentioned armoured trains. The first of these,
an armoured locomotive, was improvised in 1914 to reconnoitre the
enemy during the Galician retreat. Later five trains were built.
The telegraph regiment consisted of 4 battalions, one radio de-
tachment, depot cadre and an administrative unit for stores. This
regiment was the parent of all telegraph and telephone units which
came into the field, but as with other arms and branches, expansions
had to be regularized in the winter of 19178. The reorganization
in that period reconstituted all telegraph and telephone units uni-
formly as " telegraph companies," of which at the close of the war
there were 159, as well as 65 line construction companies and 25
radio companies. Corps, army and higher headquarters had in all 72
radio posts, worked as 14 administrative groups, and there were 7
fixed stations for long-distance work.
Flying Corps. Numerically Austria-Hungary was far behind
other states in the numbers of her flying troops." Till a few years
before the war only captive and free balloons were in use, chiefly
in fortresses, and modern aeronautics in Austria were practically
followed only as a sport. However, a reorganization took place in
1913 which enabled the army to begin the war with one flying com-
pany of 6 machines at G.H.Q. and at each army headquarters, one
dirigible balloon company, and depot units. As in other countries,
necessity led to rapid developments from this nucleus. By the end of
1916 there were 37 flying companies allotted to the higher head-
quarters. In 1917 a specialization of flying units according to their
missions was begun ; thenceforward there were divisional companies
for line and artillery work; deep reconnaissance companies, pursuit
companies for air fighting, " big machine " companies (bombers),
protective companies for escort of divisional machines, and photo-
graphic companies for map work. In Nov. 1918 the total of units
was 82 flying companies, 32 balloon companies, 12 parks, 9 motor
repair units, and 2 construction companies.
Meteorological Service. This was attached to the flying service,
but provided for the requirements of all others as well, and was
represented in all formations from divisions upwards.
Motor Transport Troops. Before the war the use of motor trans-
port for military purposes was limited. For liaison duties between
headquarters an Automobile Volunteer Corps and a Motorcycle
Volunteer Corps had been formed in Austria and an Automobile
Volunteer Corps in Hungary some time before the war. But the
first motor troops proper were created in the war itself, when the
motorization of the train (ammunition, supplies, medical) and the
necessity of regularizing the supply of cars, lorries, parts and fuel
imposed this step.
At the outset only a very small proportion of the train was motor-
ized, the lorries coming from private firms by way of requisition.
On formation the " Auto troops " were classified broadly as field
troops and home service troops. The first named included by the
end of the war 31 group commands and 238 auto columns, 39 am-
bulance columns, 10 postal columns. The auto troops at home were
responsible for the transport of stores and supplies of all kinds to the
army and for the training of reenforcements.
Train. The training of the transport corps (Train) in peace-time
was thorough. The vehicles designed for mountain and normal
ground proved, however, too heavy for the soft morasses of Galicia
and Poland, and for the more forward echelons of transport local
vehicles had to be requisitioned. On the other hand the special
equipment provided for mountain warfare was excellent.
After the abolition of the regimental organization in 1910 the train
consisted of 16 train divs. (one per corps), which in peace carried
out all transport duties within the corps and its area, and on mobili-
zation had to provide horses and drivers for all transport formations
and for the transport of bridging, postal, medical and other forma-
tions. The " division " itself remained at home as a draft and
remount producing centre.
The expansion of the army naturally entailed corresponding
developments in the Train Corps, which underwent a considerable
reorganization in the winter of 19167. Simplification of supply
procedure and the replacement of heavy military wagons by light
vehicles of local types were the main features of this reorganization.
Mountain Warfare Organization. In Austria-Hungary the or-
ganization of mountain troops had been carried further than any
other state. At the outbreak of war there existed, as has been men-
tioned earlier, five mountain regiments of Austrian Landwehr (16
battalions) which were intended as a frontier guard in face of the
Italian Alpini. But in 1914 they were used against Russia, Serbia
and Montenegro like any other regiment without regard to their
special character, and although they in due course returned to the
Italian theatre, they were not, as a special arm, augmented during
the war, though reenforced by a number of locally raised units. 1
In fact, the generally mountainous nature of the frontiers and war
theatres of Austria-Hungary required rather that all troops, and not
merely a specialized fraction, should be adaptable to hill warfare.
Thus the troops normally quartered in Dalmatia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, though not essentially mountain units, possessed a
special organization in peace-time. The operations unit was the
mountain brigade " which consisted of battalions detached from
their regiments, of Bosno-Herzegovinian units, and of mountain
artillery. There were 14 such brigades on the south-eastern front
at the opening of hostilities, constituting the four divisions of the XV.
and XVI. Army Corps. The brigade consisted of 4-6 battalions,
sometimes one frontier company, a troop of cavalry and 12 bat-
teries, and its engineer and administration services were organized
for mountain work. The division had 2 additional mountain bat-
teries, and its headquarter services were partly on the mountain and
partly on the normal basis.
As, however, all but one of the theatres of war in which the army
was called on to operate were mountainous, this organization was
evidently insufficient. Even as early as the winter of 19145 there
were many improvizations for example in the Carpathians battle,
in which both Austrian and German divisions sent to reenforce von
Pflanzer-Baltin had to be reconstituted with mountain transport
and towards the end of the war practically three-quarters of the
whole army stood in hill country. Naturally, therefore, a pro-
cedure was arrived at whereby any formation on going to a moun-
tainous theatre automatically took on the required form. In the
reorganization of 19178, indeed, the mountain brigades proper,
which meantime had increased in number to 33, became normal
infantry brigades, there being no longer any need for them to retain
their special character.
Totals of Units in 1914 and 1918. A general comparison of the
organization by units at the beginning of the end of the war sum-
marizes clearly the changes which had taken place. In Aug. 1914
the front line strength of the army in units was about 1,000 bat-
talions, 400 squadrons, and 2,800 mobile guns. In the summer of
1918 the detail is as follows: 262 infantry regiments, also 241 Ersatz
battalions, and 170 battalions and 80 companies of volunteers, coast
defence troops, etc. ; 12 mounted and 48 dismounted cavalry regi-
ments; 132 field artillery regiments, 12 horse artillery regiments,
14 mountain artillery regiments, 66 mountain artillery groups, 14
mortar regiments, I gas projector unit, etc.; 60 sapper, river-mining
and bridging battalions, etc.; 140 bridging trains; 1 12 boring sec-
tions; 82 flying companies, 32 balloon companies, 4 electro battal-
ions, 240 telegraph companies, 8 battalions and 800 companies of
railway troops, 10 searchlight companies and 400 searchlight squads,
etc. The sum, as regards front-line strength, totals 1,200 battalions
(including adapted cavalry), 72 squadrons, 7,000 mobile guns.
Higher Formations. At the beginning of the war there were
1 6 corps headquarters, and 32 divisions of the Common Army, 8
of the K.K. Landwehr and 8 of the Honved, with 9 army and 2
Honved cavalry divisions. On mobilization, 14 " march " brigades,
2 Austrian Landsturm divisions, 10 Austrian and 8 Hungarian
Landsturm brigades, 17 Austrian Landsturm territorial brigades,
9 Hungarian Landsturm L. of C. brigades and 5 Austrian Landsturm.
march brigades, were formed in addition. During the strategic con-
centration a XVII. Corps was formed, and in Dec. 1914 an XVIII.
In Jan. 1915 the combined Corps Krauss in the Balkan theatre
(formed Sept. 1914) became the XIX., and for the spring offensive of
1916 against Italy the XX. and XXI were formed. Later in the
same year the XXII. and XXIII. came into being, and in 1917 the
Szurmay, Hofmann and Hadfy groups became the XXIV., XXV.,
XXVI. Corps. These 26 corps remained as such to the end of the
war. All other temporary groupings, such as cavalry corps, were
dissolved when this special reason for their existence ceased. The
custom of temporary grouping followed by dissolution prevailed also
at the next lower echelon. Many temporary divisions existed
especially in the earlier part of the war. But the order of battle was
regularized in the winter of 1917-8, in connexion with the internal
reconstitution of the division, and finally there were 44 army, 10
Schutzen (ex K.K. Landwehr), 12 Honved divisions, and 9 army
1 Of these the best known were the village riflemen of the Alps;
these, known as Standesschutzen, formed the South Tirolese, Tiro-
lese, Carinthian, Salzburg and Vorarlberg battalions. Volunteer
rifle units were raised also in other parts of the Dual Monarchy.
242
ARMY
cavalry, I Schiitzen cavalry (Landwehr), and 2 Honved cavalry
divisions.
The subdivision of infantry divisions into brigades of two regi-
ments remained unaltered; the cavalry divisions, however, after
the reconstitution retained as a rule only one brigade staff. There
were thus finally 88 army, 20 Schutzen, 22 Honved, 10 Austrian
Landsturm, I Hungarian Landsturm brigades, and II army cavalry,
I Schutzen cavalry and I Honved cavalry brigades.
The number of field artillery brigades had grown to 66. The
brigade organization of fortress (heavy) artillery had practically
disappeared.
Armies. The foreseen organization of the forces was in six armies,
for which six general officers were designated in peace and func-
tioned as inspectors. In Oct. 1914 the Pflanzer-Baltin group was
formed in the E. Carpathians; this became the VII. Army later.
In Dec. 1914 the V. and VI. Armies in the Balkan theatre were dis-
solved and reformed as a " Balkan Force."
In May 1915, when Italy came into the war, three new armies
were created a new V., the army group Rohr, and the Tirol De-
fence Force under the general command of a commander-in-chief
S.W. front. About the same time the III. Army on the Russian
front was dissolved, but a new III. Army was formed in the autumn
for the operations under Mackensen in Serbia. This III. Army
shortly moved to Tirol where, with a new XI. Army and the Tirol
Defence Force it constituted a group of armies for the Asiago offen-
sive. Shortly after that the III. Army moved again, this time to the
Russian front to aid in meeting Brussilov's offensive; here, with a
new XII. Army, it constituted the Archduke Karl's group of armies.
On the entry of Rumania into the war a new I. Army was created.
The former I. Army on the Russian front had been dissolved in
July 1916.
On the Italian front the Rohr group had meantime become the
X. Army, and the Tirol Defence Force was dissolved.
In the winter of 1917, after the Caporetto offensive, a new VI.
Army was created to replace the departing German XIV. Army.
The V. Army had already become, in the summer of 1917, the Army
of the Isonzo; for a time this army was subdivided into the I. and
II. Isonzo Armies, forming the Boroevic group of armies, while the
X. and XI. Armies constituted the Conrad group of armies.
In the E. nearly all armies were dissolved during 1918, first the
I. then the III., IV., VII. The higher command on this side was
then shared between the I., IV. and VII. " General Kommandos."
The II. Army in Ukraine, however, retained its identity to the
Armistice, under the name of K.u.K. Eastern Army.
In Albania, meantime, the Austro-Hungarian forces had been
constituted as the Kovess army group. On the breakup of the
Bulgarian front in the autumn of 1918 all available forces were
constituted as one group of armies under the same general.
The End. In Nov. 1918 the old Habsburg Empire dissolved in
ruin, and with it the famous old army which had maintained its
integrity through four years of trial. Its remnants formed nuclei
for the national armies of the successor states. Its record was closed,
and it passed into the eternity of history. (A-K. ; E. J.)
X. THE TURKISH ARMY
At the time of the Balkan War mobilization in 1912, Turkey
possessed an army in which the officer corps represented the
traditions of the Sultan "Abdul Hamid. Everything that might
make for modern efficiency in war had for 30 years been excluded
from the Turkish military curriculum. Ninety-five per cent of
the rank and file were illiterate; their main virtues were willing-
ness and endurance. The officers also were in the main untrained;
they were drawn either from the stupid and hidebound ranker
elements (Alaili) or from the more up-to-date products of the
military schools (Mektebli) ; but even these latter, mostly scions
of better-class families, had little sense of accuracy and punc-
tuality in the performance of their duty. There were even gen-
eral staff officers who could neither read nor write. The Young
Turkish movement had the effect of placing more energetic men
at the head of the troops, but had also increased military ama-
teurishness to such an extent as to become a positive danger to
the army, and to make promotion henceforward dependent, not
on efficiency and professional skill, but on political intrigue. The
redeeming feature of the army was the quality of the private
soldier, and particularly of the Anatolian peasant. No troops in
Europe were more steadfast, self-sufficient and patient. The
Arabian soldiers were bad, the Kurds useless in face of the enemy
and as helpless as children, the Christian and Jewish subjects of
Turkey of no military value.
The term of service in Turkey was three years for all arms.
Mahmud Shevket Pasha has stated that 240,000 men per year be-
came liable for service; of these some 110,000 to 120,000 were
exempted, and of the rest only about 70,000 were actually enrolled.
Official returns showed that out of a total pop. of 24,000,000
(of whom at most 15,000,000 were liable for service) men from 20 to
25 years of age numbered 1,080,000, and from 20 to 40 years of age
4,000,000. The paper strength of this peace army showed 20,000
officers and 280,000 men. The total war strength of Turkey was
reckoned on paper to amount to 24,000 officers, 1,300 officials, and
610,000 men. The forces actually raised in the Balkan War, how-
ever, fell far below these figures. An estimate of 450,000 men for the
war army would be excessive.
The term of service was made up as follows : three years with the
colours (Nizam), up to 29 years of age with the reserve (Ikhtiat),
thence up to 38 years of age with the Landwehr (Redif), 39th and
4Oth years of age with the Landsturm (Mustafiz). In war all classes,
including the Mustafiz, were called up. The Ikhtiat brought up the
ranks of the Nizam units to war strength; this process usually ab-
sorbed them all, as the peace strength of the battalions was only
some 200 to 250 men, and their arms in proportion. The Redifs
formed separate and complete divisions, organized in their local
recruiting areas. Any man liable to service could be released after
three months on payment of 50 purchasing-out fine, and was there-
after liable only to service in the older Redif classes. Thus it came
about that only the poorer classes of the nation actually served in the
army. There was no organization of the officers, N.C.O.'s and mili-
tary officials not actually with the troops; so that in case of war the
only reserve available consisted of the retired officers, of whom,
however, as the pension was so small, very few were fit for service.
The training of the men was very bad. The model units with their
foreign instructors had in the short period of their existence been
made to leaven the mass of the army. Constant internal unrest
allowed of no continued instruction. The periods of reserve training
laid down by law were one month for the Ikhtiat, and one month
every two years for the Redif; but the absence of reserve organiza-
tion and shortage of money prevented these provisions being car-
ried out. The weakest parts of the Turkish army were the adminis-
tration and the supply and transport services (provisions, clothing,
material and munitions). Peculation was wide-spread, and prac-
tically all the administrative personnel were hopelessly idle. The
Young Turkish regime brought no improvement. The work of the
few German reformers, who under 'Abdul Hamid were never, or
practically never, allowed a free hand, proved entirely useless; more-
over they were not always very suited to their task, which needed
considerable tact if it were to be successfully accomplished.
When the Balkan War broke out Turkey was in the midst of her
military reorganization. The greater part of the mass, who had been
far too long with the colours, were being sent home; a number of
Alaili, who so far had only been mechanically instructed in the
rudiments of their duties, had replaced them, so that the whole
army organization down to battalions and Redif depots had been sud-
denly changed. The greatest confusion naturally resulted.
In place of the 7 armies hitherto existing there were formed 14
corps and 5 independent divisions (in Kozani, Yannina [Janina],
Scutari, Hejaz and Tripoli). The infantry brigades were done away
with, and four divisions were formed, consisting of three infantry regi-
ments, each of three battalions, and a field artillery regiment of two
or three detachments. To each corps was allotted a rifle regiment,
a cavalry brigade of 10 to 15 squadrons, 6 to 9 heavy batteries, a
pioneer battalion, a telegraph company, and a train battalion.
Only a few corps, however, actually possessed all these units.
The distribution of the Turkish army in the various theatres of
operations in the Balkan War was as follows: Commander-in-chief,
Nazim Pasha; Eastern Army (around and east of Adrianople),
'Abdalla Pasha, I., II., III., and IV. Corps and some Redif divs. ;
Western Army (Kumanovo area), Mahmud Shevket Pasha, V.,
VI. and VII. Corps and some Redif divs. ; Southern Army (Yannina
area), 'Ali Riza Pasha, 22nd and 23rd Divs.; against Montenegro
(Scutari area), Hasan Riza, later Essad Pasha, 24th Div. and Elba-
san Redif Division. The total strength of these forces came to barely
250,000 men. The Anatolian corps and Redif divisions only came
into action in Europe after the defeat of the main armies by Bulgaria
and Serbia. Soon after their arrival cholera broke out. Though it was
known that the VIII. Corps was infected with this disease, none the
less it was dispatched to Europe, and the authorities, in order to set
public opinion at rest, stated that the epidemic was well in hand.
The Eastern Army during its occupation of the Chatalja lines lost
in Nov. and Dec. more than 15,000 men, who fell victims to the
plague. It may be estimated that of the 400,000 men mobilized by
Turkey at least 100,000 were killed, died or were severely wounded
(most of these last named may be counted as dead), i.e. 25% of the
total strength.
The complete military breakdown in the Balkan War forced
even the Turks to the conclusion that the time for undertaking
serious reforms had come. For this purpose Turkey agreed with
Germany that the latter should send her a large military mission
under Gen. Liman von Sanders, which arrived in Constantinople
in Dec. 1913. Great difficulties were met with in the task of remedy-
ing the existing defects in the Turkish military organization and
training. The military mission succeeded in effecting certain changes
in the organization of the army, and in breathing into it a refreshing
and living spirit; but the time which elapsed between its arrival and
the outbreak of the World War was too short to carry out the
ARMY MEDICAL SERVICE
243
necessary radical alterations in their entirety. In view of the loss of
territory consequent on the Balkan War, it was necessary to re-
model the whole peace organization of the army, and distribute it
over the diminished area of the empire.
The total peace strength was now on paper 17,000 officers and
250,000 men, with 15,000 guns and 430 machine-guns; actually
these numbers were never even approached. To each, division was
allotted a definite recruiting area. Area commanders were estab-
lished after the German model, but did not effectively get to work
prior to the World War. The organization of Redif divisions was
also taken in hand; the personnel not actually called up for peace
service were to form these units, which were to be utilized in time of
war to complete the first line units to full strength. Great impor-
tance was rightly attached to the institution of new military schools,
the inspection of which was undertaken by Liman von Sanders after
he had handed over command of the I. Corps. A new Army Act
became law on May 12 1914, but its provisions were never strictly
enforced. Its principal clauses were: Every Turk, except for the
suite of the Sultan's family, was liable to service from the age of 18.
The period of service commenced on the March I next following the
attainment of the age of 20, and extended over 25 years for infantry
and train, for the other arms 20 years, and for the navy 17 years.
The period of active service was in each of the above cases two, three
and five years ; students were allowed an abridged term ; physically
unfit men were liable to a special tax in lieu of service. Purchasing
out was allowed after five months' service at the rate of 50 Turkish ;
men thus liberated were transferred to the reserve and escaped
all further liability for military duty in peace-time. Christian
subjects of the empire were excluded from the ranks of the
fighting troops. The War Office was reorganized from top to bot-
tom. The great general staff was also entirely remodelled, Ger-
man officers being placed at the head of the more important
branches, such as those concerned with training, mobilization
and intelligence.
Little or nothing could be done in the short space of time between
the Balkan and European wars in the direction of rearming the army,
so that the armament in the World War remained much as in the
Balkan War. The infantry weapon was the 7-65-mm. Mauser re-
peating rifle, but older models were still partly in use. The field
artillery had the 7'5-cm. Krupp field gun with recoil buffer and shield,
1904, 1909 and 191 1 models; in addition there were a few old 8'7-cm.
German field guns. The mountain guns in use were the 7'5-cm. Krupp
1905 model; the Schneider 7'5-cm., which was somewhat more
modern, was also in use. The heavy artillery had a number of guns
of various patterns, many of which were fairly antiquated; only a
few modern 15-cm. Krupp howitzers and Schneider-Creusot how-
itzers were available for use. Several howitzer batteries were still
using smooth-bore guns, which were as good as useless on account of
their short range. The fortress artillery was completely out of date,
consisting as it did mainly of guns of 1880 and 1890. Moreover,
lack of money prevented any steps being taken to bring the land
fortresses up to date.
The Turkish forces were mobilized in the first days of Aug. 1914,
but there was only a month of armed neutrality in which to prepare
for war. This respite was used by Germany to equip Turkey with
practically everything necessary for carrying on hostilities. Despite
this German assistance the mobilization met with great difficulties.
A Turkish War Office return in the summer of 1917 (which must
however be accepted with caution) gave 1,478,176 as the number of
recruits called up from Aug. 1914 to March 1915, 1,014,824 from
March 1915 to March 1916, and 332,000 from March 1916 to March
1917. Figures as to enrolments from this latter date onwards are
completely valueless. The grand total of all who served in the Turkish
army from 1914 to 1918 amounted on this showing to 3,000,000 men.
If we take into consideration the facts that many of these were
counted twice or three times over it may be regarded as approximat-
ing to accuracy to reduce this total to 2,000,000, of whom some 75r
ooo deserted and 500,000 were killed or invalided out of the service
in the course of the war. It is of interest to note that the officials in
Turkey who were not affected by the military law, always reckoned
all men called up that is, rounded up by the police ^as being of
military age whether they were really so or not. Thus it happened
that many young men were exempted as not coming within the age
limit of 48, while unfortunates of 50 and boys of 15 were given as
being 20 or 30 years old, and therefore of military age.
The establishment of officers in the Turkish army reached its
maximum of 30.429 in the spring of 1917; the army, however, was
at its greatest strength of 1,295,621 in the previous spring. Despite
great efforts and reckless use of all possible man-power resources,
this total could not be maintained in 1917 ; in the spring of that year
only 1,200,344 men were present, and from that date on the total
rapidly declined.
The organization of the supreme army command was also the
work of the German military mission. This was in the hands of head-
quarters in Constantinople. The Sultan of course held the titular
post of commander-in-chief. Enver Pasha being vice-commander-
m-chief. As the latter gradually assumed the political dictatorship
of Turkey, divergence of views between the civil and military author-
ities ceased to exist.
In the first days of mobilization in Aug. 1914 the following for-
mations and organizations were in being: 4 army inspections, 13
general commands, 38 divisional staffs, 305 battalions infantry, 64
machine-gun companies, 115 squadrons, 211 field batteries, 124
heavy and fortress batteries, 47 pioneer companies, 4 fortress pio-
neer companies, 36 fortress construction companies, 42 searchlight
troops (equipped with one searchlight each), 21 telegraph com-
panies, I wireless telegraph company, 10 railway companies, 135
reserve squadrons, 17 service companies, 17 works troops and 51
train companies. The reserve squadrons were formed from the so-
called Kurdish or Hamidie cavalry, and comprised 4 reserve cavalry
divisions. They were quite untrained and of no military value.
They had all the characteristics of independent nomads, and were
imbued with the bitterest ill-feeling against the Armenians.
The war organization provided at first for three and in Sept. 1914
for four armies. The original armies were: I. Army, Gen. Liman
von Sanders, I., II., III., IV. and VI. Corps, one cavalry brigade and
one battery heavy howitzers; II. Army, Jemal Pasha, V. Corps and
(from Sept. 6 1914) VI. Corps, cavalry as for the other armies, and
all available heavy artillery; III. Army, Hasan "Izzet Pasha, X.
and XI. Corps; IV. Army, Zeki Pasha (later Jemal), VIII. and XII.
Corps. The other troops of the peace army remained for the time
being unorganized in armies. But even with these few armies it was
not possible to bring the troops up to full war strength with the re-
serves available; some companies were barely 100 strong even in
Jan. 1915. During the later stages of the war Enver's policy of
limiting the formations to a few well-organized corps and armies was
given up ; new formations were constantly being ordered, and old
ones broken up or remodelled. For these the available man-power,
armament and equipment were insufficient, so that the whole army
became completely disorganized.
During the war the number of the armies was increased to nine.
The army leaders were continually being given other troops, and
having to give up divisions and corps, so that their armies were
constantly growing smaller. Thus the I. Army, which in 1914 was
over 200,000 strong, had sunk by 1917 to about 3,000 men, and the
II. Army by 1918 to 5,000 men, and in 1918 there were in Palestine
three Turkish armies, none of which were stronger than an English
infantry division. All the armies, corps and divisions, however,
still kept up their enormous staffs.
The number of officers in the German military mission increased
in 1916 to 200, in 1917 to 800; a large number of other ranks, mostly
of the technical services, must be added. Of complete German units
the personnel of a few batteries at the Dardanelles and the crews
of the " Goeben " and " Breslau " fought with the Turkish army.
Enver shrank from employing larger units, and in principle stood out
against it. Only the so-called " Yildekim " (known to the Germans
as " F ") Group consisted entirely of German troops. (F. C. E.)
ARMY MEDICAL SERVICE (UNITED KINGDOM) .The British
Army Medical Service never had such a task imposed on it
as during the World War, from which it emerged with its or-
ganization tested by fire. Its duties cover the care of the sick
and wounded of the military forces, the preservation of their
health, the supply of medical and surgical material, the main-
tenance and administration of military hospitals and the com-
mand of patients in them, the medical examination of recruits
and invaliding of men unfit for further service, the education
and training of its own personnel, and the strategical and tactical
employment of a variety of medical units concerned with the
collection, evacuation and distribution of casualties in war.
Until 1873 the functions of an Army Medical Service had been
carried out by a regimental system under which medical officers
belonged to and wore the uniform of the regiments to which
they were gazetted, and under which many of the sick and wound-
ed were cared for in regimental hospitals. Soldiers enlisted in the
combatant ranks were trained in hospital duties and formed a
Medical Staff Corps, but they were not under the command of
the medical officers. In 1861 " Medical Staff Corps " was changed
to " Army Hospital Corps," but the pay and discipline of the
men were directly under the department of the purveyor-in-
chief, and medical officers had no military position until 1869,
when the director-general for the first time was attached to the
military department of the War Office on the recommendation
of a committee presided over by Lord Northbrook. In 1878 the
personnel of the Army Hospital Corps was recruited by direct
enlistment. In 1883 a committee under Lord Morley, after the
Egyptian War, recommended that the Army Hospital Corps
and the officers of the Army Medical Department should be
merged into a " Royal Medical Corps," but this recommenda-
tion was not adopted at the time. A compromise was made by
forming the officers into a body called the " Medical Staff "
and the men into a corps called the " Medical Staff Corps," their
244
ARMY MEDICAL SERVICE
original name. At the same time the officers of the Medical Staff
took complete command over the personnel of the Medical Staff
Corps, and their uniform was assimilated to that of the latter.
Eventually, after considerable agitation on the part of the medi-
cal profession, Lord Lansdowne, then Secretary of State for War,
announced, at a banquet given by the Lord Mayor of London
on May 4 1898 to the medical profession, that the Medical Staff
and the Medical Staff Corps in future would be consolidated into
one corps, namely the Royal Army Medical Corps (R.A.M.C.),
with military ranks and titles from private to colonel similar
to those of other branches of the army. The ranks above colonel,
however, retained the title of surgeon-general until 1918, when
this title was abolished and replaced by that of major-general
or lieutenant-general.
PEACE ORGANIZATION
Administration. The director-general of the Army Medical
Service is the administrative head. He has the rank of lieuten-
ant-general. His office is a branch of the adjutant-general's
department at the War Office. He is not, however, a member
of the Army Council, but may be required to attend council
meetings when his advice is desired on any special subject.
His staff consists of a deputy director-general, who is a major-
general, eight officers of the rank of colonel, lieutenant-colonel or
major (some of whom hold temporary appointments only con-
sequent on the World War) as assistant and deputy assistant
directors-general, and colonels-on-the-staff or major-generals
as directors of hygiene and pathology. The directors of hygiene
and pathology have deputy directors, assistant directors and
deputy-assistant directors of hygiene and pathology as assist-
ants in their directorates. The administration of the Queen
Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service (Q.A.I. M.N.S.)
also forms a branch of the director-general's office under the
matron-in-chief assisted by two principal matrons and a nursing
sister. In 1921 an inspector of dental services was added to the
director-general's staff on the formation of an Army Dental
Corps, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel.
The director-general's administration is assisted by an in-
spector of medical services, who is either a colonel or major-
general of the Army Medical Service. He visits all stations at
home and overseas with a view to maintaining a uniform stand-
ard of training and efficiency. He reports to the adjutant-general.
In all commands at home and overseas the director-general
is represented by deputy-directors and assistant-directors of
medical services. In some of the smaller garrisons the senior
executive medical officer acts in an administrative capacity
without being graded as a deputy or assistant director. The
staff of these administrative offices varies according to the size
and importance of the command or the conditions under which
troops are serving. Thus in the small garrisons in the tropics
where medical research is of importance there is a deputy assist-
ant director of hygiene and pathology, although the administra-
tion may be in the hands of a senior medical officer only. In
India there is a special administration for the Army Medical and
Indian Medical Service. Officers of the latter, when employed on
military duties, are under the administration of a director of
medical services, who is a major-general or lieutenant-general
of the Army Medical Service, but the administrative appoint-
ments of the subordinate military commands in India may be
held either by Army Medical or Indian Medical deputy directors
and assistant directors. In war establishments there is a direc-
tor of medical services in the headquarters of each army, a
deputy director with each corps and an assistant director with
each division. On their staffs are representatives of the direc-
tors of hygiene and pathology and other assistants.
Advisory Boards. Connected with Army Medical administration
there are several advisory boards or committees composed of
military and civil members. An Army Medical Advisory Board
advises on general professional questions. It is presided over by
the director-general and its members are two consulting physicians,
two consulting surgeons, the medical officer of the India Office and
an officer of the Royal Army Medical Corns. An Army Hygiene
Advisory Committee is presided over by the director of hygiene.
Its members include an officer of the Royal Engineers (R.E.) and
of the Royal Army Service Corps (R.A.S.C.), and military and
civil sanitary experts. An Army Pathology Advisory Committee
under the director of pathology is similarly composed of military
and civil pathologists of eminence who deal with technical questions
connected with research into the causes of disease. Queen Alex-
andra's Army Nursing Board, of which Queen Alexandra is president
and the director-general chairman, is composed of the matrons-in-
chief of Q.A.I. M.N.S. and Territorial Force Nursing Service, of
matrons of some of the large civil hospitals and of ladies nominated
by the president. There is also a Technical Advisory Committee on
Voluntary Aid under the director-general. It is composed of repre-
sentatives of the War Office, British Red Cross Society, Scottish
Branch of the Red Cross Society, the council of County Territorial
Force Associations, and the St. John and St. Andrew's Ambulance
Associations. These boards and committees meet at the War Office.
Personnel. The personnel of the Army Medical Service consists
of officers, warrant officers, non-commissioned officers and men of the
R.A.M.C. regular, special reserve, and territorial force, and of the
Army Dental Corps, together with the affiliated nursing services of
the regular army and territorial force, and the voluntary organiza-
tions recognized by the British Government under Article 10 of
the Geneva Convention of 1906. The ranks of officers and men are
the same as for other branches of the service. Officers and other
ranks of the regular R.A.M.C. are under an obligation to serve in all
parts of the world in peace or war: but only the officers serve in
India, where the duties of subordinate ranks are carried out by a
special Indian establishment consisting of an Indian Subordinate
Medical Service, an Army Hospital Corps and an Army Bearer
Corps. The members of the last two are natives of India. The
members of the Indian Subordinate Medical Service are Indian-
born British or natives of India educated in Indian medical schools.
The higher grades rank as commissioned officers and the lower as
warrant officers. The special reserve is organized on a militia basis
and serves on embodiment under the same conditions as the regular
Royal Army Medical Corps. The Territorial Force R.A.M.C. is
organized for war purposes only. It has a general list of officers
for service with regimental and medical units, a special list for
territorial force general hospitals ; and another for sanitary services.
The rank and file of the regular R.A.M.C. are formed into com-
panies, of which in 1921 there were 35, in addition to four depot
companies. Eleven of the companies had their headquarters in
overseas garrisons. Both at home and overseas the headquarters of
R.A.M.C. companies are at one or other of the larger military
hospitals. They provide detachments for smaller hospitals and
general duty. The number in each company varies in accordance
with local requirements. The normal peace establishment of the
regular R.A.M.C. on the active list is approximately 1,100 officers
and 3,800 other ranks, but this is greatly expanded in time of war by
calling up reserves of every description. During the World War it
had expanded to some 15,000 officers and 120,000 other ranks, in the
case of officers chiefly by granting temporary commissions to mem-
bers of the civil profession.
Training. The depot for training the regular R.A.M.C. is at
Aldershot. Territorial Force R.A.M.C. are trained in a school of
instruction in each of 12 territorial divisions by officers of the
regular R.A.M.C., who act as adjutants of the schools. There is a
R.A.M. College in London, where officers of the regular R.A.M.C.,
both on joining and before promotion to major, undergo a course of
instruction in military hygiene, tropical diseases and other pro-
fessional subjects. Training in field duties is carried out in the form
of staff tours, camps of instruction and medical manoeuvres. Train-
ing in sanitation is carried out in an army school of hygiene at
Aldershot and in schools of hygiene established in commands.
Military Hospitals. Military hospitals are established in all
commands at home and abroad. They vary in size from large gen-
eral hospitals, such as the Royal Victoria hospital at Netley with
over 1,000 beds, to small depot hospitals and detention wards in
outlying posts. The number of beds normally maintained in peace-
time in the United Kingdom is approximately seven thousand. In '
the World War this number expanded to more than 364,000; or,
including beds in all theatres of war, to over 640,000.
Medical Stores. An Army Medical Store is maintained at Wool-
wich for the supply of medical and surgical material and equipment
to all garrisons at home and overseas, with the exception of India,
which has its own stores. Supplies are obtained by contract from
manufacturing firms. They are distributed through the central
stores at Woolwich.
WAR ORGANIZATION
The organization of the Army Medical Service for war does
not come into existence until mobilization is ordered. Medical
units, the equipment for which is maintained in mobilization
stores, are then brought into being by the assembly of personnel,
material and transport at places of mobilization assigned to each
unit. Three zones of medical work are recognized : The collecting
zone, the evacuating zone, and the distributing zone. In these
zones there are medical services for the collection, transport
and treatment of sick and wounded, for the supply of medical
ARMY MEDICAL SERVICE
245
and surgical stores, and for sanitary duties. Sick and wounded
are collected in the first instance by a regimental medical service
and passed from it to the field ambulances of the divisions. They
are cleared from the divisions by motor ambulance convoys,
which convey them to casualty clearing stations, whence they
are passed down the lines of communication by rail, canal or
road to the permanent hospital bases, and from there by sea-
going hospital ships to the hospitals in the United Kingdom.
The collecting zone may be regarded, therefore, as the area of
work back to the casualty clearing stations; the evacuating zone
as the lines of communication down to the sea bases or to the
United Kingdom, and the distributing zone as the area of the
hospital bases and the home territory.
The Regimental Medical Sennce. Each regiment of cavalry,
battalion of infantry, brigade of artillery, ammunition column,
squadron or bridging train of engineers and certain supply trains
has an officer of the R.A.M.C. attached to it, together with a small
detachment of R.A.M.C. other ranks for technical charge of water
carts and water supplies. Sixteen men of the regiment are placed
under him during battle as stretcher-bearers; and a non-com-
missioned officer and eight men, trained in sanitary duties, also work
under him. Wounded are collected to a regimental aid po'st, which
is established by the medical officer in a shelter or protected spot
near regimental headquarters.
Field Ambulances. There are two forms of ambulances, the
cavalry field ambulance for cavalry divisions and the field ambulance
for divisions. They differed considerably in organization and trans-
port before the World War, but since then the chief difference is in
their transport. A cavalry division has a cavalry field ambulance
for each brigade of which it is composed. Thus a cavalry division of
four cavalry brigades would have four cavalry field ambulances.
Divisions have three field ambulances each. Both a cavalry field
ambulance and a field ambulance are composed of a bearer division
and a tent division, and are organized in two sections, each section
being formed of half the bearer and half the tent division. In the
bearer division there are 18 stretcher detachments. They bring
wounded back from the regimental aid posts to an advanced dress-
ing station formed by one of the tent sub-divisions at a point to which
wheeled transport can come up. Wounded are conveyed from the
advanced dressing station to a main dressing station formed some
distance back by the remainder of the field ambulance or by other
field ambulances where there is less exposure to enemy fire than at
the advanced dressing station. Formerly both classes of ambulance
had each 10 horse-drawn ambulance wagons, six of which in cavalry
field ambulances were light wagons, the remaining four being heavy
wagons of the same type as the 10 wagons of the field ambulance.
Motor ambulance cars replaced a proportion of the horse-drawn
wagons after the British Expeditionary Force moved from the Aisne
to the Flanders front in 1914. The ambulance transport of the
cavalry field ambulance now consists of four motor ambulance cars
and six light horse-drawn ambulance wagons; that of the field
ambulance is seven motor ambulance cars and two heavy horse-
drawn ambulance wagons! They are employed in battle in carrying
wounded from the advanced to the main dressing station, but may
go forward in advance of the former where it is possible to do so.
Their carrying capacity is two lying or eight sitting in the light
wagon or light ambulance car, and four lying or 12 sitting in the
heavy wagon or motor ambulance car. Field ambulances are
divisional troops and come under the command of the assistant
director of medical services of the division.
Motor Ambulance Convoys. The first motor ambulance convoy
used by the British in war was organized at the end of Sept. 1914 dur-
ing the battle of the Aisne. It was formed of ambulance cars sent to
France by the War Office early in Sept. and was rapidly followed by
similar convoys, some of which were provided by voluntary organiza-
tions. Previously the system by which sick and wounded were
brought from the field ambulances to railhead was to load them in
the lorries of the supply columns returning empty to refill. But the
system broke down early in the World War partly because this form
of transport subjected the wounded to serious discomfort and jolting,
and partly because the requirements of supply services and medical
services were in conflict with one another. A motor ambulance con-
voy consists of 50 motor ambulance cars; it is under the command
of an officer R.A.M.C. with R.A.M.C. personnel for medical duties,
and a R.A.S.C. personnel, under an officer R.A.S.C.,as drivers and
mechanics. The number of these convoys allotted to an army is
usually in the proportion of one for each army corps of which the
army is composed, and one as an army reserve. They are normally
army troops under the control of the director of medical services,
who may, however, place them at the disposal of deputy-directors
of army corps. Their function is to clear the field ambulance main
dressing station of sick and wounded to casualty clearing stations
at or near railheads, and to perform all other ambulance transport
duties by road not carried out by the transport of field ambulances.
In the event of railway transport breaking down or proving insuffi-
cient to relieve congestion of sick and wounded in the front areas,
motor ambulance convoys may be employed for conveying sick and
wounded to hospitals at the base.
Casualty Clearing Stations. These are medical units which form
the link between the collecting and evacuating zones, or between the
divisions of the field army and lines of communication. Their func-
tion is to receive the sick and wounded from the divisional field
ambulances. Sick and wounded likely to be fit for duty after a short
period of treatment are retained, as are also those too seriously ill
for further transport. The remaining sick and wounded, after
receiving temporary medical and surgical treatment, are evacuated
as rapidly as circumstances and railway transport permit to the
hospitals at the base. Casualty clearing stations are consequently
organized with a convalescent or lightly wounded section, a hospital
section, and an evacuating section. The number of casualty clearing
stations allotted to an army is in the proportion of one for each
division, but they are essentially strategical units and are army
troops, the director of medical services being responsible for placing
them where they may best receive and evacuate the number of
wounded anticipated in battle. They are mobilized with personnel
and equipment for the care of 200 casualties at a time, but are capa-
ble of expansion to any extent in the field from local resources or by
bringing up additional equipment and stores from the base, whenever
the nature of the operations admits of this being done. The organi-
zation of casualty clearing stations, therefore, depends very much
on the nature of the military operations. The general principle
upon which it is based is the mobilization of a light mobile unit in
the first instance capable of following up an advancing army with
sufficient equipment and shelter for surgical work at an advanced
operating centre, and adding to it more extensive accommodation
and equipment whenever circumstances permit. In its original
composition a casualty clearing station had no transport of its own.
During the World War three 3-ton lorries were allotted to it. It
was customary to group them in twos or threes in the same locality.
The lorries of a group of three casualty clearing stations would thus
be sufficient to carry forward the advanced operating section of one
of the three, and then return for the others. The weight of the
original equipment, including marquees for 200 patients, was 21
tons, so that the nine lorries were capable of carrying this load. The
heavier equipment and more extensive accommodation added
during stationary warfare required 50 to 60 lorries for moving a
casualty clearing station by road, or a complete train by rail.
Casualty clearing stations are allotted two 3-ton motor lorries each.
Ambulance Trains. The evacuation of wounded by railway is
effected by specially constructed or by improvised ambulance trains.
The former are composed of ambulance coaches with through com-
munication and accommodation varying from 300 lying down to
600 sitting up. They are commanded by an officer of the R.A.M.C.
and are administered by the director of medical services on the lines
of communication, whose staff regulate their journeys in association
with the railway transport staff and in accordance with the demands
of the field army. They are mobilized as a rule in the proportion of
one for each division in the field, but their number depends on the
length of the journeys from front to base and the time taken to
return. Improvised ambulance trains are made up of passenger
coaches or goods vans specially fitted for carrying sick and wounded.
The ambulance trains were of this kind at the beginning of the
World War, and were organized to carry 396 lying down on stretchers
placed on special frames constructed to carry three stretchers each.
Four frames were placed in each of 33 goods vans. Improvised trains
subsequently were used in emergency only and were usually in the
form of passenger coaches for transport of patients sitting up. When
these improvised trains are used rest and refreshment stations are
opened at intermediate halting places for supplying food and com-
forts and for removing patients unfit to continue the journey and
transferring them to local hospitals. Rest stations for attending to
patients pending their removal to hospital are also opened at stations
where all classes of ambulance trains unload. They are formed by
detachments from hospital units or by voluntary aid.
Ambulance Flotillas. Although ambulance flotillas of river
steamers or barges are war establishment units of continental armies,
they are not definitely organized units of the British Army.' They
were formed, however, in 1914-8 for use on the canals in the north
of France, and were composed of barges specially equipped as
hospital wards and towed by steam tugs. Each barge had 30 beds,
kitchen and stores, and accommodation for a staff of one medical
officer, two nursing sisters and nine R.A.M.C. orderlies. Six barges
formed a flotilla, and four flotillas were organized. They brought
seriously wounded from casualty clearing stations to such hospitals
on the lines of communication as were on or near a canal.
Hospital Ships. Passenger or other ocean-going ships are char-
tered in time of war and fitted out as hospital ships for evacuating
sick and wounded from the sea bases of a theatre of war to the
United Kingdom. Their number and carrying capacity depend on
the nature of the campaign, but the most suitable are those which
are neither too large nor too small. A ship carrying 600 to 800
patients in cots was regarded as the best during the World War.
Hospitals are of two kinds, general and stationary. The former are
fully equipped for all kinds of medical or surgical work. They are
organized for 520 or 1 ,040 hospital beds, the smaller in the proportion
of two and the larger in the proportion of one for every division in the
246
ARMY MEDICAL SERVICE
field. They are situated at or near the sea bases but may be estab-
lished in greater or smaller hospital centres elsewhere on the lines of
communication. The stationary hospitals are smaller and less fully
equipped than the general hospitals and are organized for 200 or 400
beds. They are intended to act as local hospitals for the sick of large
camps or other posts on the lines of communication, or as hospitals
for special purposes such as the reception and treatment of infectious
diseases. They are mobilized in the same proportion as general
hospitals. In the United Kingdom the Territorial Force R.A.M.C.
mobilize 24 general hospitals in time of war, each of 520 beds.
Convalescent Depots. These form large camps at the bases or else-
where where convalescents on discharge from hospital are made
physically fit to return to duty by convalescent treatment and
graduated physical training. There is no fixed limit to their numbers
or size. During the World War a convalescent depot could accom-
modate from 1,000 to 5,000 men.
Medical and Surgical Supplies in War. Two kinds of units are
organized for maintaining and distributing medical and surgical
supplies, the base depots of medical stores and the advanced depots.
They are in charge of quartermasters of the R.A.M.C. The base
depots receive their supplies through the Army Medical Stores at
Woolwich. They supply the hospitals and medical services at the
base and on the lines of communication, and are placed as a rule at
the sea bases. Originally the proportion was one for every two
divisions, but there was no fixed proportion during the World War.
As a rule there was one at each sea base or advanced base. Advanced
depots of medical stores are army troops under the control of the
director of medical services of the army, and are allotted in the
proportion of one for each army corps. They are replenished from
the base depots and supply the casualty clearing stations, the
divisional medical units and other medical services of the field army.
Sanitary Organization in War. In addition to the sanitary detach-
ment of each regimental unit, a sanitary section of one officer and
25 men is mobilized with each division and for each base. Sanitary
squads of one non-commissioned officer and four men are also mobil-
ized for each railhead or railway post on the lines of communication.
The personnel of sanitary sections and squads act as sanitary
inspectors, supervise the construction of sanitary requirements in
camps and billets, and maintain sanitary establishments.
Mobile Laboratories. For special work in the field four classes
of mobile laboratories are organized. Mobile hygiene laboratories
for chemical analysis of water and food supplies and for other hy-
gienic investigations are allotted in the proportion of one to each
army. Mobile bacteriological laboratories for medical and surgical
bacteriological investigation are allotted in the proportion of two to
each army. A mobile X-ray laboratory and a mobile dental unit,
in the proportion of one of each to an army, are attached to one of the
casualty clearing stations. All these laboratories are constructed on
motor chassis and can be placed in any area as required.
Nursing Services in War. Members of the nursing services are
employed in all the general and stationary hospitals, in ambulance
trains and flotillas, hospital ships and casualty clearing stations.
Voluntary Organization in War. Voluntary aid detachments of
men and women are organized under County Territorial Force
Associations by county directors of the British Red Cross Society
or St. John Ambulance Association. They have a definite composi-
tion and are registered at the War Office. On mobilization they
undertake the opening and staffing of auxiliary hospitals throughout
the United Kingdom and the local transport of patients who are
being distributed to hospitals in the United Kingdom. Members of
women's Voluntary Aid Detachments (V.A.D.) may also be employed
in nursing duties in military hospitals. In theatres of war the chief
function of voluntary aid organizations is to maintain stores for
supplementing hospital equipment and supplies by articles which
may add to their comfort and appearance, and by distributing gifts.
Medical units offered by voluntary services or private individuals
are not recognized unless they are organized on the same lines as
corresponding regular units and under the command of officers of
the R.A.M.C. In addition to the voluntary aid detachments, the
St. John Ambulance Brigade and the St. Andrew's Ambulance
Association maintain a home hospital reserve, the personnel of
which takes the place of the regular R.A.M.C. in the military hos-
pitals in the United Kingdom when the latter are mobilized to form
the medical units of the war establishments. At the beginning of the
war in 1914 the St. John Ambulance Brigade had ready a home
hospital reserve of 2,200 men and the St. Andrew's Ambulance
Association 113, but these numbers increased so rapidly that by the
end of 1915 over 15,000 of the St. John Ambulance Brigade were
serving in the military hospitals in Great Britain; (W. G. MA.)
UNITED STATES
Functions. By Army Regulations the Medical Department in
1910 wascharged with the following duties: Investigating the san-
itary conditions of the army and making recommendations with
reference thereto; advising with regard to the location of per-
manent stations, the selection and purification of water supplies,
and the disposal of wastes; caring for the sick and wounded;
making physical examinations of officers and enlisted men;
managing military hospitals; recruiting, instructing and con-
trolling the enlisted force of the Medical Department and the
Nurse. Corps; and furnishing all medical and hospital supplies,
except for public animals. In 1921 these functions persisted.
COMPOSITION
Medical Department. In. 1911 the Medical Department com-
prised the Medical Corps, Medical Reserve Corps, Dental Corps,
Hospital Corps (male), and Nurse Corps (female), to which could be
added contract surgeons and other civilians. The National Defense
Act of 1916 provided that the Department should consist of " one
surgeon-general, . . . who shall be chief of said department, a
Medical Corps, a Medical Reserve Corps, ... a Dental Corps, a
Veterinary Corps, an Enlisted Force, the Nurse Corps, and contract
surgeons . . ." Subject to the appointment of great numbers of
officers in temporary grades up to and including that of major-
general, as authorized by war legislation, this Act covered the
organization of the medical service during the World War, with the
exception that a new temporary body was formed which was known
as the Sanitary Corps and consisted of officers and enlisted men, not
graduates in medicine, who possessed knowledge or experience of
value to the Medical Department. The Act approved June 4 1920
stipulated that the surgeon-general should have the rank of major-
general and should have two assistants with the rank of brigadier-
general; it added a new branch, the Medical Administrative Corps;
under this Act the enlisted strength of the Medical Department
could not exceed 5% of the actual commissioned and enlisted
strength of the army; the number of officers in the Medical Corps
was fixed at 6-5 for every 1,000 of " authorized " (virtually actual)
enlisted strength of the regular army.
As provided by Act of April 23 1908, the Medical Corps of the
army consisted of one surgeon-general with rank of brigadier-general,
14 colonels, 24 lieutenant-colonels, 105 majors and 300 captains or
first lieutenants, advancement being by seniority except in the case
of lieutenants, who were promoted after three years' service. The
scheme for promotion was modified by the Act approved June 4
1920, to provide that officers of the Dental and Medical Corps should
be promoted to the grade of captain after three years' service, to the
grade of major after 12 years' service, to the grade of lieutenant-
colonel after 20 years' service, and to the grade of colonel after 26
years' service, all subject to the satisfactory passing of the required
examinations. On Oct. I 1921 there were 43 colonels, 87 lieutenant-
colonels, 483 majors, 474 captains, and 52 first lieutenants.
Beginning with 1901 the Medical Department employed civilian
dentists under contract. The Act of March 3 1911 established a
Dental Corps, consisting of lieutenants in the proportion of one to
each 1,000 of actual enlisted strength of the army, but in no event to
exceed 60. By an Act approved Oct. 6 1917 the Corps was made to
consist of officers of the same grades and proportionate distribution of
grades as were then, or as might thereafter, be provided by law for
the Medical Corps. On Oct. I 1921, there were m the Dental Corps
eight colonels, 15 lieutenant-colonels, 62 majors, 132 captains and
25 first lieutenants. The Veterinary Corps was established by the
National Defense Act and took over the veterinarians formerly
assigned to mounted regiments and to the Quartermaster Depart-
ment. On Oct. I 1921 there were in the Veterinary Corps four
Colonels, six lieutenant-colonels, 17 majors, 25 captains,. 97 first
lieutenants and six second lieutenants. The Medical Reserve Corps
was established by Act of April 23 1908 for the purpose of securing a
supply of medical officers available in emergency. The National
Defense Act abolished the Medical Reserve Corps, as such, and
established an Officers' Reserve Corps, with sections corresponding
:o the various arms, staff corps and departments of the regular army.
Under this law a medical section of the Officers' Reserve Corps,
containing approximately 1,256 physicians, existed at the outbreak
of the World War. On Oct. 14 1921 there were 5,816 officers enrolled
in the medical section of the Officers' Reserve Corps, 3,747 in the
dental section, 390 in the veterinary section, 264 in the sanitary
section, and 491 in the medical administrative section. A Hospital
Dorps, composed of hospital stewards and privates, was established
>y Act of March I 1887, which directed that all necessary hospital
services in garrison, camp or field, including ambulance service,
should be performed by members of this corps, which was perma-
nently attached to the Medical Department. The National Defense
Act abolished the designation " Hospital Corps " and substituted
therefor an Enlisted Force, consisting of non-commissioned officers,
privates first class, and privates. The Army Nurse Corps (female)
came into existence in 1901. No appreciable change in its organiza-
ion was made until the Act of June 4 1920, when the members of the
^urse Corps were given relative rank, the superintendent having
hat of major, the assistant superintendents that of captain, chief
nurses that of first lieutenant, and head nurses and nurses that of
second lieutenant. In respect of matters within the line of their
duties, nurses were given authority, in and about military hospitals,
next after officers of the Medical Department. Nurses in 1921
continued to be employed under contract for a period of three years,
and did not receive the pay of their relative rank. The Medical
ARMY MEDICAL SERVICE
247
Administrative Corps was established by the Act approved June .,
1920. Appointees therein must have had enlisted service in the
Medical Department. These officers act in the capacity of adjutants
mess officers, registrars, property officers, commanders of detach
ments, and the like, in medico-military units, thereby relieving
medical officers of the necessity of performing these essential bu
non-professional duties.
National Guard. The organized militia, known as the Nationa
Guard, possesses a medical department consisting of a medical corps
dental corps, veterinary corps and enlisted force, conforming ir
organization, discipline and equipment to like units of the Medica
Department of the regular army. The personnel, known collectively
as sanitary troops, is divided into three groups: (a) those assigned
to combatant units ; (b) those organized into sanitary units such as
medical regiments, hospital companies and ambulance companies
and (c) those belonging to state staff corps and departments.
PEACE-TIME ORGANIZATION
Surgeon-General's Office. Whether in peace or war, the surgeon-
general's office in Washington is one of the coordinate bureaus of the
War Department which function under the Secretary of War through
the intermediate channel of the chief-of-staff. The surgeon-general
advises the War Department in matters relating to his bureau,
coordinates all technical activities of the Medical Department
through corps area or department surgeons, originates medical
policies, compiles medical statistics, distributes personnel to the
corps areas and geographical departments, and directly controls all
matters ^relating to the purchase of supplies and the expenditure of
appropriations for construction and repair of hospitals and employ-
ment of civilians. These functions did not change materially in
character between 1910 and 1921 but the work expanded greatly;
then the duties were divided between four divisions: Personnel,
Supply, Sanitation, and Museum and Library; the organization on
Oct. I 1921 included the following eleven divisions, each being
staffed with one or more officers specially selected because of their
knowledge of the subjects handled: Administrative; Coordination,
Organization and Equipment; Dental; Finance and Supply;
Hospital; Library; Personnel; Sanitation; Statistical; Training;
Veterinary.
Aviation Service. Detailed administration of Medical Depart-
ment matters relating to aviation is handled by a medical officer
attached to the staff of the chief of the air service.
Department _and Corps Area Surgeons. The continental United
States^ is divided for administrative purposes into nine " corps
areas," and the outlying possessions into three departments (Hawai-
ian, Philippine, and Panama Canal). A department or corps-area
surgeon, as one of the staff of the commanding general of each
department or corps area, presides over the medical activities therein.
Station Personnel. At all military stations, other than general
hospitals, medical officers and a suitable detachment of enlisted men
of the Medical Department are assigned to care for the troops and
to administer the station hospital, which usually provides beds for
at least 3% of the forces. If the command is part of a tactical unit
some or all of these medical officers and enlisted men are nominally
attached to the combatant troops in preparation for active service.
General Hospitals. Large institutions, known as " general hos-
pitals," are maintained (a) to afford better facilities than can be
provided at station hospitals for the observation and treatment of
obscure, complicated and serious cases, (b) to instruct and train
junior officers, nurses and enlisted men, and (c) to furnish a nucleus
for expansion in time of war. In 1910 there were four such hospitals
in the United States army, which number in 1921 had been increased
to six.
Education, Training and Investigation. The Army Medical
School, Washington, D. C., was established in 1893 with the object of
training students in the duties which pertain to the Medical Depart-
ment. The student body consists of officers of the Medical Corps,
the Medical Reserve Corps and the National Guard, and of enlisted
men in the Medical Department. From 1910 to 1919 the regular
course covered about eight months, but it was shortened and
instruction in the non-medical features of a complete medico-
military curriculum transferred to the Medical Field Service School,
established in 1920 at Carlisle, Pa.
WAR-TIME ORGANIZATION
Object of the Medical Department in War. The objects of Medical
Department administration in war are : First, the preservation of the
strength of the army in the field by (a) the institution of requisite
sanitary measures for preventing avoidable sickness; (6) the reten-
tion of effectives at the front ; and (c) the prompt succour of wounded
on the battlefield and their removal to the rear, thus preventing the
unnecessary withdrawal of combatants from the firing line to
accompany them. Second, the care and treatment of the sick and
injured in the zone of the advance, on the line of communications,
and in the home territory. Third, the promotion of general moral
among the troops through the knowledge that efficient medical and
surgical attention is immediately available.
Voluntary Aid and the Red Cross. Organized voluntary aid may
be utilized to supplement the resources and assist the personnel of
the Medical Department only through the American National Red
Cross. Before military patients are assigned to establishments main-
tamed by the Red Cross Society these establishments will be placed
under the immediate direction of a medical officer of the army.
Administrative Organization in the Theatre of Operations. The
theatre of operations is divided into (a) the combat zone, including
division areas, corps areas and army areas; (b) the communications
zone, including all territory from the rear of the combat zone to and
including the base. In a large expeditionary force a chief surgeon
coordinates all Medical Department activities of the force, including
the combat and communications zones; he organizes his office on
the basis described above for the surgeon-general's office.
Communications Zone. The chief surgeon of this zone, as a mem-
ber of the staff of the commanding officer thereof, exercises imme-
diate control over the Medical Department units therein, such as
station and general hospitals, supply depots, training schools, central
laboratories, hospital trains, boats and ships, ambulance parks, etc.
The function of the Medical Department in the zone of communica-
tion is medical procurement, storage and supply, care of the troops
within its area, evacuation of sick and wounded, and definitive
hospitalization. The following are the more important units: The
general hospital (formerly termed base hospital) is for definitive
treatment, having a normal capacity of 1 ,000 beds but capable of
crisis expansion by tentage to 2,000. These institutions provide
every facility for the care of the sick and wounded; certain ones
specialize on particular classes of injuries or diseases. The authorized
personnel consists of 40 officers, 120 nurses and 312 enlisted men of
the Medical Department. The station hospital (formerly styled
camp hospital) has a standard capacity of 300 beds and serves the
immediate local needs of troops belonging to the communications
zone. The personnel consists of 13 officers, 35 nurses and 100 enlisted
men of the Medical Department. A hospital train consists of 1 6 cars
accommodating 360 patients, with a Medical Department person-
nel of four officers, 40 enlisted men, and female nurses as required.
Combat Zone The area covered by this zone includes the troops
which are organized into divisions, corps and armies. The Medical
Department personnel pertaining to an army, to a corps or to a
division is administered by an army, corps or division surgeon
respectively, under supervision of the surgeon of the next higher
unit. The functions of the surgeon are coordination, supervision and
control of the medical service at all times and during combat par-
ticularly the relief or reenforcement of the actively engaged Medical
Department units by means of army, corps or divisional troops. The
work concerns itself only with sanitation, care of troops, collection of
casualties and temporary hospitalization.
Army and Corps Medical Department Troops. To an army, in
addition to its administrative medical personnel, there are attached
four medical regiments, 15 evacuation hospitals, 12 surgical hos-
pitals, one convalescent hospital, one army laboratory, three army
supply depots, three army veterinary evacuation hospitals, and one
veterinary convalescent hospital ; collectively these form part of the
army troops. The 15 evacuation and 12 surgical hospitals are for
the temporary care of non-evacuable cases and the convalescent hos-
pital is for those practically well and needing little attention, but
not yet ready to return to duty. A corps has an administrative
medical organization similar to that of an army but smaller; it has
one medical regiment as part of its corps troops. The evacuation
hospital has the primary function of taking over patients from
divisional (field) hospitals, established by the hospital companies of
a medical regiment, so that these mobile units may move with their
divisions; provision is made for very complete surgical treatment if
necessary. The capacity is 750 beds and the personnel 38 officers,
50 female nurses and 281 enlisted men. The surgical hospital supple-
ments the evacuation hospital for the purpose of handling near the
ront those cases requiring immediate operation. The bed capacity
s 250 and the personnel consists of 19 officers, 20 female nurses and
90 enlisted men. The convalescent hospital has a bed capacity of
5,000 and a personnel of 21 officers and 153 enlisted men.
Medical Department Troops Attached to a Division. The infantry
division, which is a basic tactical unit, has a Medical Department
personnel of 148 officers and 1,375 enlisted men. Part of these are
directly attached to combatant units; the remainder belong to the
medical regiment. The regimental medical personnel cares for the
sick and injured in camp and on the march; supervises local sanita-
:ion; goes into action with the troops; and establishes battalion or
regimental aid stations where wounded are collected and given
emporary care. The medical regiment, replacing the sanitary
:rain of the pre-war period, consists of a sanitary battalion, an
imbulance battalion with 40 motor and 20 animal-drawn ambu-
ances, and a hospital battalion of three hospital companies, each
operating a tent (field) hospital of 250 beds capacity. Its personnel
consists of 68 officers (medical, dental and veterinary) and 860
:nlisted men. The medical regiment of a division provides personnel
or the division surgeon's office and for sanitation of the division
area, collects wounded men by litter squads from battalion or
regimental aid stations and transports them to the ambulances,
maintains wheeled transportation service for movement of casualties,
upplies temporary hospitalization, procures and issues medical
upplies for the command, renders laboratory service and collects,
reals and temporarily hospitalizes sick animals.
248
ARRIAGA ARTILLERY
THE DEPARTMENT'S WORK IN THE WORLD WAR
Sanitary Achievements. The value of a medical service in war
should be measured, first, by the degree to which it preserves the
effective strength of the army by sanitary methods, and, second, by
its success in evacuating and caring for the sick and wounded. In
both respects the Medical Department of the American army
attained notable results. The success in preventing infectious dis-
eases and losses from them, as compared with the Civil and Spanish-
American Wars, is shown by the fact that only 6,445 fatalities occurred
as a result of typhoid fever, malaria, dysentery, smallpox, scarlet
fever, diphtheria and other miscellaneous communicable diseases
(excluding tuberculosis and pneumonia), whereas if the Spanish War
rates had prevailed there would have been 101,439 deaths, and if
the Civil War rate had prevailed there would have been 170,997
deaths from these causes.
Care of Sick and Wounded. In the succour of the sick and wounded
great advances were made both in the theatre of operations and in
the service of the interior. Personnel directly attached to com-
batant organizations was greatly increased. Mobile surgical hos-
pitals were organized and operated close to the front ; X-ray examina-
tions were everywhere available; splints for use in transporting
fracture cases were enormously improved. Motorization of ambu-
lance service was carried to an extent hitherto undreamed of. Base
hospitals were enlarged to accommodate 1,000 patients or more, and
were frequently grouped in centres, sometimes aggregating 20,000
beds, including the crisis expansion under canvas. In such centres
the individual hospitals specialized, one treating gassed cases,
another head cases and others chest wounds, fractures, abdominal
injuriesand medical patients respectively. Laboratory service both at
the front and on the lines of communication was expanded beyond
all precedent. Professional services were more carefully coordinated
and supervised than ever before; the most expert personnel was
divided into groups, such as operating teams, gas teams, shock
teams, etc., for quick transport by automobile or train to points
where need was greatest. Veterinary units were augmented in size
and number, caring promptly for sick and wounded animals. In
the zone of the interior hospital service was brought to the highest
standard, the best professional talent of the country was mobilized,
and notable progress was made in the treatment of the sick and
injured, particularly in the direction of physical reconstruction of the
wounded, with a view to returning the individual to the community
as a self-sustaining citizen.
Physical Examinations. Nearly 4,000,000 officers and men were
given a careful physical examination by the Medical Department
before admission to the military service and approximately the same
number were again examined before demobilization ; careful records
thereof protect the interests of both the individual and the Govern-
ment. Valuable data as to the physical status of the nation were
obtained from an analysis of these examinations.
Personnel. On April 6 1917, the Medical Department personnel
was not even sufficient for the peace-time needs of the small regular
army. The increase is shown in the following table :
. .. , November 30 1918
A P nl 6 '917 (Approximate)
Medical Corps . . 491
Medical Reserve Corps,
on active duty . . 342 Medical Corps . . 30,500
Dental Corps ... 86 Dental Corps . . 4,600
Veterinary Corps . . 62 Veterinary Corps . . 2,000
Contract Surgeons . . 181 Contract Surgeons . 940
Civilian employees . 450 Civilian employees . 10,700
Sanitary Corps . . 2,900
U.S.A. Amb. Service . 206
Nurse Corps . . . 233
Reserve Nurse Corps on
active duty . . . 170 Nurse Corps . . . 21,480
Enlisted Personnel . . 6,900 Enlisted Personnel . 264,000
Hospitals. When war was declared the army possessed four
general and 113 small station hospitals with a total capacity of
6,665 beds. At the height of military activities there were in the
United States 47 general hospitals, about 40 large base hospitals
(ranging in size from 800 to 3,000 beds each) and a great number of
smaller hospitals; the total capacity was over 130,000 patients. In
the A.E.F. at the time of the Armistice, Nov. II 1918, there were
in operation 153 base, 66 camp and 12 convalescent hospitals with a
bed capacity of 283,553. By Dec. 5 this capacity had increased to
296,865 and with buildings already leased, under construction or
authorized, would in due course have reached 423,722, with crisis
expansion to 541,000. (\y. P. C.)
ARRIAGA BRUN DA SILVEIRA E PEYRELONGUE, MANOEL
JOSE D' (1830-1917), Portuguese politician, was born at Horta,
in the Azores, in 1839. He was educated at the university of
Coimbra, where he took his degree in law in 1866. He became
known as a strong Republican, and in 1882 was elected deputy
for Funchal, in 1890 becoming deputy for Lisbon. His Repub-
lican principles caused him to be a figure of much importance
at the time of the revolution of 1910, and on Aug. 24 1911 he
was elected first president of the Portuguese Republic (see POR-
TUGAL). He resigned office in 1915, and died March 5 1917.
ARROL, SIR WILLIAM (1839-1913), British engineer, was
born at Houston, Renfrewshire, Feb. 13 1839. In his boyhood
he was apprenticed to a smith at Paisley, and worked through
several engineering shops until, in 1868, he was able to set up
as a boiler-maker. In 1872 he took up construction in steel
and started the Dalmarnock ironworks, becoming an expert in
bridge-building. The Caledonian Railway bridge at Glasgow,
the reconstructed Tay bridge (1882-7), Forth bridge (1882-9),
the Tower bridge, London, and the Nile bridge at Cairo were
amongst his principal achievements. He was knighted in 1890.
He sat in the House of Commons for Ayrshire (S.) as a Unionist
member from 1895-1906. He died at Ayr Feb. 20 1913.
See Sir Robert Purvis, Sir William Arrol (1913).
ARTILLERY (see 2.685). Before the World War, the general
military ideas of artillery procedure and purposes were some-
what the same in all countries.
It is proposed here to consider the lessons of the World War
in the order in which they were learnt. As the war progressed,
fresh problems presented themselves, fresh necessities arose,
and artillery methods, equipment, and organization had to be
modified to meet them.
The war on the western European front may be divided into
four phases: a dash by the invader into the enemy's country;
a long period of immobile warfare, both sides entrenched;
and the breaking of the line, followed either by retreat and re-
construction or else by the full exploitation of victory.
The first, or mobile, phase of a modern war is of the greatest
importance; it decides whether the campaign is to be fought in
the defender's country or in the invader's. When one country
attacks another, it is the object both of her statesman and her
soldiers to make the initial dash as rapid and effective as possible,
so as to finish the campaign in the first stage, and to avoid the
long war of attrition which results when two nearly equal
armies are entrenched. Similarly, the defender endeavours to
crush the invading force at the outset, or to drive it back into
its own territory. Therefore, in pre-war preparation, the re-
quirements of trench warfare must be subordinated to those
of mobile warfare.
In the World War, at least four-fifths of the main Western
campaign was fought in the trenches; and the only seriously
contested campaign in which the first phase was carried through
to a finish was the invasion of Rumania by the Germans. Even
in Allenby's brilliant Palestine campaign there was a long
pause after the taking of Jerusalem. It seems highly probable
that the longest, though not the most important, period of a
future war will consist of trench warfare. Speculation as to
the effect of new weapons, such as tanks, aircraft, and gas, in
changing the nature of war, may be as misleading as regards the
future as it has been in the past, and, at the least, it is necessary,
at the present time, to provide for trench warfare as well as for
mobile warfare in the training and equipment of an army.
I. MOBILE WARFARE
Mobility. The initial phase of a war requires a high degree
of mobility. Once the invader has left his own railways behind,
he must, at first, depend almost entirely on roads. He desires
to advance at the rate of 50 miles a day, which is a very different
matter from covering 10 m. an hour over short distances. The
defender requires an equal degree of mobility to counter the
attack. Motor transport for guns and infantry is the only
means of attaining this marching pace. As regards the artillery,
with which we are here concerned, the gradual disappearance
of the civilian " van horse " will, in course of time, make it
difficult to keep up horsed guns in peace time, and impossible
in war. There is therefore a general agreement that the artillery
must become motor artillery. It is obviously impossible to
make such a change all at once; the question is, which natures
and formations should be converted first. Before dealing with
this point we may consider the types of artillery motor required.
ARTILLERY
249
The weight of artillery opinion is against the automobile gun-
carriage, which is too large to dig in or conceal, and too vulnerable;
moreover, the motor is useless when the gun is in action, and might
better be employed elsewhere. Pulling a gun behind a tractor has
many advantages, and is economical of transport, since the tractor
carries the men and first supply of ammunition. The difficulty is that
an ordinary Q.F. gun-carriage breaks up when drawn by a tractor
at any pace faster than a walk. In March 1918, at the time of the
German attack, the French brought up a large number of field guns
drawn by lorries. These guns had to be fitted with rubber-tired
wheels for the purpose. Again, in the autumn of 1918, the French
(who were by then very short of horses) used field guns carried on
lorries, with the gun-teams carried in motor-omnibuses converted
into horse-floats. Only sufficient horses to bring the guns into action
were transported in this way. By the end of the war the French had
266 tractor-drawn batteries of divisional artillery, and 306 batteries
on lorries.
The French sometimes adopted a still bolder solution of the prob-
lem, namely, carrying the 7-ton caterpillar tractor on a special
road lorry. Some authorities are disposed to think that this heroic
method offers a better prospect of success than trying to produce
a tractor that shall be able to cross country and also to travel fast
on the road without damage to the surface. For a light caterpillar
tractor, capable of pulling a field gun across country, may be made to
weigh 50 cwt. or less, so that a large 4-ton lorry can carry both the
tractor and a 3O-cwt. field gun as far as the point where the gun has
to leave the road. However, the method of carrying one motor on
another seems so wasteful that it is regarded as a last resource.
The Italians have tried carrying the guns on lorries, with ramps to
run them on and off, but find the system wasteful of transport ; the
gun takes up so much space on the lorry that there is no room to load
it to its full capacity with men and ammunition. In 1921 they were
experimenting with low-travelling platforms, of which one or possibly
two are to be drawn by elastic couplings behind a fast road tractor;
the platform, which carries a wheeled field gun, is on rubber-tired
wheels and is supported on road springs so as to run smoothly at 12
m. an hour. These are for reserve " army " field artillery, and the
guns are to be drawn into position by the horses, or cross-country
tractors, of the divisional artillery which they reenforce.
There is one set of conditions under which the carrier has the ad-
vantage of the tractor, and that is in getting guns forward over the
" crater-field " when this is very boggy. In the zone of contact of two
hostile forces, when these are entrenched, the ground is pock-marked
with shell craters, and in wet weather it may become a swamp into
which any wheeled vehicle sinks, even if it is attempted to drag it
behind a caterpillar. There are certain conditions of ground over
which a caterpillar can carry a gun, though it cannot drag it. These
must, however, be considered exceptional, and too rare to justify the
adoption of carriers in place of tractors. Moreover, the sinking of
the gun may be obviated to a great extent by using " girdles," which
are linked plates surrounding the wheels. Girdles are also used on
wheeled tractors for crossing soft ground.
A very important factor in the question of the motor transport of
artillery is the necessity of using the agricultural motors of the
country in time of war. The French are now endeavouring to pro-
duce an agricultural tractor, mobile on and off the road, which shall
fulfil military requirements and shall also be used in very large
numbers for agriculture. The introduction of a proportion of auto-
mobile gun-carriages, though spoken of by the French press, is a
question which is still unsettled. The French guns up to the 6 in.,
and howitzers up to the 9-45 in. inclusive will be road-mobile, being
divided into tractor loads, where possible not exceeding 5 tons net.
All heavier natures will be on railway mountings.
In Italy, the intention is to have all the divisional artillery (which
is to consist of field guns and field howitzers only) drawn by small
agricultural tractors, road speed 5 m. an hour. These are not to be
caterpillars but four- wheel-drive motors, and it is considered that the
pattern adopted (Pavesi of Milan) will be sufficiently mobile across
country. Girdles are carried for use on soft ground. The army field
artillery will be drawn by fast road tractors as mentioned above.
The corps artillery, consisting of 4-in. guns and 6-in. howitzers, will
be drawn by wheeled road tractors of 50 and 55 H.P. These are also
used for the component parts of heavy artillery loads up to the 12-in.
howitzer inclusive. These also carry girdles for soft ground.
The question of artillery transport is more urgent in Italy than
elsewhere, since the country produces no artillery draught-horses.
Italy is the only country which has actually begun the conversion of
horsed to motor artillery ; the United States and France, though they
used motor artillery during the war, are still only preparing to intro-
duce it as part of their permanent organization. The Italian "aulo-
portata" army regiment of 48 field guns referred to above is the only
such unit in existence. The reason why wheeled tractors, not cater-
pillars, have been preferred is that owing to the nature of the cul-
tivation there is no prospect of cross-country agricultural tractors of
the caterpillar type being used on any large scale.
The United States are trying both tractors and automobile gun-
carriages ; apparently they do not favour platform carriers.
The order of conversion of the different horsed artillery forma-
tions to motor transport will probably, in all countries, be on
the following lines: (i) All transport which keeps to the road,
including ammunition columns; (2) all guns and howitzers
heavier than the divisional artillery; (3) army field artillery;
(4) all first-line ammunition wagons; (5) guns and fighting
battery wagons of the divisional artillery. It is, however, an
open question whether army field artillery should not be con-
verted to motor transport first of all, on account of the high
importance of having a reserve of field artillery, able to travel
long distances at a fast pace, available on the outbreak of war.
It need hardly be said that in future the artillery motors of the
fighting formations will belong to the artillery and be driven
by artillery drivers, not by men borrowed from the general
transport corps of the army.
Road-Mobile Super-Heavy Artillery. One of the first sur-
prises of the war was the reduction of the strong fortresses in
Belgium and northern France by the German super-heavy
artillery. These fortresses were designed to resist 6-in. guns and
8-in. howitzers, and the Germans brought up 12-in. and even
i6-5-in. (42 cm.) howitzers by road to attack them. The limita-
tions of the transport of heavy loads by road vary in different
countries. The British used 22-ton traction engines in the S.
African War of 1899-1902, at the end of which they were sold
out of the service as too heavy for English bridges. The bridges
on the continental " national " roads are stronger than most
English bridges, and, on some routes, are capable of taking a
gross load of 30 tons on four wheels. The 42-cm. howitzer was
divided into loads, the heaviest of which was about 29 tons gross.
It was no doubt built with regard to the roads by which it would
have to travel. A short (25-calibre) 9-2-in. gun or long 8-in. gun
would make loads of the same weight. However, in France it
has been decided, as mentioned above, not to transport super-
heavy ordnance by road. These pieces are all to be on railway
mountings. The reason for this is the greatly increased range
which was demanded of howitzers during the war; thus the
British 6-in. howitzer in use in 1914, which ranged 6,000 yd.,
was replaced by a howitzer of the same calibre ranging n,6oo
yd., and a similar increase of range was required of all pieces
which, before the war, were classed as siege artillery. It is there-
fore considered that it will always be possible to find or to build
a position for heavy guns and howitzers on railway mountings
within range of a fort or of any target which they may have to
engage.
Liaison. An early experience of the war was the breakdown
of the method of cooperation of infantry and artillery which
had been taught in peace time. The French were the great
exponents of this method. It consisted of liaison par le haul,
which means, for instance, that the divisional commander de-
tails a groupe of three batteries to support the attack of a brigade
of infantry; and liaison par le bas, which means that the in-
fantry brigade and artillery group commanders, and even
their subordinates, the battalion and the battery commanders,
keep up constant communication during the fight. Under
battle conditions, liaison par le bas broke down at once. The
British did rather better than the French, because they had
five officers per battery as against three, and because they were
trained in the use of the concealed artillery position, which
necessitates distant communications. During sedentary war-
fare communication was perfect; every company in the front-
line trench had a battery to support it, and the battery prided
itself on putting over a storm of shrapnel within 10 seconds of
receiving the call for assistance. But as soon as the troops left
their trenches, in advance or retreat, direct communication
between infantry and artillery units ceased altogether. Tele-
phone lines were cut by the enemy's fire; visual signallers were
shot down, or, even if they succeeded in finding cover, the
smoke and dust soon interrupted their view. Orderlies rarely
succeeded in getting through, and the few that escaped being
killed or wounded arrived too late for their messages to be of
any use. Many devices were tried by the armies engaged;
the German system of light signals was the least unsatisfactory.
But the direct and intimate cooperation of infantry and artillery
units was never realized.
250
ARTILLERY
The Barrage. This breakdown of communications obliged
the contending armies to adopt a simpler means of cooperation,
and led to the general introduction of the " creeping barrage "
(French barrage roulant, German Feuerwalze). Briefly, it is a
screen of shells bursting on and close to the ground, which is
moved forward across the country by short leaps according
to a pre-determined time-table. It is " halted " on each suc-
cessive objective for some 10 minutes before the infantry assaults
it, in order to intensify the effect. It is then moved forward
again to screen their further progress, and, when the last ob-
jective has been reached, it becomes a " standing " barrage
to screen and protect the troops while they " consolidate "
the ground which has been gained.
The infantry follow behind the barrage, keeping just clear of
the zone of bursting shell. They are screened from aimed fire
by the smoke and the dust thrown up, and the barrage is in-
tended to destroy any opposition as it passes on. If it succeeds in
doing this, communication between infantry units and the sup-
porting artillery becomes superfluous. It has proved practically
impossible to control or check the pace of the barrage when it
has once started, although the Germans attempted to do so
by light signals. This is on account of the difficulty of passing
the information from the particular infantry unit which wants a
modification of programme to the particular battery or bat-
teries concerned with that part of the barrage, through a " chain
of command." For at least one gun per 20 yd. of barrage front
is used, and the batteries whose concentrated fire forms the bar-
rage may themselves be widely dispersed.
Similar creeping barrages are used to screen retreating troops,
though the problem is then more difficult, since the enemy dic-
tates the pace of retirement. Such barrages are therefore made
as simple as possible in plan and in execution. Other forms of
barrage are used. " Flank " barrages are used to screen the
flanks of troops, either halted or in motion. " Standing," as
opposed to " creeping," barrages are used for many purposes,
such as to prevent the enemy from reinforcing a portion of his
line which is being attacked. A form of standing barrage often
used for this purpose is the " box " barrage, consisting of one
barrage parallel to the front attacked and two at right angles to
it, forming three sides of a rectangle. A " preventive " barrage
is put down over the enemy's lines when he is supposed to be
about to attack. A " counter barrage " is one put down when
the enemy is actually attacking, so managed as to take effect
on his troops as they follow up their own barrage. In some
instances a sham barrage, with no troops behind it, was used to
divert attention from the real attack.
Important as the barrage is, it cannot be considered a satis-
factory substitute for aimed fire; it is an expedient which has to
be resorted to when fire of precision cannot be carried out. Mar-
shal Foch had occasion to warn the French artillery against
trusting too much to it. In a circular issued in the summer of
1918, he writes:
" The rolling barrage adopted by the Germans no longer meets
the conception of the present war. The artillery cannot pretend to
overwhelm the entire terrain of the attack with a rolling barrage,
even if redoubled. Its object is not gained by unloosing a brutal fire
over a given zone and searching progressively at random with a
fire directed straight to its front, without regard as to whether it is
followed by the infantry. It is better to attack definite points
and intensify the interdiction, the counter-battery, or the crushing
fire on certain points, reserving a part of the field batteries for accom-
panying the infantry in intimate cooperation with it."
In other words, it is unsound to abandon at the outset all
fire of precision on important targets, and every endeavour to
work in cooperation with the infantry, and, instead, to attempt
to mow down all opposition with a machine.
The Barrage in Mobile Warfare. Although the creeping bar-
rage is primarily used in the deliberate attack on an entrenched
position, even in mobile warfare troops are frequently checked
by an enemy holding an improvised position, and it may then be
necessary to bring up all available artillery at once, and to form
a creeping barrage to cover the attack. When an attack is led
by tanks, it is necessary to have a barrage to conceal them, other-
wise a great many are hit.
Wireless telegraphy may possibly be so developed as to be-
come both directive and selective, so that a hundred stations
may talk at once without mutual interference, or risk of being
" jammed " by the enemy. Some progress in this direction
has already been made. If this or other reliable means of sending
and receiving messages becomes a practical fact, it will solve
the problem of communication between infantry and artillery,
and the crude method of barrage will fall into disuse.
Guns of Accompaniment. As the creeping barrage advances
it is intended to destroy all opposition. But it was found in
practice that enemy detachments provided with good cover,
such as machine-gun sections with overhead protection, got
underground while the barrage was passing over them, and then
reappeared, causing very heavy losses to the attacking troops.
The French ascribe the majority of their losses in the last phase
of the war to this cause. Now it would be extremely dangerous,
even if it were possible, to bring the barrage back to " pound "
such a danger spot. By the time this had been done, the ad-
vancing troops might very possibly have disposed of the ma-
chmc-guns by bombing, and have resumed their advance, in
which case they would come under their own barrage fire. It
is manifestly impossible to get the fire of distant guns on to a
machine-gun nest in time, though something might be done by
an aeroplane dropping a light-ball on it to attract the attention
of the guns. The result of the failure of artillery support in this
matter has been a general outcry for guns of accompaniment;
that is to say light guns, either pack, motor, or hand-drawn,
capable of advancing with the infantry, and of dealing with
machine-gun nests and strong points that have survived the
barrage, and with tanks.
The matured German opinion is expressed in the following
quotation from a document issued scarcely 10 weeks before the
Armistice:
" The guns of accompaniment must engage at short range the
enemy with whom the infantry is fighting at close quarters. By rea-
son of their proximity to the infantry they can be fired at the right
moment, and on the right target, more easily than the artillery in
rear. Also, being at close range, they can fire on objectives which
cannot be observed from the rear."
A light g-pounder, firing H.E. shell only, to an effective
range of about 2,000 yd., is the type of weapon required. The
British used their 3'7-in. mountain howitzer, firing a 2o-lb.
shell, when available; but the ammunition was considered too
heavy, and troops who possessed captured German light trench
mortars, firing a i4-lb. shell, found this a better weapon for
the purpose. The latest type of gun is the U.S. " infantry
howitzer," which is carried so far forward as possible by a small
cross-country motor vehicle, and thence wheeled or carried by
hand. It fires a 6-lb. shell for direct fire, and a Q-lb. shell for
high-angle fire.
These guns are required at the rate of about one per 100 yd.
of the front of the advance, or from 12 to 16 per division. The
French have decided that a gun of accompaniment is to be intro-
duced, and it is understood that it will be motor-drawn or motor-
carried, but no further details are available. The Germans, in
1917 and 1918, used a variety of light guns styled " infantry
guns " in addition to their infantry trench mortars, which were
fitted for direct as well as for high-angle fire. But in the great
1918 battles their invariable practice was to detail one, two or
more batteries of the divisional field artillery, fully horsed, and
with their own ammunition carriages, to support the divisional
infantry attack by direct accompaniment (sometimes reenforced).
After trying other methods, they finally adopted the practice
of allotting sections, or even single guns, to the battalions
engaged. These single guns or sections followed up the leading
lines of infantry, running up by hand when the horses could
not get forward. 1
1 The relation of the artillery commander to the infantry com-
mander, both being on the spot, was a difficult question which was
never definitely solved. In practice, indication of task was as a rule
the duty of the infantry commander, and choice of position and
method that of the gunner. But the latter remained free to engage
any favourable target without waiting for orders. (C. F. A.)
ARTILLERY
251
Gun-Carrying Tanks are here considered as gun-carriers. A
war-time tank normally carried two short 6-pounder guns, one
on each side, and 200 rounds of ammunition; it could carry
another too rounds if required. If the tank were made larger, it
could carry a i2-pounder or i8-pounder gun inside. When the
gun is put outside, on the top, the machine ceases to be a tank
and becomes an automobile gun-carriage or a caterpillar carrier;
these have been discussed on pp. 248-49.
The volume of fire from a tank is not sufficient to constitute
a decisive factor in the combat. Fire with shrapnel and time
fuze from a moving tank would be a waste of ammunition,
and the tank would not last long if it stood still. The small
H.E. shell is nearly useless against men in the open, and
the case-shot which the tank carries is effective only at very
short range. The guns of a tank cannot be expected to engage
infantry manning a trench parapet, and keep down their fire,
except when the tank succeeds in getting astride of the trench
and firing down it to right and left. Even then the effect is
rather moral than material, since the infantry are protected by
the traverses and indentations of the trench, which are specially
designed to prevent enfilade. Practically, there are only two
things that the guns of a tank can do, but these are both im-
portant. They can destroy an enemy tank, and they can put a
H.E. shell into a machine-gun emplacement at short range, long
before a message could be got through to a field gun a mile
behind. For both these purposes the 6-pounder gun is sufficiently
powerful, though it is possible that thickly armoured tanks may
be introduced which will require a heavier weapon to pierce
them. Quite apart from its gun-power, the tank supplements
and sometimes replaces artillery fire by its power of crushing
obstacles, notably barbed wire and iron palisades.
It remains to be considered whether the tank is a satisfactory
substitute for the infantry gun of accompaniment. The ad-
vocates of tanks anticipate that in future an infantry attack
will be carried out on the following lines: In front of all is the
creeping barrage, closely followed by the infantry and the light
tanks (" cruisers ") armed with machine-guns and possibly
6-pounders; behind these come i8-pounders or heavier pieces
on armoured automobile carriages (" battleships "), and small
fast caterpillars (" destroyers ") carrying tank-stopping ma-
chine-guns. Just before the assault the " cruisers " dash for-
ward in advance of the infantry, supported by the fire of the
" battleships " and escorted by the " destroyers." The " battle-
ships " also deal with machine-gun nests and strong points that
have escaped the barrage. As the infantry continue their
advance, the motor-drawn guns behind, which have been form-
ing the barrage, advance by echelons to fresh positions behind
the infantry, and carry the barrage forward.
Supposing an attack on these lines to be carried straight
through, no infantry guns, capable of fighting on their own
wheels, would be required. But it is objected that if the in-
fantry attack were checked, as is inevitable at times, their only
guns of accompaniment would be the large and conspicuous
" battleships," which are very vulnerable when standing still.
The same objection would apply in a retreat, which is a series
of halts to check the enemy. It would appear, therefore, that the
infantry gun must be separable from its motor, so that it can
fight, and conceal itself, on its own wheels. Neither the
" cruiser " nor the " battleship " tank satisfies this condition,
but it may possibly be desirable to introduce a tank which shall
carry a light gun to the fighting front, dismount it, hand it over
to the infantry, and then advance on its own account, with its
machine-guns, as a fighting tank. No tank of this kind has
yet been tried, and moreover there is no present prospect of the
large and expensive armoured " battleships " being provided in
any army. Manufacture on the large scale would probably not
begin till the outbreak of war. In the meantime, the infantry
gun of accompaniment will have to be developed as an infantry
weapon, independently of the " land fleet." Whether it should
be motor-drawn, motor-carried, mule-carried or man-handled
is still an open question. Many officers are in favour of a gun
dra-n by a small tractor, to take it as far forward as possible;
the gun to be light enough to be man-handled when the tractor
fails. The American infantry howitzer referred to above realizes
this idea, except that it is carried instead of being drawn.
Artillery Fire at Tanks. The best means of stopping tanks
is still an open question. It would at first seem a simple matter
to make direct hits on them, but in practice the enemy's barrage
and bombardment interpose a screen of bursting shells behind
which the tanks can approach unseen. Moreover, it is not easy
to find a position affording a good view, from which the gunners
can lay over the open sights, within 2,000 yd. of the front line.
Indirect laying is too slow for moving objects. When preparing
to meet the German advance of March 1918, the British plan
was to hide a number of field guns in or close to the front line,
which were to keep silent till tanks appeared, and then fire on
them. These guns were never heard of again; they were all
destroyed by the intensive bombardment which preceded the
attack. In some cases, land mines were buried under the
barbed wire entanglements to prevent the tanks from " rolling
them out," but these mines rarely survived the bombardment.
They might be useful, however, if the enemy attempted a sur-
prise attack with tanks without a preliminary bombardment.
The best means of resisting a tank attack on an entrenched
position would appear to be the provision of numerous small
anti-tank guns in the trench area, as described below.
In mobile warfare the conditions are somewhat different; in
the autumn of 1918, when the British alone used 2,000 tanks,
many of these were destroyed by the German rear-guard bat-
teries, and by concealed guns left behind for the purpose. The
Germans used heavy single-loading " anti-tank rifles," pending
the introduction of large calibre " anti-tank machine-guns,"
and it is stated that a tank-stopping rifle grenade, fired from' the
muzzle of an infantry rifle, has lately been produced. It would
seem, however, that in open warfare the most formidable op-
ponent of the tank is the enemy tank, and it is probable that a
special type of light fast tank a " tank destroyer " armed
with one gun amidships, or even with a heavy machine-gun
only, will be introduced.
II. TRENCH WARFARE
The lessons of the first phase of the war had been the necessity
for a high degree of mobility, the breakdown of direct liaison
between infantry and artillery, and the weakness of permanent
fortifications of old-fashioned type when attacked by modern
guns. When the armies settled down to " sedentary " trench
warfare, a fresh set of problems presented themselves.
At first, the trench system, however multiplied in detail, was
simple and continuous in the ensemble; in 1915 a system often
consisted of three lines or skeins of trenches half a mile apart
and connected by communication trenches. But, in the latter
part of the war, different principles were followed, and a modern
trench system is not a single strongly garrisoned line, in which
the troops would offer an easy target to artillery, but a fortified
zone two to three miles in depth. The front nearest to the
enemy is not a continuous parapet; it is dotted with inter-
supporting points of resistance, varying from a shell-crater
holding three men to an armoured " pill-box " or a fortified
" strong point " held by a platoon with machine-guns. The
actual front trench may be a mile behind the front of the system,
and in any case is not visible to the enemy. It is dug on a reverse
slope when possible, as a field of fire of 100 yd. is quite enough
for modern rapid-firing rifles and machine-guns. Even the front
trench is often not continuous, but consists of short lengths
arranged so that each can be enfiladed by guns, or more usually
machine-guns, in rear. It is a chain of defences, rather than a
continuous barrier. Behind the front trench is a network of
fire trenches, strong points, and communication trenches from
one to two miles in depth; this is a styled the " battle zone."
Behind this is the second-line trench, which forms the front of
the " reserve zone." Still further to the rear there may be
second and third trench systems and reserve lines. The ground
in front of the battle zone is the outpost zone, and is not in-
tended to offer serious resistance. Its function is to screen the
252
ARTILLERY
battle zone, and to delay an attack long enough to allow
the battle zone to be manned.
The field artillery have three sets of positions, known as for-
ward, main, and reserve. The forward positions are in the battle
zone, and the guns posted there are intended to protect the out-
post zone, and to support minor attacks made from this zone
(see p. 253, Warfare between Front Trenches). The main positions
are 3,000 to 4,000 yd. behind the front trench, that is, in the re-
serve zone, some 1,000 yd. behind the second-line trench; the
guns posted in the main positions barrage the front trench and
support the infantry in the battle zone. The reserve positions
are 3,000 to 4,000 yd. behind the second-line trench, and the
guns, when they occupy them, barrage the second-line trench and
support the infantry in the reserve zone.
Normally about one-third of the divisional field artillery are
in the forward positions and two-thirds in the main positions.
The reserve positions are ready for occupation and supplied
with ammunition. 1
The medium and heavy artillery are behind the field artillery,
and the wagon lines are out of field-gun range, that is, at least
5 m. from the enemy's field artillery positions. Additional artil-
lery positions are prepared, so far as the supply of labour per-
mits, for reenforcing units, which are put in when it is intended
to attack, or when an enemy attack is threatened. All guns
normally belonging to the front are in emplacements provided
with overhead cover, and carefully camouflaged against the
camera. All fire trenches and entrenched posts (called " strong
points ") are protected by entanglements of barbed wire. Artil-
lery observing posts (" O.P.'s ") from which the fire of the bat-
teries is directed, are disposed wherever they can be concealed,
and the whole system is connected up by an elaborate network
of telephone wires, the main lines being (in British practice)
deeply buried.
The arc of fire required of each battery has to be considered
when siting and entrenching it. The following is a typical
arrangement, subject to considerable local variation. It applies
to a division of three infantry brigades of four battalions, three
field-gun brigades of four batteries, and one field-howitzer brigade
of four batteries. Each infantry brigade holds one unit of front,
about 1,000 yd., and is supported by one field-gun brigade.
Of the four batteries of this brigade, three cover their own unit
of front and can cover one more unit on each side, making 3,000
yd. of front; the fourth battery is a " swinger," and covers two
units on each side of its own unit, making 5,000 yd. of front. All
the field-howitzer batteries are swingers. This arrangement
enables the division to turn 13 field batteries on to any point on
its own front, and to turn 6 field batteries on to the front of
either of the neighbouring divisions when called upon. The
medium, heavy, and super-heavy guns and howitzers are all
sited, when possible, so as to engage any target within their
range. .
Under these conditions, as soon as trench warfare began,
artillery fire became a matter of very careful preparation and
rapid execution. A battery was liable to be called on suddenly
to fire on any one of a hundred different targets, visible from an
O.P. or not. The first essential was to get every gun to shoot
to map range. In open warfare, artillery firing at visible targets
neglect the " error of the day " due to variations of temperature,
barometric pressure, and wind, since this is corrected by direct
observation of fire. In the trenches this error became of great
importance; it might, and did, make the difference between
hitting the enemy or our own infantry. The daily " Meteor "
telegram from the meteorological section of the army corps was
supplemented by reference to the thermometer and wind-gauge
whenever a battery opened fire. Worn guns were carefully
" calibrated " so that their error could be allowed for; this was
1 The British, who used 6-gun batteries, used to keep two guns of a
battery forward and four in the main position ; with 4-gun batteries it
is not usually advisable to split them up. The Germans used to keep
the whole of their field guns in the main and reserve positions, and
these were further back than those described above; guns were sent
up to the advanced positions for special tasks only, and were with-
drawn as soon as these had been completed.
done at special ranges behind the front, or, when this could not
be done, by firing at known points in the enemy's lines. The
next matter was to obtain an accurate map, with the positions
of the batteries and their targets marked on it, so as to enable
the exact map range to be measured. 2 The result of this work
was a great improvement in shooting, and consequent economy
of ammunition. Unfortunately the varieties of powder supplied
caused a further complication. It proved impossible to distribute
the ammunition so that each brigade had always one particular
nature or brand of powder, except on special occasions, when
preparations were made for a great attack. It was therefore
customary, in trench warfare, to " register " all prospective
targets, or at least points near them. 3
Howitzers. The necessity for searching deep trenches and
penetrating overhead cover gave rise to a demand for more
howitzers. The field gun, firing shrapnel, was invaluable when
the enemy moved about their trenches, or showed themselves
over their parapets; at other times shrapnel was of little use,
except for barrage. The field gun H.E. shell was too small to
penetrate parapets, and the field-howitzer shell did not penetrate
well-built dugouts. All the belligerents found that the most
useful weapon for bombardment was the 6-in. (15 or 15-5 cm.)
howitzer, throwing a shell of 100 pounds. The Germans in par-
ticular regarded this as their most important weapon for trench
warfare. In 1914 the British army had only a few old-pattern
6-in. siege howitzers, but from 1915 they had a 6-in. Q.F.
howitzer ranging 10,000 yd., which range was afterwards in-
creased to 1 1, 600 yd. by the issue of stream-line shell. By the
end of the war the British had 6,437 howitzers in France alone;
3,633 6-in. howitzers had been issued, and 1,458 were in the
line on Armistice day, which shows the rate at which they were
worn out. They fired over 22,000,000 rounds.
Similarly in 1914 the French had only 300 howitzers of 155
mm., of which 104 were mobile. In 1918 they had 6,000 of this,
and larger calibres.
The heavy and super-heavy howitzers, 8-in. (21 cm.), 9- 2 or
9'4-in. (24 cm.) and higher calibres were used for work too-
heavy for the 6-in.
For all calibres over 6-in., howitzers soon began to supersede
guns, though a few flat-trajectory heavy guns were used. The
reason for this was a question of supply. A howitzer firing at
45 gets its shell to the target with a much smaller powder
charge than a high-velocity gun, and consequently lasts perhaps
10 times as long before it has to be retubed.
Increased Range. The precision with which " map fire "
could be carried out by the methods described above led to head-
quarters, wagon lines, ammunition " dumps^" and installations
behind the lines being shifted to greater distances from the front.
This created a demand for increased range. When the Germans
initiated the system of covering the front with a zone of " pill-
boxes " and small posts, and withdrawing the front trench (or
its equivalent chain of short trenches) a mile behind the front
of the defended zone, the ranges were still further increased.
Even before this, the Germans had lengthened their field gun
and brought out a stream-line shell which increased its range
from 6,000 yd. to 11,700 yd.; their old field howitzer ranged
7,600 yd., their 1916 pattern 10,500 yd., and similarly with the
6-in. howitzer and larger calibres. Other nations did the same;
the French altered the trail of their 75-mm. field gun so as to
get more elevation and increase the range to 11,000 yd. with
stream-line shell, and introduced their short ig-cm. gun, converted
2 This resurvey often showed local landmarks to be 100 or 200
yd. from their positions as marked on the original maps.
3 Registration consisted of firing a series and noting the result,
corrected to standard " Meteor conditions. These series were
observed from O.P.'s when possible, otherwise by aeroplanes or
sound-ranging. Thus when an enemy working party was reported
by an aeroplane in Trench 56, a battery commander got the order
" Target 56 stop 25 shrapnel 25 HE Fire." He looked up 56 in his
registration book, corrected the recorded elevation, direction, and
fuze for " Meteor " and powder in use, gave his orders, and his guns
fired the 50 rounds in half a minute. The aeroplane observed the
result, which was entered in the registration book for future reference.
ARTILLERY
253
to an 8-in. howitzer. In guns designed since the war the increase
of range is very marked; thus the United States require 15,000
yd. of range for their new field gun; the latest pattern of British
i8-pounder issued during the war ranged 10,800 yd., and the
forthcoming pattern will probably range as far as the U.S. gun.
Hundred-Mile Guns. This general increase of range cul-
minated in the German gun or rather guns (colloquially called
" Big Berthas ") which shelled Paris from a distance of 76 miles. 1
As early as 1915 the Germans shelled Dunkirk from a point 25
m. distant with a i4-in. naval gun, and they proposed, if they
succeeded in driving the Allies back from Calais, to use 110-
mile guns which should command the whole of the British coast
from Yarmouth to Southampton, and the whole of the London
district. Such guns are not specially difficult to make, and both
the British and the French artillery authorities had worked out
the design of loo-mile guns some years before the war. In
principle they depend on firing a shell upwards so as to cl|;ar
the dense layer of air lying next to the earth, and to attain a
height of some 25 m. where the air is so rarefied as to oppose
practically no resistance to the flight of the shell. Seven of
these guns were used against Paris in 1918, and at the end of the
war the Germans had six more building; the British, French,
and Italian Governments had each at least one of these guns
building, but it is understood that none of these were com-
pleted. Owing to the high powder-pressure employed, and con-
sequent high temperature in the bore, the life of the German
guns was only about 50 rounds, after which they had to be
rebored. For this reason the too-mile gun marks about the limit
of practical possibility with propellants now in use. But, if it
were considered advisable, it would be possible to make a
special powder giving lower temperatures than the gun-cotton
and nitro-glycerine powders now in use, and so increase the
life of these guns.
Flashless Powder. During " sedentary " warfare, any gun
which fired at night within direct view of the enemy was liable
to be marked down by the " flash-spotting " section opposite
to it, who got cross bearings to it, after which it was soon shelled
out. It was therefore necessary to introduce flashless powder,
or else to add a portion of special chemical composition to the
ordinary charge for all guns which could not be hidden behind
woods or hills. The United States have specified that it is to be
used in their new field gun.
Ranging by Aeroplane. Apart from the work done by air-
craft in locating targets by direct observation or by photography,
they were used during trench warfare for ranging on targets
which could not be observed from the ground. The aeroplane
was from the first fitted with a wireless sending set; but it was
only towards the end of the war that practical forms of receiving
apparatus were evolved, and, generally speaking, messages to
the aeroplane had to be sent by code signals, which were strips
of white cloth laid out on the ground near the battery. Only
simple signals such as " Ready to Fire " could be used; it was
therefore necessary to arrange the details as to the target to be
observed beforehand. Ranging was carried out deliberately,
the aeroplane sending down the result of each shot. Only one
such series could be fired at a time on an army corps front, as,
with the instruments then in use, if two aeroplanes had been
sending wireless at the same moment they would have inter-
fered with each other. Until the means of wireless communica-
tion are improved, aeroplane ranging will remain too slow and
elaborate a method for field artillery in mobile warfare, though
it may be applied to heavy artillery.
Sound- Ranging. This is described under RANGEFINDERS
AND POSITION FINDERS. It consists in measuring the intervals
of time at which the sound of an enemy gun successively reaches
three or more stations, and, from the differences, calculating the
position of the gun. It also enables the point at which one's
own shell bursts to be located. The installation of these stations
1 The bombardment of Paris was spread over 140 days; firing took
place on 44 days only. 183 8-in. shell fell in Paris, and 120 in the
suburbs. The material effect was slight (256 people killed in 45
months) and the moral effect, after the first day, inconsiderable.
takes about a day, and in certain conditions the method cannot
be depended on or indeed used at all. In mobile warfare, sound-
ranging may possibly be used to locate the enemy's heavy guns.
Warfare between Front Trenches. Simultaneously with the
long-distance shooting at targets behind the fronts, constant
fighting took place between the front trenches, which, early in
the war, were in some places only 50 yd. apart. Even when the
front trenches were shifted back behind screens of defensive
points, constant guerrilla warfare continued to be waged between
the detachments opposite" each other. The need for trench
artillery was soon felt, and was supplied by a new class of
weapon. The original trench mortars had only a very short range,
and, as they had therefore to be kept close up to the front trench,
the loss of life among the detachments was heavy. Later, longer-
ranging trench mortars were introduced, which could be posted
relatively far back, and were available for firing on our own
front trench if the enemy broke into it.
Trench ordnance on wheeled mounts was used to some extent
as accompanying artillery, especially the later pattern of the
German light trench mortar, which was fitted for direct as well
as for high-angle fire. But the excessive weight of the ammuni-
tion renders trench mortars unsuitable as substitutes for guns
of accompaniment.
Wire-Cutting. Very early in the war it became necessary to
find a means of destroying, or at least cutting lanes in the
strong barbed wire entanglements which covered the whole
front. At the period of the autumn battles of 1915, this was
done on the British front by the shrapnel fire of field guns.
This was effective for wire-cutting only up to about 1,800 yd.;
within that range it was found that lanes could be cut through
a belt of wire 8 yd. deep with an expenditure not exceeding 10
rounds per yd. of front. Later on, thick steel barbed wire came
into use, which could not be cut by shrapnel bullets; moreover,
the process of wire-cutting with shrapnel required precise and
deliberate shooting, and had usually to be carried out on the day
before the attack, thus forfeiting the advantage of surprise.
Howitzer H.E. shell with ordinary fuzes proved useless, as.
they made craters into which the network of wire fell back,
making a worse obstacle than before. In 1916 medium trench-
mortar shell with instantaneous fuze came- into use; these shell
made a crater not more than 6 in. deep, and blew away the wire
from a circle about 5 yd. in diameter. But trench mortar
ranges are very limited and it was not till the instantaneous fuze
was adapted to H.E. shell for field guns and field howitzers
that the range at which wire could be cut was increased to
4,000 yards. The French used the 75-mm. field gun, while the
British mostly used the 4'5-in. field howitzer. As an alternative
to the instantaneous fuze, a percussion fuze giving a slight delay
action was used with H.E. shell for wire-cutting, the object being
to burst the shell on the upward branch of its trajectory after
impact, withirt a yard or so of the ground. Some success was
attained with this method when the ground was hard and the
angle of impact small, so that the shell did not tend to bury
itself. Wire-cutting with H.E. shell is a much quicker method
than with carefully adjusted shrapnel bursts, provided that a
sufficient volume of fire is obtainable (see section EFFECT supra).
Counter-Battery work is the attack of artillery by artillery
with the object of destroying the material and inflicting disabling
casualties, or at least of neutralizing enemy fire for a certain
time. In spite of the results achieved in locating enemy guns
by aircraft, flash-spotting, and sound-ranging, counter-battery
work throughout the war generally failed to destroy them and
their detachments, or even to silence them permanently. How-
ever, when a battery was located it was usually possible to
neutralize it, that is, to stop or much reduce its fire, so long as fire
upon it could be kept up.
If a battery exposed itself in the open within range of artillery
in position it was destroyed in a few minutes. Therefore bat-
teries used concealed and camouflaged positions with overhead
cover proof against field artillery. If such a position was located
the battery was soon shelled out by the 6-in. and heavier howit-
zers, but it was rarely possible to destroy the guns without an
254
ARTILLERY
undue expenditure of ammunition. The usual result was that
the gunners retired a few hundred yards (if they had no deep
dugouts) till the shelling was over, and then came back to their
guns. If they were shelled again they shifted their guns to an-
other position. The ground in front of Vimy Ridge was a mass of
positions from which batteries had been shelled out, and it was
reckoned that one position in four was occupied. The British
and the French used to repair abandoned positions to encourage
the enemy to go on shelling themr Flashes were fired from
dummy positions for the same purpose. " Silent " positions,
from which the guns were not allowed to open fire till active
operations began, were rarely located.
The Germans were fairly successful in neutralizing batteries
with gas shell; concealed artillery positions, being usually in
hollows or woods, are specially vulnerable to gas attack. If
such a position be thoroughly drenched with persistent gas it
becomes untenable, since men cannot work in gas-masks for a
prolonged period. In future, flashless powder will make it still
more difficult to locate concealed artillery positions.
III. THE BREAK-THROUGH
During the three years 1915, 1916 and 1917 numerous at-
tempts were made to break through the opposing line, the most
notable being the German attack on Verdun. All these attempts
failed; the less unsuccessful of them resulted merely in the cap-
ture of an unimportant strip of ground at a heavy cost. A dis-
cussion of the reasons for these failures would be beyond the
limits of this article. From an artillery point of view it is more
important to consider the method of attack which was finally
evolved. The two leading principles are the following:
(a) Surprise. This implies the rapid and perfectly timed
concentration of artillery and infantry units in the area of the
attack, so that they arrive just when they are wanted. If, as is
probable, the result of the attack is that the enemy's line is not
broken, but is only bent back, successive surprise attacks are
made by shifting the weight of the attack quickly to other
1 points which may be 50 or 100 m. distant, so as to form salients
in the enemy's line, which are then " pinched out " by attacking
them from both flanks. This, at least, is the obvious course; and,
because it is so, it may not be the best one'. In some cases a
commander may decide that he has a better prospect of sur-
prising the enemy by renewing his attack on the original point.
Success depends principally on an organization which enables
guns and men in large numbers to be placed in readiness for ac-
tion in any selected area of attack either without the enemy's
knowledge, or so quickly that he has no time for counter-
preparation.
(b) Wide Front. It is useless to make a narrow gap in the
enemy's line, commanded by his guns from both sides. It must,
roughly, be wide enough to allow for 10 m. of shelled ground on
each side, and a 20 m. passage down the middle; that is, about
40 miles. The Germans in March 1918 attacked on a 50 m. front.
Concentration of Artillery. The first step is to prepare for
the concentration on the front of attack of a sufficient number
of guns. Normally the line is held by about one gun to 30 yd.,
including field, medium and heavy. For an attack, this number
must be at least trebled.
The Germans, in their great attack of March 1918 on the 50 m.
front from Monchy to La Fere, had the following, counting normal
establishments only:
I field gun per 19 yd. of front
I field howitzer per 57 yd. of front
I medium howitzer per 128 yd. of front
I heavy gun per 128 yd. of front
I heavy howitzer per 256 yd. of front
I superheavy howitzer per 512 yd. of front.
This alone amounts to one gun per 1 1 yd. of front ; but in addition
to this the four-gun field batteries werereenforced, as far as possible,
by adding two guns from reserve. The extra guns were not horsed
and the gunners were provided from personnel on the spot. 1 There
were also a certain number of miscellaneous guns and a very liberal
equipment of trench ordnance. Altogether it may be estimated that
the Germans, in this attack, had one gun per 9 yd. of the whole front
attacked; but since the attack was pushed home only on alternate
sections of this front the concentration of gun-fire on the real fronts
of attack was much heavier than these figures imply, as explained
below.
In the still more highly developed artillery attack of May 27 1918
on the Chemin des Dames the strength (according to Col. Bruch-
miiller, who was responsible for the arrangements) was
I field gun per 26 yd. of front (not including about 30 batteries
told off as accompanying artillery),
field howitzer per 47 yd. of front,
medium howitzer per 99 yd. of front,
heavy howitzer per 156 yd. of front,
medium or heavy gun per 200 yd. of front,
superheavy gun or howitzer per 1,126 yd. of front, or
I field piece per 17 yd. and
I medium or heavy or superheavy piece per 49 yd.
In the aggregate I piece per 12 yd. irrespective altogether of accom-
panying artillery, additional guns, and trench mortars.
In the battle of July 15 1918 the last German offensive the
trench-mortar strength was approximately one per 30 yd. for a con-
siderable frontage, and locally as much as one per 10 or 12 yd.
Positions for Artillery. Assuming that, for an attack, the
artillery of a front, normally one gun per 30 yd., has to be in-
creased to one gun per 10 yd., positions have to be prepared for
the reenforcing guns. A certain number of spare positions with
gun emplacements protected by overhead cover will already
exist as part of the equipment of the front, but it is rarely
possible to provide labour on such a scale that a defensive front
is always kept ready to be used as an attacking front.
If it be possible to bring up the whole of the reenforcing guns
during the last night before the attack the preparation will con-
sist principally of marking out gun positions and roads to them,
and laying telephone cables to them and to the observing posi-
tions. But even with motor equipment the concentration of the
whole movement of the troops into one night imposes such a
strain upon the transport that it will usually be necessary to
spread the movement over three nights, and in this case efficient
camouflage must be provided for the guns which arrive before
the last night.
1 They were intended only to take part in the bombardment and
not in the advance which followed.
The following table, from the Revue d'Artillerie of May 1921, shows the densities of artillery strength in certain French battles of
:
Yards of front per gun.
i field
gun per
I medium
or heavy
gun per
I medium
or heavy
howitzer* per
I medium or
heavy gun or
howitzer per
"1
I super-
heavy
piece per
Champagne, Sept. 25 1915
Somme, July I 1916 ....
Aisne, April 16 1917 ....
Verdun (Mort-Homme battle)
Aug. 20 1917
Malmaison, Oct. 23 19^7 .
36yd.
36 !!
22 "
2O "
18 "
66yd.
50 "
45 "
133 yd.
68 "
59 "
44Xd.
29 "
26 "
121 yd.
255 "
The French had no field howitzers.
The French " Offensive Instructions " of Oct. 31 1917 lay down a scale for the first-class offensive battle of about
I field gun per 15 yd.
I medium or heavy piece for demolitions per 30 yd.
I " counter-battery per 35 yd.
Superheavy pieces approximately at I per 170 yd. (pi
for tank action).
us i piece of trench ordnance per 30 yd., except in parts of the front reserved
ARTILLERY
255
Registration. The reenforcing guns must be able to open
fire at zero hour. Usually the batteries belonging to the front
register their targets for them beforehand, the registration being
spread over several days so as not to attract special notice.
But calibration, study of atmospheric influences, and surveying 1
have latterly been so thoroughly applied that it may be possible,
in future, to rely upon opening effective fire by map without
ranging. This again requires thorough preparation, which is
possible when an attack is planned beforehand. So far as can be
foreseen-* there is no prospect of dispensing with ranging when
the troops are on the move.
Conduct of the Attack. Bombardment. In the great trench
battles of 1916 and 1917 it was customary to begin with a
bombardment of the enemy lines lasting ,a week or even more.
This was fatal to surprise action, and in 1918 the preparation
consisted of some six hours or less of " intense " bombardment,
every gun firing at its highest rate. The use of tanks may in
future enable this bombardment to be shortened, as will be seen.
The Germans pressed their great attack, of March 1918, only
on alternate sectors (of about 3,000 yd.) of the British line,
trusting to envelop the intermediate sectors. They were thus
enabled to concentrate nearly the whole of their guns on half
the total frontage, so that they had roughly one gun firing on
every 5 yd. of the front actually attacked.
A reasonable estimate of the ammunition required for a
six hours' intense bombardment per mile of front seriously
attacked is 50,000 rounds field gun ammunition, 10,000 field
howitzer, 5,000 6-in. howitzer, 2,000 6-in. gun, 500 heavy
howitzer, and 200 rounds superheavy howitzer. If the attack
presses forward without a check for three days from the start,
then at least 50% more will be required on the second day, and
the same on the third day if the enemy is reenforced; at any
rate it would be unwise to begin an attack without double the
above amount in hand. If the attack is seriously checked the
intensive bombardment will have to be repeated and a fresh
start made. These figures give a fair idea of the scale on which
guns and ammunition are used in modern warfare.
The reason for this vast expenditure of ammunition is that the
bombardment is not confined to the front of the position at-
tacked the front zone, as explained above, is a thinly held
system of outposts it is directed mainly on the real defensive
zones and centres in rear. Targets such as railway stations,
bridges, and road junctions as much as 10 m. behind the front
have to be bombarded by the long-range guns and howitzers.
Influence of Tank Action on Bombardment. In the autumn
of 1918 the tanks achieved such success in breaking through
defences which had not previously been bombarded that it is
considered that in some cases, provided that the ground is
favourable for tank action, it may be possible to shorten the
preliminary six-hours' bombardment to half-an-hour, or even to
dispense with it altogether, and to trust to the creeping barrage
to protect the advancing infantry and tanks (British Field
Service Regulations, 1920, Part II., para. 118 [6]). When this
method is employed all guns other than those firing the creeping
barrage will concentrate on important points behind the enemy's
front simultaneously with the launching of the attack.
This is a new method of procedure, in which our present
experience is not sufficient to enable us to forecast the best
course of action with any confidence. The regulation quoted
above is cautiously worded, and does not imply that the use of
tanks will render bombardment unnecessary. Even if the tanks
are expected to succeed in rushing the first and second zones of
the enemy's defences, they will certainly experience increased
resistance as they penetrate deeper into the position. In future
warfare tanks will not be the only motor vehicles on the battle-
field. The mobility of the defender's motor guns and motor in-
fantry, both on and off the road, will enable him to bring up
reenforcements far more quickly than was the case in 1918. Al-
though the attack may be launched without any previous bom-
1 The position of one gun in each battery (or other unit) is fixed
exactly by survey and marked both on the map and on the ground
before the guns arrive.
bardment, it will still be necessary to deliver a heavy fire on targets
behind the enemy's front as soon as the attack is disclosed. It will
not be enough to' bombard railway stations and road junctions
if the defender's motor troops are independent of railways and
roads. Therefore this fire will presumably be not so much a bom-
bardment of fixed points as fire for effect, directed by aeroplane
observation, upon the defender's reenforcements.
So far as can be judged the amount of ammunition required
for an attack will be increased rather than diminished, in view
of the scattered targets presented by motor troops.
The Infantry Attack. As soon as the " intense " bombard-
ment has done its work on .the outpost zone and the first line 2
the infantry advances, screened by a creeping barrage, pre-
ceded by tanks, and closely followed by guns of accompaniment.
The bombardment is " lifted " from the first line to reenforce
that on the second line; as soon as the infantry have taken the
first line fresh waves of men pour through them to attack the
second line. When the second line is taken the field artillery of
the attack pushes forward by echelons to positions in or near
the first line. Later on the medium and heavy artillery push
forward.
It is not to be expected that the infantry will be able to ad-
vance on a continuous front. After the thinly held outpost
system has been rushed progress is by " infiltration." Wherever
a weak point is found the infantry pour through it, and the ad-
vancing streams of men, fed by the local reserves, spread out to
right and left and envelop the defensive points that still hold out.
Tanks are here invaluable in leading the streams of riflemen, in
" rolling out " barriers of barbed wire, and in rushing the centres
of defence. It is the involved and complicated nature of this
warfare which prevents the main body of the artillery in rear
from supporting the infantry in the series of local combats
which characterize the. advance through the trench system,
and which renders it necessary to provide the infantry with
guns of accompaniment.
The process of infiltration outlined above is apt to produce
irregular salients in the advancing line, which the artillery in
rear find it difficult to protect by barrage, and which are there-
fore the more exposed to counter-attack. On this account it
was the practice, at one time, to limit the objective that is, to
fix a line beyond which the troops were not to advance, so that
when this line was gained they should present a continuous front,
protected by artillery fire, from which a further advance could
be made. This system led to a great waste 'of opportunity. It
may still have to be adopted on occasion; but the modern tend-
ency is to gain every possible foot of ground, and to provide
reserves on a scale sufficient to " feed " the salients so that they
can spread out laterally and " pinch out " the ground between
them which is still held by the enemy. That is, every salient
must become an offensive, not a defensive, feature. Without
artillery support these offensive tactics would hardly succeed
against the defender's " strong points," which are not merely
fire-trenches facing the front, but miniature forts prepared for
all-round fire. It is necessary, therefore, that in addition to the
guns of accompaniment part of the artillery in rear should press
forward boldly, so as to keep in touch with the infantry and be
able with the assistance of aeroplanes or of their own recon-
noitring patrols to direct a heavy fire on any defensive work
which still holds out.
The action of the artillery in the attack may be summed up
as follows: the bombardment weakens the defence and the
barrage protects the attack. The guns of accompaniment sup-
port the attack so long as the enemy continues to retire, offering
only slight resistance intended to weaken the attack. When
resistance becomes serious the divisional field artillery must be
in position and in communication with the infantry, so that
2 The word " line " is used in this description because no other
accepted military term is available. In reality modern defensive
systems consist of chains of detached works or trenches, supporting
each other by their fire. The only continuous feature which marks a
defensive zone is the belt of barbed wire entanglement, and this
itself is irregularly traced.
256
ARTILLERY
they can support it in local combats. If the resistance becomes
obstinate and beyond the power of infantry and field guns to
overcome, the bombardment by the heavy artillery must be
renewed.
These tactics are repeated as each successive line, or defen-
sive zone, is encountered. The process can be repeated indefinite-
ly so long as the supply of men, guns, and ammunition can
be kept up, provided that it is possible to convey them to the
fighting line. The latter has proved a very serious difficulty in
the past, and has perhaps been more instrumental than any
other cause in bringing great attacks to a standstill. It must be
overcome by the work of the engineers in repairing roads and
railways, and by the provision of improved cross-country
vehicles.
Artillery in Defence. Whether defence in the hitherto ac-
cepted sense is or is not the form of resistance best suited to
modern conditions is a question which lies outside the scope of
this article. For the present purpose it is assumed that the
ground occupied is to be defended in the literal and tactical
sense.
In the ordinary defence of a position the method of meeting
an attack varies according to the degree of certainty with which
the enemy's intentions have been anticipated, and the amount
of preparation which it has been possible to make.
If the defender is fully prepared for the attack, and has
massed his artillery to meet it, then he can reply to the initial
" intense " bombardment with a similar bombardment, which
will certainly render the attack ineffective.
If he knows when the attack is to be launched, but has not
been able to reenforce his artillery, he can still put down a
preventive barrage, just before " zero " hour, on the enemy's
lines. This will weaken the attack, and may delay it.
Even if the defender has had no warning, and is unable to
oppose gun for gun to the attack, the mobility of motor artillery
should, in future, enable him to reenforce his artillery (provided
he has guns available elsewhere) within two days at most. But
the enemy will probably provide against this by making a
holding attack on a very wide front, or on several fronts. The
defender will be uncertain as to which of these is the real attack,
and will be afraid to take any guns out of the line. He must
then depend upon his general reserve for the artillery reenforce-
ments which he requires.
We will consider the case of a section of an entrenched front,
held with the normal proportion of artillery (one gun to 30
yd.), attacked by surprise by a concentrated force (one gun
to 10 yd.). It is clear that the attacking infantry must come
out into the open when they advance, and that they are then
exposed to artillery fire. Putting down a shrapnel barrage at
10 seconds' notice on the enemy's front line, and bringing it back
over one's own lines when necessary, is of course part of the
regular routine of trench warfare. But the attacker counts on
destroying or neutralizing the guns of the defence by his bom-
bardment and counter-battery fire, and he is likely to succeed
to a great extent as regards batteries which have previously
disclosed their positions by firing. It is therefore necessary to
have " silent " batteries in the line, that is to say, batteries
which, ordinarily, are never allowed to fire except on occasions
when visibility is bad, and then only under precautions against
sound-ranging. The normal expenditure on a divisional front
may be i ,000 rounds a day, or less on quiet fronts, and this allow-
ance can be fired by a small number of batteries, so that there is
no difficulty, other than the administrative one, in keeping
half the guns of a front in silent positions in reserve to repel
an attack.
Another necessary precaution is the provision of deeply
buried telephone cables, proof against bombardment by heavy
artillery; and these must be laid not only to the ordinary gun
and observing positions, but also to the positions in rear to
which the artillery may have to retire.
As soon as the attacker begins his " intense " bombardment
the guns of the defence reply with a similar bombardment,
necessarily on a scale corresponding to their smaller number.
" Silent " batteries take part in this, since the smoke of the bom-
bardment will conceal their positions. When the infantry at-
tack is launched, then, assuming that the defender has still a
fair number of batteries effective, as soon as the call is made
upon them the field guns and trench mortars of the defence put
down a heavy barrage on the enemy's front-line and com-
munication trenches. Medium guns and field howitzers barrage
probable assembly points, while medium and heavy howitzers
bombard the attacker's gun positions, so far as these have
previously been disclosed. Since the defence has been weakened
by the bombardment it is probable that the attacker will capture
the forward zone. It takes one gun per 20 yd. to make a heavy
barrage; the defender starts with only one gun per 30 yd., and
may be reduced to one gun per 60 yd. at the end of the " intense "
bombardment. Of these at least a third will be firing on the
attacker's guns and communications, so that the defender's
barrage will presumably be too thin to stop a determined attack,
though it will cause a considerable number of casualties.
For this reason the defender will probably elect to use a partial
barrage, that is to say, a barrage of effective density, covering
only part of his front, the remainder being protected by machine-
guns and trench mortars. If his telephone communications are
thoroughly reliable he may be able to control this barrage so
as to put it down, at a moment's notice, in front of any part of
his line that is attacked. Each battery will then have, say, three
alternative sets of barrage orders, so that the whole barrage
can be put down on any one of three sections of the front. But
this method is so complicated and so liable to break down
that few commanders would care to trust to it.
As the attack gains ground the defender endeavours to keep
his counter-barrage on the leading troops of the attack, and
behind his retiring infantry; but owing to the inevitable break-
down of communications while the infantry are on the move it
is not likely that this ideal will be completely achieved. When
the defenders retire from the second zone of defence the attack
will be getting within rifle range of the defender's field guns.
The defender cannot afford to lose the whole of his field guns,
but it is desirable that some of them, say one-third, should remain
in action till the enemy is within 500 yd. of them, as they will
cause heavy loss by their point-blank fire. If well supported by
the guns which have already retired they have an excellent
chance of getting away. As the retirement continues the medium
and heavy pieces have to withdraw to the positions prepared
for them in rear.
There are many details, such as the support of local counter-
attacks and the protection of " strong points " which have
held out against the attack, which cannot be entered upon here.
Speaking generally, the object of the defender when attacked
by a greatly superior force is to maintain an orderly retirement,
with his line bending back but never breaking, taking heavy
toll of the attacking infantry at every stage of their advance,
until the attack is sufficiently weakened, or the defence sufficient-
ly reenforced, to enable the defender to launch a general counter-
attack.
Enfilade Fire. It has often been suggested that the best artillery
defence is that afforded by the oblique and enfilade fire of guns from
adjoining sectors of the front. This theory broke down in practice.
During sedentary warfare every division had enfilade sections es-
tablished in its neighbours' territory, or else had a " call " on some
of its neighbours' guns for enfilade purposes. So long as the line was
not seriously bombarded these guns were very useful. But when the
line was attacked in force it was quite hard enough to keep up com-
munication from front to rear within a divisional area, and it proved
impossible to direct the fire of the guns of other divisions. These
often joined in on their own account to help a neighbour when they
could see what was going on, but their assistance could not be relied
on as part of the scheme of defence.
Within the divisional front the method of enfilade fire at short
ranges is constantly employed; every one of the detached trenches
and other works which constitute a defensive zone should be enfiladed
from works in rear of it, and the approaches to it should be swept by
oblique fire. This duty is chiefly performed by machine-guns, but
it is advisable, when possible, to provide the batteries in rear with
extra emplacements from which guns can fire obliquely or even
across their front.
ARTILLERY
257
Defence against Tanks. In describing the defence of an
entrenched position, no mention has so far been made of tanks,
although the use of these is now one of the most important fea-
tures of the attack. And this is because the best method of deal-
ing with attacking tanks is still a matter of speculation.
Tanks advancing against a position are screened from the
aimed fire of distant artillery by the barrage which precedes
them. If ordinary field guns are concealed in the front line to
destroy them, these are generally destroyed themselves by
the bombardment. Some tanks may be hit by the defender's
barrage, but this is likely to be either thin or partial. At a later
stage some of the tanks will be hit by those field guns which
remain behind till the attacking infantry are within 500 yd. of
them. The uncertainty of defence by mines and by ditches has
been shown by experience. Tank-stopping rifles and tank-
stopping machine-guns are effective against the present tanks,
but those used in the next war will be proof against anything
short of a gun.
It is often assumed that attacking tanks will be engaged by
the tanks of the defence. But when a position is subjected to a
fully organized attack the latter will not find it easy to do this.
If kept well up to the front in readiness they will be destroyed
by the bombardment, to which they offer large targets. If
kept some 3 m. in rear till the attacking tanks appear, they
will, even if their movements be correctly timed, have to pass
through the attacker's bombardment and barrage, and possibly
through their own barrage. Moreover, the tanks of the defence
are presumably fewer in number than those assembled for the
attack, so that even if they arrive in time they will be out-
matched.
The best solution of the difficulty would appear to be the
provision of special anti-tank guns, large enough to put an
armour-piercing shell into a tank, and small enough to be pro-
vided with strong cover. A light mountain gun, capable of being
divided into man-loads, would be suitable for the purpose.
These guns might be in dugouts some 400 yd. behind the front
line, where they would not be subjected to the full violence of
the bombardment. When this was lifted from the front line
preparatory to the assault, the anti-tank guns would be put
together and run up on to platforms level with the tops of the
trench parapets, giving them sufficient command to see the
attacking tanks as they charged the front line.
A regular defence in depth by anti-tank guns would have to
be provided for, additional anti-tank guns being sited behind
each successive line of defence, as well as in " strong points."
These anti-tank guns would have to be " silent " guns, at
least so far as their own firing emplacements were concerned.
Their provision, on a scale sufficient to stop a tank attack,
would involve a considerable addition to the artillery of the
defence. For even if the infantry guns of acconjpaniment were
utilized as anti-tank guns, there would not be enough of them.
Infantry guns are required at the rate of one per 100 yd. of the
front of the attack, or at most 16 to a division; while if a division
holds 3,000 yd. of entrenched front it will require three lines of
anti-tank guns sited 200 yd. apart, that is 15 in each line, or
45, besides some 15 for " strong points." This calculation
shows that 60 anti-tank guns per divisional front are required,
or about one per 45-50 yards.
It may be suggested that the anti-tank guns of the first line
could withdraw to the second line, and then again to the third
line. But since they have to remain in position till the attack-
ing infantry have almost reached them, in order to deal with
the tanks, there would appear to be little chance of withdrawing
the guns, although the detachments may be able to escape.
The expenditure of men and material for a special purpose
which the above scheme involves is not to be undertaken lightly.
But it has become manifest that attacking tanks are safe from
distant artillery, and must be engaged by guns on the spot.
Therefore these guns will have to be provided; and, so far as
our present experience extends, the provision of numerous
small guns in the trench area seems to be the best answer to
the menace of the tank attack.
IV. THE PHASE OF EXPLOITATION
In France, in the latter half of 1918, after four years of trench
fighting, the retreat of the invader brought the combatants
into the open once more, but under changed conditions. The
artillery had increased in numbers relatively to the infantry;
their ammunition supply admitted of a greatly increased volume
of fire, and their range had been extended. Mechanical traction,
even for field artillery, had to a great extent come into use,
especially in the French army, and medium, heavy and even
superheavy ordnance were able to accompany the troops in
the field.
Under such conditions the troops had to adapt themselves
to a new method of warfare. The pre-war battery commanders,
experts in mobile warfare, had been replaced by others whose
training had begun in the trenches. Few of the officers and men
had any knowledge of mobile warfare as thought and practised
before the war, and even these found that they had to learn
their work afresh.
Moreover, owing to the strain upon the munition factories
manufacture had come to be limited to projectiles of simple
design suited for mass production, and shrapnel had disappeared
from all but the field-gun equipments. In the French army,
even these had only 5% of shrapnel, the rest being H. E. shell.
The mobile phase did not last long enough for the employ-
ment of artillery in a war of masses to be thoroughly studied.
The conclusions arrived at cannot be regarded as final, and are
subject to possible modifications due to the more extensive use
of tanks, motor artillery, and motor infantry.
Horse Artillery. The old methods of manoeuvre are not
applicable to a war in which the line of battle is continuous, with
no flanks. Whatever the general procedure selected by the
attacker, or pursuer, he will keep close touch with the defender's
line, and maintain pressure on it at all points so as to deny him
freedom of manoeuvre. The object of the pursued is to break
away from the pursuer, and to lose touch with his troops, so as
to regain freedom of manoeuvre in order to counter-attack,
to take up a defensive position, or both. In this nature of war-
fare horse artillery are of great value. (In the coming age of
motor artillery, the term " horse artillery " must be understood
to mean a more mobile arm than the divisional field artillery,
capable of working with the " cavalry " of the future, however
that arm may be transported.) The lessons of the first phase
of the western campaigns and of the Palestine campaign of 1918
still hold good.
The Attack. The result of the continuous line of battle is
that all attacks are, tactically, frontal attacks. Within the
limits of an army corps or divisional frontal attack there will be
local flank attacks; thus it is often easier to envelop a strongly
held locality than to take it by direct assault. But these are
minor operations which concern the trench mortars, the guns
of accompaniment, and the gun-carrying tanks rather than the
main body of the artillery.
Intimate cooperation of gun and rifle is more necessary than
ever, owing to the increased fire-power of the defence afforded
by the machine-gun. The breakdown of liaison par le has in
the opening phase of the war has already been referred to; in
the concluding phase this was still more marked, and the French
especially complained that their artillery misused the increased
range of their field gun by keeping far in rear of the infantry,
where communication with them was impossible, instead of
pressing forward to find out what was going on. But even if
liaison is so far effective that the artillery know when the
infantry is checked by fire, it does not follow that they will be
able to discover the source of the fire. Possibly the infantry may
not know themselves. Aeroplanes may be of great help both in
locating it and in promptly conveying the information to the
supporting artillery. It is even conceivable that battery com-
manders will direct the fire of their guns from aeroplanes. But
the possibilities of " liaison by the air " are still too vague to
count upon.
The Barrage. Since, under present conditions, the artillery
cannot always give the infantry direct support by killing the
258
ARTILLERY
troops that are firing on them, it is the more necessary that they
should at least screen them from aimed fire. Therefore, the
artillery barrage has become a feature of mobile as well as of
trench warfare. Tanks also require to be screened by a barrage,
although this, since it is not required to destroy opposition, may
consist of smoke shell, of which a relatively smaller number
suffice to create an opaque veil. Therefore, in a future attack,
the artillery must be on hand so that they can be got into action
at short notice, ready to form a barrage at once. But the artillery
of the normal divisional establishment will barely suffice for the
purpose. If it is a smoke barrage that is required, this is pref-
erably fired by the divisional field howitzers which are the
most suitable weapons. These are provided as a rule on the scale
of about 16 pieces per division. If, then, the division attacks
on a front of 1,600 yd., this gives only one field howitzer per
100 yd., and at their highest rate of fire (about 10 rounds a
minute for short periods, or 100 rounds an hour) they will not
be able to form a smoke barrage to cover the whole divisional
front, unless the weather conditions be exceptionally favourable.
Similarly, for an offensive barrage of shrapnel or H. E., which
requires one gun per 20 yd., the 72 field guns and field howitzers
of a pre-war division would barely suffice to cover its attacking
front, leaving none available for bombardment and counter-
battery work. The divisional artillery must therefore be reen-
forced for an attack, as in trench warfare, though not necessarily
to the same extent.
This reenforcing artillery will be taken, in the first place,
from reserve formations. Presumably the highly mobile army re-
serve field artillery will be drawn upon first, and then the
artillery of the divisions in reserve. It may even be necessary
to take field artillery from other divisions in the fighting line.
In the days of horse-drawn artillery this would have been a
dangerous expedient, but with motor artillery capable of cover-
ing 50 m. a day the objections are less serious.
Observation of Fire. When both forces are on the move,
there can have been no previous registration of targets. There-
fore the medium and heavy artillery, which engage long-distance
targets, must use aeroplane observation so far as available. Fir-
ing by the map is in mobile warfare a last resource, as there is
no opportunity for the survey work characteristic of trench
warfare and of the preparatory phase of the break-through
battle. The mastery of the air, in order to enable ranging aero-
planes to do their work, is of the highest importance.
Change to Trench Warfare. Mobile warfare is liable to turn
into trench warfare at any moment; the retreating force, if not
vigorously pressed, may have time to entrench a position. And
even the advancing force may find it expedient to halt and pro-
tect itself by entrenchments when the strategic centre of gravity
shifts to another part of the line or even another theatre of war.
Therefore an advancing or retreating force must have at hand,
so as to be available at short notice, the whole armament neces-
sary for trench warfare, from heavy howitzers on railway mount-
ings down to trench mortars.
The Defence. A defensive position in mobile warfare differs
from a regularly entrenched position principally by the weakness
of its passive defences. Belts of barbed wire, deep trenches and
dugouts, and armoured machine-gun emplacements cannot be
improvised; they require time, labour and material. As regards
offensive power, the chief drawback of an improvised position
is its weakness in long-range artillery fire, due to the fact that
firing by the map requires careful preparation, including survey-
ing and mapping from aeroplane photographs. Another weak
point is the difficulty of providing reliable communications,
since deeply laid telephone cables are not available.
As above mentioned, the position consists of a system or net-
work of localities, supporting each other by their fire, and
distributed in depth as far as the strength of the force allows;
thus a strong force may hold a zone 3 m. deep, with the positions
nearest the enemy held just strongly enough to oblige him to
deploy. A few horse artillery or mountain guns, supported by
machine-guns, afford a sufficient volume of fire for this pur-
pose. As the attacker penetrates into this network of small
positions, he finds it increasingly difficult to maintain a con-
tinuous line, with or without a barrage in front of it, and he is
exposed to counter-attacks, especially from tanks which have
been concealed behind cover. If he attacks en regie with an in-
tense bombardment and complete barrage, he may find that he
has wasted his time and ammunition on a skeleton force. His
safest course is to bombard, and assault each strong point in
turn. But the defender will avoid the choice of conspicuous
localities as strong points; an angle of a hedge affording a field
of fire of only 100 yd. is better than a clump of trees on a hill.
Many of the strong points will be so inconspicuous that they will
have to be located by the advancing infantry and tanks before
any considerable volume of fire can be brought to bear on them
by the artillery in rear. In principle, the defender's methods
are the same as those described earlier in this article, but the
absence of the successive definite zones of defence allows of
greater flexibility, especially as regards counter-attacks. The
attack on an entrenched position is to a great extent a pre-
arranged operation based on positive and detailed information.
But when the attacker penetrates into the advanced works of
a strange position, unfamiliar to him except in so far as the nat-
ural features of the country are shown on the map, he ventures
into the unknown, and the advantage of surprise attack rests
with the defender, if he is bold enough to avail himself of it.
On the other hand, the successful defence of a position in the
open unfortified country requires a nice balance of subordinate
initiative and higher control, and therefore a degree and quality
of efficiency that are not always to be found in a retreating
force. (H. A. B.)
V. ORGANIZATION
Before the World War the artillery of the military Powers
was organized on the following general lines: Cavalry division,
one horse artillery battery per brigade of three regiments, each
of 600 sabres. Infantry division of 12 battalions, six field guns
(including field howitzers) per battalion of 1,000 rifles. A British
division had also one battery of medium guns. Army Corps
of two or more divisions, 6-in. guns and howitzers (no fixed
scale), and the divisional artilleries. In the French army, a
proportion of the field guns which elsewhere were assigned
entirely to divisional artilleries was reserved under corps con-
trol as " corps artillery." Army of two or more army corps,
all mobile guns and howitzers of calibres above 6-in. (few
existed) and a siege train when required.
Proportion of Guns to Rifles. The proportion of six field
guns per 1,000 rifles was found satisfactory, as a normal scale,
throughout the war, but extra field guns from army reserve had
to be added for anything larger than an army corps operation.
Opinions differ as to the strength at which this reserve should
be maintained; it may possibly be fixed at 25% of the divisional
artillery.
For trench warfare, the divisional field artillery had to be
supplemented by the addition of pieces effective against field
entrenchments. These included medium howitzers, notably the
6-in. howitzer throwing a ico-lb. shell, and medium and heavy
trench mortars.
Battery Organization. Before 1914, field artillery had in most
countries been organized in batteries of four guns. Great Britain
(for her regular army), Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy 1
however, kept to the old six-gun battery. The Russians had a unit
of eight guns, which could be used as two four-gun batteries. The
four-gun battery is tactically more efficient; it admits of more in-
tensive fire-direction, and is easier to lead and to conceal. Moreover,
a six-gun battery rarely has occasion to use its full fire-power of 20
rounds per gun per minute, and its guns are not worked to their full
capacity; better value, gun for gun, is obtained from the four-gun
unit. In Great Britain, on the outbreak of war, all the batteries of
the new army were raised as four-gun batteries, as were already those
of the Territorial Force. But in 1916 the British army reverted to the
six-gun organization; the reason given being the impossibility of
providing a full battery cadre of five officers for every four guns. But
it is an open question whether that cadre as conceived in Great
Britain is not itself unnecessarily large. The French have only three,
1 The Italians were about to introduce the four-gun battery in
proportion as the Deport gun replaced the Krupp.
ARTILLERY
259
and in their batteries many of the duties which the British consider
can only be done by an officer are performed by warrant or non-
commissioned officers. The six-gun battery in peace, on the other
hand, makes for economy and it is doubtless on this ground that the
British authorities have decided, since the war, to retain it for field
batteries.
Distribution of Field Guns and Field Howitzers. In most armies,
the divisional artillery consists approximately of 75 % of field guns
and 25 % of field howitzers. It is a question whether the howitzers
should be organized as a separate brigade, or whether each brigade
should consist of three batteries of guns and one of howitzers.
(It should be explained that the use of the term " brigade " to mean a
group of three or four batteries of artillery is peculiar to the British
army. Other nations restrict this term to the higher formations,
commanded by a general officer, the unit corresponding to the British
" brigade " being designated groupe, battalion, Abteilung, division,
etc.)
The Germans, in 1915, distributed their howitzer batteries among
the gun brigades, but later on, they reverted to separate howitzer
brigades in the proportion of two gun and one howitzer brigade per
division, the three batteries of each being all on the four-gun basis.
The British broke up their howitzer brigades and distributed the
batteries in 1916, and retained these mixed brigades to the end of
the war. The difference in the training of the men is slight, and is
concerned principally with the extra complication of .the divisible
charge used in howitzers. Now that it is proposed in most armies to
use half-charges and super-charges as well as normal charges for
long guns also, this difference is tending to disappear. During trench
warfare, a howitzer brigade was never used as a fire-unit ; its batteries
were distributed along the divisional front. In mobile warfare, there
are many occasions when the fire of field guns requires to be sup-
plemented by that of field howitzers, and few, if any, when a field
howitzer brigade would be used alone. Assuming that the field
howitzer is a light piece of the same mobility as the field gun 1 it
appears that the mixed gun and howitzer brigade, consisting of
three batteries of guns and one of howitzers, is the better organiza-
tion of the two.
Fighting Organization of Artillery during the War Period. For
the standards of 1914, three types may be taken as representative:
the German, the French and the British. Field and heavy field bat-
teries only will be considered.
The German army corps of two divisions possessed 144 field guns
and field howitzers, and 16 heavy field (6-in.) howitzers. Only the
latter-named were corps troops, all field artillery being divisional.
Each division possessed a field artillery brigade of two regiments,
each regiment having two Abteilungen of three six-gun batteries
each. One of the four Abteilungen in each division was armed with
iO5-mm. (4-l-in.) field howitzers, the other three with the 77-mm.
field gun. The corps heavy artillery formed a " battalion " of 4 four-
gun batteries. In the field artillery, the battery, besides its six guns,
possessed nine ammunition wagons, and in all 17 vehicles. The
personnel was 150 of all ranks with 135 horses. The Abteilung had
480 officers and men, 400 horses and 53 vehicles. The light ammuni-
tion column, of which there was one for each Abteilung, had 190
officers and men, 180 horses and 24 vehicles. In addition, there was
the field artillery component of the less mobile ammunition column
allotted to the division. The heavy battery (230 officers and men)
in addition to its four guns had eight ammunition wagons and seven
other vehicles, with 120 horses in all. The battalion of four batteries
numbered 960 officers and men, 520 horses and 80 vehicles. A light
ammunition column of 29 vehicles, 270 personnel and 190 horses
carried the first reserve and a slow-moving column the second.
Heavier artillery, some of which (21 -cm. mortar batteries) had for
many years been organized for rapid movement, was allotted to
armies as required.
The French artillery was divided into divisional and corps artil-
lery, armed uniformly with the 75-mm. gun. The few heavy bat-
teries available were army artillery and there was no light howitzer.
The field battery had four guns and no less than 12 ammunition
wagons, with six other vehicles. The personnel was three officers and
170 other ranks with 165 horses. The groupe consisted of three bat-
teries, with a total of 544 men (including 16 officers), 514 horses and
71 vehicles. The first ammunition reserve was an " artillery ammu-
nition section " of 20 ammunition wagons (half slow-moving) and
other vehicles. Each division had a regiment of artillery consisting of
three groupes and each corps, as corps artillery, a regiment of four
groupes; there were thus 10 groupes or 30 batteries (120 guns) per
corps.
The British army in 1914 did not possess the corps organization,
and some elements usually under corps control were in this instance
divifional, especially the heavy field artillery.
The divisional artillery was under the command of a brigadier-
general and consisted of three " brigades " (of three six-gun batteries
each) of i8-pr. guns, and one brigade (similarly constituted) of 4-5-
in. howitzers, plus one four-gun battery of 6o-pr. heavy field guns.
The battery had two ammunition wagons per gun, making with other
vehicles a total of 20. The battery personnel numbered 200 including
The reservation is necessary as some nations have no light field
howitzers, and use the 6-in. as the divisional high-angle weapon.
five officers, with 174 horses. To each brigade was attached per-
manently a light ammunition column, consisting of a third ammuni-
tion wagon per gun, and 13 vehicles of different sorts for infantry
ammunition. 2 In all, the brigade with its ammunition column had
803 officers and men, 764 horses and 102 vehicles. The organization
of the howitzer brigade was practically identical, except that its
ammunition column did not supply infantry, so that the total of
vehicles was smaller, viz. 89. The strength in personnel was 763 and
in horses 719. The heavy battery had 19 vehicles including its guns,
and possessed an ammunition column of its own, consisting of a
third ammunition wagon for each gun and one other vehicle. Thus
in all, the unit had 24 vehicles. The personnel of battery and column
together was six officers and 192 other ranks with 144 horses. The
divisional ammunition column consisted of 113 general service
wagons (of which 81 were for artillery ammunition, 18 for infantry
and one for special stores), personnel 15 officers, 553 other ranks,
horses 709.
A general comparison of artillery strengths in men, horses
and vehicles (excluding those allocated to the service of infantry
ammunition) shows the following:
Great Britain (two divs.)
7,640 officers and men, 6, 136 horses, 996 vehicles, incl. 152 guns.
France (corps)
7,750 officers and men, 6,737 horses, 943 vehicles, incl. 120 guns.
Germany (corps)
7,830 officers and men, 6,850 horses, 975 vehicles, incl. 1 60 guns.
(In all the above figures, supply and baggage wagons have been
included.)
This organization, designed for mobile warfare, broke down
under trench warfare conditions. The organic artillery allot-
ment of the division proved to be too large for normal trench
warfare fighting and too small for battle. The army corps itself,
as a standard unit, gradually ceased to exist, and was changed
into a new form of army corps which generally fixed in a
particular area of the front constituted a permanent frame-
work, in and out of which different divisions constantly passed
from " line " to " rest " and vice versa. The exhaustion of the
fighting energy of infantry and of artillery respectively when in
the line proceeded at different rates, and the infantry of a
division frequently had to be withdrawn and replaced by that
of another while its artillery remained in position. The growth
of the " dump " system of ammunition supply rendered the
elaborate organization of horsed ammunition reserves largely
uneconomical. Lastly, the range of guns permitting of artillery
collaboration between adjacent divisional sectors especially
for counter-battery work a common organization for the com-
mand of the artillery of several sectors was bound to come into
being.
In the British, French and German artillery, accordingly, the
divisional field artillery was reduced to a strength suited for a
divisional sector in trench warfare; this artillery went in and out
of line with its division. The remainder of the field artillery
was formed into a mass of " army reserve artillery," the function
of which was to double, treble or quadruple the divisional
artilleries in a battle area. This reserve, being wholly independ-
ent both of the area organization and of the divisional formation,
could be brought into action as required and for as long as re-
quired. The medium and heavy artillery, similarly, was divided
into two portions, but the change was here less obvious, as little
or no artillery of these classes had belonged organically to
divisions. The one portion was substantially fixed to the area,
the other placed in army reserve and used to reenforce the area
heavy artillery for battle periods.
The following diagram illustrates the evolution just described :
1914
1917
Medium
Army (in- Co
elusive of
artillery
taken out
of for-
tresses).
and Heavy.
ps. (Divisional,
where it
existed. )
Field.
(Corps, Divi
where it
existed.)
t
sional.
Army Di
reserve
field.
1
visional
field.
Army re- Corps heavy
serve heavy. (sector).
! Neither the French nor the German first reserve columns sup-
plied infantry ammunition.
260
ARTILLERY
The effective solution that this reorganization provided for the
problem of divisional reliefs, and incidentally the necessity for
some such solution, are illustrated by the fact that in the pro-
longed Flanders battle of July-Oct. 1917 the average time spent
in line by divisional artillery (which moved in and out with their
infantry) was 33 days, while the average for units of the army
reserve field artillery was 72 days.
When fully developed at the end of 1917 the higher
organization of the British artillery in France was as follows:
other had three " battalions " each of two four-gun batteries,
making 24 medium howitzers. Thus, as in 1914, we find 72
guns per 12 battalions or six guns per 1,000 rifles, but the addi-
tion of numerous heavy machine guns to the rifle strength makes
the proportion of guns, in relation to fighting frontage, somewhat
less. Each divisional artillery possessed a battery of 12 medium
trench mortars.
The corps artillery (each corps had four divisions) comprised
one regiment of medium guns (4-7 in.) and one of heavy guns
Army H.Q. and General Officer commanding Artillery in the Army.
Army field
artillery
(pool)
I. Corps H.Q. and II., I
general officer
commanding artillery
of I. Corps
1 1
II., etc., Corps
(similar)
Army heavy artillery
(pool)
lered also
Dntrols]
Anti-aircraft
guns in army
area.
1
2nd, 3rd, etc., H.Q. ist div. and
divs. similar brig.-gen. 1st
divisional artillery.
Brig.-gen.
heavy artillery [if on
I. Corps. c
(organized by areas)
1
Bdes.
Otherwise
allotted
(varying in
number).
1 1 1
Bdes. allotted Bde. Bde. Medium
to ist div. (field guns trench
(field guns and field mortars,
and field howitzers
howitzers). normally
belonging
to div.).
I 1
Heavy Heavy bdes.
trench normally
mortars. in corps
area (num-
ber and
composition
vary).
1 |
Heavy brigades, or do. to
temporary II., III., etc.
groups heavy, corps operation,
allotted to
I. Corps
operation,
(number varies, also composition)
(Thick lines show organic system, thin lines special battle system)
(At this period the field brigades were composed of three gun
and one howitzer battery each; the composition of heavy bri-
gades varied considerably, a " mobile" brigade consisting of two
6o-pr. and two 6-in. howitzer batteries, while others contained
9-2 and 8-in howitzers in addition.)
German practice differed considerably from this, in that all
artillery in a divisional area was under control of the divisional
artillery commander, while in major operations the artillery of
several corps together was controlled for the occasion by a
" general of the artillery " who was often neither a general
officer in rank, nor a permanent member of the army head-
quarters concerned.
The average strength in batteries of a divisional sector (in
the case of the German nine-battalion division) was the six
field-gun and three field-howitzer batteries of the division, and
five to seven batteries of medium and heavy artillery belonging
to the sector, or, in pieces, 36 light plus 24 heavy (irrespective of
trench mortars). Figures have already been given for typical
artillery strength in battle (in terms of yards of front per gun).
The return to open warfare conditions in 1918 made further
changes, chiefly in the direction of providing divisions with
medium artillery of their own and separating what had formerly
been " sector " heavy artillery into calibres suitable for in-
corporation in mobile divisions and calibres best managed by
corps headquarters. The Germans made a beginning with this
process in permanently allotting a group of one io-5-cm. gun
battery and two i5-cm. howitzer batteries to each divisional
artillery. 1 But the best example of artillery organization as
conceived in 1918 for purposes of the expected mobile warfare,
is that laid down (though never fully carried out owing to the
dose of hostilities) for the American Expeditionary Force. 1
The divisional artillery consisted of a brigade of three regi-
ments, two being of field guns (75 mm.) and one of medium
howitzers (155 mm.). The field-gun regiments consisted each of
two " battalions," and each " battalion " of three four-gun
batteries, in all 24 guns per regiment or 48 per division. The
1 This was never completed, but a large number of divisions had
been so provided by the end of the war.
2 It must be observed that the American division was much strong-
er in infantry than a British, French or German, having in fact 12
battalions besides a considerable machine-gun organization.
(155 mm.) both " motorized," as well as four batteries of heavy
trench mortars. These artillery regiments were arranged, like
the medium regiment of a division, in three battalions each of
two four-gun batteries; thus in all, the corps artillery contained
24 medium and 24 heavy long guns. The two regiments formed
a brigade.
Army reserve artillery (for an army of five corps or 20 divi-
sions) consisted of four brigades (motorized) or 12 regiments of
heavy guns (6-in.), organized as above, and containing in all
288 pieces, and five regiments of field artillery (organized in
the same way as divisional field artillery regiments) with 100
pieces.
Lastly, under G.H.Q. direct was the Railway Artillery Re-
serve, consisting of 42 batteries (i.e. pieces) grouped in " bat-
talions," regiments and brigades.
Neglecting the last item, then, we find for an army of 20
divisions, about to be engaged in offensive mobile warfare and
counting 291 battalions of infantry and pioneers and 120
regimental and divisional machine-gun companies:
Field guns.
Medium
howitzers.
Medium guns.
Heavy guns.
240 batteries di-
visional, 1 20 bat-
teries in army
pool.
= 1,440 pieces
1 20 batteries in
divisional artil-
lery.
= 480 pieces
120 batteries in
corps artillery.
= 480 pieces
1 20 batteries in
corps artillery,
72 batteries in
army pool.
= 768 pieces
Total batteries 792; total pieces (excluding Railway Artillery and
trench mortars) 3,168; or roughly 10 guns per 1,000 of infantry,
pioneer, and machine-gun establishments, of which 4$ belong to
divisional, 3 to corps and 2\ to reserve artillery.
In the British and American examples quoted, an artillery staff
under a brig.-gen. or maj.-gen. is provided at the rate of about
one per 90 guns (or including the field artillery pool one per 100).
The German artillery staffs were in a smaller proportion. This
question of higher artillery commands is still an open one, but
it is clear that under modern conditions no reversion is possible
to the simple method of 1914, in which there was no effective
artillery staff at a higher level than the division. War organiza-
tion will necessarily include some proportion of these higher
artillery commands, and peace organization must provide, if
not these executive posts themselves, at any rate the means of
preparing the officers who may be called upon to hold them.
ARTILLERY
261
Ammunition Supply. Before the war all armies were
equipped with mobile ammunition columns, which served the
needs both of infantry and machine-guns and of the artillery
itself. As a rule certain columns in each formation were sup-
plied with limbered vehicles and field artillery horses, and were
as mobile as the batteries, while the remainder, with vehicles
of the ordinary army type, possessed the mobility of baggage
columns only. In Great Britain a considerable advance toward
simplifying the ammunition supply service had been made by
introducing lorry transport, worked on the same system as that
which provided the army's daily bread, and by attaching a light
ammunition column permanently to every brigade of field
artillery. But when trench warfare set in, and all supply at the
front was based on a system of " dumps," the mobile reserve
of ammunition constituted by these brigade ammunition
columns was not required. They were therefore put back into
the " divisional " ammunition column, or second echelon of
supply, which itself was recast on a much smaller scale. 1 In
the more open warfare of 1918, however, it was found necessary
to return a portion of them to divisional control.
The batteries themselves retained, and necessarily so, all their
original wagons.
The organization, and nature of transport, required for re-
serve ammunition in the future depends principally on the
organization and motive power of the batteries. But it may be
assumed with some confidence that since mechanical transport
improves every year in available numbers, trustworthiness in
different conditions, and freedom of movement, horsed am-
munition columns are a thing of the past. Even theatres of war
for which mechanical transport is unsuitable to-day will be open
to it to-morrow.
Organization of Artillery Motors. During the war the per-
sonnel in charge of the artillery motor lorries, tractors, and other
motor vehicles were not artillerymen, but were taken from the
transport services. This was only a provisional arrangement,
due to the fact that the artillerymen were not competent to take
charge of motor vehicles. As the motor replaces the artillery
horse, this incongruity will naturally disappear, and the artillery
will drive their own motors. This will presumably not apply to
lorries used to transport guns behind the fighting line, as de-
scribed above, since these lorries will be general transport,
available for other troops when not employed with the artillery.
The leading principle is that all men who go into action with the
guns, or who are available to replace casualties in the fighting
line, must be artillerymen.
Special Artillery and Scientific Auxiliaries. The introduction
of guns of accompaniment, to advance with the front line of the
infantry, is contemplated in all armies. The question arises
whether these guns are to belong to the infantry, like their own
machine-guns, or to the artillery. It is urged on the one hand that
the special knowledge required to use a field gun is such as the
infantry cannot be expected to attain. On the other hand,
infantry officers point out that the gun is not required for general
artillery purposes, but merely as a large-bore machine-gun, and
that the detachment must be thoroughly familiar with infantry
work. The decision between these two views seems to depend
on whether the guns of accompaniment are to be used as bat-
teries or as single guns. In the latter case, they should be
infantry, not artillery, weapons.
A more difficult question is whether tanks armed with guns are
to belong to the artillery or to a separate tank corps. It is easy
to draw the line between a fighting tank which has a gun as
part of its armament, and a tractor which pulls a gun into
action and then waits behind like a limber and team. These are
the two extremes, but there are intermediate forms, such as the
tank which carries a gun on a platform, capable of fighting
either on top of the tank or on the ground, and the tank which
is an integral part of the gun-mounting, and is technically an
automobile gun-carriage. It seems probable that all these types
1 In the new organization, that part of the divisional ammunition
column which carried the second reserve of gun ammunition was
reduced to one-seventh of its former size.
will belong to the artillery, except the tank proper, in which the
gun is only a subsidiary part of the armament.
Finally, it is significant that in reducing the artillery to the
minimum imposed by the Peace of Versailles, Germany has
chosen to retain both accompanying guns, anti-tank guns and
scientific sections (flash-spotting, sound-ranging, meteorological
and survey) on the regular establishment of the arm.
(H. A. B.; C. F. A.)
VI. THE EFFECT or ARTILLERY PROJECTILES
It is of great importance to the soldier to know the probable
effect of artillery projectiles. On the one hand, the artillery
commander must know what nature of projectile to use for a
given task, and how many will have to be fired, and, on the
other, the troops must know what measures to adopt in order
to escape the shell-effect, or to minimize it.
The projectiles fired by land artillery are shrapnel shell,
H.E. shell, and chemical, incendiary and illuminating shell.
They may also have to fire armour-piercing shell at armoured
forts and at tanks, though these shell are not part of their usual
equipment.
Shrapnel Shell. This is the most efficient man-killing projectile
against troops exposed in the open or when manning a parapet.
The French calculate that in 1914, when their artillery fired little but
shrapnel, they killed five men of the enemy for every ton of ammu-
nition expended, whereas in 1918, when, after a long period of trench
warfare, the proportion was only 5 % of field artillery shrapnel to
95 % of H. E. shell, they killed only one man per 4 tons of ammuni-
tion. The reduction in the proportion of shrapnel carried was due
to the difficulty and expense of supply, especially as regards the fuze.
The object of the designer of gun and ammunition, and of the
gunner who uses them, is to obtain a dense shower of bullets flying
forward close to the ground.
With a view to shrapnel effect, the gun-designer produces a gun
with high velocity, long range, and flat trajectory. But a gun equip-
ment of given weight can produce only a given amount of shell
energy, which is measured by the product of the weight of the shell
and the square of its velocity. Consequently there must be a com-
promise between a heavy shrapnel and a light high-velocity one.
This has been solved differently by different nations, as follows :
Weight
in
Weight
Muzzle
Number
Number
of
Action
of Gun
of
Shrapnel
Ib.
Velocity
fs.
of
Bullets
to the Ib.
Bullets
in Shrap-
nel.
Russia
21
14?
1.930
43
260
France
23
16
1,740
38
292
Great Britain .
24!
I8J
1,615
41
375
Germany
I8f
'5
1,525
45
300
The Russian and French guns are best adapted for shrapnel fire.
The French use a heavy far-reaching bullet, which, in their flat-
trajectory gun, gives a deep zone of shrapnel effect, suited to their
bold method of opening fire, which is intended to produce a crushing
effect on the enemy with the least possible delay. The Germans were
obliged by the low power and curved trajectory of their field gun,
in which muzzle energy was subordinated to mobility, to abandon
the idea of a far-reaching shrapnel and to accept the necessity of
expending more rounds for searching a given depth.
Another consideration affecting the question of high velocity
versus heavy shell is that the light shell loses its high remaining
velocity, which gives the forward impulse to the bullets, much sooner
than the heavy shell, so that much of the power of the gun is wasted
on overcoming air-resistance, instead of being communicated to the
bullets. However, it maintains the initial advantage due to a low
angle of elevation up to extreme shrapnel range. The loss of remain-
ing velocity can be partly compensated for by increasing the driving
charge in the shell. The shrapnel then acts as a short gun fired close
to the enemy. But although this expedient is adopted to some extent
in most equipments the limit of efficiency is soon reached, since the
large charge reduces the bullet capacity of the shell, and the body has
to be made with stout walls, or of very high-grade steel, not always
available in war-time, to prevent the shrapnel from blowing to
pieces instead of acting as a gun.
Weight of Shrapnel Bullets. The weight of the shrapnel bullet,
which is necessarily spherical, is of great importance to the effect.
Elongated shrapnel bullets are out of the question, since there is no
means of imparting rotation to them. AH attempts in that direction
have been failures. Of two spherical bullets the heavier will travel
further before pitching into the ground, and so will have a longer
period of efficiency. The heaviest metal practically available for
shrapnel bullets is hardened lead. Tungsten and other heavy metals
have been proposed, but are not available in sufficient quantities for
262
ARTILLERY
war requirements. The weight of the shrapnel bullets contained in a
shell can therefore be increased only at the expense of their number.
In the other direction, the minimum weight of the bullet is de-
termined by the necessity for providing sufficient disabling energy.
It has been found experimentally that a striking energy of 60 foot-
pounds is sufficient to disable a man. In the case of a bullet starting
from the point of burst with an initial velocity of 1,000 fs., as in the
British i8-pr. at 4,ooo-yd. range, the striking energy after it has
travelled 300 yd. is as follows:
Weight of Bullet.
Remaining
Velocity.
Striking Energy.
France
Russia
Germany
38 to the pound
43 "
45
388 fs.
378 "
370
61-5 foot-pounds
52-8 "
47-2 " "
It will be seen that under the assumed conditions the French bullet
of 38 to the pound is the only one which provides sufficient striking
energy at 300 yd. from the burst. Of the nations which took part
in the World War, the French, the Japanese, and the United States
(who had the French equipment) were the only ones who used the
heavy shrapnel bullet. The other nations (except the Russians)
considered that the trajectory of their guns was not flat enough to
carry a good proportion of the bullets to a distance of 300 yd., and
consequently preferred lighter but more numerous bullets which
gave a closer pattern over a shorter distance. It would seem that
the Russians, with their powerful gun, would have done better to
use a heavier bullet.
Technical Employment of Shrapnel. A shrapnel should be burst
in air so that the axis of the bullet-cone passes through the centre of
the target. This is a matter of ranging, and is dealt with elsewhere.
Further, the distance of the point of burst from the target should
be such as to produce the greatest possible effect. This also is a
matter of ranging, but the gunner must first know what is the correct
distance which he has to attain. This is determined by theory.
The target surface of a man, measured at right angles to the
trajectory of a shrapnel bullet, may be taken as % sq. yd. when
standing, J sq. yd. when kneeling, and \ sq. yd. when lying or firing
over a parapet. The best effect is produced when the density of the
cone of bullets is such as to provide one effective bullet for each man.
The density depends on the target surface offered by each man;
it is immaterial, as regards the best distance of burst, whether the
men are in a thin skirmishing line or shoulder to shoulder. If the
distribution of bullets throughout the cone were uniform that
is, if the shrapnel gave a perfect " pattern " then at standing
infantry the cross section of the cone should contain one bullet per
J sq. yard. Taking a shrapnel containing 300 bullets, the cross sec-
tion of the cone at the target would have to be 150 sq. yards. The
apex angle of the cone being aboufl in 4, this would fix the best dis-
tance of burst at 55 yd. from the target. But the distribution of
bullets in the cone is not uniform. If it be assumed to be haphazard
(which is nearer the truth), then, according to the Theory of Prob-
abilities, the probable maximum effect is produced when the cross
section contains 1-24 bullets for each man. This gives the best dis-
tance of burst for the above shrapnel as about 50 yd. against standing
men, 41 yd. against kneeling men, and 35 yd. against men lying
or firing over a parapet. With the shrapnel of the British l8-pr.,
which contains 375 bullets, the best distances are 55, 45 and 38 yd.
respectively.
The question of the distance of burst is affected by the error of the
fuze. If, for instance, the fuze be such that the shrapnel is liable to
burst 60 yd. over or short of the desired point, then if this be fixed at
40 yd. from the target some of the shrapnel will be wasted by bursting
on the ground. Similarly, the error of the gun will cause " short "
rounds to burst on the ground. In the British and in the French
services it has been laid down that the distance of burst for field
guns is to be such as to appear from the battery 10 minutes of angle
(in French notation 3 " mils," i.e. yifeo of the range) above the
target. This corresponds to a distance of burst of 70 yd., and rather
less at longer ranges, and gives about 10% of bursts on graze. This
distance has been fixed partly with reference to the error of the fuze
(which, under war conditions of manufacture, is considerably
greater than in peace time), but principally for simplicity. When
good fuzes are available better shooting is to be obtained by adhering
to the theoretically correct distances given above. Towards the end
of the war the Germans used a number of very accurate mechanical
time fuzes, and if these come into general use the service height of 10
minutes above the target will no doubt be reduced.
Penetration. Even the heavy French shrapnel bullet will not
pierce the thinnest of the steel gun-shields in use, and it is quite
ineffective against infantry shields, loophole plates, and the plates of
a tank. These shields are all made to resist infantry bullets, which
have much greater power of penetration than leaden shrapnel bullets.
Steel shrapnel bullets will pierce gun-shields if the shrapnel
be burst ^close up. 1 As the steel bullets are larger than leaden bullets
of the same weight, their use entails a reduction of about 20% in the
number of bullets in the shrapnel. For the same reason they do not
fly so far, and shrapnel filled with them are less effective against
1 These were actually used to a small extent by the Germans
towards the end of the war, possibly on account of shortage of lead.
infantry. Tungsten steel bullets containing 14% of tungsten would
be as heavy for their size as bullets made of the ordinary lead-anti-
mony alloy, but difficulties of expense and supply will probably
prevent their introduction.
Percussion Shrapnel. Shrapnel are invariably fuzed with time-
and-percussion fuzes, constructed to burst either in air or on graze.
The object of the percussion arrangement is almost entirely to assist
ranging by giving visible bursts on the ground. The bullet-effect of
shrapnel burst on graze is negligible, as the shell rises steeply from
the crater before it opens, and the bullets are blown out in an upward
direction, and lose their effective velocity before coming down again.
Occasionally the ground may be so hard and the angle of impact
so small that the shell ricochets low instead of forming a crater and
shower, viz. upwards. But generally speaking percussion fire with
shrapnel at troops in the open is a waste of ammunition.
When a direct hit on a gun-shield is made with shrapnel shell the
shell does not open till it has travelled several feet further, unless it
hits the gun or some solid part of the carriage, and there is no bullet-
effect on the detachment. As a rule, a direct hit from a field shrapnel
on a modern cellular ammunition box does not blow up the contents,
though it may explode a H.E. shell if it makes a fair hit on it, and
it may set fire to some of the cartridges.
When percussion shrapnel are fired at a building the shell explodes
as it passes through the wall, and produces good bullet-effect on
anything behind, as in this case the check is sufficient to give the base
burster time to ignite. It used to be held that troops were safe from
shrapnel behind two walls, and this is literally correct ; but there are
so many windows in the front of a house that the shrapnel is liable
to pass through them and burst through the back wall, and moreover,
under the fire of powerful modern field guns the front wall soon ceases
to exist.
Owing to the charge of black powder which it contains shrapnel
has considerable incendiary effect on buildings.
Howitzer Shrapnel produces its characteristic effect by the bullets
striking downwards at a steep angle 40 degrees or more to the
horizontal. The object is to reach troops behind a parapet or gun-
shield. The depth of effect, being proportionate to the cosine of the
angle of impact, is much less than with a flat-trajectory gun. Precise
ranging and an accurate fuze are required to produce good effect.
During the first or mobile phase of the war shrapnel fire from field
howitzers gave excellent results; later, however, the difficulty of
procuring good time fuzes for howitzers brought this class of shell
into disrepute, and it seems probable that its use will be discontinued
except for light field howitzers, and even in these reserved to mobile
warfare.
The theory of the effect of howitzer shrapnel is the same as for gun
shrapnel. The weight of the bullet is increased to compensate for
the low remaining velocity. The angle of descent of the lowest
bullet, including half the angle of opening, is about 40 degrees to the
horizontal, so that a man would have to crouch very close behind a
gun-shield or parapet to escape being hit. When burst at effective
height a field howitzer shrapnel, such as that of the British 4'5-in.
howitzer, covers a space 35 yd. wide and 70 yd. from front to rear.
Universal Shell. These are combined shrapnel and howitzer
shell; a type is described and illustrated in 1.869. The idea is that
when burst in air at shielded guns the head flies forward and acts
on impact as a small H.E. shell, powerful enough to disable the gun
if it strikes it, or to reach the men behind the gun-shield with splinters
flying sideways or even backwards, while the body of the shell acts
as an ordinary time shrapnel. If the whole shell is burst on impact
it detonates like a H.E. shell. Such shell were used in the war, but
their usefulness was always a matter of controversy and their com-
plicated design made supply difficult.
High-Explosive Shell. These were the principal projectile fired
by all natures of land artillery during the long period of trench
warfare in the western theatre of war. They are of two kinds, thick-
walled shell and mine shell. The former have a comparatively small
burster and are intended to kill men with their splinters; the latter
are thin-walled shell containing a large burster, and are intended to
penetrate deeply before bursting, and to destroy fortifications and
material. Mine shell are fired from howitzers, in which they are
exposed only to a low pressure in the bore. In modern howitzers,
which are required to range at least 50 % further than those in use in
1914, the endeavour is made to keep down the pressure as far as
possible by increasing the length of bore, thus getting more work out
of the same charge. But the increase of range which can be obtained
in this way is hardly sufficient, and heavier charges are inevitable.
Mine shells for such pieces have to be made thicker in the walls
to prevent them from collapsing in the bore, and tend to approximate
to the thick-walled type.
Thick-walled shell are almost always fired with instantaneous per-
cussion fuzes; occasionally they are fired with time fuzes to burst in
air. The object of the instantaneous fuze is to burst the shell on the
surface of the ground before it has time to penetrate, so that the
splinters are not wasted by being smothered in the crater. Thus,
early in the war, the German howitzer shell, for want of an efficient
instantaneous fuze, used to penetrate deeply into the soft clay of
Flanders, and the result was a vertical eruption of mud and splinters
which was harmless to men not actually on the spot struck. Instan-
taneous fuzes are also used to burst H.E. shell in the act of passing
ARTILLERY
263
through a gun-shield, thin wall, thin parapet, etc., so as to produce
splinter effect on troops immediately behind it. When an instan-
taneous fuze acts properly the effect, even on soft ground, is to form
a saucer-shaped crater not more than 6 in. deep, in which no splinters
are to be found. With flat-trajectory guns the splinters fly forward
and sideways, and no reverse effect on troops behind cover can be
expected; with howitzers fired so as to give angles of descent of 30
to 45 degrees a few splinters from the base come back, but the re-
verse effect is slight; with howitzers fired at angles of elevation be-
tween 45 and 65 degrees, giving angles of descent of 55 to 75 degrees,
the effect is almost equal in all directions.
The size and weight of the splinters are of great importance.
Owing to their irregular shape small splinters do not fly very far.
The object of the ammunition designer is to get as many effective
splinters as possible. As the result of experiments it is considered
that the best man-killing weight is 25 grammes (0-88 oz.), though
splinters as small as 10 grammes (0-35 oz.) may be effective close to
the point of burst. It is not always possible to realize this ideal ; the
French field gun H.E. shell, weighing 11-68 lb., gives only 50
effective splinters, averaging 100 grammes (3-52 oz.). The German
1914 field-gun shell, weighing 15 lb. gave 135 splinters averaging
1-65 ounces. A more recent projectile, that of the French 7'7-pr.
trench gun, gives 90 splinters of about 1-2 ounces. Theoretically it
is possible to design a shell so as to produce any required fragmen-
tation. A violent H.E. burster tears a soft metal shell to minute
fragments, while a mild burster in a hard steel shell merely breaks it
into a few large pieces; the designer has to adjust the violence of the
burster to the hardness and " shock-test " strength of the steel so as
to produce the desired number of fragments, as uniform in weight as
possible. But in practice the problem is a difficult one, as the
stresses to which the shell is subjected in the gun, and the shape and
balance desirable for ballistics, have to be taken into account.
However, manufacturers produce a fair approximation; thus Krupp
claimed to get 20 splinters of 25 grammes and over per kilogramme
of field-gun shell, or about 9 per pound.
The French field-gun shell is effective over an area of 25 sq. metres
only, but with large calibres much better effect is obtained. Roughly,
a 6-in. howitzer shell, weighing 100 Ibs., clears an area of 300 sq.
yards.
During the war considerable success was obtained in firing thick-
walled H.E. shell from flat-trajectory guns with percussion fuzes
giving a slight delay action, so as to burst in ricochet in the air from
20 to 30 ft. above the ground. Ricochet fire is applicable only when
the angle of impact is so small, and the ground so hard, that the shell
has no tendency to bury itself. With an angle of opening of about
1 20 degrees the downward and lateral effect is good, and the forward
effect is appreciable, though far inferior to that of time shrapnel.
This method was evolved by the French before the war; the ricochet
effect is styled the " coup de hache." It was used also for wire-cutting.
Mine Shell. With howitzers above 6 in., mine shell, not man-
killing shell, are usually employed. With medium and heavy guns
mine shell are not used except at long ranges, where the angle of
descent is steep enough to ensure deep penetration, and even so, for
the reason above given, they have to have fairly thick walls and lose
correspondingly in explosive capacity. Heavy high-velocity guns
therefore usually fire only shell of the thick-walled type, bursting on
graze and producing effect by the action of heavy splinters. There is
now, however, a tendency to employ reduced as well as full charges
with guns, in order to save wear, and with these it will be possible to
use efficient mine shell.
The burster of a mine shell is of such a nature as to do as much
work as possible in displacing earth. A very violent explosive of
the fulminate type, even if it could be used, would be less effective
than T.N.T. or amatol (see AMMUNITION) because its action is too
local, and much of the force of the explosion would be wasted on
pulverizing the earth at the point of explosion instead of shifting it.
The fuze has to be made with a delay suitable to the ballistics and to
the nature of the ground ; if the shell penetrates too deeply it forms a
" globe of compression " or hollow chamber beneath the surface,
while if it does not penetrate deeply enough much of the energy
is wasted on the air. The mine shell of the German 15-cm. (s-g-in.)
howitzer was effective ; it penetrated to a depth of 3 to 4 metres, at
which depth its burster of 18 lb. of picric acid gave good mine effect.
Effect on Tanks. Fire from all natures of guns and howitzers is
effective on unarmoured or lightly armoured tanks. The best pro-
jectile is H.E. with normal or instantaneous fuze, as the delay action
fuze is liable to cause the shell to pass right through and out again
before it bursts. In one instance during the war a German tank
protected by 3O-mm. (i-i8-in.) hard steel armour was fired on by
British l8-prs. firing ordinary thick-walled H.E. shell at ranges
of 3,000 to 4,000 yards. It was disabled, and on examination it was
found that several of the shell which had struck it had just failed to
penetrate. The effect obtainable with armour-piercing shell is
described below.
Effect on Armoured Forts. The penetration of armour is dis-
cussed under Armour-Piercing Shell. But this is not the only means
of reducing an armoured fort. The Germans obtained effect on the
Belgian forts in 1914 chiefly by " undermining " fire. The mine shell
of their superheavy howitzers, with delay-action fuzes, buried them-
selves almost under the foundations of the cupolas, and either blew
the latter up and out of their seatings, or racked the whole concrete
mass so severely that the machinery was put out of action. Or,
again, they ruined and blocked up the vaulted passages and so
prevented access to the cupola chambers.
In future constructions it has been proposed to guard against this
method of undermining by extending and strengthening the apron
surrounding the cupola. The ground for 50 metres round it is to be
protected by one or more layers of blocks of hard cast-iron, one metre
cube, each weighing 8 tons. These are to be sandwiched between
layers of concrete, and are expected to burst all shell on the surface.
This method, if applied, will probably be effective against under-
mining. There remains the possibility of damaging the projecting
muzzles of the guns with heavy splinters from thick-walled shells,
and of penetrating the armour with armour-piercing shell from high-
velocity guns. An attack with gas is also possible.
Effect on Field ^Entrenchments. Gun emplacements and dugouts
require a " bursting course " of rails or stones at or near the surface
of the earthen roof, otherwise the emplacements are easily penetrated.
Even a field-howitzer shell with delay action will go through 5 ft. of
earth and blow in a timber roof beneath it. Double roofs of rails with
an air-space of 8 to 12 in. between them are used when possible, and
such a roof, with 5 ft. of earth and a bursting course on top of it, is
fairly safe against a single hit from a 6-in. howitzer shell. For pro-
tection against 8-in. and heavier natures it is necessary to burrow
20 to 30 ft. underground.
Concussion and Asphyxiation Effects of H.E. A mine shell of 6-in.
calibre and upwards does great damage when burst inside a building,
dugout, or other confined space, by the force of its blast, irrespec-
tive of splinter effect. The same effect, to a lesser extent, is produced
by thick-walled shell. Walls of buildings are blown out, and men
in the room in which the burst takes place are killed by the concussion.
The idea that poisonous gases are produced by the detonation of
high explosives is a ir.istake; only small quantities of carbonic acid
gas and carbonic oxide are generated, and these, except in a deep
dugout, are quickly dissipated by the inrush of air which succeeds
the blast. However, it was found at Liege and Antwerp that the
deeply sunk ammunition rooms below the armoured forts were
rendered uninhabitable by the fumes from mine shell filled with
picric acid which penetrated them or burst underground near them.
These were presumably acrid fumes due to the incomplete detona-
tion of the bursting charges.
High-Explosive Shell uith Time Fuzes. These were originally
introduced for the German field gun, in order to attack troops in
deep trenches. The method used was to burst the shell exactly over
the trench, and to obtain effect by splinters striking downwards.
But even under peace conditions of precision of fire it was found that
an average of four shells were required to hit one man, and under
war conditions the expenditure of ammunition was out of all propor-
tion to the effect produced. In the war, the Germans occasionally
used time H.E. shell for annoyance, on account of their supposed
moral effect on troops in trenches. Their use ceased altogether wheti
time and percussion fuzes for H.E. shell were withdrawn. A H.E.
shell has little or no incendiary effect.
Smoke Shell. These are used to form a screen between pur troops
and the enemy. In barrage fire time shrapnel produce quite enough
smoke to make an opaque screen ; but when a barrage is formed with
H.E. shell, these are mixed with 25 % of smoke shell to make a good
screen. This method was frequently used by the French, either be-
cause of shortage of field shrapnel, or because the barrage was car-
ried beyond shrapnel range.
Incendiary Shell. During the retreat the Germans used these shell
to set fire to villages which they had evacuated. Some were of the
ancient " carcass " type, filled with black powder and grease, and
spouting flame from holes in the walls; others were filled with petro-
leum. The British introduced thermit shell, filled with aluminium
dust and iron oxide, which, when ignited, form molten iron. The
filling consisted of short cylinders of thermit, like firework stars,
and the shell was preferably burst in air like a shrapnel, so as to blow
the stars out forwards. These were used to a small extent in the
Allied advance towards the end of the war, and gave good results.
Illuminating Shell.- These contain firework stars, which are
ignited by a time fuze at such a height as to give them time to burn
out before reaching the ground. They are fired principally from field
howitzers.
Armour-Piercing Shell. These may have to be used against
armoured tanks, and turrets and cupolas of land defences.
The effect of field gun armour-piercing shell against tanks depends
not only on the thickness of the armour but on the manner in which
it is supported, and the angle at which it is struck. The following table
of penetration for the British i8-pr. gun used in the war may be
taken as a guide. It is assumed in the table that the armour is
efficiently supported and that it is struck at an angle not exceeding
30 degrees to the normal. The formula is :
t =
vd
2500 4v
where t is the thickness of hard-faced armour in inches, v is the
striking velocity in f.s., and d is the calibre of the gun in inches.
264
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
Penetration of Tank Armour by i8-pr.
Range
yards.
Thickness of Armour
Penetrated
inches.
Weight of 10 square
yards 1 of Armour
tons.
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
2-331
914
633
520
409
323
3-902
3-204
2-798
2-544
2-360
2-215
The effect of armour-piercing shell, fired from high-velocity guns,
in penetrating armoured turrets and cupolas, is given by the same
formula. As an example, a 30-5-0111. (i2-in.) gun may be expected to
pierce the following thickness of hard-faced armour :
Range, yards . . 5,ooo 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Penetration, inches 12-5 9-25 7-5 7-25 7
At 6,000 metres the 24o-mm. gun penetrates 180 mm., and the
I55-mm. G.P.F. gun penetrates 77 mm.
The cupola must be massive as well as stout, or else the effect of
the blow will be to displace it and jam the rotating machinery, even
if the shell does not penetrate. In the Liege and Antwerp cupolas,
which were intended to resist 6-in. guns, lead cushions were used to
reduce the " racking " effect. A small cupola of three metres in
diameter cannot be expected to stand blows from heavy shell, though
it may be stout enough to resist penetration. The striking energy
of a 12-in. shell at 5,000 yd. is about 20,000 foot-tons.
At the beginning of the war, a fort was at a disadvantage in that
its position was known, whereas it was fired on by long-range guns
which could not be located, unless the aircraft of the defence retained
the mastery of the air. The development of sound-ranging helps the
defence in this respect, provided that the instruments can be set up
in several forts connected by telephone.
VII. EFFECTS OF COLLECTIVE ARTILLERY FIRE
These vary, so much according to local and tactical con-
siderations that no exact rules can be laid down. However, the
following were rough working rules established during the war:
Standing Barrage. To keep down the fire of riflemen in a trench,
each man should be liable to be killed if he shows himself above the
parapet at least once a minute; therefore one shrapnel per minute
should be burst in front of him. Taking the effective spread of
shrapnel bullets at 25 yd., then 4 rounds per 100 yd. of trench are
required. This is an ordinary " barrage, and may be changed to a
" heavy " barrage of 8 rounds a minute or a " light " barrage of 2
rounds a minute per 100 yd. as required. If a 4-gun battery has to
barrage a trench of 300- yd. front, then at the " ordinary " rate each
gun will fire 3 rounds a minute, distributed over the 75 yd. allotted
to it. To barrage a communication trench " end on, ' 2 rounds a
minute per 100 yd. of length are sufficient, when the line has been
corrected to bring every burst over the trench. It is not necessary
to barrage the whole length of a communication trench, which may be
2 m. long; aeroplane photographs show the most effective barrage
points, namely the " defiles " at which there is no way round.
Communication trenches may be so effectively barraged as to oblige
the enemy to risk the chance pf coming and going across the open.
Creeping Barrage. This may be of several different kinds, as
described above. With time shrapnel, or a mixture of H. E. and
smoke shell, fired from field guns, a battery can efficiently barrage
a front equal to its own normal front, or 20 yd. per gun. (The French
reckon 15 metres per gun.)
In the British service the normal barrage rate was 4 rounds per
field gun per minute for 2 minutes, then " lift " to the next range and
repeat, and so on. On emergency a battery can cover a wider front
for short periods; the comparatively slow rate of fire is due to the
constant changes in elevation and setting of fuze, and possibly in
direction as well. However, this rate amounts to 240 rounds an hour
per gun, which is about as much as a battery can do.
The French reckoned 2 rounds per 15 metres of front per minute for
a " heavy " barrage, down to the same per 45 metres of front for a
" light " barrage. The Germans, in 1918, advanced their barrage by
" bounds " of 200 metres for field guns and 400 for medium guns and
howitzers; after each bound the guns continued to fire at the same
range (" pounding ") for some minutes. Owing possibly to worn
guns, the German barrage was considered less dense and less effec-
tive than that of the Allies, although the nominal rate of fire was
higher.
When firing a barrage with time shrapnel, the bursts must be kept
low, and a setting of fuze giving 50% of bursts on graze is considered
the best. With H.E. shell instantaneous fuzes are best, unless there
are no smoke shell in the barrage; in this case it may be better to use
normal fuzes, in order to throw up more dirt and make a more opaque
screen.
Bombardment. It is found that a 'field H.E. shell displaces 4
cub. metres of earth per kg. of burster, or 2| cub. yd. per pound.
1 A tank armoured in front only may require some 10 sq. yd. of
armour.
With larger calibres the effect increases in a somewhat higher ratio.
But the number of rounds required for a given task cannot be ascer-
tained directly from these premises, since much of the effect of sub-
sequent shell falling in or near the same place as the first shell is
wasted by displacing the earth already lifted, which has fallen back
into the crater. A more reliable guide is the diameter of the crater,
which varies according to the soil. In ordinary ground a 6-in.
howitzer mine shell, containing some 13 Ibs. of H.E. makes a cylin-
drical crater about 4 yd. wide and 3 yd. deep, of which depth about
one-third is filled up by earth falling back into it. Hence to destroy
a 12-ft. parapet it must be struck by one 6-in. shell per 4 yd. of front.
If a calibre be employed which gives a crater of less diameter than
the thickness of the parapet, this will entail a great waste of ammu-
nition. Thus the French found that under practice conditions of
accuracy it took II rounds of field-gun shell per yard to breach a
parapet 10 ft. thick, or perhaps 20 rounds a yard under war condi-
tions. Therefore they consider that for practical purposes a lo-ft.
parapet is proof against field guns and 4-2-in. field howitzers.
At stout brick and concrete walls, H.E. shell with " normal "
fuzes (i. e. neither instantaneous nor delay action) are very effective.
A wall 20 in. thick is cut down by an expenditure pf two or three field
gun shell per yard. A field-gun shrapnel will pierce a wall of this
thickness at medium range.
At field guns in the open, the French reckon 15 rounds of field-gun
shell at 3,000 metres, or 25 rounds at 3,500 metres, to make a hit on
a gun. The British l8-pr., under experimental conditions, is capable
of making 60% of hits on a gun in action at 2,000 yd., 16% at 3,000
Fd., and 5% at 4,000 yards. Medium guns such as the 6o-pr. or
rench 4-2-in. maintain their accuracy to longer ranges than field
guns; a rough rule is to add one-third to the field-gun range for the
same percentage of hits; thus a 6o-pr. is capable of making 16% of
hits on a gun at 4,000 yards.
The following experimental results (Krupp) show the compara-
tive effects of various natures of field-gun and field-howitzer shell
fired at a battery of four guns in action, a wagon beside each gun :
(a) H.E. field-gun shell, percussion fuze. Range 5,000 metres.
One hundred rounds disabled I gun, i wagon, and n dummy men
out of 34.
(6) The same, time fuze. One wagon damaged, 4 dummies put out
of action.
(c) The same target, range 2,000 metres, fired at with 4'2-in.
howitzer (presumably similar to the German service field howitzer).
Time shrapnel. Twenty-four rounds fired after ranging had been
completed with 1 1 rounds percussion. Result, 26 dummies put out
of action out of 34.
A heavy discount must be taken off these experimental results for
war conditions, especially in view of the quality of war-time fuzes.
However, the general inference is that percussion H.E. shell is a
much better projectile to fire at a battery in the open than time H.E.
shell, and that field-howitzer time shrapnel is remarkably effective
when the range and fuze can be correctly found, though it probably
takes much longer to produce effect with it than with H.E. shell.
In duels between field batteries, such as often unexpectedly occurred
during the war, it is all-important to knock out the enemy's guns
as quickly as possible, and percussion H.E. shell with instantaneous
fuze is the best projectile to use.
Wire Cutting. The development, during the war, of the methods
of cutting barbed wire by the fire of artillery has already been
described. With the British l8-pr. at ranges of 600 to 1, 800 yd., a
belt of ordinary barbed wire entanglement 8 yd. deep can be cut
through with an expenditure of about 10 yd. of time shrapnel per
yard of front. The process is slow, as very precise shooting is
required. A better projectile is 4-5-in. howitzer H.E. shell with
instantaneous fuze; each effective round, at ranges up to 6,000 yd.,
clears a circle about 3 yd. in diameter. Howitzer H.E. shell with
normal or delay-action fuze makes a crater into which the network of
wire falls back, and so makes a worse obstacle than before. A 52-lb.
trench mortar bomb with instantaneous fuze clears a circle 5 yd. in
diameter. The French in 1918 used field guns firing H.E. shell,
either with instantaneous fuzes or with a slight delay action to burst
the shell on ricochet. The lines of fire were 5 metres apart at the
target. At a belt of strong wire 25 metres deep it was found that 600
rounds were required to clear a lane 25 metres wide. The ranges
were from 2,000 to 4,000 metres. Tanks, when available, are much
better wire-destroyers than artillery.
Fire with Star Shell. These are used for illumination, and are
usually fired from field howitzers. They must be burst at such a
height that the stars burn out before reaching the ground ; otherwise
they form a smoke screen on the ground, besides setting fire to dry
vegetation. A star shell, properly burst, lights up a circle about 50
yd. in diameter effectively, and patrols are distinguishable up to
about 100 yards. For continuous illumination, four shell per minute
per 100 yd. of front gives good results. (See also, generally, the article
ORDNANCE.) (H. A. B.)
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN (1914-7), see Plates I., II., III. and IV.
(A) FIRST BATTLE OF ARRAS (SEPT. 30-Ocr. 8 1914). After the
stabilization of the battle-front on the Aisne and to the E. of it,
about Sept. 16, both the Allied and the German Higher Commands
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN (CAMBRAI-LE
CATEAU, 19.14)
PLATE I.
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
265
proceeded to despatch forces to their northern flanks, with the
object of outflanking the hostile battle line. There thus ensued
what is known as " the Race to the Sea," which ended about the
middle of Oct. in the establishment of a continuous front from
the Belgian coast to Switzerland. On this front, after a series
of furious battles which raged until well into Nov., both sides
settled down to trench warfare on the advent of winter.
The first attempt to outflank the German right N. of the Oise
was entrusted to the French Second Army, under Gen. de
Castelnau, which was transferred from Lorraine from Sept. 10
onwards. This army, consisting of the XIII., IV., XIV., XX.,
and XI. Corps, was eventually opposed by the German IX.
Reserve, II., XVIII., XXI., I. Bav., II. Bav. and XIV. Reserve
Corps, brought up from various parts of the line, and after
heavy fighting, in which first one side and then the other held
temporary and local advantages which proved impossible of
exploitation, these forces were left facing each other on the
general line Lassigny-Roye-Chaulnes-Albert-Hebuterne, on which
they finally fortified themselves. The battle on the front of
the French Second Army died down in this fashion about the
middle of October. Before this date the further prosecution of
the mutual attempt at envelopment by both sides had brought
about an extension of the fighting to the neighbourhood of
Arras and Lens.
Battle of the Tenth French Army around Arras, Sept. zp-Oct.
10. The front of the Second Army was prolonged to the N.
by the group of Territorial Divisions (the 8ist, 82nd, 84th and
88th) under Brugere, which had been ordered on Sept. 29 to
push forward detachments to cover the detrainment of rein-
forcements at Arras and Lens, and by the ist Cavalry Corps
(Conneau) (ist, 3rd, 5th and loth Cavalry Divisions) which was
holding the line of the Cojeul on the left of the territorials.
On Sept. 30 Gen. de Maud'huy was given command of a
" Detachment of the Second Army," consisting of the X. Corps,
two divisions (the 7oth and 77th) formed into a Provisional
Corps under D'Urbal, and the ist Cavalry Corps; his orders
were to concentrate in the region of Arras and to act against
the right flank of the German corps facing the Second Army.
It was believed that this flank would be found about Bapaume.
Of the forces at Maud'huy's disposal the X. Corps was on
this date marching from Amiens in the direction of Arras, being
still some two days' march from the latter place, while the
divisions of the Provisional Corps were commencing to detrain
at Arras, covered by the ist Cavalry Corps in the line of the
Cojeul and a mixed Territorial detachment at Douai.
The situation of the enemy on the front of the detachment,
somewhat obscure on Sept. 30, became clearer on the following
days. Strong hostile forces (the IV. German Corps) were reported
as moving N. and halting for the night in the neighbourhood
of Queant, with the evident intention of falling on the flank of
the Second Army, at this time around Courcelles. The advanced
guards of these columns had got into contact with the French
cavalry on the line of the Sensee. Further to the N. other
German troops (the I. Bavarian Reserve Corps) had driven
the advanced troops of the Territorial detachment back to
Douai.
Despite the fact that the battle showed as yet no signs of
dying on the Second Army front, that the enemy were pressing
hard against his centre, and that a shortage of munitions was
beginning to make itself felt, Gen. de Castelnau adhered to his
original intention of enveloping the hostile left with the detach-
ment under Maud'huy on Oct. 2, and orders to this effect were
sent to the latter on that evening; Maud'huy had already made
his preparatory dispositions. The X. Corps was to be assembled
around Ficheux, the divisions of the provisional corps N. of
Neuville Vitasse and at Gavrelle, the Cavalry Corps N. of
Monchy-le-Preux; all were to be in position by 6 A.M. The X.
Corps and the yyth Division and the main body of the cavalry
were to be ready to advance south-eastwards next morning
against the flank of the enemy around Queant, while the yoth
Div. at Gavrelle was in a position either to cooperate in this
advance or to deal with any hostile forces advancing by Douai.
[n continuance of these instructions, the X. Corps was directed
:arly next morning to move eastwards to Mercatel, whence
t was to advance against the line Ervillers-St. Leger, and thence
n the general direction of Mory, as soon as orders were received
:rom Gen. Maud'huy.
Before, however, the X. Corps had reached its area of con-
centration around Mercatel the 77th Div. on its left was assailed
:rom the E. by newly arrived German troops (.the IV. Corps),
who forced it back from the Cojeul to the line Guemappe-
Monchy-le-Preux, while at the same time the I. Bavarian
Reserve Corps, which had entered Douai on the evening of the
ist, was pushing its advance westwards to the north of the
Scarpe an advance which the 7oth Div., delayed in its march
:rom Lens, where it had detrained, to Gavrelle, was not yet
available to oppose; the X. Corps was therefore ordered to
change the direction of its proposed advance from S.E. to N.E.,
and assigned as its new line of attack the course of the Cojeul
and as its objective the crest N. of Croisilles and W. of Heninel.
The Corps would thus strike in flank the enemy advancing S.
of the Scarpe, who by 2 P.M. had taken Monchy-le-Preux and
driven back the 77th Div. to the line Neuville Vitasse-Feuchy
Chapel. Meanwhile the 7oth Div. on the N. bank of the Scarpe,
advancing towards Gavrelle, had been held up and thrown on
the defensive on the front Rouvroy-Izel-Bailleul, so that between
it and the 7oth Div. to the S. there existed a wide gap, which
the ist Cavalry Corps was urgently ordered to fill to the best
of its ability.
Owing to the change of direction which had been ordered
the attack of the X. Corps was not delivered till the late after-
noon, and made little headway against the IV. German Corps,
so that at the end of the day a further gap in the French line
was formed between the left of the X. Corps and the right of
the 77th Div., which had to be filled by troops from the general
reserve. Gen. de Maud'huy, despite the disappointment of the
day, ordered that the X. Corps should be prepared to resume
its attack next morning, the 3rd on the N. bank of the Cojeul
in the direction of Monchy-le-Preux, while the remainder of the
detachment was to maintain its positions of the previous day.
The X. Corps, however, met with no better fortune on this day;
the Germans maintained themselves in Neuville Vitasse after
heavy to-and-fro fighting, and the retirement of the Territorial
troops to the S., who were forced out of Courcelles by the
attacks of the German Guard Corps, compelled the X. Corps to
throw back its right in conformity, under severe enemy pressure,
as far as the line Ficheux-Mercatel. Both the 77th and 7oth
Divs., however, succeeded in repelling all the violent efforts of
the enemy; the gap between these two divisions in the Scarpe
valley was successfully closed by Conneau's ist Cavalry Corps;
and reinforcements consisting of the XXI. Corps (Maistre),
detraining at Armentieres, Merville and St. Pol, and the 2nd
Cavalry Corps (4th and 5th Cavalry Div.) under De Mitry,
then holding the front Benifontaine-Lens, were placed at the
disposal of De Maud'huy. These forces were increased by the
45th Div. detraining at Arras, which was assigned to D'Urbal's
corps.
On the front of this corps fighting continued throughout the
night, and the 7oth Div. was forced to withdraw some three
miles westwards to the line Vimy-Farbus-Bailleul, along the
eastern slopes of the Vimy ridge. This retirement uncovered
Lens, which fell into German hands early on the 4th. The
situation of the detachment, which now found both its flanks
in the air, was by no means an easy one; Maud'huy's orders for
the 4th, however, were that the positions then occupied were
to be held at all costs. The X. Corps was to maintain itself on
the line Tilloy-Beaurains-Mercatel, with its right flank thrown
back if necessary to Ficheux, and to reestablish the connexion
with the left of the Second Army which had been lost owing
to the retreat of the Territorials. D'Urbal's corps was to hold
its ground on the front Vimy-Bailleul-Athies-Feuchy Chapel,
so as to allow time for the XXI. Corps to advance by La Bassee
against the flank of the I. Bavarian Reserve Corps, which was
attacking N. of the Scarpe. The ist Cavalry Corps was to
266
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
secure the left of D'Urbal around Givenchy-en-Gohelle. One
brigade of the 45th Div. which had already been despatched to
Arras was sent forward to reinforce the Provisional Corps, and
the second was detrained at Beaumetz and passed on to Duisans
in general reserve.
The German attacks continued without cessation throughout
the sth.
Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, commanding the Sixth German
Army, arrived at Douai and took command of the whole battle
front between the Somme and the Lys. On the French side
Gen. Foch was entrusted with the coordination of the front N.
of the Oise, and with the general control of the Second Army,
the Territorial group, the ist and 2nd Cavalry Corps and
Maud'huy's command, which now became the Tenth Army;
Foch moved his headquarters to Doullens on the 5th, Maud'huy's
remaining at Aubigny.
During the greater part of the day the Tenth Army suc-
cessfully held its ground, but in the evening its left was forced
to retire still further W. by the vigorous attacks of the I.
Bavarian Reserve Corps, to the N. of which the 2nd German
Cavalry Corps of von der Marwitz was now coming into action.
Givenchy fell into the hands of the Bavarians, and while their
right advanced beyond it to Souchez their centre assaulted and
carried the Vimy ridge as far S. as Thelus; the French cavalry
were driven back to Villers au Bois and Mont St. Eloi, while the
7oth Div., reinforced by all available troops of the 45th Div.,
again made head against the enemy on the line Carency-
Neuville St. Vaast-Roclincourt-Athies. This was the situation
reported to Gen. Maud'huy on the morning of the 5th; and
shortly after this bad news had been received the X. Corps
announced that its right had been forced back from Boisleux,
where it had maintained itself throughout the previous day, to
Ficheux; that hostile columns were reported moving round its
flank by Blaireville; and that the stations of Beaumetz and
Saulty on the Arras-Doullens railway were being bombarded.
This was about 10 A.M., and in view of the extreme gravity
of the situation on both his flanks Gen. Maud'huy was already
taking preparatory measures for the evacuation of Arras and
for a withdrawal in the direction of St. Pol, should such become
necessary as a result of further progress by the enemy, when
Gen. Foch arrived at his headquarters and it was decided to
make another effort to restore the position. The Germans had
not pressed their advantage against the left of the army to the
extent that had at first been feared; the Cavalry Corps was
therefore ordered to advance against the right, which had pushed
no further forward than Souchez, and disengage the left of the
77th Division. D'Urbal's corps, which was about to fall back
to the line Mont St. Eloi-Etrun-Warlus (W. of Arras), was
directed to maintain its ground with its right and centre and
cooperate with its left in the attack by the cavalry. Meanwhile
reconnaissances had revealed the fact that neither the German
IV. Corps nor the Guard had yet taken advantage of the gap
between the X. Corps on the right of the Tenth Army and the
Territorials on the left of the Second Army; the former 'was
therefore instructed to maintain its line and echelon troops in
rear of its right between Ficheux and Gouy. Accordingly on
the evening of the sth the X. Corps had established itself firmly
on the front Beaurains-Riviere. The attacks of the Cavalry
Corps and the 7oth Div., however, made no headway, and their
line was established at the end of the day at the western foot of
the Vimy ridge on the front E. of Mont St. Eloi-S. of Neuville
St. Vaast-Ecurye-Roclincourt-St. Laurent. Further S. the line
was continued by the 77th Div., which had been drawn back
in conformity with the retirement of the formations on both
its flanks to the second position prepared in rear, between
Blangy and Tilloy.
The orders for the 76th were for a renewal of the attack on
the left wing of the Tenth Army; it was to be carried out by the
43rd Div. (of the XXI. Corps) which was assembling W. of
Carency, the ist and 2nd Cavalry Corps which were to advance
between Souchez and Lievin, and the XXI. Corps (less the 43rd
Division) which was to envelop the enemy's right advancing
by La Bassee and Lens on Vimy. Various untoward circum-
stances combined to thwart the execution of this plan. The
attack of the Cavalry Corps began late and with insufficient
forces, could make little impression on the strong front held
by the enemy between Notre Dame de Lorette and Angres, and
the 43rd Div. to the S. of it was also held up, while the enveloping
attack of the XXI. Corps from La Bassee failed to develop.
Elsewhere on the front the German attacks were repulsed, and
by the evening the army held the line Beaumetz- Arras (X. Corps),
Arras-W. of Neuville St. Vaast (Provisional Corps)-Carency-
Aix-Noulette (43rd Div. and Cavalry Corps)-S.E. of Grenay-
Loos (XXI. Corps) with cavalry towards Pont a Vendin and
Carvin. Arras was being shelled by the enemy.
According to army orders the XXI. Corps commenced its
attack early on the 7th against the enemy reported to be on
the line Angres-Lievin-Lens, while the cavalry and the 43rd
Div. continued their endeavours to press forward towards Notre
Dame de Lorette and Souchez. The Germans, however, had
strengthened their positions during the night, and little progress
could be made. Moreover, it had become evident that the
battle h'ne must be extended yet further to the N. in order to
meet a renewed German attempt to envelop the French left by
the valley of the Lys. Accordingly the ist and 2nd Cavalry
Corps were withdrawn from the battle-front in the late after-
noon preparatory to their despatch to the N., the I3th Div.,
then in the vicinity of Lille, being ordered S. to take their place
in the Tenth Army. On the rest of that army's front the situa-
tion underwent no important change during the 7th.
From this date forward the fighting at Arras died gradually
away. Renewed efforts by the XXI. Corps on the Sth and gth
ended in the recovery of Notre Dame de Lorette. On Oct. 20
further fighting E. of Arras resulted in an advance by the loth
Corps, and on the 22nd the 77th Div. was forced back N.E. of
Arras by strong enemy forces, who were compelled next day to
relinquish part of their gains.
These were but the dying flickers of the fire of battle which
had long since shifted its main focus to the north.
Extension of the Battle to the Lys Valley, Oct. 3-12. While
the battle of Arras was still at its crisis, the German right wing
was already being extended further to the N. into Flanders.
On Oct. 3 a mixed detachment of Landwehr entered Tournai;
the 4th Cavalry Corps (3rd, 6th and Bavarian Cavalry Divs.)
had come into line on the right of the ist Cavalry Corps, which
was then engaged with the French 2nd Cavalry Corps, with its
right S. of La Bassee. The right of these fresh forces advanced
on Lille, from Tournai and Orchies, while its left advanced
from Douai on La Bassee; by the 4th contact had been made
with the French in the western outskirts of Lille.
To meet this new threat the French Higher -Command had
moved up the 2nd Cavalry Corps (4th, sth and 6th Cavalry
Divs.) under De Mitry to the area between Lens and Lille,
and had garrisoned the latter city with the i3th Div. (of the XXI.
Corps) which had detrained at Armentieres, covered by the
7th Cavalry Division. The first attacks of the German cavalry
on the city were beaten off and the suburbs cleared; but, as has
already been related, the i3th Div. was then called away to the
S. to rejoin its corps, and left behind it only a weak detachment
of six battalions and four squadrons to hold the city, and of
these two further battalions were withdrawn on the 8th. Mean-
while to the S. between Lens and the Bethune-La Bassee canal
the XIV. German Corps had come into line, forcing back the
French cavalry to the W. of the Lens-La Bassee road to the line
Vermelles-Cambrin; on this line heavy and continuous fighting
took place from Oct. 10 onwards, where the position gradually
became stable.
Further to the N. the German cavalry continued their advance,
extending their right as far as and beyond the Lys and covering
the whole country from La Bassee by Lille, Tourcoing and
Wervicq to Ypres. The centre and left of De Mitry's cavalry
fell back before them, pivoting back on their right from Neuve
Chapelle by Estaires and Merville to Hazebrouck and Cassel;
this line was reached about Oct. 9. The main body of the German
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
267
cavalry appeared to be assembled around Bailleul and Steen-
voorde, while behind it strong forces of infantry were advancing,
the XIII. Corps to the S. and the XIX. to the N. of Lille. The
garrison of the city, although reinforced on the loth by a
detachment, were unable to make head against these over-
whelming forces, more especially as the presence of the German
cavalry in all the area to the W. deprived it of all hope of
succour; and after two days' bombardment Lille surrendered
to the enemy with its garrison on Oct, 12.
The battle, however, *vas now about to enter on a new phase
with the entry into action of the British army.
Operations of the British in the Lys Valley, Oct. 10-18. The
transfer of the British from the Aisne to the left flank of the
French army in Flanders had first been proposed by Sir John
French on Sept. 29; the details were quickly arranged between
him and Joffre, and the withdrawal from the line commenced
on Oct. i. The cavalry moved off first by road on the 2nd,
and were followed by the infantry between the 8th and
1 2th. Sir John French, on his arrival at Abbeville on the 8th,
had planned a general advance by the II. Corps, then detraining
there, to the line Aire-Bethune, covered in front and to the
left by the Cavalry Corps, and the detraining of the III. Corps
to the N. at St. Omer. The IV. Corps and the 3rd Cavalry
Div., under Gen. Rawlinson, which had been landed on the
Belgian coast in order to assist the Belgians in the defence of
Antwerp and had assisted in covering their retirement to the
line of the Yser, had been holding the line of the Lys around
Ghent on the nth, and were instructed to maintain themselves
between that town and Courtrai for four or five days, if pos-
sible; it was intended to bring the rest of the army up on the
right of the IV. Corps, so as to hold the Lys line from Ghent
southwards. Rawlinson was authorized, however, in case he
was attacked by strong hostile forces, to fall back in the direc-
tion of St. Omer, and as a matter of fact the retreat of the
Belgians to the N. of him eventually necessitated his retire-
ment by way of Thielt and Thourout to Roulers, where the
IV. Corps arrived on Oct. 12, unmolested by the enemy.
On the roth French visited Foch, and a plan for a combined
Allied offensive for the isth, to reach the line of the Lys from
Lille-Courtrai, was then drawn up. The British were to advance
with their right N. of Lille, to force the river Lys at Courtrai
and join up with Rawlinson's IV. Corps below that town. The
Belgians were also to cooperate in the north. In accordance
with this plan, the British cavalry pushing forward on the nth
came into contact with the German IV. Cavalry Corps, operating
before the right wing of the VI. Army, in the neighbourhood of
Nieppe forest, and forced them back towards the Lys; the II.
British Corps reached the line of the Aire-Bethune canal. By
the I4th the cavalry had cleared the country to the E. as far as
the Wytschaete-Messines ridge and pushed patrols forward to
the crossings of the Lys; but the II. Corps, wheeling up its left
in the direction of Merville, became heavily engaged with Ger-
man infantry (the XIII. and XIX. Corps of the VI. Army),
which prevented their making much headway. The III.
British Corps, having completed its movement to Hazebrouck
by the I3th, began its advance eastwards, to bring it level with
the left of the II. Corps. This objective, however, was not
attained without serious and sustained fighting; the Germans
(XIX. Corps and IV. Cavalry Corps) stubbornly defended
Bailleul, Meteren, Neuve Eglise, Sailly and Nieppe one after
the other; by the i6th, however, the British were in possession
of all these places. The II. Corps also had worked their way
forward by dint of determined efforts to the line Aubers-
Givenchy, and came into touch with the XXI. Corps on the
left of the French X. Army, on the Bethune-La Bassee canal.
While the II. Corps, despite determined and unceasing attacks,
found further progress impossible beyond the line Givenchy-
Festubert-N. of Aubers, which it reached on Oct. 18, the III.
Corps entered Bois Grenier and Armentieres, and was able to
establish itself on a line E. of these places, while the Cavalry
Corps, guarding their left, continued the line along the Lys to
Menin. By the morrow the assembly of the British army in the
N. was completed by the arrival of the I. Corps at Poperinghe,
St. Omer and Cassel. The battle of the Lys now became merged
in the greater battle of Ypres, in which the whole British force
was engaged from Oct. 20 to Nov. 20, and the description of the
fighting between these dates on the front of the British II. and
III. Corps will be found under that head. It may be said, how-
ever, that neither the British nor the Germans, despite their
utmost efforts, succeeded in bringing about any material change
in the situation on the front between the Bethune-La Bassee
canal about Givenchy and the Lys to the N. of Armentieres.
(B) FRENCH OFFENSIVES IN ARTOIS, 1915. During the month
of Oct. 1914 the western front had stabilized across Picardy and
Artois, from the Oise to the neighbourhood of La Bassee. The
line had not been chosen at the will of either party, but marked
the points which each side had reached and held during the
confused and rapid series of actions known as the " Race to the
Sea." While there was still open country to the north it had
been worth no one's while to attempt to dislodge an enemy
present in any force. And when the sea had been reached and
the German attacks upon the Yser repulsed, neither side retained
the energy to advance. Both, therefore, had time to elaborate
their defences in comparative peace, and thereby the sinuous
and haphazard line already established became permanent.
About Arras the line bulged eastward, leaving Beaurains
German but making St. Laurent-Blangy, Roclincourt, and
Ecurie French. To the north was a westward bulge which gave
the Germans Neuville-St. Vaast and La Targette, Carency and
Ablain, Angres, Lievin, and La Fosse Calonne. North of Fosse
Calonne the line ran straighter to the west of Loos, Hulluch,
Haisnes, and La Bassee.
Artois is a chalk country. The surface soil is clay, with patches
of sand unsuitable for cultivation and therefore wooded. The
principal natural feature of the region is a long isolated ridge
running from N.W. to S.E., which overlooks all the countryside.
This ridge culminates at the chapel of Notre Dame de Lorette.
East of the chapel there is a gap marked by the village of
Souchez. East of Souchez again, the ridge continues as Vimy
ridge and gradually dies away south of Vimy village.
The sector was of first-rate importance both for economic and
for strategic reasons. North of the ridge ran the principal
French and Belgian coal seam the axis of which in Artois is
roughly the line Bethune-Lens. Although the public mind was
naturally slow to grasp the fact, nevertheless as soon as it
became clear that trench warfare would result in the postpone-
ment of a decision, first-class economic objectives, such as the
coal-mines, began to increase in general military value and
continued to do so until the decisive campaign of 1918.
Strategically, the German lines in Artois covered the Lille-
Douai-Cambrai railway, their main transversal line behind all
this part of their front. Should this line be cut, were it even
brought under effective artillery fire, their railway traffic would
be compelled to use the inferior line Lille-Orchies-Somain-
Cambrai.
Although the final elaboration of trench warfare was a matter
of years, its general characteristics, especially the strain and
hardship of remaining immobile and in close contact with the
enemy, appeared at once. The possibility of manoeuvre disap-
peared and war became an affair of ever-increasing masses of
material. In Artois, the importance of the sector and the na-
ture of the soil made the fighting fierce and continuous and the
hardships peculiarly bitter. The clay soil churned into a soft
and sticky mud into which men sank deeply and sometimes even
were lost. Everywhere the ground was humid; the Lorette
ridge itself was honeycombed with springs so that trenches dug
even on its summit were difficult to keep clear of water. Weapons
often became unserviceable, and the men themselves looked
like walking lumps of mud. Nevertheless, the fighting was not
only savage but continuous. A major operation was merely a
crescendo in a never-ending series of furious lesser combats, all
centring about the commanding Lorette- Vimy ridges.
Throughout the first three years of trench fighting on the
western front, in most of the minor operations, and in every
268
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
major operation except Verdun, the Allies attacked. Save in
that one case, the Germans held to their decision to stand upon
the strategic defensive in France and Belgium, from Nov. 1914
to March 1918. In order to attempt a decision, it was, therefore,
necessary to attack their entrenchments. The strength of the
defensive in trench warfare, and the corresponding difficulty
of the attack, were realized only with time.
Originally, the entire Lorette ridge was occupied by the
Germans during the race to the sea ; the French swept them off in
a brilliant little attack. Then the Germans moved in again and
took the chapel and all the eastern end of the ridge nearly to the
wood of Buvigny, not by assault but because the place had been
left entirely unguarded during the night of Oct. 7-8 in the
course of a relief of the French troops in the sector an incident
altogether typical of the race to the sea. As regular trench
warfare began, the Germans had the best of the artillery fighting.
Their guns were both heavier and more numerous, and their
fire control better suited to the new and unexpected sort of fight-
ing. Their batteries were emplaced near Lievin . and Angres,
behind Vimy ridge, and behind the butte of Monchy-le-Preux.
In Nov. they began to use hand grenades, the first of the
typical trench weapons to appear, or rather to reappear. The
French did not begin manufacturing grenades during the
following winter, and were not able to issue them to the troops
until March 1915. Nevertheless, despite the German heavy
artillery and grenades, the month of Nov. saw such an improve-
ment in the French defensive works that casualties became
fewer, although it was not yet possible to put out continuous wire.
Early in Dec. the situation changed for the better with the
arrival of several units of French heavy artillery, whose fire
compelled the Germans on Lorette ridge to take cover in their
deep dug-outs. The French Higher Command ordered the XXI.
Corps, which had held the Lorette sector since its stabilization,
to attack in the hope of a break-through. The Corps commander,
Gen. Maistre, was doubtful of the success of the operation
proposed, judging the means insufficient and the obstacles to be
encountered too strong. Nevertheless, the attack took place
on Dec. 17 at 1:10 P.M. on a front of a mile and a quarter, with
diversions against Auchy-les-La Bassee, and Loos, and in front
of St. Laurent-Blangy. Near Lorette the artillery preparation
had not been sufficient to prevent the assaulting troops coming
under heavy fire, especially from machine-guns, as they left the
trenches. The German wire was strong and had been very
little cut. Nevertheless, they struggled on through deep mud,
and succeeded in taking some trenches. For four days the
operation was persisted in. The artillery support was weak,
partly because of the winding, irregular front line, partly
through insufficient liaison with the infantry. Against such
handicaps the infantry strove bravely but in vain. At last,
after murderous losses which justified only too well Gen.
Maistre's forebodings, the attack was broken off.
An unbroken series of minor operations took place throughout
the winter and early spring. In the afternoon of Dec. 27 ten
battalions of Chasseurs Alpins, commanded by Gen. Barbot,
attacked the hamlet of La Targette, after two hours of artillery
preparation. " No-man's-land " was here a quarter of a mile
wide, quite flat and without cover save for a single sunken road.
Hence losses were heavy and onlv half a mile of first-line trenches
were taken.
As the winter went on, the sticky mud became even worse,
and the heavy German trench-mortar projectiles added still
more to the danger and discomfort of the trenches. On March 3,
at dawn, after a short but violent preparation by heavy artillery
and heavy trench mortars, an entire German division made a
sudden attack along the crest of the ridge, and drove the French
into Buvigny wood. Two days of counter-attacks recovered
most of the ground lost, and throughout March and April a
series of local attacks and counter-attacks slightly improved the
French position at a cost in casualties disproportionately large in
comparison with the ground gained. The dead were not all
Frenchmen. Already the German troops were beginning to call
the ridge " Tolenhugd" the Hill of Death.
In April the first French sS-mm. trench mortars, few in
number, were put in service. The French had already begun
the use of hand grenades in March.
About May i the French Higher Command decided upon a
general attack, and chose Artois as its sector. It was desirable
that something be done on the western front in the hope of
relieving the pressure upon the Russians, on whose front the
great blow was about to fall. The British agreed to support
the operation by a diversion in Flanders.
From the original formation of the French " Group of armies
of the North," Gen. Foch had been in command. This command
he still retained, and his was the decision as to the length of
front to be attacked. Even at this early stage of trench warfare,
he saw clearly that to estimate the possible width of an assault
according to the number of infantry available was nonsense. He
therefore insisted upon calculating the front to be attacked
according to the available quantity of heavy artillery, insisting
that a clear superiority in heavy pieces was necessary over the
full width of the operation proposed. On the western front as a
whole, the Germans still disposed of superior numbers in this
particular arm, so that it seemed impossible to obtain a sufficient
superiority of fire over a front of much more than six miles.
As a result of Foch's insistence the width of the attacking front
was limited accordingly. The right of the proposed assault was
fixed in the neighbourhood of Roclincourt, the left on the
northern slopes of Lorette ridge. At this stage of the war it was
still believed that a violent effort, even on so restricted a front,
stood a fair chance of breaking through the opposing trench
system and restoring a war of movement.
From May 4, the German Higher Command was convinced
that a considerable attack was to be expected. Nevertheless,
so high ran their hopes of victory in the east that even Falken-
hayn, usually so chary of reinforcements for that theatre, drew
yet another division thither from France. 1
In Artois, the French order of battle was as follows: the left
of the XVII. Corps was around Roclincourt. North of them
stood the XX. Corps, its left facing La Targette and extending
a little north of that village. North of the XX. came the XXXIII.
Corps, commanded by Petain, the future commander-in-chief
of the French armies on the western front. His extreme left
faced Ablain. North again of the XXXIII. Corps, astride
the Lorette ridge and on to the Arras-Bethune high road,
stood the XXI. Corps which, always under Maistre, had held
the sector from the beginning. The XX. and the XXXIII.
Corps had three divisions each, the other corps two. All four
corps formed part of the X. Army, now commanded by D'Urbal,
who had relieved Maud'huy, the original army commander, in
March. Foch shifted his headquarters from Cassel to Prevent on
the Doullens-St. Pol road in order to follow the operation more
closely. The troops were in high spirits at the prospect of
quitting the foul and muddy trenches, and in the hope of
fighting in the open thenceforward.
Opposite them, the German defences were formidable; indeed
the painstaking German national character is well adapted to
the construction of elaborate works. Each of the solidly built
French villages was a complicated little citadel. North of
Ecurie a huge tangle of trenches formed a strong point, known as
the Labyrinth, covering more than half a square mile. A series
of works, known to the French as the " Ouvrages Blancs," ran
in a concave line from a hummock in front of La Targette to
the western end of Carency. On the Lorette ridge itself, the
ground favoured the defence. The southern slopes were precip-
itous and were, moreover, cut by deep ravines which the French
likened to the grooves in a melon rind. Of the five spurs between
these ravines, the Germans held the easternmost three, their
front line running from a point a thousand yards west of the
ruins of the chapel, across the summit of the third spur, and so
to the western end of Ablain a curious position which only the
great strength of the modern defensive made possible. To the
^alkenhayn, Die Oberste Heeresleitung, p. 74. At this period,
Falkenhayn says, the total German combatant strength in the
western theatre was 1,900,000 against an Allied total of 2,450,000.
PLATE IV.
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
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ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
269
north the ground fell away gently in an even slope broken only
by the unexpected Buval ravine. The entire German part of
the ridge was covered with trenches and obstacles and swept by
batteries (at ranges of two to four thousand yards) around
Lievin and Angres and behind Vimy ridge.
The troops which held these defences belonged to the German
VI. Army which held the front from south of Ypres to within 10
m. of Arras. It comprised 16 divs., at a combat strength of about
17,000 per division according to the reduced German divisional
organization dating from the early winter of '14. This gave a
little less than three men per yard of front considering the
irregularities of the line. Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria
commanded the army, with Maj. Gen. Krafft von Dellmensingen
for chief-of-staff, and headquarters at Lille.
The attack, originally ordered for May 7, was put off to the
8th and then to the gth. Demolition fire was begun on the 7th
and continued on the 8th, especially against the region of
Neuville and the Labyrinth, but was hindered by the lack of all
observation from the ground (no commanding points being in
French hands), and by the serious imperfections of the aerial
observation attempted by planes and dirigibles. The morning
of the gth dawned fair, with a light mist that soon cleared
away. At six o'clock an intense bombardment was opened
along the whole line from Loos to Arras, with heavy, divisional,
and trench artillery. On the front of the XXI. Corps the 75's
held their fire until eight o'clock, then began, and continued,
at the rate of four shots per piece per minute. Amid the din of
the bombardment, the French observers saw the German posi-
tions lost in vast clouds of smoke and dust sent up by the
exploding shells. The German artillery replied energetically,
searching for the French infantry assembled for the assault and
occasionally hitting them with considerable effect. At 10 o'clock,
precisely, the French artillery automatically increased the range
and the infantry attack began.
The assaulting troops left their jumping-off trenches without
signal. In a few moments it was clear that both wings were
held up. The XVII. Corps could not gain a foot; the wire in
front of them was still intact. The X. Corps, attempting a
diversion east of Arras, uselessly lost 3,000 men in 10 minutes
from machine-gun fire. North of the XVII., the right of the XX.
Corps was helpless in front of the wire of the Labyrinth. The
left of the XX. was doing better, the wire in front of them having
been cut by the bombardment. In spite of heavy losses from
German machine-guns still in position, they slowly cleared La
Targette, fighting hand to hand, and by 1 1 =30 they had advanced
a little over half a mile and reached the westernmost houses of
Neuville. On the ridge, the XXI. Corps was advancing only
very slowly, at a cost of murderous losses. Their attack was
peculiarly difficult to organize for want of a single conspicuous
object in their front to serve as reference point for the artillery,
and upon which the infantry could align their advance. Their
assaulting elements came under heavy machine-gun fire as soon
as they showed themselves, so that the communication trenches
were obstructed by numbers of wounded who blocked the
reserves. Machine-guns firing northward from Ablain made
advance impossible along the southern slope. On the plateau
itself and the northern slope, swept though they were at short
ranges by the German batteries around Angres and Lievin,
there was a slow and painful advance of about half a mile, which
took three successive lines of trenches and reached, at noon,
the neighbourhood of the chapel and the land N.W. of it.
Through the morning, the extreme left of Petain's Corps,
the XXXIII., was fixed in front of Ablain. Other units, fight-
ing every step of the way, were slowly working forward south
of Carency.
Meanwhile, the right of the XXXIII. Corps had broken
clear through the German line. Here, alone on the attacking
front, the wooded hill of Berthonval had given good land
observation by which to direct the bombardment. The wire
had therefore been cleared and most of the machine-guns put
out of action. Carrying conspicuous markers to enable the
artillery to follow their march, the infantry swept forward
without a check. In the intoxication of such an advance after a
winter in the abominable trenches, they got out of hand and ran
forward, cheering as they rushed the German elements that
tried to resist them. They crossed the Bethune road, gained the
crest of Vimy ridge, and looked down upon the rolling plain to
the north and east, towards Lens and Douai, with no more
German troops before them. Hundreds of prisoners had been
taken, it was only 1 1 30, and they had advanced over two and a
half miles.
Naturally, the German command was frightened. Partially,
at least, they had been surprised, for they had assembled no
reserves. Twenty miles away, in Lille, the Prince of Bavaria's
staff began packing up, for if the gap could be widened the
whole front would go. But naturally, the assaulting troops
were completely exhausted. They had run and yelled too much
and their water-bottles had been emptied too quickly. During
the advance, officer casualties had been numerous. About a
mile of the crest between 119 and 140 was occupied, and patrols
were pushed forward to Souchez and Givenchy.
Everything now depended upon the arrival of reinforcements.
With them everything might be hoped; without them it would
be hard to hold the ground already gained, limited as it was by
concentric machine-gun fire from Souchez, Neuville, and La
Folie wood; and no reinforcements came. The advance had been
faster than had been planned, and either the army staff work
was slow and the necessary orders not issued in time, or else
the units ordered forward failed to make good speed. Perhaps,
after all, the thing was impossible. Certainly no good road ran
east into the newly created salient. At all events the opportu-
nity was lost.
On the German side, when the first moment of panic had
passed, the reaction was rapid. Great and deserved credit was
won by the staffs concerned. During the afternoon, enough
battalions from the second line of the division near by were
scraped together for a counter-attack (supported by artillery be-
hind La Folie wood) which retook the crest. The French-African
troops, with most of their officers gone, failed to do themselves
justice. All this time Neuville and Carency were holding out,
and the - XXI. Corps could not clear the Lorette plateau.
Towards evening the cemetery south of Souchez had to be
abandoned. Through the night, third-line battalions from the
neighbouring German Army Corps began to come up. The
French maintained themselves with difficulty at the Cabaret
Rouge and along the road from Souchez to Neuville. The
golden moment had passed.
During the next three days, the French improved their
positions in vigorous local operations, taking the debris of
Lorette chapel, Carency, and most of Neuville. By June i
Ablain, the sugar-works west of Souchez, and the south-eastern
slopes of Lorette were cleared. June saw the Labyrinth pain-
fully occupied, and a narrow and difficult salient (including a
bit of Vimy crest) first thrust out eastward from the Cabaret
Rouge and then withdrawn. About the same time the Germans
were pushed off the north-eastern slopes of Lorette their last
foothold on that murderous ridge now thickly covered with
the dead of both sides.
The diversions attempted meanwhile by the British had failed
to affect the general situation.
Tactically, the spring offensive in the Artois had partially
succeeded. Twenty-five square miles had been gained, the
enemy's local resistances had been beaten down, for some hours
his front had been pierced. But strategically, the operation had
failed. The German front had been very slightly modified and
the Russians had been helped in no way.
During the summer, the usual round of little fights went on,
barren of results but endured always with the same spirit. In
Aug. trench knives were issued to the French infantry for the
first time.
In the autumn, another Entente offensive on the western
front was decided upon. The French prepared to attack in
Champagne and both French and British in Artois, the French
from Neuville to nprth of Souchez, which large village was,
270
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
by this time, laid almost level with the ground; the British
from Haisnes to Loos a far more ambitious effort than previous
British trench-warfare operations. The main attack, however,
was that in Champagne, Artois being only the scene of a diver-
sion on a large scale.
The troops to be put in motion were Maistre's much-enduring
XXI. Corps in front of Souchez, and on their right the XXXIII.
Corps, now commanded by Fayolle, in front of La Folie. The
French and German Higher Commands were the same, except
that Maj. Gen. v. Kuhl was now chief-of-staff at Prince Rup-
precht's headquarters.
Tactically, the operation was planned differently from that of
May in that the attempt was made to crush the enemy by an
intense bombardment prolonged throughout several days and
that, therefore, no surprise could be hoped for. Objectives
were to be strictly limited.
Accordingly on Sept. 20, with improved ground and air ob-
servation, and with guns and munitions available on a larger
scale than ever before, there began a bombardment of the
German works and rear areas, which continued day and night
for five days. On the morning of the 25th the bombardment was
intensified. At the same time the Germans began their counter-
preparation and succeeded in inflicting some loss on the French
infantry in their jumping-off trenches. The fine weather had
turned to rain.
At 25 minutes past 12 the infantry attack began. The spirit
of the German infantry had been broken by the bombardment
so that there was little or no resistance, what little there was
being due to imperfect "mopping-up." 1 Meanwhile, the German
barrage had been laid down too late, and afterwards ignorance
of the situation made their artillery afraid to fire. On the other
hand, the rain and the muddy, shell-torn ground made the
advance very slow. Not until 5:30 in the evening of Sept. 26
were the ruins of Souchez completely cleared and the line carried
a quarter-mile to the eastward.
Meantime, unknown to the French, the German command was
passing through a crisis of anxiety. Their reserves had not yet
come up and the positions on Vimy ridge were almost without
defenders and trains were run at short intervals on the Douai-
Mericourt-Rouvray line to simulate the arrival of reinforcements.
But the bad weather, the abominable terrain, and the French
policy of limited objectives saved the situation for the Germans.
On the 2yth their reserves arrived and the situation was re-
established. The action continued, but although the 28th saw
the French lines advanced to include an important redoubt in
front of Givenchy, the German front was no longer in danger
of being broken, and after the 28th the French broke off the
battle.
Early in 1916, British troops relieved the French in the sector,
which had seen the longest, and (after Verdun) the most mur-
derous battle of the entire war. The French are said to have
had in Artois no less than 100,000 killed. The XXI. Corps
alone, by Dec. 1915, lost 80,000 dead or wounded, 18,000 of
whom fell in the six weeks from May 9 to June 20. (H. N.*)
(C) NEUVE CHAPELLE. The objects with which Sir John
French attacked the German lines in March 1915 were to obtain
a more favourable position for his share in the major operations
to be undertaken in conjunction with the French. The fighting
of Oct. and Nov. 1914 had left the British right between the
La Bassee canal and Armentieres in an indifferent position
tactically. After gaining a foothold on the ridge which runs S.W.
from Lille past Aubers they had been thrust off it into the more
or less waterlogged low ground at its foot. To recover this
ridge was essential if the German hold on the Lille-La Bassee
line was to be effectively shaken and Sir John hoped, moreover,
to stimulate his troops whose offensive spirit had found few
1 This process, called by the French " nettoyage " and by the
British " mopping-up," was the clearance, by troops specially de-
tailed for the purpose, of the enemy trenches that had been reached
and passed by the leading troops of the attack but might and in
practice usually did contain scattered but intact and dangerous
groups of the enemy.
outlets in the cramping conditions of trench warfare in a swamp.
The point he selected for his attack was on the front held by
Sir Douglas Haig's I. Army, where the Germans' capture of the
village of Neuve Chapelle (Oct. 27 1914) had driven a salient
into the British lines. This portion of the British front had
always been particularly difficult and costly to hold and a
substantial success here might not only gain a footing on the
Aubers ridge but render the German positions opposite Givenchy
and Festubert untenable.
The attack delivered on March 10 by the 8th Div. (IV.
Corps) on the left and the Meerut Div. (Indian Corps) on the
right was successful in effecting a surprise. There had been no
long preliminary bombardment to give warning of the attack,
for the ammunition supply only sufficed for 35 minutes' shelling,
and the infantry, finding the wire well cut except at the extreme
ends of the line, stormed the positions with ease. The 25th
Bde. of the 8th Div. carried Neuve Chapelle village and joined
hands with the Gahrwal Bde., who had overrun the ground
between the village and the cross-roads S. of it known as " Port
Arthur." Many prisoners were taken, and it seemed that
reinforcements had only to push on to achieve a substantial
advance. Unfortunately, the stubborn resistance of the Germans
at the ends of the line absorbed the attention of the troops in
immediate support. On the left, S. of the ruined farm known as
" the Moated Grange," the 2nd Middlesex were held up by
wire, which a fold of the ground had concealed from the artillery-
observing officers; on the right at Port Arthur a strong point
held out for several hours, and was only carried when the 2nd
Seaforths of the Dehra Dun Bde. reinforced the original assailants
of the Gahrwal Brigade. Similarly, it was not till well past
midday, and after heavy fighting, that the 2$rd Bde., improving
the lodgment made by their right battalion, the 2nd Scottish
Rifles, secured their second objective, and then only by utilizing
two battalions of the 24th Bde. as well as their own supports,
the 2nd Devons and 2nd West Yorkshires. Meanwhile the
25th Bde. had cleared Neuve Chapelle but found their left too
much exposed to allow any advance beyond the village. More
important still, the orders had been explicit that the reserves
were not to be put in without sanction from the Corps, and the
extreme difficulty of maintaining communications with the
advanced troops prevented divisional and corps headquarters
from keeping in touch with the progress of the attack and
delayed the advance of the reserves. Not till the afternoon was
well advanced did the leading troops of the 7th Div. pass through
the 8th, and though the 2ist Bde. then cleared a substantial
area N. of Neuve Chapelle and made some progress down the
German trenches beyond the Moated Grange, German rein-
forcements both of men and guns made their presence felt, and
darkness stopped the advance before the road running N.W.
from the Moulin du Pietre past Mauquissart had been crossed.
On the right, meanwhile, two Gurkha battalions of the Dehra
Dun Bde. pushed forward into the Bois de Biez, but their
position was dangerously isolated and they had to be withdrawn
E. of Riviere des Layes.
The chances of substantial progress on the second day,
already diminished by the arrival of strong German reinforce-
ments, were further reduced by weather conditions which
made aerial direction of the British artillery fire impossible.
This, combined with the interruption of telephone communica-
tions between the forward observing officers and their batteries,
prevented the cooperation between artillery and infantry needed
to reduce the numerous machine-gun posts furnished by the
houses which studded the area N. of Neuve Chapelle. Groups
of these, especially along the Moulin du Pietre-Mauquissart
road, proved most formidable obstacles. Moreover, the Ger-
mans, besides throwing in all the local reserves of their VII.
Corps, together with the 6th Bavarian Res. Div. which was
resting near Lille, brought up much additional artillery, so that
the 7th and Lahore Divs. came under heavy fire and suffered
severely in crossing ground in rear of the advanced troops,
sometimes without even reaching the front line. The 7th
Div. beat back counter-attacks and added considerably to
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
271
the tale of prisoners, but made no real progress; the 8th could
do no more, but until the right of the 8th Div. could come
forward to cover it the Indian Corps could not tackle the
Bois de Biez.
On the next morning (March 12) violent counter-attacks
against several points made it obvious that strong German
reinforcements had come up. Advancing in mass against the
Bareilly Bde. along the Rue du Bois and against the rest of the
Meerut Div. N. of Port Arthur, the Germans were mown down
in numbers without ever reaching the British line. Opposite
the Moulin du Pietre another determined attack broke through
the 24th Bde., to be thrown back by a prompt counter-stroke
by the ist Worcesters; and in this quarter also very heavy
losses were inflicted on the Germans. Further N. again the
2ist Bde. lost some advanced trenches, but successfully main-
tained its main position and lent effective aid to the 2nd Scots
Guards and 2nd Borderers of the 2oth Bde., who carried a
strong redoubt N.E. of the Moated Grange and took 300 prisoners
of the VII. Corps. But still the Moulin du Pietre-Mauquissart
road barred any advance, and the machine-guns in the fortified
houses held up all attempts to get forward. Thus, though the
25th Bde. repulsed several attacks they could not carry the
line forward from Neuve Chapelle; the Sirhind Bde. (Lahore
Div.) made a little ground and took prisoners but could not
cross the Riviere des Layes; and now that all advantages of
surprise had gone Sir John French saw that little was to be
gained by pressing the attack. March 13 therefore saw the
fighting much diminished in intensity; gains were consolidated
and the troops reorganized, but the attack was suspended.
The battle of Neuve Chapelle ended therefore somewhat
disappointingly. The substantial advance which had at one
moment seemed within reach had not been realized: the delay
in pushing the British reserves had allowed the Germans to rush
to the danger spot reinforcements sufficient to bar the road to
the high ground of the Aubers ridge. Thus while the tactical
position round Neuve Chapelle was much improved the strategi-
cal situation was unchanged. The losses, over 4,200 in the
Indian Corps, nearly double that in the IV., had been heavy,
while of three minor operations undertaken as diversions those
at Givenchy (I. Corps) and Wytschaete (II. Corps) failed, only
the III. Corps proving successful against 1'Epinette (S.E. of
Armentieres). Still, it would be wrong to class Neuve Chapelle
among British defeats. The troops were undoubtedly encouraged
by seeing that German positions could be stormed and the
captured ground held against powerful counter-attacks. Nearly
1,700 prisoners had been taken and the German losses had
exceeded the British. Rifles, artillery and machine-guns had
found splendid targets, and the German battalions who had
shown themselves in the open had been shot down in masses.
It was felt that another attack in which the lessons of the
battle could be turned to good effect might lead to far-reaching
results.
(D) AUBERS RIDGE AND FESTUBERT. The part assigned to
the British in the Allied offensive of May 1015 gave them as
their immediate objective the S.W. end of the Aubers ridge.
The IV. Corps was to attack at Rougebancs, N.E. of Neuve
Chapelle, using the 8th Div. in the first assault and supporting
it with the 7th, while S.W. of Neuve Chapelle the Meerut Div.
(Indian Corps) and the ist Div. (I. Qorps) attacked from the
line of the Rue du Bois which joins the Estaires-La Bassee road
at the " Port Arthur " cross-roads. It was hoped that these
divisions pushing forward in an easterly direction would establish
touch behind the Bois de Biez with the IV. Corps advancing
southward past Aubers. But whether successful or not in their
immediate tasks, the British would materially assist the Allied
operations if their attack diverted German guns and men from
the crucial point N. of Arras where the French were attacking.
It was with the greatest confidence that the British forces
looked forward to this attack. Neuve Chapelle had whetted
their hopes; it was believed that at this second attempt the
lessons of Neuve Chapelle would be turned to good effect, that
the causes which had robbed that attack of greater success
would be avoided, that the increased artillery and ammunition
available would allow of a far more effective bombardment.
Unfortunately, the delays in renewing the attack, due partly to
weather conditions but even more to the insufficient ammunition
supply, had given the Germans time to so strengthen their
positions that only the heaviest artillery could produce any
substantial effect upon them. Parapets, many feet in thickness
and backed up by concrete, were proof against i8-pounders, and
afforded complete protection against anything short of a direct
hit to the machine-guns placed in pits sited at the ground level
which swept the " no-man's-land " with a grazing fire. It was
only the bitter experiences of May 9 which revealed how very
formidable the German defences had become and what an
increase in battering-power would be needed to reduce them.
The actual attack delivered early on May 9 met with modified
success at Rougebancs, but with complete failure at Rue du
Bois. Here the infantry found the enemy's trenches strongly
manned; the machine-guns from their pits at the base of the
parapets maintained a deadly fire; scarcely any of the assailants
managed to reach the enemy's parapets, and the few who did
get into the German lines were promptly overwhelmed. More-
over, the German artillery at once opened a heavy counter-
bombardment, and the British supports and reserves, packed
into crowded communication and assembly trenches, suffered
severely, while the task of evacuating wounded and reorganizing
the troops for a second attempt proved extremely difficult.
A second effort was, however, made by both the ist and Meerut
Divs. about 7 A.M., though without success; and when in the
course of the afternoon the Bareilly Bde. of the Meerut Div.
and the ist Bde. of the ist Div. were put in, the same result
followed. A handful of the ist Black Watch made a lodgment
in the enemy's trenches, but so small a party was powerless
and was speedily overwhelmed.
At Rougebancs the right brigade of the 8th Div., the 24th,
failed except at one point to reach the enemy's trenches, and
suffered very severe losses. On its left, however, the 2nd Rifle
Bde. and ist Royal Irish Rifles of the 25th Bde. captured a
considerable frontage, and lodgments were also made by the
2nd Lincolnshires and the I3th (Kensington) London Regiment.
However, consolidation proved exceedingly difficult. Machine-
guns on the flanks, which could not be located or silenced,
prevented the advance of reinforcements; efforts to dig communi-
cation trenches came under heavy shelling, and could not be
completed before German counter-attacks, vigorously pressed
and well supplied with bombs, drove back those assailants who
had penetrated beyond the front trenches and gradually forced
the survivors out of the positions they had captured. The
Rifle Bde. held on longest, keeping the Germans at bay till
after midnight, but before the 7th Div. could push a battalion
across to relieve them a renewed counter-attack ousted them
from the German trenches. The division's losses came to over
4,500, about the same as at Neuve Chapelle, but without the
satisfaction of retaining any of the ground won at the first
assault. The ist Div. lost nearly 4,000 men, the Indian Corps
had over 2,000 casualties, and the completeness of the failure
was the more felt because of the high hopes so generally enter-
tained.
However, though the French attacks had also fallen short of
the success anticipated, they had gained some ground and were
being continued. Sir John French therefore determined to
renew his efforts to assist his allies, though on a less ambitious
scale. North-east of the village of Festubert the German lines
running northward from Givenchy turned N.E. at a sharp angle
towards the Bois de Biez, making a salient which it was proposed
to attack on two sides. On the night of May 15-16, therefore, the
I. and Indian Corps renewed their attempt to advance from
the Rue du Bois, using the Meerut and 2nd Divs., while the
7th Div.j which had been transferred from the IV. to the I.
Corps, attacked eastwardly from Festubert. The attack was
preceded by an intermittent bombardment extending over
several days, instead of the short but intensive bombardment
employed on March 10 and May 9. Over a large part of the
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
front attacked the German wire was effectively cut, but oppo-
site the Indian Corps the German parapets successfully defied
the efforts of the British artillery and (on the left of the front
attacked) the Meerut Div. and the left of the 2nd Div. failed
to carry the hostile trenches. The rest of the 2nd Div. fared
better; the 6th Bde. and part of the 5th stormed the front Ger-
man line, and reinforced by their reserves began pushing on
against the second line. At 3:15 A.M. on May 16 the 7th Div.
attacked, while the Meerut Div. made a fresh attempt. Once
again machine-guns sheltered behind Lille damaged parapets
and shot down the Gahrwal Bde., and this failure affected the
advance of the division, who had to establish a defensive flank
on their left and to devote their main efforts to getting touch
with the 2nd Div. whose attack had met with considerable suc-
cess, especially in the centre, where the 2nd Scots Guards and
ist Royal Welsh Fusiliers had penetrated deep into the German
positions. On their right also the 2nd Queen's, after a tem-
porary check, had got well in, and while they pushed on towards
La Quinque Rue a bombing attack down the German front line,
S. of the point of entry, led to the clearing of 700 yd. and the
capture of 200 prisoners. But casualties had been heavy, and
on the left the stubborn resistance of a strong point held up the
left of the 2oth Bde., which exposed the flank of the most ad-
vanced parties. These, out of touch with their supports, were
forced back by counter-attacks. Similarly, the progress of the
2nd Div. was retarded by the resistance of two fortified farms,
Cour d'Avoue and Ferme du Bois. Until these strong points
could be reduced substantial progress was impossible.
Next day (May 17) operations were continued, a special
effort being made to close the gap between the 2nd and 7th
Divs., after which it was hoped to push on towards Rue d'Ouvert
and Chapelle St. Roch. The first of these objects was effected,
after about 700 Germans in the angle between the two attacks
had left their trenches, apparently intending to surrender, but
had been shelled by their own guns and almost wiped out.
But the Ferme du Bois held up the 2nd Div., which could only
progress to some extent on its right. The 7th Div. started well
and cleared the strong points which had checked the left of the
2otii Bde., but could not get much further in the direction of
Cour d'Avoue, while the efforts of the 2nd Bedfords and 4th
Camerons to push on against Rue d'Ouvert were not in the end
successful. On May 18 the 4th (Guards) Bde. attacked Cour
d'Avoue from the W., but could not carry it, and Canadian
infantry, who on that day began relieving the 7th Div., did not
succeed in doing more than master an orchard which had been
reached (but lost again) on May 16 by some of the 7th Division.
By this time the Germans had brought up considerable rein-
forcements and many machine-guns, and as the ammunition
available was nearly exhausted all chance of substantial success
seemed gone. For another week, however, severe fighting
continued between La Quinque Rue and Givenchy, the brunt
falling on the Canadians and on the 47th (London) Div. who
were holding the Givenchy sector. These operations resulted
in the capture of several hundred yards of trenches, including
two formidable strong points, and the repulse of several German
counter-attacks, but by May 25 Sir John French found it
necessary to call a halt. It was now clear that though the
great French effort further S. had won much valuable ground it
had failed to break the enemy's line or to prove the decisive
stroke that had been hoped for: the Allies had to resign them-
selves, therefore, to a suspension of active operations. Actually,
it was not till the end of June that this became complete, and in
the interval two minor attacks were made near Givenchy, one
by the 7th and sist (Highland Territorial) Divs., the other by
the Canadians: neither, however, resulted in any appreciable gain
of ground, and although on June 16 an attack by the 3rd Div.,
now in the V. Corps, carried some German trenches W. of the
Bellewaarde ridge and improved the tactical situation in the
Hooge neighbourhood, it did not lead to the recapture of Hooge
and involved the assailants in heavy losses.
For three months, therefore, the position on the British front
was one of almost complete stagnation. The only events of
real importance were the arrival of the long-expected " New
Army " divisions, the first of which, the pth (Scottish) Div.,
actually began its disembarkation at Boulogne on the day of
the disastrous repulse at Fromelles and Rue du Bois. By the
end of July eight of these divisions were in the country, and
their presence permitted the formation of a III. Army, which
took over from the French a line to the N. of the Somme be-
tween Arras and Albert. During this period there was of course
intermittent activity on the British front, mainly in the Ypres
salient. Here at the end of July the Germans, making use for
the first time against the British of their Flammenwerfer (liquid-
fire projectors), attacked and captured the right trenches of the
I4th (New Army) Div. just S. of Hooge. The battalion holding
the trenches was overwhelmed, and a counter-attack next day
was unsuccessful. Ten days later, however (Aug. 9), two bri-
gades of the 6th Div. made a fresh attempt after careful recon-
naissance and preparation. The German position was carried
on a front of 1,000 yd., and heavy losses were inflicted on them;
they brought up large reinforcements and strove desperately
but unsuccessfully to regain the ground, but the 6th Div. held
firm, retaining the trenches lost in the Flammenwerfer attack
with a small spur N. of the Menin road.
It gives some indication of the difference in scale between the
war of 1914-8 and the greatest of the previous campaigns of the
British army that the 1,800 casualties of the 6th Div. in this
quite minor action exceeded by 50% the losses of Wellington's
army at Busaco.
(E) Loos. If in the Allied offensive of Sept. 1915 the Brit-
ish army, as in May, played only a subsidiary part, its contri-
bution far outstripped both in men and in materials the meagre
preparations of May. A four days' bombardment on a scale
hitherto unprecedented preceded the attack, for which nine
divisions were available as against the four of May 9, while six
others contributed by undertaking diversions. The frontage
attacked extended over nearly 6 m., from just S. of the mining
village of Loos on the right to the La Bassee canal on the left.
The line ran fairly straight from S. to N. for nearly 3 m., but
then curved away in a N.W. direction towards Cuinchy, so that
two of the three divisions of Sir Hubert Cough's I. Corps on the
left had to attack N.E., while the right, Sir Henry Rawlinson's
IV. Corps, was striking due east. Further, Cough's left divi-
sion, the 2nd, was to attack on both sides of the canal, the 5th
Bde. from Givenchy-les-La Bassee, the 6th and 38th Bdes.
from Cuinchy. The 5th Bde.'s attack was one of the opera-
tions intended to distract the enemy and divert his reserves,
but the other brigades aimed at reaching Auchy and linking up
near Haisnes with the left of the main attack. A defensive
flank would thus be established, under cover of which, and of a
similar flank to be formed on Rawlinson's extreme right by the
47th Div., the central divisions of the I. and IV. Corps with the
XI. Corps in support and the cavalry in readiness behind, would,
it was hoped, break through between Haisnes and Loos, reach the
Deule canal at Port a Verdin and unite E. of Lens with Gen.
Foch's troops.
To improve the chances of success and introduce an element
of surprise it had been decided to employ against the Germans
their own device, gas. Elaborate preparations had been made
for the use of this weapon, and on its expected effectiveness in
surprising and demoralizing the defenders the highest hopes
were based.
The operations to be undertaken as diversions were much
more substantial in scale than those which had accompanied
the Neuve Chapelle attack. The ipth Div. was to attack in the
low ground E. of Festubert. North of Neuve Chapelle the
Indian Corps, supported on the left by the 2oth Div., was to
assault the German salient at Mauquissart, the legacy of the
Neuve Chapelle fighting. Further N. again the 8th Div. was
to attack at Bridoux, while the principal diversion was that to
be undertaken against Hooge and the Bellewaarde ridge on the
Ypres front by the 3rd and i4th Divisions. These attacks were
more than mere raids; they all aimed at definite tactical improve-
ments in the local situations, but their primary object was to
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
273
prevent the transfer of reserves to the main point of attack.
This object they achieved, even if they nowhere resulted in
permanent gains of ground, for it was only by prompt and vigor-
ous use of reserves and hard fighting that the Germans recovered
their initial losses at Hooge, at Bridoux and at Mauquissart
where the Indian Corps made a fine fight.
In the preliminary bombardment the field guns were em-
ployed to cut the wire, while the heavier guns battered the
other defences. Considerable damage was inflicted both on
the trenches and their garrisons, though in places deep dug-outs
allowed the defenders to escape lightly. Most of the wire was
effectively destroyed, but at several points folds of the ground
concealed it from observation, and at two at least this had far-
reaching effects, parts of the attack, which was delivered at
6:30 A.M. on Sept. 25, being held up by uncut wire. More-
over, the wind proved too weak to carry the gas forward quickly,
and thus made it in places worse than useless. This was nota-
bly the experience of the 2nd Div. at Cuinchy, and its attack,
though gallantly pressed, proved unsuccessful and costly.
Better success attended the gth Div. E. of the railway to Ver-
melles, though its left brigade, the 28th, found the wire practi-
cally intact and was repulsed with heavy losses, a second attack
by the supporting battalions faring no better. The 26th Bde.
had to assault the formidable and important Hohenzollern
Redoubt, which protruded in front of the slag heaps and miners'
cottages at " Fosse 8," S. of Auchy. With great gallantry and
at a heavy cost the Highlanders carried the Redoubt and swept
on over the German main line, clearing the cottages and slag
heaps behind. Some of the supports were absorbed in securing
this first objective, but the remainder pushed forward and
established themselves just short of Haisnes in the Pekin trench,
part of the German second line. With prompt support Haisnes
might have been carried, but the 2yth Bde. were much delayed
by the returning wounded and German prisoners who crowded
the communication trenches, and before its leading battalions
could reach the front the opportunity had passed; German
reserves had arrived. All the gth Div. could attempt was to
maintain its gains against the counter-attacks.
Opposite the yth Div. the chief tactical feature was a group
of quarries W. of Cite St. Elie. These were reached and taken
by the 22nd Bde., but at a cost which left it too weak to carry
its second objective, Cite St. Elie. The 2oth Bde., however,
penetrated much deeper into the German position, capturing
eight guns, and reaching the cross-roads between Cite St. Elie
and Hulluch. But it was out of touch with the 22nd Bde. on
its left, and as the division's reserves, the 2ist Bde., were partly
absorbed in consolidating the quarries sufficient reinforcements
were not forthcoming to carry the attack any farther. Thus
despite its substantial initial success the advance of the I. Corps
came to a standstill. The detachments which had established
themselves in the German second line were scattered and
isolated, and needed both reinforcements and artillery support.
But information was scanty and slow to get back to headquarters
and without accurate information artillery support was impos-
sible; the immediate reserves had been used up, and as no more
were forthcoming the opening could not be exploited.
On the left of the IV. Corps the ist Div. had as its objective
the line from Hulluch to Bois Hugo, N.E. of Loos. Its left
brigade, the ist, was most successful: it stormed the front line
and pushed on to Hulluch over several lines of trenches, captur-
ing three guns. But here it found itself unsupported, for the
zd Bde. on its right had been stopped by uncut wire several
hundreds of yards long and its repeated assaults proved equally
unsuccessful and costly. The reserves of the ist Div. had,
therefore, to be used against its first objective, and not till the
afternoon were they able by crossing the German trenches on
the flanks of the untaken portion to compel its defenders to
surrender. By the time, therefore, that the 2nd Bde. finally
reached its objective at Bois Hugo the delay had had serious
consequences: the ist Bde. had already been forced back 500
yd. from Hulluch, and the left flank of the next division to the
right, the isth, had been insecure all day.
Nevertheless, the 1 5th Div. had achieved remarkable success.
Attacking with the 46th Bde. on the left and the 44th on the
right, it carried the German front line, swept on over a second
trench system into Loos and through it, and pushed on over
" Hill 70," E. of Loos, until brought up by the defences of
Cite St. Laurent, one of the suburbs of Lens, and by a railway
embankment farther north. But their rapid advance had car-
ried the men beyond the reach of artillery support; mixture of
units had destroyed cohesion, and touch had been completely
lost with the headquarter formations in rear. Moreover, though
some of the 46th Bde. had reached and occupied Puits 14 bis,
a mine S. of Bois Hugo, the 2nd Bde.'s failure had left the isth
exposed to counter-attacks from the N., and reserves which
might have secured the advanced position had to be diverted to
that flank. On its other flank, however, the i5th Div. had no
cause for anxiety. The 47th (London) Div. had as its task the
formation of a defensive flank from the S.E. of Loos back to the
British front line. This task it had accomplished to the letter,
capturing three guns and several hundred prisoners, and after
consolidating all its objectives it maintained them against vigor-
ous counter-attacks.
About noon, then, on Sept. 25 the prospects of a break-
through seemed bright. If reserves could have been promptly
pushed in, the arrival of German reinforcements might have
been forestalled and the advanced troops not only supported
but carried farther forward. Unluckily, neither Gough nor
Rawlinson had reserves available, and at noon the leading
troops of the XI. Corps were still 3 m. from the original German
front line and had to thread their way forward through an area
congested with transports and with traffic of every description.
More guns meant larger ammunition columns, while additional
machine-guns meant additional limbers, and the rapid expan-
sion of the British army had not only meant increased impedi-
menta but had brought into staff posts many officers without
staff training or experience. The congestion of the rearward
areas was a serious handicap, but hardly to be wondered at.
By the time the leading units of the XI. Corps reached the
front matters had already changed for the worse. At nearly
every point German counter-attacks had thrust back the most
advanced troops, and though the Germans had had to pay
heavily for their gains the fact that their reinforcements were
arriving in strength was even more serious than the loss of
ground. At Hill 70 in particular there had been desperate
fighting, and only with great difficulty had the isth Div. main-
tained a position on its western slopes, thanks largely to the
initiative of a battalion commander who, arriving there after
the advance had swept on over the crest, had promptly en-
trenched a position on which the remnants of the advanced
troops were able to rally when the counter-attack drove them
back. But now that the XI. Corps was up it was hoped to
push on again next morning.
The plan for Sept. 26 was that the IV. Corps, reinforced by
the 2ist and 24th Divs., should renew the attack from Loos to
Hulluch. As a preliminary portions of the I5th and 2ist Divs.
were to recover the crest of Hill 70. However, as their attack
started the Germans began a series of heavy counter-attacks
from Bois Hugo southward, and succeeded in driving out of
Bois Hugo the brigade of the 2ist Div. which had just relieved
the 2nd Bde. there. Profiting by this they pressed in on the
left flank of the I5th Div. and gradually forced it back. Far-
ther S. the efforts of the 4$th and 6znd Bdes. to carry Hill 70,
were held up by wire which the Germans had rapidly put up, and
by a redoubt on the crest. Moreover, when the main attack
was delivered it was mainly by enfilade machine-gun fire from
Bois Hugo that the 24th Div. was repulsed and driven back.
All efforts of the 2ist Div. to recover Bois Hugo failed; the ist
Div. could effect nothing by itself, and it was largely the pos-
session of Bois Hugo and of Puits 14 bis which finally enabled
the Germans to thrust the defenders of Hill 70 down the hill in
upon Loos. That village, however, was secured by the arrival
of the 6th Cav. Bde., and N. of Bois Hugo the Germans did not
attempt to advance beyond the La Bassee road.
274
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
To the I. Corps also Sept. 26 had brought disappointment.
Shortly before midnight (Sept. 25-26) a German attack broke
through at the junction between the 7th and gih Divs. and pene-
trated into the quarries, which passed back into German hands,
the left of the 7th Div. recoiling to the old German support
trenches. On its right the 7th Div. maintained all but its most
advanced positions, and linked up with the ist in front of Hul-
luch, but two attempts to recover the quarries failed. At
Fosse 8 the 73rd Bde. of the 24th Div. (which had relieved the
26th Bde.) had great difficulty in holding its ground against
counter-attacks. Fosse Alley, however, the intermediate line
between the front system and Haisnes, which had been evacu-
ated when the quarries were lost, was reoccupied and held by
the 27th Bde., and the Germans had to pay highly for such
ground as they regained. But they had now brought up several
fresh divisions, and pressed their attacks hard, especially against
the inexperienced 73rd Brigade. Before midday on Sept. 27
these troops, short of ammunition, food and water, and quite
unable to reply effectively to the German bombers, were driven
out of their positions. A dashing advance by the remnants of
the 26th Bde. prevented the loss of the Hohenzollern, which had
seemed imminent, but the recapture of Fosse 8 and the dump
made Fosse Alley untenable and compelled its evacuation.
Against the 7th Div., however, the Germans were less successful,
and Sept. 27 saw the right of the position of the I. Corps fairly
satisfactorily consolidated.
While the I. Corps had been defending its gains, the IV. had
been striving to make more. During the night of Sept. 26-27
the Guards Div. had relieve ' the 2ist and 24th opposite Hul-
luch and Bois Hugo. On the afternoon of the 27th its 2nd Bde.
attacked Bois Hugo and Puits 14 bis, while its 3rd advanced
through Loos against Hill 70. Both attacks were splendidly
pressed and achieved valuable gains. Chalk Pit Wood was
reached and secured, though Puits 14 bis could not be held
against heavy counter-attacks, and a line was established just
W. of the La Bassee road to link up with the ist Div. opposite
Hulluch. Similarly the 3rd Guards Bde. put Loos out of danger
of recapture by making good a line just below the crest of
Hill 70.
By the evening of Sept. 27 all hopes of a speedy and decisive
success were gone. No break-through had been achieved, and
Gen. Foch's attack also had been checked. Still the vigour
with which the Germans hurled counter-attack after counter-
attack at the positions taken from them testified to the value
they attached to them. The fighting was fiercest round the
Hohenzollern Redoubt, which the 28th Div. took over from
the gth on Sept. 28 and held under considerable difficulties till
Oct. 3, when a specially violent attack drove them from its ruins,
though even then they retained a substantial portion of the gth
Div.'s gains of Sept. 25. On Oct. 5 the Guards relieved the
28th Div., and during the next week made several minor gains
by bombing-attacks. Fighting was also heavy without pro-
ducing any marked change in the tactical situation round the
quarries on the frontage held in succession by the 7th, 2nd and
1 2th Divisions. From the Vermelles-Hulluch road to Loos the
Germans were less aggressive, their only serious effort on this
front being on Oct. 8, when they attacked in great force, only
to be repulsed with very heavy losses especially by the ist Div.
at Chalk Pit Wood and by the French, who had taken over Loos
itself on Sept. 30.
After this repulse the Germans made no more big counter-
attacks. By recovering the dump and Fosse 8 they had won
back observation posts which overlooked much of the salient
which the battle had produced. Sir John French was naturally
loth to abandon the effort to recover them, and decided to
bring up the 46th (North Midland) Div. for a fresh attack on
the Hohenzollern Redoubt, while simultaneously the I2th and
ist Divs. should attack the quarries and Hulluch. The attack,
delivered on Oct. 13, was only partially successful, but did
result after heavy fighting in. the recovery and retention of the
bulk of the redoubt. The i2th Div. failed to retake the quar-
ries, but made useful gains which improved its line. The ist
Div., however, once again found Hulluch too much for it, so
that the net result of the attack did not encourage a repetition,
and with this major operations in the battle area ended. The
French continued attacking in Champagne for some weeks,
though even there all prospect of decisive success was gone,
while in Artois they had already abandoned their offensive.
When the results of the British offensive are set against the
high hopes entertained before the attack it is excusable to write
it down as a failure. The gain of ground was not worth the 50
to 60 thousand casualties incurred in its capture, but the Ger-
man losses on the British front were almost as heavy, and the
capture of over 20 guns and 3,000 prisoners was no small en-
couragement. It had been shown that the Germans could be
driven from positions they believed impregnable. Moreover,
valuable experience had been gained not only in the use of the
new weapon, gas, but in staff work, in administrative arrange-
ments and in tactics, experience to be turned to good account
in 1916. At Loos an effort had been made to apply the les-
sons of Neuve Chapelle. It was partly because Neuve Cha-
pelle had shown the dangers of retaining too close a hold on the
immediate reserves that it had been arranged that the troops
(immediate reserves included) were to press forward without
limitation. Loos showed the advantages of the " limited
objective " and of dealing with untaken portions of a hostile
line rather by outflanking them than by renewing direct attacks;
it also showed that the patterns of grenades in use in the British
army were too varied and mostly unsuitable for wet weather,
with other lessons major and minor. It is easy in the light of
the experience gained at and after Loos to criticize the whole
plan as too ambitious for the resources, human and material,
at the commander-in-chief's disposal; to point out the unwisdom
of employing raw troops in a great battle within a fortnight of
their landing in France; to argue that, had the frontage attacked
been narrower and the divisions disposed in greater depth, more
immediate reserves would have been available. Still the bal-
ance remains on the side of gain. Loos inflicted heavy losses
on the Germans; it was a foretaste of heavier losses in store for
them. The performances of the 9th, i2th and isth Divs.
showed that the improvised " New Armies " of Britain were
likely to prove a factor of decisive importance in the war.
(C. T. A.)
(F) THE GERMAN RETREAT TO THE HINDENBURG LINE,
1917. In order to follow intelligently the operations which took
place during the early part of 1917 it is necessary to understand
thoroughly the situation which had arisen and the general
atmosphere which had been created as a result of the prolonged
fighting on the Somme. In Dec. 1916 Gen. Nivelle was ap-
pointed to the chief command of the French forces. He de-
clared great confidence in his ability to break through the ene-
my's defences by the delivery of a mighty blow specially pre-
pared, and immediately disclosed his project to the British
commander-in-chief, Sir Douglas Haig. The plan was briefly
as follows: (a) to deliver the main attack by three French armies
on the Aisne front one of these armies to be in reserve for pur-
poses of exploitation; (6) to deliver a subsidiary attack by the
British army on the Arras front; (c) to undertake minor actions
between Reims and Arras to contain the enemy; (d) vigorous
exploitation. In order to give effect to these proposals and to
enable the French to undertake the major operations with large
reserves, Gen. Nivelle's plan included the relief of French troops
by the British as far S. as the Amiens-Roye road. The weakness
of this plan, apart from the Russian revolution and release of
German reserves, which could not be foreseen, lay in the im-
position of the major task on the French armies, already ex-
hausted by two years of heavy fighting and the strain of the
defence of Verdun, while the British, at the height of their
strength and vigour, instead of being trained and concentrated
for a vigorous blow, were relegated to defensive work and the
minor r61e. These operations were to take place as early as
possible, and it was hoped that the respective attacks would be
launched early in April. The Somme battles had evidently
shaken the enemy seriously, and had caused his defensive front
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
275
in the neighbourhood of the Ancre to become a pronounced and
dangerous salient. Moreover, it was known that he was con-
structing a rearward line of defence, subsequently known as the
Hindenburg Line, which would materially shorten his defensive
front and thus release a number of divisions which could be
moved into reserve.
Such was the position of affairs on Jan. i 1917. The main-
tenance of pressure on the enemy on the Ancre-Somme battle-
front was now of immediate importance. Signs were not lack-
ing that the enemy had considerably weakened, and his posi-
tion in the Ancre salient was vulnerable and dangerous. After
a period of bad weather it became possible during Jan. to under-
take minor and local operations, which resulted in the capture
of the Beaumont Hamel spur, thus opening up a wide field of
view and observation for artillery fire. No time was lost in
making use of this advantage. Indeed, it was essential to
engage the enemy closely, whether it was his intention to retire
voluntarily to some previously prepared position, or whether
his defence was involuntarily weakening. The country on both
banks of the Ancre consists in pronounced undulations with
spuxs running towards the stream from both north and south.
Opportunity was offered for skill in the handling of comparative-
ly small bodies of troops, in making use of the ground, and of
cooperation both by movement and by fire. Making use of
the tactical advantage obtained by possession of the Beaumont
Hamel spur, the 6yd Div. carried out a successful operation
early in Feb. which carried the British front forward on the N.
bank of the river. This assisted towards the capture of a point
on the S. bank, which gave observation into the upper valley of
the Ancre and over the German gun positions. These hostile
batteries which protected the Serre salient were forced to with-
draw, thus weakening to a dangerous degree the German de-
fences to the north. It was now possible to attack with advan-
tage the Serre-Beauregard and Courcelette-Miraumont ridges,
the possession of which, besides turning the German defences
on the N. in the neighbourhood of Gommecourt and Monchy,
would open up a further field of view up the valley of the Ancre,
where many hostile batteries had been located. In order to
gain this position an assault was delivered on the morning of
Feb. 17 by the 2nd, i8th and 63rd Divs. on both banks of the
stream. On the N. bank the attack was completely successful,
while on the S. bank considerable resistance was encountered.
Nevertheless, the whole position was occupied shortly after-
wards, and small detachments and patrols working forward
succeeded in occupying the enemy's defences on a wide front
from opposite Guedecourt to Serre, including the villages of
Warlencourt and Miraumont as well as the Beauregard spur.
It had become increasingly evident that the German defence
was weakening, and their troops were being gradually with-
drawn, the first indications being on a narrow front in the valley
of the Ancre, but now on a more considerable scale. The pro-
longed period of exceptional frost following on a wet autumn
had frozen the ground to a great depth. The thaw, however,
began in the third week of Feb.; the roads, disintegrated by the
frost, now broke up, and the area of the 1916 battlefield became
a quagmire. On the other hand the conditions of the weather
favoured the defenders, who fell back on to fresh unbroken
ground, and the succession of misty days covered their move-
ments.
Notwithstanding these difficulties the British and Australian
troops kept up constant pressure, and by the delivery of minor
attacks drove the enemy from position to position, until by the
end of Feb. the whole of the Ancre valley and the higher ground
to the N., including the village of Gommecourt, fell into their
hands. The enemy had now evidently fallen back into a pre-
viously prepared line of defence the trench system known as
the Le Transloy-Loupart line, cutting off the Ancre salient and
covering the villages of Le Transloy, Grevillers, Achiet-le-
Petit and Bucquoy. It was possible that he would make a
stand on this defensive line. If not, undoubtedly his with-
drawal would be conducted on a more comprehensive scale
altogether and on a wider front.
Owing to the heavy work required to be executed in render-
ing the roads passable, and moving forward guns, ammunition
and supplies, in addition to the necessity for gaining ground to
within assaulting distance of this defensive system, a delay of a
week occurred before operations of a more serious character
could be undertaken. On March n and 12 the Le Transloy-
Loupart line was subjected to so effective a bombardment that
on the morning of the I3th the enemy abandoned this strong
position. Grevillers and Loupart wood were immediately
occupied, and preparations put in hand to attack the enemy's
next line of defence, which covered Bapaume and Achiet-le-Grand.
For some time prior to this date indications had been ob-
served of a further and wider extension of the German with-
drawal. It had been ascertained that the Germans were pre-
paring with feverish haste a new and powerful defensive sys-
tem, the Hindenburg Line, which, branching off from the orig-
inal defences near Arras, ran S. E. for 12 m. to Queant and thence
passed W. of Cambrai in the direction of St. Quentin. The
immediate object appeared to be to escape from the salient
between Arras and Le Transloy, but it was also evident from
the preparations the Germans were making on a grand scale,
that they contemplated an eventual evacuation of the greater
salient between Arras and the Aisne valley N.W. of Reims.
The withdrawal to the Hindenburg defences would cause a very
considerable contraction in the length of the line, with a con-
sequent increase of the German reserves. It was evident that
the Somme battles of 1916 had materially reduced his strength,
and with the expected onslaughts on the western front, coupled
with a Russian offensive on a grand scale, it was necessary for
them to contract the front and conserve their strength.
Constant watch had accordingly been kept by the British
along the whole front S. of Arras, strong patrols, kept alert and
active, pushing forward here and there, with the result that St.
Pierre Vast wood was occupied on March 16. Meanwhile in-
formation was received which indicated the reduction of the
enemy's forces S. of the Somme, and pointed to the probability
that his line in that sector was being held by rear-guard detach-
ments supported by machine-guns, whose withdrawal might be
expected at any moment.
It was evident that the enemy was withdrawing according to a
carefully prepared plan along the entire front of recent opera-
tions and on both banks of the river Somme. Orders were
accordingly given by the British G.H.Q., in conjunction with
the French, for a general advance on the morning of March 17.
Except at certain localities where detachments of infantry and
machine-guns had been left to cover his retreat, there was little
serious resistance to the advance, and that resistance was
rapidly overcome.
On March 17 Chaulnes was captured by the 6ist Div. and
Bapaume by the 2nd Australian Div., while further to the right
the French entered Roye. On the following and subsequent
days the advance continued, and the whole intricate system of
German defences in this area, consisting of many miles of power-
ful well-wired trenches which had been constructed with im-
mense labour, passed into the hands of the Allies.
On March 18 the British 48th Div. gained the important
tactical position of Peronne, and Mont St. Quentin which lies
above it. The possession of this locality at the angle of the
Somme showed clearly that the enemy would not stand on the
line of the river, for it outflanked, that line to the south. The
bridges over the Somme, which had been systematically de-
stroyed, were temporarily and partially repaired with great
rapidity, and the British troops, passing over, deployed into
open country with patrols and cavalry thrown forward.
By this time the Allies' advance had reached a stage at which
the increasing difficulty of maintaining the communications
rendered it imperative to slacken the pace of the movement.
Not only had the bridges over the river Somme been destroyed,
and the roads rendered almost impassable both artificially and
from the weather, but the wide belt of devastated ground over
which the Somme battle had been fought offered immense
difficulties to the passage of guns and transport. Moreover, in
276
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
front lay an enemy whose armies were capable of launching a
vigorous counter-offensive. Strong detachments of his infantry
and cavalry occupied tactical points along the line of advance,
serving to keep the enemy supplied with information and as a
screen to his own movements. His guns, which had already
been withdrawn to previously prepared positions, were avail-
able at any moment to cover and support a sudden counter-
stroke, while the conditions of the country across which the
Allies were moving made the progress of their own artillery
unavoidably slow. The bulk of the enemy's forces were known
to be occupying a very formidable defensive system, upon which
he could fall back should his counter-stroke fail. On the other
hand the Allies, as they moved forward, lft all prepared de-
fences farther and farther behind them. In such circumstances
the necessity for caution was obvious. In order to combat
these dangers and difficulties, the Allies were compelled, at the
various stages of the advance, to select and put into a state of
defence successive lines of resistance, which the main bodies
would occupy, and in which they could give battle in the event
of a hostile riposte. Meanwhile advanced guards, patrols and
reconnoitring detachments pushed ahead and maintained touch
with the enemy, and roads, railways, bridges, telegraphs and
telephones were constructed or restored with rapidity.
As the Allies approached the Hindenburg Line, the resist-
ance of the enemy stiffened and the fighting for the various
tactical localities became more severe. During the first week
in April the British had almost reached the Hindenburg Line,
and had gained possession of the villages of Lempire, Epehy,
Metz-en-Couture, Lagnecourt, Noreuil, Croisilles, Henin-sur-
Cojeul and Beurains. The enemy was now withdrawn to his
great defensive line, which he had taken months to prepare,
shortening his front considerably and enabling him to bring
several divisions into reserve. He had in front of him a devas-
tated zone where the mounting of an Allied attack would
present extreme difficulties, thereby releasing yet other troops
from the guard of the trenches to pass into reserve.
(G) BATTLE OF ARRAS (April-May 1917). At the close of
1916, and before the appointment of Gen. Nivelle to the com-
mand of the French forces, a general plan had been agreed upon
by all the Allies to conduct a simultaneous offensive on all fronts.
The British part in this offensive was to consist of a double
attack along the Scarpe and Ancre valleys, to cut off the Gomme-
court salient created as a result of the Somme fighting. The
V. Army was to attack along the Ancre, the III. Army was to
debouch from Arras along the Scarpe, while the I. Army (Cana-
dian Corps) was to secure the left flank of these operations by
seizing the Vimy ridge. Owing to the exhaustion of the French
armies the main operations were to be conducted by the British,
who would not press the attack unduly in the direction of Cam-
brai, but be prepared to switch rapidly to the N. and undertake
further operations of greater dimensions in Flanders.
The appointment of Gen. Nivelle in Dec. 1916 to the chief
command of the French, and the acceptance of his plan of
offensive, dislocated the strategical plans for the British armies
at this particular juncture.
The Nivelle plan gave the French the major r&le, as indicated
earlier, namely, that of delivering a 'decisive blow from the
Aisne front, while the British operations in Artois were to be of a
subsidiary character. It is to be noted in this connexion that
the extension of the front in relief of the French caused a reduc-
tion of power to the British which materially affected their
operations throughout the remainder of the year. The Nivelle
plan relied on the success of the main offensive by the French,
but if that failed the subsequent operations would be seriously
handicapped. This was a matter of first-class importance,
seeing that the French had already been overstrained while the
British were reaching the height of their strength and efficiency.
Apart from this, the actual tactical scheme and dispositions
required little modification as a result of the acceptance of the
Nivelle plan.
General Nivelle did not altogether approve of the plan of the
British commander-in-chief, and urged that the attack on the
Vimy heights should be abandoned and that the concentration
should be effected farther S. on the Arras-Ancre front, pointing
out that the inclusion of Vimy would cause too wide an exten.
sion and dissipation of force. This point is of some interest as
showing the difficulties which a commander has to face in the
selection of his front of attack and objectives. Sir Douglas
Haig had, however, given the closest attention to the various
factors affecting the situation, and refused to give way. His
arguments were mainly two: firstly, that the capture of the
Vimy ridge was essential to secure the left of his operations, and
secondly, that any attack mounted S. of Arras, and S. of the
point where the Hindenburg Line hinged on the main German
front, would be delivered into a pocket or would be entirely
dislocated by a voluntary withdrawal of the enemy from the
Gommecourt salient, whereas the German forces were bound to
stand and fight for the Vimy ridge. The British commander-
in-chief scented the retreat of the Germans to the Hindenburg
Line and laid his plans to meet that eventuality. The result
was that even after the German retreat little or no alteration
was necessary. Had he, however, given way to the pressure
placed upon him and mounted his attack from Arras to Gomme-
court, the operation, which was required by Gen. Nivelle*to
draw in the hostile reserves and pave the way for the main
French attack on the Aisne, could not have taken place at all.
The task of the British was to attract as large forces of the
enemy as possible and so reduce the opposition to the French.
As soon as the German retreat developed, all those troops and
heavy artillery which were not required with the V. Army in its
advance from the Ancre were diverted to the III. and I. Armies
in order to strengthen their attacks to the utmost.
The preparations for a great offensive, where reliance is
placed on artillery to destroy the enemy's defences and reduce
his fire-power to such a point as to enable a successful advance
to be made, are extremely long and arduous. When transport
requirements on the Arras front were first brought under
consideration, the neighbourhood was served by two single lines
of railway leading to Arras, the combined capacity of which was
less than half the requirements. Considerable constructional
work, therefore, both of standard- and narrow-gauge railway,
had to be undertaken to meet the programme. Roads had to be
improved and adapted; new roads had to be constructed, and
material massed forward for construction across the enemy's
defences as soon as the troops advanced. For this latter purpose
use was made both in this and in later offensives of plank roads.
These were built chiefly of heavy beech slabs laid side by side,
and were found to be of great utility, being capable of rapid
construction over almost any nature of ground. By these means
the accumulation of the vast stocks of munitions and stores
of all kinds required for the offensive, and their distribution to
the troops, were made possible. Hutting and other accommoda-
tion for the troops concentrated in the area had to be provided
in great quantity; an adequate water-supply had to be guar-
anteed. Very extensive mining and tunnelling operations were
also carried out. In particular, advantage was taken of the
existence of a large system of underground quarries and cellars
in Arras and its suburbs to provide safe quarters for a great
number of troops. Electric light was installed in these caves
and cellars, which were linked together by tunnels, and the
whole connected by long subways with the trench systems E.
of the town.
A problem peculiar to the launching of a great offensive from
a town arose from the difficulty of ensuring the punctual de-
bouching of troops and the avoidance of confusion and congestion
in the streets both before the assault and during the progress
of the battle. This problem was met by the most careful and
complete organization of routes.
Practically the labour of the whole of the troops was required
to carry through all this work, and while this immense task was
proceeding, the British IV. and V. Armies were vigorously
pursuing the enemy to the Hindenburg Line, and the French
front was in process of being relieved as far S. as the Amiens-
Roye road. All this placed a heavy strain on the British troops.
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
277
Meanwhile, during the first three months of 1917, negotiations
of fundamental importance were proceeding between the high
commands and the Governments of France and Great Britain,
touching on the principle of unity of command. General
Nivelle desired to secure the command of all the forces involved,
both British and French. Certain differences of opinion early
declared themselves between the British and French com-
manders-in-chief. These were chiefly in the first instance in
connexion with the date of attack, and the extent to which the
French troops in front line should be relieved. The transporta-
tion service and the Nord railway were not equal to the work of
operations on so great a scale at so early a date as that proposed
by Nivelle; and in view of the fact that the British commander-
in-chief desired to give his troops some rest and training and was
somewhat sceptical as to the degree of success which would be
attained by the French, was desirous of limiting the extension
of his front to the Amiens- Villers Bretonneux road. A temporary
agreement on Jan. i that the attack should take place as early
as possible, and that the French should be relieved as far as the
above road by the end of Jan., did not satisfy Gen. Nivelle;
the latter referred the whole question to his Government and,
indirectly, to the British War Cabinet, with the result that a
Cabinet meeting was held in London on Jan. 15 at which both
Sir D. Haig and Gen. Nivelle were present. The conclusions
arrived at were as follows: (a) the British to relieve the French
forces as far S. as the Amiens-Roye road, relief to be completed
by March i; (b) the offensive to commence on April i at latest;
(c) vigorous exploitation to be undertaken by all the forces
both French and British, if necessary. The French troops in
front line were accordingly relieved to the Amiens-Roye road,
and preparations pushed forward to deliver the attack at the
earliest possible date. But the transport difficulties had become
so acute that, notwithstanding the fact that every available
British soldier was utilized for railway construction and other
work, a serious breakdown in the Nord railway system appeared
to be inevitable, and the matter had to be referred to the French
Government with a view to obtaining greater facilities. Further
negotiations in regard to the problem of command took place
secretly between the British and French Governments, and
materialized in the Calais conference on Feb. 26 and 27 1917.
This conference had originally been summoned to discuss the
question of transportation. There were present: M. Briand
(premier), Gen. Lyautey (Minister of War), Gen. Nivelle
(French C.-in-C.), Mr. Lloyd George (British Prime Minister),
Gen. Robertson (Cl.G.S.), Sir D. Haig (British C.-in-C.), Gen.
Kiggell (C.G.S.). A scheme was set before the conference by
the French Government for the establishment of an Allied
G.H.Q. and the appointment of a French generalissimo, and
the breaking up of the British divisions to form an "amalgam"
with the French troops. General Robertson and Sir D. Haig
were in complete ignorance of this proposal until the cut-and-
dried scheme was produced; the British Prime Minister, however,
while opposing the French proposal to break up the British
army and form an " amalgam " with French brigades, directed
these two officers to draw up a scheme of command, by which the
control of operations in the coming battle would be solely in
Gen. Nivelle's hands, and the British army under his orders.
This was the decision of the War Cabinet. The scheme was
accordingly drawn up in the course of the morning of Tuesday
Feb. 27, so that when the conference met at 11:30 A.M. on that
day, discussion was limited to questions of detail. Finally the
French War Committee and British War Cabinet agreed to the
following arrangements:
(1) The British War Cabinet recognizes that the general direction
of the campaign should be in the hands of the French commander-
in-chief.
(2) The British commander-in-chief to conform his plans to those
of the French during the preparation and progress of the projected
campaign.
(3) Within the limits of (2) the British commander-in-chief will
be permitted to utilize his own resources and forces in the manner
which he considers most desirable.
(4) In regard to (2) an exception will be made in a case where
he considers that such action would endanger the safety of the army
or prejudice its success; in that case a report shall be made, together
with the reasons, for the information of the War Cabinet.
(5) The respective Governments will decide the date at which the
operations referred to in (i) and (2) shall be deemed to be at an end.
As all students of war agree, within the army of a combatant
nation, unity of control is essential to secure the most effective
execution of military operations. In theory, it is equally desirable
in all circumstances. There is, however, a difficulty inherent
in applying the principle of unity of control to Allied nations.
This difficulty lies in the incidence of responsibility. For example,
if the British armies are placed under the command of a French
general, the British commander cannot be held responsible to
the nation. The responsibility for the British armies cannot
devolve on the French commander, and must therefore de-
volve on the British Government. At the Calais conference,
however, an effort was made by the British War Cabinet to
make the field-marshal commanding the British forces retain
responsibility by instructing him to conform his preparations
to the views of the French commander, except in so far as he
considered that this would endanger the safety of the army or
prejudice the success of its operations.
The battle of Arras was the first occasion on which the
experiment was tried of securing a form of unity of command,
and after the conference of Calais the British forces to be
engaged in the battle were placed, within the limitations
noted above, under the general control of Nivelle. Certain
differences of opinion, however, still existed, and the whole
question was again referred to the Governments, with the
result that the two commanders-in-chief and two Cabinets
met in London on March 13 in order to define the position more
clearly.
During the month of March, as previously narrated, the
Germans continued to withdraw to the already prepared
Hindenburg Line, followed up and pressed by British troops,
until early in April they were established in positions covering
that line. On the British side, the extensive preparations
necessary were pushed ahead as quickly as possible and so far
as the available transport facilities permitted. The general
plan agreed upon was that the British attack should be launched
as early as possible in April and that the French main attack
on the Aisne should follow two or three days later. This was to
permit and induce the German reserves to be drawn into the
British battle and towards the British front, and thus enable the
main attack by the French to be delivered with greater prospects
of success and exploitation. The British actually launched
their assault on April 9, but for reasons of unfavourable weather
the French postponed their attack until April 16. Prior to the
offensive the new German lines of defence on the British front
ran in a general north-westerly direction from St. Quentin to the
village of Tilloy-les-Mofflaines just S.E. of Arras. Thence the
German original trench systems continued northwards across
the valley of the Scarpe to the Vimy ridge which, rising to a
height of 475 ft., dominates the country eastwards. The front
attacked by the III. and I. Armies on the morning of April 9
extended from just N. of the village of Croisilles, S.E. of Arras,
to just S. of Givenchy-en-Gohelle at the ncrthern foot of the
Vimy ridge, a front of nearly 15 miles. The enemy's defences
comprised the normal powerful defensive front consisting of
three separate and heavily wired trench systems, and in addition,
from 3 to 5 m. further E. a new defensive system, known as the
Drocourt-Queant line, which in fact was a northward extension
of the Hindenburg Line, branching from that line at Queant.
The great strength of these defences demanded very thorough
artillery preparation, and this in turn could only be carried
out effectively with the aid of the air service. A greater mass
of artillery, both guns and howitzers, was used for preparation
in proportion to the front engaged than had yet been available
in any previous British attack. Three weeks prior to the attack
the systematic cutting of the enemy's wire was commenced,
while the heavy artillery searched the enemy's back areas and
communications. Night firing, wire cutting and bombardment
of hostile trenches, strong points and billets continued steadily
278
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
and with increasing intensity on the whole battle-front till a
few days before the assault when the general bombardment was
opened. During this latter period extensive gas discharges
were carried out and frequent raids undertaken by day and
night along the whole front of attack.
Aircraft were incessantly at work during the whole of this
time not only in air fighting and directing the artillery fire,
but also in photographing the enemy's defences so as to ascertain
the extent of damage effected and the best means of approach
for the infantry. Much intelligence and information was gleaned
from these photographs as to the progress of the preparation,
and from the raids as to the condition of the enemy, and any
modifications in regard to his method of holding his defences.
The general object of the attack was to engage and absorb
the maximum number of hostile troops; the general plan was to
secure the high ground at Monchy-le-Preux and the Vimy ridge
and to bring the V. Army into effective operation on the southern
flank of the battle; the general method of attack was a succession
of comparatively short and deliberate advances, the separate
stages of which were arranged to correspond approximately
with the enemy's successive trench systems. As each stage
was reached a short pause was to take place according to a
prepared time-table to enable the troops detailed for the attack
on the next objective to form up for the assault.
Tanks were allotted to each corps for specific tasks, such as
the capture of the powerful redoubts of Telegraph Hill and the
Harp (just S. of Tilloy-les-Mofflaines) and Railway Triangle, a
stronghold formed by the junction of the Lens and Douai railway
lines E. of Arras. The whole scheme of attack along the entire
15-mile front was carefully coordinated. A special feature in
the operation was the debouching of the troops to the assault
directly from the town of Arras, the subterranean passages and
caves of which had been prepared so as to harbour the reserve
troops and enable them to pass protected to the trench systems,
and so to the assault.
The troops engaged in the attack were as follows (from S.
to N.): III. Army (Gen. Sir E. H. H. Allenby), VII. Corps
(aist, 3oth, 56th, and i4th Divs.), VI. Corps (3rd, I2th, I5th,
and 37th Divs.), XVII. Corps (gth, 4th, 34th, and sist Divs.),
I. Army (Gen. .Sir H. S. Home), Canadian Corps, ist, 2nd, 3rd,
and 4th Canadian Divs., and i3th Bde. (sth British Division).
In all there were 17 divisions, with 989 heavy guns and 1,890
field pieces. In addition the Cavalry Corps was brought forward
behind the III. Army, in case the development of the battle
should give rise to an opportunity for the employment of
mounted troops.
The general attack on April 9 was launched at 5:30 A.M. under
cover of a heavy and effective artillery barrage; the infantry
advanced everywhere, and within 40 minutes the whole of the
German first line system had been stormed and captured, except
at the northern extremity of the Vimy ridge. At 7:30 A.M. the
advance was resumed according to programme; more severe
fighting took place in view of the greater opposition encountered.
Several strong points and localities were stubbornly held by the
enemy, but by 12 noon the whole of these and all the second
objectives with the exception of the railway triangle had fallen,
from Neuville Vitasse as far N. as La Folie farm. As always
happens in such a battle, the enemy's troops managed to retain
certain tactical localities. Meanwhile the artillery was brought
forward to support the attack on the third objectives. Owing
to the long range the wire in front of the enemy's third trench
system had not been effectively cut in many places; neverthe-
less good progress was made, and many batteries were captured.
The battle now inevitably became more ragged, owing to the
increasing opposition and to the local modification of plans
necessitated by the unexpected occurrences inseparable from
the battlefield. South of the Scarpe, St. Martin and Feuchy
Chapel on the Arras-Cambrai road were captured. In the
Scarpe valley the i$th Scottish Div. after a long struggle
stormed the railway triangle, and moving rapidly forward
captured the village of Feuchy. The 37th Div., hitherto in
reserve, whose r61e it was to pass through the first-line troops
to the assault of the high ground and village of Monchy-le-Preux,
endeavoured to widen the breach made in the enemy's third
line of defence in order to carry out its task, but was held up by
the wire. South of the Scarpe, the enemy's third line had been
captured in places, but he still retained possession of the greater
portion of it, together with the high ground of Orange Hill
and Monchy-le-Preux. North of the Scarpe practically the
whole of the day's programme was carried through. On the
right the 4th Div. in reserve passed through the troops in front
line, and according to plan captured the village of Fampoux,
thus making a great breach in the enemy's third system of
defence. In the centre the Canadian Corps stormed the Vimy
heights, entrenched itself on the eastern slopes, and sent patrols
out along the front. On the left the 4th Canadian Div., en-
countering violent opposition at Hill 145 on the northern ex-
tremity of the ridge, was compelled to postpone the attack till
the following day.
The operations of April 9 had been eminently successful, in
spite of heavy squalls of snow and rain; and large numbers
of the enemy's troops and guns had been captured.
During the night of the gth to loth the 37th Div. made
progress through the break in the German third line S. of the
Scarpe, advancing to the northern slopes of Orange Hill; and
on the morning of the loth about noon the advance became
general, the whole of the enemy's third line S. of the Scarpe
being reduced, and the 37th Div. reached the north-western
edge of Monchy-le-Preux. A great struggle then centred round
this village, and all efforts of the infantry to seize it directly,
and of the cavalry to pass around either flank of it, failed, chiefly
owing to the lack of effective artillery support due to the long
range and the rapidity of the advance. On the morning of the
nth, however, assisted by tanks, the fight was resumed, and by
9 A.M. the village was captured, and subsequently many counter-
attacks repulsed.
Meanwhile the Germans had been stubbornly defending the
Cojeul valley and the Hindenburg defences at their junction
with the old third line, a vital part of the front, where the open
forward slopes, swept from end to end by the enemy's machine-
guns, rendered any advance extremely difficult. In this area
an operation of a bold and hazardous character was undertaken
on the morning of the nth, which was nearly successful. At
4:30 A.M., in conjunction with an attack by the right of the III.
Army on Hemnil and Wancourt, the V. Army (4th Australian
and 62nd Div.), assisted by tanks, made a gallant effort to
breach the Hindenburg Line in the neighbourhood' of Bullecourt.
The execution of the attack, being over a wide extent of open
country, was exceedingly difficult; Australian troops, however,
penetrated as far as Riencourt-lez-Cagnicourt and the 62nd
Div. reached Bullecourt, but owing to determined opposition
and the failure of the attacks by the right of the III. Army these
positions could not be maintained. Had both attacks been
successful and the two armies joined hands forward, a very
wide breach in the enemy's defences in an important area of the
battlefield would have been effected with far-reaching results.
It was not till the morning of April 12 that the 2ist and 56th
Divs. succeeded in capturing Hemnil and Wancourt.
North of the Scarpe much fighting of an indeterminate
nature took place at Roeux and the neighbourhood on this day,
but at the extreme northern extremity of the battlefield the
4th Canadian Div. and 24th Div. secured the whole of the
important positions on the flank of the Vimy ridge and astride
the Souchez river at the ""Pimple " and " Bois en hache."
The Germans now began to withdraw from the eastern slopes
of the Vimy ridge, and British and Canadian patrols moved
forward until by the evening of April 14 a line had been reached
N. of the river Scarpe from Roeux to E. of Bailleul-Hirondelle
Wood and Lievin to the old front line at the Double Crassier.
On the right by the evening of the I4th the attacking troops
had fought their way forward with great difficulty along the
Hindenburg Line as far as Fontaine-les-Croisilles and Wancourt
Tower, while farther N. many counter-attacks on Monchy-le-
Preux were repulsed.
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
279
The main offensive by the III. and V. Armies terminated on
the i4th; the artillery support was becoming inadequate, and
the troops in front line required relief. A remarkable success
had been gained; the British front line had been moved forward
some 4m., and some 13,000 prisoners and 200 guns had been
captured. It was not possible, however, to break off the battle,
seeing that the French offensive was on the point of being
launched, and it was important that the full pressure of the
British operations should be maintained in order to assist jt.
Much had already been accomplished; the enemy had been
compelled to pour men and guns into the breach, and a large
hostile concentration in the battlefield was in process of being
effected.
The only offensive action taken by the Germans during this
period in this area occurred on April 15, when they attacked
the British position from Hermies to Noreuil with 16 battalions.
An initial success, in which some of the British battery positions
were overrun, was at once neutralized by a counterstroke which
restored the line.
On April 16 the French launched their main offensive on the
Aisne. The decisive results which had been looked for were not
achieved; there was no r.apid break through or exploitation by a
reserve army of manoeuvre. On the contrary, ragged fighting
took place which continued until May 5, and the French armies,
worn out by more than two years of heavy fighting, were in no
condition to sustain an exhausting offensive. The unified com-
mand was in the hands of a French general who had planned and
conducted operations which proved to be unsuccessful. From
April 15 to May 5 the British continued their operations on the
Arras- Vimy front at the request of the French and in order to
carry out the r&le of absorbing the enemy's reserves. During
this period attacks were executed by the British on April 23 and
28 and on May 3 and 5, with the result that the line was pushed
forward to include Qucmappe-Gavrelle and Arleux, and some
6,000 additional prisoners and 50 guns were taken. On May 5
the great offensive operations on the Aisne and Scarpe were
brought to a close, and on May 15 Gen. Nivelle was relieved of
his command. This brought to naught the effort to obtain
unity of command, and the operations provided a warning as
to the dangers involved where armies of different nationalities
are concerned.
Such was the story of a great and successful British effort
under conditions of abnormal difficulty. The Russian Revolution
had declared itself, the French armies had broken down, the
enemy was recovering his reserve power, and the period of the
year was getting late for the transference of operations elsewhere.
The British field-marshal commander-in-chief then decided im-
mediately that it was necessary to continue on the offensive
and to transfer the theatre of operations to the north.
(H) THE RELIEF OFFENSIVE IN FRONT OF LENS. The great
British offensive in Flanders was launched on July 31 1917 and
continued to be pressed throughout the autumn. Towards the
middle of Aug. a slight improvement took place in the weather,
and advantage was taken of this to deliver the second attack
E. of Ypres. As it was desirable to prevent the enemy from
weakening the remainder of the front so as to effect a greater
concentration in Flanders, it was desirable and even necessary
to threaten and undertake operations of a minor character at
various points to pin the enemy's reserves. A highly successful
operation was carried out in the neighbourhood of Lens, and
the threat to this town undoubtedly had the effect of preventing
the enemy from concentrating the whole of his attention and
resources on the main battle-front.
At 4:25 A.M. on Aug. 15 the ist and 2nd Canadian Divs.
attacked on a front of 4,000 yd. S.E. and E. of Loos. The
objectives consisted of the strongly fortified Hill 70, which had
been reached, but not held, in the battle of Loos in Sept. 1915,
and the mining suburbs of Cite Ste. Elisabeth, Cite St. Emile,
and Cite St. Laurent together with Bois Rase and half Bois
Hugo. The observation from Hill 70 had been very useful to
the enemy, and in the possession of the British, would materially
increase their command over the defences of Lens. Practically
the whole of these objectives were gained rapidly at light cost,
and in exact accordance with plan. Only at the farthest limit
of the advance a short length of German trench W. of Cite St.
Auguste resisted the first assault. This position was again
attacked on the afternoon of the following day and captured
after a fierce struggle lasting far into the night. A number of
local counter-attacks on the morning of Aug. 15 were repulsed,
and in the evening a powerful attack delivered across the open
by a German reserve division was broken up with heavy loss.
In addition to the enemy's other casualties, 1,120 from three
German divisions were captured by the British. Thus not only
was the British position improved but three German divisions,
which might have been used in roulement on the Flanders front,
were severely handled, and the enemy received a lesson which
would prevent him from unduly weakening the defensive fronts.
(/) THE BATTLE OF CAMBRAI (Nov.-Dec., 1917). The
repeated attacks delivered by the British in Flanders over a
period of more than three months had brought about a large
concentration of the enemy's forces in that area, with a con-
sequent reduction of his strength and garrisons in other sectors
of his front. The British object in the operations at Cambrai,
which took place on Nov. 20 1917, was to gain a local success
by a surprise attack at a point where the enemy did not expect
it, and on a front which had already been weakened, and
thus disarrange the enemy's plans of withdrawing troops from
France to operate in Italy. The sector opposite Cambrai had
been carefully selected as the most suitable. The ground there
was, on the whole, favourable for the employment of tanks which
were to play an important part in the enterprise. If, after
breaking through the German defence systems on this front,
the high ground at Bourlon could be secured and a defensive
flank established facing E., and opportunity should be created
of exploiting the situation towards the N.W., the capture of
Cambrai itself was subsidiary.
As a result of the pressure in Flanders and the Russian
Revolution, large German forces had already been brought from
the Russian front, partly in exchange for exhausted divisions
and partly as additional reinforcements. Moreover, it was
certain that heavy German reinforcements would continue to be
railed to the western front during the winter. These troops would
be largely utilized to strengthen the weakened sector, and if the
opportunity, which existed, to deliver a surprise attack at an
early date under favourable conditions were not taken advantage
of, it would certainly lapse. Against this argument in favour
of immediate action must be weighed the fact that the conditions
of the Flanders struggle had severely taxed the strength of the
British forces, and that the losses, which had not yet been made
good, had been heavy.
On the other hand the resources required for the operation
were not great, seeing that the force to be employed must be
small, for, owing to the requirements of surprise and secrecy,
any considerable concentration of troops would be impossible
to maintain. The success of the enemy's operations in Italy,
too, added force to the arguments in favour of undertaking
the operation; although the means available had been reduced
by the despatch of troops to the Italian front, the situation on
that front was critical, the Italians having been driven back
between Oct. 24 and Nov. 10 from the Isonzo to the Piave.
After consideration of these factors, it was decided, by the
British command, to undertake the operation, and the execution
was entrusted to the III. Army. The general plan of attack
was to dispense with previous artillery preparation, and to
depend on tanks, of which there would be nearly 500 available,
to break down the enemy's wire and cover the infantry advance.
No previous abnormal artillery fire was to take place and no
registration of guns or any action which might indicate to the
enemy that an attack was impending. The infantry was specially
trained to work in combination with tanks, and the whole
operation depended for success on secrecy and on bold, deter-
mined and rapid action.
The German defences on the selected front between Vendhuille
on the Scheldt canal and the river Sens6e comprised the three
280
ARTOIS, BATTLES IN
systems constituting the Hindenburg Line (greatly improved
during the course of the year) with fortified posts in advance,
such for example as La Vacquerie and the north-eastern corner
of Havrincourt Wood. Behind this again were two other de-
fensive lines known as the Hindenburg Reserve Line and the
Beaurevoir-Masnieres Line. That portion of this front which
lies between the Scheldt canal and the Canal du Nord offered an
opportunity for a tank drive to the N. which would include
the capture of the important position about Bourlon. The full
force of tanks together with five divisions (i2th, 2oth, 6th, sist,
62nd) and a portion of another (36th) were allotted to this
front extending from Gonnelieu on the right to Havrincourt
Wood on the left. Two divisions were, moreover, to be held in
reserve behind this front ready to move forward, and the
cavalry was to be at hand ready to exploit a success towards the
N. and turn the enemy's defences from the rear. In order to
make the front of attack more imposing, to deceive and hold
the enemy, gas and smoke attacks, dummy attacks with dummy
tanks, artillery fire, raids and subsidiary attacks were to be
carried out on an extensive scale both on southern and northern
flanks.
All preparations were carried out with the greatest secrecy,
and during the evening prior to the battle troops and tanks were
moved forward into positions of assembly, great care being
taken to muffle the noise to the utmost. This was rendered
particularly difficult owing to the hard and frosty weather. Each
tank was provided with a compressed brushwood fascine some
8 ft. in depth, for the purpose of assisting it in crossing the
main Hindenburg trench, which was of abnormal dimensions.
At 6:20 A.M. on the morning of Nov. 20 1917 the tanks and
troops moved forward to the attack on a front of about 6 m.
from E. of Gonnelieu to the Canal du Nord opposite Hermies.
At the same hour the subsidiary and feint attacks took place.
On the principal front of attack the tanks rolled on, protected
by a smoke barrage from the enemy's artillery. The Hindenburg
Line was rapidly overrun. The izth Div. after severe fighting
at Lateau Wood captured the Bonavis spur. The 2oth Div.
captured La Vacquerie and stormed Welsh ridge, while the
6th Div. entered Ribecourt. The surprise was complete, and
the enemy surrendered in considerable numbers. The 2pth Div.
which had been in reserve moved forward and, passing through
the 6th and 2oth Divs., entered Masnieres and captured
Marcoing and Neuf Wood, securing the passages of the canal
at both villages and the bridge intact at the latter. In this
neighbourhood it was not possible to enlarge the footing gained
on the E. bank of the canal, owing to the arrival of hostile
reinforcements in the neighbourhood of Rumilly where severe
fighting took place.
Meanwhile the 62nd and sist Divs. attacked the Flesquiercs
ridge, the latter being stubbornly opposed and seriously delayed
by the defence of that place. The 62nd Div. however pressed
forward and captured Graincourt, its advanced troops entering
Anneux. Flesquieres continued to hold out throughout the day
against the 5ist Div., but troops of the 6th Div. entered Noyelles
before nightfall. But for the delay at Flesquieres and the
destruction of the bridge at Masnieres the operations would
have been completely successful, and would have opened up a
great field for exploitation on the following day.
On the morning of the 2ist the attack was resumed. But
little progress was made on the Masnieres-Rumilly front.
Farther W. the village of Flesquieres, turned from the N., fell
at 8 A.M., and the sist and 62nd Divs. with tanks and cavalry
moving rapidly forward captured Cantaing and Fontaine-
Notre-Dame, and reached the southern edge of Bourlon Wood.
Throughout the day infantry and cavalry were heavily engaged
at Noyelles. On the extreme left the 36th Div. cleared the
Hindenburg Line as far N. as Moeuvres.
By the evening of the 2ist the British had gained possession
of the Bonavis spur, a bridgehead E. of the Canal de 1'Escaut
including Masnieres and Noyelles, the whole of the Flesquieres
ridge and the ground to the N. as far as the southern edge of
Bourlon Wood including Cantaing and P'ontaine-Notre-Dame.
It was now nearly 48 hours after the commencement of the
attack, and hostile reinforcements might be expected; at the
same time it was necessary from the lie of the ground to decide
whether to go on and attack the heights of Bourlon or to with-
draw to the Flesquieres ridge. Owing to the importance of the
possession of the Bourlon heights and the visible signs of with-
drawal of the enemy, having regard also to the situation in
Italy, it was decided to proceed with the attack.
On the 22nd, while the British were carrying out reliefs with
a view to the prosecution of the attack, the enemy recaptured
Fontaine. On the 23rd the 4oth Div. with tanks attacked and
captured the whole of Bourlon Wood, but the attempts to.
secure Bourlon and Fontaine, after a severe struggle, failed.
The struggle for Bourlon resulted in several days of fierce
fighting. On the morning of the 24th the Germans counter-
attacked and were repulsed; in the afternoon the British attacked,
captured the village and beat off a counter-attack, but the
resistance on the Fontaine-Bourlon-Moeuvres front was very
considerable. On the 2 5th and 26th the enemy again counter-
attacked in force and succeeded in recapturing Bourlon and the
wooded spur between that place and Fontaine. The situation
in the wood was now somewhat difficult; on the 27th an organized
British attack succeeded in improving the position in the wood,
but the troops which at one time had entered Bourlon and
Fontaine were obliged to fall back again.
During the 28th and 2gth no attacks took place, the troops,
which had been heavily engaged were relieved, and on the whole
front efforts were made to strengthen the position gained.
During the ten days' fighting 10,500 prisoners and 142 guns
were taken, but the main objective, the Bourlon locality, which
would turn the whole of the enemy's positions S. of the Sensee
canal and river Scarpe, had not been secured. This was primarily
due to the initial failure at Flesquieres village.
In the last days of Nov. signs were not lacking on the whole
of the front between Vendhuille and Bourlon that the Germans
intended to regain the positions which they had lost. On the
whole of this front they had carried out artillery registration,
but the importance of Bourlon to them and the massing of
their troops indicated that their main attack would be delivered
on the Bourlon front.
Measures were taken accordingly by the British command;,
this front was strengthened, while five divisions were disposed
on the right flank from Cantaing to the Bauteux ravine. Farther
S. the original front was held as before, the frontage being wide
for the number of troops available. The Guards were in reserve,
about Villers Guislan, the 62nd Div. on the Bapaume-Cambrai
road and the 6ist Div. assembling in rear, while four cavalry
divisions were available in the neighbourhood. Practically all
these troops had already been heavily engaged. All troops were
warned to expect an attack.
On Nov. 30 the Germans attacked about 8 A.M., delivering
their main assault, as anticipated, on the Bourlon front, and a
subsidiary attack on the Cantaing- Vendhuille front. The former
was successfully repulsed after the most severe fighting, but on
the Bonavis spur and in the direction of Villers Guislan the-
Germans made rapid progress. On this latter front their attack
was in the nature of a surprise assault, without any previous
bombardment, but accompanied by a hail of gas and smoke
shells and bombs. Villers Guislan, Bonavis, Gonnelieu and
Gouzeaucourt rapidly fell into their hands, but their advance
was stayed by the resolute action of the Guards, assisted by
tanks, which resulted in the recapture of Gouzeaucourt and
part of the ridge between that place and Gonnelieu, while the
troops holding La Vacquerie succeeded in keeping their opponents
at bay. Meanwhile on the N., from Fontaine to Moeuvres,.
the enemy's main assault, delivered between 9 and 10 A.M.,.
and preceded by a heavy bombardment, was repulsed with
heavy losses and at close quarters. This assault was repeated
during the morning and afternoon, but all attempts of the
Germans to gain any important success either on this front or
about Masnieres failed completely. On the following days,
Dec. i, 2 and 3, there was severe fighting in the open in the
ARTS AND CRAFTS
281
Gonnelieu neighbourhood, with the result that the Germans
progressed in the direction of Villers Plouich, capturing the
hamlet of La Vacquerie and thus rendering the position of the
British troops defending Masnieres and Marcoing extremely
precarious. Further fighting continued during the next few
days, but the Germans' strength was exhausted and their
losses had been severe.
It now became necessary for the British command to decide
whether to embark on another offensive battle on a large scale,
or to withdraw to a more compact line on the Flesquieres ridge.
Although this decision involved giving up important positions
won with great gallantry, withdrawal was undoubtedly the
correct course under the conditions. Accordingly on the night
of Dec. 4-5 the evacuation of the positions N. of the Flesquieres
ridge was commenced, and on the morning of the 7th the with-
drawal was completed successfully without interference from the
enemy. Captured guns and material which could not be removed
were destroyed.
The new line taken up corresponded roughly with the old
Hindenburg Line from N.E. of La Vacquerie, N. of Ribecourt
and Flesquieres to the Canal du Nord i m. N. of Havrincourt,
i.e. about 2 to 2 \ m. in front of the line held on Nov. 20 at the
commencement of the operations.
These operations undoubtedly had a direct influence on the
Italian campaign, by diverting reinforcements and suspending
operations at a critical moment when the Allies were making
their first stand on the line of the river Piave.
In the offensive it had been hoped by a powerful tank attack
and surprise to break and turn the enemy's defences where he
was least prepared, and thus created a favourable tactical
situation which would place him at a great disadvantage. The
failure to secure immediately the Bourlon locality was responsible
for the inability to create such a situation, and this was due to
the accident at Flesquieres, where one German officer handh'ng
a field gun put a number of the attacking tanks out of action by
direct hits. Success had been very nearly complete.
During the whole of these operations the French were prepared
to cooperate with a special force which had been brought
forward in readiness, should an opportunity have occurred for
exploitation. These troops, with the exception of a few guns
which were utilized for defensive purposes subsequent to the
German counter-offensive, were not brought into action and were
eventually withdrawn.
These operations in the neighbourhood of Cambrai should be
regarded as an incident in the great four and a half years'
battle a surprise stroke followed by a rapid counterstroke in
which although the British did not achieve their tactical object,
the balance of advantage remained to a large extent in their
hands. The Germans, though successful in their counter-
offensive, were apparently not so successful as they had hoped
to be.
The main objects of the attack had been attained. The
initiative was retained and the enemy's plans deranged. German
reinforcements were prevented from being despatched to the
Italian front. The enemy had also been prevented from deliver-
ing an attack on the French front, which would undoubtedly
have produced disastrous results. (J. H. D.)
ARTS AND CRAFTS (see 2.700). As the " Arts and Crafts "
movement grew out of impulses deeper than were, perhaps,
apparent in its first artistic issues, it has continued to react in
other directions. In the domain of general education its en-
livening influence has helped to insure the full recognition of
handwork, an educational medium that was in some quarters
tending to lapse into a mechanical exercise, as a most fruitful
means of artistic expression. This most important develop-
ment was a reflection of the art workers' direct efforts in educa-
tion, which aimed at a complete reorganization of the technical
and artistic training of young artisans on lines that were, in
effect, a revival, so far as was compatible with modern condi-
tions, of the ancient, well tried system of master-craftsman and
apprentice. Although not actually the first to put these prin-
ciples into practice the Technical Education Board of the L.C.C.
(whose functions are now absorbed by the London Education
Committee) was the first public body in England to establish
a school solely for this purpose. The Central School of Arts
and Crafts, opened by the L.C.C. in 1896, at first under the
joint direction of Sir George Frampton and Prof. W. R. Lethaby,
afterwards under the latter alone, began the combined teaching
of designing and making, of craftsmanship in the fullest sense of
the word, in workshops specially equipped for the production
of finished work of the finest type. The methods originated in
the Central School were soon adopted in other places; new
schools and classes rapidly sprang up in London and elsewhere,
and students from the colonies, from almost every European
country, from the United States and Japan, carried its in-
fluence abroad. In 1900, when the Board of Education re-
organized the training of teachers for State-aided schools of
art, the courses for the diplomas in design and handicrafts at
the Royal College of Art, South Kensington, had been taken
over, in addition to his other responsibilities, by Prof. W. R.
Lethaby. The students of the college, now trained in the
practice of various crafts, have, as principals or teachers of
provincial schools, infused a new spirit into the study of design
wherever they have gone. In the field of art education the genius,
knowledge and enthusiasm of Prof. W. R. Lethaby, follower of
Morris, and one of the most prominent figures in the arts and
crafts movement, have been factors of far-reaching influence.
Organization. Although the activities of craftsmen were
necessarily restricted, or diverted into unusual channels, during
the greater part of the ten years from 1910-20, the period as a
whole showed progress in many directions. Local organiza-
tions held exhibitions in most of the great cities of the United
Kingdom and Ireland, and in many smaller centres. These,
together with the steady growth of groups of workers associated
together in the practice of some particular craft, or crafts,
and the ever-increasing number of skilled individuals, greatly
multiplied facilities for the exhibition, sale and purchase of
attractive, serviceable goods. Much new work came to the
Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, the parent body, whose
periodic shows fulfil a useful purpose in maintaining a high
standard of current effort their main object. The exhibitions
of the Home Arts and Industries Association, an amateur fore-
runner of the arts and crafts movement, whose voluntary
workers organize classes in village crafts; of the Women's
Guild of Arts; and those of the more recently established
National Federation of Women's Institutes, amongst others,
have done useful work within their various, more restricted
spheres of action.
The tenth exhibition of the Arts and Crafts Society, held in
the New Grosvenor Gallery in 1912, continued in the form
made familiar in previous years, gathering together into con-
venient focus a varied assortment of the best achievement of
the day. This in some measure prepared the way for a new
and important departure. In 1913 the then recently established
Exhibitions Branch of the Board of Trade included arts and
crafts in the British section of a foreign international exhibition
for the first time. The section organized by the Board at Ghent
may be said to have recognized the value of the movement as
a national asset, and to have introduced officially work of the
kind usually seen in London to a European public. Here an
attempt was made to unite the various exhibits into a concerted
scheme, and to place different groups of crafts in definite rela-
tionship to each other. A temporary building, of striking design,
the work of Henry Wilson, the distinguished architect and
metal worker, contained part of the exhibits. These changes
showed the way to new methods of arrangement, and a more
interesting form of setting, which were developed still further
in future exhibitions. So great was the success of this venture
that in the following year a great part of the collection, the best
and most extensive that had yet been brought together, was,
on the invitation of the directors of the Louvre, transferred to
Paris. The special exhibition of British arts and crafts opened
by the Board of Trade in the spring of 1914, in the Pavilion
de Marsan of the Palais de Louvre, the home of the Musee
282
ARTS AND CRAFTS
des Arts Decoratifs, was a second edition of the Ghent display,
set out in a way that added much to its interest and value. His-
toric masterpieces of the great pioneers of the igth century,
fine examples from former London exhibitions, and new work
that had not previously been shown combined to give a review
of the growth of the British arts and crafts movement that was
of unparalleled interest. The architectural setting, again due to
Henry Wilson, adapted the magnificent galleries to their new
purpose with complete success. The attainments of British
craftsmen, the directness and novelty of their designs and the
quality of their workmanship, shown to a public that had not
yet seen any considerable collection of British work of this
kind, gained enthusiastic appreciation. In Aug. 1914 the
exhibition was hurriedly dismantled, and, as it was impossible
to return the exhibits to England, the collection remained
buried in the cellars of the Louvre until the end of the World War.
In the autumn of 1916 the Arts and Crafts Society held an
exhibition at Burlington House by the courtesy of the Royal
Academy, and this helpful interest brought the two bodies
together most happily for the first time. A room devoted to a
small but representative assemblage of earlier work continued
an inspiring feature of the Ghent and Paris shows, including
much, now in private hands, that, although well enough known
in certain circles, had not been seen by a younger generation.
These examples included some of the varied productions of
Walter Crane (1845-1915), the first president of the Society,
and of William Morris, D. G. Rossetti, Ford Madox Brown,
Edward Burne- Jones, and others of the same school, and bore
witness to the remarkably versatile genius of those times.
Innovations in the arrangement of the exhibits, inherited from
the European ventures, and daring developments of the dec-
orative setting of the exhibition that displayed the enterprise
of the designer, the new president, Henry Wilson, and the
skill of the constructor, Francis W. Throup, brought an un-
wonted liveliness into the Academic precincts. A series of large
paintings in temporary architectural surroundings completely
masked the walls of several galleries. Conspicuous in this
practical expression of the revived interest in mural decoration
were adventures in work of unusual scale by Augustus John,
William Rothenstein, Charles Sims, George Clausen and
Maurice Greiffenhagen, to mention but a few of the many well-
known painters who took part in the most imposing experiment
of the kind yet attempted. A series of rooms were erected,
decorated and completely furnished by groups of craftsmen, and
appropriate collections were brought together in illustration
of " University," " Ecclesiastic " and other types of work.
A particularly encouraging feature was the number and quality
of exhibits by young workers, for the most part students in
schools of arts and crafts. Groups of students working under
the direction of their masters also took part in the decoration
of the galleries, a new departure in collective education that
should bear good fruit in the future.
Relation to Industries. In this exhibition a room was set apart for
a small display of articles of everyday use of a kind hitherto un-
represented in the Society's shows, arranged by the Design and
Industries Association, a body that had been recently formed to
better the quality and fitness of goods on sale to the general public
through the usual channels of supply. This Association pays but
little regard to the long-standing feud between handwork on the
one side, and machine and scientific production on the other, but
aims at securing an increased output and sale of all kinds of products
of the best possible quality. By means of its well produced publica-
tions, able lectures, and instructive exhibitions the Association has
gained considerable influence all over the United Kingdom, and
has succeeded in banding together in close cooperation a number of
designers, craftsmen, manufacturers and distributors. It was becom-
ing more and more apparent that continental manufacturers were
gaining great advantage from the ideas of British designers indeed
in some cases more than were the British themselves. The British
manufacturer and designer had come to regard each other with a
certain amount of suspicion; the one had no use for the "long-
haired artist," who in his turn mistrusted the standards of design
of the other. Foreign observers, especially in Germany, were taking
deep interest in the British arts and crafts movement, and reaping
very practical results from the knowledge they had gained. So
thoroughly were these investigations being carried out that at least
one German university had established a professorial chair for the
special study of the economics of arts and crafts. Foreign goods that
embodied the designs and ideas of British craftsmen were securing
an ever widening market, not only abroad, but also in England.
As a case in point the history of English influence on German print-
ing is interesting. Several German type founders cut " punches "
based on the calligraphy of Edward Johnston and sold " strikes "
(i.e. matrices) to English letter founders, who gave the type English
names in blissful ignorance that the designs were of English origin.
The Design and Industries Association deals with the whole ques-
tion of production and distribution and endeavours to bring together
all concerned in an attempt to attain high standards of work and
to promote their common interests. Its small exhibit at the Royal
Academy, which illustrated a. new point of view in artistic design
and manufacture, aroused an interest which has been maintained
by other exhibitions of the same character. Another " side show "
included pottery, printed fabrics and other things made at the
Omega workshops. This small selection of the work of Roger F.
Fry gave an illustration of his very novel designs, and was a piquant
demonstration of the Catholicism of the selection committee of the
Society.
Encouraged by its success in introducing the products of British
craftsmanship to foreign buyers, the Board of Trade determined to
extend its efforts so as to include all possible markets, at home as well
as abroad. In conjunction with the Board of Education it founded,
in 1920, the British Institute of Industrial Art, with Sir Hubert
Llewellyn Smith as chairman. One of the chief means by which this
new body proposed to further its objects was the establishment in
London of a current exhibition of modern British work, representa-
tive of a high standard of quality, and of the latest developments in
industrial art. It also undertook the organization in the provinces
and abroad, of special temporary and travelling exhibitions of the
same character, either independently or in cooperation with the
Board of Trade, or other bodies. In addition to these activities it
has established a bureau of information on all questions relating to
industrial art and to British and foreign markets. It proposed to
establish a purchase fund with the object of securing for the State
selected modern work of outstanding merit. All work intended for
exhibition comes before a selection committee, of which one section
is devoted to manufactures, i.e. multiple production by hand or
machine, and another to the work of individual craftsmen. A num-
ber of experts in the various matters that form the business of the
Institute were elected fellows, and several exhibitions were held at
the galleries of the Institute in London.
This brief summary of the chief recent developments in the
organization of craftsmen shows an extension of the scope of the
arts and crafts movement far beyond that accepted by the original
workers. It is perhaps doubtful whether the pioneers of the last
century, with their instinctive mistrust of machinery and com-
mercial production, would have welcomed all these modern innova-
tions with enthusiasm. But however commercial the tendencies of
" industrial art " may appear, they have been brought about by
the inevitable force of economic responsibilities responsibilities
that are in a measure the heritage of success. The new organizations
are broad and elastic; they necessarily included all sincere workers
who set themselves high ideals of design and workmanship. The
labours of these are, indeed, the basis of their operations, which
tend, not to supplant handwork or eliminate the artist, but to
widen his sphere of action by giving him his proper place in the con-
trol of machine-made things.
Calligraphy and Illumination. The present renaissance of writing
is due entirely to the perfectly equipped efforts of Edward Johnston,
who, in the latter years of the last century, took up with rare per-
sistence the study of the materials and methods of the great scribes
of the past, and produced a number of MSS. written in a hand based
on traditional usage, but quite suited to modern needs. As a teacher
he gathered around him a band of students, of whom several special-
ized in writing, and as calligraphists, and, in their turn, teachers,
spread his methods far and wide. From this beginning arose the
remarkable revival of fine formal writing, inscriptions, and lettering
that is one of the most interesting signs of the times. Since 1910,
Johnston's work has been frequently exhibited in many places; he
stands without rival as a really great scribe. His MSS., addresses,
and inscriptions, decorated with initials and ornaments in gold and
colour, are highly prized. Graily Hewitt, a distinguished pupil of
Johnston's, follows closely in his footsteps with work that is widely
appreciated. He is also a teacher of authority and has given atten-
tion to the training of children, for whose instruction he has written
some attractive copybooks. H. Lawrence Christie is a calligraphist
whose inscriptions and MSS. show fine style, and A. E. R. Gill is
the most distinguished figure in the long-neglected field of lapidary
inscriptions. In the illumination of MSS. and printed books no finer
work has been done in recent times than that of Mrs. Sydney
Cockerel!. Her designs show a vivid poetic imagination; they are,
quite modern in character, absolutely without trace of the archaic
mannerisms that many worjcers in this art affect Exquisite in
drawing and colour, her decorations unite harmoniously, not only
with the written or printed page, but also with the spirit of the au-
thor whose work she decorates. Mrs. Louise Lessore Powell has
enriched a number of MSS. with great delicacy and charm. The
accomplished illuminations of Allan F. Vigers, based on a most
ARTS AND CRAFTS
283
watchful study of birds and flowers, have a delightful brightness of
colour and design. His ornaments for the Cape Town memorial of
the South African War, written by Graily Hewitt, were interesting
examples of his work in another vein.
Printing. During the earlier years of the century book produc-
tion made remarkable advances. The books issued by the Doves
Press, founded in 1900 by T. J. Cobden-Sanderson and Emery
Walker, were rapidly taking a place as the sole possible rivals of the
classic products of the Kelmscott Press, to the excellence of which the
expert knowledge of Emery Walker had paid its contribution. The
Ashendene Press boeks, printed by C. H. St. John Hornby, and
those of Charles Ricketts's Vale Press, were also increasing the
reputation of British printing. In the trade generally a new activity
was apparent; fine examples of books, and type of good design were
closely studied by publishers and others, who had formerly paid but
little attention to matters of this kind. The best British work gained
the highest esteem wherever good printing found favour. In Ger-
many, books based upon British models, or even produced under the
supervision of authorities such as Emery Walker and Douglas
Cockerell, showed how the genius of British printers and binders
was growing in foreign appreciation. No trade, however, felt more
severely the stress of the years of war; no new press of outstanding
merit arose to range its products with the earlier triumphs of the
century. An edition of the Odyssey was issued by the Oxford Uni-
versity Press, printed in the Greek type designed by Robert Proc-
tor (1868-1903); and a new fount, designed by Herbert P. Home
(b. 1864), was used by the Riccardi Press. The old-established
Chiswick Press maintained, under Charles T. Jacobi, the reputation
that earned for it a worthy place in the revival of fine book work.
Technical education in book production was developed in a special
department of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the super-
vision of the leading members of the trade. Under the instruction
of J. H. Mason, an authority on printing, and of a binder, Peter
McLeish, the students produced books of quite extraordinary merit,
and gained in a few years a very complete introduction to the whole
field of book production, passing on, after specializing for a period
as either printers or binders, into printing offices and workshops with
a foundation of craftsmanship and design of most satisfactory
breadth.
Bookbinding. An ever-increasing number of well-bound books,
plainly or elaborately finished, bore witness to the improved taste
and high standard of craftsmanship to which bookbinding had been
brought. In Paris were shown some of the rarely exhibited volumes
of T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, the first of the modern binders to
bring back into use so much of the tradition of sound workmanship
that was giving place to untrustworthy expedients. Practical qual-
ities resulting from good craftsmanship, combined with brilliant
richness of design, made all his books specially remarkable. His
pupil, Douglas Cockerell, exhibited much admirable work, with
decoration of distinction. As a teacher he had, perhaps, more direct
influence upon the bookbinding trade than any other worker. Sound
methods fortified by much original research into the qualities of
materials were, through his teaching, handed on to many skilful
pupils, amongst whom may be named F. Sangorski (1875-1912) and
his partner G. Sutcliffe, and Charles McLeish, the younger, who
inherited much of his father's skill. Cockerell's careful study of
" library " binding, suitable for everyday use, was specially service-
able to collectors of books. In the conservative restoration of ancient
books his patient craftsmanship and wide experience gave a new
lease of life to many priceless volumes in public and private libraries.
Queen Mary lent for exhibition in Paris a beautifully bound copy of
the reproduction of the Psalter of Queen Mary Tudor printed by
C. H. St. John Hornby at the Ashendene Press. This binding, de-
signed and executed by Katharine Adams, together with others
from the same hand, showed the delicate tooling and clear, restrained
designs of this gifted worker, who takes a unique place amongst
modern binders. A further selection of her work, including a magnifi-
cent volume lent by King George, was shown at the Royal Academy
in 1916.
Furniture. The almost universal tendency in cabinet-making
towards the reproduction of antique models implies a certain regard
for traditional forms, but gravely obstructs the development of
furniture really suited to present day needs. Overpowered by the
craze for " old things," modern designers but seldom attempted to
meet practical requirements in a straightforward, logical spirit.
The absurdities of Tudor bathrooms, or Adams' kitchen ranges,
would not be tolerated nowadays; but, whilst up-to-date domestic
engineering is admitted into historic mansions as a matter of course,
" period " furniture is still thought fitting for houses of frankly
modern design. Some few makers have built up reputations with
work of utility and originality. The death of Ernest W. Gimson
(1864-1919) removed the most distinguished cabinet-maker of the
time. His work of all kinds, and he was a master of many arts, had
a pleasant English stamp, and was always his own beautiful solution
of some practical problem of use or comfort. No work more soundly
made, or directly designed, than his has been produced; wherever it
went it raised new standards of taste. Cabinets designed by Prof.
W. R. Lethaby, now too rarely seen, had the distinction that marks
all his work. Sidney and Ernest Barnsley produced attractive
furniture of practical design and sound make. Charles Spooner, and
A. Rpmney Green, whose cabinet work was often exhibited, were
both interesting designers and makers whose work showed individual-
ity and charm. Ambrose Heal gave the name of Tottenham Court
Road a new sound to buyers of simply designed, well made things.
George Jack became known both as the designer of many rich pieces of
furniture and as a most gifted wood carver. He and Frederic Stuttig
have brought new life into the decaying traditions of carved and
gilded picture and mirror frames; they also did admirable gesso
work, decorated with gold and colours. Many chairs, of new and
serviceable design, were exhibited, including good basket-work
seats made by Harry H. Peach. Examples of* good upholstered
furniture, however, were strangely lacking. Few workers appear to
have studied closely the essentially comfortable art of upholstery,
in which British craftsmen excelled in by-gone times. A wealth of
those small articles in which the woodworker always revels sta-
tionery and music cabinets, work boxes, caskets and so on ap-
peared at all exhibitions. These, with all their many delightful
kinds of decoration by means of gesso, inlay, veneers or painting,
had much pleasing ingenuity. A good deal of cabinet work enriched
with patterns skilfully painted in colours was produced by several
workers, Alfred H. Powell amongst others. In J. D. Crace (1838-
1919) was combined a designer of furniture and a decorator whose
scholarly and refined work was full of sound traditional knowledge.
Ceramics. The death of William de Morgan (1839-1917), the
famous potter who made a new reputation as a novelist at an age
when most men retire from active work, removed a great figure from
the scene. The wonderful display of his work brought together in
Paris in 1914 rivalled the glories of early Persian wares, with its
fine technique, noble, vigorously drawn decoration, and splendid
play of lustre and colour. Bowls and vases of fine character, by
Thackeray Turner, were exhibited in Paris and at the Royal Acad-
emy, together with specimens of the interesting " Ruskin " ware of
W. Howson Taylor, and some of the attractive work of W. Harrison
Cowlishaw. A number of excellent vases, some modelled in the forms
of amusingly serious birds, by the skilful brothers Martin, were also
exhibited in Paris and other places. Alfred H. Powell and his wife,
Louise Lessore Powell, decorated many pieces, and sets, of Wedgwood
ware, with exquisite designs painted in their sure, clear style. Ex-
hibits by Doulton & Co. must be mentioned, and also the charming
little modelled figures of Mrs. Phoebe Stabler.
Textiles and Wallpapers. The simplicity of house decoration of
the present day is in marked contrast to the lavish use of patterns
customary in the latter half of the igth century. It would appear,
perhaps, that William Morris, the greatest pattern designer of our
age, was himself an adventurer in the two extremes of taste ; his
own use of the splendid woven and printed textiles and wallpapers
that he designed with such apparent ease, set the fashion in one
direction, whilst the ascetic cult of whitewash and plain linen seems
also to derive from him. The extensive collection of Morris' textiles
and wallpapers brought together at Paris included a number of his
precious original drawings for these. Their beautiful drawing and
colour and noble sense of design, made distressingly apparent the
ignorant carelessness of what now passes for pattern designing in
so many quarters. A number of designers of fabrics and wallpapers
founded their work on well-tried principles. H. Dearie followed
closely the tradition of Morris. The designs of C. F. A. Voysey
showed pleasing originality, and those of Heywood Sumner the
stamp of sound style. Metford Warner, first in the production of
fine wallpapers, had also the distinction of being the first manu-
facturer to attach to his wares the names of the many distinguished
designers whom his taste discovered and employed. Allan F.
Vigers was a careful observer of natural forms, which he treated
with well-considered formality. Sidney Mawson is a bold and vig-
orous draughtsman who leaned towards realism. Joseph M. Doran
produced many well-planned, dignified designs. In sumptuous silks
and velvets Sir Frank Warner worthily maintained the traditions
of the " grand style " of the Venetians and Genoese. Luther Hooper,
the historian of weaving, and a master of the intricate contrivances
of the loom, was also a brilliant designer. Edmund Hunter produced
a great number of distinctive stuffs, of his own design. E. W. Tris-
tram, an excellent designer and draughtsman, and J. F. Flanagan
wove interesting fabrics for hangings and upholstery purposes. The
beautiful handwoven linens of Annie Garnett became well known;
and Katherine Grasett wove fine stuffs of many kinds. Some tap-
estries were produced at the workshop started by Morris at Merton,
and new adventures in this art were undertaken elsewhere. In
Paris and at the Royal Acad-my were seen the last work in pattern
designing of Walter Crane, whose peculiar genius gave such charm
to so many fabrics and wallpapers. In Louis Foreman Day (1845-
1910) was lost another designer whose work was well known to
the last generation of decorators. His text books on various arts
and crafts were the first of their kind, and ran through many editions.
Embroidery. In the particularly feminine art of embroidery
many workers experimented in new directions. In one vein the em-
broideries of May Morris and her fellow workers and pupils, recalling
the designs of, or actually designed by, William Morris, Philip
Webb (1831-1915) and others of a school that was preeminent in
flowing patterns of large scale, have added splendour to many ex-
hibitions during the decade 1910-20. Mrs. Newall, of Fisherton de
la Mere, an embroiderer whose work is of another type, produced a
284
ARTS AND CRAFTS
number of large hangings and other pieces of quite modern character.
Her enthusiasm and knowledge trained a large following of pupils.
Mrs. Archibald Christie's bed spreads, curtains, and household
linens of various kinds, ranging from heavy applique work to things
of gossamer-like substance, showed a break in yet another direction.
They had an attractive touch of the past, springing from a new use of
half-forgotten technical methods, rather than from archaic turns of
design. The collection of very original samplers and other specimens,
by Mrs. Christie and her pupils, illustrating a wide range of stitches,
was a novel feature of the Royal Academy exhibition. Mary J.
Newill, another distinguished embroiderer, carried out at the
Birmingham School of Art some interesting experiments in directly
stitched embroidery, that, for its effect, relies more upon interest
of subject and colour scheme, than upon diversity of texture.
Louisa F. Pesel followed Eastern models, in the intricate workings
of which she is an expert exponent.
Metal Work. Amongst metal workers Henry Wilson occupied a
most prominent place. Equally successful in a great door of bronze,
a silver cup or a minute piece of enamelled'jewellery, his many-sided
genius recalled the versatile masters of the greatest ages of crafts-
manship. His bracelets, tiaras, brooches, and other beautiful
jewellery, with their delicately modelled figures and rich ornaments,
chased, or enamelled in glowing colours, had wonderful brilliance
and character. His ecclesiastical work broke entirely with hack-
neyed fashions, but maintained the great spirit of significant mag-
nificence. The collection of Wilson's work shown in Paris will long
be remembered. R. Catterson Smith, another metal worker,
silversmith and jeweller, with a wide range of other activities,
was an inspiring teacher; he made famous the Birmingham School
of Art, of which he was principal. Amongst other silversmiths and
jewellers whose work combined sound craftsmanship and distinctive
design, J. Paul Cooper and Arthur Gaskin claim special attention.
W. Bainbridge Reynolds's varied work showed great individuality
and skill. As a designer and maker of fine serviceable things for
domestic use W. A. S. Benson became well known. Amongst the
remarkable metal work shown in Paris in 1914, the crown, sceptre,
ring and sword worn by H. R. H. the Prince of Wales at his investi-
ture at Carnarvon in 1911, had a romantic interest. These, designed
and modelled by Sir W. Goscombe John, were made by Messrs.
Garrard & Co. The death of Henry Longden (1831-1920) removed
a master metal worker of sound taste and wide knowledge, who was
one of the pioneers of the arts and crafts movement.
Stained Glass and Mosaic Work, The stained glass of Christopher
W. Whall showed a perfect combination of artist and master crafts-
man. Beautiful drawing, mastery of colour and design, united with
sure technical knowledge in work of the highest rank. His rare
capacity in training others surrounded him with a group of brilliant
pupils, amongst whom Karl Parsons was prominent. Louis Davis
was another glass painter who was a thorough master of his craft.
Prof. Selwyn Image's glass was dignified in design and fine in draw-
ing. In mosaic the most impressive modern work decorates the vault
of the chapel of St. Andrew, designed by Robert W. S. Weir, in the
cathedral at Westminster. This chapel, opened in 1915, is remark-
able for the skilful arrangement of the rich marbles of its wall
decoration, the slender dignity of its exquisite metal screen, its
inlaid choir stalls (the work of the late Ernest W. Gimson), and the
glitter of its romantic mosaics. It is the most perfect expression of
the particular style of decoration adopted in the cathedral that has
yet been achieved. The excellence of the mosaics is due to the
technical knowledge of Gaetano Meo, and the fine decorative sense
of their designer, George Jack.
Other Crafts that claim attention include the art of the poster,
which may be deemed a temporary form of mural decoration. This
became, at the hands of F. Ernest Jackson and his collaborators, a
thing of such interest that its evanescent nature is a matter of
regret, rather than of satisfaction, as is too often the case. George
Kruger Gray designed heraldic work of many kinds, in the finest
tradition of an art in which tradition is an essential quality. Cecil
Thomas's engraved and sculptured gems and seals were worthy
examples of an ancient craft. The modelled plaster work of Ernest
W. Gimson, Laurence Turner, Norman Jewson and others was a
lively rebirth of what had become a mechanical form of ornament.
Several workers in architectural leadwork rainwater pipe heads,
sundials and other things, derived inspiration from Prof. W. R.
Lethaby, and technical knowledge from the researches of Francis
W. Troup. Prof. Thomas Okey added to his many claims to fame
the distinction of being the best modern basket-maker. The beauti-
ful table glass designed by Philip Webb for William Morris in 1869
and made by James Powell & Sons, which was exhibited in Paris in
1914, showed modern design and workmanship, equalling, if not
excelling, anything of the kind produced in the past. The death of
Philip Webb, than whom none was more distinguished amongst that
small band of great architects that made the latter half of the 1 9th
century a period so remarkable in the annals of domestic architecture,
was also a loss to the many lesser crafts in which his commanding
genius found expression. Everything he touched, church or mansion,
table glass or embroidery, showed the completeness of his knowledge
and the stamp of his individuality.
Art Workers' Guild. From its foundation, in 1884, the Art
Workers' Guild has been the inspiring and directing force of the
arts and crafts movement in England. At the meetings of this
close, but eminently hospitable body, the far-reaching activities of
the world of art have been discussed, with the insight peculiar to
practical minds, by the most notable workers of the past 30 years,
and influenced in a remarkable way. Perhaps the most striking
quality of craftsmen is their versatility. They turn readily from one
kind of work to another with an ease and certainty bewildering to
the spectator. Norman Shaw (1831-1912) and Philip Webb, typical
giants of the last generation, were great in several arts, any one of
which might have occupied an individual for the whole term of life,
and they added to these preeminence in arehitecture. William
Morris himself was not only master of a score of arts, but preeminent
in all.
Bibliography. J. W. Mackail, The Life of William Morris; Arts
and Crafts Essays by Members of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition
Society; Arts Decoratifs de Grande Bretagne et d'Irlande Exposition,
Palais du Louvre (1914); Edward Johnston, Writing and Illuminat-
ing, and Lettering; Charles T. Jacobi, Printing; Douglas Cockerel!,
Bookbinding and the Care of Books; Herbert P. Home, The Binding of
Books; George Jack, Wood Carving; Luther Hooper, Hand-loom
Weaving; William Morris, Some Hints on Pattern Designing; Mrs.
Archibald Christie, Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving; Mrs. Archi-
bald Christie, Samplers and Stitches. A Handbook of Embroidery;
Henry Wilson, Silverwork and Jewellery; J. Starkie Gardner, Iron-
work; W. R. Lethaby, Leadwork; Christopher W. Whall, Stained
Glass. (A. H. C.*)
UNITED STATES
The first American arts and crafts society was instituted in
1897 at Hull House, Chicago. The Boston Society of Arts
and Crafts was formed a few months later. Following these,
societies multiplied rapidly until there was no large city
and scarcely a town or village which had not its local group.
New York's society dates from 1904, and was for some years
affiliated with the National Arts Club and called the National
Society of Craftsmen, numbering shortly after its found-
ing between four and five hundred members. Later, end-
ing this affiliation, it took the name of the New York Society
of Craftsmen. At Philadelphia a house was fitted up, with
individual studios in connexion with the salesroom. Detroit
and Milwaukee early developed active art centres, each with
its own building, exhibition rooms and classes. Besides these
regular arts and crafts societies there grew up many so-called
" gift-shops," with or without tea-rooms.
Industries like those of England were instituted from time to
time, but did not flourish as well as the cooperative groups. That
of the Abnake Rug, at Pequaket, N.H., one of the early and most
successful, was conducted by Mrs. Albee who originated the pat-
terns from Indian designs, the name being that of a tribe of Indians
formerly inhabiting the region. These rugs, made as were the old
hooked rugs, were worked by the country women of the neighbour-
hood in their own homes and paid for by the square foot. As they
suited well the " craftsman " style of furniture, they were in great
demand, but the undertaking proved too burdensome, and was
given up. Similar industries were conducted in Cranberry I., Me.,
and in the mountains of the south. Industrial and experimental
groups were conducted in connexion with colleges, that of Alfred,
N.Y., and of Sophie Newcomb College, New Orleans, being suc-
cessful examples. At the latter a style of pottery was developed,
produced by graduate students and sold by the college for them, in
which the motifs were taken from the native flora. A similar group
in embroidery created some beautiful things in stitchery and ap-
plique. Semi-commercial enterprises also sprung up which were
varied in their plan and output. The earliest and best known is that
of the Rookwood Pottery at Cincinnati, Ohio. The Grueby Pot-
tery, although for financial reasons short-lived, was most distinc-
tive, as was the Dedham ware. Both of these came from the neigh-
bourhood of Boston, where too was the Paul Revere Pottery, made
under the steeple of the very church from which hung the historic
lantern: From here came also a heavy ware, suitable for children's
use, the decoration of which was done by girls of high-school age,
under careful direction, the industry having developed from classes
in a girls' club. In New York the Tiffany stained glass and opalescent
ware were celebrated. The Herter looms, also in New York, produced
beautiful tapestries and hangings. From Doylestown, Pa., came the
Mercer tiles of unusually artistic design and workmanship. The
original patterns were taken from the doors of porcelain stoves
brought over by the " Pennsylvania Dutch " settlers of that region.
These are a few of the most prominent of the many art industries
through the United States. The craftsman furniture paved the way
for other styles more or less modelled upon it, the furniture of the
Erskine-Danforth Co., New York, being perhaps most nearly in
line with the spirit of simplicity associated with the arts and crafts
idea.
Individual societies, as has been said, sprung up spontaneously,
and although there was a kind of freemasonry among them each
ARTSIBASHEV ASHANTI
285
remained independent and unattached. To bring them together and
to unify the movement there was formed in Boston 1907, just 10
years after the founding of the first society, a league of handicraft
societies, 20 coming together as charter members. In 1912 the Na-
tional League of Handicraft Societies represented about 40 arts and
crafts societies, of which many had a membership well into the
hundreds. Its aim was to form a clearing house for the movement
and to do statistical and educational work not within the scope of
any one society. It supported a travelling exhibition of handicraft
which was sent on request to places in which excellent work of this
kind could not be seen, and a travelling library of technical works and
other appropriate books not so well selected or easily obtainable
outside of the great cities. The founding of this league, of itself, in-
dicates the existence of strong and enterprising societies and the
strength of the handicraft idea. When in 1909 the American Federa-
tion of Arts was formed at Washington, it included the handicrafts
as well as the so-called fine arts, and as the handicraft department
covered much of the work of the league, the latter was merged, in
1912, into the arts and crafts department of the federation The
American Federation of Arts aimed to organize a federation of all
institutions, societies, city and village improvement associations,
and school and other organizations in the United States, whose
purpose was to promote the study and application of art, and to
cultivate public taste. The educational work was along three lines:
it sent out travelling exhibitions of work of a high standard; it
circulated typewritten lectures pertaining to the arts and crafts;
and it published a monthly magazine.
Early in its history the Boston society issued each month a booklet
containing an essay upon some craft with other appropriate matter.
This was taken over by the National League of Handicraft Societies
and published, with a few changes, as the monthly magazine Handi-
craft. In 1909 the National Society of Craftsmen, N.Y., brought
out an eight-page folder each month called the Arts & Crafts Bulle-
tin. This flourished for two years and then became The Arts & Crafts
Magazine, published independently at Washington's Crossing, N.J.
Both this and Handicraft were bought out in 1913 by the Industrial
Arts Magazine. Meanwhile there had been published in connexion
with the craftsman furniture a distinctive magazine, The Craftsman,
which did a great deal to develop taste along these lines. The
Philistine, describing the industry at East Aurora, N.Y., helped
to spread the Morris idea as a practical one. In 1921 the handicraft
idea had no organ of its own except as represented in the American
Magazine of Art of the Federation.
In 1914 the Art Alliance was formed with the express purpose of
bringing together the artist and the manufacturer. Difficult as this
appeared at the time it proved its value. The alliance numbered in
1920 1,000 members in the United States and Canada with others in
England, France, Germany and in Manila. Manufacturers pay a
membership fee of $50 a year, artist members $5, on the theory that
the former receive the greater benefits. In Dec. 1920 the fifth annual
exhibition of the alliance was held in the Bush Terminal Building,
New York City, at which 3,500 designs from 34 states were shown;
$2,000 was distributed in prizes by the manufacturers for designs
to be used commercially. In accordance with the tendency to
amalgamation, four societies the Art Alliance, the New York
Society of Craftsmen, the Pictorial Photographers of America and
the Society of Illustrators united in the spring of 1920 to secure a
local Art Centre, or Home of the Arts, in New York City, in which
societies, hitherto unrelated, might have common offices, exhibition
rooms, meeting rooms, etc., with a dining hall and a certain number
of studios. Stock was issued at $10 a share and in a short time enough
subscribed to permit of the purchase of two houses at 65-67 East
56th Street. The Art Centre was formally opened Nov. 1921.
Another evidence of the interest taken in industrial art is the
formation of the Industrial Arts Survey, backed by the state of New
York, with an office in Cooper Union, New York City. The aim is
to investigate the development of the arts in America, especially as
compared with those of Europe, in order to stimulate their develop-
ment. In this the public schools and the School Arts League have
aided. Also in this work and especially in the general education of
the public the museums all over the country have successfully
cooperated. At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City,
there was held in Jan. 1921 a remarkable and beautiful display of
industrial art, the Fifth Exhibition of Current Work by Manufac-
turers and Designers. (M. B. E.)
ARTSIBASHEV, MIKHAIL PETROVICH (1878- ), Russian
novelist, was born in South Russia Oct. 18 1878. His family
was of Tartar descent, and on the mother's side he was a great-
grandson of Kosciusko. He at first followed an artistic career,
and attained some fame as a caricaturist, but subsequently
began writing short stories, followed by novels. In 1912 he was
imprisoned for several months by the Imperial Government as
a revolutionary.
His collected works were published in Moscow in 10 vols., 1912-7,
and contain : 'Razskazi (Tales) ; U poslednei chertiy (At the Ex-
treme Limit, translated into English as The Breaking Point, 1915);
Zakon dikarya (The Law of a Misanthrope); Revnost (Jealousy);
Voina (War, translated into English 1918 under the same title) and
Sanin (translated into English as Sanine, 1915).
ARZ VON STRAUSSENBURG. ARTHUR, BARON (1857- ),
Austro-Hungarian general, was born at Hermannstadt, Transyl-
vania, and served in the infantry and on the general staff. At
the outbreak of the World War he was the chief of a section in
the Ministry of War, but hurried to the Russian front, where he
commanded first the isth Div., and later the VI. Army Corps.
He shared the success of the battle of Limanowa-Lapanow in
Dec. 1914, which definitely stopped the Russian offensive, with
Col.-Gen. Freiherr von Roth (b. at Trent in 1859). In the
spring and summer campaign of 1915 Arz and his corps acted
with Mackensen's German army, and fought with special suc-
cess in the neighbourhood of Przemysl and in the further course
of the campaign captured the fortress of Brest-Litovsk. Ap-
pointed to the command of the ist Army in the summer of 1916,
he had as a Transylvanian to defend that country against the
Rumanians, whom he, in conjunction with Falkenhayn's Ger-
man troops, drove back into Wallachia. After the retirement of
Conrad von Hotzendorff , Arz was appointed by the Emperor
Charles chief of the general staff of the Austro-Hungarian armies,
the department of operations being conducted under his direc-
tion by the able Maj.-Gen. Alfred, Freiherr von Waldstatten
(b. at Vienna in 1872).
ASCHE, OSCAR (1872- ), English actor, was born at
Geelong, Victoria, Australia, June 26 1872. Norwegian by
descent, he studied for the stage at Christiania. After appearing
at the Opera Comique, London, in 1893, he joined F. R. Ben-
son's company for eight years, playing numerous parts in
Shakespearean and old English comedy. He next played Mal-
donado in Pinero's Iris at the Garrick theatre, London. In
1902 and again in 1904 he played in Shakespeare with Herbert
Tree at His Majesty's theatre. He began management at
the Adelphi at the close of that year, and, with his wife, Miss
Lily Brayton, presented The Taming of the Shrew, Midsummer
Night's Dream and Measure for Measure. In 1907 he presented
Laurence Binyon's Altila at His Majesty's theatre and also
As You Like It and other Shakespeare plays. Subsequently to
1911 he specialized in the presentation of spectacular Oriental
dramas, the best known being Kismet, played at the Garrick
theatre, London 1911-2, and Chu Chin Chow, first produced at
His Majesty's Aug. 31 1916 which ran for nearly five years.
In Oct. 1921 he produced Cairo.
ASHANTI (see 2.724). By an Order in Council dated Oct. 22
1906, the boundaries between the Ashanti Protectorate and the
Crown Colony of the Gold Coast, of which the former is the
principal dependency, were readjusted and defined with due
regard to tribal Lands and natural features. For administrative
purposes Ashanti has been divided into four provinces: the
Central, the Southern, the Western and the Northern, each of
which is under the charge of a provincial commissioner. The
capitals of the provinces at which these officers have their head-
quarters are respectively Kumasi, which is also the capital of
Ashanti; Obuasi, a considerable town situated upon the Kumasi-
Sekondi railway some 50 m. cVie S. of Kumasi, and the principal
centre of the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation; Sunyani and
Kintampo. Each province is divided up into districts which
are under the charge of district commissioners, who in their turn
are aided by a staff of assistant district commissioners. A chief
commissioner who resides at Kumasi, and who is assisted, as in
former days the King of Ashanti was similarly assisted, by a
council of Kumasi chiefs, is immediately responsible to the gover-
nor of the Gold Coast for the administration of Ashanti. This
post was filled until early in 1920 by Mr. (afterwards Sir Francis)
Fuller, who was succeeded by Mr. Charles Harper.
As in the days preceding the conquest, the principal tribes, which
at that time formed the Ashanti Confederation under the hegemony
of Kumasi, are under the immediate rule of their own tribal organiza-
tions which, in each case, consist of an omanhene, or paramount
chief, and of a number of ohene, or subordinate chiefs, each one of
whom is the overlord of a section of the tribe, with minor chiefs and
headmen under him. All these posts are filled, when a vacancy is
occasioned by the death or the destoolment of their occupants, by
men freely chosen by the tribe, or by the section of the tribe over
286
ASHBOURNE ASIAGO
which they are called upon to preside, the selection being, however,
confined to candidates belonging to one or more noble families in
which the office of chief is to this extent hereditary. Descent is
traced exclusively through the female side ; wherefore a chief is suc-
ceeded by one of his brothers, by one of the sons of one or other of his
mother's sisters, or by the sons of one of his own sisters, but never
by any of his own sons. This causes the position of the queen-
mother in a tribe to be one of great prominence, and it not uncom-
monly happens that, when a doubt arises as to the rival merits of
two or more candidates for a vacant office, the decision as to which
shall be nominated for election by the tribe is submitted to her for
determination. The omanhene and the various ohene of each tribe
exercise criminal and civil jurisdiction within the tribal bound-
aries, the extent of such jurisdiction being limited by the orders of
the chief commissioner, issued with the approval of the Governor of
the Gold Coast. Courts possessing progressively wider powers are
presided over by the assistant district commissioners, district com-
missioners and provincial commissioners; and until recently all
capital cases and civil cases of importance were tried and deter-
mined in the court of the chief commissioner. Shortly before 1921,
however, a post of judicial commissioner was created, which is held
by a qualified barrister, whose duty it is to try all capital and all
important civil cases, and to revise the judicial work of the officers
of the administrative staff. Lawyers are not permitted to practise
in any of the courts of Ashanti, and the chiefs have taken up a very
strong resistant attitude whenever their admission has been mooted.
They deprecate action which they believe will cause justice to become
expensive and which is calculated to promote ruinous litigation
among the tribes, especially in connexion with land disputes.
After the conquest in 1900, the internal peace of Ashanti
remained undisturbed, and the decade immediately preceding
the outbreak of the World War was marked by considerable
progress. The administrative staff was greatly increased; a
first-class motor road from Kumasi to Ejura, a distance of
61 m., was completed in June 1912; schools were established by
Government at Kumasi and Sunyani to supplement the 24
schools which in 1913 were being conducted by the Basle Mission;
and the cultivation of cocoa spread from the colony, where it had
already made great progress, into Ashanti.
No idea of the true financial position of Ashanti is conveyed by the
published statistics, as the Protectorate is not credited with the cus-
toms duties on articles designed for consumption within it, which
are collected at the ports of entry on the Gold Coast, nor yet with the
revenue derived from goods carried on the Sekondi-Kumasi railway.
On the other hand, the main expenditure upon the Gold Coast regi-
ment of the West Africa frontier force is shown in the accounts as
a charge against Ashanti, Kumasi being the headquarters of that
corps, though the regiment is no longer even nominally maintained to
insure the tranquillity of the local population. In 1913 the total
value of the exports from Ashanti amounted to 1,155,378, the items
being gold worth 475,089, cocoa worth 400,000, kola nuts worth
126,000, rubber worth 75,209, cattle and sheep worth 45,600 and
hides worth 33,480. By the end of 1913 good paths, suitable for
bicyclists, had been made and were being maintained by the various
tribal organizations throughout the greater part of Ashanti.
In his annual report for 1914, Mr. (afterwards Sir Francis)
Fuller was able to record " the unanimous and deep loyalty
expressed by all the Ashanti chiefs towards their Sovereign and
Government on the outbreak of war "; and so complete was the
confidence felt in these sentiments that from Aug. 1914 onward
the Government of the Gold Coast was able almost totally to
denude Ashanti of troops in order to dispatch expeditionary
forces to take part successively inthe Togoland, Cameroon and
East African campaigns. Ashanti provided few recruits for
these forces, the people disliking the military discipline which is
so dissimilar to their own methods of warfare, and the spread
of permanent cultivation (cocoa) having attached them to the
soil to an extent unknown in former times. Their loyalty, how-
ever, remained unabated throughout; and the years of the war
were marked by great local development.
By the end of 1918 over 380 m. of roads suitable for motor traffic
were available, most of which had been constructed by the tribes
themselves under European supervision, and large numbers of lor-
ries were at work carrying the cocoa crop to rail-head. The exports
in 1919 were valued at 2,433,205 (gold, 421,696; cocoa, 1,425,-
185; kola nuts, 493,680; rubber, 632; cattle and sheep, 70,000;
hides and skins, 7,012; snails, 10,000; miscellaneous 5,000). The
value of the imports had risen to l ,773,257, the principal items being
European merchandise worth 1,201,257, cattle worth 370,000,
sheep and goats worth 100,000 and dawadawa and shea butter
worth 92,000. The quantity of gold exported had slightly declined,
but the export of cocoa had risen from 8,693 tons in 1913 to 32,000
tons in 1919, and the increased imports of live stock are due to the
enhanced consumption of meat by the rural population alike in Ash-
anti and in the colony as a result of the wealth consequent upon the
spread of cocoa cultivation. Wild African rubber had ceased to be
worked. Large numbers of live stock and snails, which are a local
delicacy, were reexported to the Gold Coast.
REFERENCES. D. Kemp, Nine Years on the Gold Coast (1898); C.
Hayford, Gold Coast Native Institutions (1903); Frederic H. Gough,
The Ordinances of Ashanti, etc., revised edition prepared under the
authority of " The Reprint of Statutes Ordinance, 1909 " (1910) ;
S. R. B. A. Ahuma, The Gold Coast Nation and National Consciousness
(1911); L. P. Bowler, Gold Coast Palaver: Life on the Gold Coast
(1911); C. Hayford, Gold Coast Land Tenure and the Forest Bill
(1912); H. Waetjen, Zur Geschichte des Tauschhandels an der Gold-
kiiste urn der Mitte des i?ten Jahrhunderts (1915) ; Reports, Notes
of Cases and Proceedings and Judgments in Appeals, etc., and Refer-
ences under Rules, Orders and Ordinances relating to the Gold Coast
Colony (1915); C. Martin, Les Possessions britannigues en Afrique
Occidentale. III. C6te de 1'Or (Renseignements Coloniales, etc.,
1917); T. W. H. Migeod, " Tribal Mixture on the Gold Coast,"
Jour. African Soc., vol. xix., pp. 109-125 (1920). (H. CL.)
ASHBOURNE, EDWARD GIBSON, IST BARON (1837-1913),
Irish lawyer and politician, was born in Dublin Sept. 4 1837,
and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He was called to
the Irish bar in 1860, and in 1872 became a Q.C. In 1875 he was
elected for Dublin University as a Conservative, and in 1877
became attorney-general for Ireland in Disraeli's Government.
In 1885 he was made Lord Chancellor of Ireland with a seat in
the Cabinet, and raised to the peerage, holding the same office
in the Conservative Governments of 1886-92 and 1895-1905.
Lord Ashbourne took a prominent part in the early negotiations
for land purchase in Ireland. He died in London May 22 1913,
and was succeeded as 2nd baron by his eldest son, William Gib-
son (b. 1868).
ASHFIELD, ALBERT HENRY STANLEY, IST BARON (1874-
), British politician and man of business, was born at
Derby Nov. 8 1874. He spent his early years in the United
States, and was educated at various American technical schools
and colleges. He entered a railway office and had a successful
business career, becoming general manager of the Detroit
United Railways and the Public Service Railways of New Jersey.
In 1910 he returned to England, and took up the position of
managing director of the traffic combine which included the
Underground Electric Railway Co. and the London General
Omnibus Co. In 1914 he was knighted. On the formation of
Mr. Lloyd George's Government in 1916 Sir Albert Stanley
was elected to Parliament for Ashton-under-Lyne, being in-
cluded in the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. He
was a notable instance of a minister selected as a " business
man " and not for any of the usual political considerations.
He retained his office until May 1919, when he resigned and
was raised to the peerage.
ASHLEY, SIR WILLIAM JAMES (1860- ), English econo-
mist (see 2.733*), served during the World War on a number of
Government committees, especially with regard to food prices
and the cost of living. He was a member of the Consumers'
Council appointed in 1918 to assist the Ministry of Food. In
1913 he had been president of the Economic History section of
the International Historical Congress, and in 1914 he was one
of the authors of the report on Industrial Unrest published by
the Unionist Social Reform Committee. In 1912 he published
The Rise in Prices and Gold and Prices, and in 1914 The Eco-
nomic Organisation of England. He was knighted in 1917.
ASH WELL, LENA (1872- ), English actress (see 2.734),
at the outbreak of the World War organized a Women's Emer-
gency Corps for rendering services of all kinds to the Allied
forces and to refugees, as well as assistance to women at home
thrown out of work by the dislocation of industry. She also
formed a company of actors and musicians and went with them
to France, where they provided excellent and much-appreciated
entertainment to the troops when resting. She was made
O.B.E. on the institution of the Order of the British Empire
Aug. 24 1917.
ASIAGO, BATTLE OF, 1916 The Asiago plateau was the
scene of various battles on the Italian front during the World
War (see ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS); but what is called preeminently
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
ASIAGO
287
" the battle of Asiago " was that which was fought in the Austrian
offensive of 1916, resulting in the first enemy occupation of
Italian territory.
An attack from the Trentino with the object of cutting the
Italian communications with the Julian front, and so bottling
Cadorna's main force in what Krauss calls " the Venetian sack,"
was an operation which could not but commend itself to the
Austrian general staff. In the words of Falkenhayn, who refused
his cooperation to the proposal made by Conrad von Hotzendorff
in Dec. 1915, " this project contemplated an operation which
must, once at least during the war, have certainly attracted the
attention of every general staff officer who took a look at the
map of the Italian theatre of war. It was very inviting."
Falkenhayn's refusal to join in the enterprise was based on
various grounds; his belief in the prospects of success at Verdun;
his anxiety regarding the Russian front, and, probably, the idea
that a formal state of war between Germany and Italy might
still be avoided. He felt, too, that even if the plan were as
successful as Conrad claimed it would be, its effect on the
general course of the war would not be sufficiently important
to warrant the risk taken in detaching a strong German force
for the enterprise itself, or for replacing Austro-Hungarian
divisions in the east if the actual attack should be left to
Germany's ally. Conrad believed that the effect of the attack
would be decisive, and Krauss, then chief of the staff to the
Archduke Eugene, agreed, but was of opinion that a double
attack should be made, on both the Julian and Trentino fronts.
Without German assistance it was obviously impossible to
collect sufficient forces for this double attack. But Falkenhayn
went further; he put the number of troops required for the
Trentino attack alone at 25 divisions; he doubted the possibility
of collecting such a force, and he questioned whether, if it were
available, supply could be assured by the limited railway
communications leading to the scene of action. Krauss was
convinced that an offensive against Italy from the Trentino
was practicable, and, if accompanied by a simultaneous attack
on the Isonzo front, would lead to great results. He believed
that the Trentino operation could be conducted in Jan. and
Feb., when the winter snow was frozen hard, before the heavy
spring snowfall. It is difficult for anyone who knows the Trentino
in winter to admit his contention that this hard snow would
resist the passage of troops in mass, not to speak of guns, even
if one were to accept his idea of basing the operation on drives
through the valleys, on the west of Lake Garda as well as
on the east. Conrad does not seem to have considered the idea
of attacking till later on in the season, and the plan which he
put before German headquarters was radically different in idea
from that which Krauss favoured.
Conrad's plan was to attack through the Asiago and Arsiero
uplands, in the direction of Vicenza and Bassano rather than
towards Verona. When he failed to convince Falkenhayn that
the effort should be a joint one, he determined to attack inde-
pendently, and, according to Krauss, he endeavoured to conceal
his preparations from the Germans. Perhaps his independent
action was a result of Falkenhayn's independent decision to
attack at Verdun. Perhaps he wished to avoid further discussion
of a project upon which his mind was set, the more so as he
was embarking on the enterprise with a force greatly inferior
to that which Falkenhayn had considered necessary. Conrad's
attacking mass consisted of 14 divisions only.
In view of the relatively small force available, Conrad was
compelled to reduce his front of attack. His original intention,
apparently, had been to extend it to the north of the Brenta
valley, though the main drive was to be to the south. With the
troops at his disposal he could not afford this extension, and he
made his effort between Rovereto and the Val Sugana (Upper
Brenta). It seems obvious that with this limited force, operating
in difficult country, Conrad could not have hoped to achieve
the more ambitious results which he had urged would follow
upon a successful attack from the Trentino. Assuming that he
broke through and reached the plain, he could hardly expect
to do more. But if his offensive were so far successful, if he had
once cleared the way to the plains then perhaps the stiff-necked
Falkenhayn might change his mind, and take advantage of the
opening offered by an Austrian success.
Cadorna's general line of argument, when rumours of attack
began to arrive, resembled that of Falkenhayn. He believed
he had shut the doors fast against any ordinary attack, and he did
not think that Conrad could spare troops for an offensive on
the grand scale, or that, if he could, he would make his big
effort in the Trentino. Like Falkenhayn, Cadorna thought the
railway communications insufficient. He assumed, moreover,
that Conrad had reasonably accurate information about the
forthcoming Russian offensive and would not risk attacking at
such a distance when the Russian threat was imminent. But
Conrad hoped to attack sooner than he eventually did; his troops
were ready in April, but the snow caused a delay which gave rise
to much impatience at Austrian headquarters. He had also
persuaded himself that his troops in the east were strong enough
to resist any pressure that could be brought against them.
Cadorna was sceptical of an offensive in strength, and thought
that the reported movements in the Trentino signified a limited
attack, to be undertaken with the object of hampering his
offensive towards the east. In the late autumn and winter he
had reduced the strength of the I. Army to the minimum in
order to strengthen his attack on the Isonzo, and in reply to
Brusati's expressions of anxiety regarding the adequacy of his
forces during this period Cadorna pointed out that the require-
ments of the Isonzo front made it necessary to reduce the
numbers of the I. Army, and that in the event of a threat
developing from the Trentino there would be sufficient warning
to allow the reenforcement of the front in good time. He reminded
Brusati, on various occasions, that the role of the I. Army was
strictly defensive. He had already indicated, early in the
campaign, the defensive lines to be prepared, and had on various
occasions insisted on the necessity of strengthening these lines.
During the first few months of the war the troops of the I. Army
had advanced at various points beyond the limits laid down by
Cadorna, and in these sectors the army was aligned for offensive
action. This would not have mattered if the necessary defensive
works had been carried out, but the energies of the troops had
been directed to preparing elaborate works in advance positions
not well suited for defence, and the positions chosen by Cadorna
for the main line of resistance were in many cases untouched.
Brusati had carried out successfully the initial part of his
work, the reduction in length of the Trentino front. The original
front of the I. Army, from the Stelvio to Croda Grande (east
of the Val Cismon) is close upon 240 m. in length, but the
advances made in the first weeks of the war had shortened the
line by over 100 miles. The second part of the army's task,
that of fortifying the 70 m. of front which could be considered
feasible for the operation of troops in large numbers, had been
neglected in certain important sectors.
It was on March 22 that the probability of an Austrian
attack was first reported by the I. Army command, whose initial
requests were granted at once, the transference of two brigades
to the Isonzo front being countermanded, and four additional
brigades being placed at Brusati's disposal. In his answering
despatch Cadorna repeated the instructions to fall back upon
the principal line of resistance in case of an enemy attack. On
April 2 Brusati sent a further report upon the concentration
of enemy troops in the Trentino, and stated that he had taken
the steps which he considered to be most opportune in relation
to the means at his disposal. In reply Cadorna detached two
more divisions, the gth and zoth, from the general reserve in
Friuli, to be held in reserve at Schio and Bassano, and gave an
additional group of Alpine battalions to the I. Army. As a
result Brusati wrote, on April 6, that the reserves given him
allowed him " to view with complete confidence even the most
unfavourable event." Although Cadorna was still sceptical
in regard to an offensive in force, he increased Brusati's artillery
strength by 18 batteries of middle-calibre guns and gave special
orders for the supply and transport of ammunition. On April 21
at Cadorna's request Brusati sent a report upon the defensive
288
ASIAGO
system between the Val Lagarina and the Val Sugana, accompa-
nied by a map showing the various lines, stating that the condi-
tions were " re-assuring," and that the third line of defence upon
which Cadorna had laid special emphasis could be considered as
being in a satisfactory state of efficiency. Three days later Bru-
sati suggested the reenforcement of two sectors of the line, that
between the Vallarsa and the Val Terragnolo, and the Tonezza
sector, between the Val Terragnolo and the Astico. He asked
for permission to split the oth Div., which had been given him
as a reserve, and send a brigade to each of the sectors mentioned.
He also asked for another division to be held in reserve about
Vicenza. Cadorna was unwilling to break up the gth Div., and
ordered that it should be held in reserve at Schio, within easy
reach of the Vallarsa sector, while to reenforce the Tonezza
sector he dispatched an additional brigade from the general
reserve. He also detailed the 27th Div., in reserve on the Taglia-
mento, to be ready as a further reenforcement and formed
a further artillery reserve of 10 heavy batteries.
At the end of April Cadorna went to visit the lines in person.
He found that while the front lines had been elaborately fortified,
in various sectors the reserve lines which he had indicated as
the " battle positions " were almost untouched, and parts of
the front line were unsuitable for prolonged resistance. Between
the Val Lagarina and the Vallarsa and along the Val Terragnolo
the Italian lines formed a dangerously exposed salient, running
down from the high slopes and completely dominated by the
Austrian guns on Monte Biaena, Monte Ghello, Monte Finonchio
and the Folgaria plateau. In the Val Sugana the same fault
was observable. The forward lines on Monte Armentera and
Monte Salubio were poorly adapted for defence, but had been
strongly fortified, while the line east of the Maso torrent, which
Cadorna had indicated as the main line of defence, had undergone
little preparation. Cadorna ordered the positions to be modified.
The bulk of the heavy guns were withdrawn to the second line
and the work of preparation was hastened on; but the enemy
attack seemed imminent, and it was impossible to set about
a complete reorganization under the immediate threat.
On the wings it was possible to improve the situation. In
the centre the problem was different, for here the Italians were
of necessity badly placed. The salient of Soglio 1'Aspio (4,375 ft.),
between the frontier and the Upper Astico, was practically in
the air, and could only be considered as an outpost. But the
main line between the Posina and the Astico, which ran by
Monte Maggio (5, 730 ft.), Monte Toraro (6,175 ft-), Campomolon
(6,030 ft.) and Spitz Tonezza (5,512 ft.), was not satisfactory
for defensive purposes. It was close under the Austrian guns
and it had no depth. Behind the line the ground falls away south-
eastward in a steep glacis that drops abruptly in the end to
the Posina on the south and the Astico on the east. It was owing
to the essential weakness of this line and its extension northward
to the west of the Val d'Assa that Cadorna had ordered the
preparation of a third line of defence that ran from Cima Portule
(7,570 ft.) east of the Val d'Assa and round the southern rim of
the Asiago basin by Punta Corbin across the Astico to the moun-
tains south of the Posina. This line was shown as existing upon
the map sent to Cadorna on April 21 by the I. Army command.
In reality little had been done beyond the tracings on the map.
The project had remained a project.
On May 8 Brusati was replaced by Gen. Pecori-Giraldi, the
commander of the VII. Corps (III. Army). A few days previously
Cadorna had modified the system of commands in the threatened
sector. Up to the time of his arrival on the I. Army front the
whole line between Lake Garda and the mountains east of
the Val Sugana had been included in the V. Corps command
(Gen. Zoppi). The Val Lagarina and Val Sugana sectors were
now placed under independent commands, and the long line
held by the V. Corps was reduced to include only the hill country
between the Vallarsa and the eastern edge of the Asiago plateau.
On the eve of the Austrian attack the alignment of the I. Army
was as follows: West of Lake Garda the line was held by the
III. Corps (two divisions) under Gen. Camerana. The Val
Lagarina sector, from the lake to Zugna Torta, was held by the
37th Div. under Gen. Ricci Armani (two brigades, three bat-
talions of Alpini, with several weak battalions of territorial
Militia). The Sicilia Bde. was arriving in the Adige valley to
act as a reserve. The left-hand division of the V. Corps (the
35th) was in line between the Vallarsa and the Astico, the Roma
Bde. right down upon the Val Terragnolo, backed by a ter-
ritorial Militia regiment in Col Santo and two Alpini battalions
holding the Borcola Pass. The Ancona Bde., freshly come into
line, lay from Monte Maggio to Campomolon, while the Cagliari
Bde. was echeloned forward in the Soglio d'Aspio salient, and a
group of Customs Guards battalions held the edge of the Val
d'Astico. Two brigades of the 34th Div. and a group of Alpini
held the Val d'Astico and a line that roughly followed the
frontier as far as Cima Manderiolo (6,665 ft-)- A third infantry
brigade and two brigades of territorial Militia lay in immediate
reserve. The right wing of the army, occupying the Val Sugana
sector (extending to the Val Cismon), consisted of the XVIII.
Corps under Gen. Etna, three infantry brigades, four battalions
of Bersaglieri and six battalions of Alpini. The gth Div. lay at
Schio, ready to regnforce the Vallarsa-Val d'Astico sector, while
the loth Div. was at Bassano, and a group of Alpini was at
Marostica. The 44th Div., freshly returned from Albania, was
concentrating at Desenzano, and the 27th still lay on the
Tagliamento, where the X. and XIV. Corps were also in read-
iness to leave in case of need. In all Pecori-Giraldi had at his
immediate disposal 130 regular battalions, even battalions of
Customs Guards and 45 battalions of territorial Militia, the
latter at very low strength and of small fighting value. The 44th
Div., which was not ready to move at the beginning of the battle,
brought the number of regular battalions up to 142. The artillery
strength consisted of 851 guns, of which 348 were of heavy or
medium calibre and 259 were light guns of position.
The Austrians had a great superiority in artillery, upon which
they relied for breaking their way through the Italian lines.
Between the Val Lagarina and the Val Sugana were concentrated
some 2,000 guns, of which nearly half were of heavy or medium
calibre, including 40 305-111111. howitzers, four 380*3 and two or
three German 42o's. The attacking fofce was arrayed in two
armies, one behind the other, Dankl's XI. Army in front with nine
divisions, von Koevess's III. Army in support, with five divisions.
The troops in the Val Lagarina and the Val Sugana were not
included in this force, which was to make its offensive between
the two valleys, where only supporting attacks were to be carried
out. Krauss, as chief-of-staff of the Archduke Eugene, was
opposed to the disposition of the two armies and to the limitation
of the attack to the hill country. He urged that the front of
attack should from the outset be divided between Dankland von
Koevess, and pressed for the adoption of his plan for the concen-
tration of attacking masses in the valleys, especially in the Val
Sugana. But the original plan, prepared in all its details by
Conrad and his staff, was not modified; it would seem that the
Archduke Eugene and his chief-of-staff had little freedom of
action. The tactical direction of the attack was entrusted to
Dankl, who had at his disposal some 180 battalions.
The offensive opened on May 14 with a very heavy bombard-
ment along the whole line from the Val Lagarina to the Val
Sugana; but the concentration of fire was most intense between
the Vallarsa and the Upper Astico, and against this sector, the
following day, the main infantry attack was launched. The
plan was to attack first with the right wing of the XL Army,
commanded by the Archduke Charles, supported not only by its
own artillery but by flanking fire from the massed guns on the
Lavarone plateau. When the right wing had made sufficient
ground the left wing was to come into action against the Italian
line in the Seven Communes, north of the Upper Astico. On the
extreme right of the attack, between the Val Lagarina and the
Vallarsa, the Italians withdrew from their ill-chosen front lines,
fighting steadily, and making the enemy pay for the ground
gained. In the Val Terragnolo the Roma Bde. was run over by
the enemy attack. Many prisoners were taken, and the second
line, which was withdrawn in accordance with the general
instructions given by Cadorna, came back in some disorder.
ASIAGO
289
Against the forward line between Monte Maronia and Soglio
d'Aspio the Austrian attack made no headway at first, the
Cagliari Bde. and the Alpini holding firmly to their positions, but
in the end the first line was occupied, the Italians retiring to the
main line of defence, which ran from Monte Maggio by Campo-
molon to Spitz Tonezza. The Italian right was so far not heavily
attacked, and demonstrative attacks by the Austrians in the
Val Sugana were readily repulsed. Cadorna transferred his
staff from Udine to Thiene on May 16, and next day he found a
critical situation on his left. The Roma Bde., or rather what was
left of it, was coming back in the Vallarsa, and Col Santo had
been evacuated by the territorials, while the command of the
sector had lost touch with the Alpine battalions. In the
centre, too, the situation was bad. The Campomolon line was
being strongly attacked, and showed signs of yielding, though
reenforcements from the gth Div. had been promptly dispatched.
The line had been insufficiently prepared, and was being method-
ically knocked to bits by the very heavy fire of the Austrian
big guns. But the chief danger lay on the left, where there was
little to stop the Austrian advance between the Vallarsa and the
Val Terragnolo. Here, too, practically nothing had been done
to prepare the reserve positions, and owing to a mistaken order
the retiring troops had not occupied Monte Pasubio, the key
position now that Col Santo had gone. The Volturno Bde.,
of the loth Div., which was on its way to reenforce another
threatened sector, was diverted to the more critical point.
A battalion was hurried up in motor lorries, and marched up to
Pasubio by the Passo di Xamo. They arrived after a night
march, in the nick of time. Two hours later the first Austrian
patrols appeared and were quickly repulsed. The rest of the
Volturno Bde. followed, and held the position till they were
relieved and reenforccd by the 44th Division. By May 19 the
Austrians were attacking hard all along the line to which the
Italians had retired, from Coni Zugna and the Passo di Buole
to Pasubio, and the Campomolon line had gone. On May 18
the Austrian attacks, supported by very violent artillery fire,
broke the front of the Ancona Bde., and the rest of the 35th Div.,
threatened on the flank, withdrew during the night. The
retreat was covered by the Vicenza battalion of Alpini, who
fought a gallant rear-guard action, and a strong counter-attack
by the group of Alpini from Marostica checked the Austrian
pursuit. The 3Sth Div., with its reenforcements from the gth,
came back to the line Monte Aralta (south of the Posina)-Monte
Cimone-Barcarola, but the Italian centre was now broken.
There were gaps both to the right and left of the 35th, though
the Alpini were holding north of the Posina and the ayth Div.
was coming up rapidly to the valley.
It was a critical moment for the defending army. The
Austrian right was increasing the pressure against the positions
west of the Vallarsa, and was collecting forces for the first of
the long series of attacks against Pasubio, which was only
lightly held. The 44th Div. was on its way to the front, but
had not yet arrived, and a large number of the guns in this
.sector had been destroyed prematurely, in the belief that retreat
was imminent. There was breathing space for a moment in
the centre, but the Austrian left now came into action, Kraut-
wald von Annan's III. Corps being launched against the Italian
34th Division. Ample Italian reserves were now on the move,
the XIV. Corps being en route to fill the gap between the 35th
and 34th Divs. and reenforce the latter, but it was a race.
Krauss blames the Austrian XX. Corps (Archduke Charles)
for waiting till the guns could be brought up to support a new
attack instead of driving through at once to Arsiero with all
available troops. Perhaps a column, perhaps a strong force,
might have pushed straight on to Arsiero and beyond; and if so,
it might have gone hard with the Italians. The risk was not
taken, and the short respite gave time to close the doors in the
face of the invader.
The course of the battle, with the necessity of bringing up
reserve divisions, led to a reorganization of the attacking
forces, von Koevess taking command of the left wing and
Dankl of the right. In the Vallarsa and Pasubio sector the
attack developed strongly. The advance along the ridge from
Zugna Torta, which had been throughout stubbornly contested
by the Italians, had been definitely checked by a regiment of
the Taro Bde. at Malga Zugna, and the Austrians endeavoured
to break through by coming up from the Vallarsa against Passo
di Buole. At the same time Pasubio was assailed with the
utmost determination. Farther north the Archduke Charles
was waiting for his guns and for reserves, and between him and
the III. Corps Kirchbach's I. Corps was coming into action.
The III. Corps was now hammering against the Italian 34th
Div., whose position was precarious, and although Etna's Val
Sugana troops had held their own against various tentative
attacks, they were withdrawn to the second line of defence.
Although the wings were holding, the situation in the centre
was very grave, and Cadorna considered that if the Austrians
were able to concentrate on the weak spot and keep up the
impetus of their attack they might succeed in breaking through
to the plain. On May 20 he went to Udine, and after consulta-
tion with the Duke of Aosta and Frugoni gave orders for the
concentration of a reserve army in the Venetian plain. The
movement of these troops, which were placed under the command
of Frugoni, began on the night, of May 21, by road: the rail-
ways were occupied with the transport of I. Army reserves
(the X. Corps and various other units), and were not available
till May 26. The first four corps of this reserve army (the V.),
which were made up of units drawn from the II. and III. Armies,
were ready on June 2.
Meanwhile the Austrians were continuing their advance in
the centre, but the situation on the Italian left was improving.
By May 22 the 44th Div., commanded by Gen. Bertotti, was in
solid possession of both sides of^the Vallarsa road and of Pasu-
bio, and in touch with Ricci Armani on its left. The latter
was holding firmly on Coni Zugna and the Passo di Buole, and
neither here nor on Pasubio could the repeated attacks of the
Austrian right make any impression. On May 24 a desperate
effort was made to storm the Passo di Buole and Pasubio, but
the Sicilia and Taro Bdes., who held the Zugna ridge, and the
right wing of the 44th Div. on Pasubio, repulsed the onset with
very heavy losses. The columns attacking Passo di Buole
suffered heavily from the flanking fire of the 44th Div. guns in
the Vallarsa. The left wing of the division was not attacked
in force and Bertotti was able to assist Ricci Armani with his
guns. Next day the attack was renewed, heavy columns
coming up the slopes against the Passo di Buole, only to be
thrown back, broken and decimated, one brigade being practi-
cally destroyed. The last attack in force was on May 30, when
repeated efforts were made to storm the Pass, in vain. Al-
though further attacks were made after this date the fighting
never again reached the same intensity. The Austrian losses
had been too heavy for them to continue their attacks in mass,
and their attempts to advance in open formation were easily
checked.
The importance of the defence at the Passo di Buole can
hardly be over-estimated. If the Zugna ridge had fallen, the
effect upon the Pasubio position, already a salient, would
have been more than serious, and upon the holding of the
Pasubio lines depended the maintenance of the positions held
by the right wing of the V. Corps. On May 22, following upon
the retreat from the Campomolon line, the troops holding the
lines in the Seven Communes had been detached from the V.
Corps, and the command in this sector had been given to Gen.
Lequio, who had come from Carnia. On May 24 the rest of the
V. Corps had for the most part retired beyond the Posina or
down the Astico to the plain, and had been replaced by the 27th
Division. If Pasubio went, the line south of the Posina was
turned, and the Austrians had a new route to the plain by the
Valli dei Signori, as well as the opening they were now making
for, by the Lower Astico. Pasubio was the key of the situa-
tion, and the Austrians hammered unceasingly against Ber-
totti's right wing. The guns never ceased, and a long suc-
cession of attacks broke in vain upon the Italian lines. The
Austrian infantry advanced along the great ridge from Col
290
ASIAGO
Santa; they came up from Anghebani and Chiesa in the Vallarsa
and from the Val Terragnolo by the Borcola Pass. Bertotti
had four brigades under his command, including the remains
of the Roma, and the 6th Group of Alpini, and he changed his
troops continuously. The conditions were very hard, and frost-
bite was responsible for many casualties, for the snow still lay
deep on the high ridges, but the spirit of the troops was proof
against all trials, and it was against the iron lines of Pasubio
that the Austrian offensive came to failure.
North-east of Pasubio, along all the rest of the mountain
front to above the Val Sugana, the Austrians gained notable
successes. The gap between the 35th and 34th Divs. had been
filled by the arrival of the 3oth Div. (XIV. Corps), and the 28th
was on its way, the three Divs. (34th, 3oth and 28th) now form-
ing the XIV. Corps under Lequio. But von Koevess's attack
had broken through the Italian line in the Seven Communes.
For two days the Italian 34th Div. had fought off the attacks
of the Graz (III.) Army Corps. On May 21 the order was
given to retire to the line Monte Verena-Cima di Campolongo,
and the stay on this line was short. Contact was lost with the
left wing of the XVIII. Corps in the Val Sugana, and the Aus-
trians turned the right wing of the division by a bold and skilful
advance by way of the Porta Manazzo. A retreat was ordered
to the Portule line, east of the Val d'Assa, which was supposed
to be the principal line of resistance. The 34th was unable to
stand on this line. Owing to an error in the transmission of an
order the Alpine troops who were holding the positions of Cima
Undici and Cima Dodici retired before the Austrians attacked,
and uncovered the flank of the division, while on the same day
(May 25) the attacking forces succeeded in occupying the im-
portant position of Corno di Campo Verde (6,815 ft.). Next
day the attack was continued from north and west, and the
Italians were swept off the whole line between the Val d'Assa
and the Val Galmarara. A number of prisoners and guns were
lost, and prospects looked black for the Italians, though the
28th Div. was now coming into action. On May 26 the situa-
tion was such that Cadorna thought it wise to make further
preparations for a step which he had already considered and
planned a retreat from the Isonzo and Cadoro. He ordered
all heavy artillery not absolutely necessary for defensive pur-
poses, and all stores beyond the minimum required for immediate
supplies, to be withdrawn from the Isonzo front and brought
south of Treviso, behind the Silo. With the possibility of a
general retreat in view, it seemed necessary to withdraw the
heaviest impedimenta in good time. Although Cadorna be-
lieved that he could hold back the Austrian attack, he had
no intention of omitting any precautions.
The Italian position looked unfavourable and worse was yet
to come, but Cadorna's confidence was justified. The impetus
of the Austrian attack was dwindling. The effort had been
great, and losses had been very heavy. The attacking divisions
were beginning to lose their offensive value, and the reserves
were insufficient. By May 27 Conrad had been compelled to
ask Falkenhayn to send to Italy a division of the Austrian XII.
Corps, which belonged to Prince Leopold's Army Group. By
the end of the month Cadorna was holding his own, although
both Dankl and von Koevess were still making progress.
On May 27 Dankl's left wing was down in the Astico valley
and close upon Arsiero, and on the following day his centre
crossed the Posina in force and attacked the Italian 27th Div.
on the southern slopes of the valley. Stiff fighting took place
beneath Soglio di Campiglia and Pria Fora, and the Italians
withdrew to the mountain line which had been hastily prepared
from Forni Alti by Monte Spin to Pria Fora. Retiring on the
night of May 29, the troops that were to fall back upon Pria
Fora lost their way in the dark and kept too far south, halting
on Monte Ciove, the ridge that joins Pria Fora to Monte
Novegno and Monte Brazome. At dawn the mistake was
realized, but the quick-following enemy were already in posses-
sion of Pria Fora, which is almost impregnable from the south.
A desperate attack failed to retrieve the error, and Pria Fora
remained in possession of the Austrians.
The line now held by the Italians (27th and oth Divs.) was
the last bulwark defending the plains in this sector, and both
here and across the Astico the Austrians made a great effort to
break through. The bulk of the 30th Div. was slowly pushed
back across the Val Canagh'a, in spite of a prolonged and gal-
lant resistance by the Grenadier Bde. on Monte Cengio. Al-
though the Grenadiers finally lost the summit of Cengio, they
held on to the lower slopes above Schiri, and Dankl was unable
to make headway in the valley, while the right of the division
was swung back to the western slopes of Monte Pau. For a
long fortnight Dankl hammered at the line south of the Posina
and east of the Val Canagh'a, but could not gain a yard. On
June i the 27th Div. front was reduced, the remade 35th Div.
under Gen. Petitti di Roreto coming into line in the Novegno
sector, and the gth (Gen. Gonzaga) taking both sides of the
Astico valley. Dankl's attack was specially directed against
two points: Monte Pasubio, where troops of the VIII. and XV.
Corps were thrown again and again to the attack, and the
Novegno sector, where the Archduke Charles concentrated his
main effort against Petitti's troops. The attack was bound to
follow this direction. It has been suggested that the Arch-
duke should have pushed straight for the plain, down the Lower
Astico valley. If ground had been gained here it would have
been useless. The weak point of the Austrian position was
that their successes were gained on a constantly narrowing front.
The wings of the Italian line had held firm, and it was above all
necessary to gain room south of Arsiero. On June 2, 3, 4 and 5
massed infantry attacks were delivered south of the Posina,
but no impression was made on the Italian lines.
Meanwhile von Koevess had been pushing back the Italians
in the Seven Communes. On May 28 Asiago was evacuated,
and farther north the 34th Div. retreated from east of the Gal-
marara across the parallel valleys of Nos and Campomulo.
Farther north again the Austrians gained ground on the Mar-
cesina plateau and so came within 4 m. of Primolane in the Val
Sugana, a point well behind the Italian lines in the valley.
But communications were nearly impossible here, and von
Koevess had to make his effort more to the south, narrowing
still further the front of attack. An endeavour to gain ground
in the Val Sugana had failed on May 26, and no other attempt
was made in this sector, for which, in fact, there were no more
troops available.
By June 2 Cadorna's V. Army was assembled in the Vicen-
tine plain, and on June 4 Brusiloff broke through at Lutsk.
The first news of the Russian attack did not perturb Austrian
headquarters, though Gen. von Cramon was taken aback.
Conrad thought that his line in the east was firmly held. In a
few days the situation was changed altogether. But even before
the news of the disaster had reached Bozcn it was clear that the
offensive against Italy had failed. Von Koevess was to gain a
little more ground. After four days' heavy fighting east of the
Campomulo valley and towards the head of the Val Frenzela,
on the evening of June 8 the Italian right on Monte Castelgom-
berto was forced to retire from the summit of the mountain, but
no ground was lost towards the Val Frenzela. The Austrians
were only 3 m. from Valstagna, low down in the Brenta valley,
but they had shot their bolt.
In spite of the news from the Russian front the attack was
continued, south of Asiago and south of the Posina, for 10 more
days. Here were the shortest routes to the plain, and here the
Austrians had been able to bring up their guns in sufficient num-
bers. The Archduke Charles continued his attacks against
Petitti's division, and Kirchbach's I. Corps made a great effort
against the Italian positions south-west of 'Asiago. With the
arrival of reinforcements the Italian line was once more rear-
ranged, Gonzaga's gth Div. passing to the X. Corps command
(Gen. Grandi), the second division of the Corps (the 2oth) lying
in reserve, while the XXIV. Corps (Gen. Secco) came in be-
tween the X. and the XIV., its front-line division (the 32nd)
taking over the gallant Grenadier Bde., which had suffered very
severely in the Cengio and Val Canaglia fighting, and the 33rd
being held in second line till June 7, when it replaced the 32nd.
ASIAGO
291
The command of the 3oth Div. received two fresh brigades,
Forli and Piemontc, on June 7, after a furious attack which
gave the Austrians a footing on Monte Lemerle, and for 10 days
the division fought off repeated infantry attacks. On June 15
the Austrian command issued an army order saying that Monte
Lemerle would fall in two days, and that only three mountains
blocked the way to Milan. For four days the Austrians attacked,
making a last effort on June 18, when 20 battalions were sent in
against the Lemerle-Magnaboschi line in an attempt to drive
a wedge between the Italian 3oth and 33rd Divisions. The
attack failed completely, thanks to the heroic defence of the
Forli Bde., and the admirable work of the Italian field guns.
To the east of the Val Canaglia the result was the same, the
Liguria Bde. of the 33rd Div. holding their ground against re-
peated infantry attacks, backed by greatly superior artillery
fire. Weakness in artillery was Cadorna's main preoccupa-
tion for many days. In the early stages of the offensive the I.
Army had lost over 400 guns, including over 120 heavy and
medium calibre. The first reinforcements had to be sent to
strengthen the left wing. The next urgent need was north of
Asiago, where the 34th Div. was reenforced by guns sent up by
Enego, and in the Lower Astico, to stop the Archduke Charles.
The troops between Asiago and the Val Canaglia had very few
guns, and even when sufficient artillery reenforcements were
available Cadorna preferred first to strengthen his wings for the
counter-attack that he was already preparing.
The Archduke Charles made his last infantry attack on June
14, at the close of three days' heavy fighting for Monte Ciove,
in which the Cagliari Bde. withstood repeated attempts to
break through at this vital point. The rest of the division was
equally staunch, and the troops were helped by the example of
their commander. Petitti had established his divisional com-
mand far forward on Monte Novegno, where it came under the
heaviest shell-fire. All around the ground was pocked with shell-
holes; several times telephonic communication was interrupted,
so that orders had to be given by megaphone or bugle; on June
12 the majority of the divisional staff was put out of action by a
direct hit. The command was obviously too far forward, but it
was the knowledge of their general's presence, amid the same
dangers as themselves, that kept the men firm in their places in
spite of the long strain and terrible losses. The Cagliari Bde.
lost two-thirds of its strength, and other units suffered nearly
as heavily.
The last Austrian blow was struck on June 18, south of
Monte Lemerle, in vain, when already the first move of the
Italian counter-attack had taken place. Cadorna had declined
to draw upon his new V. Army prematurely, as he wished to
keep a " mass of manoeuvre " in hand against the possibility
of a break-through by the Austrians; but by June 2 he felt him-
self master of the situation. He had 12 divisions in the plain
under Frugoni, and the attack was already slackening. The
XXIV. Corps was detached from the V. Army and sent to the
south of the Asiago plateau, as already described, and orders
were given to the XX. Corps to concentrate north of the Val
Frenzela and prepare to attack the Austrian left. The attack
was not to be made until the position in the centre was assured,
and it was to be accompanied by an advance from Pasubio
upon Col Santo. On June 13 Cadorna took counsel with his
generals, who were nearly unanimous in expressing a grave view
of the situation. Bertotti was confident that he had the meas-
ure of his adversary in the Pasubio sector; the others felt them-
selves still hard pressed by the Archduke Charles and von
Koevess's right wing. Cadorna had confidence in his own esti-
mate of the situation, and confirmed the order for an attack by
the XX. Corps, which came into action between the XIV. and
the XVIII. The Alpine troops on the right of the Corps pushed
forward quickly and occupied various important heights on the
northern rim of the Asiago plateau. But the Austrians were
now getting ready to go out of the salient and back to a
strong line which they had already selected.
Attacking on May 25, all along the line, the Italians found
the invaders in retreat. In some places rear-guards were left to
cover the withdrawal; in others the Italians, advancing cau-
tiously, in some cases too cautiously, found no resistance until
they had made considerable progress over the difficult ground.
The counter-offensive, which was to be directed against the two
sides of the Austrian salient, was never fully developed, for it
was anticipated by the Austrians, who withdrew skilfully and
in good order. The line chosen by Krauss ran from south of
Rovereto in front of Col Santo to the Borcola Pass; thence
along the rim of the Arsiero plateau, north of the Posina and
east of the Upper Astico; thence north-eastward across the Val
d'Assa to Monte Mosciagh, and thence northward to the old
frontier. This gave a very strong defensive line, with ample
depth east of the Upper Val d'Assa, which therefore remained
entirely in Austrian hands, a useful line of communication in
any case, and an invaluable opening in the event of further offen-
sive action.
Cadorna was especially anxious to reach the Portule line, and
he reenforced the troops in the Seven Communes (now under the
command of Gen. Mambrotti, who had replaced Lequio) by
four divisions of the V. Army, now available as a reserve on
the understanding that they were not to be employed unless
the situation should develop favourably. But the Austrians
had a great advantage in position, and used it well. The
Italian attacks, handicapped by the limitation imposed, made
little headway, though they prevented the dispatch of Austrian
units already under orders for the eastern front. Farther
south, repeated attempts were made to retake Monte Cimone,
which the Archduke Charles had wished to abandon, but which
Krauss insisted should be held. Although Alpine troops
gained a footing north of the summit they were subsequently
blown off by a mine, and Monte Cimone, which rises sheer-sided,
like a vast battleship, between the Astico and the Rio Freddo,
completely dominating the Arsiero basin, remained in Austrian
hands.
Cadorna relinquished the idea of a big counter-offensive as
soon as he found a resistance which could only be overcome by
long preparation and the use of artillery in mass. The fighting
which took place after the first week in July was all directed to
masking his intention to attack with all speed upon the Isonzo.
The Austrian attempt to break through ended in definite
failure, and even its secondary object, that of preventing the
Italian offensive on the Isonzo, was not attained. But the
attack was well planned, and conducted with skill and deter-
mination. The Austrian artillery fire was very destructive;
the transport was admirably organized, and worked very well in
spite of the great difficulties of the terrain; the infantry, most of
them picked troops, fought with high courage and determination.
Failure was due to the fact that the attack met with a resistance
that went beyond Conrad's calculations. In the first days of
the attack some Italian units, badly placed and badly handled,
showed only a feeble opposition. In the weeks that followed,
the men who held at Passo di Buole and on Pasubio, south of the
Posina and east of the Val Canaglia and in the Seven Com-
munes, outnumbered at first and always outgunned, completely
broke up the attack that had begun so well. The casualty list
shows the nature of the fighting. The Austrian losses were
estimated at over 100,000 men; the Italian figures, up to the
end of the counter-movement, are: 35,000 killed and 75,000
wounded, with 45,000 prisoners, many of whom should be count-
ed among the wounded.
The success of the Italian resistance was primarily due to the
power of the Italian soldier, when properly handled, to take
hard punishment. It has already been said that in the initial
phase of the battle the Italian leadership was at fault, and on
this point much controversy has taken place, one party blaming
Cadorna and another Brusati. In view of the facts and figures
it seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that the chief
responsibility lay with Brusati. On his own showing he had
forces that he considered sufficient, and perhaps they might
have been if they had been more skilfully disposed. Brusati
had failed to realize the necessity of defence in depth, or the
essentials of a good defensive line, but a graver error still was
292
ASIA MINOR ASQUITH, H. H.
his neglect in regard to the preparation of second-line positions.
It was serious enough that the positions indicated by Cadorna
in the early days of the war had not been prepared. Much
more serious was Brusati's report that these lines were in a
satisfactory state of efficiency, when in fact they were largely
untouched. Cadorna relied upon Brusati's reports, and when,
at the end of April, he inspected the positions himself, the
enemy attack was daily expected, and it was too late to effect
more than slight modifications. In reply to the common
criticism that Cadorna ought to have inspected the lines earlier,
the answer is that he was fully occupied from Oct. to Dec. 1915
with his Isonzo offensive, and that from Dec. to April the greater
part of the line between the Val Lagarina and the Val Sugana
was under deep snow. After the initial disasters, which can
scarcely be laid at his door, Cadorna showed the qualities of a
great leader. He was quick to grasp the situation, and effective
in the measures he took to cope with it. And he realized, when
the outlook seemed blackest and all his generals were against
him, that the impetus of the enemy attack was failing and that
he could control the situation.
It has been suggested that Cadorna should have pursued his
counter-offensive and left the Isonzo alone. There will always
be adherents of the fallacy that Italy should have attacked
through the Trentino, though they are in the main confined to
those who do not know the country, or those who have no
experience 'of modern war. With these, presumably, no argu-
ment would serve. To those who maintain that Cadorna should
have sacrificed everything in order to improve his defensive
position in the Trentino sector, it may be answered that the
line on which he stopped (or rather the modification of it neces-
sitated by the retreat after Caporetto), properly prepared,
backed by other lines in sufficient depth, and adequately served
by new roads, was maintained until the end of the war. In
refusing to waste men in attempting more than was necessary
Cadorna took the right decision, and won a notable success.
(W. K. McC.)
ASIA MINOR (see 2.757). With the Turkish revolution in
1908 and the Armenian massacres of the following year began
a series of radical changes in the political division of Asia Minor;
nor was it yet possible in the summer of 1921 to foresee the end.
In the Italo-Turkish and Balkan wars of 1911-3 the Ottoman
Empire lost islands on the coast of Asia Minor. The World War
of 1914-21 saw the end of the empire itself, and the substitution
of a Turkish state confined almost wholly to Asia Minor. The
occupation of considerable territory by Greece in the region of
Smyrna became effective, and at the same time the Turkish
Nationalist Government with its capital in Anatolia offered
successful armed resistance to the full execution of the Treaty
of Sevres. These events were accompanied by further Armenian
massacres on the greatest scale. Asia Minor as a geographical en-
tity was therefore in 1921 in no sense any longer a political unit.
ASKWITH, GEORGE RANKEN ASKWITH, IST BARON (1861-
), English lawyer and civil servant, was born at Morley,
Yorks, Feb. 17 1861, and was educated at Marlborough and
Brasenose College, Oxford. He was called to the bar in 1886
(K.C. 1908), and in 1899 was one of the counsel in the Vene-
zuelan arbitration case. In 1907 he entered the railways section
of the Board of Trade as assistant secretary, and in 1909 was
appointed comptroller-general of the Commercial, Labour and
Statistical Departments of the Board of Trade. He acted as
arbitrator in many industrial disputes, and in 1911 was created
K.C.B. in recognition of his valuable work in that capacity.
In 1911 he became chairman of the recently constituted Indus-
trial Council, in 1912 he made a special report for the Govern-
ment on the Canadian labour laws, and in 1915 was appointed
chairman of the Government Arbitration Committee under
the Munitions of War Acts, holding this post till 1917. On the
Committee of Production he did important work for the Govern-
ment. In 1919 he retired from his position as chief industrial
commissioner, and was raised to the peerage. His wife, whom
he married in 1908, was a daughter of Archibald Peel, nephew of
the statesman Sir Robert Peel, and the widow of Maj. Henry
Graham (d. 1907). During the World War she was an active
and energetic member of the Central Committee on Women's
Employment, and was created C.B.E. in 1918.
ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY (1852- ), English statesman
(see 2.769), had been confirmed in power as Prime Minister by
the general election of Jan. 1910, but the political situation
resulting from it was still one of unexampled difficulty (see
ENGLISH HISTORY). On several .occasions during the ensuing
parliamentary session, he put off importunate questioners,
with regard to the policy of the Ministry, by saying that they
had better " wait and see." The phrase was remembered, and
was often used by critics in subsequent years, especially during
the World War, as a compendious description of what they con-
sidered to be the procrastinating attitude of the Prime Minister
and his Government. But there was no procrastination in Mr.
Asquith's attitude in the autumn, as soon as the conference
arranged between the opposing political leaders on the constitu-
tional crisis had definitely failed. He and his Cabinet at once
took decisive measures to get it settled in their own sense. On
Nov. 1 5 the day Parliament reassembled for its autumn session
they advised the Crown to dissolve, but only on the under-
standing that " in the event of the policy of the Government
being approved by an adequate majority in the new House of
Commons His Majesty will be ready to exercise his constitutional
powers, which may involve the prerogative of creating peers,
if needed, to secure that effect shall be given to the decision of the
country." The King reluctantly consented, and the dissolution
was announced on Nov. 18; but the terms of the understanding
which had been arrived at between the Crown and its advisers
were not revealed till the crisis in the following summer. The
second general election of 1910 was held in Dec.; and the verdict
of the preceding Jan. was almost precisely confirmed.
Having, with the aid of Labour and the Nationalists, who-
were both thoroughly with him on the constitutional issue,
a clear majority of about 120, the Prime Minister went straight
ahead with the Parliament bill, which had two main objects:
to take from the Lords all power of either rejecting or amending
a Money bill, and to provide that a bill passed in three successive
sessions by the Commons should become law without the Lords'
assent. He carried the second reading in March with the closure,
defeated the stubborn resistance of the Unionists in committee by
aid of the " kangaroo " closure, and obtained the third reading,
on May 1 5 by an unbroken majority of 121. He did not conceal
in the debate that the first use to which the new powers con-
ferred by the bill on the Commons would be put was to pass the
Irish Home Rule bill, followed by the rest of the controversial
Liberal programme. When the Lords, after allowing the second
reading to pass, introduced by an enormous majority an amend-
ment (amongst others) providing for the submission to a popular
vote of certain fundamental measures, he forthwith announced,
in a letter to Mr. Balfour on the day (July 20) on which the
amended bill was read a third time in the Lords, that the Govern-
ment would ask the House of Commons to disagree with the
amendments, adding:
In the circumstances, should the necessity arise, the Government
will advise the King to exercise his prerogative to secure the passing
into law of the bill in substantially the same form in which it left
the House of Commons, and His Majesty has been pleased to signify
that he will consider it his duty to accept and act on that advice.
This, the first public announcement of the King's consent
to the creation of sufficient peers to pass the bill, produced an
explosion among the Opposition; and the Unionist hotheads,
among whom Lord Hugh Cecil and Mr. F. E. Smith (afterwards
Lord Birkenhead) were conspicuous, shouted " Traitor " at Mr.
Asquith in the House of Commons, and refused to let him deliver
the speech in which he was to explain his policy. But he had
effected his object of dividing the Unionist party; and eventually
a sufficient number of peers followed their leaders in bowing to
force majeure and allowing the bill to pass rather than risk the
degradation of their House by an unlimited creation (see
ENGLISH HISTORY). Mr. Asquith welcomed the vote of censure
which the Opposition promoted in the House of Commons; gave
ASQUITH, H. H.
293
an account of the understanding entered into with the King be-
fore the last dissolution; pointed out that the Parliament bill had
been twice approved by the electorate in principle and once in its
substantial details, that there was no alternative Government
possible and no responsible minister at its head would advise
another general election with any hope of a different result.
. The vote of censure was repelled by the usual Government
majority; and, though Mr. Asquith's course had profoundly
exasperated his opponents, the direct and unflinching manner
in which he had carried his policy through raised his own parlia-
mentary reputation and strengthened his Government.
Having cleared the way by the Parliament Act, which he
described as " a landmark in political development," the Prime
Minister pressed forward, by frequent use of the closure, in
the three following sessions of 1912, 1913, and 1914 the
two bills on which Liberal partisans had specially set their heart,
the Irish Home Rule bill, and the Welsh Disestablishment bill.
Of the Home Rule bill he took the main charge himself, ad-
vocating it as being strictly in accordance with the spirit and
tendency of imperial development. In July 1912 he went across
to Dublin, and at a great Nationalist meeting in the Theatre
Royal he described the intention of the Government to be to
unite the English and Irish democracies. While speaking as a
rule respectfully of Ulster, and offering to strengthen the safe-
guards for her welfare contained in the bill, he resolutely refused,
till the autumn of 1913, to consider the possibility of her exclusion
even for a time. But after the signing of the Ulster covenant,
the enrolment and drilling of thousands of volunteers, and the
establishment by Sir Edward Carson of a " provisional Govern-
ment " with none of which operations did he think it wise to
interfere he realized that, unless Ulster were placated, the new
Home Rule constitution could not be set up without something
like civil war. Accordingly, at Ladybank, in Oct. 1913, he said
that he desired a settlement by consent, and invited a frank
interchange of views; but he stipulated that there must be a
subordinate Irish Parliament and an executive responsible to
it in Dublin, and that no insuperable bar must be erected to
Irish unity. In pursuance of this policy, he announced early
in the following March, when moving for the third time the
second reading of the Home Rule bill, that the Government
would propose that any county in Ulster might vote itself out
of the bill for a period of six years. This did not at all satisfy
the Unionists, who demanded that Ulster should be omitted
till Parliament otherwise ordered. At this moment occurred
the incident at the Curragh, where military officers, when
questioned on their views, offered their resignations rather than
undertake military operations against Ulster. The War Office
prevailed on them to withdraw their resignations by an assurance
that there was no intention of crushing political opposition to
Home Rule; a kind of bargain which the Liberal party and the
Liberal press vehemently condemned and the Government
itself repudiated. General Seely, the War Minister, immediately
resigned, and Mr. Asquith met this situation by himself as-
suming the seals of the Secretary of State. He laid it down that
it was not right to ask an officer what he would do in a remote
and hypothetical contingency, still less could it be right for an
officer to ask a Government to give him any assurance. Such a
claim, once admitted, would put the Government and Parliament
at the mercy of the military. He would administer the War Office,
he told his constituents, in the spirit of Chatham, who said,
" The army will hear nothing of politics from me, and in return
I expect to hear nothing of politics from the army." These
events raised passions on both sides, but the Prime Minister
refused to be moved from his offer. The amending bill was
introduced in the Lords, but was transformed by Unionist amend-
ments into one for the permanent exclusion of Ulster a change
which the Government refused to accept. Mr. Asquith then,
in a final effort for settlement by consent, risked his popularity
with Radicals and Labour men by advising the King to invite
the leaders of the English and Irish parties to a small con-
ference at Buckingham Palace. When this conference, too,
after a four days' session, failed on July 24, he was relieved of his
difficulty as to the next step by the outbreak of the World War.
In no other domestic measures of his Government during
this period had Mr. Asquith taken so prominent and personal a
part as in the Parliament Act and the Home Rule bill. But he
was, of course, mainly responsible for the drastic use of the
closure, in various forms, without which, indeed, it might have
been impossible to get the most contentious of the Government
bills through at all. He was active in efforts, first to avert,
and then to compose the great coal strike of the early spring of
1912. From the third week in Feb. till the middle of March he
was in constant conference with both owners and miners; and
when conciliation failed he finally introduced and passed a Coal-
mines (minimum wage) bill, which brought about a settlement
at Easter. With the transport strike in the summer of 1912 he
declined to interfere. His various franchise bills came to naught
owing to the difficulties introduced by the claim of a large body
of women to the suffrage. Though he was prepared to leave that
thorny question to be decided freely by the House, he was himself,
unlike the majority of his colleagues, opposed to giving women
the vote, and was, accordingly, in the last few years before the
war, frequently subjected to rudeness and insult by the militant
section of suffragists. While in the domestic legislation which he
promoted, especially after he was compelled by his own party's
electoral losses in 1910 to rely largely on Nationalist and Labour
votes, Mr. Asquith leaned to the Radical side, in foreign and
imperial policy and in matters of defence he acted up to the
Liberal Imperialist principles of which he had been the standard-
bearer while in opposition. He took a keen interest in his duties
as chairman of the Committee of Imperial Defence; he strongly
supported Lord Haldane in his efforts to make the army more
efficient as a striking force; he steadily backed first Mr. McKenna,
and afterwards Mr. Churchill, in their extensive programmes,
which increased the navy estimates from some 32,000,000 in
1908 to nearly 52,000,000 in 1914; he was the first Prime Minister
to preside in a colonial, now become an imperial, conference;
and while, owing to his Free-Trade principles, he rejected
colonial or imperial preference, he pushed forward organized
schemes for imperial defence. The experience of the World War,
however, seemed to show that he made a mistake in accepting
the Declaration of London. In foreign affairs he gave consistent
and strenuous support to Sir Edward Grey, who had continued
to develop the national policy previously laid down by Mr.
Balfour and Lord Lansdowne. This was fully recognized by the
Opposition, who supported him on these questions against the
sporadic attacks of Radicals, Nationalists, and Labour men.
Whenever Mr. Asquith had to speak to the world as the nation's
mouthpiece, in Parliament or at Guildhall, he produced a weighty
impression by his clearness and candour in statement, and his
dignified and sonorous phraseology.
When the world crisis came in the end of July 1914, he had
to translate speech into action, with a hesitating Cabinet, and a
still more hesitating party, behind him. He, like Sir Edward
Grey, had been lulled into comparative optimism by the specious-
ly reasonable attitude of Germany in the Balkan negotiations;
and he was confronted by a strong section in the Cabinet, in-
cluding Mr. Lloyd George, who at first refused to see cause, in
the threat to France, for British armed intervention. On the
other hand, he had the tender of support from the Unionists
in continuation of their foreign policy since 1905. In the end,
the violation of Luxemburg and Belgium by Germany solved
all his difficulties, and enabled him to preserve his Cabinet intact
save for the perhaps inevitable resignations of Lord Morley
and Mr. Burns; but even before this happened it was becoming
clear that he and Sir Edward Grey would take their stand by the
side of France. His public language was eminently worthy of the
occasion. On July 30 he told the House of Commons that the
Amending bill must be postponed. The issues of peace and war,
he said, were hanging in the balance; it was of vital importance
that Great Britain, who had no direct interests at stake, should
present a united front, and speak and act with the authority of
an undivided nation. He left to the Foreign Secretary the duty
of explaining the diplomatic position on Monday Aug. 3; but
294
ASQUITH, H. H.
he himself moved, on Aug. 5, the day after war had begun, the
first vote of credit for 100,000,000, maintaining that " the
war has been forced upon us." The fight was, first, to fulfil
a solemn international obligation; secondly, to vindicate the
principle that small nationalities were not to be crushed, in
defiance of international good faith, by the arbitrary will of a
strong and overmastering power. No nation, he said, ever entered
into a great struggle with a clearer conscience and a stronger
conviction that it was fighting for principles vital to the civilized
world.
In response to a public demand, peremptorily voiced in the
press, he now brought Lord Kitchener, who was on the point
of starting back, after a brief visit home, to resume his duties as
British agent in Egypt, into the Cabinet as Minister of War,
surrendering to him the seals which he had held himself for over
four months, and he gave him a wide discretion in conducting
the war by land. The conduct of the war remained ultimately
with the Cabinet, but its day-to-day direction was practically
carried on by Mr. Asquith, Lord Kitchener, and Mr. Churchill,
with the assistance of their technical advisers. As Prime Min-
ister, too, Mr. Asquith must be accorded his full share in the
important measures taken by the Cabinet at this time, such as
the financial moratorium, the prompt despatch of the expedition-
ary force, the enrolment of Kitchener's army, the glad acceptance
of colonial help, the decision to bring over native troops from
India, and the Defence of the Realm Act. He, however, strained
his relations with the Unionists by determining to pass the
Home Rule and Welsh Disestablishment bills under the Parlia-
ment Act, only providing that neither should come into effect
till after the war, and that special provision should be made for
Ulster, which should in no circumstances be coerced. He under-
took a series of speeches in the autumn, notable alike for patriotic
vigour and for lofty eloquence, in order to educate the nation as
regards the objects and necessity of the war, and to stimulate re-
cruiting. At the Guildhall on Sept. 4 he said that this was not
merely a material but a spiritual conflict, and recalled how Eng-
land had in the Napoleonic Wars responded to Pitt's dying appeal
to her to save Europe by her example. At Edinburgh, on Sept.
18, he said that the German creed of material force was a pur-
blind philosophy, and that, while the British task might take
months or years, the economic, monetary, and military and
naval position was encouraging. At Dublin, on Sept. 25, he
appealed to Ireland to take her due share in a war which was
being fought in the interests of small nations. At Cardiff, on
Oct. 2, he revealed the fact that, in 1912, the Cabinet had formal-
ly notified the German Government that Great Britain would
" neither make nor join in any unprovoked attack on Germany,"
but that Germany had demanded in response a British pledge
of absolute neutrality if she were engaged in war a pledge which,
of course, Britain could not possibly give. He finished up this
series of orations by a resolute speech at Guildhall on Lord
Mayor's day; when he told the city that it would be a long-drawn-
out struggle, but that England would not sheathe the sword
until Belgium had recovered all and more than all that she had
sacrificed, until France was adequately secured against the
menace of aggression, until the rights of the smaller nationalities
were placed on an unassailable foundation, until the military
dominion of Prussia was fully and finally destroyed. On Nov. 25
he formed a war council, consisting of the Chancellor of the
Exchequer, the Foreign Secretary, the Indian Secretary and
Lord Haldane, in addition to Lord Kitchener, Mr. Churchill,
and himself; but the main responsibility still rested on the last
three, and the naval and military experts attended in a some-
what undefined position.
As the fervour of the early months of the war died away,
many troublesome questions embarrassed Mr. Asquith and his
Government. Besides the anxious problem of the Dardanelles
expedition, he had to consider whether the system of compulsory
service, hateful to the traditions of the Liberal party, had not
become inevitable; how to eradicate spying, and to what extent
to intern aliens; how to deal with the problem of the liquor trade
and traffic, which seriously interfered with necessary production;
how to prevent the occurrence during war of industrial disputes,
which frequently broke out in the first half of 1915. Drink and
strikes had a close bearing on the problem which became specially
urgent in April, the absolute necessity of an enormous increase in
munitions of war. The Times revealed the perilous shortage
at the front; Mr. Lloyd George dilated upon it in the House;
but Mr. Asquith, in a speech at Newcastle-on-Tyne on April 30,
which was mainly devoted to emphasizing the importance of
materiel in this war and to encouraging miners, shipbuilders,
engineers, iron workers, and dockers to further efforts, raised
a storm of criticism by denying that the operations in the field
had been crippled because of a want of ammunition.
The uneasiness in the country immediately increased, and
there was a pronounced demand for broadening the basis of
Government. On May 12 Mr. Asquith repudiated the idea that
any such step was in contemplation; but a week later, the quarrel
which had developed between Mr. Churchill and Lord Fisher
at the Admiralty convinced him that there must be a change,
and he invited the Unionists, the Labour party, and the leaders
of the two Irish parties to join him in office, by forming a Coali-
tion Ministry. From all whom he invited, but Mr. Redmond, he
received acceptances, and he was able to find places in his new
Cabinet for them without excluding any important previous
colleague of his own, except Lord Haldane, whose German af-
finities had offended public opinion. He gained the services of
many powerful men among the Unionists Mr. Bonar Law,
Lord Lansdowne, Mr. Balfour, Lord Curzon, Mr. Chamberlain,
Mr. Long, Mr. F. E. Smith, Lord Robert Cecil, Lord Selborne;
of Mr. Henderson and Mr. Brace from the Labour party; and
of Sir Edward Carson, the Ulster leader. But he kept the pre-
miership in his own hands, and retained Sir Edward Grey at
the Foreign Office, and Lord Kitchener at the War Office. He
explained his decision in the House of Commons in these words:
What I came to think was needed, was such a broadening of the
basis of the Government as would take away from it even the sem-
blance of a one-sided or party character, and would demonstrate
beyond the possibility of doubt, not only to our own people but to
the whole world, that after nearly a year of war, with all its fluctua-
tions and vicissitudes, the British people were more resolute than
ever, with one heart and one purpose, to obliterate all distinctions and
unite every personal and political as well as every moral and material
force in the prosecution of their cause.
He emphasized the facts (i) that in the Coalition no surrender
was implied of convictions on either side; (2) that there was no
change in national policy, which was " to pursue this war at any
cost to a victorious issue." His Coalition Government made a
good start. He constituted a new Ministry of Munitions, pre-
sided over by Mr. Lloyd George, who had by this time impressed
the public as being the most resolute and determined of his col-
leagues; he and his Cabinet issued a great war loan; they intro-
duced a measure for national registration; they imposed an
enormously increased taxation; and there was established in the
Cabinet a system of pooling salaries, so that every minister
should receive the same amount. In June Mr. Asquith paid a
four days' visit to the British front in France; and in July he
attended a conference at Calais in which British statesmen and
generals met French statesmen and generals in order to coordi-
nate Allied action the first of many conferences of the kind.
On the adjournment of Parliament on July 28 he said that the
war had become a struggle of endurance.
The formation of the Coalition did not stem the agitation for
compulsory service; and in the autumn Mr. Asquith 's Govern-
ment appointed Lord Derby director of recruiting, in the hope
that his energy would produce such satisfactory results as to
obviate the necessity of resorting to compulsion. But Mr.
Asquith stated that, if Lord Derby failed to bring in sufficient
single men, he would come to the House without any hesitation
and recommend some form of legal obligation. Lord Derby
had a considerable but not an adequate success; and Mr. As-
quith was driven to introduce compulsion in 1916, at first in a
somewhat modified form, but later as universally applicable
to males between the ages of 18 and 41. These measures caused
the resignation of Sir John Simon, the Home Secretary. This
ASQyiTH, H. H.
295
was the third loss of a colleague which the Prime Minister had
suffered since the Coalition. Sir Edward Carson, the Attorney-
General, had resigned in the autumn owing to the muddles of
ministerial policy in the Balkans, and Mr. Churchill because of
his exclusion from the immediate direction of the war. All three
became occasionally keen critics of their former colleagues, whose
delays in this vital matter of universal service weakened and
discredited them in the country.
Mr. Asquith took a further step early in 1016 in the direction
of close cooperation between the Allies by attending, along with
Sir E. Grey, Mr. Lloyd George, Lord Kitchener and Gen. Sir
William Robertson, an Allied conference in Paris, representative
not only of England and France, but of Russia, Italy, Japan,
Belgium, Serbia, and Portugal. Thence he went on to Rome,
where he visited the Pope, and made a speech in the Capitol
declaring the solidarity of Italy, France, and England at that
critical moment of the world's history; afterwards proceeding to
the Italian headquarters, where he was received by King Victor
Emanuel and Gen. Cadorna. Later, in June, he and his Govern-
ment arranged an economic conference, also in Paris, which
provided for measures of economic union between the Allies,
for conservation of the national resources of Allied countries,
and for economic protection against enemy trade " penetration "
and " dumping " after the war. His special attention was claimed
at the end of April by rebellion in Ireland, the most serious in-
cident of which was the capture of a great part of Dublin for
a week by rebels (see IRELAND). After the suppression of the
rising by the troops and the prompt execution of the leaders,
he appointed a commission of inquiry, and he himself visited
Ireland and returned with a conviction that a united effort must
be made to reconstitute Irish government. He appointed Mr.
Lloyd George to negotiate and formulate suggestions. In the
result he proposed a provisional settlement, for the war and 12
months after, on the basis of bringing the Home Rule Act with
certain amendments into immediate operation, with the ex-
clusion of six Ulster counties. To this Sir Edward Carson agreed,
but Mr. Redmond objected to the amendments, and nothing was
done. The negotiations lost Mr. Asquith the services of Lord
Selborne as the rebellion had deprived him of those of Mr. Birrell,
the Chief Secretary for Ireland.
The basis of his ministry was rudely shaken in the summer of
1916 by the loss of Lord Kitchener at sea. Lord Kitchener's place
at the War Office was taken by Mr. Lloyd George, whose reputa-
tion for " getting things done " had been enormously enhanced
by the energy with which he had organized the Ministry of
Munitions. The attack on the Somme seemed to promise an
end to the trench war, but after many weeks of most determined
fighting the German line was not broken through; and in the
latter part of the year Rumania was crushed. These events in-
creased public dissatisfaction, which had been stimulated by
half-hearted dealings with the blockade of Germany, with the
food problem, and with the creation of an adequate aerial force;
and public criticism was focused on Mr. Asquith, whose in-
cautious phrase of six years before" wait and see " was
frequently flung in his face. In the House of Commons two strong
committees, one of Liberals and one of Conservatives, had been
formed for the purpose of the resolute prosecution of the war and
the keeping of ministers up to the mark. Mr. Asquith's speeches
were always resolute enough ; he promptly denounced any over-
tures of pacifists for a premature peace ; but he was thought to be
lacking in initiative, and to carry into the counsels of war some-
what the attitude of an impartial Cabinet chairman weighing
pros and cons and counting heads for a decision.
The War Council initiated under his Liberal Government was
continued with very little modification, save in personnel, under
the Coalition ; and the final authority remained with the Cabinet.
It was felt that a small body, sitting daily, with power to act at
once without reference, was essential for the proper conduct of
the war. Mr. Lloyd George, the most active member of the
War Council, by a letter on Dec. i, demanded the establish-
ment of such a body, with himself as one of its members, but
without Mr. Asquith. He subsequently amended his proposal,
giving Mr. Asquith a consultative membership and a power of
veto. But it was clear that the effect must be to transfer the main
conduct of the war from Mr. Asquith to Mr. Lloyd George. Mr.
Asquith, who had consented to reconstruct his Government,
refused Mr. Lloyd George's ultimatum; and on Dec. 5 Mr. Lloyd
George resigned. Without him Mr. Asquith clearly could not
carry on, and he himself resigned the same evening, being suc-
ceeded, after some complications, by Mr. Lloyd George. So
ended a premiership which had lasted nearly nine years, and
left an ineffaceable mark on English history. He carried into
retirement his principal Liberal colleagues, including Lord Grey
of Fallodon ; and many tributes of regard and respect were paid
him by the Unionists who had been his colleagues.
After his resignation Mr. Asquith took his seat on the front
Opposition bench; but he disclaimed being in any sense a leader
of Opposition, and affirmed that his one desire was to give the
Government the benefit of whatever experience he had gained.
He maintained this attitude throughout 1917, making resolute
and helpful speeches in different parts of the country on behalf
of the national war aims. In Parliament he rendered material
assistance to the Ministerial Franchise bill; and he announced
that the services of women during the war had converted him
to female suffrage. In 1918 he became rather more critical,
and in particular called parliamentary attention to a letter in
which Gen. Sir Frederick Maurice, formerly Director of Military
Operations, challenged the veracity of ministerial statements.
He moved to refer the general's charges to a select committee of
the House, but was beaten on a division by 293 votes to 106.
This action, taken during the period of the alarming German
advance, marked a definite cleavage with the Government,
which was widened after the Armistice by the conditions under
which the general election was held in December. Mr. Asquith
and those of his colleagues who had not joined Mr. Lloyd George,
together with a considerable section of Liberal members, de-
clined to pledge their support to the Coalition Government,
and desired to be returned as independent Liberals. As the
electorate was resolved that those who had won the war should
make the peace and begin the reconstruction of the country,
he and the whole of his principal colleagues lost their seats,
and only 28 of his followers in all were returned. He did not
come back to Parliament till Feb. 1920, when he was elected at a
by-election for Paisley. This time he appeared as the leader of
the independent Liberal Opposition which had been temporarily
led in his absence by Sir Donald Maclean; but his followers,
though they had gained some seat's since the general election,
were still smaller in number in Parliament than the representa-
tives of Labour. Possibly for that reason he was more active in
the country than in Parliament, devoting himself to efforts for
reviving the Liberal party. He maintained that the time was
come to put an end to the Coalition and resume party Govern-
ment. He attacked ministers for their departures from Free
Trade, for their wasteful administration, and for their policy in
Ireland. He strongly condemned reprisals in that island, and
declared for Dominion Home Rule. For a time he seemed to be
recovering his hold on the country; but in the last half of 1920
and in 1921 there was a setback. It was no help to his political
position that Mrs. Asquith published in the autumn of 1920 a
volume of very frank and indiscreet Reminiscences.
In 1918 Mr. Asquith himself published a volume of Occasional
Addresses, delivered between the years 1893-1916, thus remind-
ing the world that he was a worthy successor of a long line of
scholarly and intellectual Prime Ministers, capable of treating
with distinction and acceptance matters of the mind wholly un-
connected with politics. The book contained, amongst others,
Rectorial Addresses to the universities of Glasgow and Aberdeen,
a Presidential Address to the Classical Association, and a dis-
sertation on " biography " read before the Edinburgh Philo-
sophical Institution. The universities of the country duly recog-
nized the claims made upon them by his scholarship. Besides
being elected to the rectorships, first of Glasgow and then of
Aberdeen, he received honorary degrees from Oxford, Cambridge,
Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. Andrews, Durham, Bristol and Leeds.
296
ASTOR ASTRONOMY
Mr. Asquith had four sons and a daughter by his first marriage,
and a son and a daughter by his second marriage. His eldest son,
RAYMOND ASQUITH (1878-1916), had a brilliant career at Oxford,
where he was a scholar of Balliol, gained a first class both in classical
moderations and in lit. hum., won the Ireland, Craven, and Derby
scholarships, was president of the Union, and was finally elected in
1902 to a fellowship at All Souls. He went to the bar, and acquired
a considerable practice, but when the World War broke out he at
once sought a commission and was killed in action in France as a
lieutenant in the Grenadier Guards. He left a widow and three
children. The third son, ARTHUR MELLAND ASQUITH (1883- ),
distinguished himself greatly in the war, becoming brigadier-general
and D.S.O. In 1918 he was appointed controller of the Trench War-
fare Department of the Ministry of Munitions, and in 1919 con-
troller, Appointments Department, and member of council at the
Ministry of Labour. The fourth son, CYRIL ASQUITH (1890- ),
followed his brother Raymond in his Oxford career. He was a
scholar of Balliol, gained a first class both in classical moderations
and in lit. hum., won the Hertford, Ireland, Craven, and Eldon
scholarships, and was elected fellow of Magdalen. The war came
just at the close of his undergraduate life, and he served in the army
before being called to the bar in 1920. Mr. Asquith's daughter by
his first wife, VIOLET, married his private secretary, Sir Maurice
Bonham-Carter; his daughter by his second wife, ELIZABETH,
married Prince Antoine Bibesco, for 1 6 years a member of the
Rumanian Legation in London, and in 1921 appointed Rumanian
minister to the United States. (G. E. B.)
ASTOR, WILLIAM WALDORF ASTOR, IST VISCOUNT (1848-
1919) [see 2.794], died at Brighton Oct. 18 1919. He was in
1916 raised to the peerage, and in 1917 was created a viscount.
His son, WILLIAM WALDORF ASTOR, 2ND VISCOUNT ASTOR,
born in New York May 19 1879, was educated at Eton and
New College, Oxford. In 1911 he successfully contested the
Sutton division of Plymouth as a Unionist, but vacated his
seat in 1919 on succeeding to his father's peerage. He was
chairman of the Government Committee on tuberculosis and
of the State Medical Research Committee. During the World
War he was inspector of quartermaster-general services, and in
1918 became parliamentary secretary to the Prime Minister.
In Jan. 1919 he was appointed parliamentary secretary to the
Local Government Board, and retained the same position on
the formation of the Ministry of Health in Aug. 1919. His
wife, NANCY WITCHER ASTOR, born in Virginia May 19 1879,
was the daughter of Chiswell Dabney Langhorne, of an old
Virginian family. She married in 1897 Robert Gould Shaw, of
Boston, from whom she obtained a divorce in 1903, and in 1906
married William Waldorf Astor, Jr. When her husband suc-
ceeded to the viscountcy, Lady Astor, who had taken much
interest in the local affairs of her husband's former constitu-
ency in Plymouth, was adopted there as Coalition Unionist
candidate for the vacant seat in Parliament. She was elected
by a substantial majority Nov. 28 1919, thus becoming the first
woman to sit in the House of Commons.
ASTRONOMY (see 2.800). This article is intended to cover
the principal advances made during 1910-21 in all the depart-
ments of astronomy (including astrophysics) with the exception
of the more technical results of celestial spectroscopy. Those
investigations have been selected for discussion which appear
to have had most conspicuous influence on the general current
of ideas.
I. OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY
The Sun (see 26.85). By means of the spectroheliograph it is
possible to obtain photographs of the sun in light of a single
wave-length; we thus obtain a picture of the distribution of the
matter which emits this wave-length, or a negative of the matter
which absorbs it. In practice either calcium or hydrogen light is
used, since these elements furnish spectral lines sufficiently
isolated to give good results. The emission of, a particular line
depends on favourable conditions of temperature and density,
and these will vary with the level in the sun's atmosphere. Thus
the function of the spectroheliograph is not so much to separate
the distributions of particular elements as to isolate different
levels in the sun's atmosphere, and provide separate photo-
graphs of what is occurring at each level.
The recent pictures obtained with this instrument are of great
beauty, and reveal remarkable structure, which is entirely lost
in the ordinary photographs which confuse all levels in a single
blurred impression. The highest level is given by photographs
taken in the red line of hydrogen Ha: these show feather-like
clouds, whirling vortices, and long narrow black markings which
are now known to belong to the red prominences seen projected
on the disc. The vortices are of special interest because of their
connexion with sunspots; in most cases a sunspot occupies the
trough of each whirlpool or whirlwind. If the whirling matter is
electrically charged it should act like a solenoid and produce a
magnetic field of force; and this consideration led G. E. Hale (i)
to test whether a magnetic field could be detected in sunspots.
When light is emitted or absorbed in a magnetic field each spec-
tral line is broken up into two or more components the well-
known Zeeman effect; in particular, for light travelling along the
lines of force, the spectral line is replaced by two components
circularly polarized in opposite directions. Applying the test
for circular polarization clear evidence of the magnetic field in
solar vortices was obtained. In general the field strength in-
dicated in a sunspot is of the order 2,000 or 3,000 gausses. It is
probably owing to the Zeeman effect that a large proportion
of the lines observed in sunspots are observed to be slightly
broadened.
An attempt to find a law governing the magnetic polarity of sun-
spots has not been very successful. On the earth, cyclones have a
right-handed or left-handed rotation according to the hemisphere,
but there is no such regularity on the sun. There is some evidence
that the predominant magnetic polarity in each hemisphere became
reversed after the sunspot minimum of 1912. It is surprising to find
that there is not even a uniform connexion between the polarity of
the spot and the direction of rotation of the whirlwind above it.
One very general law is, however, recognized. It was pointed out
by Carrington that sunspots very frequently occur in pairs, the line
joining them being approximately parallel to the sun's equator;
now in these pairs the two spots are found to have opposite polarity.
Even when the spot group is more complex a similar bipolarity is
generally observed; Hale estimates that in 90% of the spot groups
the disturbed area exhibits this bipolar structure.
The detailed explanation of these phenomena is difficult. If the
magnetic field is due to the whirling of electrically charged gases,
strong electric fields should be present; but the attempt to detect
electric fields by the Stark effect on the spectral lines has failed. It
seems to be a general belief that the origin of the whole disturbance
is a vortex filament below the surface, whose two ends come to the
sun's surface near the front and rear of the spot group and give rise
to the opposite polarities there.
The method of detection of magnetic fields by the Zeeman effect,
has been extended by Hale (2) to a determination of the general mag-
netic field of the sun (i.e. apart from the exceptionally disturbed
regions indicated by sunspots) analogous to the terrestrial magnetic
field. It is found that the magnetic axis of the sun deviates from
the rotation axis, though not so widely as happens on the earth ; the
inclination of the two axes is 6. The synodic period of rotation of
the magnetic axis is 31-44 days. If we could assume that the source
of the sun's magnetic field is a permanent magnetization of its in-
terior, this would give the real rotation period of the sun a quan-
tity hitherto unknown. Hitherto our study of the sun's rotation has
been based entirely on the surface markings, and these revolve at
different rates according to their latitude; the period 31-5 days cor-
responds to that of surface markings in latitude 55. It may, how-
ever, be doubted whether the source of the sun's permanent field
lies very deep below the surface ; it is found that it diminishes very
rapidly as we ascend in level, decreasing from 50 to 10 gausses in
about 400 km. The field appears to differ in other respects from that
due to a uniformly magnetized sphere, being relatively too strong
near the equator; but this is not quite certain.
The value of the constant of solar radiation which is now generally
accepted is that determined by C. G. Abbot, viz. that outside the
earth's atmosphere the amount of solar energy crossing each sq. cm.
of surface is I -93 gram-calories per minute. This is the same as we
should receive if the sun were a black body at a temperature of 5,850
C. (absolute), which may accordingly be taken as the effective
temperature of the photosphere. (The definition of effective tempera-
ture by different writers is unfortunately not uniform; and some
would make the term refer to the quality instead of the quantity of
the radiation.) The total radiation of the sun is 3-8, io 33 ergs per
second. The sun's radiant energy differs considerably in composition
from black body radiation; and much work has been done on the
distribution in wave length of the energy, and the difference in inten-
sity and composition of light received from the centre and the edge
of the sun's disc. By comparing observations of the solar radiation
made simultaneously at Mount Wilson (California) and Bassour
(Algeria) in 1911 and 1912, Abbot (3) believed he had obtained evi-
dence of an irregular variability of the sun ranging over 10% in the
course of a few months; since the same variations appeared simul-
taneously at the two widely separated stations, terrestrial causes
ASTRONOMY
297
seemed to be excluded. But this supposed variability of the sun is
disproved by Guthnieck and Prager's (4) photoelectric measurements
of the brightness of the planet Saturn. The planet, being illumi-
nated by sunlight, would reflect any changes in intensity of the
sun's radiation ; the delicate measures possible with photoelectric cells
showed that the light is very steady, variations of the amount deter-
mined by Abbot being quite excluded.
Solar System (see 25.357).- A ninth satellite of Jupiter was
discovered by S. B. Nicholson at the Lick Observatory in 1914.
Like the eighth satellite it revolves round the planet in the
opposite direction to the other seven. The periods of satellites
VIII. and IX. are about 739 and 745 days respectively, and the
two bodies are revolving in almost equal interlocked orbits in
planes inclined at about 10. Satellites VI. and VII. form a
somewhat similar interlocked pair, their periods being 251 and
260 days respectively; but their motions are in the " direct "
sense.
Much interest has been taken in the " Trojan Group " of
minor planets. These illustrate a special case of the problem
of three bodies discussed by Lagrange, viz. that in which the
three bodies are situated at the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
The Trojan planets have almost the same mean distance and
revolution period as Jupiter, and the equilateral condition is
roughly fulfilled. The problem of the small librations of such
a planet about the triangular point of equilibrium has been
discussed by E. W. Brown (5); the condition of stability is that
the mass of Jupiter must be less than -0385 times that of the sun
a condition which is easily satisfied and the period of the
libration is about 140 years. Actually the Trojan planets are at
some considerable distance from the triangular points, and the
problem of determining the finite librations (as opposed to in-
finitely small librations) has provided much exercise for mathe-
maticians. Six members of the group are now known, Nos. 588
Achilles, 617 Patroclus, 624 Hector, 659 Nestor, 884 Priam, and
911 (unnamed); of these Patroclus and Priam are near the tri-
angular point 60 behind Jupiter, and the others 60 ahead of
Jupiter.
A very curious minor planet was discovered by W. Baade on
Oct. 31 1920, temporarily designated 1920 HZ. Its orbit is
extremely elliptical (eccentricity 0-65); and its perihelion lies
near the orbit of Mars, whilst its apheh'on reaches to near the
orbit of Saturn. It is generally thought that a body with this
eccentricity must necessarily be, or become, a comet, the extreme
alternations of heat provoking the disruption characteristic of
comets; but HZ shows no signs of a cometary envelope, and is
provisionally classed as a planet.
The period of rotation of Uranus round its axis has been de-
termined by V. M. Slipher from measures of the line of sight
velocity of the advancing and receding limbs. The result is
io h 5o m and the direction of rotation agrees with that of revolu-
tion of the satellites. Leon Campbell subsequently found that
the light of the planet is variable with the same period, pre-
sumably owing to unequal brightness of different parts of the
surface. The rotation period of Venus still remains a mystery;
and there are advocates of the long period of 224 days as well as
various estimates of short period (one to three days).
Latitude Variation (see 16.267). The study of the small
periodic motion of the earth's axis of rotation (relatively to the
earth) which gives rise to " variation of latitude " has been
continued at the six international stations (reduced in number
during the later stages of the World War). The effect is made
up of (a) The free precession of a spheroid rotating about an
axis which does not coincide with its axis of figure ; the period of
this precession determined from the observations is 43 2 J days;
(b) an annual term, which is a forced oscillation due to meteoro-
logical and seasonal causes. Owing to interference of these two
terms, there is an effect analogous to " beats " in sound waves,
the amplitude of the motion alternately rising to a maximum
of about o"-3 (30 ft.) and dying out in about six years' period.
The annual term appears to be nearly circular (6) and of ampli-
tude o"-o85; the possible causes contributory to this, such
as seasonal circulation of the atmosphere and ocean, snowfall,
and vegetation have been investigated by H. Jeffreys (7), who
finds a fair agreement between predicted and observed values. A
mysterious Kimura or Z term, which appears in these interna-
tional results, would, if interpreted literally, indicate an annual
approach to the pole and recession by all stations on the
same latitude simultaneously or a shifting of the earth's centre
of gravity to and fro along its axis. It is, however, now
believed that the term arises from a small systematic error in
the observations; independent observations made at Greenwich
and Pulkovo (not belonging to the international chain) show
either a reduced or zero Kimura term.
The Stars (see 25.784). Progress in our knowledge of the
stellar universe must depend largely on the patient accumulation
of accurate statistics as to the parallaxes, motions, spectra,
magnitudes, etc., of large numbers of stars; it may therefore be
well to review the great advance in these data in recent years.
The first photographic determinations of stellar parallaxes
reaching a modern standard of accuracy were made by H. N.
Russell and A. R. Hinks at Cambridge, and F. Schlesinger at
Yerkes, in 1903-7; earlier results are now superseded except for
a few of the best heliometer measures made chiefly by Gill.
Extensive programmes have since been carried out with large
telescopes at the Allegheny, Greenwich, Leander McCormick,
Mount Wilson and Sproul observatories, and by 1921 parallaxes
of about i, 600 stars had been measured with probable errors
generaUy not greater than o"-oi. The use of a rotating sector to
reduce the bright ness of the star under observation to that of the
comparison stars has made a considerable improvement in the
accuracy. Unfortunately it does not follow that we know the
distances of 1,600 stars, for many of these parallaxes turn out to
be inappreciable. The results emphasize the fact that very few
of the stars are sufficiently near for the method to give any close
measure of the distance; and a large proportion of the measures
are of little use individually though they may throw light on
questions of statistical distribution when taken in conjunction
with other evidence. We cannot resist the impression that inves-
tigation of stellar parallaxes by the trigonometrical method is
reaching its limit with present instruments; and perhaps for
that reason special interest is attached to a new method of
determining the distances of stars described below under
" Spectroscopic Parallaxes."
Lewis Boss's Preliminary General Catalogue of 6,188 Stars
published in 1910 has been an invaluable aid to research with
regard to proper motions. It comprises all the brighter stars,
and the proper motions constitute a great improvement as re-
gards both accidental and systematic error on anything previous-
ly available. Of other catalogues the most notable is the Green-
wich 1910 catalogue containing the proper motions of 12,368
stars in the zone Decl. + 24 to 32; the accuracy, of course, does
not equal that of Boss's catalogue, but it carries our knowledge
of the motions of stars in this region as far as the ninth magni-
tude. We have still very little systematic knowledge of the
motions of still fainter stars, which can be measured photo-
graphically; attention has chiefly been directed to the detection
of exceptionally large motions by the " blink " microscope or
by other methods.
The first reaUy extensive lists of radial velocities were pub-
lished by the Lick Observatory in 1911. At present (1921)
about 2,070 have been determined; these have been collected
in a catalogue by J. Voute. Progress would have been more
rapid but for the large proportion of spectroscopic binaries,
which makes it necessary to repeat the measures several times
at suitable intervals in order to discriminate between orbital
motion and the true secular motion which is looked for. Orbits
of 172 spectroscopic binaries are known; and in addition there
are about 450 spectroscopic binaries with orbits as yet undeter-
mined. It appears therefore that approximately one-quarter of
the stars examined have proved to be spectroscopic binaries. Al-
lowing for systems of wider separation (not detected by varying
radial velocity) the actual proportion of binaries must be still
higher.
The apparent magnitudes of stars range from i m> 5 for Sirius,
to 2o m and upwards for stars obtained by long exposures with the
298
ASTRONOMY
largest instruments. The corresponding light ratio is more than
100,000,000 to I ; and it is an important and not very easy problem
to subdivide this range accurately. For this purpose a set of 96
standard stars has been chosen near the North Pole, called the
Harvard Polar Sequence; their magnitudes stretch at short inter-
vals from the first to the twenty-first, and when once these have
been accurately fixed on the absolute scale, it is comparatively easy
to determine the magnitudes of any other stars by differential com-
parisons. There is some systematic difference between the standard
magnitudes of the sequence adopted at Harvard and Mount Wilson
respectively for part of the range, which is still being inquired into;
but good progress has been made in establishing an accurate and
absolute basis for magnitude determinations. Separate standards
are needed for visual and photographic magnitudes; their relation
has been fixed by international convention so that visual and photo-
graphic magnitudes agree for stars of type Ao between 5 m- 5 and
6 m '5. Photographic magnitudes have been determined at numerous
observatories, one of the most valuable pioneer investigations being
K. Schwarzschild's Gottingen Aktinometrie of the brighter stars.
Most of our data of visual magnitudes are due to Harvard (where the
late E. C. Pickering alone made a million and a half photometric
measures) and to Potsdam observatories. It is now becoming usual
to determine "photo-visual" as equivalent to visual magnitudes,
i.e. to use a photographic plate of colour-sensitivity corresponding
to that of the eye.
Since the photographic plate is most sensitive to blue light and the
eye to yellow light, the difference, photographic minus visual magni-
tude, gives a quantitative measure of the colour of the star. This is
called the " colour-index." As might be expected, it is very approxi-
mately a function of the spectral type, so that the spectral type
may generally be inferred from the colour-index and vice versa. This
affords a very useful method of classifying stars too faint to permit
of spectroscopic examination. The colour-index ranges from about
o m -5 for the bluest (type B) stars to +l m -9 for the reddest stars
(type M). The Draper notation has almost displaced Secchi's and
other early nomenclatures of spectral types. The principal stages
from the hottest to the coolest are denoted by the letters B, A, F, G,
K, M; and intermediate stages are estimated in tenths, e.g. "65"
means halfway from Go to Ko. Types B and A correspond to Sec-
chi's type I.; F, G, K to type II.; and M to type III. Typical stars
are B, Rigel; A, Sirius; F, Procyon; G, the Sun; K, Arcturus;
M, Antares. In addition, the somewhat rare Wolf-Rayet stars form
type O preceding and hotter than type B; and type N (Secchi's
type IV.) appears to form an alternative branch succeeding K and
parallel with M, the bifurcation perhaps depending on whether the
star has an oxidizing or reducing atmosphere. More recently a
type R, probably intermediate between K and N, has been added.
In types M and N the temperature is low enough for the spectra of
chemical compounds to appear prominently; type M is character-
ized especially by titanium oxide, and type N by compounds of car-
bon. A catalogue of the spectral types of 230,000 stars classified
by Miss A. J. Cannon is in course of publication by the Harvard
Observatory; about half of it has already appeared.
Giant and Dwarf Stars. It will be realized that this great
gain in quantity and quality of the material available for dis-
cussion has permitted of considerable advance in our knowledge
of the structure of the stellar universe, since 1910. The most
far-reaching of the recent discoveries is the detection of the two
classes of " giant " and " dwarf " stars.
To understand this distinction we must go back to Homer Lane's
theory of the evolution of gaseous masses (see 25.788). Starting
with a very diffuse globe of gas held together by its own gravitational
attraction, the conditions of equilibrium require that its temperature
must rise when it contracts through radiation of heat. This rise of
temperature continues so long as the material is rare enough to
follow the laws of a gas; but as the density approaches that of a
liquid the changed conditions limit the rise, and ultimately the
temperature begins to fall again; the fall continues until the star
finally becomes extinct. It follows that any particular temperature
is passed through twice, once ascending in a comparatively early
stage of evolution, and once descending in a later stage. Now the
Draper and other standard classifications of stellar spectra are prac-
tically temperature classifications of stars; that is to say, tempera-
ture is the primary condition which determines the appearance of
the lines and bands distinguishing the spectral types. So in any
type of spectrum we have two groups of stars which agree in tem-
perature but are wide apart in all other respects; more particularly
they differ in diffuseness and stage of evolution. For example, the
present effective temperature of the sun is 6,oooC. ; it has a density
greater than water and is accordingly in the dense descending
stage ; but at an earlier epoch it must have passed through the same
temperature ascending. It was then a diffuse globe of about 10
times its present diameter and too times its present surface; the
temperature of the surface being the same, it then gave 100 times
as much light as now. These two stages are called the dwarf and giant
stages respectively, and the most conspicuous outward characteris-
tic is the great difference of luminosity, due to the larger surface
area in the giant stage.
Instead of having a single sequence of evolution B, A, F, G, K, M
we see that a star must start as a giant of type M, ascend the series
towards type B, and then descend as a dwarf to type M again. It
depends on the mass how far up the series it gets, and probably a
star must be three or four times as massive as the sun in order to
reach the high temperature of type B. Smaller stars will turn at A,
F, or even lower. As Russell has put it, a star of small mass is a
poor self-heating affair. The division of giants and dwarfs is most
conspicuous for the lower temperatures, G, K, M, since the corre-
sponding stages are then furthest apart in the evolutionary sequence;
for types A and F the two groups begin to merge into one another,
and the division is less easy to recognize.
These conclusions were put forward independently and simul-
taneously by H. N. Russell (8) and E. Hertzsprung. The observa-
tional evidence drawn from many sources is now overwhelmingly fav-
ourable. For stars of known parallax the absolute luminosity can be
calculated directly; and when these are grouped according to spec-
tral type the bifurcation of the luminosities is evident. The lumi-
nosities of the giant stars depend very little on the spectral type
(since the rising temperature compensates for the decreasing surface
area), and their absolute magnitudes cluster very closely about the
value +l m -o. 1 For the dwarfs the decreasing temperature and
decreasing surface cause a rapid fall of brightness through the suc-
cessive types, and the absolute magnitude fades to about +io m -o
for type M. By the new spectroscopic method of determining stellar
distances, Adams and Joy (9) have been able to give striking evidence
of the two groups; of 58 stars of type M examined they found that
48 were giants with magnitudes between i m -o and +3 m -4, and
10 were dwarfs between +9 m -8 and + io m -7; there was thus a clear
gap of six magnitudes separating the groups. Ascending to types
K and G the groups draw closer together and begin to commingle,
but even in type F the frequency curve shows the two distinct
maxima. Further evidence is obtained from the study of eclipsing
variable stars (10), since the average densities of these stars may be
determined from the period and the light curve. For types B and A
the densities are fairly uniform, averaging about one-tenth the den-
sity of water; but for lower temperatures they clearly bifurcate, the
one branch corresponding to dense stars like the sun and the other
to rarefied stars with densities often below that of our atmosphere.
W. Crucis, R. Z. Ophiuchi and S. X. Cassiopeiae are examples of
stars with densities less than o-ooi, yet giving spectra classed as
similar to that of the sun (density 1-38).
Finally all doubt as to the existence of these giant stars is set at
rest by Pease and Anderson's direct measurement of the angular
diameter of Betelgeuse made with a 2O-ft. interferometer at Mount
Wilson in December 1920. The angular diameter was found to be
o"-O45. Unfortunately the parallax is too small to be measured with
much certainty; but it may be taken as proved that it is less than
o"'O5. This makes the linear diameter of Betelgeuse not less than
140 million km. or loo times the sun's diameter. This is an example
of a type M giant at the very beginning of the evolutionary sequence.
Spectroscopic Parallaxes. Although giant and dwarf stars of the
same temperature have, broadly speaking, the same spectrum, a
detailed examination of particular lines reveals distinctive differences.
It was early shown by E. Hertzsprung that those spectra marked by
Miss Maury as having the " e-characteristic " belonged exclusively
to giant stars. More precise criteria were found by W. S. Adams
and A. Kohlschiitter in 1914; and the method has been developed
by Adams into a means not only of distinguishing the two classes
but of determining quantitatively the absolute luminosities of stars.
For example, the "enhanced lines" of strontium 4077 and 4215 are
relatively strong in stars of high luminosity and weak in those of low
luminosity; whereas the " furnace lines " of strontium 4607 and
calcium 4455 behave in the reverse manner. Thus measures of the
relative intensities of these lines give an indication of the luminosity
of the star. In a general way we can understand the reason; en-
hanced lines come from ionized atoms, so that they appear when the
conditions are favourable to ionization. Other conditions being
equal, low density increases the ionization so that the enhanced
lines are likely to be strengthened in stars of low density, i.e. the
giants as turns out to be the case. Considerable progress in the
theory of ionization in stellar atmospheres has been made by M.
N. Saha (n), the results being in good agreement with the observed
conditions of emission of the corresponding spectral lines. But
Adams's spectroscopic method of determining absolute luminosities
(and hence parallaxes) is at present entirely empirical ; that is to say,
the curve connecting absolute magnitude with the differential inten-
sity of the selected lines is first deduced from and tested by stars of
known trigonometrical parallax; it is then applied to deduce the
luminosities of other stars. Parallaxes determined by this method
for 1,650 stars have already been announced (9).
Red Dwarf Stars. Two very feebly luminous stars have been dis-
covered which are of special interest owing to their closeness to us.
In 1916 E. E. Barnard detected a star of visual magnitude 9 m -7 in
1 The absolute magnitude is the magnitude at a distance of 10
parsecs. The parsec, or distance corresponding to a parallax of I*,
is 19-2 Xio 18 miles. The absolute magnitude of the sun is very
nearly 5 m -o; thus the zero of absolute magnitude is a star loojtimes
as bright as the sun.
ASTRONOMY
299
R.A.i7 h 53 m , Dec. 427' N., having an annual proper motion of
lo"-3, the largest yet known. Its parallax is o"-52, which makes it
the second nearest star (a Centauri being the nearest). A faint com-
panion to a Centauri (sharing the same large proper motion) was dis-
covered in the same year by R. T. A. Innes; its visual magnitude
is n m -o, and it has been verified that the parallax is practically the
same as that of a Centauri. It appears that this companion is distant
10,000 astronomical units from the principal components, and its
period of revolution round them must be a million years. It is now
on the near side of its orbit so that it is actually the nearest star
known; for that reason it has been named Proxima Centauri.
Barnard's and Innes's stars, being both faint and close to us, must
be of very low intrinsic luminosity ; with them may be grouped two
other companions to stars of large parallax, forming the four in-
trinsically faintest stars yet known :
Barnard star absolute visual magnitude I3 M '3
Proxima Centauri absolute visual magnitude 15 -4
Groombridge 34, comes absolute visual magnitude 13
Pi. 2 h i23, comes absolute visual magnitude 12 -3
As might be expected all four are red stars in the last stage before
extinction, so that photographically their magnitudes are even
fainter. Proxima gives less than 1/10,000 of the light of the sun.
A distant companion to Capella discovered by Furuhjelm must also
be very faint; but it is probably brighter than those above men-
tioned.
At the other end of the scale it is uncertain what is the maximum
luminosity reached by the stars, because of the smallness of the
parallaxes of those which are likely to be the brightest. Canopus,
Rigel, and some others may approach or even surpass 5 m -o
(10,000 times the sun's luminosity), but it is not possible to obtain
satisfactory evidence of anything brighter. The known range of
absolute stellar magnitude is thus from 5 m -o to +I5 m -o, or a
hundred-million-fold ratio of luminosity, with the sun just at the
middle. This range is much the same as the known range of apparent
brightness (in spite of the distance factor affecting the latter) ;
so that apparent brightness is practically no guide to the distance.
Stars of low luminosity are far more common in space than those
of high luminosity. Thus we find the four red dwarfs above men-
tioned within a very small distance from the sun, and doubtless
they are equally plentiful throughout the stellar system ; but we have
to extend our net to very great distances to catch Canopus and Rigel
representing the most brilliant stars, and they ought to be regarded
as very exceptional freaks of nature. Perhaps it is unfortunate that
these exceptional stars catch our attention by their brilliancy, and
figure to a disproportionate extent in our catalogues.
Masses of Stars. In striking contrast to the enormous range of
intrinsic brightness, is the comparative uniformity of the masses of
stars. Some knowledge of their masses may be gained from a study
of the orbits of visual binaries of known parallax, and also from
spectroscopic binaries (in which case the parallax is not needed).
In general the range of mass is surprisingly small, the result being
usually between one-half and twice the sun's mass. Exceptions prob-
ably appear more numerous than they really are, because of our
tendency to pick out the very luminous stars, which are believed to
have masses above the average. Stars of type B are found to be on
the average three or four times as massive as the others, confirming
the view already mentioned that only a star of large mass can attain
the highest temperatures. Both components of V. Puppis (type Bi)
have masses not less than 17 X sun 1 ; these are the greatest yet meas-
ured, though we suspect that masses up to, say, 50 X sun may occa-
sionally occur. The smallest mass known is that of the faint com-
ponent of the double star Krueger 60 which is between 1/6 and 1/8
X sun. Attention to these extreme cases scarcely does justice to the
uniformity of the great majority of the stars; from a theoretical
relation between luminosity and mass for giant stars it is probable
that 90% will have masses between J and 2 X sun.
Advantage is taken of this uniformity to determine the so-called
" hypothetical parallaxes," or dynamical parallaxes, of double stars.
If a is the semi-axis of the orbit in astronomical units, P the period
in years, and mi+nvs the mass of the system in terms of the sun,
we have
Thus a can be found if mi+m 2 is known or guessed. We may
assume with fair probability that mi+m2 = 2, the possible deviations
being comparatively unimportant because the cube-root is taken in
determining a. But the value of a in angular measure is found from
the apparent orbit in the sky; comparing the angular measure with
the linear measure given by the above calculation, we at once find
the distance or parallax of the star. It is possible to modify the
procedure so that it can be used when only a small arc of the orbit
has been observed. Dynamical parallaxes of 556 double stars have
been published by J. Jackson and H. H. Furner (12) ; from these the
absolute magnitudes and linear velocities (transverse to the line of
sight) were calculated. The magnitudes showed clearly the bifurca-
tion into giants and dwarfs. The linear velocities were combined to
give a determination of the sun's motion through the stellar system,
the result being a velocity of 19-1 km. per sec. towards the Apex
R.A.273", Dec. +34. This agrees remarkably well with the values
'That is, 17 times the sun's mass.
generally accepted; and in particular the accordance of the speed
with the value 19-5 km. per sec., obtained from the discussion of
spectroscopic radial velocities, shows that the assumed mass 2-0
X sun must be almost exactly the average mass of a double star
system.
Fixed Calcium Lines. In certain spectroscopic binaries, the
curious phenomenon of " fixed calcium lines " is observed. Whereas
the other lines of the spectrum shift to and fro as the star approaches
and recedes in its orbit, the narrow K line of calcium remains
stationary. It is clear that there must be, somewhere between us
and the star's surface, an absorbing cloud of calcium vapour, which
does not follow the star in its orbit. The phenomenon was first
pointed out by Hartmann in 1904 for the star 5 Orionis; more re-
cently it has been observed in other cases, and more than 20 such
stars are now known. All belong to the very hottest spectral class
O-B2; but this is not so significant as is often supposed, because at
lower temperatures the K line appears in the spectrum of the star
itself and would confuse the observation of the fixed calcium cloud.
There are two possibilities, (a) that the cloud surrounds the whole
binary system, the components revolving within it without appre-
ciably disturbing it, (b) that the cloud has no connexion with the
star, but consists of calcium vapour perhaps distributed widely in
interstellar space. The hypothesis (a) was apparently contradicted
by the fact that measures of the velocity of the fixed cloud did not
agree with that of the centre of mass of the binary system ; but the
differences are not large, and may perhaps be ascribed to errors of
observation or other causes of spectral shift. Hypothesis (b) seems
the simplest; it suggests that vapours in very minute quantities
may be diffused through space or float in extended clouds; the
rarity of detection is due to the fact that the corresponding " fixed "
spectral lines would in most cases be blended with similar absorption
lines occurring in the atmospheres of the stars. Miss Heger at the
Lick Observatory has recently discovered that the sodium lines DI
and D 2 in 5 Orionis are also " fixed."
Cepheid Variables. Many new facts have emerged with regard
to the class of short-period variable stars typified by 8 Cephei. The
three leading classes of variable stars are (a) long-period variables,
(6) eclipsing variables, (c) Cepheids. In the first-named, the varia-
tion is undoubtedly due to a physical process in the star itself, which
alternately blazes up and subsides; in the second, we have to do with
a double star and the change of brightness is due merely to eclipses
of one component by the other; the conditions which cause the
variation of the third class the Cepheids are much more puzzling.
The first question is : Is the Cepheid a binary star? The spectroscope
apparently answers in the affirmative, for it shows a radial velocity
increasing and decreasing in the period of the light fluctuation;
it has generally been taken for granted that this must represent
orbital motion. But the change of light cannot be attributed to
eclipses; not only is the light curve of a different character, but mini-
mum brightness always occurs when the star is receding most
rapidly at a time when the other component could not be between
it and us. There must be an actual variation in the rate of radiation
by the star, and this has been confirmed by H. Shapley (13), who
showed that the spectral type (and presumably the surface tempera-
ture) changes during the period. For example, 5 Cephei changes from
type Fo at maximum to G2 at minimum; this periodic heating and
cooling is the main cause of the change of brightness. One suggested
explanation is that the orbital motion occurs in a resisting medium,
so that the front side of the star is brighter than the rear side on ac-
count of the impact of the medium ; this would explain why minimum
brightness always occurs when the star is retreating. But opinion
is now tending towards a pulsatory theory proposed by H. Shapley (14)
which rejects the binary hypothesis altogether. The fact is that
there is literally no room for the supposed second component re-
quired by the binary hypothesis. The Cepheids are giant stars
filling a large volume, and the " orbit " is always small compared
with the dimensions of the star itself. When we calculate the size
of the orbit of the supposed companion (which we can do, knowing
the period and approximate mass of the system) we find that it
would graze or even lie inside the principal star a reductio ad
absurdum of the binary hypothesis. Further, a relation has been
found between period and density in these stars which points to
the period being determined by intrinsic conditions; such a relation
is quite unintelligible if the period is provoked by an external
cause, viz. the revolution of a companion. Accordingly Shapley
suggests that the variable is a single star which dilates and contracts
with a regular pulsation; and the observed motion of approach and
recession refers, not to the star as a whole, but to the upheaval and
subsidence of the part of the surface presented towards us.
The radius of 5 Cephei may be taken as about 15,000,000 km.;
the semi-amplitude of the oscillation, according to the observed
radial velocities, is 1,370,000 km., or about 9% of the radius. For
15 other fully observed Cepheids the semi-amplitude of the pulsation
ranges from 4 to 14% of the radius; this seems an amount of com-
pression and expansion suitable to produce the rather large changes of
temperature required. Within narrow limits the period is inversely
proportional to the square root of the star's mean density, a relation
which seems significant in view of the fact that the pulsations of a
gravitating sphere follow this law. Moreover the constant of
proportionality is of the order of magnitude predicted by theory:
300
ASTRONOMY
we can calculate that a globe of gas having the mass and density of
5 Cephei will vibrate in a period between 4 and 10 days (varying
between these limits according to the adiabatic constant of the
material of which it is composed); the observed period is 5-37 days.
The most serious objection urged against the pulsation theory of
Cepheids is that it requires a broadening of the spectral lines at
minimum and maximum, because all parts of the disc would not
be moving with the same speed in the line of sight ; this has not yet
been observed. It is to be hoped that this crucial but rather difficult
effect will be thoroughly sought for in the near future. It may be
remarked that some variation of light will arise directly from the
dilatation and contraction of the surface; but this is not the leading
variation since the actual maxima and minima occur when the
star is passing through its mean volume. The indirect effect of the
compression, changing the rate of flow of radiation, is much more
important; and although the detailed mathematical discussion of
the problem has not proved tractable, there is a general accordance
of theory and observation.
The name " Cepheid " was at first restricted to stars with periods
usually between three and eight days; but longer and shorter periods'
have been found, and it is now recognized that the " cluster vari-
ables " with periods less than a day are of the same nature. These
occur abundantly in several of the globular clusters. In examining
a globular cluster we have the great advantage that all the stars
under review are at practically the same distance from us, so that
apparent differences of brightness are real differences of brightness,
and are not confused by effects of distance. Now it is found that
in a globular cluster Cepheids of the same period have all the
same brightness; so that a Cepheid of definite period is a standard
object, whose absolute brightness will presumably be the same
under all circumstances. This remarkable uniformity was first
noticed by Miss Leavitt for the variables in the Lesser Magellanic
Cloud; the results have since been extended by Shapley who has
calculated the curve connecting luminosity with period. It appears
that the Cepheids are among the brightest and probably the most
massive stars, ranging in absolute magnitude from I M ~5 for periods
of three days to 4 M -o for 18 days, and so on. Most are of spectral
type F G, becoming redder as the period lengthens; those with
periods under a day are of type A. The range of the variation in
magnitude is generally between o"-5 and oP'-q, but doubtless many
with smaller variations escape notice. The Pole Star is a Cepheid
with a light range of only o m -l and a period of 3-97 days.
Novae. Two " new stars " of unusual brilliance have appeared
in recent years. Nova Aquilae III. was discovered independently
by a great many observers on June 8 1918, when it was already
a first-magnitude star. Its earlier history has been supplied from
an examination of photographic records of the sky. From 1888
onwards it remained steady at io m -s and a photograph taken
by Max Wolf three days before discovery showed that it was
still normal. Incidentally we may note that it cannot have been
a red star (types K or M) or it would have appeared in visual
catalogues. On June 7 it had reached 6 m according to a Harvard
photograph. The next day (when it was discovered) it had bright-
ened to o m -8; and on June 9 it was only slightly inferior to Sirius.
Then followed the usual slow decline with occasional fluctuations;
and it had faded to s m -s by the end of October. W. F. Denning
discovered a Nova in Cygnus on August 20 1920, which reached
the second magnitude. Its earlier history is unknown, but it
must have been fainter than is m in 1908.
Broadly speaking each Nova reproduces the same sequence of
phenomena with remarkable faithfulness (15). At the brightest the
spectrum is that of a star of type A$. A few days later broad emis-
sion lines appear by the side of corresponding absorption lines which
are strongly displaced to the violet. The absorption lines become
doubled and tripled, as though there were several layers of uprushing
gas travelling at different speeds in the line of sight. About a fort-
night after maximum bright nebula lines appear; the continuous
spectrum weakens and the star's light now comes mainly from emis-
sion lines. After some months the spectrum approximates to that
of a planetary nebula. The great speed of upward rush of the ab-
sorbing gases is very remarkable, velocities of the order 2,000 km.
per sec. being observed; there is no reason to doubt that these
velocities are genuine, for the star expands and in the later stages
shows a visible disc in large telescopes. The observed rate of spread-
ing seems to agree with the speeds indicated by the spectroscope.
Many theories have been suggested to account for the outbreak.
A collision of two stars seems unlikely on account of its statistical
improbability; and, moreover, the regular sequence of changes
could scarcely be started by a haphazard impact. An eruption from
within, whether occurring spontaneously at a certain stage of evolu-
tion or precipitated by the entry of the star into a nebula, may be
more likely; but this theory also presents difficulties. J. H. Moore
has recently obtained evidence that the extended nebulous disc,
which is ultimately formed, shows differential motions of rotation in
different parts. In any case it seems likely from the very rapid
sequence of changes that the main outbreak is only skin-deep.
Novae always occur within the limits of the Milky Way (or in spiral
nebulae) ; but this may perhaps be due to the greater depth of the
stellar universe in this direction. So far as can be judged the Nova
before the outbreak is a dwarf star; and at least in the case of Nova
Aquilae it cannot have been a very red star. (The long-period vari-
ables, whose violent outbreaks are rather suggestive of the explosion
of a Nova, are giant red stars.) We may meditate on the fact that
the stars subject to these catastrophes are probably in about the
same stage of evolution as that through which the sun is now passing.
Stellar Velocities. In 1910 J. C. Kapteyn and W. W. Campbell
announced independently that (after allowing for the solar
motion) the average speeds of the stars increase continuously
as we pass through the spectral series from type B to type M.
Kapteyn deduced the result from the proper motions, and Camp-
bell from the spectroscopic radial velocities. At that time the
older view, that the progression from B to M was the order of
evolution, held the field; and it seemed as though the motion
of a star must increase as it grows older. But the giant and
dwarf theory shows that it is not a question of stage of evolution.
Take for example Campbell's figures: the average radial speeds
are type B, 6-5; A, 10-9; F, 14-4; G, 15-0; K, 16-8; M, 17-1
km. per second. In this investigation the K and M stars were almost
all giants, so that so far as this analysis goes the youngest stars have
the highest speeds; but Eddington found that the dwarf K and M
stars at the other extreme in the sequence of evolution have still
higher speeds. Of the 19 nearest stars, the nine brightest have a
mean transverse speed of 29 km. per sec. (corresponding to a mean
radial speed of 18-5 km. per sec.) whereas the 10 faintest, with lumi-
nosities less than X sun, have a mean transverse speed of 68 km.
per sec. ( = radial speed 43 km. per sec.). W. S. Adams confirmed
this by determination of the radial velocities; of 16 stars whose
luminosity is less than j^ X sun, the mean radial velocity is 36 km.
per sec. or more than twice that of the giant stars of the same type.
Similar results were found in a more extensive statistical investiga-
tion by Eddington and Hartley. Finally Kapteyn and Adams (16)
announced a general progressive dependence of velocity on absolute
brightness, the faintest stars having the greatest average speed.
We see then that there is a correlation of speed both with spectral
type and with luminosity. It seems likely that the primary asso-
ciation is between speed and mass, the dependence on luminosity
and spectral type being due to the correlation of these with mass;
as already mentioned, only the most massive stars can reach the
hottest spectral types. If this view is correct we must regard the
quick-moving dwarf stars of types K and M as having particularly
low masses either because the smallest stars run their course of
evolution more quickly, or because mass has been lost along with the
energy radiated during their past history. The last suggestion
may seem extravagant, but it must be pointed out that all energy
has mass; so that a radiating star is continually losing mass; the
only question is whether the life of the star is long enough for this
loss of mass to amount to anything appreciable ; and as to the length
of life the most widely divergent views are current. With regard to
the explanation of this association of speed and mass, J. Halm (17)
has advocated the tempting hypothesis that it is an example of the
equipartition of energy brought about by the laws of statistical
dynamics exactly as in a gas where molecules of different masses
are mixed. But starting with an arbitrary mixture of stellar veloc-
ities, it would take about lo 15 years to approach this equipartition
by mutual perturbations of the stars; and most astronomers shrink
from attributing such an age to the stellar universe. A simpler sug-
gestion is that the small stars were formed in the outer parts of the
stellar system, where star-forming material was more 'rarefied ;
and they have acquired greater velocities by the longer fall towards
the central region where we now observe them.
The Star Streams. Many researches have confirmed Kap-
teyn's discovery that the stars (or at least those near enough for
investigation) move preferentially in two favoured directions.
Since the article STAR (see 25.784) was written, the spectroscopic
radial velocities have become available for testing the theory
and they confirm it decisively. Relatively to the sun the favoured
directions are inclined at about 120 (the apices being at R.A.96
Dec.+8, and R.A.2QO , Dec. -54); but referred to the mean
of the stars they are necessarily two opposite directions along a
straight line. The extremities of this axis of preferential motion
are called the vertices. The following appear to be the most
accurate determinations of the vertex by the two independent
methods (18):
From proper motions (Boss's catalogue) R.A.94-2, Dec. + 1 1 -9-
From radial velocities (Lick catalogues) R.A.94-6, Dec. + i2 -5-
ASTRONOMY
301
It is significant that the line of preferential motion lies exactly
in the galactic plane. The phenomenon may be due to two great
systems of stars passing through one another; or it may represent
some dynamical condition of a single system. The latter view
has often been favoured, mainly owing to the very elegant mathe-
matical specification of the corresponding velocity distribution
given by K. Schwarzschild's ellipsoidal theory (19).
H. H. Turner (20) suggests that if the stars were originally formed
as an extended system with little or no initial motion, the system
would settle down to a steady state in which the motions were pre-
ponderatingly radial; so that, assuming that the sun is placed ex-
centrically, the stars in its neighbourhood would be moving prefer-
entially in the line towards and away from the centre. An analogy
is afforded by the comets in the solar system, which, observed from
an outer planet, would appear to move preferentially towards and
away from the sun. This explanation seems satisfactory on the
whole. It may be objected that, according to statistics of distribu-
tion of the stars, the dynamical centre of the stellar system appears
to be, not in the direction of the vertex, but 90 away ; and the view
favoured by Stromberg and by Jeans is that the star-streaming is
due to predominant transverse (circular) motion rather than radial
motion. It is difficult to see how such a state of motion could orig-
inate. H. Shapley has, however, shown that the " local system "
(considered in studies of stellar distribution) is but a small part of
a greater galactic system ; we are on the outskirts of the latter, and
its centre is in the direction R.A.262 , Dec. 30, agreeing reason-
ably well with the line of preferential motion.
The more detailed study of the systematic motions of the stars
leads to great complexity. After the first approximation outlined
above, we have to recognize a third drift, pointed out by J. Halm,
which seems to be nearly at rest relative to the mean of the other
two. The striking feature is that the type B stars appear to belong
to this third drift, and a statistical discussion of their motions shows
no indication of the preferential motion, which is always conspicu-
ously manifested (though in somewhat different degrees) by the
stars of other types. All this complexity is probably a sign that the
stellar system is not in any approximate equilibrium, but is progress-
ing towards a steadier configuration.
Moving Clusters. Many years ago R. A. Proctor pointed out
a group of stars in the neighbourhood of the Hyades with prac-
tically equal proper motions; the researches of L. Boss (21) have
thrown new light on the nature of this association. He recognized
as belonging to the group 39 stars spread over an area 15 square;
the motions appear to converge towards a certain point in the
sky a perspective effect which would naturally occur if the
actual motions in three dimensions are parallel; the direction
of the convergent point gives the direction of the common motion
of the group relative to the sun.
Knowing the spectroscopic radial velocity of one or more mem-
bers, we can by an easy geometrical construction find the whole
linear velocity and also locate each star separately in space. We
thus obtain exceptionally full and exact information as to the dis-
tances and luminosities of this group of stars. The cluster is roughly
spherical with a diameter of 10 parsecs; there must be many non-
associated stars accidental interlopers in so large a region and
perhaps the most significant conclusion is that the casual attractions
of these stars have not been able during the lifetime of the cluster
to disturb appreciably the parallelism of the motions and so scatter
the cluster. Another remarkable " moving cluster " is formed of five
stars of the Plough together with stars widely separated in the sky,
including Sirius, a Coronae and Eridani. Similar associations are
specially frequent among stars of the B type of spectrum, one of the
most distinct being a chain of stars crossing the constellation Perseus.
Number and Distribution of Stars. Important statistics of
the number of stars down to various limits of magnitude have
been obtained by Chapman and Melotte and by P. J. van Rhijn.
We give some results of the latter investigation which is the more
recent (22).
The total number of stars down to photographic magnitude l6 m -o
is 33,000,000 ; by a somewhat risky extrapolation it is estimated that
the total number of stars in the system is between three and four
thousand millions, and to reach half this number it would be neces-
sary to go as far as magnitude 25 ra -5. (Exactly what is meant by
the "system" in the foregoing sentence is somewhat difficult to de-
fine; there may, of course, be exterior galaxies or extensions which
are not reckoned in these counts.) An important point is the well-
known flattened distribution of the stars; up to magnitude I6 m ,
the stars are distributed in the galactic plane 55 times as thickly
as at the galactic poles. This is an increase compared with the con-
centration of the brighter stars; up to magnitude 5 m , the corre-
sponding ratio is 2\. We can easily understand this greater concen-
tration of the faint stars, since on the average they carry us to
greater distances, at which the oblate shape of the stellar system
has more pronounced effect.
Taking a lower limit of luminosity 1/200 X sun, it is estimated
that there are 30 stars within a sphere of five parsecs radius round
the sun ; about 20 of these have actually been identified. If this,
star density persisted, a sphere of 1,500 parsecs radius would con-
tain 800 million stars, besides an unknown but probably rather large
number of extinct stars and of stars giving less than i/2ooth of the
sun's light. This gives some idea of the possible extent of the star
cloud to which we belong; there can be little doubt that the density
must fall off very considerably at distances not greater than 1,500
parsecs, more especially in the directions of the galactic poles.
The following table based on an investigation by Kapteyn,
van Rhijn and Weersma (23) shows the average parallax of stars
of different magnitudes:
Mag.
Mean Parallax.
Mag.
Mean Parallax.
I m -O
2 m -0
3 m '
4 m -o
5 m -
6 m -o
060"
044"
032"
023"
017"
012"
7 m -o
8 m -o
9 m -o
IC^-O
II m -0
I2 m -p
0090"
0065"
0047'
0034'
0025'
0018"
It is an even chance that a particular star has a parallax between
0-23 and 1-13 times the average parallax for its magnitude.
Globular Clusters. About 70 globular clusters are known,
distinguishable from the loose irregular star clusters by their
symmetrical and condensed appearance. These have been the
subject of a remarkable series of researches by H. Shapley (24).
It has already been mentioned that some of them contain many
Cepheid variables, whose absolute luminosities are known from their
periods. Thus in Messier 3 (Canes Venatici) the mean magnitude
of no Cepheid variables is I5 m -so, the individual stars deviating
as a rule no more than o-! from this mean. In the cluster a
Centauri 76 variables concentrate with similar closeness about a
mean magnitude !3 m -57. It is clear that the difference l m -93 must
correspond to the greater distance of Messier 3; and we easily
deduce that the ratio of the distances is 2-43, this ratio being very
accurately determined. We are not quite so certain of the absolute
distances of the two clusters ; but the evidence seems to indicate that
the absolute magnitude of these variables (with periods less than a
day) is o"-2, which gives the following distances o> Centauri,
5,800 parsecs; Messier 3, 14,000 parsecs. When it is recalled that
the usual trigonometrical method can scarcely be applied to deter-
mining distances greater than 20 parsecs, the extraordinary power
of this method of plumbing space will be realized. The method was
first used by E. Hertzsprung to determine the distance of the Lesser
Magellanic Cloud.
By this method, and by supplementary devices, Shapley has been
able to plot the distribution of the globular clusters in space and to
form an idea of the extent of the system which they outline. Even
in this vaster system the galactic plane is still a plane of symmetry
and of flattening though the clusters extend to great distances above
and below, the average distance from the plane being eight kilopar-
secs. In plan the system is elongated with its axis in galactic longi-
tude 325 nearly the direction of star streaming; the greatest
diameter is at least 60 kiloparsecs, and the sun is near one end of it
so that practically all the globular clusters are found in one hemi-
sphere of the sky. The most remote cluster known is distant 67
kiloparsecs or 200,000 light years. We have to recognize that the
"stellar system," dealt with in the researches described previously,
is but a small star cloud in this greater galactic system. Roughly
speaking those researches may be considered to relate to a domain
of about 800 parsecs radius; the sun seems to be fairly centrally
placed in the local star cloud (about 90 parsecs from the centre,
according to Charlier), but this is on the outskirts of a greater sys-
tem whose centre is 20,000 parsecs away.
In the foregoing deductions Shapley neglects any possible loss
of apparent brightness owing to absorption of light in space. Any-
thing of the nature of a fog or scattering medium would cause
greater loss of light in the blue than in the red, and would con-
sequently betray itself by a general reddening of the light of the
more distant stars. Such a reddening has been sought for by King,
Kapteyn, H. S. Jones, and others, and provisional estimates of the
extinction have been made. Shapley considers that the extinction
must be altogether negligible, resting his case on the observation
that the colour-indices of stars in clusters range from O^-S to
+ l m '9 just as those of the nearer stars do. It seems therefore im-
possible that their light can have been reddened by a scattering
medium. The general absorption in space must be so low that a
ray of light proceeding through interstellar space can travel for
3,000 years without meeting obstacles sufficient to deflect I % of its
intensity. Nevertheless there are large tracts of obscuring mate-
rial in particular regions, which hide more or less completely the
stars behind. These are found especially in the Milky Way, and
consist of dark or faintly-luminous nebulae often of great extent;
perhaps there is no hard and fast division between them and the
302
ASTRONOMY
irregular gaseous nebulae like the Orion nebula. A large obscuring
tract in Taurus is estimated by A. Pannekoek to be at 140 parsecs
distance; this may be compared with Kapteyn's value 190 parsecs
for the Orion nebula. A catalogue of 182 dark markings in the sky
has been given by E. E. Barnard (25).
Nebulae. Whereas the irregular gaseous nebulae are com-
paratively near, and within the local star cloud, the spiral neb-
ulae are now considered to be exceedingly remote perhaps more
remote than the globular clusters. According to one view, they
are " island universes " coequal with the great galactic system.
Others would consider them rather as outlying dependencies.
Unfortunately we have no trustworthy knowledge of their dis-
tances; estimates have been made from the apparent magnitudes
of the novae which have appeared in them, but these seem to be
very speculative. The spirals have been found to possess extraor-
dinarily great velocities in the line of sight and in general the
motion is directed away from the sun. This seems to argue a lack
of dynamical association with the galactic system. The mean
speed of 15 spirals measured by Slipher, is about 400 km. per sec.
Independent determinations by Slipher, Wright, and Pease agree
well on a velocity of 300 km. per sec. for the Andromeda nebula;
for some nebulae speeds exceeding 1,000 km. per sec. have been
found. The Theory of Relativity suggests an interesting ex-
planation of these high speeds, and more particularly the pre-
ponderance of receding velocities. De Sitter's form of the theory
of curved space-time actually predicts an effect of this kind for
very remote objects (26).
The planetary nebulae are presumably much less distant. They
have a well-marked galactic concentration; but the solar motion
referred to them is apparently not the same as that referred to the
stars. They do not show preferential motion along any axis. The
average radial velocity is 30 km. per sec. about the same as that
of the fastest class of stars (the red dwarfs). When the planetary
nebulae are photographed with an objective prism of large dispersion,
it is found that the various monochromatic images are of different
forms and sizes; so that important information is obtained as to
the distribution of the emitting gases through the nebula. Perhaps
the most fundamental problem presented by these objects is whether
all parts of the disc are independently self-luminous, or whether the
light-emission is stimulated by radiation coming from a central star
or nucleus.
II. THEORETICAL ASTRONOMY
Gravitation. The epoch-making theory of gravitation, put
forward by Einstein in 191 5, is described in the article RELATIV-
ITY. We refer to it here because the new law of gravitation, re-
quired by his theory, removes the most outstanding divergence
between theory and observation in the solar system viz. the
progression of the perihelion of Mercury. There is still some
discrepancy between theory and observation for the motion of
the node of Venus; but this is a much smaller residual, and may
perhaps even be attributable to accidental errors. Einstein's
predicted deflection of light by the sun's gravitational field was
verified by the British eclipse expeditions in 1919. His third
crucial test a general displacement of spectral lines to the red
in the sun as compared with terrestrial sources was still in 1921
a subject of controversy.
E. W. Brown's lunar theory, developed according to the meth-
ods of G. W. Hill, was completed by the publication in 1920 of
full Tables of the Moon's Motion. It seems safe to say that no
term of appreciable significance has been omitted; nevertheless
the moon deviates unmistakably from its theoretical place in an
irregular manner. An investigation by H. Glauert (27) seems
to show that the irregularities are at least partly due to varia-
tions in the rate of our standard timekeeper, viz. the earth's
rotation; for the longitudes of the sun, Mercury and Venus
exhibit similar irregularities, and the curves closely resemble one
another. Besides these irregular changes, there is a general
secular acceleration of the moon, which, being cumulative,
leads to large changes in the circumstances of ancient eclipses.
The historical evidence of all kinds has been rediscussed by
J. K. Fotheringham (28) who arrives finally at the values io"-s
for the moon's secular acceleration 1 and i"-o for the sun's secular
'The moon goes ahead by the amount to'-sT 2 , where T is the
time in centuries. This is the conventional definition of " secular
acceleration " in this connexion.
acceleration. These quantities are presumably attributable to
tidal friction which causes a direct acceleration of the moon's
orbital motion, as well as a spurious acceleration through the
increase in the length of the standard of time.
It is now believed that the bodily tides in the earth have little
effect and that the most effective retardation is due to tides in
land-locked and shallow seas. According to G. I. Taylor the
Irish Sea alone contributes fa of the total dissipation of energy.
Evolution of Rotating Masses. The figures of equilibrium and the
final disruption of rotating fluid masses have been studied in great
detail by J. H. Jeans. In agreement with Liapounoff he has found
that the so-called " pear-shaped " figure of equilibrium, which suc-
ceeds the Jacobi ellipsoidal form, is unstable. For a full account of
his conclusions as to the evolution of double stars, spiral nebulae and
clusters reference must be made to his book Problems of Cosmogony
and Stellar Dynamics. With regard to the solar system, he finds
himself unable to account for the formation of the planets by rotation
alone; and he attributes them to a tidal disruption of the sun hav-
ing occurred at some distant epoch in the past. If this view is correct
the system of the planets is a " freak of nature," owing its existence
to a chance encounter of some larger star (which approached within
less than the sun's diameter from its surface). Few, if any, other
systems of this kind can have been formed; and the common view
that the stars in general are attended each by a system of planets may
be entirely mistaken.
Mathematical investigations of the possible steady states of a
system of stars moving under gravitational forces have been made by
Charlier, Jeans and Eddington (29). It appears that the actual con-
ditions are such that each star describes an orbit under the averaged
attraction of the whole mass, the casual perturbations of a star by
its immediate neighbours being negligible. For a spherical distribu-
tion, a steady system can be found in which there is preferential
motion in a radial direction, illustrating H. H. Turner's explanation
of star-streaming. An oblate system can also be in a steady state
with radial star-streaming, provided that it is not alone but forms
part of a larger system in which the mass as a whole is distributed
spherically. It appears fairly certain, however, that an isolated
oblate system moving under its own attraction cannot be in a
steady state. For this and other reasons we believe that our own
oblate stellar system is by no means in dynamical equilibrium, but is
collapsing towards some more permanent form.
H. von Zeipel and H. C. Plummer (30) have found that the distri-
bution of stars in globular clusters conforms to a definite law, which
is in fact the adiabatic law of density of a gravitating sphere of gas
for which 7 has the critical value 1-2. Although this appears to
have important dynamical significance, no very satisfactory explana-
tion can be given.
Radiative Equilibrium of the Stars. The discovery that many of
the stars the giant stars are diffuse globes of very low density,
gives a stimulus to investigations of their internal conditions of equi-
librium; for the material, being practically a perfect gas, will obey
comparatively simple laws. In the earlier researches of Lane and
Ritter it was supposed that the equilibrium was adiabatic that is
to say, the material was continually stirred by convection currents,
hot gases ascending to replace the continually cooling material at
the surface. But it is now clear that the heat passes to the surface
not by material transfer but by radiation ; and the condition of equi-
ibrium is that each element will settle down to the temperature at
which it radiates an amount of heat equal to that which it absorbs
:rom the radiant heat flowing through it. This was first pointed out
as probable by R. A. Sampson, and the theory of radiative equili-
brium was developed by K. Schwarzschild for the external layers of
thesun. Eddington (31) has based on this principle a theory of the
equilibrium throughout the interior of a star.
At first the principal unknown constant was the molecular weight
of the material of the star. It was, however, pointed out by Newall
and Jeans that the atoms were probably strongly ionized at the high
;emperatures prevailing; and this led to a simple solution of the
difficulty. The number of electrons surrounding the nucleus of any
atom is approximately half the atomic weight ; hence if all the elec-
trons break loose, the average molecular weight will in all cases be
approximately 2, since each unattached electron counts as a separate
molecule. lonization is probably not complete and both theory and
>bservation seem to be best satisfied by a value between 3 and 4;
)ut any large uncertainty as to the molecular weight is thus removed.
The calculation shows that the rate of radiation of energy of a gas-
eous (giant) star is given by :
where M is the mass, G the constant of gravitation, c the velocity of
ight, k the mass-coefficient of absorption of radiation by the mate-
rial, and a constant depending on the mass and obtained by
solving the quartic equation
i -0 = 0-0026 M 2 m</3<
where M is the mass in terms of the sun, and m the molecular weight
n terms of the hydrogen atom. The density does not enter into
ASTRONOMY
303
the formula for the rate of radiation ; and hence (provided k remains
constant) a star will radiate the same amount of energy as it passes
through all stages of evolution until it becomes too dense to behave
as a perfect gas. This agrees with the observed fact that the average
magnitudes of the giant stars are approximately the same for all
spectral types. The formula shows also that the total radiation
(and, subject to calculable corrections, the absolute luminosity)
is a function of the mass, and it becomes possible to calculate the
mass from the luminosity and vice versa. Thus the great majority
of the giant stars of types F and G'are comprised within absolute
magnitudes 2 M -o to o M -5; these correspond to masses 0-07 to
1-6 times that of the sun an illustration of the great uniformity of
stellar masses. The constant k must be obtained from our general
knowledge of the radiation of giant stars of known mass; it is
approximately 20 C.G.S. units, that is to say, radiation after passing
a column of stellar material of 1/20 gram per sq. cm. would be re-
duced to one-third (strictly l/e) of its original intensity. This is a
very high opacity, but it is of the same order as that found in labora-
tory experiments on X rays, to which the high temperature radia-
tion within the stars is closely akin. It is remarkable that k appears
to vary very little from one star to another in spite of their consider-
able differences of temperature.
Taking account of the deviations from the laws of a perfect gas,
the theory can be extended (though with less certainty) to dwarf
stars. The most interesting point is to determine the maximum tem-
perature attained by stars of different mass. Measuring the mass
in terms of the sun, a mass 1 should just attain effective temperature
3,000 (type M), below which it would scarcely appear luminous;
a mass $ attains 6,000 (type G) ; mass I attains 9,000" (type AS
F); and mass 2-5 attains 14,000 (type_ 65). These results will
no doubt be revised when better information is available for check-
ing the constants of the theory; but they appear to be reasonably
probable.
Radiation Pressure. It is found that the pressure of radiation
plays a very important part in the dynamical equilibrium of the giant
stars. As already mentioned the stellar material is highly opaque to
the radiation ; thus the outflowing radiation exerts a large pressure
on the absorbing material, tending to support part of its weight.
The fraction of the weight carried by the radiation pressure is the
quantity (l 0] in the formula already given. For example (taking
molecular weight 3-0) we find:
For star of mass * X sun radiation pressure supports 0-044 f weight
' 5 X " 0-457 "
This gives a clue to the remarkable phenomenon that the masses
of the stars are so nearly uniform. Why should the matter of the
universe have aggregated into lumps, whose size is almost always
between J and 5 X sun? We see that this is just the range for which
radiation pressure rises from insignificance to importance, and pre-
sumably that fact has determined the size of stellar masses. On
feneral grounds it is likely that when radiation pressure counter-
alances a considerable part of gravitation, the body would be very
liable to disruption; accordingly the chances of survival of stars
more than five times as massive as the sun, would be small. The
material has_-thus tended to divide and subdivide until the separate
masses fell just below the danger limit, fixed by this criterion of
radiation pressure; and afterwards there was no cause for further
division.
Age of the Stars. In discussions of the evolution and dy-
namics of the stars or of systems of stars, the problem arises:
What is the time-scale of the process? If astronomers were asked
to estimate the length of life of a star from its first luminescence
to its final extinction, the answers would probably fall into three
groups: (a) The short time-scale, urged by Kelvin, giving a life
of about 20 million years; (b) a long time-scale, say io 10 years;
(c) an ultra-long time-scale of io 16 years and upwards urged
by those who believe the stellar universe to have approximately
reached statistical equilibrium. Belief in the short time-scale
rests on Helmholtz's theory that the star's heat comes from the
gravitational energy converted as it contracts; in recent years,
the cumulative evidence against this " contraction theory " of a
star's energy has become very considerable, and it now, seems
clear that the star must have some much larger store to draw on.
The Cepheid variables may perhaps afford us a measure of the
rate at which the evolution proceeds. Like other giant stars,
8 Cephei would need to condense very rapidly if the energy which
it radiates came solely from contraction: the increase of density
must in fact amount to i % in 40 years. As already explained
the period of the light variation is intrinsic, and should there-
fore change as the density changes. Calculation shows that the
period ought to decrease 40 seconds annually. Now 5 Cephei
has been under careful observation since 1785 and the decrease
of period is only just detectable. The value given by E. Hertz-
sprung is a decrease of 0-08 second per annum. Thus at the
present stage evolution is proceeding at a rate no more than s d
of that required by the contraction hypothesis: and some source
of energy is being drawn on to prolong the star's life 5oo-fold.
Assuming that this store of energy is contained in the star (and
not picked up continually from space), it seems clear that it must
consist of the sub-atomic energy, releasable when the elements
are transmuted or possibly when positive and negative electrons
annihilate one another. Since all kinds of energy possess mass,
an upper limit to the store can be given; the sun's output of heat
could be maintained for is-io 12 years if all the energy contained
in it were liberated.
III. INSTRUMENTS
The Hooker telescope, a reflector of too in. aperture, installed
at Mount Wilson Observatory, is now (1921) the most powerful
telescope in the world. It was brought into regular use in 1919.
The mirror is a glass disc of thickness 12-8 in. at the edge and
1 1 -6 in. at the centre, weighing over four tons. It is ground to a
focal length of 12-88 metres, but can be used with convex mirrors
as a Cassegrain with equivalent focal lengths of 48 and 76 metres.
The weight on the polar axis is mainly buoyed by cylinders
floating in mercury. A 72-in. reflector has been erected at Vic-
toria, B.C. Both these large telescopes are giving excellent
performance.
A comparatively small telescope of interesting design was
constructed by the late B. Cookson at Cambridge; it is a photo-
graphic zenith telescope carried on an annulus which floats in
mercury. Rotation about the true vertical is thus secured by
flotation instead of by reading spirit levels. After Cookson's
death the instrument was removed to Greenwich,' where it has
been used with great success for determining latitude variation
and the constant of aberration. From seven years' observations
the value 2o"-44 I "-013 was obtained for the constant of aber-
ration; this is probably the best direct determination of the
constant, though scarcely so accurate as the value 2o"-47 ob-
tained indirectly from the solar parallax. A- somewhat similar
instrument in which rotation about the vertical is obtained by
suspension instead of by flotation has been recently installed
at Durham Observatory.
An appliance very much used in recent years is a coarse
grating consisting of parallel and equidistant metal strips placed
in front of the object glass. This grating, with say five "lines"
to the inch, seems like a travesty of the diffraction gratings used
by physicists; but the action is essentially the same. On either
side of the undiffracted image of the star subsidiary images
appear, which are in reality spectra of the first, second and higher
orders. The distance between the two first order images is pro-
portional to the average wave-length of the light ; and hence the
grating can be used for determining star colour on a quantita-
tive scale. It also provides a convenient means of obtaining
images whose intensities are in a definitely known ratio (calculated
from the widths of the strips and spaces), which is of great value
in determining an absolute scale of photographic magnitudes.
These objective gratings appear to have been first used by
K. Schwarzschild acting on a suggestion from A. A. Michelson.
Another optical device, suggested by A. A. Michelson so long ago
as 1890, has recently been used with great success at Mount
Wilson. An interferometer consists essentially of two light-
collectors of moderate aperture separated by a base-line of con-
siderable length (as in a range-finder). The beams of light are
then brought together, so that for a point source they produce the
usual interference fringes. As the base-line extends or contracts
the fringes narrow or widen in proportion. For a double star
a length and orientation of the base-line can be found in which the
bright fringes of one component fall on the dark intervals of the
other component, so that the visibility of the fringes is a mini-
mum. In this way the position angle and separation of the com-
ponents can be measured with great accuracy, and the method is
applicable to double stars too close to be resolved in a telescope;
in fact the resolving power of the interferometer is greater than
that of a telescope of aperture equal to the base-line. At Mount
304
ATHLETICS AUSTRALIA
Wilson excellent observations were obtained by this means of
Capella (hitherto known only as a spectroscopic binary) , the
separation of the components being o"-c>4. A still more interest-
ing application was the measurement for the first time of the
angular diameter of a star; this has been accomplished for Betel-
geuse (which probably has the greatest angular diameter of any
star) ; a base-line of 10 ft. was required for the disappearance of
the fringes. The diameter of Arcturus has also been meas-
ured, the fringes disappearing when the base-line was 19 feet.
The photo-electric cell has been the means of great advance
in stellar photometry. Films of the alkali metals emit electrons
in numbers proportional to the intensity of the light falling on
them. The light of a star is allowed to enter a cell coated with
such a film and the rate of discharge of electrons is measured
with an electrometer. In all other methods of photometry the
effect observed is nearly proportional to the magnitude, and
the photo-electric method is the only one which shows the lumi-
nosity directly and not distorted on a logarithmic scale.
A " Stereocomparator " is often used for detecting large
proper motions between two plates taken at different epochs.
The plates are arranged so as to be viewed one with each eye
and combined stereoscopically; stars which have moved ap-
preciably between the two epochs will betray themselves by
appearing to stand out in front of or behind the general plane.
In the modification called the " Blink-Microscope " the two
plates are viewed in rapid alternation; and a motion or change
of brightness of a star is detected by a tell-tale flicker.
BIBLIOGRAPHIES. (i) Hale, Astrophys. Jour., 28, p. 315. (2) ibid.
38, p. 27 ; Scares, Observatory, 43, p. 310. (3) Abbot, Fowle and Aid-
rich, Astrophys. Jour. 38, p. 181. (4) Guthnieck and Prager, Veriif-
fentlichungen Berlin-Babelsberg, Bd. I. (5) E. W. Brown, Monthly
Notices, 71, p. 438. (6) Dyson, Monthly Notices, 78, p. 452. (7) Jef-
freys, Monthly Notices, 76, p. 499. (8) Russell, Nature 93, pp. 227,
252, 281. (9) Adams and Joy, Astrophys. Jour., 46, p. 313, S3, P- 13-
(10) Shapley, Princeton Observatory Publications, No. 3. (n) Saha,
Proc. Roy. Soc., f>(>A, p. 135. (12) Jackson and Furner, Monthly
Notices, 81, p. 2. (13) Shapley, Astrophys. Jour., 44, p. 274. (14)
ibid. 40, p. 448; Eddington, Monthly Notices, 79, pp. 2, 177. (15)
Stratton, Annals Solar Physics Obs. Cambridge, 4, Ft. I. (16) Kap-
teyn and Adams, Proc. Nat. Acad. Washington, I, p. 14; Eddington,
Observatory, 38, p. 392. (17) Halm, Monthly Notices, 71, p. 634. (18)
Eddington, Monthly Notices, 71, p. 4; Eddington and Hartley,
Monthly Notices, 75, p. 521. (19) Schwarzschild, Gottingen Nachrich-
ten (1907) p. 614, (1908) p. 191. (20) Turner, Monthly Notices, 72,
p. 387. (21) Boss, Astron. Journ., No. 604. (22) Van Rhijn, Gro-
ningen Publications, No. 27. (23) Groningen Publications, No. 29.
(24) Shapley, Astrophys. Jour., 48, p. 154. (25) Barnard, Astrophys.
Jour., 49, p. I. (26) De Sitter, Monthly Notices, 78, p. 3. (27)
Glauert, Monthly Notices, 75, p. 489. (28) Fotheringham, Monthly
Notices, So, p. 578. (29) Charlier, Arkiv. for Math.Astr. och Fysik, 12,
No. 21 ; Jeans, Monthly Notices, 76, p. 70; Eddington, Monthly
Notices, 75, p. 366, 76, p. 37. (3o)_Plummer, Monthly Notices, 71,
p. 460, 76, p. 107. (31) Eddington, Monthly Notices, 77, pp. 16, 596;
Astrophys. Journ., 48, p. 205.
The following recent books on various branches of the subject
will be found useful : C. G. Abbot, The Sun (1912) ; W. W. Camp-
bell, Stellar Motions (1913); A. S. Eddington, Stellar Movements and
the Structure of the Universe (1914) ; R. G. Aitken, The Binary Stars
(1918); j. H. Jeans, Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics
(1919). Lick Observatory Publications, vol. xiii., is a mine of in-
formation as to the Nebulae. (A. S. E.)
ATHLETICS: see SPORTS AND GAMES.
ATHOS, MOUNT (see 2.851*). In the summer of 1913 the mo-
nastic communities of Mount Athos were convulsed by the con-
troversy arising out of the heresy of the Name of God. A Russian
monk named Ilarion, in the western Caucasus, had published a
book, under the title of In the Mountains of the Caucasus, in
which he argued that the name of God, being part of God, is
divine, and therefore to be worshipped. The book was printed
at the Pechersk monastery at Kiev, esteemed the special press
of the Holy Synod, and its popularity is shown by the fact that
it passed into three editions. Its teaching as to the name of God,
which claimed to be based on the authority of such eminent
saints as St. Gregory Falemon and St. Dmitri of Rostov, was
welcomed with enthusiasm by the monks of the monasteries of
St. Andrew and St. Pentelemon, its chief exponent being Antony
Bulatovich, an ex-officer of the Hussars of the Guard, who had
become a monk at St. Andrew's.
The crisis began when Archbishop Antony of Volinsk denounced
the doctrine as heretical in The Russian Monk. The monks ap-
pealed against this to the Holy Synod ; but the synod declared against
them and ordered the abbots to repress the heresy. The monks
thereupon expelled the abbots by force, and their action was ap-
proved by the monastery of Vatopedi, the Greek parent house of
St. Andrew's. On the appeal of the abbots the dispute was now
referred by the Holy Synod to the court of the Patriarch of Con-
stantinople, and the intervention of the Russian Government was .
invited. The condemnation of the " heretics " by the Patriarch
led to their repudiation by the community of Vatopedi, and at the
instance of the Russian ambassador at Constantinople the refractory
monasteries were subjected to a rigorous blockade.
This failed to subdue the monks, whom the Archbishop of Volinsk
described as " a band of soft-brained idiots led by a vainglorious
hussar." It was feared that the heresy, if suffered to make head-
way, would spread like wildfire among the ignorant Russian peas-
antry, and Archbishop Nikon was sent to Athos to threaten the
recalcitrant brethren with severe temporal and eternal penalties
should they remain obstinate. But his reception was worse than cold,
and the Russian Government determined to take strong measures.
On June 24, 200 Russian soldiers landed on Mount Athos, and a
month later 600 of the monks were deported to Russia, where they
were distributed as prisoners in various monasteries. The Holy
Synod decided that the peculiar tenets of Bulatovich and his fol-
lowers were to be known and condemned as " the heresy of the Name
of God."
See The Times, June 19 and 26 1913.
AUCTION BRIDGE: see BRIDGE, AUCTION.
AUFFENBERG-KOMAROW, MORITZ, FREIHERR VON (1852-
), Austrian general of infantry, was born in Troppau. As
a young staff officer he served in the army which occupied
Bosnia in 1878. He later commanded the XV. Army Corps
at Serajevo, and in the autumn of 1911 became Minister of
War. The ambitious general had many enemies. His active
spirit led him to take a vigorous part in the internal politics of
the monarchy, his knowledge of the Hungarian and more espe-
cially of the Southern Slav question being intimate. He had
attracted the attention of the heir to the throne, the Archduke
Francis Ferdinand, who had, in spite of much opposition,
secured his appointment as Minister of War; but powerful
influences forced him to retire after only a year and a quarter's
tenure of the office. He won his title in the World War, as
the commander of the IV. Army against the Russians, by the
brilliant victory of Komarow at the end of Aug. 1914. After the
victory Auffenberg succeeded in the difficult operation of com-
pletely changing the front of his entire army, with which he
moved southwards in time to take part in the second battle
of Lemberg; but the superior strength of the enemy made it im-
possible for him to avert defeat. The general was then called
on to resign his command. In April 1915 he was arrested on an
accusation of having as War Minister delivered to an un-
authorized person a copy of military instructions with a view
to speculation on the Exchange, but the court acquitted him.
Auffenberg wrote two books: Aus Oesterreich-Ungarns Teilnahme
am Weltkrieg and A us Oesterreichs Hohe und Niedergang.
AUSTIN, ALFRED (1835-1913), English poet (see 2.938), died
June 2 1913 at Swinford Old Manor, near Ashford, Kent. His
autobiography appeared in 1911. He was succeeded in the
laureateship by Robert Bridges.
AUSTRALIA (see 2.941). Including as it does the adjacent
island of Tasmania, but exclusive of its Papuan Territory (about
91,000 sq.m.), the area of the Australian Commonwealth was in
1921 computed at 2,974,581 sq.m., 1,149,320 of which, about
five-thirteenths of the total, are within the tropical zone. Be-
tween 1901, when the Commonwealth was proclaimed, and 1921,
there had been three changes affecting the political boundaries
of Australia. In icjc>6 Papua (the British portion of the island of
New Guinea) was taken over from the British Government and
constituted a Territory of the Commonwealth. In 1909 the
Commonwealth took over an area in the S. of New South Wales
which was constituted a Federal Territory and on which was to be
built the Federal capital. In 1910 the Northern Territory was
taken over from S. Australia and constituted a Federal Territory.
The effect of the World War in giving to the Australian Common-
wealth, as mandatory under the League of Nations, control of
what was German New Guinea and of other ex-German posses-
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
AUSTRALIA
305
sions in the Pacific area (roughly about 90,000 sq.m.) does not,
strictly speaking, make any change in the area of the Australian
Commonwealth since these " mandated " territories are not
annexed.
Papua. The suitableness of Papua for various forms of tropical
agriculture is undoubted, but there is a " labour difficulty " in the
way of progress. The Papuan, like most South Sea Islanders, has
an aversion to steady work. In Fiji, a British colony in the S.
Pacific, a position similar to that existing in Papua has been met
by the importing of industrious coolies from India to develop the
sugar plantations. The Australian Government, however, is deter-
mined to keep Papua for the Papuans. It was proposed in 1908 that
the Papuan should be forced to do a certain amount of work, either
for himself, for private planters, or for the Government, the argu-
ment being advanced that since nature was so bountiful as to keep
him in reasonable comfort without, work, he would never be driven
to labour by necessity, and must, therefore, be brought under some
other form of compulsion. The Australian Government vetoed the
proposal. In 1918, however, a Native Taxes Ordinance was passed
authorizing a tax not exceeding i per head on all natives except
those in Government employ, or unfit for work, or having four or
more living children. The proceeds of the tax will be applied to the
benefit of the natives; its effect is designed to stimulate industry
on their part. In 1919 about 13,000 natives were engaged in some
form of contract labour. The Native Labour Ordinances safeguard
strictly the interests of the native workers.
There are about 58,513 ac. under cultivation, mostly planted with
coco-nut trees. Rubber, cotton, sisal, and coffee are also grown and
mining and pearl-shelling are considerable industries. The system of
land tenure is by leasehold; freeholds are not granted; the condi-
tions of leasing are not onerous (see NEW GUINEA).
The Federal Territory and Federal Capital Site. The constitution
having provided that the capital of the Commonwealth should be
within the state of New South Wales, at least loo m. from Sydney,
the New South Wales Government in 1909 surrendered to the
Commonwealth Government some 900 sq.m. of territory around
Yass-Canberra, and also an area of 2 sq.m. on the shores of Jervis
Bay for the construction of a Federal port; and with these areas
went the right to construct a railway from this port to the Federal
Territory.
In 1910 the Federal Government took possession of the Territory.
It established there in 1911 a military college and later a naval
college at Jervis Bay. In 1913 the work of constructing the Federal
city was formally begun. A railway connecting the site with the
main line was opened in 1914. The World War seriously interfered
with further progress and work on the Federal city was still in
abeyance in 1921. About 1,000,000 had been spent.
The Northern Territory. With an area of 523,620 sq.m. (more
than one-sixth of the continent), having some very fertile land, and
with a better river system than most other parts of Australia, the
Northern Territory is almost empty and undeveloped. The total
pop. (other than aborigines) was 4,706 in 1919. The backwardness
of the Territory as compared with the rest of Australia is due chiefly
to political causes. When the Australian colonies first set up sepa-
rate households it was convenient to none of them to include the
Territory, and it was left in the hands of the Imperial Government.
In 1863 South Australia took over the responsibility for the Terri-
tory, intending to connect it with Adelaide by a north-to-south trans-
continental railway. With such a railway it would have been
brought within the ambit of South Australian development. With-
out that railway it was actually more remote from communication
with South Australia than with any other of the states. The railway
was begun. It reached Pine Creek from Port Darwin at the N. end,
and Oodnadatta from Adelaide at the S. end ; then hope of its comple-
tion was abandoned. When the Commonwealth came into existence
it sought a transfer of the Northern Territory from South Australia.
But it was not until Jan. 11911 that the final stage of the negotiations
was reached and the Territory assumed by the Commonwealth. The
terms of transfer were that all the past deficits incurred by South
Australia in the administration of the Territory should be taken
over by the Commonwealth, and that the trans-continental railway
should be completed from Port Darwin in the N. to Port Augusta
(near Adelaide) in the S. The Commonwealth purchased the exist-
ing state railway from Port Augusta to Oodnadatta. It has not yet
been found possible to go on with this railway project, but, the
east-to-west trans-continental railway being completed, the north-
to-south in 1921 was being seriously discussed.
In 1912 the Commonwealth Government appointed an adminis-
trator for the Northern Territory and took preliminary steps for its
development and colonization. As to the possibilities of a white
population flourishing in this tropical part of the continent the
evidence is reassuring. There is very little malaria, and other
specific tropical diseases are absent. The land is generally considered
to be suitable for cattle-grazing (there are great herds of wild buffalo)
and tropical farming on the coast ; for sheep-farming and dairy-farm-
ing on the tablelands. There is said to be mineral wealth, but mining
results in the past have usually been disappointing. In its policy of
development the Australian Government does not propose to allow
any further complete alienation of Crown lands. All titles will be
leasehold, but the leases will be in perpetuity, with reappraisement of
rent every 14 years in the case of town lands, every 21 years in the
case of agricultural and pastoral lands. Up to the present the
Northern Territory has not proved a profitable acquisition for the
Commonwealth. The year's accounts 1918-9 showed a deficit of
357.76o on an expenditure of 497,301. The administration has
been disturbed by troubles similar in character to those which the
Mother Country had with the Australian colonists in the early days
of Australian settlement.
THE COMMONWEALTH
The Federal Act of July 1900 (see 2.966) united in an indis-
soluble Australian Commonwealth six self-governing colonies,
organized as British settlements between 1770 and 1859, which
retain their individuality and, for certain purposes, their in-
dependence. The federating states, New South Wales (see
19-537 et seq.), Victoria (see 28.37 & seq.), Queensland (see 22.732
et seq.), South Australia (see 25.492 et seq.), Western Australia
(see 28.539 et seq.) and Tasmania (see 26.438 et seq.), were left
with certain self-governing powers and preserved their own
political institutions. Separate notes are added later as to cer-
tain details in the internal affairs of the individual states, but
in the following account Australia will be considered substantially
as a whole, in its aspect of a single national unit.
Population. Public opinion in Australia has at different times
condemned as unsatisfactory the rate of growth of the population
both by natural increase and by immigration. The feeling that the
natural increase of the population was not sufficient led in New
South Wales to the appointment of the Birth Rate Royal Commis-
sion (1903). An outgrowth of that commission was a Federal Royal
Commission on Secret Drugs and Cures which reported in 1907 and
devoted much attention to the matter of artificial limitation of
families. It was established fairly clearly by the first of these com-
missions that there was no natural cause predisposing to sterility in
Australia, but that the desire for comfort conduced to a somewhat
general artificial limitation of families. As a consequence of this
commission some public opinion against the tendency to " race
suicide" was aroused; and certain administrative measures were
adopted by the Customs and Police departments which sought to
lessen the facilities for artificial limitation of families. It is a coin-
cidence, if not a case of cause and effect, that from 1903 " the natural
increase " of population in the Commonwealth steadily improved
until 1914 when, as a consequence of the World War, there was a
very marked decline. Possibly a healthier public opinion following
on the report of the Birth Rate Commission was in part responsible.
Other possible contributory causes were a great increase in material
prosperity following upon federation, and an influx of immigrants
from lands where artificial limitation of families was not so much
practised. The natural increase per 1,000 of mean population in
1906-10 was 15-93, which was higher than that of any European
country, except The Netherlands and Bulgaria, and compared with
11-58 for England and Wales. But in 1915-9 it had fallen to 14-99.
Australia has a low birth-rate and a very low death-rate. Taking a
g re- war year the Australian death-rate of 10-4 compared with I4'5for
ngland and Wales, 30-0 for Russia and 19-3 for France.
In regard to immigration Australian public opinion has undergone
a marked change, due in the main to a fuller appreciation of the
danger of leaving the lonely outpost of the Empire in the South
Pacific so bare of population. There was for many years a desire on
the part of the exceedingly prosperous working people of Australia
to keep out immigrants as much as possible, lest a rush of population
should cause a reduction in the wage rate or a lowering of the con-
ditions of life. That desire survives in some quarters, and is still a
force to be reckoned with in a country where the Labour voters have
the controlling power in politics. But it is being recognized, by
Labour leaders as well as others, that a great access of population is-
necessary to the safety of the country and need not affect the general
prosperity of a continent which has a little over 5,000,000, and has
room, at a low estimate, for 100,000,000 people. In the beginning of
Australian colonization state-aided immigration brought a great
influx of people to Australia who otherwise would never have been
able to afford the expenses of the long journey from Europe. Since
1906 the policy of state-aided immigration has been reestablished
in Australia, and was afterwards, though interrupted by the war,
revived under Commonwealth direction.
On April 3 1911 the decennial census was taken in Australia, and
the population ascertained to be 4,455,005, showing a rate of in-
crease for the Federal decennium of 18-05% as against a rate of
increase of 18-88 for the previous decennium. But whilst the annual
rate of increase from 1901-6 was only 1-39% the annual rate of
increase 1906-11 was 2-03. The year 1911 showed a total increase
of 143,624, to which natural increase contributed 74,324 and immir
gration 69,300, exceeding in one year by over 50% the total immigra-
tion gains of the previous ten years. Australia had thus " turned
the corner " in regard to immigration, but the World War came as a
306
AUSTRALIA
disturbing factor. During 1911-5 the Commonwealth gained 99,393
by immigration; during 1916-9, 24,016.
A preliminary census count of the census of 1921 gave the popula-
tion of the Commonwealth as 5,419,702, an increase of 969,721
since 1911. In the individual states the figures were: New South
Wales 2,096,393, increase 449,659; Victoria 1,530,114, increase
214,563; Queensland 755,573, increase 149,760; South Australia
494,867, increase 86,309; Western Australia 329,228, increase
47,114; Tasmania 213,527, increase 22,316.
The population included 2,751,781 males and 2,667,921 females.
In Victoria there was an excess of females over males of 22,294.
Full-blood aboriginals and the population of the territories are not
included ; the proportion of whites in the territories being insignifi-
cant. In accordance with these returns New South Wales would
gain an extra seat in the House of Representatives, and Victoria lose
one.
Social Conditions. The Australian people are almost wholly
British in character; 97-54% of the total are of British origin, I -21 %
come from foreign European countries and 1-16% from foreign non-
European countries. The average standard of education is high and
illiteracy almost unknown. The wage rate is generally high. The cost
of living in Australia compares well with the cost in most civilized
countries. In 1911 the statistician to the Commonwealth Govern-
ment, Mr. G. H. Knibbs, instituted an enquiry into the cost of living.
Taking four sets of family budgets, (a) of families with 200 a year
and over, divided into families of four members and under four
members, (b) of families with less than 200 a year, divided similarly,
he found that the average percentage of income spent on housing was
13-70, on food 29-30, on clothing 12-72, on fuel and light 3-46, on
" other items " (including amusements, thrift, etc.) 40-82 %. This
last figure gives the best indication of general prosperity, i.e. of a
substantial margin out of wages and salaries for non-essential out-
goings. The percentage of income expenditure on food in working-
class families in Australia was then 36 %, as compared with 57 %
in the United Kingdom, and a general average of over 50% in all
other countries for which statistics were available. The cost of
living showed in Australia a lower increase consequent upon the war
than in most countries. For example, taking 174 as the index num-
ber for Sydney in 1913, that index number had risen to 268 (not
much more than 50%) in 1919.
The Australian birth-rate was 28-25 in 1913 and 23-78 in 1919.
The percentage of illegitimate births to total births was 5-30 in 1919.
The marriage rate (number of marriages per 1,000 of mean pop.) was
7-88 in 1919. The celebration of a marriage is more easily effected
in Australia than in England. The facilities for divorce differ in
various states, divorces being granted more readily in New South
Wales and Victoria than in the other states. The total of Australian
divorces in 1918 was 721.
A disquieting feature of Australian social life is the preponderance
of the urban over the rural population. In South Australia more
than one-half of the total population of the state (380,000 sq. m. in
extent) is concentrated in the city of Adelaide. In Victoria 50%, in
New South Wales 41 % of the total population is in one city, and in
the whole Commonwealth 42 % of the population is contained with-
in six cities. The charm of the cities is great; the conditions in the
" back country " are often hard. By cheap railway rates for the
farmers' goods, by pushing such of the conveniences of civilization
as are under state control as far forward as possible, and by other
means, the states and the Commonwealth strive to counterbalance
the call of the cities. But all effort seems to be in vain. The propor-
tion of the urban to the total population is growing. In 1906 Sydney
had 35% of the total population of New South Wales, Melbourne
had 42 % of the population of Victoria, and in the whole Common-
wealth six cities held 35-49% of the population. Now the propor-
tions have greatly increased as seen above.
Public Health. Though part of Australia is within the tropics
there is practically no tropical disease, and there is an absence also of
small-pox, hydrophobia and other diseases which are known in some
farts of Europe. The death-rate from all causes in 1919 was 12-8.
t is the lowest death-rate in the world except one. Lately there has
been a betterment in regard to the infantile death-rate, which the
hot summers ruling over the greater part of the Commonwealth
make the chief cause of public health anxiety. In 1901 it stood at
103-61 per thousand, in 1919 at 69-21 per thousand. The Common-
wealth Government pays a maternity bonus of 5 for every child born
of a white woman resident in Australia. All the states have public
health organizations to deal specially with infant welfare. Apart
from infantile mortality, the chief foes to human life in Australia are
tuberculosis, cancer, diseases of the heart and violence.
Education. The Australian system of elementary education is
free, compulsory, undenominational and usually secular. Secondary
education is not free, but a generous system of bursaries makes
education to the stage of a university degree available to the poorest
in most states. There is also a good system of agricultural and
technical colleges. In no state is denominational religion taught in
the state schools; but private denominational schools exist, being
maintained especially by the Roman Catholic Church.
Production and Industry. The early stage of the federation was
marked by a severe drought which checkecl for a time the develop-
ment of prosperity. From 1905 the growth of prosperity was very
great until the check given by the World War and another severe
drought. The disturbance to economic conditions caused by that
war takes away a great deal of the value of comparative figures.
The following figures appear, as regards 1918, more favourable than
they really are since the value of the f. sterling if expressed in goods
had depreciated seriously since 1914. Total Commonwealth produc-
tion: 1909 174,195,000; 1913 218,103,000; 1918 298,669,000.
Australia is chiefly a pastoral country and her pastoral products
represent nearly a third of the total. Her exports alone from the
pastoral industry in 1918-9 were valued at 57,624,791. Drought is
still a serious enemy of this industry and the effects of recent droughts
are reflected in the live-stock returns. In 1910 Australia had 92
million sheep. This fell to 69 millions in- 1915, grew to 87 millions
in 1918 and in 1919 fell to 84 millions. Cattle have done better and
in 1919 had reached the highest record number, nearly 13 millions.
Horses number 2\ millions. Agriculture, which in 1909 produced
41,000,000, in 1918 produced 58,000,000; and dairy produce and
bee-farming, which in 1909 produced 15,000,000, in 1918 produced
34,000,000.
Mining keeps up a steady contribution to the national prosperity,
23,000,000 in 1909, 26,000,000 in 1918. Gold production lately
has been of decreasing, silver and copper of increasing importance.
Coal has improved both in quantity raised and in price realized.
The manufacturing industries of Australia progress with each
year, and it is clear that the British and American manufacturer
must reckon on strong Australian competition in Pacific markets.
In 1909 the manufacturing industries produced 40,000,000, in 1918
75,000,000, (i.e., added that value to raw materials).
In spite of the drain upon manhood and capital during the World
War Australian industrial progress continued. Australia, under the
influence of a strongly protective tariff, is entering each year on new
fields of industry. In the iron and steel industry one new concern
is producing 300,000 tons of steel a year. In shipbuilding Australian
cost per ton produced is at the moment lower than that of Great
Britain; in 1923 a protective duty of 25% is to be imposed on
British ships and of 30% on foreign ships coming to trade in Aus-
tralian waters. Australia is making a vigorous effort also to encour-
age the woollen textile industry, and there is mooted a project to give
Federal Government assistance to raise a capital of 14,000,000 for
textile mills. Easily accessible coal on the mainland and excellent
water-power in Tasmania favour manufacturing development, and
in many great industries the cost of labour in the Commonwealth is
now less than in Great Britain. British manufacturers are in some
notable cases establishing branch factories in Australia.
Forests and fisheries bring an amount of 7,000,000 to the Austra-
lian purse. But in neither case is there much progress. The timber
resources are usually prodigally wasted; and until very recently
there was no attempt at reforestation. The fisheries are not exploited
in any systematic fashion, there being little or no deep-sea fishing
or fish-curing. In both these matters, however, better things are
promised in the future. In 1909 the Federal Government launched
the " Endeavour," a vessel specially built to investigate and chart
deep-sea fishing grounds. The " Endeavour " has since been engaged
in the collection of information regarding the migration, feeding
grounds, etc., of fish in the waters off the Australian coast, and it is
hoped that the ultimate result will be the foundation of a great fishing
industry. In 1912 the Australian Government offered bounties for
Australian-cured fish. Nothing material resulted.
Trade and Commerce. After federation the overseas trade of the
Commonwealth increased rapidly. In 1901 the total was valued at
92,130,000; the recent figures have been:
Value per
Imports Exports
1911 66,968,000 79,482,000
1913 79,749,ooo 78,572,000
1919-20 98,607,000 148,565,000
Total Inhabitant
146,450,000 32 I2s. 3d.
158,321,000 32 19 2
247,172,000 47 2 I
The bulk of Australia's trade is with Great Britain, and a prefer-
ential tariff treatment of British imports is designed to help British
as opposed to foreign trade. As a consequence of the war there was a
very marked decline of British imports. The following figures of
Australian imports will illustrate:
Percentage from
Year
U.K.
British
Poss'ns
All Foreign
Countries
(including
U.S.A.)
U.S.A.
1901
1911
1919
59-47
58-98
37- ro
11-22
12-86
22-15
29-31
28-16
40-75
13-80
n-57
27-29
This is chiefly a war, result. Whilst British industry was to a large
extent paralyzed, the United States and British possessions captured
a bigger share of the Australian markets. But a slight (very slight)
decline in British imports was noticeable before the war and after
the granting of a preferential tariff. It is hardly reasonable to expect
that British imports will ever go back fully to their old position in
the Australian market. Australian exports to the United Kingdom
showed a dwindling proportion of the total before the war. War
regulations, confining the export of certain products to Great
AUSTRALIA
307
Britain, temporarily arrested that decrease. Taking quinquennial
periods from 1899 the first would show an average of 49-56 of
exports to the United Kingdom, the second an average of 46-88, the
third an average of 45-14. The war period 1914-9 showed an
average of 53 -46%.
Australian trade with Asiatic countries develops steadily ; exports
to these countries were valued at 4,500,000 in 1901 and 19,000,000
in 1919.
Communications. There has been a great railway development in
Australia since the foundation of the Commonwealth. In 1901
the total railway mileage was 10,123 ; in 1919 it was 25,657. Nearly
all the lines are owned by the Commonwealth, or the state Govern-
ments. In 1917 the Commonwealth-owned trans-Australian rail-
way from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie was opened, and the five
capital cities of the mainland are now linked by rail. The distance
between Perth and Brisbane, 3,474 m., is covered in less than six
days. Another trans-Australian railway, crossing the continent
from N. to S. , is contemplated. Unfortunately there are four different
gauges in use on Australian main lines in the various states: the
question of the standardization of gauge is under consideration. The
capital cost of the Commonwealth-owned railways had reached to
10,950,000 in 1919; revenue did not meet working expenses. The
various state-owned railways by the same date had cost 213,971,000.
On these working expenses absorbed 74-26% of the gross revenue,
and the net revenue gave a return of 3-01 % on the cost of construc-
tion. It has to be kept in mind that all the Commonwealth lines
and some of the state lines are developmental railways built in
advance of the settlement which would make them payable.
The Commonwealth adopted a policy of Government-owned
shipping and of close control of private shipping. Up to 1912 Aus-
tralia was content with navigation laws which sought to keep
Australian coastal trade as much as possible for Australian ships,
and insisted that all ships engaging in Australian coastal trade should
observe Australian conditions in regard to wages, etc. Some very
flourishing coastal shipping companies existed under these condi-
tions. But war conditions affected very seriously the transport by
sea of Australia's exports and, though relief to one class of producers
came through the action of the British Government in buying for a
number of years the whole wool crop in Australia, irrespective of
when it could be shipped to Europe, there grew up the idea that the
Commonwealth did not get as good shipping facilities as if she had
her own Government-owned lines. In July 1916 Mr. Hughes, then
Prime Minister, bought for the Commonwealth 15 steamers, each
of about 7,000 tons, and a local building programme for 48 vessels
was announced, with further programmes for building in Great
Britain and America. Subsequently the local building programme
was cancelled as regards 22 of the vessels; the local building pro-
gramme for steel vessels (24) was continued, and six of them were
running in 1921. In addition the Commonwealth Government had
1 8 ex-enemy steamers and one ex-enemy sailing vessel under its
control. In Feb. 1917, a Commonwealth Shipping Board was set
up to control all Commonwealth shipping matters; it has two com-
mittees, one for overseas trade with headquarters at Sydney, and
one for interstate trade with headquarters at Melbourne. It has,
inter alia, powers to divert privately-owned interstate shipping to
overseas routes. The enterprise has not been a success either as
regards the State ownership of shipping or the close State control of
shipping, and there are indications that it may be abandoned. The
total overseas shipping entered and cleared in Australia in 1913 was
10,601,948 tons, in 1918-9 6,180,486 tons. British ships were 73-53 %
of the total in 1913 and 78-90 % in 1918-9. Two ports of Australia,
Sydney and Melbourne, exceed in shipping tonnage entered the
figures for all British ports except London and Liverpool.
Finance (Public). The Commonwealth Government, which at
its inception had a share of the customs and excise as its only great
source of taxation, now collects customs and excise, land tax, probate
duties, income tax, entertainments tax and special war taxes. Its
revenue from taxation and from services was 21,741,000 in 1913-4
and 44,716,918 in 1918-9. The rate of revenue collected per head
had increased from 4 93. 3d. to 8 1 73. gd. The Australian, in addition
to these Commonwealth taxes, has to pay state taxes. The average
state taxation per head is i I us. 6d. and the total taxation per head
20 93. 3d. Out of the customs and excise revenue collected by the
Commonwealth a fixed sum of 253. per head per year is paid to the
states and the states impose their own income and land taxes, stamp
duties and probate duties. Out of the Commonwealth revenue is
met all defence votes and costs of Federal services.
The Commonwealth Government and the state Government both
have power, and exercise it freely, to raise funds by public borrowing,
but all the states except New South Wales admit some control on
the part of the Commonwealth of their borrowings. The World
War added hugely to Australia's debt. In 1919 the Commonwealth
Government owed 326,000,000, of which 208,000,000 was held in
Australia. The various states owed 396,000,000, of which 138,000,-
ooo, was held in Australia. The balance in each case was mainly held in
the United Kingdom. Before the war it might be said that the bulk of
the Australian debt, both Federal and state, was fully represented by
revenue-producing assets such as railways. That could be said of
the total (337,000,000) in 1914 but not of the total in 1920 (722,-
000,000), the difference being mostly represented by unproductive
war expenditure. Of the state debts a total of about 35,000,000 was
due to the Commonwealth Government, and that sum should be
deducted from the 722,000,000 to calculate the actual debt load
on the Australian people. In 1910 the Commonwealth Government
by an amendment of the constitution was given power to take over
all the state debts and consolidate them into one Federal issue. The
power had not yet been exercised in 1921.
A Commonwealth bank of issue was opened in 1912. Its opera-
tions showed a credit balance of 1,922,000 in 1919. It transacts
bank business and has a " Savings Bank '" section. It had issued
notes to the value of 57,000,000 by 1920 and held a gold reserve of
41-17 % against them.
Finance (Private). There are 21 private banks trading in Aus-
tralia, of which four have their head offices in London. In 1919
their paid-up capital totalled 35,696,000 and their reserved profits
23,543,000 ; their total liabilities 257,634,000 and their total assets
2 77.95 o ,ooo. Depositors in savings banks numbered 2,945,000
(more than half the population) and the average deposit was
43 I2s. 7d. or 25 per head of the whole population.
Government. Under the Federal constitution the Common-
wealth is governed by a governor-general appointed by the
British Crown and acting on the advice of a Cabinet which is
responsible to an Australian Parliament of two Houses. The
Senate represents the states and is composed of six members
from each state, elected for six years by the adults of the state
voting en masse every three years to return three senators; the
House of Representatives is about double the Senate in numbers
(75), represents the people numerically, and is elected every
three years by the adults of Australia voting in single-member
electorates, which are approximately equal in population. The
number from each state varies with the growth of population.
The Australian Parliament can only act within the powers set
forth in the constitution. The High Court is the final interpreter
of that constitution and may veto any legislation, either of the
states or of the Commonwealth, which is ultra vires.
POLITICAL HISTORY
The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 by the
union of the six states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland,
South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania. The first
Government of the Union was formed by Sir Edmund (then Mr.)
Barton (born in N.S.W. 1849, d. 1920). Mr. Barton entered the
N.S.W. Assembly as member for the university of Sydney in 1879.
His enthusiasm was aroused for the cause of the Federation of
Australia. After the death of Sir Henry Parkes he assumed the
leadership of the Federal movement. The convention which
framed the Federal constitution had recognized Mr. Barton's
services by electing him as its leader. Now as Federal Prime
Minister he called to his side the premiers of all the federating
states; with one exception they responded; and this ministry of
" all the talents " appealed to the people for support on a non-
party platform.
The Early Parliaments, 1901-7. The first Federal Parliament
was however divided into three parties, that following Sir Ed-
mund Barton, that following the Free Trade leader, Sir George
Reid (born in Scotland in 1845, d. 1918), and the Labour party,
under the leadership of one of the remarkable men of Australian
public life, Mr. J. C. Watson. Born of poor Scottish parents in
1867 while on the voyage to Australia, Mr. Watson was in boy-
hood deprived of nearly all the advantages of education, but
taught himself enough to become a printer. Sagacious, tactful,
resolute, he came to the front in the Australian Labour move-
ment and was elected first leader of the Federal Labour party.
The success of the Labour party under his leadership at the polls
was extraordinary. The first Parliament of the Commonwealth,
divided as between the Government followers and Mr. Reid's
Opposition party almost equally, had the Labour party holding
the balance of power. This made a position of difficulty for the
Government. The common-sense and moderation of Mr. Watson
saved the situation to some extent. He gave a general support to
the Government and assisted them in their most pressing tasks.
Nevertheless the first Parliament was hampered by party fight-
ing, the Opposition seeking to win the Labour party over to their
side, and the Government being forced to postpone a good deal,
to modify a good deal, in order to keep in office. Sir Edmund
Barton was deeply disappointed. He had looked to a first
308
AUSTRALIA
patriotic Parliament completing without any " scuffling on the
steps of the temple " to use his own phrase the measures
necessary for the stability of the Federation. He experienced
a first Parliament in which party rancour was extraordinarily
rife. He retired to accept a Federal judgeship, and Mr. Deakin
(born in Victoria in 1856, d. 1919) took his place (Sept. 1903).
Mr. Alfred Deakin met the second Parliament of the Common-
wealth in 1904 with his own following reduced, the following of
the Labour party increased. In April 1904 Mr. Deakin went
out of office and was succeeded by Mr. Watson. In Aug. of the
same year Mr. Deakin gave his support temporarily to Mr.
George Reid, and Mr. Reid's administration supplanted Mr.
Watson's. This lasted through a long recess and a few days of
parliamentary life, and in July 1905 Mr. Deakin came back to
office with the support of Mr. Watson. Mr. Watson was at that
time determined on resignation from political life as he could not
keep pace with the extremist elements in the Labour party.
But he was strongly convinced that a measure of tariff reform
was necessary, and resolved to remain in Parliament until it was
effected. The first Federal tariff had had to make concessions
to Free Trade sentiment. The second tariff was completely
protectionist, and introduced a new principle into Australian
politics by granting a " preference " to British imports. At the
third general election in 1907 the Labour party again improved
its position, mostly at the expense of its allies.
Mr. Watson kept the leadership of the Labour party, and
kept that party solidly behind Mr. Deakin, until the tariff was
settled. Then he retired and Mr. Andrew Fisher took his place.
Born in Scotland in 1862 Mr. Fisher was brought up as a coal-
miner. He went to Queensland in 1885, entered the state Parlia-
ment and later the Federal Parliament. He had been included
in Mr. Watson's Cabinet. Now, assuming the leadership, he very
quickly gave Mr. Deakin notice to quit, and in 1908 formed his
own administration. It lasted little more than six months.
Mr. Deakin then formed a coalition with the remnants of the
Free Trade Opposition, no longer led by Mr. George Reid but
by Mr. Joseph Cook (born in_England in 1860), and the Deakin-
Cook administration came into office. One of its first acts was
to send 'Mr. George Reid to London as a first High Commissioner
for the Commonwealth ; Mr. Reid , on assuming this office , accepted
a knighthood. Mr. Cook, like Mr. Fisher, had been a miner. He
entered the New South Wales Parliament as a Labour member,
drifted away from his party and entered the Federal Parliament
as a Free Trader. He now joined with Mr. Deakin to oust the
Labour party from office, one ground of attack being their lack
of proper sympathy with the cause of Imperial defence.
Australia's War Forebodings. This was at the time of the
European crisis over Austria's annexation of Bosnia-Herze-
govina, when public interest throughout the British Empire was
being stirred over the question of maintaining British supremacy
at sea and of strengthening the hands of the Imperial Govern-
ment in view of increasing international complications. New
Zealand had promptly offered to provide a " Dreadnought "
for the British navy. It was objected that Mr. Fisher had not
done likewise. He claimed that his Imperial patriotism was not
wanting, but that in his judgment more useful action could be
taken by hurrying on with the creation of an Australian navy.
This navy, he stated in a despatch to the British Government,
would be organized and controlled by Australia in times of peace,
but on the outbreak of war would automatically pass to the
control of the British Admiralty. Amid bitter party wrangles
the third Australian Parliament closed its life in Jan. 1910.
The general election of 1910 resulted in a victory for the Labour
party under Mr. Fisher. The party captured a working majority
in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. The
decision which gave Australia's destinies completely into the
hands of the Labour party (and that not the Labour party of Mr.
Watson, but of Mr. Fisher much more of a " party " man)
was influenced very largely by negative considerations. The
people disliked deeply the coalition of Mr. Deakin with Mr. Cook,
who had before seemed to represent absolutely irreconcilable
ideas in politics; and a vote for the Labour party was in many
cases a vote of non-confidence in the coalition rather than actually
an endorsement of Labour policy. An indication of this fact
was given a little later, when the Labour Government (May
1911) submitted to a direct poll of the people certain amend-
ments of the Federal constitution, without which it could not
carry out its Labour policy. These amendments sought (a) to
give the Commonwealth Parliament full power to legislate with
respect to trade and commerce instead of the limited power it
had under the constitution (the limitation stood in the way of
Federal legislation dealing with the conditions of labour); (6)
to give the Commonwealth Parliament full power over all trading
corporations; (c) to give the Commonwealth Parliament specific
power to deal with the wages and conditions of labour and with
labour disputes ; (d) to give the Commonwealth Parliament power
to deal with all combinations and monopolies. A further pro-
posed amendment of the constitution was to give the Common-
wealth Parliament power to declare that any business was a
" monopoly, " and, following such declaration, to acquire it,
paying on just terms for any property used in connexion with it.
By a majority of about 250,00x3 votes in a total poll of about
1,155,000 votes the people declared against these amendments
of the constitution. Thus a Labour Government was left in
office without power to carry out its Labour policy.
The Fisher Government soon cleared itself very completely
of any suspicion of a lack of earnestness regarding the defence
of Australia and the Empire. In 1909, whilst Mr. Deakin was
Prime Minister, an Act of Parliament had been passed enforcing
military training on all able-bodied male citizens. This enact-
ment of universal service had not been opposed by the Labour
party. Indeed their criticism was that the system proposed to be
enforced was not thorough enough; and the Government of the
day promised that an expert from Great Britain should be asked
to report on the system. Field-Marshal Viscount Kitchener
accepted an invitation to visit Australia, and his report came
before the Parliament of 1910 with a Labour Government in
power. That Government not only accepted all his recommenda-
tions but in some cases crossed his " t's " and dotted his "i's."
There was established a system of universal training for military
defence which Lord Kitchener guaranteed as adequate and
which the Fisher Government enforced against various protests
with a resolute courage. In the matter of naval defence the
Fisher Government was equally firm in dissociating itself from
any faltering policy. A Commonwealth navy came into actual
being as a fleet unit in 1913 when the battle cruiser " Australia "
(" Dreadnought cruiser " type) and the light cruisers " Mel-
bourne " and " Sydney " arrived in Australian waters. The
same year the King laid the foundation-stone in London of
Australia House, the splendid headquarters of the Common-
wealth High Commissioner. A further step in the organization
of the new nation was the appointment of the Inter-state Com-
mission which, under the constitution, has power to adjudicate
on and administer all laws relating to trade and commerce.
It acts, in a sense, as a commercial High Court. Among its
powers is that of preventing any preferential or discriminatory
rates on the state railways.
The general elections in 1913 were unfavourable to the Fisher
Government, and Mr. Joseph Cook took office with a majority
in the House of Representatives but not in the Senate. His
Government kept office under very difficult circumstances almost
until the outbreak of the World War. On July 30 1914 the
governor-general dissolved both Houses of Parliament, and in
the general election that followed the Labour party won a ma-
jority both in the House of Representatives and in the Senate.
A proposal to form a " national " Government representing all
parties was not successful and Mr. Fisher formed his fourth
administration in Sept. 1914. He gave up the Prime Minister-
ship shortly afterwards to become High Commissioner in London
and was succeeded by Mr. W. M. Hughes, his chief colleague.
Mr. Hughes (born in Wales in 1864) on first coming to Australia
was forced to many strange shifts to make a livelihood. But
entering the N.S.W. Parliament as a Labour member of the
extremist " kind he soon proved himself to have ability and
AUSTRALIA
309
fighting force of a rare order. Though subject to weak health,
and later handicapped by deafness, he fought his way to the
front rank by sheer grit. Seldom loved, he was always feared.
Coming to the head of the Government in war-time he had fine
scope for his combative genius. He earned bitter hatreds as
well as generous praise in Europe and in his own country from
1914 to 1921.
Australia in the World War. The gallant deeds of the Aus-
tralian naval and military forces in the World War cannot be
separated conveniently from the general history of the campaign,
and there will be noted here" only the political and civil develop-
ments. Australia entered the war with an enthusiasm of patriot-
ism which obscured for a time any open sign of the fact that
there was a section of the population which reflected closely the
opinions of the Irish Nationalist party. About a third of the
Australian population is of Irish origin; of this third the majority
were (and are) more Australian than Irish in their national out-
look, but a fraction of them have always inclined to give a first
place to their Irish sympathies. Some dignitaries of the Roman
Catholic hierarchy (which is largely Irish in origin and in edu-
cation) have done much to encourage this fraction. As the war
developed and an opposition to the British cause grew up in
Ireland there was an echo of this in Australia. It was never
sufficient to stand in the way of a whole-hearted prosecution of
the war; nor did Irish Australians as a class refuse to take their
share of the war's perils. But it was sufficient to prevent in 1916
and again in 1917 the passing of a referendum to enforce con-
scription for service overseas because it was able then to enlist on
its side a genuine Australian feeling, partly made up of an ob-
jection to compulsion as under the circumstances supererogatory,
and partly arising from personal hostility to Mr. Hughes.
A full understanding of the Australian character is needed to
reconcile some apparently conflicting circumstances from 1914
to 1918. At the outbreak of the war Australia had a fleet in being
which was at once transferred to the British Admiralty and did
most useful work in the Pacific and in European waters. There
was never a suggestion to tie it down to home waters nor to limit
its best strategic use as determined by the British Admiralty.
On the military side Australia had instituted a compulsory
National Defence system for home defence, and this system was
far enough advanced to be of some use in the recruiting of an
Australian army. But the nation relied, as did Great Britain at
the outset, on voluntary enlistment for overseas service. There
was a magnificent response to the call for volunteers. By the
end of the year Australian forces had seized the German Pacific
possessions, troops had been offered for service abroad and
31,000 had left Australia for Egypt. In 1915 the Australian
Expeditionary Force went through the unhappy Gallipoli cam-
paign, and in 1916 was taking a distinguished part in France
and in the Near East. The number of Australian divisions serv-
ing abroad represented a full quota of its manhood (five divisions
to represent five million people) .
When in 1916 conscription was proposed, that section of the
Irish Australian people which, following the unhappy course of
events in Ireland, had become hostile to Great Britain, opposed
it (as did some other sections of the people). Their influence
was sufficient to defeat this proposal, partly because it was under-
stood that Mr. Hughes, the Prime Minister, would resign if his
proposal were defeated, and many wished him to resign; but
chiefly because the Australians felt that to use their own verna-
cular " they were doing a fair thing, anyhow. " Since, in all,
Australia sent 329,682 troops abroad, and they suffered 317,953
casualties (58,961 killed) and incurred war expenditure totalling
288,000,000 it cannot be said that there was any half-hearted
Australian participation in the World War, though the result of
injudicious political action was at one time to give that impres-
sion. Indeed the Australian national character came out of the
test of the war very well. The Australian troops, the " Anzacs "
as they came to be known from the initials A.N.Z.A.C. (Aus-
tralia-New Zealand Army Corps), won a splendid reputation for
courage and steadfastness. The Australian civil population bore
without murmuring the heart-breaking losses of the Gallipoli
expedition and the devastation smaller as regards loss of life
but more cruel in its needless sacrifice of the outbreak of ve-
nereal disease following the location of their young troops near
the stews of Cairo. When an Australian corps was formed in
France under an Australian leader, Lt.-Gen. Sir John Monash,
and did really conspicuous service in 1918, Australian pride
knew no bounds. Lt.-Gen. Sir John Monash was one of the
figures of the war. Born of Jewish parents at Melbourne 1865
he graduated at Melbourne University as a civil engineer. In
1887 he received a commission in the Australian militia as a
lieutenant and thereafter took a passionate interest in military
history and military science. At the outbreak of the war he was
at first appointed military censor in Australia with the rank of
colonel. Later he served throughout the Gallipoli campaign
and in Egypt, and then as G.O.C. the Third Australian Division
in France. Finally, in May 1918 he was given command of the
Australian Corps. In this command he proved conspicuous
ability and energy. His first operation at Hamel, July 4 1918, had
the distinction of being made the subject of a special staff bro-
chure by the British General Staff.
Sir John Monash tells his own story of the campaign in The
Australian Victories in France in 1918. British military opinion of
the Anzacs was described in " G.H.Q." by " G.S.O."
Australia has made generous provision for her ex-service men.
Pensions payable for total disability range from 2 2s. to 3 a
week according to rank, with extra provision for a wife and all
children under 16. A totally disabled soldier with wife and five
children gets 3 175. 6d. a week. Ex-soldiers and sailors are helped
liberally to reestablish themselves in civil life. Cooperating with
the state Governments the Commonwealth Government has
made available farming lands, and grants and loans for houses,
working capital, etc.
Before the war German trade and industry had strong foot-
holds in Australia, German shipping lines and German metal
companies in particular. Indeed the Germans had almost a
monopoly of the treatment of Australian base metal ores. On
the outbreak of war, steps were taken to extirpate all German
interests in Australia, and the legislation against enemy property,
and for the internment of enemy subjects, was far more severe
than in Great Britain at the time. The German had never been
popular in Australia as a trader, and there was some reflection
in the rigour of the special war legislation of old hostility to a
people who came under the suspicion of " not playing the game."
Australia and the Peace. Mr. Hughes as Prime Minister had
during the war many political crises to face. His war attitude
which was ultra-vigorous was very warmly approved in Great
Britain by those who thought that Mr. Asquith's Government
was somewhat slow in taking the necessary steps. This approval,
expressed as it was with perhaps an excess of zeal, did not make
things easier for Mr. Hughes with some Australians, who con-
ceived the suspicion that he was " playing to the London gallery."
No more deadly charge could be brought against a colonial
politician than that. The Australian people are fervent in their
Imperial loyalty, but they have always been jealous of " Down-
ing Street interference " and somewhat suspicious of a London
popularity for their leaders.
Internal dissensions forced a reconstruction of Mr. Hughes's
Cabinet in Nov. 1916. Mr. Hughes and the Labour party drifted
further apart and in 1917 he broke with them definitely, and,
after an appeal to the country, formed a new ministry mainly
from the ranks of the Opposition and including only three of his
old Labour colleagues. A later appeal to the electors at the
end of 1919 was destructive to the power of the Labour party
(which was actively assisted by the " Irish party ") both in the
Senate and the House of Representatives, but brought into being
a new group, " the Country party," which represents chiefly ag-
ricultural interests. Mr. Hughes formed a new Government in
Jan. 1918, but up to 1921 it had had a somewhat precarious
existence and had been subject to serious internal dissensions.
None of these home political troubles, however, diverted Mr.
Hughes from his campaign against the German enemy and against
British elements which he considered to be not earnest enough
3io
AUSTRALIA
in their antagonism to Germany. He was in London for a long
term during the war, and in 1919 was in Paris as the Australian
representative to the Peace Conference. One result of the World
War had been to define the status of the great British dominions
as that of really independent nations under the Crown. Mr.
Hughes at the Peace Conference took full advantage of this
new status, and vigorously fought for his idea of a peace much
more punitive in terms to Germany than that actually agreed to.
He was always in opposition to Mr. Wilson, often in opposition
to Mr. Lloyd George. He wanted from Germany a full indemnity
covering all war costs. He objected to any authority being granted
to the League of Nations over ex-German territories in the
Pacific which, he contended, should be straightforwardly annexed
to Australia. Curiously enough, in this attitude Mr. Hughes
was much more vigorously supported by a section of the British
public than by his Australian constituents. He was acclaimed
by many of these latter, but, returning to Australia, did not find
the nation united under his leadership. His Cabinet was after-
wards in a constant state of crisis, and early in 1921 it was ru-
moured that he would give up the Prime Ministership and come to
London as High Commissioner, an office which Mr. Fisher had
just vacated. But Mr. Hughes attended the Imperial Conference
in London in June 1921 as Prime Minister.
The Constitution and the High Court. The Federal constitution, in
safeguarding the Federal power from trespass by the states and the
power of the states from trespass by the Federation, necessarily set
up a system of conservative check. But the full extent of that check
was only understood when a High Court began to interpret various
statutes in the light of the constitution. Already a considerable
amount of the legislation of the Australian Parliament has been
declared ultra vires by the High Court. Some of the decisions
affected political issues so deeply that it was sought to amend the
constitution so as to facilitate " Labour " legislation, but this effort
failed. The power to amend the constitution is subject to many
safeguards. A proposed amendment must first have the approval of
an absolute majority of both Houses of Parliament; it is then sub-
mitted to a poll of the people, and to pass must secure (a) a majority
of the total votes cast ; (i) a majority of the votes cast in a majority
of the states. If the three largest states voted " Yes " and the three
smallest states voted " No," though the total Australian vote was
" Yes," the proposed amendment would still fail.
In 1906 the Australian Parliament had passed an " Excise Act "
which was intended to enforce what was called " the New Protec-
tion." A high protective duty had been placed on agricultural
machinery, and at the same time an excise duty on the same machin-
ery manufactured locally, with the provision that the excise duty
should be remitted if the manufacturers paid " fair wages." On
June 26 1908 the High Court declared this Act invalid, on the
ground that it was not what it purported to be a taxing Act, but
rather an Act to regulate wages within a state, a thing which the
Federal power was not competent to undertake under the con-
stitution.
The first two Australian Parliaments devoted much time to
discussing a Federal Industrial Arbitration Act, which included in its
control state railway servants. This inclusion was nullified by a
High Court decision that it was an unconstitutional interference by
the Federal power with the affairs of the states. In the Trade Marks
Act the Australian Parliament gave trade unions the right to register
what is known in the United States as the " Union label," a mark
showing that certain goods were manufactured by trade-union labour
only. The Australian High Court (Aug. 1908) set this part of the
statute aside on the ground that such a " Union label " was not a
genuine trade mark, and the proposal to register it as a trade mark
was really a subterfuge to assume control of labour conditions which
were outside the province of the Commonwealth.
Not only Federal legislation but state legislation has been vetoed.
An Arbitration Act in N.S.W. had sought to give the widest powers
of regulating industrial disputes. In a series of five judgments the
High Court gave such a strict interpretation to the provisions of that
Act that it was more than half destroyed. (The High Court is the
only court of appeal in cases affecting the constitution, and is with
the Privy Council an alternative court of appeal in all other cases.)
In 1911, and again in 1913, 1915 and 1919, proposals were sub-
mitted to referenda for amendments of the Federal constitution
which would legalize for the future the Labour legislation which the
High Court had vetoed: all were rejected. The Australian consti-
tution, as interpreted by the High Court, remains a barrier against
any great development of socialistic enterprise on the part of the
Commonwealth Government. In its working the Australian con-
stitution has proved the most conservative instrument of Govern-
ment within the British Empire.
Industrial Disputes. Australia has elaborate machinery in Com-
monwealth and state Arbitration Courts for the settlement of indus-
trial disputes without strikes. But strikes are very frequent and
do grave damage to the development of the country. They are
directed against the state as an employer as well as against private
employers. The strike on the Victorian state railways in 1903 was
followed in 1908 by a strike on the Sydney state tramways. Both
of these strikes against state employers failed. New South Wales in
1908 altered its industrial arbitration system, and, this alteration
being resented by the trade unions, various strikes followed. The
next year (1909) more serious strikes broke out on the Broken Hill
(N.S.W.) silver-mining and the Newcastle (N.S.W.) coal-mining
fields. Stern measures were taken by the New South Wales Govern-
ment to repress these strikes, and the leaders in the strike move-
ment were arrested and some of them punished with imprisonment.
In 1910 there were strikes of tramway-employees at Perth (W. Aus.)
and of transport workers at Adelaide (S. Aus.). In 1912 the tramway
employees of Brisbane came out on strike because of a slight griev-
ance against their employers (a private company). The leaders
fomented a sympathetic strike on " syndicalist " lines, calling out
the workers in every industry with the avowed object of preventing
all business. Serious riots accompanied the strike. The state
Government acted with decision, and the strike disorders were
crushed and the syndicalist movement defeated.
The World War did not stop strikes. In 1914 and again in 1916
there were serious coal strikes. Working-days lost through strikes in
successive years were : 1913,623,000; 1914, 1,090,000; 1915,583,000;
1916, 1,678,000; 1917, 4,599,000; 1918, 580,000; 1919, 5,652,000.
The losses in wages through strikes during the period 1913-9 were
estimated at 8,500,000 big figures for a country of which the total
pop. is only 5,000,000. The statistics as to the methods of settling
strikes force the conclusion that the legal industrial arbitration
machinery is not effective of 460 disputes settled in 1919 only 38
were settled by the state Arbitration Courts and nine by the Com-
monwealth Arbitration Courts.
The Tariff. The Australian tariff is protective, with a rebate on
some of its rates for British productions. The first tariff passed in
1901 was mildly protective; the second passed in 1908 was more
stringently protective but made a " preference " concession to
British manufacture. Successive changes since have been always
in the direction of higher protection, keeping the Imperial preferen-
tial element, and (in an Act of 1920) extending it to other dominions
of the British Crown. In the attempt to quicken the growth of
Australian production a system of bounties was instituted by
legislation in 1907, 1912 and 1918. Bounties are paid on the local
production of certain agricultural products (cotton, rice, coffee, cigar
tobacco leaf, dried fruits, fibres, oil); of preserved fish; of iron and
steel; of shale oils; of sugar, if grown by white labour; of combed
wool or wool " tops " exported.
Defence. When the Commonwealth Government took over the
defence of Australia from the states in 1901 there existed for land
defence in the various states very small forces of regular troops, used
as instructional cadres and as garrisons for the forts; small forces of
militia, enlisted under a voluntary system and paid for about 16
days of drill and camp training a year; further small forces of volun-
teers, not paid at all, and giving usually but scanty time to training.
The total of these forces was 25,873, of whom a proportion could be
counted as efficient. Naval defence, apart from the existence of
various small craft, was entrusted to the British navy, and a yearly
subsidy (up to 126,000) was paid to the British Admiralty on .
condition that a fleet of a certain strength was maintained in
Australian waters and certain facilities given to Australians wishing
to enter the naval service.
At first the Federation did little to disturb these arrangements.
The fleet subsidy was continued and extended. The military forces
were taken over as they were. But the Defence Act of 1903 gave
indication of a new spirit. It made provision for the enlistment of
all able-bodied males for defence service in case of war. An amend-
ment proposed by Mr. W. M. Hughes, then one of the leading
members of the Labour party, that this universal obligation to
military service should be accompanied by a universal obligation
to training for service, was rejected. But it was inevitable that in
time the one should follow the other. Mr. Hughes constituted him-
self the parliamentary champion of compulsory training for service,
and assisted outside the House by the National Defence League,
of which Col. Gerald Campbell, a volunteer officer of distinction,
was the moving spirit eventually secured the acceptance of the
principle.
A series of Acts from 1909 to 1918 gave Australia a military system
under which, with few exceptions, the whole manhood of the coun-
try is trained to the use of arms. Under this system, at the age of
12, a boy must begin training (chiefly physical culture) as a junior
cadet. Training as a senior cadet begins at 14 and lasts until 18; it
comprises drills equivalent to 16 full days a year. At the age of 1 8
the obligation to undergo adult training begins, and lasts until the
age of 26. This adult training consists of the equivalent of 16 full
days' drilling a year, of which not less than eight shall be in a camp
of continuous training. In the case of the artillery and the engineers
the training extends to 25 days a year, of which not less than 17
must be in camp. ' There are certain exceptions, including one
making provision for those who have conscientious scruples against
bearing arms ; these however are trained for the hospital and ambu-
lance services. The thinness of the population in some districts
AUSTRALIA
forces another class of exemption; the residents of the far " Out-
back " cannot be economically mobilized for training, and for the
present are left out of the scheme. A Staff College in the Federal
Territory is provided for the training of officers, and its organization
is on severely practical lines. Cadets are accepted after examination.
The whole cost of their college training is borne by the army esti-
mates, and parents are forbidden to supplement the messing allow-
ance by private pocket-money. Even railway fares to and from the
college when cadets go on holiday leave are paid by the Government,
as are also all costs of uniform and equipment. A severe but not
unwholesome discipline is exacted; the drinking of alcoholic liquors
and cigarette smoking are both forbidden in the college. The
normal course lasts four years and is followed by a tour of duty in
England or in India, after which graduates are available for staff
appointments in Australia and New Zealand (the latter dominion
shares in the carrying on of the college). During the World War the
course at the Staff College was somewhat modified and 158 cadets
were specially graduated for service at the front. The college pro-
vides for 150 cadets.
As, after training, the citizen soldier passes into a reserve, the
potential military resources of the Commonwealth in the future are
only to be calculated by the total number of males of " military age,"
minus those who had been exempted from training. On the basis
of the present population there would be 366,000 males between the
ages of 18 and 26; 330,000 between 26 and 35, and a further 614,000
between 35 and 60. Exemptions, at a broad guess, might be 25 %.
The organization of the establishment is at present 90 squadrons of
light horse, 52 batteries of field artillery, 93 battalions of infantry,
and a due proportion of engineers and army service corps.
In regard to naval defence there was strong criticism of the sub-
sidy policy at the very outset of the Federation. But that policy was
warmly supported by the British Admiralty and the Imperial
Defence Committee; and the impression was given that the only
alternative to an Australian cash subsidy towards the British navy
was no cooperation at all in the naval defence of the Empire. Indeed
the early advocates of an Australian navy were met in their own
country with charges of disloyalty to the Mother Country. But
Australian public opinion steadily hardened on the subject. The
British Admiralty was ultimately converted, in part at least. On
Dec. 19 1907 Mr. Deakin, as Prime Minister of Australia, outlined
a scheme by which Australia would devote the amount of the naval
subsidy, then 200,000 a year, to the building of an Australian fleet,
under the control of the Commonwealth Government but trained to
cooperate with the British navy.
The general anxiety as to the European situation in 1909 made the
subject of Imperial defence of the first importance. Australia was
represented at an Imperial Defence Conference in 1909, which
showed a remarkable change of opinion on the subject of " local
navies " on the part of the British Admiralty. They brought down to
the Conference, as a substitute for an Australian subsidy to the
British navy, a proposal for the building of an independent Australian
fleet unit with the help of a British Treasury subsidy of 250,000.
The Australian Government adopted the scheme in its entirety,
except that it refused to accept the subsidy and decided to put the
whole cost on the Australian taxpayer. Under this scheme Aus-
tralia was to provide a fleet unit with a " Dreadnought " cruiser as
its chief vessel.
In March 1911, at the request of the Australian Government, and
at the close of a visit to Australia, Admiral Sir Reginald Henderson
reported on the naval needs of the Commonwealth. His report was
accepted, and it represents the present aim of Australian naval
defence. In 1919 Admiral of the Fleet Lord Jellicoe visited Aus-
tralia to advise the Commonwealth as to their naval programme in
the light of the lessons of the war. In 1921 a special conference was
held at Singapore to consider the Pacific naval position. It was
announced by the British Admiralty early in 1921 that British naval
policy (especially in regard to a battleship programme) would not
be finally decided upon until after discussion with the dominions.
Thus the wheel had come full circle from the British Admiralty
attitude of 1907, which discountenanced any dominion naval action
except a financial support for the British navy, to the decision that
the British naval programme must not be finally settled without
consulting the dominions.
The Australian naval organization has a naval college at Jervis
Bay for the education of naval officers. The system follows that of
Great Britain exactly except that all expenses of the cadets are met
by the Commonwealth Government and parents pay no fees. There
is also a training-ship at Sydney for the training of other ranks. The
Australian navy is in charge, for the Empire, of the S. Pacific naval
station. It has a fleet of 30 surface warships headed by the battle
cruiser " Australia," six submarines, and various auxiliaries.
Australia's defence expenditure (naval and military) in 1905 was
less than 1,000,000. In 1918-9 it was 87,270,000, and the esti-
mates for 1919-20 were for 81,029,000.
The visit of the Prince of Wales to Australia in 1920 was marked
by the most cordial demonstrations of loyalty and personal affection.
An effort was made by the Irish party and an extremist Labour
section to strike a discordant note. It failed completely. The Aus-
tralian soldiers in France had been won by the Prince's qualities
of courage, dutifulness and charm to what may be called without
exaggeration a devoted admiration. They gave the lead to Aus-
tralian public sentiment in the welcome of the royal visitor.
NEW SOUTH WALES
The area of New South Wales is computed at 309,472 square
miles. The state has progressed rapidly since federation. The pop
in 1900 was 1,364,590 and in 1919 2,002,631. In 1908 New South
Wales reestablished a system of state-aided immigration. The city
of Sydney has shown a remarkable growth since federation, and in
1912 a " Million Club " was formed to foster the growth of the
city to 1,000,000 inhabitants. Pop. (1921) 828,700.
Politically, New South Wales was the original headquarters of the
Australian Labour party; its state Parliament is usually controlled
by the Labour party and the Premier in 1921 was the Hon. John
Storey, leader of the Labour party. At the time of the Union, New
South Wales was the centre of anti-federation, and its hesitancy to
throw in its lot with the other states caused some delay in realizing
the Union. A certain anti-federal spirit persists, and is shown in the
fact that this state stands out from the Federal control of its borrow-
ings. No state has benefited more from the Union, the effect of which
tends to group most of the great industries of the Commonwealth
around the New South Wales coal-fields. A recent development of
great importance was the foundation of steel manufacture at New-
castle.
Besides Sydney (the greatest port of Australia and the chief
entrep&t for the American, the Asiatic and the Pacific trade), New
South Wales has notable cities in Newcastle the centre of the coal-
mining industry Broken Hill, a great silver, zinc and lead-mining
town in the far W. of the state; Tamworth, Bathurst, Goulburn,
Wagga and Albury, pastoral and agricultural centres.
The governor in 1921 was Sir Walter Davidson.
VICTORIA
Since Federation the pop. increased from 1,197,206 to 1,495,938
(1919). State-aided immigration was reestablished in 1908 and a
vigorous policy of closer settlement has been adopted. Before the
Union Victoria had established by a high protective tariff a lead in
the manufacturing industries. That lead has now passed to New
South Wales. Victoria is, however, developing with energy her agri-
cultural interests, and has lately made good progress with intensive
fruit-growing on the banks of the river Murray. The area under all
crops in 1919 was 3,942,000 acres. The state has been more stable in
its politics than most of its neighbours and is the centre of Australian
Conservatism. As temporary seat of the Commonwealth Govern-
ment, Melbourne (pop. 743,000), the capital of Victoria, is also the
political capital of Australia, and the housing of the chief Federal
departments there has given some impetus to the city's growth.
Since the inauguration of the Federation it has been improved
greatly in appearance by a scheme of tree decoration applied to the
river banks and the chief streets.
The governor in 1921 was the Earl of Stradbroke.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
S. Australia has an area of 380,070 sq.m. and a pop., in 1919, of
468,194, having been relieved of the care of the Northern Territory.
The state is facing the development of its "dry-belt," where wheat-
growing has been found to be possible with a very low average rain-
fall. In 1901 the area under wheat was 1,743,452, in 1919 2,186,349
acres.
In politics South Australia has always been very progressive in
spirit. It was the first state to enfranchise women, and most of the
" social reform " legislation of Australia originated here.
The governor in 1921 was Sir Archibald William Weigall.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
The pop. was 331,660 in 1919. The state has had for many years
a system of state-aided immigration. The backwardness in devel-
opment of this, the largest of the states, is being met by a vigorous
land settlement policy. In 1920 the state had 1,605,000 ac. under
crop, mostly wheat. The gold yield is dwindling. In 1918 it was
876,512 oz. compared with 1,595,270 oz. in 1909. But W. Australia
is still by far the largest producer of gold in Australia.
The governor in 1921 was Sir Francis Newdigate Newdegate.
QUEENSLAND
The pop. was 725,220 in 1919; the state has progressed greatly
since federation. Alone among the Australian states it develops its
railways from several maritime centres instead of from the one
capital city. The sugar industry is a great source of Queensland
wealth, and some anxiety was formerly felt as to whether the " white
labour " policy of the Commonwealth would not ruin this industry.
That anxiety no longer exists.
Politically the state is one of the strongholds of the Labour party,
and during 1920 its Labour Government was strongly criticized in
Great Britain for passing an Act which was regarded as repudiating
the conditions under which British capital had been advanced for
pastoral development.
The governor in 1921 was Sir Matthew Nathan.
312 AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE AUSTRIA, UPPER
TASMANIA
With a very mild climate, in which drought is unknown, Tas-
mania (pop. in 1919, 216,757) is destined to be the garden, orchard
and small-culture farm of the mainland. A new source of wealth
now being developed is that of the production of electricity from
water-power. A great industrial future is promised from the utiliza-
tion of the Great Lake water-power, and there has been talk even
of carrying electric power by cables across to the mainland.
The governor in 1921 was Sir William Allardyce. (F. F.)
AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE. Australia's beginning was from
a literary standpoint unfortunate. The primitive aborigines had
no history and no legendary lore which, finding expression through
some of the first colonists, might have added to the world's
stock of romance. The exploring of the continent the siege of
the Blue Mountains with their baffling natural fortifications,
the conquest of the great fastnesses of the sun on the dry inland
plains might have inspired an epic, but no one of the explorers
nor of their contemporaries attempted more than a bare record.
The sordid convict era inspired one book For the Term of his
Natural Life (1874), by Marcus Clarke which is made notable
by its subject rather than its treatment. The bushranging era in-
spired another Robbery Under Arms (1888), by " Rolf Boldre-
wood " (T. A. Browne) of which the same may be said. Those
are the two master works of early Australian letters. Yet neither
is distinctively Australian in the sense of showing a different
outlook on life or a different sense qf literary values, to that of the
average contemporary English writer. The same may be said
of the poems of Adam Lindsay Gordon, who wrote in Australia of
Australian subjects from the standpoint of an English squire.
At a later epoch, when there was less promising material,
there came the beginning of a characteristic Australian literature
giving great promise which as yet has not been fulfilled. The
people bred from the wilder and more enterprising of English,
Scottish and Irish stock, responding to the influence of the bounti-
ful, sometimes fierce, sunshine, and to conditions of life which are
singularly free from any bonds of convention and tend to the
levelling of social conditions have departed somewhat from
the home type. They are gay and debonair, whilst a little in-
clined to be cynical, irreverent and vainglorious; enduring and
brave, even to the point of being somewhat ruthless. The qual-
ities of these new people, the Australians, begin to show in their
literature, which is as yet more impressive in quantity than in
quality. There are at least one hundred minor poets of some skill
and originality of thought in Australia (with five million inhab-
itants), and nearly that number of prose writers of distinction
all showing to the close observer some signs to distinguish them
from writers of the same class in Great Britain and in America.
A hedonistic joy in life, a disrespect for authority, a wit tinged
with cruelty, a freakish humour founded on wild exaggeration
those are the qualities which outcrop most often in exploring
the fields of contemporary Australian literature. There is to be
found, too, a tinge of mystic melancholy, a sense of bitterness
a loving bitterness inspired by the harsh realities of life in
the " bush " where Nature makes great demands on human
endurance before permitting her conquest, but enslaves her
wooers by her very cruelty.
This modern Australian literature owed very much to one
man J. F. Archibald (1858-1919). He was of partly Scottish,
partly Irish, partly French forbears, with a touch of Semitic
blood. Editor for a quarter of a century of a notable Australian
paper, he made it his mission to encourage young Australians to
write of the life that was peculiar to Australia. He was a wit
with a fine flair for a phrase; a sentimental cynic; and passionate-
ly Australian. Mainly under his aegis there came forward a
young school of writers which included Henry Hertzberg Lawson
(b. 1867), who has given in short stories and verse faithful,
sometimes terrible, glimpses of the "bush"; Andrew Barton
(" Banjo") Paterson (b. 1864), a singer of the rackety, horsey
life of Australian sheep stations; George Louis Becke (1848-
1913), who pictured South Sea Island life; Arthur Hoey Davis
(" Steele Rudd," b. 1868), who writes broadly comic and yet
sympathetic studies of life on the small farms of Australia;
Roderic Quinn (b. 1869), and the late Victor Daley (both of
Irish extraction and giving in their verse two different and yet
both characteristically Australian modifications of Celtic mel-
ancholy,); Edwin James Brady (b. 1869), writer of sea songs;
Ethel Turner (Mrs. H. R. Curlewis, b. 1872), English-born but
Australian by education, a graceful novelist of Australian child-
hood; Bernard O'Dowd (b. 1866); Barbara Baynton, Mary
Gaunt, James Francis Dwyer (b. 1874) and many others. Some
of these owed much, some little, directly to Archibald and his
newspaper. But without a doubt he was the chief founder of a
new Australian literary movement.
Within the decade 1910-20 there was very little that was-
characteristically Australian in the literary product of the
southern continent. An exception must be made for The
Sentimental Bloke, by C. J. Dennis, a collection of verse which
showed original qualities of humour and sentiment. A distinc-
tively Australian literary magazine, The Lone Hand, faded away
after a period of apparently vigorous life.
Australian letters suffer from diffused energy. There are
numberless writers of some ability, but no commanding figures.
The future holds out a hope of Australian work of the first rank,
inspired perhaps by the " bush " the mysterious Neolithic-age
forests, hills and plains perhaps by the giant work of the early
explorers, perhaps by the extremely fluid social conditions of a
young country full of self-confidence as it grapples with the old,
old problems of civilization.
The Australian newspaper press reproduces with close fidelity
British press characteristics. The Melbourne morning journals,
the Age and the Argus, follow traditions which in the British
islands survive only in Scotland and the provinces; the Sydney
morning journals, the Herald and the Telegraph, are somewhat
more new-fashioned, and are comparable with their London
contemporaries. Practically all Australian papers record fully
not only the doings of their own parliamentary and municipal
bodies but also British political history and foreign affairs. A
new note of progress has come into Australian journalism since
1910 by the foundation of a cable news agency as a rival to the
old agency which for many years had a monopoly of foreign news
service. (F. F.)
AUSTRIA, LOWER (see 3.1). Lower Austria is bordered on
the E. and N. by Hungary and Czechoslovakia; on the W.
by Czechoslovakia and Upper Austria and on the S. by Styria.
As the result of the losses of 1919 (Stadt-Felsberg and other
places), Lower Austria extends over an area of about 7,639 sq. m.
only. The pop. of the present Lower Austria was in 1910
3,525,094, but in 1920 it was reckoned at only 3,313,155 (434 per
sq. m.). In 1910, 91-68% of the population were Roman Catho-
lics, 5-26% Jews, 2-64% Evangelicals and most of the remainder
belonged to the orthodox Greek faith. For administrative
purposes, this territory is divided into 23 districts and 3 cities,
the municipalities of which are autonomous, viz: Vienna, the
capital, pop. (1920) 1,842,005; Wiener-Neustadt 35,000, and
Waidhofen an der Ybbs 4,740. Other important towns are: Baden
(pop. 8,698; and with its suburbs 21,095); Bruck an der Leitha
6,007; Schwechat 8,558; Korneuburg 7,736; Stockerau 10,324;
Krems 13,595; Modling 17,704; Neunkirchen 10,759; St. Pollen
23,061; Klosterneuburg 13,431.
Of the total area 96-3 % is productive, and of the productive area
45'3% is arable, 35-5% forestal, 13-6% gardens and meadows,
3'7% grazing-lands and 1-9% vineyards. The neighbourhood of
Vorarlberg in Lower Austria is the chief industrial district of the new
Austrian Republic.
The Wiener-Neustadt-Vienna canal is now no longer used. At
Griinbach, near by, are the only big coal-mines now belonging to
Austria. In the hill country to the E. are lignite deposits, now mostly
on Hungarian territory, but partly in the Burgenland. Korneuburg
is proposed as the starting-point of the projected Danube-Oder
canal.
AUSTRIA, UPPER (see 3.2). Pop. in 1910, 853,006; in 1920,
857,234 (185 to the sq. m.). For administrative purposes,
this territory is divided into 15 districts and two autono-
mous municipalities, viz: Linz, the capital (pop. 93,473) and
Steyr (pop. 20,234). Other important places are: Wels (pop.
15,427); Bad Ischl (pop. 9,695 the town itself 2,291); Gmunden.
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
(pop. 19,604 the town itself 6,411). These figures are from the
census of 1920. In 1900, 92-1% of the soil was productive and
the productive areas included 38-1% arable; 20-1% meadow;
2-7% grazing land; 36-9% forestal and 2-2% gardens. The salt
production of Upper Austria forms nearly 60% of the whole
Austrian output.
Urfahr is now incorporated with Linz. The Postlingberg
'(1,762 ft.), a favourite resort, is connected with Linz by mountain
railway. The pop. of Steyr increased by only 150 between 1900
and 1910 because of a decline in the iron industry, and the in-
crease afterwards was due to the opening during the World War
of a munitions factory which was later converted into engineering
works.
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, 1908-18. The external designation
of the state " unofficially known as Austria " (see 3.2) was for a
long time unsettled. 1 The official name since 1867 for the
Austrian half of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, as including
the Habsburg possessions W. of the river Leitha, was " the
Kingdoms and Territories represented in the Reichsrat " (Die
im Reichsrate vertrctcncn Konigsreiche und Lander). It was
cumbrous and but little calculated to arouse patriotic sentiments
in its citizens. In the style of the Government offices this mass of
territories was known as " Cisleithania." But the population
was accustomed to talk of an Austrian Empire and of the Austrian
Emperor, neither of which designations was quite happy or
accurate. It was not till the World War that the dynasty
felt the necessity for giving this group of countries a definite
name and state arms of its own (as was done on Oct. 10 1915),
the term " Austrian Empire " being adopted with the motive of
giving " precise expression to the political unity of the Austrian
territories " and " displaying tangibly the Austrian state as a
unity." This proceeding might be compared to a death-bed
baptism.
Nationalities. The Austrian state had from its first origins
always had a self-imposed political mission; its very name of
origin, Ostmark (The Eastern March), marked it geographically
as a bulwark, a gate-keeper, to defend Europe on the W. against
encroachments from the E. From this original task arose a
second, that of affording shelter to the fragments of peoples
heaped together in inextricable confusion in this corner of the
earth. With a few exceptions (Poland, Bosnia) it was through
their free will that the Empire had come into being. The external
legal forms of the union were marriages, inheritance and election;
it was essentially the self-determination of the nations which
brought them together. For 500 years Austria had fulfilled this
double task fairly adequately; but in its third task, that of
turning a mechanical combination into an intimate union, a
symbiosis of the nationalities, the State failed. If it had achieved
this as well, it would have given a model solution of the most
difficult European problem; for Austria was Europe in miniature.
There was no lack of attempts to do so; the methods varied,
experiments were made as on a subject for vivisection; the object
of the experiment suffers under it, but the method is perfected
step by step.
Till late in the i8th century the nationality question remained
untouched, and the Austrian peoples got on well with one
another. Maria Theresa and Joseph II. were the first who thought
it desirable to form these nationalities into a uniform nation
coextensive with the state. The attempt failed, and the national-
ities became self-conscious and split apart. The next stage was to
take one people and train it as the representative par excellence of
the State idea; and this people could only be the Germans. This
attempt also failed ; for the Germans were numerically too weak,
1 For HUNGARY, as the other constitutional half of the old Austro-
Hungarian Monarchy, see the separate article under that heading;
also BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA, and the articles on the different " suc-
cession states " which were formed on the break-up of the monarchy
in 1918. As a matter of convenience, the account of Austro-Hungar-
ian foreign policy (i.e. the Dual Monarchy as a whole) in 1909-18,
dealing, from the Austrian standpoint, with the political develop-
ments resulting in the World War, is included as a final section under
the present heading. The Austro-Hungarian army is dealt with
under ARMY. (Ed. E. B.)
and not vigorous enough in their methods (Bach period, 1850-60).
A third experiment took the form of distributing over many backs
a burden too heavy for one. In 1867 the Magyars accepted with
alacrity this role in Hungary, the eastern half of the Dual
Monarchy, while in the Cisleithanian tern tones the cooperation of
the Poles was also sought. But this way too had to be given up,
since even the smallest nationality would not allow itself to be
absorbed, and during Taaffe's administration (1878) the idea
came into favour of treating each nationality, and allowing it to
grow up, according to its own idiosyncrasies; they were only to be
restricted so far as the unity of the state rendered it absolutely
necessary. What Austria desired to be was a state at once
conciliatory and just, and it opposed no national demand which
did not overstep the limits of state security; but this loosing of
bonds unchained at the same time a number of national passions
before which the state retired step by step.
As to the details, the following observations 2 may be made for the
last phase of the empire which expired in 1918. The Germans had
for long past given up all efforts at Germanization ; their watch-
word was " maintenance of the national status quo " that is to say,
not an aggressive but a defensive principle. It was in Bohemia that
they championed the principle most openly, where they were striving
for national separation and protection against the Czechs of the
territories which they had inhabited since the Middle Ages. The
Germans of the Alpine lands were less ready to carry out the same
principle in Tirol and the regions leading down to the Adriatic. The
divided policy of the Germans led on all sides to their failure. In
Tirol they lost even purely German territories; they were pressed
back from the Adriatic ; and in the lands S. of the Sudetic Moun-
tains they were brought under a Czech national state, which
inherited, with them, the problem of nationality.
The Czechs came under the sceptre of the Habsburgs after the
battle with the Turks at Mohacs (1526), through an inheritance
treaty confirmed by the vote of their Estates; -an unsuccessful
rebellion which they made in 1621 against the ruling house as
protagonist of the counter-Reformation, brought them under the
power of a ruthless conqueror, who wished to crush both their faith
and their national independence. The reign of terror which followed
the battle of the White Mountain was intended to remove all
possibility of a fresh rising in the future. The Czechs rightly refer
to this period 300 years ago when they describe themselves as a once
oppressed nation. But in more recent times the position was differ-
ent ; the conquered race recovered, and a learned work, Die bohmische
Nation, published in 1916 by the intellectual leaders of the nation,
enlightens us as to their position. Dr. V. Zdeako Tobolka, leader of
the " Young Czechs " (i.e. the party which had frustrated the
efforts of the Old Czechs for a reconciliation with the Germans)
produced this magnificent work in collaboration with 22 professors,
artists, industrial leaders and writers of Czech nationality, supported
by a national subsidy ; it can therefore be accepted as a trustworthy
Czech autobiography. This comprehensive book describes the collec-
tive life of the " Bohemian " people, as the Czechs called themselves
in contrast to their present appellation of the Czechoslovak state.
It describes its material development, " its physical constitution and
warlike prowess," of which they make a special boast, and after
that its intellectual progress. In the sphere of education attention is
drawn to the fact that 96-69 % of the population of the Sudetic terri-
tories can both read and write: "Our education is, next to the
German, the best organized and stands decidedly the highest "
(p. 122). Next follow chapters on the literary renaissance of the
nation, its progress in art, mathematics, chemistry and natural
science; the magnificent development of agriculture, modern indus-
try, commerce and finance; and in particular its flourishing self-
government, " which will be exercised in the fullest freedom," and
in which " the communal organization embodies in the highest degree
the conception of self-government " (p. 234), and " the independent
sphere of activity unlimited in its fundamental principle " (p. 235)
in that " State control is exercised seldom and discreetly " (p. 236).
" The control which is exercised over the land is in Czech hands
since we possess a majority ; the territorial authorities for the greater
part belong to our nation " (p. 242). The influence of German cul-
ture is also remembered with gratitude. Of Palacky, the father of the
nation, it says: " It was under the influence of German culture that
Palacky was aisle to give a firm foundation to this conscious Bohe-
mian ideal of his. To cut oneself off from external cultural influences,
especially from German ones, he declared to be a mistake." Besides
mentioning the encouragement bestowed by leading Germans like
Goethe, Herder, Raumer, etc., on Czech poets and scholars, the book
gives an appreciative account of the Emperor Joseph. The article by
Jakubel on " the literary renaissance " says: " The Prague theatre,
which had vegetated miserably up to now, developed under the
reign of Joseph II. into a powerful instrument of culture. Joseph's
a fair
As elsewhere throughout this article, the point of view is that of
ir-minded Austrian historian. (Ed. E. B.)
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
enlightened despotism preserved to the Bohemian people at one
stroke an astonishing number of distinguished and progressive
spirits." In Prof. Kadner's article on education we read : " A new
organization was first created by the famous May education laws of
1869. It was the liberal-minded Germans who were instrumental in
the first place in getting them passed; while the Slavs from the
beginning took up to their own disadvantage a hostile or at least
passive attitude towards the establishment of these laws." It should
be difficult, after the copious details of this autobiography de luxe
of the Czech nation in the year 1916, to speak of it historically as an
" oppressed " nation of Austria.
The Poles were, together with the Ruthenians, the youngest Aus-
trian nation ; the repeated partitions of Poland since the i8th century
brought them unwillingly under Austrian rule. After a short period
of German government, which was highly beneficial to the country,
Galicia received after the Constitution of 1867 an exceptional posi-
tion which was gradually consolidated; the German officials were
removed, and the Polish members in the Reichsrat (who represented
71 votes) held the balance between the parties, which brought
Galicia, without any effort, great financial advantages at the cost of
the other Crown territories. Up to the World War there was actually
no articulate irredentism among the Austrian Poles; they were more
contented than their co-nationals in Russia and Germany, and this
explains their attitude of vacillation and indecision during a long
period of the war.
Ruthenians. Just as the Czechs had a majority in -Bohemia, so
had the Poles in Galicia; and they used their strength against the
Ruthenians. The Austrian Government being largely dependent
upon the parliamentary aid of the Poles, could not stand out against
them much on account of the far-reaching autonomy of the Galician
Territorial Government. And so Russophil agitation found a fruitful
soil, especially among the clergy and intellectuals. The Ruthenians,
who were loyal to the empire, drew attention to the small degree of
resistance offered to this agitation by the Polish authorities, who
were interested in making the whole Ruthenian people suspect of
irredentism. A grand campaign of agitation on the part of the
Russian Count Bobrinsky, whose watch-word was that the Russian
banner must wave over the Carpathians, though winked at by the
Polish governor, led to a great political trial (Dec. 29 1913) for high
treason of 1 80 Ruthenians who had been seduced by this agitator.
It was not till towards the end of the war that the Austrian Govern-
ment, in response to the wishes of the Ruthenians, began to come
round to the idea of a separate status for Eastern Galicia; but it was
then too late for such changes within the old territory of the empire.
The Southern Slavs were divided among four countries: Austria,
Hungary, Serbia and Montenegro. Ban Jellacic, though loyal to
the Emperor, had given expression to their aspirations towards unity
as early as 1848; but Francis Joseph handed over the Croats and
Serbs to Magyar domination (1867), and Dalmatia, the territory of
the Austrian Croats, had been neglected by Vienna for years past ;
thus it was not till the years immediately preceding the war that it
was rapidly developed by the construction of ports and railways and
the encouragement of tourist traffic. The Slovenes, who inhabited
Carinthia and Carniola, had less grounds for discontent, for the
barren Karst had been afforested at the expense of the state; but
though they were at the very gate of Serbia, they suffered from a
shortage of meat, for Hungary obstructed the traffic in livestock in
the interests of her great territorial magnates, and Austria bore the
brunt of this. Vienna had for long been the hope of the Southern
Slavs, and many of them had dreamed of a union under the Crown
of Austria (" trialism "). It was not till this failed them that they
turned towards Belgrade.
Of the three Latin races, Italian, Ladin and Rumanian, national
fragments were to be found in Austria. The Italians and Ladins,
treated as separate in Switzerland, were in the Austrian official
statistics treated as a single national group (like the Czecho-Slovaks
and Serbo-Croats), but even then only totalled together 2-75% of
the population of the empire. The claim set up by the Italians to a
university of their own within the territory inhabited by them led to
various controversies with the Germans and Southern Slavs. The
Ladins, who formed about a quarter of this group, were not affected
by irredentism, but looked rather towards German culture, and
were to the end outspoken in their Austrianism. The Italian
bourgeoisie of the towns, thanks to the force of attraction exercised
by Italy, was all the more conspicuously irredentist, since the coun-
try population maintained an attitude of comparative opposition
to this movement. Among the Rumanians, who inhabited three
states (Austria, Hungary and Rumania), the desire long prevailed
for union within the monarchy, and Austria would only have had to
stretch out her hand to them ; but the Magyars would not have it.
Bukovina, the chief abode of the Austrian Rumanians, which they
shared with the Ruthenians, offered the spectacle of a German
adminstration in which without any compulsion German was the
official language and also that of society, and neither efforts at
Germanization nor language controversies were to be found. The
Rumanians for years had proved themselves loyal to the State.
Constitution. The establishment in Austria of universal
suffrage in 1907 had as its aim the creation, in the place of the old
Parliament, which was crippled by the strife of nationalities, of a
Chamber in which social and economic interests should prevail
over national ones. It had been believed that it was property
owners and intellectuals who placed the question of nationality
above all others, while behind them stood a solid mass of working-
people who were uncorrupted by nationalist chauvinism. The
Social Democrats in particular had always insisted that the
working-classes were necessarily international. The House now
consisted of 516 members, of whom 221 were of Slav nationality,
177 of German nationality, and 87 Social Democrats, so that in
every national controversy the latter could carry a decision in
accordance with their principles. In spite of this, the calculation
was defeated; for in Europe every true democracy at once be-
comes national, and hence the national problem infected the
working-classes so soon as they won parliamentary power; the
" International " split up into national groups, just as the
bourgeoisie had done before it. Thus the motive force of nation-
ality proved itself stronger than that of Socialism.
With the introduction of universal equal suffrage the stormy
suffrage agitation came to rest, although one of its demands was
unfulfilled, namely female suffrage for the Austrian House of
Deputies. Active committees for women's rights were, it is true,
set up in the territorial capitals. The election of a woman as a
deputy to the Diet, which took place prematurely through their
influence in Bohemia in 1912, was annulled by the governor as
illegal. Women's activity was, for the rest, kept free from
demonstrations and excesses. They were not, however, without
quiet success, for these committees worked so intensively to
create a public opinion favourable to woman's suffrage that im-
mediately after the proclamation of the Austrian Republic in 1918
the vote was unanimously conceded to women, even the con-
servative parties agreeing to this.
It might have been expected that the concession of universal
suffrage in the case of the House of Deputies would have led to the
abolition of the class system of voting for the legislative bodies of
the several territories and the introduction of an equal franchise,
and also to the doing away with the three-class system of voting
established on the Prussian model in the case of the election of
municipal representatives. This was all the more probable owing
to the fact that since the Constitution of 1867 there had been a
certain analogy between the franchise for the Reichsrat, the Terri-
torial Diets, and the elected commercial bodies. The Social Demo-
cratic party endeavoured, indeed, to remove the last remains of the
old electoral privilege in town and country; but the urgent motion
which they brought in to this effect as early as July 8 1908 broke
down, owing to a not unfounded anxiety lest in the Crown terri-
tories of mixed populations one nationality should predominate too
much over another. There was only a cautious and gradual exten-
sion of the right to vote in Diet and municipal elections in the several
territories; and it was not till Jan. 20 1918 that the Government
adopted the point of view of the Social Democrats, and promised to
extend the principle of the parliamentary franchise, as established
in the case of elections to the Reichsrat, to the communal elections
also, but with reservations intended to guard against " the unde-
sirable reaction of nationality in districts of mixed population." The
principle of full equality of electoral rights in all three spheres was
not carried out till the republic.
Parliament. The activity of the Austrian Parliament can best
be characterized as a continuous inactivity. The two great
recurring " necessities of State," the budget and the authoriza-
tion of the contingents of army recruits, regularly occupied a
large part of the sittings; the budget was generally passed only in
instalments in three or six monthly grants, and the Government
was forced to adopt the practice of adjourning the obstructive
House of Deputies and of providing for indispensable require-
ments in its absence by emergency decree.
The procedure of emergency decree was based upon Par. 14 of the
constitution, which provided that: "When pressing necessity for
such measures presents itself at a time when the Reichsrat is not
sitting, they may be promulgated by imperial decree, in so far as
they do not produce any lasting burden on the State treasury."
The current administration could, it is true, be provided for by this
means, but new commitments could not be entered upon. This
resulted, indeed, in a fairly economical administration, but nothing
could be done on an imposing scale. Par. 14 of the constitution also
contained a safety valve which enabled the Government to carry on
current business for a time without the cooperation of the Parliament.
The Government repeatedly exposed itself to the charge of proroguing
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
Parliament in order to avail itself of these emergency paragraphs.
This procedure has often been blamed as unconstitutional ; but the
excuse must be taken into account that a constitution which provides
such an emergency exit must be prepared for use to be made of it.
The situation was often such that Parliament would not work, and
the Government was faced with the alternative of stopping the
machine of State or availing itself of emergency decrees. Such
occasions arose even before the war on an average every two years.
The Reichsrat's right of control was secured after the event by the
fact that the Government was bound, the next time it assembled, to
lay the emergency decrees before it within four weeks; and that it
could refuse its ratification. But before the war the Reichsrat never
exercised this right, and thus each time the Government's proceed-
ings were whitewashed. It was only in 1917 that the emergency
decrees promulgated by the Sturgkh Ministry at the beginning of the
war failed to receive ratification, in retaliation for the suppression of
trial by jury by a military trial and the extension over civilians of the
jurisdiction of the military courts. The normal processes of criminal
jurisdiction were consequently restored. On July 26 1914 Sturgkh
closed Parliament altogether, and non-parliamentary absolutism
reigned for three years. At last Sturgkh 's second successor again
summoned the Reichsrat; but since its six years' mandate was ex-
Siring, it was prolonged by a special law towards the end of 1918.
n the break-up of the State in 1918 the German deputies of this
rump Parliament assembled to form the constituent national as-
sembly of German Austria, while in the Czechoslovak and Yugo-
slav states there were committees from which the German and
Italian deputies were excluded, which proceeded to take measures
towards forming states.
Organized obstruction of parliamentary business by a section of
members has been, of course, not confined to Austria. But it was in
Austria that this singular procedure was first brought to technical
perfection; and it became an Austrian speciality. The reason for
this was that every party had cause to fear parliamentary oppression
at the hands of other nationalities, and this was why it was long
impossible to reconcile the principal parties in the House to any
effective remedy. It was not till the end of 1909 that this was
achieved by a tightening of the standing orders.
The standing orders under which the business of the Reichsrat
was conducted were, as the law originally stood (1867 and 1873),
intended for a dignified assembly of which each member aimed at
avoiding disturbances. With the extension of the suffrage and the
growth of nationalist conflicts, the powers of the president were no
longer sufficient, and he was unable to deal with the obstruction of
even a small group. At last, on Dec. 17 1909, after an 86-hour
sitting, entirely occupied with debates on emergency motions, an
emergency motion as to new standing orders proposed by the
Polish group was passed; on the following day the Upper House
adopted these resolutions, and on Dec. 20 1909 the new law was
promulgated. By its provisions communications from the Govern-
ment and the other House, and reports of commissions, had to take
precedence of other business; further, the president could postpone
to the end of the sitting formal motions, interpellations, emergency
motions, and other obstructive measures. In the long run, however,
even this palliative ceased to work; and accordingly on June 5 1917
a new stiffening of the standing orders was voted, which sufficed in
effect during the later period of the Parliament.
Language Question. There was no law regulating the question of
what language was to be used in parliamentary debates. Every
deputy might speak in his mother tongue; but custom had brought
it about that, in order to be understood by the whole House, the
members of Parliament spoke German. It was not till the Taaffe
Government that it became a frequent thing for individual Slav
deputies to speak in their own language. These speeches were
generally not recorded by the stenographer; the Slavs protected
themselves against this by gradually getting it accepted that poly-
glot stenographers should be appointed, that their speeches should be
translated, and that they should be added as appendices to the
parliamentary reports in the correct national language; finally it was
resolved (June 1917) that all speeches should be reported verbatim
in the parliamentary reports, in the language in which they were
delivered. The Upper House agreed, but expressed its misgivings as
to such a polyglot report of proceedings.
Administrative Commission for Bohemia. In June 1913 the
Government considered itself justified by necessity of the State in
adopting a measure which in many respects was held to be a breach
of the constitution; it appointed a commission for Bohemia, the
members of which were nominated by the State, to deal with the
autonomous affai s of this country. Since the last election in the
spring of 1908 the Bohemian Diet had been unworkable, eventually
owing to obstruction on the part of the Germans, who saw them-
selves handed over hopelessly to the Czech majority, until a
rearrangement of the voting groups (curiae) should afford them pro-
tection against Czech oppression. In 1913 the Germans sent in a
petition that each nationality should pay the costs of its own
educational and cultural institutions, as otherwise one nationality
would have to bear the expenses of the other, and vice versa. When
the Czechs refused this request the Germans responded with more
obstinate obstruction. The representative assembly now ceased to
work, and since no legal expedient could in consequence be found
by which legislation and current business could be carried on. the
Government stepped in and appointed a mixed commission of
Germans and Czechs, which should, as it were, administer the affairs
of this country like a trustee for a person incapable of volition. This
commission was admitted to have exercised its functions with
impartiality as a matter of fact; but as a matter of form it stood on
a weak foundation. The Germans were thereby deprived of their
weapon of obstruction, and the Czechs lost the power of misusing
their majority to oppress the Germans. The Czechs declared this
to be a breach of the constitution; but the courts recognized the
national commission as a measure of necessity justified in law.
And so it subsisted until the break-up of the monarchy.
Administration. The organization of the administrative system in
the Austrian Empire was complicated by the fact that between the
State and the purely local communal administration there intruded
yet a third element, grounded in history, the territories (Lander).
The State administration comprised all affairs having relation to
rights, duties and interests " which are common to all territories";
all other administrative tasks were left to the territories. Finally,
the communes had self-government within their own sphere.
To this division of the work of administration corresponded a
three-fold organization of the authorities: State, territorial and
communal. The State authorities were divided on geographical lines
into central, intermediate and local, and side by side with this there
was a division of the offices for the transaction of business according
to the various branches of the administration. The central authori-
ties, which as early as the i8th century worked together in a common
mother cell of the State chancery, became differentiated so soon as
the growing tasks of administration called for specialization; in 1869
there were seven departments, and in the concluding decade of the
Austrian Empire there were set up Ministries of Labour, Food, Public
Health and Social Care. Under these ministries came the Statthalter,
whose administrative area had ordinarily the proportions of a Crown
territory (Kronland) but the immense variations in area of the Crown
territories made a uniform and consistent intermediate administra-
tive organization practically impossible. The lowest administrative
unit was the political sub-district (Bezirk) under an official (Bezirks-
hauptmann), who united nearly all the administrative functions
which were divided among the various ministries according to their
attributions.
Side by side with the State administration certain Crown territory
administrations also existed in the 17 Crown territories, carried on
by selected honorary officials, having under them a staff of pro-
fessional officials. Many branches of the territorial administration
had great similarities with those of the State, so that their spheres
of activity frequently overlapped and came into collision. This
administrative double track," as it was called, led, it is true, in
many cases to lively emulation, but was on the whole highly extrava-
gant. The evils of this complicated system are obvious, and easy to
condemn. They can be explained, partly by the origin of the State
for the most part through a voluntary union of countries possessed
by a strong sense of their own individuality partly by the influence
in Austria of the Germanic spirit, well understood by the Slavs,
which has nothing of the Latin tendency to reduce all questions of
administration to clear-cut formulae as part of a logically consistent
system. Like the English administrative system, the Austrian
presented a rich variety, a variety indeed so rich that it clamoured
for drastic reform.
Bienerth's last act as premier in May 1911 was the appointment
of a commission nominated by the Emperor, to draw up a scheme of
administrative reform. So early as 1904 Korber had declared a com-
plete change in the principles of administration to be essential if the
machinery of State were to continue working. After seven years of
inaction, however, this imperial rescript was pitched in a far lower
key. The continuous progress of society, it said, had made increased
demands on the administration, that is to say, it was assumed that
reform was not demanded so much by the defects of the administra-
tion but by the progress of the times, not because the administration
was bad, but because life was better. It was an attempt to reform the
administration without first reforming the State on equivalent lines.
A reform commission without a programme naturally first occupied
itself with reforms about which there was no controversy. After a
year had gone by it drew up " Proposals for the training of State
officials." After another two years it had indeed brought to light
carefully prepared material for study, which was of great scientific
value; but its proposals, though politically of importance, did not
provide any basis for reform on a large scale. And so when the World
War broke put the commission dispersed without practical results,
leaving behind it an imposing array of folio volumes of great scien-
tific value. It was not till March 1918 that the Seidler Government
decided upon a programme of national autonomy as a basis for
administrative reform, which was, however, never carried into effect.
Education. The organization of the Austrian elementary schools
was based on the principle of compulsory school attendance, free
education, and the imparting of public instruction in the child's own
language. Side by side with these existed private schools. The
proportion of. children attending private schools to those attending
the public elementary schools in 1912 was 144,000 to 4-5 millions, i.e.
a thirtieth part. Hence the accusation of denationalizing children
through the Schulvereine must be accepted with caution. The
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
expenses of education were distributed as follows: the communes
built the schoolhouses, the political sub-districts (Bezirke) paid the
teachers, the Crown territory gave a grant, and the State appointed
the inspectors. Since the State supervised the schools without main-
taining them, it was able to increase its demands without being
hampered by financial considerations. It is remarkable that the
difference between the State educational estimates in Austria and in
Hungary was one of 9-3 millions in the former as opposed to 67-6 in
the latter. The elementary schools in Hungary were a State con-
cern and a means of Magyarization, whereas in Austria their direc-
tion was left by the State to the nationalities. Thus in the former
the schools were a means of denationalization, in the latter a means
of national education. Under Austria, since everywhere that 40
scholars of one nationality were to be found within a radius of 5 km.
a school had to be set up in which their language was used, national
schools were assured even to linguistic minorities. It is true that
this mostly happened at the expense of the German industrial com-
munities, since the Slav labourers as immigrants acquired schools in
their own language. The number of elementary schools increased
from 19,016 in 1900 to 24,713 in 1913; the number of scholars from
3,490,000 in 1900 to 4,630,000 in 1913.
Illiteracy. In proportion to the raised standard of popular educa-
tion, further aided by the number of popular educational establish-
ments which were springing up, and the university extension move-
ment formed on the English plan, the proportion of illiteracy rapidly
decreased. In 1890 the percentage of illiterates in the total popula-
tion had been 28-5; in 1900 it had fallen to 22-7, and in 1910 to 16-5.
As regards the several nationalities: among the Czechoslovaks in
1910 the percentage was 2-4; a little higher among the Germans (3-1)
in consequence of the difficulties of school attendance in the Alpine
territories; among the Italians IO-O, and among the Slovenes 14-7-
The percentages were much higher among the peoples situated on the
E. (Poles 27-4, Magyars 36-4, Rumanians 60-4, Ruthenians 61-0,
Serbo-Croatians 63-7). It is their influence which explains the high
average for the whole state.
Universities. The higher educational establishments, which in
the middle of the igth century had had a predominantly German
character, underwent in Galicia a conversion into Polish national
institutions, in Bohemia and Moravia a separation into German and
Czech ones. Thus Germans, Czechs and Poles were provided for.
But now the smaller nations also made their voices heard: the
Ruthenians, Slovenes and Italians. The Ruthenians demanded at
first, in view of the predominantly Ruthenian character of East
Galicia, a national partition of the Polish university existing there.
Since the Poles were at first unyielding, Ruthenian demonstrations
and strikes of students arose, and the Ruthenians were no longer
content with the reversion of a few separate professorial chairs, and
with parallel courses of lectures. By a pact concluded on Jan. 28
1914 the Poles promised a Ruthenian university; but owing to the
war the question lapsed. The Italians could hardly claim a uni-
versity of their own on grounds of population (in 1910 they num-
bered 783,000), but they claimed it all the more on grounds of their
ancient culture. All parties were agreed that an Italian faculty of
laws should be created ; the difficulty lay in the choice of the place.
The Italians demanded Trieste; but the Government was afraid to
let this Adriatic port become the centre of an irredenta; moreover
the Southern Slavs of the city wished it kept free from an Italian
educational establishment. Bienerth in 1910 brought about a com-
promise; namely, that it should be founded at once, the situation to
be provisionally in Vienna, and to be transferred within four years to
Italian national territory. The German National Union (National-
verband) agreed to extend temporary hospitality to the Italian
university in Vienna, but the Southern Slav Hochschule Club
demanded a guarantee that a later transfer to the coast provinces
should not be contemplated, together with the simultaneous founda-
tion of Slovene professorial chairs in Prague and Cracow, and
preliminary steps towards the foundation of a Southern Slav uni-
versity in Laibach. But in spite of the constant renewal of negotia-
tions for a compromise it was impossible to arrive at any agree-
ment, until the outbreak of war left all the projects for a Ruthenian
university at Lemberg, a Slovene one in Laibach, and a second Czech
one in Moravia, unrealized.
HISTORY
During the period from the assembly of the first Parliament
elected by universal equal suffrage (1907) to the break-up of the
Dual Monarchy, Austria itself had nine Governments under the
following premiers:
Baron Beck June 2 1906 Nov. 4 1908
Baron Bienerth Nov. 1908 June 19 191 1
Baron Gautsch . . . June 26 1911 Oct. 281911
Count Stiirgkh .
Ernst von Korber
Count Clam-Martinitz
Ritter von Seidler
Baron Hussarek
Heinrich Lammasch .
Nov. 3 1911 Oct. 21 1916
Oct. 28 1916 Dec. 20 1916
Dec. 20 1916 June 23 1917
June 23 1917 July 25 1918
July 25 1918 Oct. 27 1918
Oct. 27 1918 Oct. 31 1918
All these ministries may be characterized as Cabinets composed
of Government officials. Not one of their heads was drawn from
the Chamber of Deputies. The Government was no longer the
expression of the majority of the House, but had to be a non-
party Government standing outside the House. An objective
and non-party application of the laws, and equal rights for all
nationalities, were in consequence the ever-recurring heads of
their programme. From time to time, naturally, these Govern-
ments required a majority for the budget. They tried to arrive
at it by negotiations with the parties, and by admitting to the
Cabinet representatives of every nationality willing to cooperate.
By this means the Cabinets acquired at least a measure of control
over Parliament. A representative of Polish interests was
generally to be found in every ministry, and usually too a
minister of Czech and of German nationality. The political
characteristics of these ministers are hardly distinguishable one
from another; they all took their stand on a middle course of
loyalty to the state and party impartiality. Beck, however, was
held to be a shade more Slavophil, Bienerth Germanophil,
Gautsch dynastic, Stiirgkh a Conservative Socialist; Korber and:
Seidler were mere officials, Clam-Martinitz an old aristocrat,
Hussarek and Lammasch Clericals. They regarded it as their
principal task to bring about a compromise between the national-
ities, and this again depended on .the outcome of the German-
Czech negotiations which were always being started afresh. In
this none of these Austrian ministers succeeded.
Beck 1 Ministry. With the carrying through of suffrage
reform the Beck Ministry, which started in June 1906, had
exhausted its strength. On June 17 1907 a promising speech
from the throne opened the first universal suffrage Parliament
and promised " to leave to the peoples as a secure heritage the
integrity of their national territories"; "to solve the language
question ... on a foundation of equality of rights"; "to
organize education with an equal consideration for all races";
" to introduce insurance against old age and infirmity . . .
social reforms with regard to female and night labour, and an
extension of the participation of the State in the exploitation of
the coal-mines." Beck's next success was in reaching an under-
standing as to the language to be employed in Parliament. He
also succeeded (July 12 1908) in bringing about an imposing
procession in honour of the Emperor as an opening to the festiv-
ities of his diamond jubilee (Dec. 1848-1908). But apart from
this celebration the second period of the Beck Ministry was
attended by unfortunate incidents. On April 12 1908 Count
Potocki, the governor of Galicia, was shot by a Ruthenian
student. Then there was the Wahrmund affair. The Clericals
started an agitation because Wahrmund, the professor of canon
law at the university of Innsbruck, subjected the dogma of the
Immaculate Conception to critical examination. They demanded
from the Liberal Minister of Education, Marchet, that dis-
ciplinary measures should be used against him. The Minister
endeavoured on the one hand to safeguard the principle of
freedom of instruction, and on the other hand to avoid anything
resembling a Kulturkampf. A general strike at the universities
was averted by a compromise, by which Wahrmund was trans-
ferred from the pious land of Tirol to Prague, which was more
than he had desired. In July a Pan-Slavonic congress took place
at Prague, accompanied by anti-German excesses which had a
serious sequel in Laibach. The Germans thereupon paralyzed
the Prague Diet by means of obstruction, upon which the Czech
members of the Beck Cabinet left it, and the prime minister,
seeing himself abandoned by both Germans and Czechs,
resigned on Nov. 14 1908. Shortly before this Beck had intro-
duced yet another bill dealing with industrial insurance, to
supplement the already existing sickness and accident insurance.
The bill only received the assent of Parliament just before the
break-up of the monarchy.
1 Baron Max Vladimir Beck (b. 1854) entered the service of the
State in 1876, in 1900 became head of a section in the Ministry of
Agriculture, in 1906-8 Prime Minister; in 1907 he got universal
parliamentary suffrage accepted ; he was responsible also for far-
reaching measures of railway nationalization.
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
Bienerth Ministry. Beck's successor Bienerth J attempted to
rule by means of a Cabinet of mere officials, in which under-
secretaries of State were appointed as temporary directors of
their respective departments. Moreover the three chief national-
ities, the Germans, Poles and Czechs, were each represented by
a so-called national minister (Landsmann-Minister) . Bienerth's
policy was to confine himself in a purely objective spirit to the
execution of the laws until such time as he had gradually gained
the confidence of the nation. The Germans made their coopera-
tion contingent on various conditions. They insisted that the
Government should introduce proposals as to the official language
of functionaries, for they feared a return of the procedure used by
Badeni, which by means of a Government ordinance had altered
the received usage and upset the national balance of power; that
in Bohemia the purely German sub-districts (Bezirke) should be
included in German districts (Kreise), and in like manner the
purely Czech sub-districts in Czech districts, so that there would
then be a relatively small number of territories of mixed national-
ity, which would have to be governed bilingually; that minorities
should be protected by law; and that in appointing to posts in
the offices of the autonomous Bohemian territorial Government,
proportionate consideration should be given to the Germans,
attention being paid to the fact that in Bohemia more than a
third of the population were German, and that they paid more
than half the taxes, but that the Czech national majority had
appointed more than 90% of Czechs and not even 10% of Ger-
mans in the Government offices. In purely German territories
moreover it was claimed that only German officials should be
appointed, just as in purely Czech territories the appointment of
Czech officials was already uncontroverted and looked upon as a
matter of course. Finally the old wish was put forward for a
separation of nationalities in the representative assembly at
Prague, in order that neither of the two nationalities should
oppress the other in the internal affairs of Bohemia.
These German demands, which were exactly analogous to
those formerly put forward by the Czechs, so long as they were
still in a minority, now roused violent opposition among the
latter. They called attention to the fact that the Germans in
earlier days were deaf to such requests; they saw in them a
" dismemberment of the country," and asserted that in the
central public departments of Vienna, too, the Czechs did not
occupy a number of official positions in proportion to their
population. Serious excesses were now indulged in towards the
German population and the German students in Prague, where,
on the very day of the imperial diamond jubilee, the Government
had to proclaim a state of siege.
The Reichsrat, which reopened under such conditions in
Nov. 1909, stood under the threat of a paralyzing Czech ob-
struction. This time the Poles came to the rescue of the Govern-
ment in its hour of need, by getting a form of standing order
approved which rendered obstruction somewhat more difficult,
and in this, curiously enough, they were helped by the Czechs;
for obstruction had brought even them into an impasse, since
their financial requirements had not been met. Thus the law for
strengthening of the standing orders was carried through by an
ad hoc combination of Poles, Czechs and Christian Socialists.
But the freedom of parliamentary activity did not last for long.
On Feb. 13 Bienerth went part of the way to meet the German
demands by introducing a bill dealing with the rearrangement of
the administrative districts (Kreise) in Bohemia. According to
the statistical returns there were 139 administrative sub-districts
where only Czech was spoken and 95 speaking only German, as
opposed to only five bilingual ones. These 239 sub-districts,
according to the bill, were to be grouped in 20 districts, 10 Czech,
six German and four bilingual, in which provision was to be
made for minorities throughout the whole land through official
translation bureaus. This bill was intended to be a solution of
the language question, which should take into account the actual
conditions of the population as well as practical needs. The
'Baron Richard Bienerth-Schmerling (1853-1919) was made
Minister of the Interior in June 1906; Prime Minister Nov. 1908-
June 1911 ; and till 1915 he was Statthalter for Lower Austria.
excitement with which the Czechs opposed this measure was
extraordinary. They brought about a scene in Parliament which
ended in hand-to-hand fighting and assaults, whereupon the
Government immediately closed the Parliament.
In other directions, too, Bienerth's period of government was
Sited with hostile nationalist proceedings. The Italian students
desired to revive the question of an Italian university, which
had come to a deadlock, and in Nov. 1908 set on foot a great
demonstration at the university of Vienna, in which the usual
fairly harmless fighting with sticks was replaced by revolver
shooting. In spite of this, Bienerth, with the consent of the
Germans, introduced a bill in Jan. 1909 which was to set up an
Italian faculty of laws provisionally in Vienna.
At this time the Czechs were trying to gain a foothold, in
frontier lands which had hitherto been considered solely German.
They alleged as a reason that two small country communes of
Lower Austria, Ober- and Unter-Themmepau, had a mixed
colony of Czechs and Croats; it was further advanced on their
side that a considerable annual migration to Vienna took place,
which became Germanized in the second generation, and so
lost to their Czech nationality. Vienna, with over 100,000 Czechs,
was actually the second largest Czech town. In reality a still
clearer diminution of the Czech population of Vienna was
noticeable; according to the census of 1900, out of 1,674,000
inhabitants there were 102,970 Czechs, i.e. 6-1%; in 1910, out of
2,030,000 inhabitants, 98,400 Czechs, i.e. 4-8 per cent. The
Czech colonies in Vienna endeavoured, by means of the so-called
" Komensky schools " (from the Czech form of the name of
Komenius, the educationalist), to protect themselves against
fusion with the indigenous population. The Viennese Germans
saw in this a danger to the hitherto peaceful common life of the
population of Vienna. On Sept. 3 1909 the Lower Austrian
Diet, in opposition to these Czech encroachments, tried to
establish German by law as the language of instruction in all the
public schools of Lower Austria, in correspondence with the
actual state of affairs hitherto. On Oct. 7 Burgomaster Lueger
insisted that Vienna could only be a unilingual city, as otherwise
she would have to speak nine languages; and on Jan. 18 1910 this
resolution received the force of law. Analogous laws were pro-
mulgated in the three other purely German Crown lands.
After the Tauern railway had been built for the Alpine coun-
trieswithout, it is true, any particular pecuniary help from
the Polish part of the empire, which was known to be only
passively interested the Poles demanded a complete carrying
into effect and extension of the waterways law, with a larger
State subsidy. It was over these demands in connexion with the
waterways, which the Minister of Finance declared to be im-
possible of fulfilment to the extent required by the Poles, that
Bienerth's mainstay failed to support him; and on Dec. 12 he
sent in his resignation, which was, however, followed by a
renewed Bienerth Ministry, composed of Germans, Poles and
officials. By means of this coalition the Ministry succeeded,
indeed, in passing the military service reforms on April 24 1911
(reduction of the three years' service -to two years, combined
with an increase in the contingent of recruits); but this com-
pletely exhausted its parliamentary strength, and the first
parliamentary suffrage Parliament ended with but poor results
in the midst of unsolved national problems.
Since 1910 a meat shortage in Austria had made itself more
and more felt, especially in the towns, owing to their rapid
growth, the decrease of cattle-raising in the Alpine lands, and the
reduction in the imports of Serbian meat through the anti-
Serbian agrarian policy of Hungary. The Christian Socialist
party, from being originally an urban party, had become partly
an urban and partly a peasant party, and the Minister of Com-
merce, Weisskirchner, 8 who had come from its ranks, had not
2 Richard Weisskirchner (b. 1861 in Vienna) entered the municipal
service in 1883 and became in 1903 president of the town council;
1909-11 Minister of Commerce; 1912-8 Burgomaster of Vienna; a
deputy from 1896 onwards; and in 1907 president of the Chamber
of Deputies. He was a disciple of Lueger, a Christian Socialist, and
framed a new municipal statute and associations based on the
Christian view of society.
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
only to reckon with the opposition of Hungary but also to pay
particular attention to the peasant voters, in the question of
buying meat abroad and importing frozen meat from the
Argentine. On this account, especially after the death of Lueger
(on March 10 1910), a dominating personality who had held all
parties together, opinion in Vienna and other towns turned
against the Christian Socialists, who were accused of refusing all
active measures of relief. Thus it happened that the elections to
the Reichsrat in July 1911 were characterized by a temporary
coalition of the German Liberals with the Social Democrats
against the Christian Socialist party; this led to heavy losses
on the part of the latter, especially in the towns. In Vienna
especially they lost every seat at one blow, by which means
Weisskirchner found himself deprived of all parliamentary
support. He resigned, and with him the head of the Cabinet;
all the ground had slipped from beneath his feet, and on June
19 1911 Bienerth resigned for good.
Gautsch Ministry. The Bienerth Government was succeeded
by that of Baron Gautsch. 1 He too could attempt nothing more
than to take up as objective an attitude as possible above parties.
His first task was to try to set in motion again the negotiations
for a German-Czech compromise in Bohemia. The Czechs,
however, had realized that at need they could get along without a
Diet, and they began once more their encroachments in Vienna.
They opened a Komensky school there without proper authoriza-
tion, and when this was closed by the municipal authorities, they
organized a demonstration of Czech women, who crowded with
their children into the Parliament House. Shortly before this
the protests of Hungary had succeeded in procuring the re-
jection of a cargo of Argentine frozen meat which had been
destined for Vienna. The fury of the Viennese found expression
in violent demonstrations, in which, for the first time, employees
of the State took part in uniform, among them employees of the
State railways and of the post-office. Gautsch, who was a
convinced upholder of the principle of State authority, had
recourse to severe measures of punishment and discipline, which
had as their result a revolver attack on the Minister of Justice
from the gallery of Parliament.
On Oct. 28 somewhat unexpectedly the prime minister re-
signed, partly because this series of unfortunate incidents had
shaken the Emperor's confidence, partly because his secret efforts
to persuade the Czechs to join his Cabinet had made him suspect
to the other parties. But the Czechs not only demanded two
Czech ministers, but also a number of headships of departments
and councillorships in each department. This would have led to
an introduction of the national divisions into the central ad-
ministration, and if similar claims were put in by other nations
the principle of a purely objective Government transcending
nationality would have been done away with. So Gautsch would
have nothing to do with it.
Sttirgkh Ministry. Count Stiirgkh (b. 1859), the Minister of
Education, was next entrusted with the formation of a Cabinet.
He composed his Cabinet of colourless officials and confessed
adherents of the various nationalities. His programme was
to be an honourable mediator in the German-Bohemian quarrel,
to extend the railway system, and to satisfy the wishes of the
Poles in the waterways question by an expenditure of 73-4
million kronen on canal construction in Galicia, to which Galicia
was to contribute only 9-4 million kronen, the State finding the
other 64, and by an expenditure of 125 millions on river im-
provements, 99 of which would be contributed by the State.
Early in Stiirgkh's Ministry prominence was taken by the
Catholic marriage question. While in Austria the marriage of
non-Catholics could be dissolved, so as to make a new marriage
possible, paragraph iii. of the civil code provided that " the tie of
a valid marriage between Catholic persons can be dissolved only
by the death of one of the parties. And this shall be the case
even when only one party was attached to the Catholic religion
at the time of the conclusion of the marriage." Thus Catholic
and mixed Catholic marriages were indissoluble even in the
1 Baron Paul Gautsch von Frankenthurn (b. 1851) had been
Premier and Minister of the Interior, 1897-8, and Premier 1904-6.
event of a change of creed. The desire of numerous divorced
persons for a change in the law which prevented their remarriage
was manifested in repeated demonstrations before Parliament;
especially in that of Dec. 1911, in which it was asserted that the
lives of half a million divorced wives were affected. In spite of
the reform of the civil law in other respects (June i 1911) these
provisions remained in force until the republic. Owing to the
opposition of the Christian Socialist party, they were even then
not abolished; but they were relaxed by numerous dispensations
in individual cases.
It was while Stiirgkh was Austrian premier that the World
War broke out (see under FOREIGN POLICY, p. 327). At the begin-
ning of the war the attitude of the nationalities of the Austrian
Empire was somewhat unexpectedly loyal to the state. The
immediate cause of war the murder of the heir to the throne
had profoundly impressed all the Austrian peoples, and the
belief that efforts were being made from without to destroy the
old empire produced among them a strong reaction in favour
of its preservation. Enrolment in the army proceeded every-
where without friction, and much more expeditiously than the
military authorities had expected. It was only to be expected
that the Germans, whose very existence was in question, should
show themselves to be patriotic. But it was somewhat surprising
that at Prague, after the declaration of war, Germans and Czechs
sang Die Wacht am Rhcin together in the streets, and the burgo-
master, a Czech, made a speech in German before the town hall
in which he called for cheers for the Emperor William and the
fraternization of Germans and Czechs. On Oct. 24 1914 the
Czech Union solemnly declared: " It is true that we have been
against one Government or another, but never against the state."
On Nov. 15 the Czech parties in Moravia issued a patriotic mani-
festo. The procedure of the Poles was similar; all the Polish
parties united in a joint central committee which issued a
manifesto in favour of performing their duty to the state (Aug.
15). On Aug. 27 the Ruthenian Metropolitans, too, issued a
protest against " tsarism," and in like manner the Ukrainians
protested (Nov. i) against Russian oppression of freedom of
conscience. On Nov. 23 30,000 Rumanian peasants of the Buko-
vina got up a great manifesto in favour of the emperor and the
empire, and on Dec. i patriotic protestations from the Rumanian
Club followed. These proclamations on the part of all the Slav
peoples of Austria proved that imperial sentiment was more
deeply rooted than Austria's enemies had believed.
These evidences of patriotism continued for a long time during
the war; even after Italy's declaration of war the majority of the
Italian deputies in S. Tirol issued a loyal declaration " in the
name of the overwhelming majority of the population," as they
asserted (June 14 1915)- On the other hand the efforts made for
years by Panslav idealists, Russophil agitators, Serbian propa-
gandists and Italian irredentists, were naturally not without
effect. Isolated instances of relations being established with
co-nationals in the enemy camp were recorded from the beginning.
The question was repeatedly raised as to why the prime minister
did not take advantage of this patriotic spirit to obtain a corre-
sponding parliamentary demonstration; but it had surprised him,
as it had many, and he shrank from the serious responsibility
which would have resulted if the experiment had turned out
badly; the aged Emperor's need of quiet, and the conviction that
the Reichsrat, if summoned ad hoc, would, as for so long before, be
of no active use, also played their part. The population had
not been consulted as to the declaration of war, and their opinion
was no more listened to now; but by giving up the cooperation of
Parliament the prime minister at the same time abdicated his
power in favour of the military authorities. Since there was no
longer a Parliament, or any personal immunity, the military
authorities established unlimited police rule, which seemed to be
obsessed with terror of its own citizens; anyone who seemed to
them suspect was subjected to internment in concentration camps.
This ruthlessness towards their own citizens, who were arraigned
before military courts in trials for high treason, stood in curious
contrast to the considerate treatment of " enemy aliens," who
were comparatively little molested. For example, even many
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
months after the beginning of the war advertisements were to be
read in all the papers, in which English and French people offered
to teach languages or instruct children even in English and French,
stating their nationality and address a proof that the authorities
did not put any particular difficulties in the way of these foreign-
ers, and that the people did not take advantage of knowing their
addresses to molest them. .
The political impotence of the prime minister was plainly
evident in the military proceedings against Kramarz, in which
Sturgkh shook hands with the accused and gave evidence in his
favour, but without being able to avert the death sentence
passed by the military court, though he did at least prevent
the execution of the sentence.
During the later part of the Stiirgkh Ministry it is no longer
possible to speak of an internal policy, for the military alone
ruled. Towards the end, however, Stiirgkh was actually en-
deavouring to bring about a reassembly of the Reichsrat, when
he was shot by the Independent Socialist Dr. Friedrich Adler
(Oct. 21 1916).
Korber Ministry. The object of the murder of Stiirgkh,
namely, to lead to a powerful demonstration in favour of the
summoning of the Reichsrat, was not attained; at a meeting
held between some deputies and members of the Upper House
(Oct. 23 1916) no definite proposal to this effect was brought
forward, and the Korber Ministry, which was summoned on
Nov. i, ruled during its eight weeks' period of activity without
Parliament. On Nov. 14 Korber set up an office for food control
(Volksernahrungsamt) which later became the Ministry of Food
(Jan. 1917). Little else was done; the approaching death of
Francis Joseph (Nov. 21) prevented any far-reaching plans.
When the worn-out old Emperor was succeeded by an immature
boy, the serious, positive and somewhat " schoolmasterish "
Korber did not strike the right note with him. Charles I. could
not forgive Korber for prevailing upon him to promise to take
the oath to the constitution, since the constitution was no
longer tenable and Sturgkh had already prepared constitutional
amendments; on the other hand Charles's assumption of the
supreme command of the army was opposed to Korber's taste.
When Korber declined to carry through the Ausglcich with
Hungary without consulting Parliament, and made it a question
of confidence the young Emperor on Dec. 20 1916 lightly dis-
missed his best adviser.
Clam-Martinitz Ministry. Korber's successor, Clam-Martinitz, 1
who belonged to the violently Czech feudal nobility, tried to
form a national coalition Cabinet, including two German
politicians. The political event of the moment was President
Wilson's note (Dec. n 1916) and the Entente's answer (Jan. 12
1917) as to the liberation of the " oppressed " peoples of Austria.
It called forth sharp counter manifestoes on the part of those who
were to be " liberated." A resolution adopted unanimously on
Jan. 17 1917 by the Croatian representatives proclaimed, as a
condition of the national existence and the cultural and economic
development of the Southern Slavs, that they should remain
under the House of Habsburg. The Czech Union rejected, by a
unanimous resolution of its governing committee, the suggestions
of the Entente, as being insinuations based on erroneous premises,
and deprecated by a reference to their secular allegiance " the
interference of the Entente Powers " (Jan. 23 1917). Koroschek,
the Slovene leader, wrote to the minister in the name of his
party that " these hypocritical assurances have called forth
nothing but indignation among the Southern Slavs " (Jan. i
1917). The Rumanian Club made a similar declaration on Jan. 24.
The hope df achieving parliamentary cooperation on the basis
of such loyal declarations as these soon vanished. The Germans
demanded, as a condition precedent to the effective participation
of their nationality in the affairs of the state, an alteration of the
constitution by imperial ordinance (Oktroi), which should define
1 Count Clam-Martinitz (b. 1863), an hereditary member of the
House of Lords, and chairman of the Committee of Privileges in it,
had been head of the Ministry of Agriculture from Oct. 31 1916; up to
June 23 1917 he was Prime Minister, then Governor of Montenegro
till 1918.
the boundaries between the nationalities in Bohemia, rearrange
the districts (Kreise) accordingly, declare German to be the
language in which the business of the Reichsrat was to be con-
ducted, and lay down more stringent rules of procedure. The
Slavs, on the other hand, demanded the " unconditional "
summoning of Parliament. The Germans yielded, and the
Reichsrat met on May 31. Both the Southern Slavs and Czechs
immediately made constitutional declarations; the former
demanded a national union of the Southern Slavs, the latter a
territorial union of the lands S. of the Sudetic Mountains, while
the Germans opposed any transformation of the monarchy into
a federal state. In the face of this uncompromising display of
opposition there could be no hope for the Coalition planned by
Clam-Martinitz for the creation of a new Austria, and on June 19
he resigned.
Seidler Ministry. On June 24 1917 the Emperor appointed
as prime minister his former tutor, the Ritter von Seidler, 2
who summoned a Ministry of mere officials, just to carry on
business for the time being; any constitutional reorganization
was still postponed. On July 2, on the occasion of the Crown
Prince's birthday, the Emperor proclaimed a wide measure of
amnesty, in which on July 10 even Kramarz and his confederates
were included. This precipitate action aroused the mistrust of the
Germans, and, in view of the ambiguous attitude of the prime
minister towards the Czechs, led to a vote of censure being
passed at a meeting of the German national council at Prague on
July IS-
Seidler now resolved to undertake the reconstruction of
the crumbling body politic, with a reorganized Cabinet (Aug. 31
1917). A great economic and social programme was announced,
including the extension of waterways, the exploitation of
electricity, an improved system of communication, industrial
insurance, and a department for public health. Politically the
organization of the state on the fundamental principle of national
autonomy was to follow; he hoped to get round the nationalist
obstacles in Bohemia by a rearrangement of districts with local
delimitation according to nationality. This bold plan met with
no success; the economic programme in particular did not come
into force; it was an empty promise, which was not taken serious-
ly. But the political programme, on the other hand, let loose a
violent attack of the Slav nationalities on the state. The Polish
committee, which had been formed on a political basis, was
dissolved after unprecedentedly stormy negotiations, due to
discontent at the cession of Chelm (Kholm) to the Ukraine; the
Poles threatened the rest of Austria with a boycott of food, and
abstained from voting on the budget. The action of the Czechs
was even more dangerous to the state; on Jan. 12 1918 a meeting
of their deputies at Prague unanimously accepted a resolution to
the effect that the Bohemian question was to receive an inter-
national solution at the Peace Congress. Seidler regretfully
pointed out in Parliament on Jan. 22 that this resolution was
totally opposed to that of May 1917, which could still be recon-
ciled with the fundamental conceptions of patriotism. The
Germans rejoined with a demand for a province of their own,
German Bohemia, separate from Czech-Bohemia (Jan. 22).
Similarly the Ruthenians demanded that East Galicia should
be erected into a separate Crown land under the name of the
Ukraine (March 3). Since the Northern and Southern Slavs had
absented themselves and the Poles were in opposition, the
Reichsrat was adjourned (May 3), and the Germans now again
demanded the grant of a revised constitution, with German as
the language of State, a special status for Galicia and Dalmatia,
access for the Germans to the Adriatic, and the partition of
Bohemia. Seidler granted indeed a rearrangement of districts in
Bohemia (seven Czech, four German and two mixed); but he
could not make up his mind to go further, and tried the expedient
of summoning a fresh Parliament on June 16. But the day before
2 Ritter Ernst von Seidler (b. 1862 at Schwechat, near Vienna)
was secretary to the Chamber of Commerce in the mountain town
of Leoben; then an official in the Ministry of Agriculture, and from
June i 1917 Minister of Agriculture; he was also a university reader
in constitutional law.
320
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
the Czechs had set up a national committee, with Kramarz at
its head, which adopted the programme of " a Czechoslovak
State sovereign and independent." They proposed the im-
peachment of the minister responsible for the nomination of the
chiefs of the districts, and declared that they would take no part
in revising the constitution. His plans having thus been com-
pletely shipwrecked, Seidler resigned on July 22 1918.
Hussarek Ministry. Hussarek, 1 who was appointed prime
minister on July 24, declared his programme to be parliamen-
tary government, with reconciliations of the nationalities, and
constitutional and administrative reform. The Czechs, however,
declared that, so far as they were concerned, nothing had been
altered. Hussarek got through a six months' provisional budget
with the help of the Poles against the votes of the Ukrainians, a
proof that he had shelved the partition of Galicia. Immediately
afterwards the Reichsrat adjourned for the summer holidays
(July 26), without having ventured on any steps towards the
solution of the great problems of State.
The process of dissolution advanced rapidly, when England
on Aug. 17 recognized the Czechoslovaks as an allied nation; to
which the Austrian Government replied with the declaration
that no such state existed, but only individual traitors. In a
communication to the press on Sept. 4 Hussarek insisted that
there were no oppressed peoples in Austria, that on the contrary
her constitution assured to the several nationalities a status of
equal rights like that of no other state on earth, and he gave a
warning against its destruction a vain appeal to reason. On
Sept. 18 the Czech National Council had already imposed some
taxes. On Oct. i Hussarek again gave the Reichsrat a chance; he
recognized expressly the right of the peoples to free self-deter-
mination, adopted the standpoint of national autonomy, cham-
pioned Polish independence, and announced the union of all the
Southern Slavs of Austria by constitutional means. This pro-
gramme met with a cool reception; the Poles by now were expect-
ing a new organization from the Peace Congress; the Southern
Slavs desired union with those of their race in Hungary also; the
Czechs opposed the division of the administrative commission
into two parts; they did not want autonomy for their nation, but
incorporation of the German Bohemians in their State, and
refused all negotiations.
The Emperor now made a last despairing attempt; a manifesto
of Oct. 16 proposed the conversion of Austria not of Hungary,
it is true into a federal state composed of free nations, each
with the territory which it occupied. This was far from resulting
in any cooperation of the nationalities in realizing their former
ideal; on the contrary, they felt themselves free from all con-
straint, and formed Governments having no connexion with the
old state. On Oct. 19 the Ukraine National Council was set up in
Lemberg, and the Slovene-Croat in Agram; on Oct. 20 the Czechs
followed suit in Prague, on the 2ist the German delegates in
Vienna, on the 25th the Magyars in Pest.
Lammasch Ministry. The summoning of the last Ministry of
the Austrian Empire, under Lammasch from Oct. 27-31 1918,
could only be regarded as an attempt on the part of the impotent
Monarch to bring about a friendly liquidation between the peoples
who were separating from each other. But since the non-German
nationalities were not prepared to accept such a peaceful settle-
ment, the liquidation between the monarchy and the new
republic was confined to German-Austria, and Lammasch's
friendly offices might certainly be thanked for the fact that in
this quarter the settlement was achieved quite bloodlessly, in
favourable contrast with the two years of fighting between
Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, Magyars, Rumanians, Southern Slavs
and Italians. Lammasch and his ministers shared their official
premises peacefully with the new secretaries of state of the
Austrian Republic, and his last official act was to send out
posters with an appeal for peace and quiet. (For the later
history, see AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OP.)
1 Baron Max Hussarek (b. 1860) professor of canon law at the
university of Vienna, was of clerical leanings; he was Minister of
Education from Nov. 3 1911 to his appointment as head of the
Cabinet (July-Oct. 1918).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Oesterreichische Politische Chronik, pub-
lished by Neissel (Vienna 1910-8), contains among other things an
account of the most important transactions of all the public bodies
(Parliament, the Delegations, etc.) ; Neuere Gesetzgebung Oesterreichs
nach den Reichstagsverhandlungen (Vienna) ; H. Kelsen, Reichsrats-
wahlordnung (1907); Hauptprobleme der Staatsrechtlehre (1911);
Verfassungsgesetze (1919); R. Charmatz, Der demokratischnationale
Bundesstaat Oesterreich (1904); Oesterreich als Volksstaat (1918);
Deutsch^oesterreichische Politik (1907); F. Kleinwachter, Untergang
der oesterreich-ungarischen Monarchie (1920); Seton-Watson, The
Future of Austria (1907); The Southern Slav Question; Absolutism in
Croatia; Zd. Tobalka, Das bohmische Volk (1916); J. Zolger, Staats-
rechtliche Ausgleich (1916); P. Samassa, Volkerstreit im Habsburger-
reich (1910); K. Reuner, Oesterreichs Erneuerung (1916); R. Sieger,
Oesterreichischer Staatsgedanke (1916): C. Brockhausen, Oester-
reichische Verwaltungsreform (1916); Fr. Tezner, Entwicklung des
Parlamentarismus in Oesterreich- Ungarn (1914); Fr. Wieser, Oester-
reichs Ende (1919) ; Th. Sosnosky, Politik im Habsburgerreich (1913) ;
R. Laun, Nationalitdtenrecht (1917); J. Barnreiter, Die bohmische
Frage (1910) ; V. Lischka, Deutsch-Oesterreich unter slawischer Herr-
schaft (1913) ; E. Zenker, Nationale Organisation in Oesterreich
(1916); L. Wimmer, Die Ostmark (1917); Munin, Oesterreich nach
dem Kriege (1915); W. Schilling-Singalewitsch, Sonderstellung
Galiziens (1917); A. Skene, Nationaler Ausgleich in Mahren (1910);
L. Czwiklinski, Das Konigreich Polen (1917); E. Plener, Reden
(1911). (C. BR.)
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
Pre-War Period. During the years 1910-4, immediately pre-
ceding the World War, economic conditions in Austria showed
no uniform tendency, for in many fields the signs pointed to a
crisis, while in others developments seemed full of promise.
These conditions were undoubtedly determined by the critical
political situation from 1908 onward, which made it probable
that, sooner or later, the Habsburg Monarchy would have to
fight for its right to exist. It is true that nobody could have
foreseen coming events; but things kept on occurring which
counselled prudence, and threatened the economic situation
from without. Added to this the state saw itself compelled, in
view of the political situation, to increase its expenditure on
armaments; and since this expenditure grew at a rate with which
the revenue could not keep pace, the Government had constantly
to raise large sums by borrowing in the open market, and in 1912
had even to raise a big loan in America. All this, combined with
the stringency of the international money-market, meant a heavy
burden on Austrian national economy. Voices were not lacking
which, in view of Austria's relatively small share in foreign
investments, ascribed the deterioration of the trade balance to
the fact that the public bodies were " living beyond their means."
(From 1875 onwards the balance of trade had been in favour of
Austria; in 1907 it turned against her, and from this time the
adverse balance showed a steady increase until 1913, when it
slightly diminished.)
According to the census of 1910, out of 16 million persons following
an occupation 8-5 millions were engaged in agriculture and forestry,
3-6 in industry, 1-6 in commerce and transport, 2-3 in the public
services, liberal professions, etc. Agriculture is thus the basis of
economic existence for the greater part of the population; and the
favourable crop statistics for the last years preceding the war, and
especially the record harvest of the year 1912, must have had a
beneficial influence upon the economic situation. The production
of the most important crops for the whole of Austria is shown in
Table I.
TABLE I. Crop Statistics.
(Thousands of tons.)
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913.
Wheat
1,539
1,574
1,861
1,594
Rye
Barley
Leguminous crops ....
2,657
1,446
258
2,597
i,59i
237
2,921
1,676
245
2,656
i,7i9
232
We must consider, in this connexion, that the prosperity of certain
industries depends directly upon the results of the harvest. It was
only in years when the harvest was most favourable that Austria-
Hungary was able to provide for her own requirements in corn; for
export purposes only barley was of considerable importance, while
wheat, and above all, of recent years, maize had to be imported.
In Table II. is shown the excess of imports of grain over exports (+),
or of exports over imports ( ).
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
321
TABLE II.
(Thousands of tons.)
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913-
Wheat ....
Barley ....
Maize ....
Other varieties of grain .
+0-720
-0-185
+O-IOO
4-0-127
+0-278
0-170
+0-036
+0-076
+0-130
-0-648
+0-193
+0-216
+0-008
0-196
+0-726
+0-083
+0-017
0-166
+0-643
+0-061
In Table III. are given the average prices of the most important
varieties of grain.
TABLE III. Average Prices, Vienna (in kronen).
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
I9I3-
Wheat ....
Rye ....
I5-50
10-47
12-94
8-55
12-96
9-86
12-69
10-80
12-31
9'47
Barley ....
9-83
9-02
10-32
10-67
9-19
The prices of the principal kinds of meat do not show the same
tendency as those of corn; it is only after 1911 that a certain pause
can be remarked in the rise of prices, as Table IV. shows:
TABLE IV. Retail Price of Meat, Vienna (in kronen).
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913-
Beef ....
Pork ....
Veal ....
I7I-53
172.00
145.00
177-90
195.00
153-00
195-68
200.00
160.00
207-12
200.00
160.00
217-46
200.00
180.00
The statistics of sugar are given in Table V. :
TABLE V. Sugar.
(Thousands of tons.)
1909-10.
1910-1.
1911-2.
1912-3.
Raw sugar produced
Internal consumption .
Number of workmen employed .
1,246
592
72,205
1,523
669
73,908
I.I43
577
70,907
1,899
672
72,960
The price of sugar in Vienna showed in 1913 a considerable fall,
following the good harvest. The total production for the year
1912-3, and also the amount of consumption, are the highest
recorded in Austria.
As to the products of other industries closely related to agriculture
that of beer and brandy varied, and was at times extraordinarily
large.
The old Austria was very richly provided with raw materials; the
coal and iron supply was especially rich ; in the years immediately
preceding the war the production of these two commodities followed
in general a rising curve. Table VI. gives the quantities of important
mineral products.
TABLE VI. Mineral Production.
(Thousands of tons.)
1909.
1910.
1911.
191%.
I9I3-
Coal
Brown coal .
Iron-stone ....
13,466
25,575
2,475
13,526
24,680
2,580
14,121
24,810
2,716
15,513
25,810
2,874
16,164
36,705
2,985
The amount of manufactured iron produced was also on the
increase; the quantities in thousands of tons were:
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913-
Refined iron ....
Cast iron ....
1,193
246
1,218
256
1-305
261
1,447
281
1,458
268
After 1908 the Austrian textile industry suffered from a serious
depression ; owing to the extraordinarily steep advance in the prices
of raw materials the position of this industry was unfavourable, in
spite of increased production and rising 'prices at the spinning mills.
The figures for the cotton industry are representative:
Imports of Cotton.
(Thousands of tons.)
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
I9I3-
187
200
183
2IO
234
222
The number of cotton spindles in Austria was: in 1910,4,643,300;
in 1911, 4,563,700; in 1912, 4,797,900; in 1913, 4,909,458. After
1910 an ever-increasing quantity of cotton had to be exported.
Exports of Cotton.
(Thousands of tons.)
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913-
4-2
4-0
5-i
7-0
10-5
24-2
The number of looms increased steadily, but the output per loom
showed partially a distinct decrease.
A good general impression of the economic situation can easily be
gained from the returns of the state of the labour market. Table
VII. shows how many offers of places corresponded on a yearly
average to every hundred applications for work:
TABLE VII. Employment per 100 Applications.
1911.
1912.
1913-
Smelting
Metal-working ....
Machine industry ...
Wood industry ...
Clothing manufacture .
Textile industry ...
Paper industry ...
Building trade ...
Clerical occupations
45-5
64-0
42-5
87-2
95-o
146-1
83-6
80-6
61-6
52-5
68-3
51-6
85-7
94-9
91-2
90-1
85-2
58-7
73-8
45-3
36-8
48-3
74-6
48-2
53-4
61-8
47-9
An improvement was shown only in the position of employees in
smelting works, otherwise a deterioration is to be observed every-
where, most markedly in the textile industry. In spite of this wages
showed a rising tendency. Table VIII. gives the average daily wage
(based on the returns for the accident insurance contribution) :
TABLE VIII. Average Daily Wage in Vienna (in kronen).
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913-
Smelting
4-10
4-22
4-27
4-41
Metal-working
Machine industry ....
Textile industry .
Wood industry
3-45
4-17
2-36
2-79
3-52
4-21
2-45
2-94
3-61
4-40
2-47
3-00
3-77
4-65
2-58
3-13
The cost of living increased on the whole ; it was only in 1913 that
there was a fall in the price of certain important commodities. The
average prices per kilogram of certain commodities in Lower Austria
are shown in Table IX. :
TABLE IX. Average Food Prices (heller per kilogram).
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913-
Meat (Suppen fleisch)
White flour ....
Peas
Potatoes
Sauerkraut ....
Rice
Lard
159-8
46-3
48-7
10-4
37-1
56-5
175-5
162-9
39-7
51-2
11-6
29-6
55-5
186-7
180-0
39-1
52-3
14-2
30-7
56-9
194-4
194-8
38-9
56-1
14-4
33-3
60- 1
197-6
198-5
38-0
55-7
12-5
29-1
56-3
203-4
This very cheapening of many commodities in 1913, side by side
with which went also a cheapening of many manufactured articles,
was indicated as the sign of a decline in the power of consumption of
the population.
It may here be mentioned that according to the savings bank re-
turns there was also a decline in the amount of deposits. The de-
posits and withdrawals were respectively, in thousands of kronen :
1910.
1911.
1912.
I9I3-
Deposits
Withdrawals
1,706
1,610
1, 860
1,790
1,950
2,149
1,872
1,970
After the heavy withdrawals of 1912 the decline in deposits,
together with a continuance of heavy withdrawals in 1913, is a clear
sign of economic depression. The economic situation of Austria
shared in this respect in the general development of world affairs,
in which also, after a period of prosperity, a reaction set in in 1913.
It is only surprising that in 1912 the reaction already snowed itself
sharply in Austria. The year 1914 soon showed signs of a coming
relaxation of the economic crisis; but this development was inter-
rupted by the World War.
The War Period, 1914-8. The outbreak of war meant the
almost complete paralysis of industry in Austria. Only the very
narrow range of goods manufactured in peace-time found buyers,
and these were used exclusively for the equipment of those going
to the front. The bulk of industry found itself faced with the
impossibility of disposing of the goods previously manufactured,
and acted in consequence as best suited the interests of the
moment: there were general dismissals of workmen, and enter-
prises were restricted or suspended. Numerous industries were
almost entirely dependent upon export trade (e.g. the glass and
porcelain industry in Bohemia), but foreign relations were to
a large extent broken off through the closing of trade-routes and
the entry into the enemy camp of countries which had been im-
portant markets. Thus during the first weeks of the war there
was very great unemployment in parts of the industrial regions,
since the dismissals far exceeded the proportion of enrolments
in the army, while agriculture, which was already occupied with
the harvest, suffered from a serious shortage of labour.
The Governmefit had not prepared in advance any measures
322
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
for setting industrial production going again in any way. Its
first steps in war economy were confined to the sphere of finance
and credit: the bourse was closed, and a moratorium announced.
With regard to the latter, however, the requirements of industry
were studied to a certain extent, in that the withdrawal of money
from the banks was allowed, so far as it was necessary for paying
wages and for the provision of working capital.
There was no revival of industry until the orders of the military
authorities began to come in, which gave lucrative employment.
In a short time, and without any pressure from the Government,
but solely as a result of the favourable prices it offered, industrial
conditions were completely transformed so as to meet the exi-
gencies of the war. At first indeed, since the war was only ex-
pected to last a short time, there was little disposition to incur
the heavy expenditure necessary in order to secure a share in the
manufacture of war material; but this attitude was soon changed,
and within six months factories everywhere had been adapted to
the supply of munitions and all the variety of other things
required by the Government for the armies. Industry was thus
in many ways compensated* for the paralysis of trade with
private buyers in the home market and for the closing of foreign
markets, and it would have been able to continue quietly on the
old lines but for the emergence of a new factor which fundamen-
tally altered the conditions. This factor was the rupture of com-
munications with foreign countries, due in the earlier stages of
the war to the limitation, and at one time the prohibition, of
exports by neutral countries, the passing over of some of these
countries to the enemy, and lastly the blockade by the enemy
Powers, which increased in efficiency and made it more and more
difficult to import the most essential commodities, until in the
end it was almost impossible to obtain from abroad anything,
needed either for the soldiers or the civilians.
In this respect Austria found herself in the same position as the
German Empire; in fact, her position was in many respects con-
siderably worse; many richly productive territories were tem-
porarily occupied by the enemy; and as Austria was far less well
provided with raw materials than Germany she was less in a
position to produce goods for exchange. In addition to this there
was another quite exceptional source of difficulties which had the
most serious consequences for Austria, namely her relation with
Hungary, due to the peculiar constitutional structure of the
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The Hungarian Government
could claim the right to take independent economic measures
for her own territory in war-time; a joint arrangement was only
possible for the territories of the Dual Monarchy which were
united for tariff purposes by agreements between the Austrian
and Hungarian Governments; and since neither Government was
exclusively concerned to carry out an adjustment of economic
conditions solely in accordance with what was necessary for
waging war and holding out with the supplies at their disposal,
but each had also to champion the interests of one half of the
monarchy against the other, the negotiations between the two
Governments were often attended with the greatest difficulties,
and constantly ended unsatisfactorily. Hungary, in accordance
with her economic situation, had always the advantage in these
negotiations, :ince she was incomparably richer than Austria in
foodstuffs, and the latter was constantly thrown back upon
Hungarian supplies; and this superiority on the part of Hungary
became more and more definitely pronounced in proportion
as the provision of the necessities of life for the army and civil
population became a steadily-increasing anxiety.
The more complete the economic isolation of the monarchy
the more the lack of raw materials made itself felt, both for the
manufacture of indispensable war supplies and for the feeding of
the civil population. To prevent the war being brought to a
premature end by dearth of supplies, the Government took
measures, modelled on those adopted in Germany, for ensuring
that necessary goods should be supplied to the proper quarters
whether the army authorities, manufacturers of war material, or
consumers and at a moderate price.
The quantity of raw materials which Austria had been in the
habit of importing from abroad, and the quantity stored in
the country at the outbreak of the war, were comparatively
very small. The Austrian and Hungarian ports were of little
importance as ports of entry for raw materials, the goods stored
there being mainly from the Levant. On the other hand, wool,
cotton, metals, etc., which came from overseas, were imported
through German or Dutch ports, and were stored there, though
often already in Austrian Ownership. It was of the first necessity
to assure the transport through Germany of these Austrian-
owned goods, and an agreement with the German Government
securing this was made. Agreements were also concluded by
which a share of the goods owned by Germany was conceded
to Austria.
It was next necessary to organize the purchase of goods in
neutral countries. This was at first left wholly to private enter-
prise; but, as Austrian buyers not only competed with each other
but also with buyers from other countries, this was bound to send
up prices, while the interests of the State were subordinated to
private gain. To meet this situation Germany set up central
boards (Zentralen), and Austria followed suit, partly at the re-
quest of the German Government, which wished to avoid the
competition of Austrian agents. Since the functions of these
organizations were commercial, for which the regular Govern-
ment officials were unsuited, they were established as commercial
joint-stock companies under peculiar conditions adapting them to
the service of the state. Any dividends earned by them above 5
or 6 % on their capital were to go to the State (in the first place to
the Minister for War, to be applied to war purposes). In Austria
the Government did not subscribe any of the capital, but the
central boards were subjected to State supervision and their
power of fixing prices was in many ways limited. These boards
were now given the monopoly of the right to import certain wares
(sometimes private buyers were allowed to purchase, but only on
condition of selling the goods imported to the board); they were
also entrusted with the reception of 'the instalments of raw
materials already mentioned as released from bond in Germany.
The activity of the central boards as purchasers in neutral coun-
tries did not last long; it came quickly to an end in 1915,
especially after Italy's entry into the war.
Fresh tasks were, however, soon imposed upon them. The
virtual stoppage of all supplies of raw materials from abroad
necessitated the strictest economy in the use of those available
at home, and this led to an elaborate system of Government
control. Since expert advice was absolutely essential to the
efficient working of such control, the task of carrying out the
regulations as to the distribution of materials, etc., was entrusted
to central boards under the form of war associations (Kriegsver-
bande), or economic associations (Wirlschaftsverbdnde), each
controlling certain materials. The associations, to which the
manufacturers using these materials had to belong, were directed
by elected committees; at the head of each was an expert ap-
pointed by the Government, which was represented on the board
by a commissioner exercising the Government's right of super-
vision. In addition to regulating the distribution of raw materials
these boards exercised other useful functions, such as discovering
fresh sources of supply, improving methods of production, etc.
They also acted as receiving centres for goods imported from
neutral countries, allied states or occupied territories. In this
way there arose central boards for wool, cotton, oil and fat, hides
and leather, and various metals to name only the more im-
portant materials.
The control exercised by these boards was limited in scope and
touched only comparatively narrow classes. It was otherwise
with the control of foodstuffs, which was all-embracing. The
problem in Austria, as elsewhere, was to keep the prices of the
necessaries of life at a level low enough to enable the people to
live. The attempt to fix maximum prices broke down, owing
to the temptations to secret dealing, and, as in England, the
card system had to be introduced.
Early in 1015 an institution was established for regulating the
traffic in grain during the war (Kriegsgctrcidc-Verkehrs-Anstalt);
it had been preceded by a central maize board, established to
control the distribution of the maize contributed by Hungary.
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
323
The new institution was registered as a trader and was to be con-
ducted on commercial principles, its expenses being covered by
its receipts, and the State only guaranteeing it against eventual
loss in order to secure the credit of the company. The principle of
balancing expenditure and receipts was, indeed, soon abandoned,
the State making advances to the institution in order that
bread-stuffs might be sold under cost price. This institution, in
the conduct of which officials and experts appointed by the
Government took part, had complete control of all grain,
flour, mills and bakeries. Its activities in fixing the price and
quality of bread, etc., and in rationing, closely resembled those
of the food controller in Great Britain (see FOOD SUPPLY and
RATIONING) .
This system of State control prevented industries which used
grain as their raw material from buying in an open market, and
in their case too it was found necessary to regulate supplies by
means of an organization analogous to that of the economic
associations already mentioned. In many cases these boards
were established in connexion with the already existing trade
associations (e.g. the Central Brewery Board in connexion with
the Central Association of the Austrian Brewery Association),
which set up their own distributing-stations and divided the raw
material among producers according to a scale fixed by the
Government, charging the producers a commission, in addition to
the cost price, in order to cover costs. These boards also under-
took other functions, such as introducing new methods of manu-
facture and supplying the workers in the munition factories with
beer. Sugar and alcohol were also placed under the control of
central boards, in connexion with existing organizations but with
a certain independence: for instance, the Sugar Kartel ceased to
exist, while the Central Sugar Board continued. The latter also
managed the export of sugar, in return for which certain wares
were imported.
Of particular interest were the purchasing associations formed
during the war. In the autumn of 1915 the Ministry of the
Interior established the "Vom Ministerium des Innern legiti-
micrte Einkaufsstelle m. C. H." (Purchasing station with limited
liability licensed by the Ministry of the Interior), known as the
"Miles," which was charged with the buying of goods in neutral
countries. At first this organization acted as agent of the newly-
established approvisionment departments; it was only later that
it received the monopoly of the right to import certain articles,
the Government at the same time placing at its disposal cer-
tain wares with which to pay for them. The prices fixed by
the Miles for the sale of its wares were not at first interfered
with; it was only later that its dividends were limited to 6%. It
wa? then transformed into the " Oczeg " (Oesterreichische Zentral-
Einkaufsgesellschaft: Austrian Central Purchasing Company),
which was the very type of an " altruistic company." In addition
to the dividend 5% was allowed for commission, office expenses
and risk. By agreement with the Ministry of the Interior, as
soon as the reserve exceeded by 10% the working capital (which
was partly in shares, partly in bank advances) the company was
to sell food under cost price; and this actually happened.
The system of regulation by central boards was severely
criticised for incompetence and even for corruption, and some-
times justly; but on the whole it was amply justified by the urgent
necessities of the times and by its results. Many other measures
had also to be resorted to in order to maintain the industry
of the country. Briefly, the duty of maintaining industries was
made obligatory, and in the last resort the military authorities
were empowered to take them over, though this was not likely to
happen as long as the high prices continued and the Government
supplied raw materials. Tillage was also made compulsory, but
this had little effect on production owing to the shortage of
labour, draft animals, manures and agricultural implements,
together with the oppressive restrictions caused by the fixing of
maximum prices.
All these measures could not alter the fact that the national
economy became less and less equal to the tasks imposed upon it
by the war. So soon as State control was applied to any article it
could be taken as a sign that the supplies would soon come to an
end, or at any rate were very restricted; and thus it was impossi-
ble to prevent the equipment of the army from becoming gradu-
ally more inadequate, and the provision both of the army and of
the population behind the lines with all kinds of necessaries from
being altogether insufficient; only wholly unsatisfactory sub-
stitutes could be provided, and the available provisions could
hardly be made to go round. When the war came to an end
Austria was almost completely stripped of many important
commodities.
No better picture can be obtained of its overwhelming eco-
nomic impoverishment than by studying the figures which show
the decline in the crop returns for Austria, and taking into account
the fact that imports from Hungary and the territories under
military occupation naturally fell far below the proportion of
foodstuffs formerly imported. Table X. gives the returns of the
principal crops for Lower Austria according to the statistics of the
Ministry of Agriculture.
TABLE X. -Crop Statistics.
(Thousands of tons.)
1906-15*
1915
1916
1918
Wheat ....
Rye . . .
118
3O3
80
212
53
54
Barley ....
Leguminous Crops .
Potatoes ....
95
8
639
^
636
65
5
344
47
4
307
*Average.
In the other Crown lands the crops declined in the same
proportion. The production of fodder also declined steadily, the
number of cattle fell, and the army horses were insufficiently fed.
To these purely economic difficulties was added the growing
opposition of the population to the measures of compulsion. This
in part depended on national factors, which became more clearly
visible as the situation of the Central Powers became more and
more unfavourable, but it was in part due simply to the ex-
haustion due to economic need. Thus the spirit of the labouring
classes became more and more inflamed, and at the beginning of
1918 the Government had the greatest difficulty in suppressing
an anti-war agitation among the working classes, which assumed
a threatening form. Movements were now unchained which
were bound after the end of the war to leave their impress upon
the political events and internal economy of the young Austrian
republic (see AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF). (K. P.; R. SIR.)
Finance and Banking. The third licence granted to the Austro-
Hungarian Bank expired on Dec. 31 1910. It was at first extended
provisionally, as it was impossible to reach a settlement between
Austria and Hungary regarding the continuance of common currency
and banking arrangements. In Hungary a strong majority, which
the Government could not afford to ignore, insisted on the forma-
tion of an independent Hungarian bank; on the other hand the
advantages accruing to Hungary through the community of the
financial and banking organization were quite obvious. There was
an important divergence of opinion between Austria and Hungary
concerning the constitution of the bank. Since the closing years of
the igth century the Austro-Hungarian Bank had pursued a policy
which had in the main the object of making the Austrian krone a
gold exchange standard. It was decided, however, by the Austrian
financial authorities that the obligation of the Austro-Hungarian
Bank to convert its notes into gold on demand should remain sus-
pended as hitherto, owing to fear lest the renewal of the obligation
of the bank to cash its notes in gold should lead to a rise in the rate of
interest. Hungary, on the other hand, striving for access to the
money markets of the West, desired that the obligation of the Aus-
tro-Hungarian Bank to cash its notes should be explicitly mentioned
in the law, in order to make the public loans rank as easily negotiable
securities on foreign bourses. In the banking law of Aug. 8 1911 a
compromise was formed on the following lines. The suspension of
cash payment by the Austro-Hungarian Bank was continued, but
the bank was bound to provide, by every means at its disposal, that
the value of its notes as quoted on foreign bourses should be per-
manently secured in proportion to the parity of the legal mint
standard of the krone currency. Hungary's wishes were met by the
introduction of a specially prompt procedure for the eventual future
abolition of the suspension of the bank's obligation to cash its
notes. By the same law, besides other less important provisions,
the amount of the bank's tax-free issue of notes was raised from 400
to 600 millions of kronen, and the conditions formerly attached to the
issue of 10 and 20 kronen notes were sensibly relaxed.
324
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
A 4% bank-rate had been uninterruptedly in force from May 8
1908 to Oct. 23 1910. From Oct. 24 1910 to Feb. 3 191 1 it was 5 %;
on Feb. 4 191 1 it was reduced to 4j %, and on Feb. 23 191 1 further
to 4 %. From Sept. 22 1911 to Oct. 25 1912 the bank-rate was again
5%; on Oct. 25 1912 it was increased to 5j%; and on Nov. 16 1912
a rate of 6% came into force and so remained until Nov. 27 1913,
when it was lowered to 5 j %, falling on Jan. 20 1914 to 5 %, on Feb.
3 1914 to 4i%, and finally on March 12 1914 to 4%.
These changes in the bank-rate show that Austria passed through
a financial crisis and credit difficulties in 1912-3, from the conse-
quences of which she had only just recovered at the outbreak of the
war. The stringency of the money market and the crisis had their
commencement as early as the spring of 1912. The Balkan War, which
broke out in the autumn of 1912, did not occasion the crisis, but it
made it more acute. The number of trade insolvencies in Austria-
Hungary had reached its height in 1912. The Vienna Creditors'
Association for the protection of claims in bankruptcies had in 1909-
II fresh failures with liabilities of 45, 40 and 43 millions of kronen
respectively. In 1912 the value of fresh claims involved rose to
112 millions of kronen; in 1913 it still amounted to 73 millions. One
obvious sign of a crisis was the demand for loans against security
from the Austro-Hungarian Bank, which was the result of the un-
favourable position of investments on the bourse. In each of the five
years, ending Dec. 31, from 1909 to 1913 the loans granted by the
Austro-Hungarian Bank against securities amounted to 90, 149,
'87, 355 and 311 millions of kronen successively. The bank-note
circulation rose in proportion. Notwithstanding the fact that the
banking law raised the tax-free note issue in 1911 from 400 to 600
millions of kronen, in 1913 the bank was unable to avoid incurring
tax payments for notes issued in excess of the amount allowed free
of tax, a state of affairs which had no parallel in the bank's history.
From Aug. 23 1912 to Jan. 23 1914 the bank return showed no tax-
free reserve of notes.
On July 23 1914 the gold reserve of the Austro-Hungarian Bank
amounted to 1,238 millions of kronen, its silver to 291 millions. In
its portfolio were discounted bills to the amount of 768 millions of
kronen. It had loans on security outstanding to the amount of 186
millions, and the bank-notes in circulation amounted to 2,130
millions of kronen.
The outbreak of the World War compelled the bank to raise its
rate on July 27 1914 from 4 to 5 %, on July 31 to 6% and on Aug. 2
to 8 %. The public rushed to the bank to obtain advances by pledg-
ing securities. On Aug. 4 1914 the Bank Act was suspended by
imperial ordinance having the force of law. In this manner the bank
was converted into an institution which could supply the Govern-
ment, by fresh issues of notes, with loans to an unlimited extent.
The legal forms under which this source of credit was assured were
various, but the actual result was in every case the same. The bank-
rate was reduced to 6 % as early as Aug. 20 1914, and the granting of
credit on depositing securities was facilitated by extending the
limits of the securities accepted.
The note issue was as follows:
Dec. 31 1914
" 1915
1916
1917
1918
5,137 mill ons of kronen
7,162
10,889
18,440
35,589
In proportion to the increase of the notes in circulation prices
and wages rose, and the krone depreciated on the foreign exchanges.
The Government tried to oppose the rise in prices by penal measures,
and in public attributed the rise of foreign rates to speculation. A
Central Securities Board (Devisenzentrale) was set up on Feb. 24
1916; and regulations were issued on Dec. 19 1916 and June 18 1918,
attaching a series of conditions to dealings in foreign money, bills
and securities, which amounted actually to a monopolizing of all
such operations by the Devisenzentrale. These measures had no
success. The value of the American dollar, in terms of Austro-
Hungarian paper kronen with legally fixed value, varied in fact, as
shown by the Swiss exchange market, as follows :
End of Aug. 1914
Dec. 1914
1915
1916
" 1917
Oct. 1918
Dec. 1918
5-12
5-76
785
9-56
8-40
11-83
15-77
State Finances. The revenue from taxation rose year by year,
partly owing to the increased profits of industry, partly to fresh in-
creases in taxation. From the year 1902 to the financial year 1914-5
the State revenues doubled, rising from 1,730 millions of kronen
to 3,460 millions of kronen, but this increase in revenue could only be
achieved by placing an extraordinary strain on the taxable capacity
of the country. In the financial year 1913 the amount of estimated
expenditure rose to 3,461 millions of kronen. Of the estimated net
revenue of 2,102 millions of kronen, 432 millions (20-5 %) came under
the head of receipts from direct taxation, 905 millions (43%) under
the head of receipts from indirect taxation and taxes on commerce,
while 294 millions (14%) were the proceeds of State property and
State institutions. Of the direct taxes the land tax produced 52
millions, the house taxes 127 millions, the taxes on industry 127
millions and the income tax 102 millions. Of the taxes on consump-
tion the spirit tax produced 95 millions, the beer duty 85 millions,
and the sugar duty 176 millions. The State debt amounted to
11,340 millions of kronen. On the outbreak of the war it was at
first impossible to contemplate meeting the cost of the war by raising
existing taxes or by imposing fresh taxation. The costs of the war
were in the first place met by loans and the assistance of the note-
printing press. The means of carrying on the war were obtained by
the State becoming the debtor of the Austro-Hungarian Bank, in so
far as credit was concerned.
The debt of the Austrian State to the Austro-Hungarian Bank
in direct loans made by the bank to the State amounted at the
end of 1919 to 25,088 millions of kronen. But, besides this, the
bank had also afforded credits to the State in other forms. In return
for bonds given by the Austrian and Hungarian State they issued
Treasury bills, and transferred the proceeds from them to the two
finance departments. The total amount of such Treasury bills in
circulation at the end of 1918 was roughly 7,400 millions of kronen.
The Post Office Savings Bank was also made to serve the financial
needs of the State. Whenever a war loan was impending it accepted
advances from the members of the Banking Consortium, which had
to place the war loans, and as soon as the subscription was closed
they were compensated for the underwriting. At the end of June
1919 these advances still amounted to 2,605 millions of kronen.
Foreign credit also was laid under contribution by the Austrian
State. On Oct. 31 1918 the amounts of outstanding debts incurred
abroad during the war were as follows:
2,696 millions of German Reichsmarks
42-9 " ' Dutch florins
2O'6 ' Danish kroner
7-9 ' Swedish kroner
3-6 " " Bulgarian levas.
The home money market was approached by the Government
through the issue of war loans. The total number of such war loans
was eight. They bore interest at 5j %. The first issue took place on
Nov. I 1914, and from that time onwards a fresh war loan was issued
about every six months. In this way a State debt of 35,069 millions
of kronen was accumulated.
Up to Sept. 1915 no increases in taxation were introduced in Aus-
tria, except a slight increase in the duty on beer; neither were any
new taxes created. Even the reform of taxation carried out in the
autumn of 1915 (modification of the inheritance and donations duty
and the taxation on insurance policies and legal charges) cannot be
regarded strictly as war taxes, as they had been planned a consider-
able time before the outbreak of the war and had only been delayed
by the inability of Parliament to continue its work. It was not
until 1916 that increases took place in every field of taxation. The
price of tobacco and the tariff of the State railways were considerably
increased, special war increases were introduced in the direct taxes,
and in April 1916 an entirely new tax was imposed the " war profits
tax," the name of which was subsequently altered to " war tax."
But all these taxes and increases of taxation were quite inadequate
to meet the enormous expense of conducting the war. War finance
was not able to dispense with the printing of notes. (L. v. M.)
ART AND LITERATURE, 1010-21
Art. All the Austrian artists who had been most character-
istic of the age of Francis Joseph died about the year 1890.
They had built a new Vienna and transformed the large pro-
vincial towns. The keynote of their style might be described as
Austrian imperial sentiment. This common quality was also true
of the decadent period of this style, which reached its height in
1890; and even after the World War it still had its representa-
tives. Notable in this class were, among architects, Karl Konig
(1841-1915); among sculptors, Karl Kundemann (1838-1910)
and Kasper Zumbusch (1830-1915) in Vienna, and Josef Myslbek
(b. 1848) in Prague; among painters the Czech Brozik (1851-
1899), the Pole Jan Matejko (1838-1893), and the Viennese
portrait-painters L. Horowitz (1843-1917) and Heinrich von
Angeli (b. 1840). Others, such as the painter Adalbert Hynais
(b. 1854) of Prague, and the Viennese sculptor Eduard Hellmer
(b. 1850), or the Viennese engraver Ferdinand Schmutzer
(b. 1870), displayed symptoms of a transitional style, dominated
by an international influence. Austrian artists now sought every
kind of contact abroad; many studied and lived in Munich,
Berlin and Paris. As examples may be cited the Czech painters
Antonin Slavifek (1870-1910) and Max Svabinsky (b. 1873),
the Pole Jacek Malczewski (b. 1855), and the artists who in
1897 founded the Viennese Independents (Wiener Sezession).
Evidence of their success in bringing new life to a dead tradi-
tion was given by the painter Rudolf Alt (1812-1905), who in
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
325
spite of his great age brought about a transformation, and the
architect Otto Wagner (1841-1918), who, though his roots were
set in the age of Francis Joseph, became the leader of the
moderns in Vienna.
Side by side with these artists, who, in spite of their inter-
national features, devoted their talents to Austria, were others
who split away from their native land and became completely
identified with foreign art, for example : Alphons Mucha (b. 1860),
who became a French decorative artist; the painters Charles
Schuch (1876-1903) and Emil Orlik (b. 1870); the sculptors
Hugo Lederer (b. 1871) and Hans Metzner (1870-1919); and
the architect Josef Olbrich (1867-1908), who have all more
importance in the development of German art in general than of
Austrian art.
Meanwhile there arose various national schools, which
developed with energy their racial peculiarities. The young
Poles, united in the society called the Sztuka, endeavoured to
depict Slav gaiety in a riot of gaudy colour (Chelmonski,
Mehoffer, etc.); in like manner the Slovak Joza Uprka (b. 1862)
exploited his native land, his materials being peasant customs
and types and the peasant's love of colour. Frantisek Bilek
(b. 1872) mirrored in mighty contours the ardent faith of the
Slav peoples, while Jan Stursa, endowed with equal power, re-
fined it into an art of truly European quality. In contrast with
these two Czech sculptors may be placed the highly gifted
Southern Slav Mestrovic, who expressed in his art the refractory
energy and wild fanaticism of his race. Among German-Austrian
artists the originality of the Tirolese Albin Egger-Lienz (b. 1868)
deserves special mention, for in it the Tirolese element plays an
important part.
In Vienna the leading personality of his generation was
Gustav Klimt (1862-1918); his very delicate decorative art,
his subtle taste in colour, his inclination towards industrial art,
make his painting so Viennese that it would hardly be com-
prehensible in other surroundings. A pendant to him is the
architect Josef Hoffmann (b. 1869), who originated in the school
of Otto Wagner, whose stiff principles he softened, however, by
his richer-taste (e.g. the Stoelet House in Brussels); the tendency
towards decorative and industrial art which Klimt had revived in
Vienna was turned into a systematic school by Hoffmann. In
theatrical decoration, in domestic architecture, in all branches of
the handicrafts, Vienna became a leading centre of the moderns,
the " Viennese Workshops " (Wiener Werkslatle) and the
" Austrian Craft Guild " (Qsterreichische Werkbund) being the
centre of their activity. A leading figure among the younger
generation of artists, after the war, was Oskar Kokoschka
(b. 1888). (H. TK.)
Literature and Drama. Between 1910 and 1920 new tendencies
and personalities came into the literary foreground in Austria,
and moreover death made many gaps in the ranks of the leading
representatives of the older traditions. In 1916 died Marie
von Ebner-Eschenbach (see 8.843*). Born in the same year as
Francis Joseph (1830), she had continued her literary activity to
the very end of her life. In 1915 she published the sketches
entitled Stille Welt, and from her literary remains appeared in
1916 Erinnerungen an Grillparzer and Blatter aus einem zeitlosen
Tagebuch: prose poems, satirical attacks on Ibsen, Hauptmann
and the modern school, for whom she had no sympathy. Her
enthusiasm for Tolstoy was correspondingly great, and among
her successors she marked out for special praise Enrica Handel
Mazzetti, with whom she carried on a correspondence which was
published under the title of Der Dichlcrinnen stiller Garten.
In 1918 died the Styrian dialect poet Peter Rosegger (see 23.734).
He too delighted in creation till the end of his life, and was oc-
cupied in revising his collected works for an edition in 40 volumes.
Riickblicke auf den Schauplalz des Lebens : Abendddmmerung
appeared posthumously in 1919; it deals with questions of time
and eternity, religious, social and political problems, and the
characters of eminent people, e.g. Schiller and Francis Joseph.
His greatest successor as a dialect poet he held to be the Tirolese
dramatist Karl Schonherr. During the decade several other
notable writers died. Count Albrecht Wickenburg (1838-1912),
husband of the poetess Almasy-Wickenburg, was a fine lyrical
poet who made a masterly translation of Shelley's Prometheus.
Freiherr Alfred von Benger (1853-1912), important as an essay-
ist and playwright, founded the Deutsches Schauspielhaus at
Hamburg, and ultimately became director of the Burgtheater.
Max Burckhard (1857-1912), a distinguished jurist, who was
director of the Burgtheater for eight years, was a champion of
Ibsen, Hauptmann, Schnitzler and Anzengruber, and patron of
the greatest actors of the rising generation Hedwig Bleibtreu,
Lotte Medelsky, Mitterwurzer and Kainz; he was active as a
critic, dramatist and story-teller, but the artistic merit of his
work was unequal. In 1917 died Bertha von Suttner, authoress
of the novel Die Waffen nieder!, well known as a protagonist
of the League of Peace, and winner of the Nobel prize. The
Zionist Hugo Zuckermann (1881-1917), whose song, Driiben am
Wiesenrand silzen zwei Dohlen, was much sung at the beginning
of the World War, fell in battle. Peter Altenberg (1859-1919)
died at the age of 60; he was equally original in his life and his
art, and his books, Wie ich es sehe, Was der Tag bringl, Semmer-
ing, etc., have a highly personal touch.
In spite of these losses there was no lack of talent in Austrian
literature, for many followed in the footsteps of their predecessors
but most of them sought and found ways of their own. The
creations of Ibsen, Zola, Maeterlinck, Dostoievsky, Tolstoy,
Shaw and Strindberg had their influence on the younger genera-
tion. Modern and ultra-modern tendencies, the new romanticism,
symbolism, occultism, expressionism, took the place of realism,
naturalism and impressionism. The partisans of Stirner and
Nietzsche, the Sturm und Drang school, lost all sense of reason
and moderation. Far removed from these wandering fires, and
yet receptive to the subtle innovations of Ibsen and Hauptmann,
there developed the most powerful of contemporary German-
Austrian writers, Karl Schonherr. Born in 1830 at Axams near
Innsbruck, the son of a schoolmaster, he spent his life in Tirol,
going to the university of Vienna, where he qualified as a doctor.
In 1895 he first appealed to the public in his dialect poems,
Innthaler Schnalzer, and his sketches Allerhand Kreuzkdpf.
His drama, Judas von Tirol, was an unsuccessful attempt to
represent the betrayer of Andreas Hofer on the stage. Die
Bildschnitzer and Sonnwendtag met with success both at the
Volkstheater and the Burgtheater. In 1907 followed the tragi-
comedy Erde, in which the principal role, that of the old peasant
Grutz, was splendidly played by Josef Kainz, and is a finely
conceived type. The character was so convincing that the
original of old Grutz was looked for in every walk of life and mis-
takenly supposed to be Francis Joseph, since he kept the im-
patient heir, Francis Ferdinand, waiting in vain for the throne.
After a fairy play, Das Konigreich, Schonherr composed his
tragedy, Glaube und Heimat, a national-historical drama which
gave a vivid picture of the Reformation and Counter-Reforma-
tion and the proscription of Protestants in the Alpine regions,
and in spite of ultramontane agitation was played hundreds of
times with the greatest success. In 1915 Schonherr completed
his technically unique drama for three characters only, Der
Weibsteufel; it was violently attacked by ecclesiastical fanatics,
and its morality was defended by the poet in an indignant answer
to the bishop of Munich. In the middle of the war Schonherr
published the drama on the subject of Hofer which he had begun
in 1909, Volk in Not, a German heroic poem, which represented
so impartially the light and dark sides of the Tirol's struggle for
freedom that the military censorship of Berlin and Vienna, on
trifling pretexts, for years prevented this masterpiece from being
produced. Schonherr's remaining plays are: Fruchtbarkeit, the
tragedy of a childless peasant woman; the Kindertragodie, again
for three characters only; and two pessimistic pictures of aca-
demic life, Narrenspieldes Lebens (1918) and Der Kampf; ein
Drama geistiger Arbeiter (1920). Schonherr's stories, Caritas
(1907) and Aus meinem Merkbuch (1911), are worthy to rank
with his plays, and in their sober form, grim humour and tragic
reticence bear the true impress of the Tirolese race.
Fundamentally different in method and art is the most notable
Austrian dramatist next to Schonherr, Arthur Schnitzler.
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
326
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
Schonherr in his substance and method everywhere proclaims
himself of the Alps; Schnitzler always shows himself a citizen of
the Viennese capital and a man of the world. Schonherr is a
moralist, Schnitzler a sceptic. Whether in jest or in earnest, both
as a writer of short stories and verse drama, he is principally
preoccupied with the love motive; Anatol, a set of dialogues
representing the world of pleasure and inspired by an exuberant
wit recalling Maupassant, was followed in 1895 by his best
youthful production, Liebelel, and by a series of plays which
discuss in sophisticated dialectic the problems of love and
marriage. In Litteratur der Boh* me and Comtesse Mizzi he
attacks with exuberance and wit the highest Austrian aristocracy.
In the grotesque Der griine Kakadu he shows an avenging doom
ready to break forth boldly over the unconscious ancien regime
from a low drinking-den, on the day of the storming of the Bastille.
The historical piece, Der junge Mcdardus, has its scene laid
during Napoleon's stay at Schonbrunn; it is a picture of the
times, in which he does not fail to include the episode of Napoleon
kicking his hat. Professor Bernhardi is a satirical picture, drawn
by a master hand, of Austrian university and parliamentary life;
it was played hundreds of times in Berlin, but under the.Habs-
burg Monarchy it was forbidden by the censor owing to its only
too true reflection of insignificant ministers and party leaders; it
was not till the republic that the ban was removed from this
comedy. As a story-teller Schnitzler achieved uncommon suc-
cess when most happily inspired (Leutnant Gustl, 1901; Masken
und Wunder, 1912). His novel, Der Weg ins Freie (1908), has the
Jewish question as its subject.
The Jewish problem was also treated, with far deeper penetra-
tion, by Schnitzler's friend, Richard Beer-Hofmann, who had
been silent since the appearance of his Graf von Charolais half a
generation earlier, in his Biblical drama Jadkobs Traum, which
both in its form and contents is of lasting value. Another close
friend of Schnitzler, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, the much-feted
leader of the aesthetic school of lyrical poets, wrote the libretto
for Richard Strauss's Elcktra, Der Rosenkavalier (1911), Joseph,
Ariadne auf Naxos (1912), Die Frau ohne Schatten and so shared
in the world-wide fame of the musician. He gave a new version
of Alkcslis and of the mediaeval drama Everyman (Jcdcrmann).
Widely read in the literature of the world, he formulates his
opinions in refined though sometimes over-elaborate prose: the
earlier collections of shorter works were supplemented after the
war by several volumes of Rodauner Nachtrdge. The former
protagonist of this group, Hermann Bahr, suffered from an
excess of versatility. The theatrical success of his much-acted
Concert (1909) was not repeated in the case of any of his later
pieces. In his Erinnerung an Burckhard (1913), Aufsatze fiir
Religion und Philosophic, Invenlur, Expressionismus (1917), and
the many volumes of his Tagcbuch he aimed at being an index to
all the vicissitudes in art and life. He sprang from one extreme to
another; once a follower of Marx, a free-thinker and an anarchist,
after the World War he was for the moment preaching reaction in
science and uncompromising Catholicism. Hans Miiller (b. 1882)
is a writer of verse drama whose downright methods hit the taste
of the masses. His drama Konige (1915), which enjoyed the
special patronage of the German emperor and dealt ostensibly
with the feud between Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria,
but in reality with the rivalry of the Hohenzollerns and Habs-
burgs, had an enormous popular success. He modelled himself on
Sudermann in one piece, Der Schopfer, the hero of which is the
self-confident inventor of a serum; a weaker effect was produced
by his play Sterne, which explains Galileo's retraction as due to
timidity. On the other hand his Flamme (1920-1), which
represents on the stage the life of the demi-monde, ran for months
in the great theatres of Berlin and Vienna, in spite of all the
objections of the critics.
Austrian achievements in lyrical poetry were .no less note-
worthy than in the drama. According to the testimony of the
German Soergel, the young lyric poets of the time venerated
above all others two poets, Dehmel, the poet of will, and Rainer
Maria Rilke (b. 1875), the poet of mood. They regard Rilke's
bewitching melodies, his delicacy of observation, his mystic
ardour, his absorption in God, as the highest revelation of their
kind. Rilke himself, in. his autobiographically-coloured Auf-
zeichnungen des Malle Laurids Brigge (1910), thus defines his
poetic mission: " Verses are not sensations, as people think
they are experiences. For the sake of a single verse one must see
many towns, men and things, one must know the animals, one
must feel how the birds fly and in what wise the little flowers
open in the morning."
Regardless of Rilke, Stefan George, or Hofmannsthal, the
singers of the older generation continued to write lyrics in the
traditional form: for example, the Styrian pastor Ottokar Kern-
stock (b. 1878), canon of Vorau, Aus dem Zwhigergdrtlein, and
with Rosegger, Stcirischer Waffensegen (1915), Schviertlilien aus
dem Zwingergartlein, Kriegsgedichte. In Tirol too there was an
ecclesiastic, Brother Williram (Miiller), who wrote patriotic
songs during the World War. Arthur von Wallpach (b. 1866)
and Franz Karl Ginzkey (b. 1871) also preserved their old skill.
A new note was struck both in war and peace by Anton
Wildgans (b. 1881), who put forth, in quick successsion to his
first work, Herbslfrilhling (1909) and his self-revealing Soiietle
an Ead (1913), Infanterie, Mittag, and several dramas with a
lyric quality, Armut, Hebe, and Dies Irae, which led to his
appointment as director of the Burgtheater.
The greatest talent among the younger poets was Franz
Werfel (b. 1890), who in his version of the Trojan Women of
Euripides (1917) vividly painted the curse of war, and after-
wards, like Albert Ehrenstein (b. 1886), openly confessed himself
a violent opponent of militarism. But the most outspoken con-
demnation of the war party, military or civil, was pronounced by
Karl Jeremias Kraus (b. 1874), editor of the review Die Fackel, a
very considerable satirist and an unshrinking adversary of
social abuses in his books, Sittlichkeit und Criminalitat (1909),
Die chinesische Matter (1910), Pro domo et mundo (1912), Kultur
und Presse (1915). In 1919 he displayed, as in a mighty fresco,
" the last days of humanity " (Die letzten Tage der Menschheil),
a series of scenes arising during the World War, which, changing
from wild mockery to awful tragedy, pictures the atrocities and
misdeeds of army commanders and diplomatists, the credulity
of the masse's, the barbarity of military justice, the brainlessness
and heartlessness of those in high places. Exaggerated in some
details, and on the whole over-severe to his native land, Die
letzten Tage der Menschhcit is none the less, in spite of all
reservations, a considerable literary achievement, a picture of
the times having the value of a document.
Among the older generation of Austrian novelists we may
mention Emilie Mataja (Emil Marriot, b. 1855) for descriptions of
ecclesiastical and social life; Adam Miiller-Guttenbrunn ^.1852)
for novels dealing with life in the Banat; and Sttiber Gunther
(b. 1872), the successor of Potzl and Chiavacci among Viennese
humorists. Among the most remarkable artistically are Enrica
Handel Mazzetti (b. 1871) and Rudolf Hans Bartsch (b. 1873).
Baroness Handel, who had been given a strictly religious educa-
tion by the " englische Fraulein " at Sankt Polten, gave in her
principal works Meinrad Helm per gers den kwiirdigcs Jahr(i 900) ,
Jesse und Marie (1906), Die arme Margaret (1910), Stephana
Schwerdtner (1913), Ein deutscher Held (1920) propagandist
stories in which free-thinkers, Protestants and blasphemers are
led by their tragic experiences to become Catholics. The action
takes place sometimes in the iSth century, sometimes at the time
of the Counter-Reformation, and in Ein Deiilschcr Held in the
days of the Archduke Charles. Capacity for drawing convincing
historical pictures here goes hand-in-hand with the gift of
dramatic intensity. Her Catholic ideas do not make the author-
ess unjust to heretics, but she has a fatal taste for spiritual and
physical torture, and wallows in scenes of blood and torment.
Bartsch, originally an officer, won his first success with Zwiilf
aus der Steiermark, which was followed by many others, the
greatest of which was Schwammerl, a novel about Franz Schubert.
More closely knit in his technique is Jakob Wassermann, born at
Fiirth in 1873, a precisian in form and a virtuoso in language^
and richer in ideas is Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer (b. 1878),
notably in his novel about Spinoza and Paracelsus.
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
327
Up to the end of the World War the Vienna Burgtheater had
still the ambition of ranking with the Comedie Francaise as the
first theatre of the continent of Europe. The dialect drama, to
which Raimund, Nestrey and Anzengruber had contributed, still
had the reputation of being, as Platen said, a popular form of
comedy which is more comic than the whole of the German
theatre. In the meantime the Burgtheater lost its brilliant doyen
Bernhard Baumeister (1828-1917), and its greatest master of
declamation, the famous emotional actor, Josef Kainz (1858-
1918). Finally Alexander Girardi (1850-1918) died too, the
popular Viennese comedian, whose gift for music and improvisa-
tion showed him no unworthy representative of the Italian
tradition.
See Albert Soergel, Dichtung und Dichter der Zeit (1916) ; Oscar
F. Walzel, Die deutsche Dichtung seit Goethes Tod (1919); Alfred
Maderno Die deutsch-osterreichische Dichtung der Gegenwart (1920).
(A. B.)
History. During 1910-20 the influence of the work of Theodor
von Sickel (1826-1908), and of the Austrian Institute for
Historical Research which had been brought by him to a high
pitch of excellence, was shown in a marked activity on the
part of Austrian historical writers. In the footsteps of Sickel, and
also of his great contemporary Julius von Ficker (1826-1902),
came their disciples Engelbert Miihlbacher (1853-1903) and
Emil von Oltenthal (b. 1855) ; Oswald Redlich (b. 1858), with his
Rudolf von Habsburg; Alfors Dopsch (b. 1868), with his Wirt-
schaftliche Entwicklung der Karolingerzeit (2. vols., 1912-3) and
W irtschaftliche und soziale Grundlagen der europaischcn Kullur-
entwicklung (2 vols., 1918-9); Ludo Moritz Hartmann (b. 1865)
with his Geschichte Italiens, etc.
A number of the historians who came from the school of Sickel
turned to modern history, under the influence of Ottokar Lorenz
(1832-1903). Distinguished among them by his gift for vivid
exposition was Heinrich Friedjung (1851-1920), notable for his
Der Kampf urn die Vorherrschafl in Deutschland (2 vols., nth ed.
1919), Oesterreich, 1848-1860 (2 vols., 4th ed. uncompleted),
Das Zeitalter des Imperialisms, 1884-1014 (vol. i., 1919),
Gisammelte Aufsatze (1919). A rich literary activity was dis-
played by August Fournier (1850-1920), whose biography of
Napoleon (3rd ed., 1913, Eng. trans. 2nd ed. 1911) became widely
known even beyond the sphere of the German-speaking public.
From the pen of A. F. Pribram there appeared, among other
works, the second volume of Die englisch-oestcrreichischen
Slaatsvertrdge (1913), and Die geheimen politischen Staalsvcrtrage
Oesterreich- Ungarns 1879-1917 (1920; English trans, by A. C.
Coolidge, 1920).
Worthy of note among the younger historians trained at the
Institute were Hans Uebersberger (b. 1877), with Russlands
Orientpolitik in den letztcn Jahrhundcrten (vol. i., 1913); H. R. von
Srbik (b. 1878), with Wallenstein's Ende (1920); Wilhelm Bauer
(b. 1877), with Die ojjentliche M timing auf historischer Grundlage
(1917); Viktor Bibl (b. 1870), with Der Tod des Don Carlos
([9tg);H. Kretschmayer (b. 1870), with his Geschichte Vcnedigs
(2nl vol. 1920). The methodical research into texts inaugur-
ate.l in Austria by Sickel and Ficker produced valuable fruits
i.i the sphere of German and Austrian legal and constitutional
history. Prominent among the workers in this field were
Arnold Luschin von Ebengreuth (b. 1841); H. von Voltelius
(b. 1862) and Siegmund Adler (1813-1920).
Among historians unconnected with the above-mentioned
movement, Josef Freiherr von Helfert (1820-1910) was distin-
guished by a rare devotion to work; a man of great talents, he
crowned his life-work by a history in two volumes of the Austrian
Revolution of 1848. Ludwig von Pastor (b. 1854) continued his
widely read Geschichte der Pdpste (5th vol., 1920); Eugen Guglia
(1855-1918) published a book on Maria Theresa (2 vols., 1917).
In the sphere of Slavonic history the unfinished Geschichte
Serbiens of J. Jirecek (1857-1918) is also worthy of note. As an
economic historian Karl Grunberg (b. 1891) established his
reputation during the decade.
The eminent Viennese professor of constitutional law, Josef
Redlich (b. 1869), widely known abroad through his masterly
works on English local government and English parliamentary
procedure, published in 1920 the first volume of Das oestcr-
rcichische Staats- und Reichsproblem, a history of the internal
policy of the Habsburg Monarchy from 1848 to the break-up
of the empire. This first volume brings the account down to 1861.
(A. F. PR.)
FOREIGN POLICY, 1909-18'
Austro-Hungarian foreign policy in the crucial decade which,
through the World War, led to the downfall of the empire, can
only be understood by recalling the main historical problem that
confronted the old monarchy.
Since the foundation of the German Empire and the kingdom
of united Italy an extension of Austria-Hungary towards the S.
and W. of Europe had become impossible. Only in the Klvalry
S.E. could she still count on an expansion of her W nh RUS-
territory and power. Thus from the seventies of the sla '" the
igth century onwards the policy of the leading Austro-
Hungarian statesmen had taken the direction indicated by
geographical conditions. In this Austria had to reckon with the
opposition of Russia, which, with the pressing back of Turkish
influence, had become her great rival in S.E. Europe. In order to
maintain herself as a Great Power, make her frontier secure
against hostile attacks, and suffer no restriction on her further
development, she could not allow another Great Power to com-
mand the Danube and its mouths, and arrogate to itself the
hegemony of the Balkan peoples. This political and economic
opposition between the Habsburg Monarchy and Russia was
reenforcedby opposition of an ethnical and cultural nature. In
view of this struggle against a competitor far superior in popula-
tion and military strength, Austrian statesmen had sought an
alliance or understanding with those European states whose
interests appeared to run parallel with their own. It was to the
benevolent attitude of Germany and England that Austria had
owed the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the right of
maintaining garrisons in the Sanjak of Novibazar the door to
the Near East and the first step towards an expansion of Austria-
Hungary's sphere of influence in the Balkans, which pron-.ised
rich prospects, but at the same time an increase in Russian
hostility.
From the early eighties of the igth century Andrassy's
successors did indeed try to arrive at a modus vhendi with Russia,
and were zealously seconded in this effort by Prince Bismarck,
who wished to hold the balance between his two allies. Numerous
crises were successfully overcome, but the conflict of interest
remained, and was especially heightened after the Russo-
Japanese War (1904-5) had ended unfavourably for Russia.
Russian statesmen renounced the policy, which they had followed
for a time, of getting to the "warm ocean" in the Far East, and
returned to the one which had been followed by Peter the Great
and Catherine and never entirely given up, the goal of which had
been the conquest of Constantinople and the command of the
Dardanelles. The constantly increasing differences between
Germany and the Western Powers, and the advances made by
the latter towards friendship with the court of the Tsar, led in
1907-8 to a close entente between Russia and England, and
hence to the development of the long-standing alliance between
Russia and France into a Triple Entente.
Baron Aehrenthal, who from the autumn of 1906 had directed
the foreign policy of the Habsburg Monarchy, recognized the
threatening danger, which became greater and Aehreo-
greater as the internal affairs of the Turkish Empire thai s
assumed a more and more critical aspect. This
empire he wished to preserve, if it could by any means be done ;
but in the event of its final liquidation he was firmly determined
to safeguard the interests of Austria-Hungary. It was above all
necessary to make sure of the possession of the occupied prov-
J The article under EUROPE, written from a British historian's
point of view, should be read for a somewhat different perspective
of the European situation which resulted in the World VVar. See
also SERBIA. The account given here naturally reflects^ in various
aspects, the point of view of an Austrian historian. (Ed. E. B.)
328
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
inces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had been under Austro-
Hungarian government for 30 years past. The Young Turk
Revolution, in July 1908, served as a pretext for carrying into
effect the annexation of these territories, which had been planned
long since. It happened opportunely that at this very time
Russian statesmen wished to effect the realization of their
designs on the Dardanelles. Isvolsky, who directed Russian
foreign policy, knew indeed that it would not be easy to win over
Great Britain to his plan. But since he believed himself sure of
French support, he hoped to achieve at least his immediate aim,
the opening of the straits to Russian ships-of-war, so soon as
he had come to an understanding with the Central Powers,
and especially with Austria-Hungary. During the negotiations
entered upon, on Aehrenthal's initiative, between the Cabinets
of Vienna and St. Petersburg, Isvolsky expressed his consent to
the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the event of the
Vienna Government's falling in with his plans as to the straits
question. Aehrenthal seized upon this proposal, for he hoped
that the annexation of these provinces would enable him to take
active measures in face of the Greater Serbia movement.
At the beginning of July 1908 Isvolsky handed in at Vienna a
memorandum which guaranteed to the Habsburg Monarchy,
besides Bosnia and Herzegovina, the greater part of the Sanjak
of Novibazar as well. Aehrenthal accepted Isvolsky's offer in so
far as it applied to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina;
but he demanded the same right for the warships of Rumania
and Bulgaria as for those of Russia, and in addition a guarantee
against an attack on Constantinople by a Russian fleet entering
the Bosporus. In return he was ready to give up the Sanjak and
the rights appertaining to Austria-Hungary in Montenegro, and
therefore the plan of an advance on Salonika, the seizure of which
Andrassy had had in view as the next objective in Austria-
Hungary's policy of expansion in S.E. Europe. On Sept. 15
Aehrenthal met Isvolsky at the chateau of Buchlau in Moravia,
informed him of the impending Austrian annexation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, and promised him in return a free hand in his
proceedings with regard to the question of the Dardanelles. The
two ministers promised each other mutual support; Aehrenthal
renounced the Sanjak of Novibazar, as a set-off for which Isvol-
sky gave a promise that Russia would not take possession of
Constantinople. A European conference was to give its sanction
to their settlement. A binding written agreement was con-
templated, but was not arrived at on this occasion.
When, however, at the beginning of Oct. 1908 Francis
Joseph publicly announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herze-
govina as a fait accompli, a storm of indignation burst forth in
many quarters. It was insisted, especially in England, that
agreements, settled by international treaties could only be
modified with the agreement of all the contracting Powers. Both
in Paris and in London, where Isvolsky had betaken himself in
order to obtain the consent of the Western Powers to the meas-
ures which he had concerted with Aehrenthal, he met with a
decided refusal. Disappointed in his expectations, he now
declared that he had been led astray by Aehrenthal.
Serbia lodged a protest against the annexation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, demanded autonomy for these territories under the
Effect guarantee of the Great Powers, and a port on the
the later- Adriatic for Serbia, with a strip of territory to connect
national it with Serbia. Since Austria-Hungary showed no
ua on. i nc ij na tion to take these demands into consideration,
Serbia now began to strengthen her military forces. At the same
time a violent anti-Austrian movement began to make itself felt
in Turkey. All goods coming from Austria-Hungary were boy-
cotted, and Austro-Hungarian traders living in Turkey were
subjected to annoyance. Bulgaria, whose prince, Ferdinand of
Coburg, had assumed the royal crown on Oct. 5 1908, also took
sides against Austria-Hungary. Aehrenthal had made himself
personally offensive to that country, which now entered into
negotiations with Russia and Serbia. In Italy, too, a hostile
tendency towards Austria gained the upper hand. Victor
Emanuel III. described the annexation of Bosnia and Herze-
govina as a stab at the Treaty of Berlin, and Tittoni, who had
spoken on Oct. 7 in terms favourable to the annexation, declared
in his great speech in the Consulta at the beginning of Dec. 1908
in contradiction with the tenor of a letter which he had addressed
to Aehrenthal on Oct. 4 that he had entered into no engage-
ments with regard to it. The nationalist press and the irredentists
fanned the flames, and in the Austrian Parliament the Slavs, and
above all the Czech leaders, raised loud complaints.
But Aehrenthal remained firm. He was convinced that Russia,
which had not yet recovered from the defeat which she had
suffered in the Russo-Japanese War, would not draw the sword,
and that he would therefore succeed in achieving his ends without
bloodshed. His own efforts were directed towards the preserva-
tion of peace. In this point of view he was at odds with a power-
ful party, led by Conrad von Hotzendorff, chief of the Austro-
Hungarian general staff, which was in favour of a decision by
force of arms. In order to meet Russia's views Aehrenthal ex-
pressed his consent to the convening of a European conference,
but insisted at the same time that he could only promise Serbia
and Montenegro economic compensations, and made it a con-
dition that the question of Austria-Hungary's sovereignty over
Bosnia and Herzegovina should not be discussed at the con-
ference, but only taken cognizance of by it. Aehrenthal's at-
titude aroused violent indignation in London and Paris. But
since Germany resolutely took its stand on the side of the
Habsburg Monarchy, France, with an eye to her Moroccan
interests, only gave a lukewarm support to the Russian demands;
and Isvolsky found himself compelled to beat a retreat. As early
as Dec. 1908 he agreed that the conference should recognize
the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina after a previous dis-
cussion of the matter had taken place between the several
Cabinets. Meanwhile Sir Edward Grey, the English Secretary of
State for Foreign Affairs, advised the Turkish Government to
give their consent to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
to be bought by a proportionate cash indemnity. Aehrenthal fell
in with a suggestion in these terms, and on Feb. 26 1909 con-
cluded an agreement with Turkey which secured to the Sultan, in
return for his recognition of the annexation of Bosnia and Herze-
govina by Austria-Hungary, a considerable sum of money in
compensation for Ottoman State property in the annexed prov-
inces. In the course of the month of March the negotiations as
to the form of consent to the annexation to be given by the Great
Powers concerned were brought to a conclusion. It was to be
effected by official declarations on their part, a European con-
ference being avoided. On March 24 declarations in this sense
were handed in at Berlin and Vienna by the Russian Government ;
those of England followed on March 28.
The danger of an Austro-Serbian war, which for some time had
appeared inevitable, had fortunately passed by. Even after the
settlement of the Austro-Turkish conflict the Serbs
remained stubborn; Aehrenthal, however, wanted to stubborn
. . , . , , , , Attitude of
avoid war, and now, as before, hoped to reach his goal Serbia.
by calm firmness and conciliation. At the beginning
of March 1909 he declared that Serbia, in order to avoid the
humiliation of having her fate settled by the statesmen of Vienna,
might submit to the decision of the Great Powers. But the
Serbian Government declined, and continued to arm. The
Cabinet of Vienna then decreed that the troops in the S.E. of the
Monarchy should be reenforced. Isvolsky now saw that Francis
Joseph was in earnest. Since he could not venture on war, he
accepted the proposal of the German Imperial Chancellor, Billow,
that Russia herself should use her influence over Serbia in the
direction of moderation. On Great Britain's initiative negotia-
tions were entered upon with the Government of Vienna, which
led to the drafting of a note which should secure to Austria-
Hungary the satisfaction which she demanded.
After overcoming great difficulties it was possible to effect an
agreement. On March 31 the Serbian Government handed in a
note at Vienna in which it declared that Serbia had submts-
not suffered any injury to her rights through the sion of
annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria- Serbia.
Hungary, and promised to change the attitude which she had
hitherto taken towards the Habsburg Monarchy, to maintain
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
329
good neighbourly relations with the monarchy, and to reduce
her army to the footing of the previous year (1908). In so doing
Serbia submitted to the behest of the signatory Powers, but at the
same time to the will of Austria-Hungary. Montenegro there-
upon followed suit. The event was a victory for Aehrenthal, but
a pyrrhic victory, in that through it was effected the cleavage of
Europe into two hostile camps. Russia now broke definitely with
Austria-Hungary and became increasingly hostile to German
policy, while England recognized with increasing clearness the
significance of the Southern Slavs in the struggle against Ger-
many, and especially of Serbia as a battering-ram against
Germany's ally, the Habsburg Monarchy.
Two other events led to a further strengthening of the Triple
Entente. One was the rapprochement between Russia and Italy,
made manifest by Nicholas II. 's visit to Racconigi
Triple En- (Oct. 24 1909); the other was the secret treaty con-
'eoforced eluded in Dec. 1909 between Russia and Bulgaria,
' . which ranged the latter in the Russian sphere of
influence, and contained among other things the declaration that
the realization of the ideals of the Slav peoples in the Balkan
peninsula would only be possible after a favourable outcome of
Russia's contest with Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Yet at this time these opposi'ng tendencies did not come out
into the open. The Central Powers sought rather to overcome
4 h them. At the beginning of the year 1910 negotiations
that's took place with Russia which were intended to further
Efforts tor the establishment of better relations. After hopeful
preliminaries they split on the irreconcilability of
their conflicting interests. Aehrenthal's efforts at Rome seemed
to meet with more success. He was able at the end of 1909 to
arrive at an agreement with the Italian statesmen on the Alba-
nian question, by which further friction between the two states,
who were rivals in this quarter, should be avoided. In subsequent
conversations which he held on frequent occasions in 1910 with
the Italian Foreign Minister, San Giuliano, measures were con-
sidered which should smooth the way towards the establishment
of friendly relations between the Cabinets of Vienna and Rome.
In the years 1910 and 1911, moreover, Aehrenthal was eagerly
striving to do everything for the maintenance of peace. He en-
deavoured to reconcile the differences which were forever crop-
ping up anew between England and Germany. In order to
win over Rumania and conciliate Serbia, commercial treaties
were concluded with them. In the interest of peace, too, he
placed no obstacle in the way of the assumption of the royal style
by the Prince of Montenegro (Aug. 29 1910). Yet Aehrenthal
kept his aim steadfastly in view: namely, the upholding of
Austria-Hungary's interests in the Near East; and he left the
Balkan peoples in no doubt that he would not be a peaceful
spectator of the downfall of Turkey. He was in a difficult
position when, in the autumn of 1911, Italy seized the opportuni-
ty for taking possession of Tripoli. A strong party, headed by
the chief of the general staff, Conrad von Hb'tzendorff, held
that the moment had arrived for coming to a reckoning with their
faithless ally. In any case they wanted to use this favourable
opportunity for assuring to Austria-Hungary the hegemony of
the Balkans. But Aehrenthal, supported by Francis Joseph,
stood up for the maintenance of the Triple Alliance. He even
held that it was in the interest of the Habsburg Monarchy that
Italy's imperialistic aspirations should find satisfaction on the
south of the Mediterranean. He therefore asked Italy, in
leaving her a free hand in Tripoli, not to interfere with the
designs of the Vienna Cabinet in the Balkan peninsula. Also he
requested the withdrawal of the Italian fleet from the coast of
Albania, and protested against Italian designs on Salonika.
The fact that Aehrenthal gained his ends by these demands
confirmed him in the idea that he had hit upon the right way, and
Aehreo- increased his hopes of being able to guard Austria-
thal Sue- Hungary's interests in this difficult crisis without
ceeded by resorting to arms. Aehrenthal 's death (Feb. 17 1912)
BerchtoU. ,.,
was therefore a heavy loss to the Habsburg Monarchy,
which made itself all the more felt since just at that time new
dangers were arising for it in S.E. Europe. His successor as
Austro-Hungarian foreign minister was Count Leopold Berch-
told, who had formerly been ambassador at St. Petersburg.
The Italo-Turkish War, and especially the closing of the
Dardanelles at the instance of the Turks, had done severe harm
to Russian trade, and increased the desire of Russian
statesmen to gain command of the Black Sea. It was *"
jiii f Balkan
widely held, too, that this was a favourable opportunity League.
to bring about a Balkan alliance under Russian leader-
ship, which should make it possible for Russia, as protector of the
Slav peoples of the Balkans, to take possession of Constantinople.
Hartwig, the Russian minister in Belgrade, was particularly
active in this direction. Other circles, led by Charykov, the
Russian ambassador in Constantinople, thought it possible to
attain the same end by other means. They wanted to preserve
Turkey, but to make her Russia's vassal. She was to be admitted
to the Balkan alliance and, in return, to allow the Russian fleet a
free exit to the Mediterranean. But Charykov's efforts failed.
Turkey refused; and in March 1912 Charykov had to leave
Constantinople. The old plan of forming a Balkan alliance
against Turkey was now taken up again. The greatest difficulty
in its way was the jealousy between the Bulgarians, on the one
hand, and the Serbs and Greeks on the other. Bulgaria would not
hear of conceding to these peoples the extensions of territory
which they claimed in Macedonia. It was not till March 1912,
when the Russophil Gueshoff-Daneff Cabinet came into power in
Sofia, that the Serbo-Bulgarian treaty was concluded, which was
indeed aimed in the first place against Turkey, but also had the
Habsburg Monarchy in view. Two military conventions (of May
12 and July 12 1912) further developed this Serbo-Bulgarian
alliance. Bulgaria now undertook, in case Austria-Hungary
occupied the Sanjak of Novibazar, to contribute 250,000 men
towards a war with this Power. On May 29 Ferdinand of
Bulgaria concluded a treaty with Greece against Turkey.
But at the same time he handed in peaceful declarations at
Vienna, Berlin and Constantinople, and let himself be feted in
Vienna as a friend of the Habsburg Monarchy.
At the beginning of July 1912 the Tsar Nicholas II., at his
meeting with the German Emperor at Baltiski Port (Port
Baltic), in Esthonia, laid stress upon his pacific
intentions. But as early as Aug. there began the long-
prepared conflict of the Christian peoples of the
Balkans with Turkey, leading to bloody local struggles, in which
there was no lack of atrocities on either side. In vain did the
Central Powers endeavour to bring about an intervention of the
Great Powers of Europe. On Sept. 30 1912 the order for mobiliza-
tion was issued in Sofia, Belgrade and Athens. In order to have
her hands free in this direction, Turkey thereupon determined to
bring to an end the war against Italy by sacrificing Tripoli and
Cyrenaica, and on Oct. 18 1912 the treaty of peace was signed
at Lausanne. In the meantime the Balkan States had completed
the last preparations for war. On Oct. 8 Montenegro declared
war on Turkey, and soon after, on Oct. 17 and 18, Serbia,
Bulgaria and Greece did likewise. To the astonishment of the
European Great Powers they gained decisive victories over their
opponent from the outset. The battle of Kirk Kilisse (Oct. 22)
went in favour of the Bulgars, that of Kumanovo (Oct. 26) in
favour of the Serbs. The Turkish troops, falling back rapidly, did
indeed defend themselves successfully on the Chatalja lines
against the oncoming Bulgarians, and thereby saved their
threatened capital. But since none of the Great Powers would
take active measures in their favour, they could not hope to
reconquer the lost provinces. On Dec. 3 1912 an armistice was
concluded between Turkey and Serbia, and between Turkey and
Bulgaria. Greece took no part in it, but continued the struggle.
The success of the Balkan States against Turkey meant a
marked weakening of the prestige of Austria-Hungary in the
Balkans. The entry of the Greeks into Salonika Benh-
(Nov. 8 1912) and the advance of the Serbian troops tola's
to the Adriatic produced a particularly painful im- Bal .f aa
pression in Vienna. But consideration for the Slav
peoples of the monarchy, who hailed with joy the victory of the
Christian states of the Balkans over Turkey, and the dread of
Balkan
War.
330
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
incurring the open enmity of Russia by an energetic intervention
on behalf of the Sultan, held the Vienna Government back and
disposed it, as early as the end of Oct. 1912, to modify its
demands. Albania was to be allowed to develop freely; Serbian
aspirations towards the Adriatic were to be rejected, and
Rumania's claims to an extension of territory to be considered.
Berchtold demanded no more than security for Austro-Hungarian
economic interests in the Balkans. On this account he refused in
the most decided terms to consent to the proposal of the French
Government that Austria-Hungary, like all the other Great
Powers, should express her desinteresscment in the events taking
place in the Balkan peninsula.
In so far as his plans concerned Albania and Serbia, Berchtold
found Italian politicians in favour of them, since they saw in the
Renewal s P rea l f the Slav peoples to the Adriatic a danger to
of the Italy, to oppose which in good time seemed to them
Triple more important than any further check to the in-
fluence of the Habsburg Monarchy, divided as this
was against itself. The common danger brought about a rap-
prochement between the two Cabinets, which was considerably
strengthened by Italy's annoyance at the attitude of France at
the time of the Libyan War. Thus it happened that as far back
as Dec. 5 1912, in spite of violent opposition on the part of the
nationalist deputies, of the more important section of the press,
and of Italian public opinion, the Triple Alliance was renewed
once more for another six to twelve years, the period being
reckoned from 1914 onwards.
But the moderation displayed by Austria-Hungary in her
Balkan policy did not. produce the effect which had been hoped
for at the Ballplatz. It weakened rather her credit
Russia i n tne Balkans, disappointed the few partisans she
had there, and encouraged the hopes of her many
opponents. Paying no attention to Berchtold's declarations,
the Serbs continued their efforts to extend their power to the
Adriatic. On Nov. 10 1912 Serbian troops reached Alessio.
At the same time Serbian politicians laboured to incite the
other Balkan peoples against Austria-Hungary, since it was
only at her expense they could hope to find compensation for
the concessions which they had made in the March treaty with
Bulgaria. In St. Petersburg, too, they left no stone unturned
to create opinion against Austria-Hungary. And, in fact, in Nov.
1912 the Russian Cabinet declared itself in favour of the cession
of an Adriatic port to Serbia, and was supported in this by France
and England. The Russian trial mobilization increased the dan-
ger of a bloody collision. The Vienna Government on its side
proceeded to prepare for war. The fact that Conrad von
Hotzendorff was again entrusted with the position of chief of the
general staff, which he had had to give up a year before because
he had spoken in favour of an active military policy, showed
that the war party had increased its influence at the Court of
Vienna.
But the disinclination of the three emperors to conjure up
a world war for the sake of Albania or Serbia, together with
the influence of Great Britain, proved stronger than the urgency
of the war parties either in Vienna or St. Petersburg. In opposi-
tion to Austria-Hungary, Bethmann Hollweg, the German
imperial chancellor, and Kiderlen-Wachter, the German foreign
minister, energetically upheld the point of view that a com-
promise with Russia was both desirable and possible. And in a
like sense William II., when the Archduke Francis Ferdinand
tried to convince him at Springe (Nov. 23 1912) of the necessity
of an energetic course of action against the demands of the Serbs,
insisted that, while he was in favour of using firm language, he
was anxious to see all steps avoided which might lead to a rupture
with Russia. In order that no doubt should arise as to the policy
of the German Empire, Bethmann Hollweg, in announcing in the
German Reichstag (at the beginning of Dec. 1912) the successful
renewal of the Triple Alliance, added the remark that Germany
must leave" it to her Austrian ally to realize her aspirations alone,
and would only join in a conflict in the case of a war of aggression
against her, for the preservation of her own position in Europe
and the defence of her own future and security.
Under the impression of these declarations Berchtold at the
end of 1912 rejected Conrad's propositions, which aimed at the
occupation of the Sanjak of Novibazar and ridding confer-
Albania of Serbian troops, and he sought rather to ences la
serve the interests of the monarchy by diplomacy. London.
In this connexion it stood him in good stead that a change had
meanwhile come over affairs at the Court of St. Petersburg, not
uninfluenced by external factors, and especially by England. The
peace party had gained the upper hand. As late as Nov. 1912 the
Russian Government made a communication at Belgrade to the
effect that it would offer no active opposition to the formation of
an autonomous Albania, and requesting an attitude of reserve
towards Austria-Hungary on the part of the Serbian Cabinet.
Shortly afterwards, on the suggestion of Sir Edward Grey, a
conference of ' ambassadors in London was decided upon, to
take place at the same time as the peace negotiations which
were being carried on there between Turkey and her opponents,
with a view to finding a solution of the outstanding questions at
issue between Russia and Austria-Hungary. After long hesita-
tion Berchtold, under pressure from Germany and Italy, con-
sented to the conference of ambassadors, but insisted that as a
matter of principle Austria-Hungary should take no part in any
discussion of the question as to whether Serbia should be per-
manently established on the Adriatic. Serbia thereupon declared
her willingness to yield to the decision of the Great Powers.
Yet the Austro-Hungarian and Russian troops remained under
arms, and Serbian intrigues still went on. The negotiations of the
London conference of ambassadors proceeded slowly. When the
peace conference, which was sitting at the same time, came
temporarily to an end on Jan. 7 1913, owing to Turkey's refusal
of the demand of the Balkan States that she should cede the three
fortresses of Adrianople, Scutari and Janina, which had not yet
fallen, the conference of ambassadors presided over by Sir Ed-
ward Grey made efforts to prevent a resumption of hostilities;
but these attempts were unsuccessful. On Feb. 3 1913 began the
second Balkan War.
Meanwhile the deliberations dragged on in London as to the
frontier of the new Albanian state which was to be set up.
Russia in this matter presented the views of Serbia .
and Montenegro, but met with resolute opposition Russian
not only from the representatives of Austria-Hungary War
but also from those of Italy. And it looked at last as Averted -
if it would come to an armed conflict between Austria-Hungary
and Russia. But at the last moment the danger was averted.
Prince Gottfried zu Hohenlohe was sent on a special mission
to St. Petersburg and succeeded in convincing Nicholas II. of
Francis Joseph's pacific intentions. The negotiations now
opened led in March to the cancelling of the mobilization on the
frontiers which had been set on foot by both Powers. At the
same time the Russian representative at the London conference
of ambassadors announced his sovereign's readiness to consent
to the allotment of Scutari to Albania in the event of Austria-
Hungary's acceding to the separation of Diakova, Ipek (Pec)
and Prisren from Albania. On March 20 the representative
of Austria-Hungary handed in a declaration in the same sense.
By now the war between the Balkan States and Turkey had
taken its course, leading, in spite of the unexpectedly gallant
defence of the Turks, to the fall of Janina (March 6)
and Adrianople (March 26). On account of the Second
wrangling which broke out between Bulgaria on the war.
one hand, and Serbia and Greece on the other, as to
the partition of Macedonia, on April 16 1913 Ferdinand ol
Bulgaria concluded an armistice with Turkey. But there was no
sign of the peace which was desired on all sides. Serbia, in
defiance of the protests of the Vienna Cabinet, continued to
occupy Northern Albania with Durazzo, and Montenegro
continued to besiege Scutari, although the London conference of
ambassadors had assigned it to the Albanian state; and the
Great Powers decided on a naval demonstration against Monte-
negro, which was not, however, intended seriously by all the
participants. The war party at Vienna, led by Conrad, wished to
force the Montenegrins to raise the siege, if necessary by arms,
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
33i
but did not win their point. On April 23 Scutari fell into the
hands of the Montenegrins. It was not till then that Berchtold
nerved himself to the declaration that the Habsburg Monarchy
would not tolerate such an insult, and made the necessary
preparations for armed intervention. Montenegro thereupon
submitted to the dictates of the Great Powers. On May 5 the
Montenegrin troops evacuated Scutari and on the next day the
Serbs left Durazzo. At the end of May peace preliminaries were
concluded between the Turks and their opponents. But it was
impossible to arrive at an agreement between the victors as
to the division of the territory which had fallen to them.
Notwithstanding the fact that it had had its way so far as
Albania was concerned, the prestige of the Vienna Government
, in the Balkans had seriously diminished in the course
Austria- . . ...
Hungary of the two wars, not only in the eyes of the victorious
*t"i peoples, whose self-confidence had mightily increased,
Rumania. ^ ^ ^ thg eyeg Qf .^ Ba j kan a j ly R uman ia. King
Charles had wanted to join in from the beginning of the first
Balkan War, in order to prevent a hegemony of Bulgaria in the
Balkans, and had only allowed himself to be persuaded to renew
fot the fifth time his alliance with the Powers of the Triple
Alliance by an engagement from the Central Powers that they
would see to it that Rumania received a corresponding extension
of territory in the S.E. (Silistria and the surrounding territory
was what they had in view). He now strongly pressed the Court
of Vienna for the fulfilment of this engagement. Berchtold did
in fact make every effort to decide the Bulgarian Government in
favour of suitable concessions to Rumania. But when his efforts
broke down, those circles in Bucharest which favoured the Triple
Entente (France, Russia, England) managed to make King
Charles acquiesce in invoking Russia's mediation in order to
acquire the desired increase of territory. But Russia's success
at Sofia did not satisfy the Rumanians, and induced them to join
hands with Ferdinand of Bulgaria's enemies. This was an ad-
vantage for Austria-Hungary, which was, however, set off by the
increasing influence of the Entente Powers and their party in
Rumania.
Austria-Hungary's leading statesmen met with no better
success in their efforts to establish permanently friendly re-
stralned lations with Italy. San Giuliano's desire for common
Relations action with the Habsburg Monarchy in the Adriatic
with Italy. q ues ti on had indeed led recently to a rapprochement
between the two Cabinets. In the course of 1913 German
statesmen had also succeeded in persuading Italy to further
military commitments and to the conclusion of a naval con-
vention, the object of which was defined as " the attainment
of naval supremacy in the Mediterranean by the defeat of the
enemy fleets " in a war against the Western Powers. But the
voice of the Italian press and of nationalist circles, who demanded
more and more insistently the dissolution of the Triple Alliance
and union with the Triple Entente, did not leave the Central
Powers any confidence in Italy's loyalty to her engagements.
Meanwhile the third Balkan War had broken out. Serbia and
Greece, joined by Rumania and Turkey, advanced against
Bulgaria. The latter, left in the lurch by Russia and only sup-
ported diplomatically by Austria-Hungary, succumbed, and
by the Peace of Bucharest (Aug. 10 1913) Bulgaria found her-
self compelled to enter into an agreement with her enemies by
which she was a serious loser.
The outcome of these three wars meant for the Austro-
Hungarian Monarchy a notable loss of prestige in the Balkan
Effect of peninsula. Her adversaries in this quarter, Serbia
the Balkan and Montenegro, and especially the former, had
achieved a considerable extension of their possessions,
and henceforth, being no longer separated by the Sanjak
of Novibazar, were in a position to join forces against the
Habsburg Monarchy when the right moment came. The Bul-
garians, however, disappointed in their hopes, ascribed the
humiliating defeat which they had suffered in the third Balkan
War to the feeble attitude of the Vienna Cabinet, which had
indeed taken the first steps in the direction of active participa-
tion in the war in favour of Bulgaria, but had then, out of fear of
Russia and under German and Italian pressure, contented itself
with a fruitless diplomatic intervention. The fact that Berch-
told's efforts to obtain a revision of the Peace of Bucharest in
favour of Bulgaria met with no result could not contribute
towards strengthening Austria-Hungary's credit at Sofia. On
the other hand, the line of action of the Vienna Government,
which in its own interest was working incessantly for a compro-
mise between Bulgaria and Rumania, but could satisfy neither
of these two Powers, led to a clearly perceptible estrangement
between the Courts of Vienna and Bucharest, which enabled
the Rumanian friends of the Triple Entente to win from the
King his acquiescence in paving the way to better relations
with the Western Powers and Russia. The only advantage
which balanced these heavy losses of power and prestige for
Austria-Hungary was the dissolution of the Balkan League, the
revival of which was prevented by the inextinguishable hatred
between Serbs and Bulgarians, a fact of all the greater im-
portance for the Vienna Government as its relations with Serbia
became more and more strained and the probability of an armed
conflict increased.
The London conference of ambassadors had, on July 20 1913,
come to an agreement as to a fundamental law for Albania, and
at its final sitting on Aug. n had settled the southern
frontier of Albania, long a subject of controversy.
Serbia alone declined to give up the Albanian terri-
tories which she had already occupied in defiance of the Lon-
don decrees, and persisted in her resistance when the Vienna
Government pressed for their evacuation. The growing differ-
ences between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente meant
that no united action could be expected from the European
Great Powers. Italy and Germany the latter more on grounds
of prestige, the former because her interests in this case ran
parallel with those of Austria-Hungary associated themselves
with the Vienna Government when, on Oct. 15 1913, it again
insisted at Belgrade on the execution of the London decrees.
Serbia at first again refused; but when Berchtold showed that he
was in earnest and on Oct. 19 demanded at Belgrade, under threat
of force, the evacuation of the Albanian territory occupied by
Serbia, the Serbians submitted to the dictates of the Vienna
Government (Oct. 20 1913) in accordance with advice from the
Triple Entente. The Serbian press, however, continued to
create prejudice against the policy of the Ballplatz, and the
Serbian Government used every opportunity of encouraging
movements which had as their object the winning over of the
Southern Slavs living under the Government of the Habsburg
Monarchy to the idea of a Greater Serbia.
In Rumania, too, the agitation against Austria-Hungary made
headway every month. The agitation in Bucharest in favour of
the Hungarian Rumanians became more and more Doubtful
active, and their liberation from the domination of the Attitude of
Magyars was indicated as a desirable and possible R umaala -
object of Rumanian policy. In order to achieve it a rap-
prochement was advocated between Rumania and Russia, and
a suitable pretext was found in Nicholas II. 's very cordially
expressed congratulations on King Charles's successes in the
last Balkan War. It is true that the visit of the Rumanian heir to
St. Petersburg (March 27 1914) did not bring about that open
passing-over of Rumania into the camp of the Triple Entente
which Russia had hoped for. King Charles could not be brought
to this point, and the Rumanian Government, too, did not at that
moment want to break definitely with the Central Powers. But
the speeches accompanying the exchange of toasts at the meeting
of Nicholas II. with Charles at Constantza on June 14 1914 left
no possible doubt that the friends of the Triple Entente had
gained the upper hand at Bucharest. As early as this, Count
Ottokar Czernin, the representative of Austria-Hungary at
Bucharest, expressed the decided opinion that, in the event of a
war between the Central Powers and the Triple Entente, King
Charles would not fulfil his pledges. At the same time he uttered
a warning against underrating the danger of an encirclement of
the Dual Monarchy through the formation of a new Balkan
League under the patronage of Russia and France.
332
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
To hinder this encirclement now became the principal en-
deavour of Viennese statesmen, who were untiringly at work
Balkan trying to compose the outstanding differences between
Policy of Bulgaria on the one hand and Turkey and Rumania
Austria- on the other, and if possible also to win over Greece
Hungary. to a c i oser adhesion to the Central Powers. But all
their efforts broke down owing to the divergent interests and the
mutual distrust of the Balkan States, which came clearly to view
during the negotiations conducted under the mediation of the
Central Powers during the winter of 1913-4. The Turko-
Bulgarian Treaty, which was nearly concluded in May 1914,
did not come to anything; still less did the compromise between
Rumania and Bulgaria, which had been furthered with such
especial zeal on the part of Vienna. And the rapprochement of
Greece with the Triple Alliance, desired by Emperor William,
could not be realized, since the claims of the Greeks met with
insuperable opposition both in Sofia and in Constantinople.
Not the least of the factors contributing to these unsatisfac-
tory results was the difference of opinion in influential circles in
Disa e- Vienna and Berlin as to the value of the various
meat Balkan States in case of an international conflict.
between Emperor William was a resolute opponent of King
aad Berlin. Ferdinand of Bulgaria, whom he did not trust; on the
other hand, he was firmly convinced that in case of war
Charles of Rumania would be true to his engagements as an
ally. On this account he endeavoured to persuade the Vienna
Government to bring Rumania over entirely into the camp of
the Triple Alliance, even at the cost of sacrifices and of the
danger that Bulgaria might join the opponents of the Central
Powers. But Berchtold was afraid that the Bulgarians, left in
the lurch by Austria-Hungary, might come to terms with
Serbia, Greece and Rumania, and in company with them and
with Russia fall upon the Habsburg Monarchy. Hence he held
fast to his policy, which saw in the maintenance and exacerba-
tion of the differences existing between Bulgaria and the other
Balkan States the only means of preventing the formation of an
alliance of all the Balkan peoples against the monarchy. The
conflicting points of view of leading statesmen in Vienna and
Berlin led to very lively debates, and threatened seriously to
impair the good understanding between the two Governments.
However, Berchtold gradually succeeded in bringing round the
Emperor William and the German statesmen to his views.
From March 1914 onwards it was determined that the union of
Bulgaria with the Central Powers must remain the main object
of their policy, and that agreements with the rest of the Balkan
States must only be entered into in so far as they should not be
in conflict with the just desires of Bulgaria.
The removal of this discord was hailed with all the more
joy by the Vienna Cabinet since its relations with Italy were
getting more and more strained. San Giuliano, it is
true> mamta i ne d a correct demeanour towards the
Vienna Government and worked for a compromise
in the ever-recurring conflicts to which the divergent interests
of the two states in the Balkans gave rise. It was even possible,
in the discussions which took place between him and Berchtold
at Abbazia in April 1914, to arrive at an agreement as to the
policy of Austria-Hungary and Italy in the Balkan question,
based upon the maintenance of the autonomy of the Albanian
state, which had been set up in the meantime and for the gov-
ernment of which Prince William of Wied had been designated.
But the attitude of the press and of the deputies with national-
ist sympathies, not to speak of the Italian representatives in
Albania, made it apparent that influential circles beyond the
Alps were endeavouring to frustrate San Giuliano's policy.
In the eyes of leading Viennese statesmen the sympathy for
the Triple Entente which was displayed by the Italians with
ever-increasing frankness was all the more ominous
The " En- since they saw that France, Russia and England were
Banger?"'" taking steps to increase their own military strength, and
also had information of the negotiations which were
being conducted by all three Governments with those of Spain,
Italy and the Balkan States, which were believed to have as
their object the isolation of the Central Powers. At that time,
however, the outbreak of a world war was not held to be immi-
nent in Vienna, for it was known that negotiations were going
on between Berlin and London aiming at the establishment of
better relations. Count Mensdorff, the Austro-Hungarian am-
bassador at the Court of St. James, did his utmost to further
these efforts. But conditions in the Balkans pressed for a deci-
sion. In Vienna it was believed that France and Russia had
been successful in their efforts to bring into existence a Balkan
League which should also include Turkey, and which would
have threatened the existence of the monarchy.
On June 22 1914, before the assassination of the heir to the
throne of Austria-Hungary, Conrad von Hotzendorff, as chief
of the general staff, drew up a memorandum in
which he described the existing conditions in the Austrla tor
Balkans as intolerable, and insisted on the necessity Measures
for using clear language at Bucharest. The Rumanian
Government must be forced, he said, to declare openly whether
it would make common cause with the Central Powers or not.
In the latter case an attempt must be made to decide Bulgaria,
by far-reaching promises, to bring to a conclusion the negotia-
tions for an alliance which had been going on for a consider-
able time. These views of Conrad's were shared not only in
military circles but also by Austrian statesmen of authority.
In a memorandum intended for the German Government,
which was also drawn up before the murder of Francis Ferdi-
nand, Count Berchtold l emphasized the urgency of making every
effort to form a Balkan League, under the leadership of the
Central Powers, which should include Bulgaria, Rumania,
Greece and Turkey, and have as its objective the suppression
of Serbia as a political power in the Balkans.
Before this document was dispatched to Berlin the news
arrived in Vienna that Francis Ferdinand, with his consort,
Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, nee Countess Chotek, Berlin
had been murdered in Sarajevo. It confirmed the Agree-
already settled conviction in this quarter of the
necessity for coming to a reckoning with Serbia. On July 5
the Vienna memoire was handed to the German Emperor by
Councillor of Legation Count Alexander Hoyos (b. 1876), who
had been sent on a special mission to Berlin, in the presence of
the Austro-Hungarian ambassador, Count Ladislaus Szogyeny-
Marich (1841-1916), and on the following day to the imperial
chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg. Authoritative circles in Berlin
adopted the views of the Vienna Government, and gave it to
understand that it might reckon on Germany's aid even in
case international differences were to arise from the Austro-
Serbian conflict.
It was in reliance upon these promises, which were repeated
in the most emphatic way by the German ambassador at the
Court of Vienna, Tschirsky-Bogendorff, that Berchtold, at the
sitting of the council of ministers on July 7 1914, gave utterance
to the opinion that they would be forced at last to a military
reckoning with Serbia. His point of view met with general
agreement; nevertheless Count Stephen Tisza, the Hungarian
prime minister, who had already on July ist expressed his
dissent and the reasons for it in a memorandum presented to
Emperor Francis Joseph, desired not only the opening of
diplomatic negotiations but also the formulating of demands
possible of fulfilment. His first point he carried,
i . .1 / -i i TO. -i f . Ultimatum
but in the second he failed. The council of ministers to Serbia.
decided to adopt the course of diplomatic negotia-
tions, but at the same time to lay down conditions the rejection
of which would be inevitable. In that case the Serbian
question would have to be solved by the power of the sword.
Tisza, ill content with this conclusion, reiterated his dissentient
"The basis of this document is to be found in a memoire drawn
up by the envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary, Baron
Ludwig Flotow (b. 1867). It was later amplified by Rudolf Po-
gatscher (b. 1859), who occupied the same position and was par-
ticularly well informed as to the Balkan question. From the middle
of June onwards it was revised by Baron Franz Matschenko (b.
1876), of the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office, and finally by Count
Berchtold.
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
333
views in a second memorandum of July 8 and counselled modera-
tion, laying stress on the danger of international complications.
This view should have been reenforced by the report drawn up
by Friedrich von Wiesner (b. 1871), who had been sent by the
Vienna Ballplatz to Sarajevo, on the circumstances in which the
murderous attack on the heir to the throne had taken place.
This report established the fact that no direct connexion could
be proved between the murderer and the Serbian Government.
But this report failed of its effect. Authoritative circles in
Vienna remained under the conviction that the Court and Gov-
ernment of Belgrade had for long lent their benevolent sup-
port to the Greater Serbian movement, and held to their deter-
mination of putting an end to an unbearable situation. The
dangers which might arise from drastic measures were indeed
weighed; the possibility of a world war was even considered.
But the opinion predominated that all must be staked on one
card. " Better an end by fear than fear without end," ("Lieber
ein Ende mil Schrccken, als ein Schrccken ohne Ende " ) was the
mot of a leading statesman. These circles were confirmed in
their resolve to appeal to arms by the pronouncements of
Conrad von Hb'tzendorff, who, in reply to a question, summed
up his judgment in the following sense: that the military pros-
pects of the Central Powers in a world war (Great Britain's
intervention on the side of the enemy not being yet reckoned
with seriously) were no longer so favourable as in previous
years, but were certainly more favourable than they would be
in the near future. That decided it. On July 14 the decision
was adopted of sending Serbia an ultimatum with a short time-
limit. Tisza, after long vacillation, acquiesced, but with the
condition that Austria-Hungary was to make a solemn declara-
tion that with the exception of necessary minor rectifications
of the frontier she sought no territorial gains at the expense
of Serbia. By this means Tisza hoped to placate Russia and to
deprive the Italians of any pretext for advancing any claim
to compensations under Article VII. of the Treaty of the Triple
Alliance. This request of Tisza's was indeed taken into account
at the conference of ministers of July 19, but on the same occa-
sion Berchtold declared that Serbia was to be made smaller and
the provinces taken from her were to be divided among some
of the other Balkan States.
The note to Serbia, which had not found its final form till
after repeated modification of its language, 1 was read out, and
the time for its presentation to the Serbian Government
appointed for the afternoon of July 23.
Its essential points ran as follows : Since the Greater Serbian move-
ment directed against Austria-Hungary has been proceeded with in
recent years with the ultimate object of separating from the Habs-
burg Monarchy certain of its parts; and since the Serbian Govern-
ment, in contradiction with the declarations handed in by it on
March 31 1909, has not only done nothing towards its suppression,
but has rather encouraged it, the Austro-Hungarian Government
must formulate certain demands in order to put an end to this state
of affairs. In these demands are included, amongst others, the
condemnation of agitation having as its object the breaking away
of portions of the monarchy and the admonition of the peoples
against a continuance of this course: both to be accomplished
through an announcement in the official press organ and through
an army order on the part of the king; the suppression of the Greater
Serbian agitation on Serbian soil ; the dissolution of societies working
for this object; the dismissal of the officials and teachers com-
promised; the participation of representatives of the Imperial and
Royal Government in the measures which the Serbian Government
should be under the obligation to undertake with a view to the
suppression of the Greater Seroian movement.
The presentation of the note took place at the appointed
time; on July 24 the world was informed of its contents. Only
Germany approved unreservedly the demarche of the Vienna
Government; the remaining Powers raised objections. Sazonov,
the Russian foreign minister, broke into a violent outburst
against Austria-Hungary, and declared it to be a matter of
international concern. Sir E. Grey described the note as "the
1 A prominent part in the drafting of the ultimatum was played
by Count Johann Forgach (b. 1870) and Baron Alexander Musulin
(b- 1866), who had also, as Berchtold 's advisers, a decisive influence
on the course of events generally at this time.
most formidable document " that one State had ever addressed
to another. Negotiations began at once between the groups of
Powers. They aimed at the extension of the time-limit of
48 hours which had been allowed to the Serbs. England and
Russia were especially active in this sense. But Austria-Hungary
refused any prolongation of the time-limit. On July 25, shortly
before the expiry of the appointed interval, the Serbs handed
in their answer. They declared themselves ready to comply
with the majority of the demands of the Vienna Government,
but with regard to certain points for instance, where it was a
question of the participation of the Austro-Hungarian repre-
sentatives in the judicial enquiry to be held in the territory
of the kingdom of Serbia, and of the dismissal of the officers
and officials who were compromised certain reservations were
made; at the same time the Serbs emphasized their willingness
to endeavour to reach a friendly solution of the conflict by
referring the decision to the Hague Court of Arbitration, or to
those Great Powers who had collaborated in the composition
of the Serbian declaration of March 31 1909. But the Austro-
Hungarian minister declared Serbia's answer to be unsatis-
factory, and diplomatic relations were broken off between
Vienna and Belgrade.
The Vienna Cabinet's harsh attitude nowhere met with
approbation; the German Government itself did not approve it.
The Emperor William indeed was of opinion that
Austria-Hungary had gained a great moral victory,
and that no cause of war remained. But neither his
efforts, nor those of Sir Edward Grey, which were directed
towards the mediation of the Great Powers not directly involved,
met with success. On July 28 Austria-Hungary declared war
on Serbia. The Great Powers now strove to localize the con-
flict. But all their attempts came to naught. Even the English
proposal for direct negotiations with a view to an understand-
ing between the Cabinets of Vienna and St. Petersburg led to
no result. On the evening of July 29 the order was given for
mobilization in the military area on the S.W. front of Russia
situated on the border of Austria-Hungary. On July 31 the
Russian order for a general mobilization was issued, and answered
by similar measures on the part of Austria-Hungary and Ger-
many. On Aug. 2 Germany declared war on Russia, and the
day after on France; on Aug. 4 England and Bel-
gium on Germany; on the 6th Austria-Hungary on
Russia; other Powers followed suit. The World War,
so long dreaded by the Great Powers of Europe, had broken out.
The Central Powers had now to make sure of the aid of their
allies and to win new combatants to their side. But the efforts
which they made towards this end brought them
disappointment upon disappointment. The conversa-
tions which had taken place with Italy in July 1914
had made them realize that they could not reckon on an imme-
diate participation of the Italian troops on the side of the
Triple Alliance. As early as July 25, moreover, San Giuliano
had. announced that he would open the question of compensa-
tion for Italy in case of an Austro-Serbian war. This announce-
ment he repeated after the declaration of war, but made it
clear at the same time that Austria-Hungary was not to expect
active support from the Italians, since she had taken the offen-
sive against Serbia. Under pressure from the .German Govern-
ment, which still cherished the hope of deciding Italy, by far-
reaching concessions, to take part in a world war on the side of
the Central Powers, Berchtold declared himself ready in prin-
ciple to recognize the Italian claims to compensation for every
annexation made by Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, but in
any case only on the assumption that Italy would observe a
friendly attitude towards the Habsburg Monarchy in an Austro-
Serbian war, and in case of a world war fulfil her obligations as
a member of the Triple Alliance. But as early as Aug. i San
Giuliano insisted that the casus foederis had not arisen for
Italy in the case of the Russians also; for the time being she
would remain neutral; but cooperation with her allies at a
later time was referred to as not excluded. It was in the same
sense, though in the most cordial terms possible, that Victor
'
334
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
Emmanuel answered the telegram in which Francis Joseph
expressed his expectation of seeing the Italian troops fighting
side by side with those of the Habsburg Monarchy.
Still less gratifying to Vienna were the reports which came
in at the same time from Bucharest. The hopes which the
Emperor William had built on King Charles's faith-
f u l ness to his treaty obligations were not realized.
The Rumanian ruler evaded a decisive pronounce-
ment as to his attitude in a world war; and Bratianu, the
minister-president, did likewise. Czernin, the Austro-Hungarian
minister at Bucharest, maintained that at first nothing but
neutrality could be reckoned on on the part of Rumania, and
insisted that the attitude of the Bulgarians and Turks, together
with the course taken by the events of the war, would be decisive
for any further action of the King and Government. It was
significant that Bratianu spoke of the necessity of maintaining
a balance in the Balkans, and at the same time pointed out the
difficulties which would confront the King and the Government
in consequence of the hostile attitude of influential Rumanian
circles to the Magyars. It was in vain that Francis Joseph
and William II. used their personal influence to try and per-
suade King Charles to take action in the sense they wished.
No effect was produced even by the promise made by them to
the King on Aug. 2 1914 that they would help Rumania to
obtain possession of Bessarabia, after the war had come to a suc-
cessful end, if she would join in the struggle on the side of the
Triple Alliance Powers. The crown council held on Aug. 4
decided that Rumania could not admit that the casus foederis
had arisen. The assurance given by Charles at the same time,
that he would safeguard the Rumanian frontiers and apprise
Bulgaria that she would have nothing to fear from Rumania
if she ranged herself, with the Central Powers, could be of no
greater comfort to his disillusioned allies than his solemn declara-
tion that he would never consent to Rumania taking the field
against Austria-Hungary.
The Central Powers were rather more fortunate in their
quest for new allies than in their attempts to persuade Italy
and Rumania to fulfil their engagements. On Aug. i
Alliance 1914 the representatives of Germany and Turkey
had signed a treaty by which they bound themselves to
remain neutral in the conflict between Austria-Hungary
and Serbia; but the casus foederis would arise at the moment
when Russia entered the war. In this event Germany promised
Turkey military support, and guaranteed her existing territorial
position as against the Russians. By identical notes of Aug. i
1914 Austria-Hungary adhered to this treaty, which was to
last till the end of 1918. But for the time being the Turks did
not actively intervene, for their army was not yet properly
equipped, and the influence of the friends of the Entente at
Constantinople was still too strong. In order to strengthen
the Government, which was friendly to the Central Powers,
and to make it possible for them shortly to take an active part
against the Entente, Germany promised them, as early as
the first weeks of Aug. 1914, though only verbally, that in the
event of a complete victory of Germany and her allies, their
wishes should be furthered both in the matter of the abolition
of the Capitulations and of final settlement with Bulgaria;
that all Turkish provinces which might be occupied by the
common enemy in the course of the war should be evacuated;
a series of rectifications of the frontier to her advantage would
be made, and they would receive a proportionate share in the
war indemnity which was to be expected. Direct inquiries
from the Turks were met by Berchtold with the same prom-
ises in the name of Austria-Hungary.
On the other hand, the efforts of the Central Powers to
decide Bulgaria to an alliance broke down. At first, indeed,
it looked as if the negotiations which had already
^ions'with k een conducted by Austria-Hungary at Sofia for a
Bulgaria. long time in this sense would speedily lead to a profit-
able result. Austria-Hungary showed herself inclined,
in return for Bulgaria's adhesion to the Triple Alliance, to
guarantee her existing territorial possessions, and, in the event
with
Turkey.
of a favourable outcome of the impending conflicts, to gratify
Ferdinand's aspirations towards the acquisition of "ethnico-
historical boundaries" against states which had not joined the
Triple Alliance. By the early days of Aug. 1914 the negotia-
tions had advanced so far that the signature of the treaties with
Germany and Austria-Hungary seemed imminent. Berchtold
and Bethmann Hollweg pressed for a decision, the latter more
especially on the ground that he still hoped to win over Rumania
definitely to the side of the Central Powers. If this could be
achieved, then Bulgaria, assured against attacks from the
Rumanian side, might be prompted to draw the sword against
Serbia, and the majority of the Austro-Hungarian troops which
were marching against Serbia could be diverted against Russia.
But Ferdinand of Bulgaria refused to embark on a war against
Serbia. He laid stress on the dangers which threatened his
kingdom in such a case from Greece, Rumania and Turkey; he
also alluded to the large offers which had been made him by
Russia, and held that he could only come to a decision after
his relations with Rumania and Turkey had been cleared up
and the negotiations for a treaty with these Powers had been
concluded. It was clear that Ferdinand of Bulgaria, too, did
not wish to enter the war before the preponderance of the
Central Powers over their opponents could be assumed with
greater confidence. But successes in the field remained to seek
in the Eastern theatre of war. After promising beginnings,
the campaign of the Austro-Hungarian armies took an unsuc-
cessful turn, and decided Ferdinand to be prudent. He declared
that he would remain neutral, but for the present he could do
no more.
But the ill success of the Austro-Hungarian armies did not
produce an effect on the Bulgarian Government only. WitL the
advance of the Russians and their approach to the central
Rumanian frontiers, the influence of the friends of the Powers
Entente at Bucharest increased. The news arriving at *? a
Berlin and Vienna at this time caused the worst to
be feared. It was believed that an overthrow of the dynasty
was imminent, together with an immediate alliance of Rumania
with the enemy, and an advance of Rumanian troops into.
Transylvania. The most pressing advice reached Vienna from
Berlin in fayour of far-reaching concessions, even of a terri-
torial nature. But, strongly influenced by Tisza, Berchtold
refused any concessions in this direction. Under the advice of
King Charles, who was already seriously ill, and was torn by a
terrible conflict between personal honour and the wishes of his
people, the Central Powers sought to work upon public opin-
ion in Bucharest by a declaration that the defection of Rumania
would be met by an immediate advance .of troops into the
country. But their threats remained ineffectual, for it was.
known in Bucharest that the troops necessary for such an
enterprise were not forthcoming. In reality Germany was coun-
selling Vienna not to oppose the march of Rumanian troops
into Transylvania by force of arms, since for the moment a
defence of the frontiers was impossible; but rather to tolerate
the advance, and to announce that it had taken place in order
to defend the territory from occupation by Russian troops.
Berchtold refused, and Tisza, whose acrimony over the Ger-
man proposals knew no bounds, declared that he would rather
see the Russians than the Rumanians in Transylvania. Mean-
while the tide of warlike enthusiasm at Bucharest mounted
higher and higher. The Government entered into a written
agreement with Italy providing for common action on the part
of both of them. A crown council was summoned for the early
days of Oct., which was to come to a decision against the Cen-
tral Powers. Only at the last moment was it possible to avert
the danger. The crown council was cancelled, and Rumania
for the time being remained neutral. A few days later, on
Oct. 10 1914, King Charles of Rumania died. He had not ful-
filled the engagements into which he had entered, but he had
at least successfully prevented his troops from fighting against
the Central Powers.
One of the chief reasons which had delayed the Rumanians,
in going over to the camp of the Entente was the fear enter-
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
335
tiiin.i with
Bulgaria.
tained by leading Rumanian politicians that so soon as her
troops had crossed the Hungarian frontier Bulgaria and Turkey
would attack Rumania. The negotiations carried on through
the intermediary of Austria-Hungary between the Courts of
Sofia and Bucharest had then, it is true, been proceeded with,
but had broken down again, this time owing to the reciprocal
distrust and the irreconcilable interests of the two Powers.
At the same time it had become known to those in Bucharest
how closely the Turks had attached themselves to the Central
Powers, and that they were holding themselves in readiness to
enter the World War on their side. Rumania consequently
declared that she could no longer leave Bulgaria a free hand
against Serbia. Thus under the new King of Rumania, Ferdi-
nand, who was not bound by ties of personal friendship with
the sovereigns of Austria-Hungary and Germany, the party
hostile to the Central Powers gained in influence. Ferdinand
did indeed stand firm in his neutrality, and he rejected Russia's
summons to hasten to the aid of the Serbians, who had been
attacked by Austria-Hungary. But Czernin could not suc-
ceed in obtaining from him a binding declaration that he would
not let his troops enter the field against the Central Powers.
At this time Germany and Austria-Hungary were equally
powerless to decide the King of Bulgaria to take part in the
Serbian War. Even the increased inducements held
Negotia- ou t to him in this event by the Vienna Government
did not move him from this attitude of reserve. This
was due not only to his distrust of Rumania, Greece and
Turkey and his fear of Russia, but also to his doubt as to whether
by joining the Central Powers he would really be placing him-
self on the winning side. Accordingly he was forever changing
his attitude and that of his Government according to the vicis-
situdes of the war. If the armies of the Central Powers met with
success, they all showed a growing inclination to bring the
treaty negotiations, which had never been allowed to drop for
a minute, to a conclusion. But if, as in Dec. 1914, unfavour-
able news reached Sofia as to the military situation of the Cen-
tral Powers, then the old reasons for dragging on the negotia-
tions were raked up again. The fact that the Entente Powers
kept going further and further in their offers to Bulgaria,
should she enter the war on their side or even should she remain
neutral, contributed towards strengthening the resolve of the
Bulgarian Government to put the screw on the Central Powers
in the matter of their demands. Thus at the end of 1914 they
demanded far-reaching concessions in the matter of their terri-
torial claims, and that under a written promise. Austria-
Hungary was refractory for a time, but at the beginning of
1915 declared herself prepared even for these concessions, but
demanded, with the backing of the German Government, the
armed intervention of Bulgaria on the side of the Central
Powers. But neither King Ferdinand of Bulgaria nor Rado-
slavov, the Bulgarian minister-president, was willing to con-
cede this, for the military situation of the Central Powers was
for the moment unfavourable. They declared their wish to
remain neutral.
The negotiations with Rumania and Bulgaria revealed the
fact that both Powers, different though their interests might be,
followed a similar policy. They wished to delay
their decision as long as possible; they wished at the
. right moment to join the side of the winning party so
as to carry off the greatest possible advantages at the
price of the least possible sacrifices. In these circumstances
the importance to the outcome of the war of Italy's decision
increased every month. For a long time, until far on in the
winter of 1914, the policy of leading Italian statesmen was
dictated by the wish to preserve their neutrality while keeping
up their armament. They accounted for their attitude by
referring to the letter and the spirit of the Triple Alliance ; they
gave their former allies friendly words, but maintained a cor-
dial attitude towards the Entente Powers. At the same time
they urged at Vienna their demands for compensations by inter-
preting Article VII. of the Triple Alliance Treaty in their own
favour. It was not at first clear what they meant by it. During
'
the official negotiations which took place between the Cabinets
of Vienna and Rome, no word was spoken on the Italian side
of old Austrian territories. But it was learnt at the Ballplatz,
by way of Berlin, that Italy was thinking of the Trentino.
Berchtold absolutely refused to listen to any such demands.
He would not hear of a territorial indemnification on any ac-
count, and was warmly supported in this by Tisza, while Con-
rad even at that time, or at any rate in times of military mis-
fortune, considered that even Italian neutrality would not be
too dearly bought at the price of great sacrifices. But neither
the prayers of the leading military commander nor the unceasing
efforts of leading German political and military circles were
able to change Berchtold's mind. He went on, indeed, with
the negotiations, but spun them out without binding himself
to anything. When San Giuliano died on Oct. 16 1914, nothing
decisive had yet happened. Even during the few weeks for
wjiich Salandra, the then Italian minister-president, directed
Italy's foreign policy, no energetic steps were taken. Salandra
fell in with the feeling of the country. It was not until Son-
nino had taken over the leadership of Italy's foreign affairs
that a further advance was ventured on by Italy in view of
the unfavourable military position of the Central Powers, and
under the influence of that section of the Italian press which
was active in the interests of the Entente. It was once more
reported in Vienna that Sonnino had spoken in Berlin of the
cession of the Trentino, and that the German Government
was now advocating this sacrifice. But even now Berchtold
refused to entertain the question. Francis Joseph, so it was
said, would never give his consent to a diminution of his empire.
Only Sonnino kept on his way unperturbed. At the beginning
of Dec. 1914 when Austria-Hungary was advancing upon
Serbia he had a declaration made at Vienna to the effect that
the excited state of opinion in Italy compelled him to press for
the adjustment of the question of compensations. Salandra
supported him, by speaking in Parliament of Italy's socro ego-
ismo, her just aspirations and legitimate interests, and, while
giving expression to the pacific character of the Italian Gov-
ernment, he stated emphatically that neutrality alone was not
sufficient to assure Italy's interests in all circumstances until
the end of the war.
In the middle of December the negotiations between Vienna
and Rome began afresh, but at once came to a deadlock. The
German Government, which attached extraordinary importance
to winning over Italy, now tried to persuade the Ballplatz
to make concessions. At the same time it sent to Rome Prince
Biilow, who worked in the same sense, and represented conces-
sions on the part of Austria-Hungary as a sacrifice, heavy
indeed, but necessary in order to assure Italy's neutrality.
But Berchtold was still resolutely opposed to such a demand,
and expressed this view also in his direct negotiations with the
Italian ambassador in Vienna, the Duke of Avarna.
Berchtold's fall from power, and the appointment of Baron
Burian to succeed him as Austro-Hungarian foreign minister
(Jan. 13 1915), made but little change in the posi-
tion of the Vienna Government. Negotiations with
Italy were indeed continued, but led to no rapproche-
ment between the two opposing points of view. It
was not till March 9 1915 that Burian expressed his willingness
to discuss with Italy, in principle, the cession of Austrian terri-
tory. He did so under the impression of the unfavourable mili-
tary position of the Triple Alliance Powers the Russians were
fighting in the Carpathians, and Przemysl was about to fall
and with the knowledge of the renewal in Feb. 1915 of the
agreement between Italy and Rumania, which let it be feared
that a declaration of war by Italy would be followed by that of
Rumania; under increasingly heavy pressure, moreover, from
the German Government, which, in the event of a favourable
outcome of the war, held before the eyes of the Vienna Govern-
ment, as compensation for the losses of the monarchy in Tirol,
not only a loan in cash but also the rich coal-mines of Sosnovka.
The opening of negotiations at once showed how far the
Italian demands exceeded what Austria-Hungary was now pre-
336
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
pared to concede. Sonnino asked for wide territories and their
immediate transfer to the Italians. Burian firmly refused the
latter proposal, and only offered the greater part of Italian South-
ern Tirol, and even this on condition that Italy should preserve
a benevolent neutrality towards the Central Powers until the
end of the war and leave Austria-Hungary a free hand in the
Balkans. Sonnino rejected Burian's offers as insufficient, and
during the next few weeks increased his demands. On April 10,
on Sonnino's instructions, a memorandum containing Italy's
new conditions was handed in at Vienna. They made it clear
that Italy was no longer striving to complete her national
growth while preserving her former relations with the Habs-
burg Monarchy, but was aiming at the realization of her national
unity and at the achievement of complete supremacy in the
Adriatic. She demanded, among other things, the whole of
S.Tirol, with the boundaries of the Italian kingdom of 1811,
Gorizia and Gradisca, and the conversion of Trieste with its
surrounding territory into a community independent of Austria-
Hungary; the cession of a number of the most important islands
in the Adriatic; the immediate occupation of these lands by the
Italians; the recognition of the full sovereignty of Italy over
Valona and its territory; and a declaration of Austria-Hungary's
desinteressement as regards Albania. In return Italy was pre-i
pared to promise neutrality for the duration of the war, and to
renounce for this period the construction in her own favour of
the provisions of the Triple -Alliance Treaty. In spite of the
extent of these demands, they were not flatly refused by Burian,
since the military situation compelled him to continue negotia-
tions, and German statesmen and generals pointed out to him
the disastrous consequences which would follow if Italy went
over into the enemy camp. The fall of Constantinople was
threatening, the Russians were pressing relentlessly forward,
Hungary seemed at their mercy, and it might happen that a
declaration of war by Italy would be followed by Rumania,
and even by Bulgaria. Then the hemming-in of the Central
Powers would be complete and the seal would be placed upon
their ruin. Burian could not cast doubt upon these arguments;
it was not without influence upon him that Conrad now advo-
cated every concession to Italy. Burian therefore increased
his concessions, but did not yield all that Italy demanded. He
retreated, rather, step by step, always led by the hope that a
new turn would be given to events in the theatre of war; he
sought to hold the Italians in place without rebuffing them.
But since the latter did not count upon achieving their demands
from Vienna, and were convinced that the Habsburg Monarchy
would take back again what had been squeezed from it in the
hour of need, should the military situation take a more favour-
able turn, they determined to bring to a conclusion the negotia-
tions which they had long carried on with the Entente Powers.
On April 26 1915 the Treaty of London was signed, which
pledged Italy to enter the war by the side of her new allies at
the end of a month's interval. As compensation for this, it
contained the assurance of art extension of territory for Italy
going far beyond that which she had demanded from Austria-
Hungary as the price of maintaining neutrality.
Having eome to terms with the Entente Powers, Italy re-
sumed negotiations with the Vienna Cabinet, not with the inten-
tion of pursuing them to any profitable end, but rather in order
to find in the refusal of the Vienna Government to fulfil Italy's
demands just grounds for going over to the enemy camp, and
time to complete her warlike preparations. It was, therefore,
in vain that Burian, under pressure of both the Austro-Hunga-
rian and German army commands and of the German Govern-
ment, went further and further in concessions to Italy. On
April 21 1915 Sonnino declared that the points of view on either
side were too wide apart for the differences to be bridged over;
and on April 25 the Duke of Avarna, the Italian ambassador,
who had up till then worked untiringly for a friendly under-
standing, expressed his opinion that a breach was inevitable.
Even Prince Billow, who continued the negotiations at Rome
up to the last moment, let it be understood that he no longer
believed the Italians to be in earnest in seeking a compromise.
On May 3 1915, in fact, the Italian council of ministers resolved
to denounce the existing alliance with Austria and to claim full
freedom of action for Italy. In vain the Vienna Cabinet made
yet further concessions, so that in the end these included almost
everything that the Italians had demanded. Sonnino contin-
ued indeed to negotiate, but he was always finding
fresh reason for postponing a decision. On May ltaly
20 1915 the Italian Government received from the w ar .
Chambers the extraordinary powers necessitated by
the approaching conflict, and on the 23rd war was declared
by Italy on Austria-Hungary.
One of the chief reasons which had decided Burian to offer
such far-reaching concessions to Italy in April and May 1913
was the pressure from the military higher command, and espe-
cially Conrad, who never ceased to insist in his memoranda that
Italy's entry into the war would be followed by that of Rumania,
and on this account adjured Burian to make every sacrifice in
order to avert the otherwise unavoidable catastrophe by win-
ning over Italy. That his fears were well grounded was all the
less doubtful, since it was already known in Vienna by Feb.
1915 that on Feb. 6-23 the agreement concluded in
Sept. 1014 between Italy and Rumania as to their Equivocal
.... i i. ii jr c Attitude of
attitude in the war had been renewed for four months Rumania.
and had received an extension to the effect that the
two Governments bound themselves to render each other
mutual aid in the event of an unprovoked attack on the part
of Austria-Hungary. The negotiations as to the cession of
Austrian territory, which had been begun with Italy under the
impression of this news, had now as their result that Rumania,
too, raised the price of her continued neutrality. It was no
longer only the Bukovina that was mentioned, but also Tran-
sylvania. But Tisza declared that he would not sacrifice a
square yard of Hungarian soil, and the Vienna Cabinet agreed
with him. The result was an increase of the influence of the
Triple Entente in Rumania, which was further heightened by
Russia's victories in the Carpathians and the breakdown of
the negotiations conducted between Burian and Sonnino. The
climax of this spirit of hostility to the Central Powers in Bucha-
rest was reached on April 27 1915, when the Italian minister
announced a declaration of war on the Habsburg Monarchy to
be unavoidable. Only one thing could restrain Rumania, and
decide her to maintain her neutrality: a great victory of the
Central Powers over the Russians. And this now happened:
the break-through at Gorlitz, on May 2 1915. Its effect was
felt at once. Bratianu, the Rumanian minister-president, now
declared that the position was indeed very critical, but that he
hoped to contrive to maintain neutrality; further news of the
successes of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops in
Galicia and Poland contributed towards strengthening the
Rumanian Government in their resolve not to give up their
neutrality for the present. In these circumstances even the
Italian declaration of war did not alter the Rumanian posi-
tion, but the altered conditions of the war certainly influenced
the attitude of the Vienna Government. Its interest in Rumania
now sensibly declined, since her neutrality seemed assured by
the military situation.
The desire of the Central Powers to arrive at a decision in
their negotiations with Bulgaria became all the more urgent.
Since Jan. 1915 the Turks had been successfully
defending the Dardanelles against the attacks of the
allied Western Powers, but their position was men- Bulgaria.
aced by the fact that they lacked arms and munitions,
which Germany had bound herself to provide by the terms of a
treaty concluded on Jan. n 1915, with which Austria-Hungary
associated herself on March 21 1915. It was therefore necessary
to establish secure communications with the Turks, and since
all the efforts of the Central Powers to obtain the transport of
arms and munitions through Rumania remained fruitless, it
was necessary to try and make sure of a way through Bulgaria
into Turkish territory. The adherence of Bulgaria would also
give a further advantage. With Bulgaria in alliance with the
Central Powers, Rumania would be less inclined to risk join-
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
337
ing their enemies, as in that case she would have to reckon
with Bulgaria, which had not forgiven the wounds inflicted by
the provisions of the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913.
It was not an easy matter for the Cabinets of Vienna and
Berlin to win over the Bulgarians. Both the King and Rado-
slavov distrusted the Rumanians and Turks, and feared the
Greeks and Russians. Moreover, the far-reaching offers of the
Entente Powers were not without influence upon them. Their
attitude in their dealings with the representatives of the Cen-
tral Powers was guarded, and they kept increasing their de-
mands. As early as the end of 1014 the Vienna Government,
in view of the unfavourable military position in Serbia and
Galicia, and in consequence of the pressure exerted upon it
not only by the German politicians and military commanders,
but also by Conrad, had declared its readiness to concede to
the Bulgarians, in the event of their entry into the war on the
side of the Central Powers, the possession of those Serbian
territories to which they advanced historical and ethnographical
claims; only, however, so far as they should occupy them with
their own troops during the course of the war. The negotia-
tions started at the beginning of 1915 on this basis were pro-
tracted by the Bulgarians, for in view of the unfavourable mili-
tary situation of the Central Powers at the time, King Ferdinand
and Radoslavov did not think it expedient to enter into per-
manent engagements. They therefore declared that they could
promise only to remain neutral, but demanded in return consid-
erable extensions of territory in Macedonia, increasing their
claims in March and April under the impression of the Russian
victories in the Carpathians and the danger threatening Turkey
from the Western Powers. Burian, however, held firmly to the
position that he could make territorial concessions only in
return for active participation on Bulgaria's part. The break-
through at Gorlitz and the subsequent victorious advance of
the Germans and Austro-Hungarian troops also produced their
effect in Sofia. The negotiations with the Central Powers were
carried on with more zeal; but they failed to reach a settle-
ment, since the demands of the Bulgarians continued to be out
of all proportion to any services which they seemed disposed
to offer in return. They declined to attack Serbia, refused a
military convention proposed to them by the Central Powers,
but at the same time increased the price of their continued
neutrality. The entry of Italy into the war against the Central
Powers, and the increasingly extensive offers on the part of
the Entente, added to the difficulty of the negotiations between
Vienna and Sofia. But gradually the conviction gained ground
in Sofia that adherence to the Central Powers would serve the
interests of Bulgaria better than an alliance with the Entente.
For it would be easy for the former to concede the extensions
of territory desired by Bulgaria in Macedonia at Serbia's
expense, whereas the Entente Powers were bound to fear that
similar concessions on their part would give offence to their
faithful ally Serbia. The Triple Entente failed in their efforts
to persuade the Serbs to consent to this sacrifice by promising
them, in the event of ultimate victory, the possession of Bosnia,
Herzegovina and Dalmatia, for Bulgaria demanded immediate
possession of the Macedonian territories promised her, while
Serbia wanted the transfer of these territories to be postponed
until she herself should have secured the extension of territory
promised to her by way of compensation.
It was only when the continued victorious advance of the
Germans and Austro-Hungarians in Poland made the prospects
of the ultimate victory of the Central Powers in the
World War seem very favourable, that the advantage
Bulgaria, to be gained by joining them was definitely recognized
at Sofia. From July 1915 onwards negotiations were
energetically carried on. The Central Powers insisted on the
signature of a military convention in addition to the treaty of
alliance, and that Bulgaria should at the same time conclude a
treaty with the Turks. After innumerable difficulties had been
surmounted, the treaties between Austria-Hungary and Bul-
garia were signed on Sept. 6 1915. The most important article
of one treat}' contained a guarantee by Austria-Hungary of
the independence and integrity of Bulgaria against any attack
not provoked by Bulgaria herself, this guarantee to be valid
for the duration of the alliance, i.e. till Dec. 31 1920, and after
that for a year, and so on until .the treaty should be denounced
in proper form. Bulgaria, for her part, undertook to give Austria-
Hungary proportionate armed assistance in the event of the
monarchy being attacked by a State bordering on Bulgaria,
and demanding her aid. The second agreement, signed on the
same day, contained a pledge from Bulgaria that she would take
the offensive against Serbia, in return for which what is now
Serbian Macedonia the so-called "disputed" and "non-
disputed" zones, as established by the Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty
of March 13 1912 was promised to her. In the meantime it
was agreed that, in the event of an attack by Rumania on Bul-
garia or her allies including the Turks which should not
have been provoked by Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary would con-
sent to the recovery by Bulgaria of the territory ceded by her
to Rumania by the Peace of Bucharest, and a rectification of
the Rumano-Bulgarian frontier as defined by the Treaty of
Berlin. A similar promise was made to Bulgaria, under the
same conditions, with regard to the territory ceded by her to
Greece by the Peace of Bucharest. The military convention
signed on the same day settled the provisions for the carrying-
out of the impending joint offensive against Serbia. The nego-
tiations between the Turks and Bulgarians, which had been
going on for a year past, were also brought to a conclusion on
Sept. 6, thanks to persistent pressure from the Central Powers.
Turkey gave in on the essential point by agreeing to a rectifica-
tion of the frontier in favour of Bulgaria on both banks of the
Maritsa.
The significance of the adhesion of Bulgaria to the Central
Powers lay in the facts that it secured their communications
with Turkey, and also the possibility of a victorious campaign
against Serbia. The campaign now began and proceeded
according to programme. Though valiantly defended by the
Serbs against overwhelming numbers, their country fell, towards
the end of 1915, into the hands of the Central Powers and Bul-
garia. Shortly afterwards Montenegro shared the same fate.
The year 1915 also brought "Congress Poland" into the
possession of the Central Powers. After the fall of Warsaw
(Aug. 5 1915) General Governments were set up on
behalf of Germany at Warsaw and on behalf of
Austria-Hungary at Lublin, to which all govern-
mental powers were handed over. At first the Central Powers
had not contemplated the permanent acquisition of " Congress
Poland." It was merely considered as a pawn and an item
for compensations at the end of the war. But after the fall of
Warsaw, the Cabinets of Vienna and Berlin tried to arrive at
an agreement as to the future destiny of Poland. The most
diverse solutions were discussed, but no definitive agreement
was arrived at by the end of the war. The idea of handing Poland
back to Russia was indeed repeatedly advanced by Germany
both in the year 1915 and again very actively after July 1916
when Sturmer was at the head of foreign affairs in the empire
of the Tsar. But since the condition of such a solution namely
a total separation of Russia from the Entente could not be
brought about, it was allowed to drop. The plan of dividing
the whole of the conquered territory of Poland between Austria-
Hungary and Germany was also considered. But insuperable
difficulties arose in the course of the negotiations, particularly
with regard to the frontiers of the respective territories. It was
also foreseen that the Poles would not voluntarily submit to a
new partition of their country and that they would struggle
for its reunion. It was feared, moreover, that far-reaching
differences between the Allies would be revealed the moment
economic and military questions should come under discussion.
The idea of annexing "Congress Poland" to Germany, first
ventilated by a section of public opinion and in military circles
in Germany, was rejected not only by the Vienna Cabinet but
also by the German Imperial Chancellor, since he feared the
increase of Polish influence in Germany that would be bound to
follow. The plan advocated for a time by Bethmann Hollweg.
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
of founding an independent Polish buffer state, which should
be in economic, political and military alliance with the Central
Powers, also split upon the opposition of the Vienna Govern-
ment. Thus the union of " Congress Poland " with the Habsburg
Monarchy, which Burian had proposed in Aug. 1915, and which
had been advocated by the writings of Count Andrassy among
others, stood out more clearly as the only possible solution of
the Polish question. But this, too, presented great difficulties
on closer examination. There were adherents of the idea of a
personal union and on the other hand of an actual union; among
the latter were those who were in favour of a trialistic form for
the new greater Austria-Hungary, and those who advocated the
incorporation of Poland in the Austrian State.
Under the influence of the Hungarian Government, whose
spokesman, Count Tisza, protested in the strongest terms
against the organization of the monarchy on a trialistic basis,
the idea now prevailed of annexing Poland to Austria-Hungary
and granting to the united territory of Poland, with the addi-
tion of Galicia, a far-reaching autonomy. This had the further
object of diminishing the damage to the interests of the German-
Austrians which was feared by wide circles in Austria and
Germany. Since the autumn of 1915 negotiations were carried
on between leading statesmen of Germany and Austria-Hungary
on this basis. But the more deeply the question was gone into
the greater were the difficulties which presented themselves.
Bethmann Hollweg declared that the German people could only
agree to such a strengthening of Austria-Hungary in the event
of the German Empire coming out of the war with an equally
large increase of territory. Economic and military objections
were also advanced on the German side, and as a solution it
was proposed to incorporate a small portion of " Congress
Poland " with Austrian Galicia, and out of the greater part of
the rest to create a Polish State independent in form but in
reality under the protectorate of Germany. But this proposal
was firmly rejected by the Vienna Government, which for its
part advanced the idea of a genuinely autonomous State com-
prising the whole of Polish territory, which should be allied by
a long-term economic and military agreement with both the
Central Powers equally. But it was impossible to win the con-
sent of the Berlin Government to this plan.
Such was the position when the Austro-Hungarian troops
were defeated at Lutsk. The result of this was that in Aug.
1916 the Germans carried the day with their proposal to found
an independent State, practically comprising the former "Con-
gress Poland" under a hereditary constitutional monarchy,
but subject to the most far-reaching limitations in military
and economic matters. On the Austro-Hungarian side the
bestowal of the crown of Poland on a member of the family of
Habsburg-Lorraine was waived. A more exact definition of
the sphere of influence of the Central Powers was reserved for
further discussion. But their subsequent course showed that
the opposition of interests was too deep-seated for it to be
possible to settle matters in a hurry. In Oct. 1916, therefore,
they came to an agreement for the present to shelve the ques-
tion of an independent Polish State. But in order to calm the
Poles, who were anxious about their fate, and to secure the
assistance of their armed forces for the Central Powers, a procla-
mation was issued on Nov. 5 1916, in which a prospect was
held out of the restoration of an independent Poland as a
hereditary constitutional monarchy closely attached to the
Central Powers. But the two military governments at Warsaw
and Lublin continued to administer the country.
Even before this agreement had been arrived at, Rumania
had actually gone over to the Entente camp. The Central
Powers had indeed not been wanting in offers to
Rumania th e Rumanian Government between Italy's entry
Ea"ente. e i nto tne war (March 1915) and the conclusion of the
treaties with Bulgaria (Sept. 1915), but had made their
concessions conditional on the active intervention of Rumania
on their side. But the leading statesmen of Bucharest would
not agree to this; for in spite of the great military successes of
the Central Powers, their final victory seemed to them doubt-
ful. They accordingly continued to insist on important cessions
of territory in the Bukovina and Transylvania by Austria-
Hungary in return for a continuance of their neutrality. To
this, however, Burian, strongly influenced by Tisza, refused
to agree, although not only the German Government but also
Conrad von Hb'tzendorff actively supported Rumania's demands.
Thus the negotiations, which had been reluctantly continued
by Burian, remained without results. Even Bulgaria's adhe-
sion to the Central Powers, and the successful campaign against
Serbia, did not produce any change in the attitude of the two
Governments. The majority of Rumanian politicians counted
on a rapid change in the military situation, and the Entente
diplomatists made every effort to confirm them in this belief.
But the Rumanian Government maintained its conviction 'that
it must for the present preserve its neutrality. It was the
Russian victories at Lutsk and Okna which first led to a change
in their views. At the end of July 1916 the Vienna Cabinet was
aware, from its ambassador, Count Czernin, that preparations
for war were being completed in Bucharest, that negotiations
were being carried on with the Entente Powers as to the con-
ditions of going over to them, and that the probability was
that Rumania would draw the sword as soon as the harvest
was garnered. In spite of this, and though the news during the
next few weeks was more and more unfavourable, Burian
firmly refused the demands made by Rumania for the mainte-
nance of their neutrality, and was not to be moved from his
resolve even by the German Government and Conrad von
Hotzendorff. And so towards the end of August the union of
Rumania with the Entente Powers was accomplished, in return
for far-reaching territorial concessions granted by them to
their new ally at the expense of the Austro-Hungarian Mon-
archy. On August 27 on the day of Italy's formal rupture
with Germany followed Rumania's declaration of war on
Austria-Hungary, and hostilities began without delay. But
the hope of the Entente that Rumania's entry on their side
would quickly decide the war in their favour was not fulfilled.
After preliminary Rumanian successes against the weak troops
of the Habsburg Monarchy, the armies of the Quadruple Alli-
ance, fighting under German leadership, achieved a decisive
victory. On Dec. 6 1915 Bucharest was taken, and at the
beginning of Jan. 1917 two-thirds of Rumania was occupied.
Turkey's danger had grown through the entry of Rumania
into the war on the side of the Entente Powers. She, therefore,
addressed herself to the Central Powers with fresh .,
demands. So early as Sept. 28 1916 Germany assured Agree-
the Porte that, in accordance with her treaty engage- meats with
ments, she would not conclude a separate peace, would
allow Turkey a share, proportionate to her military efforts, in
any territorial conquests, and would not agree to any peace
so long as Turkish territory was occupied by the enemy. Soon
afterwards, on Jan. n 1917, a further agreement was arrived
at between these two Powers, in which the abolition of the
Capitulations, which Turkey found oppressive, was contem-
plated. The provisions of these two treaties were expanded in
a manner favourable to Turkey on Nov. 27 1917. The Austro-
Hungarian Government, after long hesitation, associated itself
on March 22 1917 with the German settlements of Sept. 28
1916 and Jan. n 1917. But her ratification was not given.
A treaty was signed between Austria-Hungary and Turkey on
May 30 1918 as to the question of the Capitulations, which
corresponded to the Turco-German one of Nov. 27 1917, and
by which Austria-Hungary pledged herself not to sign any
peace which should reestablish the Capitulations.
The success of the Central Powers in Rumania was a ray
of light in the last days of the Emperor Francis Joseph I., who
had entered the war with a heavy heart, and always
remained full of anxious care as to the fate of his
empire. His armies and those of his allies had
achieved decisive victories in several theatres of war in the
course of the year 1916; they had occupied new territories,
and in other quarters had successfully repelled the increasingly
formidable offensive of their enemies. The battles on the
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
339
Isonzo had thrown the heroism of the Austro-Hungarian troops
into particularly clear relief. But the number and military
efficiency of their enemies increased, and since Great Britain
commanded the sea and the United States supported them
more and more lavishly, the Entente armies had at their dis-
position vast masses of arms and munitions of every kind and
also immense supplies of foodstuffs. The Central Powers,
thrown back upon their own industrial resources, and ham-
pered in the import of foodstuffs and the production of weapons
by the British blockade, could not keep pace in the race. For
this reason the desire to put an end to this internecine struggle
of the nations grew from month to month, especially in Austria-
Hungary, where from the beginning of the war a great part of
the population had only fought unwillingly for interests which
were not regarded as their own. In the course of the year 1914
Francis Joseph, for his part, had not refused to listen to sug-
gestions for a peace which should take into account the most
important interests of his empire; he had approved the numer-
ous proposals for peace which in the years 1915-6 had come from
more or less authoritative quarters; but he had always insisted
most strongly that these negotiations must be conducted in
full agreement with his allies, and especially with Germany.
But all these peace proposals had proved abortive, since neither
Germany nor Austria-Hungary saw the possibility of ending
the war on any terms commensurate with the military situa-
tion and their desires. But in Oct. 1916, in order to prove to
the public opinion of the world that it was not the insatiability
of the Central Powers which stood in the way of peace, Burian
proposed to the German Imperial Chancellor, at the general
headquarters at Pless, that the Quadruple Alliance should
inform their enemies, through neutral channels, of their condi-
tions of peace, and also publish them, in order to enlighten their
own peoples as to their war aims and win over the neutral
Powers to an active intervention with the enemy Governments.
Bethmann Hollweg and the other German statesmen agreed in
principle with Burian's idea. But they declined, for their part,
to communicate their concrete peace conditions, since they
felt themselves bound, especially in the Belgian question, to
advance demands which their enemies, and especially Great
strained Britain, could not possibly accept. On this point
Relations excited debates took place and serious conflicts be-
with tween the Vienna and Berlin Cabinets, in the course of
' aay ' which the Austrians demanded the recall of Tschirsch-
ky, the German ambassador at the Court of Vienna, who repre-
sented the German point of view with uncompromising harsh-
ness. Even the sovereigns of Austria-Hungary and Germany
took part in this conflict. The Emperor William sought insist-
ently to convince his ally that Germany could not fall in with
Burian's plan. It was one of Francis Joseph's last acts to
invoke every means in order to accomplish a settlement of the
outstanding difficulties. It was only after long negotiations
Francis Joseph having in the meantime died on Nov. 21 1916
that it was possible to reach a compromise. It was agreed
to submit the proposal of the Quadruple Alliance to their ene-
mies through the neutral Powers, and immediately to enter
upon deliberations as to a peace, in which the peace conditions
of the Quadruple Alliance should be exactly defined.
The death of Francis Joseph and the accession of the Emperor
Charles to the throne of Austria-Hungary notably reinforced
the peace party at Vienna. In his very first declarations Charles
emphasized his firm intention of doing everything in his power to
put an end to the terrible world conflict. In this attitude he was
most strongly confirmed by his wife, Zita, by her mother, the
influential Maria Antonia of Parma, and by his brothers-in-
law, Sixtus and Xavier. On Dec. 12 1916 the peace offer of the
Quadruple Alliance was made public. It contained a promise
to submit to a conference of the Powers proposals
Peace Pro- w hich should aim at assuring to their peoples existence,
"oec.1916. honour, and freedom of development, and at laying
foundations calculated to establish a lasting peace. In
conversations with Germany, Austria-Hungary defined her stand-
point as follows: She claimed the integrity of her territory, tri-
fling frontier rectifications as against Russia, a more favourable
strategic frontier against Rumania, the cession to Austria-
Hungary of a small portion of the territory of the Serbian Mon-
archy and of larger portions to Bulgaria and Albania, and a
more favourable strategic frontier against Italy; in addition to
this the economic union of Serbia with the Habsburg Monarchy,
and Albanian autonomy under an Austro-Hungarian protector-
ate. Independently of the peace activity of the Quadruple
Alliance, Mr. Woodrow Wilson, who had shortly before been
re-elected President of the United States, on Dec. 18 1916 invited
the belligerent Powers to communicate their peace terms, and
had a note handed in at London in this sense on Dec. 21. Both
proposals, however, were declined by the Entente Powers. On
Dec. 30 1916 Briand, on the part of France, declared the peace
offer of the Quadruple Alliance to be a war manoeuvre, and that
all negotiations were useless, so long as no security was given
for the restoration of violated rights and liberties and the recog-
nition of the right of peoples to self-determination. In the note
drawn up in concert by the Entente Powers on Jan. 12 1917, i:i
answer to President Wilson's communication of Dec. 18, all the
blame for the outbreak of war was imputed to the Central
Powers, and the demand was formulated, among other things,
for compensation for all war damages, the restoration of Alsace-
Lorraine to France, and from Austria-Hungary in particular
proportionate cessions of territory to Italy as well. The German
Government, which had by now fallen into more and more
obvious dependence on the higher army command, thereupon
resolved to carry on the war by the employment of the most
extreme measures, the most important and most promising of
which was indicated in authoritative quarters to be unlim-
ited submarine warfare.
Baron Burian, meanwhile, had ceased to be Austro-Hungarian
foreign minister on Dec. 22 1916, being succeeded by Count Otto-
kar Czernin, the former ambassador at Bucharest.
Austro-Hungarian statesmen generally did not share Czernia
the exaggerated expectations of German military Burian.
circles as to the effects of the submarine campaign,
and Czernin in particular gave open expression to his doubts
about the subjugation of England within a few months, which
the German authorities seemed to regard as certain. He drew
attention to the danger of an active intervention of the United
States, if unlimited submarine warfare were entered upon.
The Emperor Charles shared his minister's views. But the con-
tinual pressure of German statesmen and the German higher
command, powerfully supported by the Emperor William, at
last succeeded in obtaining the consent of the Austro-Hungarian
Government to the unlimited submarine warfare. The war was
resumed by Germany and her allies by land, by sea and in ths
air. But the hope of forcing their enemies to their knees by
decisive successes was not realized. During the year 1917 there
were indeed moments in which it looked as if the final decision
would be in their favour. But their enemies, in spite of all the
successes of the Central Powers and their allies, rejected all
thoughts of a peace unsatisfactory to them.
The opening of unlimited submarine warfare was followed
immediately by the rupture of diplomatic relations between the
Cabinets of Berlin and Washington, and on April 6 American
1917 by the declaration of war on Germany by the Dedara-
United States. It was not till Dec. 7 1917 that the '*J BO/
United States declared war on Austria-Hungary.
Meanwhile, since the successes of the submarine warfare,
though in themselves considerable, did not produce the result
foretold by Germany, the Emperor Charles's inclination towards
peace grew from month to month. Under the influence of his
entourage he determined, by secret negotiations with
the enemy, to work for a peace which should include
a guarantee of the integrity of the Habsburg Mon- Proposals.
archy by the Entente Powers. His brother-in-
law, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon Parma, undertook the r61e
of mediator. On March 24 the Emperor Charles empowered
him, by letter, to declare to M. Poincare, President of the
French Republic, that in order to obtain peace he would
340
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
exert every effort in his power to support the just claims of
France to Alsace-Lorraine vis-a-vis his allies. In other ques-
tions too, notably in that of Belgium, the Emperor Charles
showed a wish to further the desires of the enemy Powers as
far as possible. On the other hand, there was no mention in
Charles's letter of any readiness to cede Austrian territory to
Italy. Count Czernin, who was well informed as to essentials
in the negotiations, but was unacquainted with the text of the
imperial letter, endeavoured in the meanwhile to win over the
German Government to the idea of peace. On March 27 1917
an agreement was signed at Vienna between him and Bethmann
Hollweg which provided for a minimum and maximum pro-
gramme. In the former the restoration of the territorial status
quo ante bellum of the Central Powers in the E. and
Peace Pro- W. was laid down as the condition precedent to their
grammes, evacuation of the occupied provinces of Russia
(except Poland), Serbia, Albania, Greece and Ruma-
nia; in the latter, which was to hold good in the event of the
war taking a more favourable turn, provision was made for a
permanent acquisition of enemy territory in proportion to their
respective military achievements. In this event Germany's
field of expansion was to be in the East, Austria-Hungary's in
Rumania.
Shortly afterwards, April 3 1917, the Emperor Charles and
Count Czernin arrived at Homburg as guests of the Emperor
William. Czernin here came forward with a proposal (the con-
nexion with Prince Sixtus's demarche being noteworthy) that
Germany might make concessions to France in Alsace-Lorraine,
and as a substitute for her losses in the West take permanent
possession of a Poland supplemented by Galicia. These plans
found a basis in the prospact of concluding a favourable peace
with Russia, which had opened up shortly before the abdication
of the Tsar Nicholas II. in March. To reinforce his efforts,
Count Czernin, on April 14, sent to the Emperor William a
report, drawn up by himself and the Emperor Charles in per-
son, in which the internal situation of the Habsburg Monarchy
was painted in the blackest colours, and its collapse, involving
a revolution and the downfall of the dynasty, was represented
as imminent. At the same time Czernin renewed in authorita-
tive quarters in Germany his offer to compensate the German
Empire for eventual losses in Alsace-Lorraine by the permanent
acquisition of Poland enlarged by the addition of Galicia. But
the Emperor William and his counsellors refused to open nego-
tiations with the enemy on this basis, and urged the continua-
tion of the war. It soon afterwards became clear that the secret
negotiations conducted by Sixtus of Parma with the Entente
Powers would not lead to the results desired by the Emperor
Charles and Czernin. For Italy held by her bond, and demanded
the cession of all those provinces of the Habsburg Monarchy
which had been promised her by the Treaty of London of April
26 1915. To this, however, the Emperor Charles, particularly
in view of the military situation at the time, neither would
nor could consent.
The negotiations with the Western Powers having thus for
the present led to no tangible results, the Emperor Charles and
. Count Czernin decided at Kreuznach (May 17-18
Kreuznacn * '
Agreement 1917) to come to an agreement with the German
"'"* Government, in which there was no further men-
< * ny ' tion of the cession of Alsace-Lorraine, but in which
it was stipulated by Austria-Hungary that not only should her
integrity be guaranteed but she should receive considerable
accessions of territory in the Balkans. Germany, furthermore,
agreed in the event of her being able to carry out " the terri-
torial incorporation (Anglicdcrung) of Courland and Lithuania,
together with the dependence (Anlchnung) of Poland contem-
plated on the German side," that " Rumania so far as occu-
pied, with the exception of the Dobruja (frontier anterior to
1913) and a border strip to the S. of the Cernavoda-Constantza
railway, falls as a separate State into the Austro-Hungarian
sphere of interests, subject to a guarantee of Germany's economic
interests in Rumania." On the fulfilment of these conditions
Austria-Hungary consented to renounce her condominium in
Poland, and promised to declare her desinleressement, political
and military, in Poland. On June 8 1917 the Emperors William
II. and Charles signed an agreement as to Poland's military
forces, by which their organization was placed entirely in the
hands of Germany.
The war continued. The Quadruple Alliance waged it with
the exertion of all its military strength, and even now gained
not inconsiderable successes. On the western front
the Germans held at bay the attacks of the French and Growing
British troops, lavishly furnished with war material, weariness.
On the eastern front the armies of the Alliance fought
successfully against the Russians. In the S. the armies of
Austria-Hungary, stiffened by German, troops, undertook an
invasion of Italy which led to the occupation of further Italian
territory. But all these successes did not suffice to compel a
desire for peace on the part of the enemy, while, in the coun-
tries of the Quadruple Alliance, war weariness, furthered by a
skilfully managed propaganda on the part of the Entente,
kept spreading to wider circles among the soldiers and citizens
of the Central Powers and their allies. This feeling among the
people, and the recognition of the fact that the war could only
be ended by diplomatic means, decided Czernin to resume
with the greatest energy his efforts to achieve a peace which
should preserve the vital interests of the monarchy. In this he
was strongly supported by the declaration made by the majority
in the German Reichstag on July 19 1917 in favour of a peace
by agreement, in which the forcible acquisition of territory,
and oppressive political, economic and financial measures were
repudiated, and the freedom of the seas and the renunciation
by the enemy of the economic blockade of the Central Powers
were demanded. Yet neither the Pope's official efforts for peace
nor the secret Revertera-Armand (July-Aug. 1917) and Mens-
dorff-Smuts (Dec. 1917) negotiations led to tangible results, since
the enemy had exact information as to the critical internal
situation of the Powers of the Quadruple Alliance, and, count-
ing upon the strong support of the United States for the follow-
ing year, made conditions to which, in view of their favourable
military situation at the end of the year 1917, Germany and
her allies would not accede. At this time, moreover, the pros-
pect was opening to them of concluding a favourable peace
with their enemies in the E. which would enable them to fall
with their full strength upon their enemies in the West.
The revolution which had taken place in Russia in March
1917 had not brought peace; on the contrary, the numerous
negotiations which took place between the Central
Powers and Russia, having as their aim the conclu- Etfe . ct . f ..
sion of a separate peace, dragged on inconclusively. Revolution
The war went on; it was waged successfully by Ger-
many, and brought wide territories in the East into the posses-
sion of the allies. But a decisive change took place for the first
time in the attitude of the Russian politicians in Nov. 1917,
when the second phase of the Russian revolution the " social
revolutionary" phase led by Kerensky -was succeeded by a
third, that of the " Bolsheviks," led by Lenin and Trotsky. As
early as the end of Nov. 1917 the new Government summoned
all the combatant Powers to enter immediately upon an armi-
stice and begin negotiations for the conclusion of a general peace,
which should assure to every nation freedom of economic and
cultural development. When the Entente Powers refused to
comply with this summons, the Russians on Dec. 3 entered into
a suspension of hostilities with Germany and her allies, which
was to last till Dec. 17. On Dec. 15 the suspension of hostili-
ties was succeeded by an armistice, which was to last till Jan.
14 1918 and then be continued with the right to de- N ego tia-
nounce it on seven days' notice. Peace negotiations tions at
began on Dec. 22 at Brest-Litovsk. They were con- Brest-
ducted in public. The upshot was that on Dec. 25 the
Quadruple Alliance accepted the Russian proposals for the
conclusion of a peace without annexations and indemnities as
the basis for a general peace. At the suggestion of the Russian
delegates, the negotiations were suspended for ten days and a
request was addressed to the enemies of the Quadruple Alii-
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
with the
Ukraine.
ance that they should take part in further deliberations on the
basis of the resolutions adopted on Dec. 25. But the Entente
Towers refused. Thereupon negotiations were begun (Jan. 9
1918) for a separate peace between Russia and the Quadruple
Alliance. But they did not run so smoothly as the majority of
Austro-Hungarian politicians had hoped. Trotsky, the chief
of the Russian delegation, demanded full freedom for the plebi-
scites to be held in the Russian provinces occupied by the Cen-
tral Powers, and with this object proposed that their troops
should evacuate them. On the rejection of this proposal by
the German and Austro-Hungarian delegates, Trotsky pro-
tracted the negotiations in order meanwhile to introduce Bolshe-
vik ideas into the territories of the Quadruple Alliance. The
progress of the negotiations was hampered by quarrels among
the Russians, and by the appearance at Brest-Litovsk
Treaty o f an Ukrainian delegation which pressed for the
establishment of a Russian federal republic. Since on
this question no agreement could be reached, the repre-
sentatives of the Ukraine, on Jan. 24 1918, announced the com-
plete independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic, and on
Feb. 9 concluded a separate peace with the Quadruple Alliance,
which, so far as Austria-Hungary was concerned, left the fron-
tier between the two States unchanged. Inspired by his eager-
ness to bring to the starving population of Austria, and above
all to the inhabitants of Vienna, the longed-for " bread peace,"
which stipulated for the delivery of foodstuffs from the Ukraine,
Czernin, in compliance with the violent desire of the Ukrainian
delegation, carried out their demand for the incorporation of
the district of Cholm in the newly created republic, and for
the erection of East Galicia into an autonomous Austrian crown
territory.
The negotiations with Russia had meanwhile been continued.
Czernin, zealously seconded in his efforts for peace by the
Emperor Charles, pressed for a conclusion, but met
Peace of with determined opposition from the German negotia-
tors. On Feb. 10 1918 Trotsky declared that Russia,
renouncing a formal treaty of peace, regarded the state
of war against the Quadruple Alliance as at an end, and would
reduce her troops to a peace footing on all fronts. But since
this solution did not meet with the whole-hearted consent of
the Central Powers, Germany resumed the struggle. The
Austro-Hungarian troops did not enter into the war against
Soviet Russia, but after a few days joined the march of the
German troops into the Ukraine. The Russians, defeated 'by
Germany in the field, now changed their tactics and declared
themselves prepared to conclude a formal peace, which was
signed on March 3 1918 at Brest-Litovsk. It brought the
Habsburg Monarchy no accessions of territory, but, by the
official retirement of the Russians from the ranks of their ene-
mies, it involved a considerable strengthening of the Quadruple
Alliance.
Poland had become independent of Russia by the provisions
of the Peace of Brest-Litovsk; but this did not settle the Polish
question. The negotiations conducted by the Cab-
The Polish i ne t s o f Vienna and Berlin as to the fate of Poland in
Question, . i e i i j.
/5>/7. the spring and summer of 1917 led to no issue, since
the conflicting interests of the two Powers concerned
were shown to be irreconcilable. The plan advocated by Austria,
that the Archduke Charles Stephen should be made regent,
and afterwards king, was accepted neither by the Emperor
William nor by the German Government. In the autumn of
1917 the decision made earlier in the year to abandon Poland
to Germany and compensate Austria-Hungary in Rumania was
given up, and the Austro-Polish solution advocated by the
Emperor Charles and Czernin was approved in principle. In
the negotiations which followed as to the carrying-out of this
plan, however, the old opposition of interests again became
apparent. Germany declared that she would make her acquies-
cence in the Austro-Polish solution contingent upon the cession
to her of large portions of Polish territory, as " rectifications
of frontier," and, beyond this, upon her retaining a decisive
influence upon the utilization of the economic and military
Brest-
Litovsk.
forces of a Polish State which was not to be incorporated in
Austria-Hungary but merely joined to her by a personal union.
To this, however, the Vienna Government would not agree,
and once more the attempt to reach a definitive solution of the
Polish question had broken' down. The Poles, anxious about
their future and keenly desirous to make it as favourable as
possible to themselves, took advantage of these differences to
continue negotiations with both sides, in order to secure for
their State the widest possible territorial extension and the
greatest possible measure of independence. They resolutely
protested against the cession of the district of Cholm to the
Ukraine, and on March 4 1918, with the aid of the Poles in the
Habsburg Monarchy, they succeeded in obtaining the signa-
ture, by the Powers concerned in the conclusion of the Peace
Treaty of Feb. 9, of a protocol in which it was laid down that
the frontiers between Poland and the Ukraine were to be set-
tled by a new agreement, arrived at with the cooperation of the
Poles, and perhaps to be altered in favour of the Poles. The
negotiations between the Cabinets of Vienna and Berlin as to
the future destiny of Poland still went on. The former clung
to the Austro-Polish solution, but it was evident from many
indications that the German Government showed less and less
inclination to consent to it. In July 1918, after the luckless
Austrian offensive in Italy, the German Imperial Chancellor,
Count Hertling, declared that he would no longer recognize
the Austro-Polish solution. Poland was to have the free choice
of her future form of government, but before its establishment
must come to arrangements with the Central Powers, per-
manently calculated to secure their economic and military inter-
ests. Austria-Hungary agreed with these proposals in prin-
ciple. But the negotiations which were now entered upon led,
like all the preceding ones, to no definitive results, though they
provided the Poles once more with the desired opportunity for
fishing in troubled waters.
The ending of the war between Russia and the Quadruple
Alliance also compelled Rumania to conclude peace with the
victors, having already, on Dec. 17 1917, had to sub- Peace
mit to an armistice. After rather long negotiations the Treaty
peace preliminaries were signed at the chateau of
Buftea near Bucharest on March 6 1918, and on May 7
the definitive peace; but the latter was not ratified by Rumania.
Austria-Hungary received a favourable strategic frontier in
the Carpathians, important economic concessions, and the
promise of an immediate evacuation of the provinces of the
Habsburg Monarchy still occupied by Rumania. King Ferdi-
nand had to thank the personal intervention of the Emperor
Charles for the fact that he retained his crown.
The successes in the East, gratifying though they were in
themselves, did not deceive the governing circles at the Ball-
platz as to the danger on the verge of which they
hovered. They knew that the filling-up of the sen- ^**"*] ie
ously depleted ranks of the troops, the production of Monarchy.
arms and munitions, the provisioning of the soldiers and
of the population, would get more difficult every month. Reports
kept coming in as to the increasing war-weariness of the troops,
and the more and more openly expressed anti-dynastic senti-
ments of the non-German or non-Magyar portions of the popu-
lation of the monarchy, as to the correctness of which there
could be no doubt. All these reasons increased the desire of the
Emperor Charles and of Czernin to bring the war to an end as
quickly as possible. As early as the autumn of 1917 the Ger-
man Government had been informed from Vienna that Austria-
Hungary's strength was exhausted, and insistently urged to
sacrifices which might content the enemy. The same point
of view had been adhered to during the negotiations at Brest-
Litovsk. Germany was to find in the East compensations for
the cessions which she must make in the West in order to bring
the enemy round the peace-table. For the negotiations secretly
carried on by several Austro-Hungarian statesmen with the
representatives of the Entente States had left no doubt as to
the fact that there could be no thought of a serious entry upon
peace negotiations on the part of the Western Powers before
Rumania.
342
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
Germany should have handed in precise declarations which
should meet their views in the questions of Belgium and Alsace-
Lorraine. It was, then, very opportune for the Court of Vienna
when President Wilson, in his message to Congress of Jan. 8
1918, defined the Fourteen Points, in which he perceived a suit-
able basis for the establishment of a lasting peace. It is true
that several of these points involved considerable damage to
Austro-Hungarian interests: but in their entirety they seemed
to afford Czernin the possibility of initiating peace negotiations.
He endeavoured in divers ways, and especially
Czernla's through the mediation of the King of Spain, to enter
/ortst 1918 m t negotiations with President Wilson, but failed
to attain his end. Equally fruitless were the informal
conversations carried on by Austro-Hungarian representatives,
in intelligence with their Government, with French delegates
in Switzerland and other places. Czernin firmly refused the
demand of the Western Powers for the conclusion of a separate
peace;, but he continued his efforts at negotiation, though he
knew that German headquarters had prepared a new campaign
in the West which was intended to be decisive.
At the beginning of April 1918, shortly after this German
offensive had successfully begun, Czernin emphasized, in an
. address to a delegation of the Viennese town coun-
axaia cil, his loyalty to Germany, as proved by his rejec-
Foreiga tion of the French peace offers, which were con-
ter ' ditional on the recognition of France's claims to
Alsace-Lorraine. Clemenceau, the French prime minister, de-
clared this assertion to be a lie, and, in the course of the pub-
licist feud that followed, published among other things the
letter of the Emperor Charles to Prince Sixtus of March 24
1917, in which he alluded to his willingness to advocate with
his Allies France's " just claims " to Alsace-Lorraine. The
Austro-Hungarian monarch's loyalty to his alliance was thus
placed in an equivocal light, and Czernin's refusal to accept
full responsibility for the Emperor Charles's proceedings led
to his resignation, Count Burian being reappointed as his
successor. In order to calm the agitation of the Emperor
William and the German statesmen and generals, the Emperor
Charles had to make another "journey to Canossa" at Spa,
and there, on May 12 1918,' he set his signature to agreements
for a closer political and military union between the two coun-
tries, the coming into force of which would have meant heavy
damage to the independence of Austria-Hungary. But since
the condition of the validity of this treaty, namely an under-
standing between the two Powers on the Polish question, broke
down, the Spa agreement, too, remained a scrap of paper.
Meanwhile Germany was putting forth her last strength in
the hope of achieving a decisive success. But her initial successes
were followed by reverses. Austria-Hungary had
Last taken part in the battles on the western front, but
only within modest limits. In June 1918 she attempted
a sudden attack on Italy with the principal body of
her troops. But here, too, the decisive victory which had been
expected was not achieved. These failures, together with the
ever-increasing lack of effective soldiers, arms, munitions and
foodstuffs, deepened the longing of the peoples of the Habs-
burg Monarchy for peace. In addition, the Emperor Charles
became alive to the more and more open opposition of the
non-German and non-Magyar peoples of his dominions, and
likewise to the revolutionary spirit which was becoming con-
spicuous among the working-classes in many places, and he
began to tremble for his crown and the fate of the dynasty.
In proportion as the German hope of extorting peace by force
of arms diminished, a more favourable prospect seemed to open
up for the efforts of Austro-Hungarian statesmen to put an
end to the war by way of diplomatic negotiations. At the end
of July 1918, Baron KUhlmann, the German Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs, had been compelled to
Peace. resign in consequence of his saying in the Reichstag that
an end of the war through a purely military decision
could not be expected. But by Aug. 14 Ludendorff himself,
who had played a prominent part in bringing about Kiihl-
mann's fall, declared at headquarters in Spa that they could
no longer hope to break the military spirit of the foe by force
of arms. Thus when Burian again approached the German
Government, he no longer met with any opposition on prin-
ciple. Yet great differences presented themselves in the course
of the deliberations as to the course to be adopted. The Ger-
mans wanted to wait for an improvement of the military situa-
tion in the West and then begin negotiations with the enemy
through a neutral Power Holland or Spain while Austro-
Hungarian statesmen advocated an immediate and open appeal
to all the combatant Powers. At the beginning of Sept. 1918
the German Minister Hintze spent some time in Vienna in
order to arrive at an agreed course of action. But since this
could not be achieved, Burian determined, without regard to
Germany's opposition, to have an appeal sent out to all the
combatant States for the opening of peace negotiations. Presi-
dent W'ilson answered, however, after a few days' interval,
that he had repeatedly and in the 'plainest terms made known
the conditions on which he was prepared to consider the con-
clusion of peace; hence the Government of the United States
could not and would not accept a proposal for the holding of a
conference concerning a matter in which it had already clearly
made known its attitude and aims. And the Cabinets of Paris
and London were equally cold. The sole result of Burian's
new effort for peace was the increase of the Entente's hopes of
victor}'. On Sept. 15 ensued a violent attack against the Bul-
garian army, in the ranks of which war-weariness had for long
past made serious inroads. The Bulgarian troops offered but
little resistance; great bodies of them laid down their arms,
and returned to their homes. The Sofia Government, at the
head of which Malinov, who was friendly to the Entente, had
for some months taken the place of Radoslavov, resolved to
propose an armistice, which was granted on Sept. 29 under
conditions which signified for the Central Powers the loss of
the Balkans. King Ferdinand abdicated. These events, and
the great successes of the English troops in Palestine, pro-
duced their effect upon Turkey. At the beginning of October
the fall of Enver and Tal'at took place at Constantinople, and
thus the way was opened here too for a separate peace. An
armistice was concluded between Turkey and the Entente on
Oct. 31 1918, which brought the Dardanelles and the Bosporus
under their power, and pledged the Turks to break off all rela-
tions with the Central Powers.
Meanwhile the catastrophe had taken place in Austria-
Hungary as well. Encouraged by the repeated pronouncements
of President Wilson as to the right of nations to self-determina-
tion, the separatist ideas of those peoples of the monarchy which
did not acknowledge German or Hungarian nationality became
more and more articulate. There were disturb-
ances in various parts of the monarchy, and these ^ e ^ e ' u "
disruptive influences made it month by month Monarchy.
increasingly difficult to keep the army efficient for
war. Both Austria-Hungary and Germany now decided to-
address to President W'ilson the offer of an armistice, to be fol-
lowed by negotiations for peace. To this offer the President at
first made no reply; and thereupon the Emperor Charles, in
order to save the dynasty, issued on Oct. 16 a manifesto in
which he proclaimed that Austria, in accordance with' the will
of her peoples, was to be erected into a Federal State, in which
every race would be free to establish its own form of body politic
on the territory occupied by it. But the union of the Austrian
Poles with an independent Polish State was not to be antici-
pated by this. The imperial manifesto was only to apply to-
Austria. For Hungary, where they were already working for
a personal union and for a complete separation from Austria,
the manifesto laid stress upon the integrity of the Hungarian
kingdom. It thus became clear to the Southern Slavs that they
must no longer hope for a realization of their national aspirations
within the bounds of the monarchy. But the Emperor Charles's
expectation of conciliating the opinion of the Austrian Slavs by
means of the manifesto met with no success. President Wilson,
too, rejected the Vienna Cabinet's peace offer. He declared
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
that the Government of the United States had afready recog-
nized Czechoslovakia as a belligerent Power and the Czecho-
slovak National Council as a belligerent Government, as well
as the justice of the national aspirations of the Southern Slavs.
It was', therefore, for these peoples themselves to decide which of
the resolutions of the Austrian Government were acceptable
to them. Upon this the request for an armistice made by the
Emperor Charles at the beginning of October was declared to
be no longer in force. During October independent national
representative bodies assembled in Prague, Agram, Laibach
and Vienna. The Emperor's dominions thus dissolved and
slipped from his grasp. These internal movements led to the
disintegration of the armies, which up to this moment had
fought bravely. The Governments of the several countries
constituting the monarchy, Hungary leading the way, sum-
moned their co-nationals to the defence of their particular
frontiers or called them back home. The Emperor Charles
tried to save what still could be saved. He was prepared to
conclude a separate peace with the enemy on terms which
would make possible the continuance of the old monarchy,
even though with diminished territory and as a loose aggre-
gation of separate territorial groups under the dynasty of
Habsburg-Lorraine.
On Oct. 24 Count Julius Andrassy succeeded Burian as
Foreign Minister, in order to begin negotiations for a separate
peace. Three days later the office of minister-president was
given to Heinrich Lammasch, professor of international law
and a well-known pacifist. On the same -day renewed proposals
for an armistice were made to President Wilson, and the peace
pourparlers, which had never been entirely interrupted, were
resumed in Switzerland with representatives of the Entente by
various emissaries of the Habsburg Monarchy. Once more,
however, they reached no result. At the end of October, after
the revolution in Hungary (see HUNGARY: History), and when
increasing numbers of the troops fighting in Italy had started
homewards, the Austro-Hungarian army command asked for
an armistice from the Italians, who were victoriously advancing
against the demoralized and dissolving Austro-Hungarian
forces. This was granted on Nov. 3 1918 on conditions of piti-
less severity. Austria-Hungary had to reduce her army at
once to a peace footing only 20 divisions were excepted; to
evacuate all enemy territories still occupied by her troops; to
surrender to the enemy large portions of Austrian territory,
and to hand over all war material actually in these terri-
tories, as well as the whole of her fleet. By this means all
resistance was made impossible even after the expiry of the
armistice. Utterly defenceless, the Emperor Charles had to
place his own fate and that of the ancient monarchy in the
hands of the victors. The latter also demanded free passage
for their armies over all roads, railways and waterways of the
monarchy. Germany's resistance was thus to be broken by new
dangers threatening her from the south. It was only under
protest, and bowing to necessity, that the Emperor Charles
gave his consent to these demands, which promised to be fatal
to his ally. The negotiations for a separate peace were indeed
even now still carried on by the diplomatists who remained
true to the dynasty, but they hardly met with a hearing from
the Entente Powers.
The process of dissolution ran its course in the old monarchy.
On Nov. ii 1918 the Emperor Charles renounced all share in
the business of government in Austria; the Lammasch Govern-
ment retired. The Emperor Charles did not, however, renounce
his crown. On the following day, in the Austrian National
Assembly, a republic was proclaimed (see AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC
or), which was at first intended to form a component part of
the new German Republic. On Nov. 16 the republican form of
government was introduced in Hungary. The ancient Austro-
Hungarian Monarchy had thereby ceased to exist, and its role
as a European Great Power was at an end.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Up to 1921 no comprehensive critical account had
.been published of Austro-Hungarian foreign policy in 1910-8.
The Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary (1920), No. I. of the hand-
343
books prepared under the direction of the Historical Section of the
British Foreign Office, is a summary survey. The period 1875 to
1914 is treated in an inadequate and one-sided way in Jean Lar-
meroux, La Politique exterieure de i ' Autriche-Hongrie (2 vols., 1918).
The foreign policy of the monarchy is discussed in its connexion
with world politics in. among other works, A. Debidour, Histoire
diplomatique de I'Etirope, vol. iv. (i9 l8 ) ; Ernst Reventlow, Politische
Vorgeschichte des grossen Kriegs (1919); Julius Hashagen, Umrisse
der Weltpolitik, vol. ii. (2nd ed. 1919); Gottlob Egelhaaf, Geschichte
der neuesten Zeit, vol. ii. (8th ed.) and Heinrich Friedjung, Das
Zeitalter des Imperialismus, vol. ii. (1922). Friedrich Wieser's
study, Oesterreichs Ende (1919), and F. Kleinwiichter's book, Der
Untergang Oesterreich-Ungarns, throw more light on the internal
disintegration of the Habsburg Monarchy, but also contain in-
teresting discussions of foreign policy. Meisser's Politische Chronik
der Oesterreich-Ungarischen Monarchic (1910-8) and Schulthe's
Geschichtskalender (1910-8) contain extracts from the reports of the
proceedings of the delegations and the Austrian and Hungarian
parliaments and other important documents and speeches. Of the
official publications of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs should be
mentioned: Diplomatische Aktenstiicke betreffend die Ereignisse
am Balkan, /j. August 1912 bis 6. November 1913 (Vienna 1914);
Diplomatische. Aktenstiicke betreffend die Beziehung Oesterreich-
Ungarns zu Italien in der Zeit iiom 22. Juli 1914 bis 27. August 1916
(Vienna 1916); Diplomatische Aktenstilcke zur Vorgeschichte des
Krieges 1914 and Diplomatische Aktenstiicke zur Vorgeschichte des
Krieges: Ergdnzungen und Nachtrdge zum Oesterreichisch-Un-
garischen Rotbuch (3 parts [June 28-Aug. 27 1914], Vienna 1920).
At the instance of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs there appeared
Richard Gooss, Das Wiener Kabinet und die Entstehung des Welt-
krieges (1919). A. F. Pribram's Die politischen Geheimvertrcige
Oesterreich-Ungarns 1879 bis 1914 (1920) also contains a detailed
history of the development of the Triple Alliance treaties (English
trans, by A. C. Coolidge, 1920). Valuable information as to Austro-
Ilungarian foreign policy is to be found in memoirs of German and
Austro-Hungarian statesmen and military commanders which have
appeared since the end of the war. Among these may be especially
indicated : G. Jagow, Ursachen und Ausbruch des Weltkrieges (1919) ;
Paul von Hindenburg, Aus meinem Leben (1920); Theodor von
Bethmann Hollweg, Betrachtitngen zum Weltkrieg (1919) ; Erich
Ludendorff, Kriegserinnerungen (1919); Urkunden der Obersten
Heeresleitung fiber Hire Tatigkeit 1916 bis 1918 (1920) ; A. von Tir-
pitz, Erinnerungen (1919); Karl Helfferich, Der Weltkrieg (3 vols.,
1919); Karl Hertling, Ein Jahr in der Reichskanzlei (1919); A. von
Cramon, Unser Oeslerreich-Ungarischer Bundgenosse im Weltkrieg
(1920); Ottokar Czernin, Im Weltkriege (1919); Julius Andrassy,
Diplomatic und Weltkrieg (1920) ; L. Windischgrsitz, Vom roten zum
schwarzen Prinzen (1920); Auffenberg-Komarow, Aus Oesterreichs
Hohe und Niedergang (1921); Erich von Falkenhayn, Die Tatigkeit
der Obersten Heeresleitung 1914 bis 1916 (1919) ; Matthias Erzberger,
Erlebnisse im Weltkriege (1920) ; J. V. Szilassy, Der Untergang der
Donaumonarchie (1921). Separate problems of Austro-Hungarian
foreign policy are treated among others by Leopold Chlumecky,
Die Agonie des Dreibundes (1915); Wilhelm Fraknoi, Kritische Stu-
dien zur Geschichte des Dreibundes (1916); Severus, Zehn Monate
italienischer Neutralitdt (1915); Th. v. Sosnosky, Die Balkanpolitik
Oesterreich-Ungarns seit 1866 (2 vols., 1914); Die Politik im Habs-
burgerreich (1912); Berthold Molden, Alois Graf Aehrenthal: Seeks
Jahre ausserer Politik Oesterreich-Ungarns (1917). (A. F. PR.)
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF. The republic of Austria, recon-
stituted after the collapse in 1918 of the old empire (see AUS-
TRIAN EMPIRE) is bounded on the E. by Czechoslovakia, Hungary
and Yugoslavia, on the S. by Yugoslavia and Italy, on the W. by
Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the Lake of Constance, on the
N. by Germany (Bavaria) and Czechoslovakia.
Under the new regime, Austria had in Aug. 1921, including
the Burgenland (which was in process of being handed over by
Hungary), an area of 32,491 sq. m., somewhat less than that of
Ireland. Its population is less than one-fifth that of England.
It belongs almost entirely to the Danubian region and for the
greater part to the Eastern Alps; a small part of it embraces the
outlying spurs of this mountain system, which form a con-
nexion with the Carpathian; and another part comprises the
Austrian Granite Plateau, the most southerly portion of the Boic
massif. But Austria's frontiers, especially towards the Alps,
are not natural boundaries, and their long extension is a source
of geographical and economic inconvenience. Czechoslovakia
received three minor border territories of Lower Austria; Italy
advanced as far as the Adriatic watershed, and even passed
beyond it in various places in the basins of the Inn and Drau
(Drava); Yugoslavia received South-Eastern Carinthia and
Southern Styria as far as the Posruck and the Mur. Thus the
closed territories of Tirol and those of the Carinthian basin
344
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
12 Longitude East 13 of Greenwich 14
49
IU II
AUSTRIA
Scale I = 3.600,000
English Miles
10 za 30 40 so so TO
Kilometres
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
frontiers not requiring delimitation
Frontiers to be delimitated
Old Frontier between Austria and rfu
12
13
4S
and Central Styria were cut off; the two great natural triangular
routes, that of German Tirol and that within Austria, and hence
also the southern longitudinal railway of the Eastern Alps
(Franzensfeste-Marburg) were split up between different states
(see CARINTHIA, STYRIA, TIROL).
Population. The territories under Austrian administration in
May 1920, which alone could be included in the census of Jan. 31
1920, embraced a portion of Lower Austria belonging to Czecho-
slovakia; on the other hand, electoral district No. I. of Carinthia and
a few communes of Styria were occupied by the Southern Slavs,
and the disputed Burgenland (German Western Hungary) by
Hungary. With these reservations the figures in the appended table
hold good.
Territory
Area in
sq. m.
Pop.
Dec. 31
1910.
Pop.
Jan. 31
1920.
Density
persq. m.
Lower Austria .
Upper Austria .
Salzburg
Styria ....
Carinthia .
Tirol ....
Vorarlberg .
7,f'39
4,626
2,762
6,304
3.017
4-787
1,005
3,525,094
853,006
214-737
952,590
299,091
304,713
145,408
3,313,155
857,234
213,877
946,721
297,257
306,153
I33,"33
434
185
77
151
99
64
132
Total
Carinthia, Zone I
Burgenland .
30,140
667
1,684*
6,294,639
72,138
345,082*
6,067,430
2OI
Total
32,491*
6.711,859*
* Approximate.
The returns show that, in consequence of the war and the shortage
of foodstuffs in all countries from 1910-20, the populations of Up-
per Austria and Tirol decreased greatly during that period (the
average decrease was 3-6%). In Vienna, the birth-rate had slightly
increased, but in 1921 was still lower than the death-rate. In 1910,
the proportion of males and females was as 1,000 to 1,024; ' n 1920
as l,oop to 1,089. The nationalities of the inhabitants are not
shown in the census of 1920; only the Czechs in Vienna and the
Slovenes in Carinthia form important minorities.
The population of the mountainous districts is sparse; only
Lower Austria, thanks to Vienna, shows a dense population. Ex-
cluding Vienna it would show only 194 inhabitants per sq. m. In
the area covered by the census of 1920, 39-8 % of the population
was in 3,551 communal districts having up to 2,000 inhabitants;
14-1% in 295 such districts having 2,001 to 5,000 inhabitants;
4-8% in 43 districts of 5,001 to 10,000 inhabitants; 2-8% in 13 dis-
tricts of 10,001 to 20,000 inhabitants; 3-0% in seven districts of
20,001 to 50,000 inhabitants, and 2-5% in two districts of 50,001 to
100,000 inhabitants; 33-0% were, however, in two districts of over
100,000 inhabitants (Vienna and Graz). In 1910 94-12% of the
population was Roman Catholic, 2-6 Evangelical, 2-98 Jewish, other
faiths 0-3 %.
Education. At the end of 1918 there were 4,102 free public
primary schools (Volksschulen), with 17,497 teachers and 788,891
pupils; 331 higher elementary middle-class schools (Burgerschulen),
with 3,310 teachers and 82,739 pupils; 362 private tower elementary
schools with 35,511 pupils; and 69 private higher elementary schools
with 6,114 pupils; 1,875 teachers served these private schools. In
1910 the average proportion of persons over 10 years of age who could
both read and write was 95-70 % (in Vorarlberg 99- 12 %, in Carinthia
85-43%); 0-80% (in Carinthia 2-28%) could only read and 3-5%
could neither read nor write. At the end of 1918 there were 37 in-
stitutions for training teachers 16 for men and 21 for women. In
addition to the elementary schools there are three groups of higher
schools: intermediate schools, professional and technical schools,
and " high " schools. There are also higher and lower schools for
forestry and agriculture. In 1917-8, 46 of the intermediate schools
(Mittelschulen) were Gymnasien (classical schools), 26 Realgymna-
sien, Reform Realgymnasien, etc. (in which Latin is taught) ; 39
Realschulen (modern, without Latin) and 26 Madchenlyzeen (girls'
colleges) with, together, 3,135 teachers and 40,147 pupils. Of the
girls' colleges, one ranked as a Gymnasium and two as Realgymna-
sien. But girls are required to attend the other intermediate schools ;
the number of girls' colleges is diminishing. The churches have
charge of religious instruction in the elementary and intermediate
schools. In 1917-8, there were 9 higher and 32 second-class com-
mercial schools, 19 higher technical schools and 53 special technical
schools; and 4 intermediate and 38 lower agricultural and forestry
schools.
The higher educational establishments are: Three universities
(Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck), each with four faculties Catholic
theological, law and political sciences, medicine, and philosophy;
two technical colleges (Vienna and Graz) ; the Evangelical theological
faculty in Vienna, and that of Catholic theology in Salzburg. There are
also in Vienna the high schools of commerce, agriculture and vet-
erinary science, the consular academy, the academy of plastic arts,
the special school for medal and stamp engraving, the academy of
music and graphic arts, and at Leoben the college of mining.
Agriculture and Forestry. In the returns according to occupations
taken in 1910, it appeared that 40-14% of the population was en-
gaged in agriculture and forestry, 34-81% in manufacture, 17-40%
in trade, and 7-65 % in other occupations. Not taking Vienna into
account, 56-36% was engaged in agriculture and forestry. In
1900, 10-4% of the land was unproductive (in Tirol 23-7 %; in Lower
Austria 3-7 %).
Of the productive areas, 25-6% was arable (in Lower Austria
45-2% and in Vorarlberg 3-4%), 1-7% gardens and vineyards (in
Lower Austria 3-5% and in Vorarlberg 0-2%), 12-4% meadow (in
Upper Austria 20-1% and in Tirol 7-4%), 17-8% grazing-lands
(Vorarlberg 51-3% and Upper Austria 2-7%), 42-5% forest (Styria
54-4% and Vorarlberg 29-4%). The high Alpine lands of Vorarlberg,
Tirol and Salzburg are characterized by the smallness of their total
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
345
cultivated area and their large expanse of pasturage, and the country
of the Danube valley by its large area of arable and small amount of
meadow-land. The territories of Styria and Carinthia have an inter-
mediate character, being mostly thickly wooded.
The chief crops are rye, oats, barley, potatoes, maize, pulse, tur-
nips and flax; but the supply falls far short of the demand. In 1913
3'5 % of the arable land lay fallow, and in 1918 no less than 17-5 %.
Fruit-growing is wide-spread, but vine-culture has attained impor-
tance in Lower Austria only. The timber output, on the other hand,
is very important, the forests in 1910 covering 11,912 sq. m., of
which 8.576 were covered with pine forest and 926 with de-
ciduous trees only. Stock-raising is important in many districts,
but in 1921 by no means met demands. Excellent breeds of cattle
are reared in Vorarlberg (Montafon breed), Tirol (Tuxertal, Puster-
tal, etc., breeds), Carinthia and Styria (Noric Alpine breed). In
1918, there were 1,841,883 head of cattle (of which 901,894. were
milch-cows) and 1,269,875 swine. Good breeds of horses are raised,
especially in Salzburg (Pinzgau breed), but the total number scarcely
reached 200,000. There were some 300,000 sheep and a slightly
smaller number of goats. Poultry abounds (some six million head
in 1918). Bee-culture thrives in Carinthia and Styria in combina-
tion with the cultivation of buckwheat.
Minerals. -The mining output of 1915 included some 75,000 tons
of coal (almost all from Lower Austria), 2-4 million tons of brown
coal (1-8 from Styria), 1-8 million tons of iron ore (almost all from
Styria), 17,000 tons of copper ore (almost all from Salzburg),
12,500 tons of lead ore (almost all from Carinthia), 14,000 tons of
graphite (almost all from Styria), considerable quantities of mag-
nesite (from Styria and Lower Austria), some sulphur and ores of
zinc and antimony, and (from Styria) bitumen. The output of salt
was 160,000 tons; of which 100,000 tons were produced in Upper
Austria, the remainder in Styria, Salzburg and Tirol. Natural gas
is obtained at Wels in Upper Austria.
The most important mines are: The iron mines in the Styrian
Erzberg (Eisenerz and Vordernberg) and those of Hiittenberg in
Carinthia; the copper mines of Mitterberg in Salzburg; the lead
mines of Bleiberg in Carinthia; and the brown-coal mines of Koflach
and Voitsberg, Wies and Eibiswald, Fohnsdorf and Leoben, in
Styria, Wolfsegg in Upper Austria. The salt mines have already been
mentioned. The smelting industries produced 500,000 tons of pig
iron (almost exclusively in Styria), some 5,000 tons of copper (in
Salzburg), about 8,000 tons of lead (in Carinthia), besides copper
sulphate, mineral colours, a little silver and a very little gold. The
output decreased after 1915 but was recovering in 1921. With the
exception of iron ore and magnesite, the minerals do not suffice to
meet the needs of Austria herself ; she can only supply one-seventh
part of the coal she requires.
Manufactures. The industries of Vienna are very varied. In-
dustrial areas of the first rank are: Lower Austria, Vorarlberg and
Upper Styria; next to them come Upper Austria and Middle Styria.
The largest iron works are in Styria (Eisenberg, Vordernberg, Hie-
flau, Donawitz, Zeltweg, Kapfenberg, Miirzzuschlag) ; in Lower
Austria (Waidhofen an der Ybbs) ; in Upper Austria (Linz, Wels).
There are also machine factories in the above territories, especially
in the neighbourhood of Vienna. Iron smallware, such as scythes
and sickles, is chiefly made in the districts along the border between
Upper and Lower Austria and Styria ; Steyr is an important centre.
Locomotives are made in Vienna, Wiener Neustadt, Graz and else-
where; small arms in Steyr, Vienna and Ferlach; carriages and
automobiles in Vienna and Graz; bicycles at Steyr and Graz; river
boats at Linz. Lower Austria (Berndorf and elsewhere) is noted for
the manufacture of base metal goods. Carinthia produces leaden
articles.
The cotton and woollen industries are important, especially in
the Vienna district, Vorarlberg and near Linz and Graz. Important,
also, are the jute industry of Lower Austria and the manufactures
of machine-made knitted goods in Vorarlberg. The coarser kinds
of woollen cloth are made in Tirol and Vorarlberg; clothing, silk
goods and articles of luxury of all kinds are made in Vienna, hats in
Vienna and Graz. Vienna is also noted for the manufacture of
furniture. The wood, cellulose, pasteboard and paper, and paper-
goods industries of Lower Austria, Styria and Upper Austria are
very important. Leather and leather goods are chiefly produced in
Lower Austria; shoes and gloves in Vienna. The Vienna district
and the foot-hills of the Alps are flour-milling centres, while distilling
and malting are chiefly carried out in Vienna. The chemical in-
dustry is notably active in Vienna and its neighbourhood; also the
manufacture of colours and varnishes. The manufacture of ex-
. plosives is centred in Middle Styria (Deutsch-Landsberg), and
there are chemical works in the Alps, when water-power is available.
The pottery and glass-making industries are also noteworthy.
Vienna is the chief centre of printing and the graphic arts, and of
artistic trades generally.
The manufacture of tobacco is a State monopoly (there are fac-
tories in Vienna, Hainburg, Fiirstenfeld and other places). (R. Si.)
CONSTITUTION AND ADMINISTRATION
The collapse of the Austrian Empire in the autumn of 1918
was an event which all nationalities living within its frontiers
anticipated. They were thus prepared, sooner or later, to set
themselves up as independent states. Serious resistance was not
to be expected, as the military debdcle had been so complete
as to prevent any possibility of stopping the process of disin-
tegration. A premonitory symptom had been the Imperial
Manifesto of Oct. 16 1918, in which the Emperor Charles an-
nounced his resolve, in accordance with the wish of his peoples,
to transform Austria into a Federal State in which every nation-
ality was to form a separate state-entity within its own ethno-
graphical limits. Not many years previously such a manifesto
might have initiated a happy development by which the World
War would have been avoided and Austria perhaps been con-
solidated. But now it was too late, and the manifesto was thus
no more than a signal given in the highest quarters of the ap-
proaching general dissolution.
Independently of the Imperial Manifesto, and by a procedure
purely revolutionary, the German members of the former
Austrian Reichsrat, on Oct. 21 1918, established themselves as
the Provisional National Assembly of German-Austria, and as
such established the new state of " German-Austria," for which
a provisional constitution was adopted on Oct. 30. The new
constitution, which was republican, was carried at once, and
without the least resistance being encountered, though it was
not till Nov. 1 1 that the Emperor Charles issued a proclamation,
countersigned by his last prime minister, Lammasch, in which
he declared himself ready to acknowledge beforehand whatever
decision German-Austria might come to concerning her future
constitution, and renounced all share in affairs of State. The
revolution out of which the new German-Austria emerged was
thus not only bloodless, but was carried through without any open
struggle. It was, none the less, a revolution; for the constitu-
tion of German-Austria was not evolved by any legal process
out of the constitution of old Austria. Between the two lies
the break in the continuity of constitutional practice, and it is
for this reason that German-Austria cannot, any more than
Czechoslovakia, be looked upon as identical with the old
Austria.
The Provisional Constitution. The first provisional consti-
tution of German-Austria, created by the resolution of Oct.
30 1918 and supplemented by several later laws (above all,
that of Nov. 14 1918 on the taking-over of State authority in
the Territories, and that of Nov. 19 1918), exhibits an extreme
type of democratic parliamentary government. The supreme
power in the State, executive as well as legislative, was con-
ferred upon the Provisional National Assembly. This exercised
its legislative power directly through its enactments. Its exec-
utive power, however, was exercised through a Council of
State (Staatsraf) elected from among its members, the three
parliamentary parties Christian Socialists, Social Democrats
and German Nationalists being proportionally represented.
The Council of State thus formed a parliamentary committee
which functioned as a sort of head of the State.
In contradistinction to the old Austrian Reichsrat, with
its Upper and Lower House, the first legislative body of German-
Austria was organized on the single-chamber system. Each of
the three parties elected a president to act as speaker of the
parliament. These three presidents were coequal and occupied
the chair week by week in an agreed rotation.
The legislative power of the Provisional National Assembly
was restricted, in that legislation on certain 'matters, which
under the old system appertained to the autonomy of the so-
called Crown Territories (Kronldnder) of I he Austrian Empire,
was reserved for the Provisional Territorial Assemblies, which
had taken the place of the former Territorial Diets (Landtage)
in which the functions of self-government had been vested.
For these, under the style of "Territories" (Lander), remained
within their old frontiers though, of course, only to the extent
in which they formed part of the new State: viz. Lower and
Upper Austria, Salzburg and Vorarlberg, in their entirety;
Styria and Carinthia, with the exception of areas inhabited
by Yugoslavs; Tirol, without its southern part mainly inhabited
by Italians. Out of the former " crown lands, " Bohemia,
346
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
Moravia and Silesia, which were inhabited by about 35 million
Germans, two new Territories were carved: German-Bohemia
and Sudetenland, each with a Provisional Territorial Assembly.
In actual practice, however, the executive power of German-
Austria could not extend to these Territories, as they were
held by the Czechoslovak State, to which they were eventually
assigned. As the revolutionary constitution of the Territorial
Assemblies and of the Territories themselves took place at the
same time as that of the National Assembly and of the State,
but independently, the limits between Territorial legislation
and State legislation were not clearly defined from the very
outset. The Territories became the centres of a movement in
favour of an extreme form of federalism, and this led to the
constitution of Austria being ultimately that of a Federal
State.
A State law required essentially only a resolution of the
National Assembly, which had to be registered and attested
by the Council of State and published in the Government law
gazette.
The Council of State had a suspensive veto on legislation,
but this was overridden by the simple passage of a measure a
second time through the National Assembly, a bill then passed
at once becoming law. According to the constitution a Terri-
torial law to be valid required not only to be passed by the
Territorial Diet but to receive the assent of the Council of State,
which, in this as in other respects, had taken the place occupied
by the Emperor under the old Austrian constitution. In view
of the actual power of the Territories, however, the Council of
State was unable to assert its right of veto.
Apart from the 20 delegates, and an equal number of sub-
stitutes, elected as already described, the Council of State in-
cluded the three presidents of the National Assembly, who
presided over it in rotation. Though the Council, thus con-
stituted, was the supreme organ of parliamentary Government,
it did not itself carry on the administration directly, but through
a Cabinet, nominated by it, consisting of so-called secretaries of
State, who acted as heads of departments. The Cabinet was
also to be presided over by the presidents of the National
Assembly in rotation, and it was only in the absence of these
that the State Chancellor, whose functions were in fact those of
minister-president, took the chair. The Cabinet was subject
to the principle of ministerial responsibility, which could be
enforced in the special court for dealing with infringements of
the laws and constitution (Staatsgerichtshof) , the functions of
which had originally been transferred to a parliamentary com-
mittee of twenty.
The whole machinery of administration was taken over from
the old Austria almost without a change. Only in the case of the
offices forming an intermediate link between the administrations
of the Territories and the State was there any drastic reform.
Each one of the so-called " Crown Territories " (Kronlander),
of which the Austrian monarchy was composed, constituted the
area of an intermediate administration, at the head of which was
a governor or lieutenant (Statthaltcr) nominated by the Emperor
and subordinate to the central Government. Side by side with
this, however, the Territories existed as autonomous bodies
politic, with an administrative system of their own in all matters
not falling withi n the province of the central administration. This
autonomous administration was exercised by the Territorial
Diet (Landtag) through a Territorial Committee (Landesaus-
schuss) elected from among its members and presided over by the
president of the Diet, who was nominated by the Emperor.
This parallelism of the autonomous and State administrations
in the Territories, with the rivalry between them, had been one
of the worst evils of the old monarchy; it was done away with
under the provisional constitution of German- Austria by the
simultaneous democratization of the intermediate adminis-
trative system. The whole administration in the Territories
was declared to be a State concern; the autonomous and State
administrative organizations were amalgamated and subor-
dinated to a Territorial Government, consisting of the head of
the Territory (Landeshauptmanri) and several substitutes
elected by the Territorial Assembly from among its own mem-
bers. This Territorial Government was subordinated to the
central State Government in all matters of Territorial ad-
ministration, but there were no legal provisions for making this
subordination effective. The central State Government could
not depose a Territorial Government, nor could it in any way
call it to account for disobedience; it was, in short, wholly
dependent on the goodwill of the Territorial Government, which,
since it was elected by the Territorial Diet, felt itself politically
responsible to this alone. This led to a very serious loosening,
almost indeed to the complete dissolution, of the administrative
system of the State, and was one of the factors which ultimately
led to the adoption of the Federal constitution.
As regards the organization of justice and the relations of the
citizen to the State, the new provisional constitution confined
itself to adopting, more or less unaltered, the respective rules of
the old Austrian constitution. In the same way all the remaining
private and public law of the monarchy, in so far as it was not
inconsistent with the new constitution, was expressly taken over
under an article of the provisional constitution, and thus,
formally at least, given a fresh validity.
The main task of the Provisional National Assembly, in
addition to the creation of a provisional constitution, was to
prepare the way for the Constituent Assembly, for which the
framing of a definitive constitution was reserved. According
to the electoral law passed by the Provisional Assembly, the
Constituent Assembly was to consist of 225 members, who were
to be elected in 38 constituencies on the basis of equal, secret
and personal suffrage for all citizens at least 20 years of age,
without distinction of sex, and on the system of proportional
representation. Actually, however, only 170 members were
returned, as no elections could be held in the territories occupied
by Czechoslovakia, Italy and Yugoslavia. Of the 170 deputies,
72 were Social Democrats, 69 Christian Socialists, 26 German
Nationalists, the three remaining being a Bourgeois-Democrat,
a Czechoslovak, and a Jewish Nationalist (the two latter
having supporters in Vienna only).
The Constituent Assembly. The Constituent National As-
sembly met at Vienna on March 4 1919. Before settling the
definitive constitution it made one or two not unimportant
modifications in the provisional constitution (laws of March 4
on Popular Representation and the State Government). Above
all, the relation between State and Territorial legislation was
regulated. In the first place it was decided that all legislative
acts of the Territorial Diets were to be submitted to the central
State Government, to which was assigned the power of suspen-
sive veto and, in the event of such acts being contrary to the
constitution, the right to challenge them before the court
established to try constitutional cases (Verfassungsgerichtshof).
Acts of the Territorial Diet needing the cooperation of the central
Government for their execution were made subject to the
endorsement of the latter. Drastic alterations were made in the
organization of the executive power. The Council of State,
with its directory, was abolished, and its governmental and
executive powers transferred to the Cabinet, which was hence-
forth to be directly elected by the National Assembly. The
election of the Cabinet was entrusted to the Principal Com-
mittee (Hauptausschuss), itself elected from the body of the
Parliament, the three chief parties being proportionally repre-
sented. This Committee, through which Parliament exercised
a decisive influence over the executive and without whose con-
sent no important act of Government could be undertaken, to a
certain extent took the place of the Council of State, but, unlike
this, without any public appearance of functioning as the head
of the State. These functions representation of the State in
its relation with foreign Powers, more especially the ratification
of treaties, the nomination of officials, the right of pardon, etc.
were entrusted to the president of the National Assembly; so
that in this way, too, the character of parliamentary Govern-
ment found outward expression.
The conclusion of the Treaty of St. Germain compelled a,
further alteration of the constitution of German- Austria. By
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
347
the law of Oct. i igig (on the form of the State) the frontiers
of the State were legally defined in accordance with the pro-
visions of the treaty, i.e. the Territories assigned to the other
" succession states " were cut off. In these Territories there
lived, in a solid group, nearly half as many Germans as the treaty
had left to German-Austria, now sadly diminished. The name
of the State, which had hitherto been German-Austria (Denlsch-
ostcrrcich), was legally altered to " the Republic of Austria "
(Rcpublik Oesterreich) , for it was only under this name that
German-Austria could obtain international recognition. The
sentence " German-Austria is a constituent part of the German
Reich," which had hitherto been embodied in the constitution
but had represented an aspiration rather than a fact, was now
excised, in accordance with Art. 88 of the Treaty of St. Germain,
which decreed the " independence " of German-Austria.
Of the remaining provisions of the treaty affecting the
constitution of German-Austria, attention need only be called
to those dealing with the protection of minorities, which did
not, however, add anything essential to the safeguards for
nationality and creed secured by the old Austrian fundamental
law of Dec. 21 1867 on the general rights of citizens of the State,
which had been adopted in the German-Austrian constitution.
The Federal Constitution. It was only under the greatest
possible political difficulties that the Constituent Assembly
could be brought to fulfil its proper function, that of framing a
definitive constitution. From the very first the Federal character
of this constitution was above all determined by the fact that
this was the only possible way of overcoming the ever-increasing
tension between the Territories and the State as a whole. More-
over, the provisional constitution had already contained certain
Federal elements, and these had now to be developed in order
to give the Territories, constitutionally as well as in fact, the
position which they claimed.
From the point of view of technical organization a Federal
State may exhibit one of two types of character. In one the
legislative and executive power may be divided between a central
legislature and executive, whose activity constitutionally covers
the whole State, and a number of local legislatures and executives,
with jurisdiction over territorial subdivisions of the State,
which are known as subordinate states. In the other, the legis-
latures and executives of the subordinate states may share the
legislative and executive powers of the organs of the central
State. The first of these types was already exhibited in the
provisional constitution of German-Austria. To make the con-
stitution of the Federal State complete, the Austrian Republic
really only needed to give the subordinate states, i.e. the so-
called Territories (Lander), a share in the legislative and exec-
utive powers of the central organs of the federation or super-
state. The federal constitution created by the law of Oct. i
1920, however, was not confined to completing the provisional
constitution by adding provisions to this effect; it was an
effort at a complete reconstruction of the State, in which an
attempt was made to balance the strengthening of the federalistic
elements by an equivalent elaboration of a centralized legal
jurisdiction over legislative and executive acts.
The division of legislative and executive functions between
the super-state, known as the Federation (Bund), and the sub-
ordinate states, known as Territories (Lander), resulted in the
classification of affairs into four groups. With regard to the first
group, which embraced the most important functions of the
State e.g. civil and criminal law, jurisdiction, foreign relations,
etc. legislative and executive powers are reserved wholly to
the Federation, the Territories being completely excluded. In
the case of the second group, the Federation alone has the power
to make laws, but their execution is the affair of the Territories.
In the case of the third group, the Federation has the power
of legislation in so far as it may lay down general principles,
but it is for the Territories to give these principles practical
effect in laws and to see to their execution. All matters which
do not fall under one or other of these groups constitute the
fourth group, which is wholly within the legislative and executive
province of the Territories.
The legislative organ of the Federation is the National Council
(Nationalral), of which the composition is the same as that of
the National Assembly under the provisional constitution, and
the Federal Council (Bundesrat). In the Federal Council the
individual Territories are represented in proportion to the
number of citizens customarily domiciled in them, a principle
differing from that of Switzerland and the United States, where,
in the Staatenhaus and Senate respectively, the subordinate
states have an equal voice whatever their size, but approximat-
ing to the constitution of the German Reich, under which
the subordinate states were from the first represented in thi
Bundesral, as later in the Reichsrat, according to their size.
According to the Austrian constitution, however, the repre-
sentation of the Territories in the Bundesral is by no means
strictly proportional. The largest Territory sends 12 repre-
sentatives, the rest in proportion to the number of their citizens;
but no Territory sends less than three representatives, although
the three smallest Territories Tirol, Salzburg and Carinthia
would not be entitled to so many were the principle of propor-
tional representation strictly carried out. In order to correct
the disproportion between Lower Austria, with its population
of some 3,000,000, and the smaller Territories, whose population
does not exceed 140,000 and 400,000, the Territory of Lower
Austria was divided into two parts the Federal capital, Vienna,
and the Territory of Lower Austria. Vienna, with its 1,800,000
inhabitants, is the largest subordinate state.
As the Federal Council is fundamentally concerned only with
legislation, and only in very exceptional cases with executive
affairs, its members are deputed not by the Governments of the
Territories but by the legislative bodies, which are again styled
Landtage (Territorial Diets), and they are elected on the system
of proportional representation. As a legislative organ the
Federal Council is in no way placed on an equality with the
National Council; it has a suspensive veto, but if the National
Council again passes a bill thus vetoed, it becomes law ipso
facto. A further alteration of the legislative machinery estab-
lished by the provisional constitution was the introduction of the
constitutional referendum and of the right of popular initiative.
The executive power of the Federation is exercised by the
Federal Government, whose members are called Federal ministers
and meet under the presidency of the Federal chancellor or vice-
chancellor; they are assisted in their several departments by
secretaries of State. The Cabinet is composed in the same way
as under the provisional constitution election by the National
Council on the recommendation of the Principal Committee. An
important alteration in the provisional constitution was that
the executive functions hitherto assigned to the president of
the National Assembly were transferred to a special head of
the State, the Federal president, elected for one year by the
National Council and Federal Council meeting in joint session
under the name of Federal Assembly. To this Federal Assembly
the president is responsible.
The executive powers of the Federation are exercised in the
Territories by Federal organs subordinated to the Federal Govern-
ment, or, as a general rule, by the organs of the Territorial
Government in the sphere of activity devolved upon them.
In the latter case the Territories function as organs of the
Federation and are subordinate to it. For this reason the
Federation is interested in the constitutions of the Territories,
and the Federal constitution therefore contains far-reaching
provisions as to the organization of the Territories, and it is only
within the limits of these provisions that the Territories are
free to settle their own constitutions. So far as their legislatures
are concerned, the Federal constitution prescribes the single-
chamber system for the Diets, as now established, and their elec-
j tion on the same franchise basis as the National Council. The
Territorial Government is to be elected by the Diet, and is to
consist of the Landeshauptmann and a number of other members.
In respect of the spheres of Federal activity assigned to the
Territories by devolution from the Federal Government that
is to say, those in which the Territories act as the organs of this
Government it is the Landeshaupimann and his subordinate3
348
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
who are alone concerned. In such cases the ultimate adminis-
trative authority is held to lie with the Federal Government,
to which the Landeshauptmann is responsible. The Federal
Government is now in a position to enforce this responsibility
by prosecution in the court established to try constitutional
offences (Verfassungsgerichtshof). The Federal Government also
has an influence on legislation in the Territories. It is true that
' it can only exercise a suspensive veto over enactments of the
Territorial Diets, which have all to be submitted to it; but in
cases where Federal cooperation is needed in the execution of
such enactments, these may not be made public without its
consent. In the case of enactments, already published, which
are contrary to the constitution the Federal Government has in
reserve the possibility of challenging them in the Constitutional
Court.
The weightiest influence of the Federal constitution is exercised
through the special courts of law established under it to decide
cases of alleged violation of the constitution in matters of ad-
ministration or legislation. Anyone whose rights have been
violated by an illegal decision or act of the Federal or Territorial
authorities, and who has failed to obtain redress through the
ordinary administrative channels, can appeal to the court for
the trial of administrative cases (Verwaltungsgerichtshof). This
court has power to pronounce on the legality of such decisions
or acts, and in certain circumstances to amend them. The
members of the court, like all the Federal organs, are nominated
by the president on the recommendation of the Federal Govern-
ment, but this recommendation needs, in respect of half the
members, the consent of the Principal Committee of the National
Council and, in respect of the other half, that of the Federal
Council.
The second court administering public law is the Constitutional
Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof). Of this the president and vice-
president, as well as half the members, are elected by the
National Council, the other half by the Federal Council. Its
primary function is to decide disputes between authorities as
to their competence. As the State Court it furthermore hears
charges brought by the National Council against Federal minis-
ters, by the Federal Assembly against the P'ederall president,
by the Diets against members of the Territorial Governments.
As a court of ordinance ( Verordnungsgerichtshof) it judges cases
of illegal decrees appealed at the instance of the Federal
courts or of those of the Territories. Lastly, as a constitutional
court in the narrowest sense, it decides, at the instance of the
Federal or the Territorial Governments, whether Federal or
Territorial laws are or are not constitutional. It has the right
to quash an illegal decree or an unconstitutional law. The Con-
stitutional Court also acts as the central court for hearing
petitions against elections to all bodies elected by the general
vote. It also judges in cases of violation of international law.
The law of the Federal constitution of Oct. i 1920 did not
complete the new structure of the Austrian constitution. Several
special laws were still needed, aiming more especially at the
reform of the administration both in the Federation and in the
Territories. It was hoped that, in the spirit of democratic self-
government, this administrative reform would follow the
lines of local government in England.
Authorities. See Kelsen, Die Verfassungsgeselze der RepuUik
Oeslerreich (1919), and Die Verfassung Deutschoesterreichs (Jahrbuch
des offentlichen Rechts, vol. 9, 1920); Merkl, Die Verfassung der
Republik Deutschoesterreich (Zeitschrift fur offentliches Recht, vols.
I and 2, 1920). (H. K.)
Finance and Banking. When in the last days of Oct. 1918
the various parts of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy con-
stituted themselves on one side independent states (the Austrian
Republic, the Czechoslovakian Republic, Hungary, and the
republic of West-Ukraine), and for the other part decided on
joining already established nations (Italy, Rumania, Yugo-
slavia), or joined territories detached from other states and
forming new states (Poland), there existed in all these ter-
ritories one uniform paper currency in circulation, i.e. the
notes of the Austro-Hungarian Bank, enjoying a fixed rate. It
was clear that such conditions could not be maintained for
any length of time, and that, in view of the connexion between
paper money of fixed rate and State finance, it was impossible
to continue this unity of currency. All the states concerned,
which succeeded the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, were in
such financial straits that they considered the continued recourse
to the issue of notes a necessity. The note-printing press, how-
ever, was in Vienna, and the Austro-Hungarian Bank was actually
under the deciding influence of the new German-Austrian Gov-
ernment. It was urgently necessary for the new states to obtain
an independent currency, i.e. to make themselves independent,
so far as the printing of notes was concerned, of the Vienna note-
printing press. This was comparatively easy for those who had
joined already existing states, but more difficult for the newly
formed states which were obliged in the first instance to create
a new currency. In these conditions the money problem, at
the moment of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Mon-
archy, was merely a technical problem of printing, and the
question how to obtain printing-plates, banknote-paper and
printing-ink appeared for the moment the most important
points of currency policy. After the Italian Government as early
as Nov. 1918 and the Rumanian Government in Feb. 1919 had
made the necessary preparations to substitute respectively the
lira and the lei for the Austro-Hungarian " krone," in the
territories occupied by them, the Government of the Serbo-
Croatian-Slovenian State proceeded in Jan. 1919 to mark the
Austro-Hungarian notes circulating within their territory by
stamping them. On Feb. 25 1919 the Czechoslovakian Gov-
ernment folio-wed suit by stamping the kronen notes circulating
in their country. Then the Austrian Government could not
remain idle. It could not wait until all the other states had
passed from the Austro-Hungarian krone to a national krone.
It had to get rid of the Austro-Hungarian krone, in order to
avoid the danger of such notes as for one reason or another had
not been stamped by the other states returning to German-
Austria and there increasing the inflation. The kronen notes
circulating in German-Austria were therefore also specially
marked, and, by a regulation of March 25 1919 having the
force of law, it was decreed that all notes not so marked would
not be legal tender within the German-Austrian State.
A decree of Feb. 27 1919 had ordered the stamping over of all
notes of the Austro-Hungarian Bank circulating within the ter-
ritory of the German-Austrian Republic, with the exception of
the notes for one and two kronen (which also subsequently were
ordered to be stamped). With the execution of this regulation
the German-Austrian currency was separated from that of the
other " succession states," and there was only one special kronen
note, which was stamped as recognized legal tender for Austria.
The German-Austrian Republic also used the note-printing
press as its chief expedient for covering the national expenses.
At the time of the carrying-out of the stamping process, at the
end of June 1919, the stamped German-Austrian notes in cir-
culation amounted to 7-6 milliards of kronen; at the end of 1920
the circulation had risen to 30 milliards. In consequence there
was a further depreciation in the exchange. On Dec. 31 1:920 the
dollar was quoted in Vienna at 668 kronen, as compared to 5
kronen in pre-war times.
The republic of Austria at first not only maintained the
system of restricting exchange operations, introduced under the
Empire during the war, but even made it more severe. Only in
the summer of 1920 was any relaxation permitted, in so far as
the forced release of foreign currencies obtained for goods ex-
ported was generally cancelled. In Nov. 1920 further modifica-
tions were made, so that by the end of 1920 the only restriction
of money transactions with foreign countries remaining in
force was the prohibition to import or export kronen notes.
The regular exchange operations on the Vienna Bourse were,
however, not revived. They were replaced by a system of
restricted exchange business under the special supervision of
the still existing Devisenzentrale.
The general political conditions and the depreciation of money
had led to such an impasse that up to 1921 the whole financial
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
349
system of the republic was in a state of uncertainty. On the
one hand, the Austrian State, by the peace treaty of St. Germain,
was made liable toward foreign countries for an amount not
specifically determined. On the other, it was found neces-
sary for political reasons to introduoe a system of providing
the population with cheap victuals. As these had to be obtained
almost exclusively against payment in foreign currency abroad,
and it was desired to sell at home at the lowest possible prices,
there resulted a considerable discrepancy between the expenses
necessitated by this part of the State budget and the income
derived. At the beginning of 1921 the deficit of the Austrian
budget was estimated at hardly less than 50 milliards of kronen
per annum. To cover this deficit the Austrian State, with the
help of the Allied Powers, contracted loans abroad, and for the
rest relied on the note-printing press. Only a small part of the
expenses of the State could be covered by taxation, notwith-
standing that all direct taxes were greatly increased and a new
direct tax, an extraordinary property tax, was specially intro-
duced in 1920. Of this property tax, the fixing of which required
enormous preparation, it was permitted to make prepayments
in Feb. 1920 under specially favourable conditions. Such pre-
payments brought in over 7 milliards of kronen, but more than
half of these prepayments were made in war loan. The situation
of the Austrian State budget was therefore in 1921 a most un-
favourable one. An improvement could only be expected on
the one hand by doing away with the system, which could not
be permanently maintained, of providing necessaries for the
population below cost price at the expense of the State, and on
the other by a radical reform of the many State and municipal
enterprises (post, telegraph, telephone, State railways, salt-
mines, tobacco manufactories, town railways, illumination and
power works), (L. v. M.)
HISTORY
When in Oct. 1918 the break-up of Austria-Hungary became
a matter of common knowledge (see AUSTRIAN EMPIRE), the
Germans of Austria also announced their right to self-determina-
tion. The impulse towards this movement came from the left
wing of the Social Democrats who occupied the same standpoint
as the Independent Socialists of the German Reich. They had
long opposed the view that the dissolution of the Habsburg
Monarchy, which was not highly industrialized, and the annexa-
tion to a strongly socialistic Germany of the Austrian territories
with a German population (the Alpine territories, German
Bohemia, and the Sudetic territories), which would thereby be
rendered possible, must necessarily involve a proletarian policy;
and their views now completely gained the upper hand over
the Great Austrian tendencies within the party. The " pro-
visional National Assembly " of German-Austria at its first
session (Oct. 21 1918) did indeed regard its connexion with the
other national states of the old empire as not yet fully dissolved.
But only nine days later (Oct. 30 1918) the new State was con-
stituted in the fullest independence of the dynasty and of its
former companion states speaking other languages. The last
impulse towards this radical procedure had been given by
Andrassy's overtures for a separate peace, which were regarded
in wide circles in German-Austria as a betrayal by the Emperor
of the German people, and gave rise to revolutionary demon-
strations in Vienna. Under the influence of subsequent events
in Germany the Emperor Charles was compelled to renounce,
on Nov. ii 1918, the exercise of governmental functions, and
henceforward to recognize whatever form of government the
people might choose. The day after, under pressure from the
Social Democrats, the republic was proclaimed.
In the new free State all three parties the Christian Socialists,
German National party, and Social Democrats formally as-
sumed a share of the responsibility of government. Thus from
the outset power had passed almost entirely into the hands of the
Social Democrats. The bourgeois parties acquiesced all the
more willingly in this, since they were of opinion that only the
Labour party would be able to conjure away the dangers which
threatened from the break-up of the old army and of the old
authorities. The Social Democrats piloted the State skilfully
through the first great vicissitude, though naturally in accord-
ance with their own point of view. Above all, in order to check
any reactionary tendencies, they disbanded all bodies of troops
belonging to the old army on their return from the front, and
placed the newly formed militia (Volkswehr), manned by the
proletarian classes, under the leadership of councils of soldiers
who were faithfully devoted to them.
But the very first two months cost the young republic serious
losses of the territorial possessions which they had claimed on
the basis of the " right of self-determination." The Czechs
occupied not only all the Sudetic territories populated by Ger-
mans, but also a few strips of land on the borders of Lower
Austria. The Yugoslavs, going beyond the Slovene territories
of Southern Styria, stretched out their hands towards the purely
German towns of Marburg and Radkersburg. The repeated
attempts which they made early in 1919 to gain a footing also
in German portions of Carinthia were repulsed by the inhabitants,
accustomed as they were to war. From the beginning of the
Armistice German Southern Tirol with Botzen and Meran
found itself in Italian hands.
The " Constituent Assembly " was elected under the in-
fluence of the terrible economic consequences of the war and
of the break-up of the monarchy. The Social Democrats won
a " relative " majority, with 72 seats out of 170. They formed
a coalition for purposes of government with the second strongest
party, the Christian Socialists, who represented the peasant and
lower middle-class elements. At the head of the Cabinet was the
State Chancellor, Dr. Karl Renner, who had already directed
the Government since the revolution. 'The secretaryships of
State, which were of more political importance, were likewise
occupied by Social Democrats, who also set the pace in other
departments. Otto Bauer, who was followed in the Ministry
for Foreign Affairs as early as 1918 by Victor Adler, strove
with all his strength for a union of German-Austria with the
German Reich, in which endeavours he was supported by all
but a section of the Christian Socialists. The preliminary
negotiations conducted with Berlin early in 1919 met with a
favourable result. Bauer counted very much in his plans upon
the support of the Italians, to whom the Austrian policy of
union might be welcome for a variety of reasons. As to internal
policy, the object was to make the republican form of govern-
ment lastingly secure. The National Assembly set aside the
dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine, banished its members from
the country if they did not submit entirely to the laws of the
republic, confiscated a great part of its family domains, and
abolished the nobility. The leading party was particularly zeal-
ous in introducing numerous laws of a socialist nature, of which
the early part of 1919 was especially productive.
The alarming conditions of Austria came daily more darkly
into view. Famine and misery forced the State straight into the
abyss of serious social shocks. Soldiers and civilians, profession-
als and amateurs, seized at the means of self-protection. The
several Territories (Lander), in all of whose Diets with the ex-
ception of Lower Austria Christian Socialist majorities had
been sitting since the elections in the summer of 1919, put up
political and economic barriers against each other, and sealed
themselves off even more hermetically from Vienna. Both in
town and country party organizations of every sort interfered
in administration generally with the best intentions and this
resulted not infrequently in attacks on the freedom and property
of their fellow citizens. The State Government was meanwhile
powerless. The events in Budapest and Munich, where, in
March and April 1919 respectively, Soviet republics had been set
up, prompted to action the small Austrian Communist party,
which had seceded from the Socialists of the Radical Left during
the days of the revolution. In Vienna, on Easter Thursday
and on June 6 1919, excesses were committed in consequence of
the plots of native and foreign Communists, which led on both
occasions to loss of life. If more serious consequences were
avoided, this was as much due to the admirable police of Vienna
as to the quiet and reasonable attitude of the Socialist leaders,
350
who were conscious of their responsibility, and the good temper
of the German-Austrian populace. When it became clear that
the Communist disturbances were to no small extent fomented
by the Hungarian Mission in Austria, dissensions arose between
Vienna and Budapest, which were not settled till the Hungarian
Soviets replaced their envoy, who had been involved in the
affair, by a persona grata.
On May 12 1919 the State Chancellor, Dr. Renner, had gone
with a delegation to St. Germain-en-Laye to receive the terms
of the dictated peace. With the exception of the Magyars,
all the countries formerly under the same Government as the
German-Austrians had " associated " themselves with their
enemies in the World War. It was in no small degree due to
their counsels that the Treaty of Peace turned out to be even
more severe than that with Germany. In comparison with the
loss of former German territory and of 3,000,000 German-
Austrian subjects, combined with unprecedentedly heavy
economic burdens and restrictions, the acquisition of the Burgen-
land (German Western Hungary) and the promise of the
Entente to assist in the reconstruction of Austria seemed but
poor advantages, the value of which remained to be proved.
Otto Bauer recognized in the provisions of Article 88, which
specifically forbade Austria's union with Germany, and in the
fact that Italy, in spite of the Italophil attitude of the Vienna
Cabinet, annexed German Southern Tirol for good, a complete
defeat for his policy; and he resigned. Renner took over in per-
son the charge of foreign affairs. The Treaty of St. Germain
was signed on Sept. 20 1919, with a few small modifications of
the original draft; on Oct. 17 it was approved by the Con-
stituent Assembly; and in July 1920 it came into force. By
his open adhesion to " Westernism " and the policy of the
League of Nations, Renner made known Austria's honourable
intention of taking her stand entirely on the basis of the Peace
Treaty, in which case she hoped for help from the Entente in
her destitution, which had been made even deeper by the
operation of the Treaty. In Dec. 1919 the Chancellor found an
opportunity of making personal representations in Paris as to
the sufferings of his country; in Feb. 1920 other Austrian states-
men were in a position to do the same. Indeed, on more than
one occasion Austria received temporary assistance. Moreover,
the general right of the Entente to a mortgage on all Austria's
assets, provided for in the Peace Treaty, was so far limited
as to facilitate the acquisition from abroad of those commodities
which were most pressingly necessary for the moment. A special
" Austrian Section of the Reparations Commission " was ap-
pointed to study the measures most necessary for a lasting cure
for the ills of the body politic, and met in Vienna on April 17
1920 under the presidency of Sir William Goode. The inter-
national commissions which were to supervise the disarming of
Austria by land, water and air, also came into operation. And
thus Austria's sovereignty no longer existed except in appearance.
Renner's first Coalition Cabinet was followed in Oct. 1919 by
a second one composed of the same parties. It had also the
task of establishing normal relations with the neighbouring
states. The visit made by the Chancellor to Rome in April
1920 on the invitation of Italy on which occasion he was also
received at the Vatican was a not unfavourable introduction
to these efforts. Among the " succession states " it was chiefly
Czechoslovakia to which the Social Democratic party, which
was as influential as ever, felt itself drawn, not only for economic
reasons but also owing to the many points of contact which
existed between its standpoint, with regard to Central-European
problems, and that of circles in Prague. The frontier questions
raised by the Peace Treaty were not settled in favour of Austria,
which lost among other places the important railway centre of
Gmund. In the economic negotiations advantage was taken by
the Czechs of Austria's dependence on the Bohemian coal
supply. On the other hand, in certain matters (naturalization,
option, protection of minorities, division of collections and
archives) a compromise was arrived at.
On the southern boundary Yugoslavia had to give up the
strip of Styrian territory which had not been assigned her by
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
the Treaty of St. Germain. The Klagenfurt basin also re-
mained Austrian, thanks to the result of the plebiscite of Oct.
10 1920, in which 60% of the votes were cast against Yugoslavia
Trade relations were established with the kingdom of the
Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, as with other states, at first on a
basis of exchange of commodities, but were later regulated by
commercial treaties.
A variety of disturbances occurred from time to time in the
relations with Hungary, where, at the beginning of Aug. 1919, the
Soviet system had broken down. While the Christian Socialists
viewed the new course of events in Hungary with sympathy,
the Social Democrats and those with Great German sympathies
the latter because they saw their national aims endangered
were anxious lest the revolution in Budapest might bring about
a restoration of the Habsburgs in the basin of the Danube.
Causes of discord soon made their appearance From the outset
Budapest offered a scarcely veiled resistance to 'the cession of
the Burgenland (German Western Hungary) to Austria. Austria
declined to hand over Bela Kun and the other former " people's
commissaries " who had taken refuge in Vienna; it even found
itself bound; in consequence of the Copenhagen Agreement
concluded with the party in power at Moscow, to aid the escape
of the Hungarian Soviet leaders to Russia, in order to obtain
the return of their own prisoners who were still kept in Russia.
Only a few weeks before (June 20 1920) the International Trade
Union Congress at Amsterdam had threatened Hungary with
a boycott. Since this had only been exercised with severity in
the case of Austria, the Hungarians regarded the Social Demo-
crats of Vienna as having provoked it. The growing estrange-
ment found expression in a few unfortunate frontier incidents,
from the Hungarian side. It also had its effect upon the internal
politics of Austria, for the Social Democrats sought to prove
from documentary evidence that Hungarian Government
officials, in their various conspiracies against the Austrian
Republic, had relied on the support of the Vienna Christian
Socialists.
At this point the coalition between the two great parties
could no longer oe maintained. The Christian Socialists had
gradually become sick of it since the Social Democrats would
not allow them as much influence as seemed in accordance with
the increasing tendency of public opinion towards the Right.
On the other hand, the Social Democrats, by their participation
in a " bourgeois " Government, gave the Radical elements in
their own party, as well as the Communists, a handle for attack-
ing them, which threatened the carefully preserved united
front of Social Democracy with serious danger. In view of this
tension, an occasion which was not in itself of any special im-
portance sufficed to split the Government coalition on June
10 1920. Otto Bauer could justly remark, on reviewing the past,
that his party, by its cooperation with the Christian Socialists,
had achieved as much as was possible for a beginning. The
Republican legislation had answered, in so far as that was
within the bounds of possibility, to the desires and interests of
the urban proletariat. 'The position of the labouring class had
also been recognized by the State. In the militia question the
Social Democrats had entirely triumphed. Under the impres-
sion of the recent " Kapp-Putsch " in Germany they succeeded
in forcing through a defense-law, which set up a machinery of
soldiers' councils for the professional army provided for by the
Peace Treaty; secured all political liberties, including also the
' right of coalition to those who had completed their service in the
defense force, and by this means assured to the Social Democratic
party for a long time to come predominant influence over the
State's best source of power. As a set-off to these successes the
Christian Socialists had managed with difficulty to protect their
peasant franchise against inconvenient innovations, and to
prevent questions of Church and State, education and the like
from emerging in a critical form.
The place of the Renner Government was taken temporarily
by a " Proportional Cabinet " ("Proporzkabinctt ") in which
every party was represented by delegates without undertaking
any responsibility for the Ministry as a whole; and it had to
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
35i
i
carry on business up till the new elections, which were fixed for
Oct. 17 1920. In the meantime it was naturally incumbent upon
the Constituent Assembly to carry out its own particular task
and give a definitive constitution "to the " Federal State of
Austria." Besides this the bill dealing with what had once been
a considerable tax on property, namely the war-profits tax,
was passed, under pressure from the Social Democrats in
particular.
At the new elections the Christian Socialists obtained 82
seats, the Social Democrats 66, the Great German party (formed
from the old German National party and kindred groups) 19,
the German-Austrian Peasant party seven, the Bourgeois La-
bour party one. The distribution of the 92 seats in the newly
created second chamber, the Federal Council (Bnndcsral),
represented a similar balance of power. On Dec. 9 1920 both
Houses joined in the Federal Assembly (Bundcsversammlung)
in order to elect the Federal President, Dr. Michael Hainisch.
The new Cabinet, composed of Christian Socialists and officials,
was under the presidency of the Christian Socialist Dr. Michael
Mayr, 1 who had already presided over the " Proporzkabinett."
While the Great German party assured the Cabinet 'of their
benevolent neutrality, the Social Democrats went openly into
opposition. They had had, indeed, to record a loss of votes in
comparison with the 1919 elections, but they had none the less
succeeded in contrast with the fraternal conflicts of most other
countries in saving the party from disintegration. Even their
relations with the Communists, thanks in no small degree to
the platform of compromise adopted by the " Workmen's
Councils " which were common to both sections of the party,
had been tolerable up to the summer of 1920, though bitter
hostilities afterwards broke out on both sides. Thus in Feb.
1921 the Austrian Social Democratic party had the satisfac-
tion of holding together, in the spirit of its principles and under
its patronage in Vienna, representatives of all international
sections, from the Zimmerwaldians to the International Labour
Association of Socialist parties. The tactical principles upon
which this took place involved a compromise between the pro-
gramme of action of the Second and the Third International,
on which account the new Labour Association was given by its
enemies the scornful title of the " International Two and a Half."
The pitiable condition of the Austrian State grew worse and
worse. Neutral and former enemy countries did all they could
to save the country from the worst; in particular, powerful relief
measures of every kind had saved the population of Vienna from
dying of hunger. It is true that the want of cooperation between
the United States and the Western Powers had so far rendered
it impossible to provide that far-reaching assistance which might
ensure lasting salvation for Austria. Sir William Goode's plan
for putting Austria into a sound financial condition, which
clearly proved that the Austrian problem was not one of finance
but a comprehensive political and economic one, had to be
shelved, like those also propounded by Loucheur and Ter
Meulen. At the end of March 1921 the Federal Chancellor
Mayr learnt in London that the financial regeneration of Austria
was to be handed over to the League of Nations, to which
Austria had belonged since Oct. 1920. The " Austrian Section "
of the Reparations Commission left Vienna a few weeks later
(April 30 1921), the military supervisory commissions of the
Allies having already been dissolved some time before. Financial
delegates of the League of Nations arrived, to take up once again
the study of the Austrian problem. The continued absence of
organized help from the Entente had meanwhile dn spite of the
counter-activity of the Vienna Christian Socialists, to whom is
chiefly due the idea of a " Danubian Confederation " strength-
ened Austrian opinion in favour of union with the large economic
area of Germany. On April 24 1921 the overwhelming majority
of the Tirolese declared themselves in this sense by a plebiscite
which was carried out in defiance of the wishes of the Govern-
ment; the Diets of other Territories proclaimed their desire to
follow the example of Tirol. The ex-Emperor Charles's visit to
1 A. Michael Mayr (b. 1866), director of archives, professor of
history at the university of Innsbruck.
Hungary at Easter had also called attention once more to these
political questions. This occasioned two serious parliamentary
conflicts, in the course of which the Michael Mayr Government
was at times only able to obtain a majority of one. It was further
evident that in spite of its conservative character the Cabinet
had been unable to bring about an improvement in relations
with Hungary. It could only have been purchased at the cost
of concessions which would practically have amounted to the
renunciation by Austria of the Burgenland (German Western
Hungary). The position of the Government was only strength-
ened to a certain extent by the fact that in May 1921 all parties
assured the Government of their support in the economic and
financial measures desired by the League of Nations.
See Dr. Karl Neisser, Polilische Chrpnik for 1918-20; Ein Jahr
Republik Oesterreich (1920); Oeslerreichisches Jahrbuch, 1920 (1921);
Gustav Stolper, Deutschosterreich als Sozial- und Wirtschafts problem
(1921). (E. G-H.)
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
The collapse of the Austrian Empire, as such, resulted in
the rapid disruption of an extensive economic area and entailed
the severance of an economically restricted German-Austria,
which contained only little fertile land, from the agriculturally
rich territories of the seceding states. Thus the early cessation
of the food supplies which the states had been sending int&
Austria rendered the position worse, especially as regards
Vienna, and even then, in the days of the transition period, the
authorities had to appeal to foreign Powers to help in the relief
of the food shortage. The anxiety to procure the primary food-
stuffs remained the main preoccupation of the Austrian Govern-
ment in the course of the ensuing two years. Accordingly, if the
harvest returns of the years after the war be compared to pre-
war showings, a marked falling-off of production is apparent.
In the territory comprising the new Austria the net returns-
of the yield of wheat, rye and barley, which in 1914 amounted
to 9,713,000 meterzentners, showed in 1919 only 4,518,000-
melerzenlners, and in 1920 an estimate of 5,300,000 meterzentners.
Even if the level of pre-war harvests should be attained, only
about half the requirements of the population could be met.
During the last years which preceded the war an average produc-
tion of 5 million mz. of flour was established, while the require-
ments at the time amounted to 9- 5 million mz. The position was-
about the same with regard to other items of the supply of
victuals. When the food problem became acute, especially as-
concerned Vienna, it immediately raised the question of the
future of this city as a metropolis; for Vienna was the heart
of a large empire, the seat of the administration of a large
number of provincial industrial undertakings, and the centre of
commerce and banking. Here the people had spent the income
which they derived from all parts of the monarchy. Only
gradually was it shown, in the first year of the republic, that the
economic predominance of Vienna reposed upon a much more
solid basis than had been assumed in some quarters.
At the time of the collapse the anxiety concerning the food
supply found a parallel in the solicitude to obtain coal, since the
Austrian output was almost wholly negligible. This, like many
other products of primary importance, could be acquired only
with great difficulty even in foreign countries, and, save to the
extent in which it was obtainable on credit, could only be secured 1
in moderate quantities by the release of counter-values.
The economic structure of the new Austrian Republic is best
illustrated by employment statistics, which show that in 1910
agriculture absorbed 40%, industry and commerce 35%, mer-
cantile avocations and transport 17%, the public services and'
the free professions 8% of the population settled upon its-
territory. It follows that the people were pretty evenly divided
between agricultural and commercial pursuits; industry was for
the most part concentrated in and around Vienna, to which city
1,800,000 of the 6.500,000 inhabitants of the state belonged.
Of the land by far the greater part is in the hands of larger or
smaller peasant proprietors; 38% is covered with forests, 24%
is agricultural or horticultural, 16% grazing-land in mountainous
regions, n % meadows. Conditions are relatively favourable for
352
the raising of live stock, as the census of April 1919 shows as
many as 1,952,000 head of cattle and 1,107,000 pigs, which in
comparison to the returns of 1910 reveals a decrease of about
40% as regards the latter, of about 20% as regards the former.
Austrian industry suffered grievously from the disruption of
the economic area. To quote but one example: The yarn which
was spun in the territory of present-day Austria was for the
most part woven in the countries S. of the Sudetic Mountains.
For the Austrian cotton-spinning industry, with its 1-2 million
spindles, could employ a maximum of about 30,000 looms, but
only about 12,000 of these are situated in Austria, so that under
present conditions two-thirds of the product of the Austrian
cotton-spinners would have to be finished off abroad. The cloth,
as a finished article, used to be made up in Vienna and thence
consigned to Hungary, Galicia, and elsewhere. Similar condi-
tions prevailed also in other branches of industry in the old
Austria, but, so long as there was but one connected, economic
area, these conditions evolved themselves naturally, being
governed by the geographical position of the factory. The
setting-up of customs tariffs along the frontiers of the states which
arose upon the territory of the broken-up Austria entailed
serious difficulties for all industries. The fact that Austria was
cut off from the areas upon which she was wont to draw for her
supply of coal became a consideration of moment, since only 6%
of the demand could be met by the exploitation of her 'own
resources, while the balance required had to be obtained abroad.
Private establishments had to be rationed as regards coal,
and the use of gas and electricity to be drastically curtailed.
In Vienna it was at one time even necessary to cut industrial
establishments off the power stations. Industry received but a
fraction of the coal it required, and the ironworks, in par-
ticular, suffered heavily in consequence.
The principal industries of the Austrian Republic are as
follows: First and foremost is the iron trade. (Under normal
conditions the Eisenerzberg in Styria furnishes from 20 million
me. upwards of iron.) The industry lies within the area of the
Sudbahn and around Vienna; it furnishes raw material and
semi-manufactured articles which also fprm an item of the
export trade. Very highly developed, it employed in pre-war
days some 30-40.000 hands and manufactured scythes, tools,
screws, wire of all kinds, hard iron wares, etc. The manufacture
of machinery gave employment to about 21,000 workmen, its
specialty being agricultural machinery. There are four factories
in Austria which construct locomotives, several which build
wagons, motor-cars, etc. Of the textile industry of the old Austria
the bulk is now outside her frontiers, but an important part
has remained (in the Vienna area and the Vorarlberg). The
great clothing industry of the old Austria had Vienna for its
centre. Two branches of industry depended upon Austria's
wealth in forests (i) the important timber trade (including
the saw-mills, of which 257 were worked by steam and 5,200 by
water-power; further, the furniture-manufacture, occupying
about 14,000 hands); (2) the paper industry, which under full
pressure furnished, in partly manufactured articles, 12,000 car-
loads of cellulose and 10,000 of wood pulp; in wholly manu-
factured articles 7,000 car-loads of cardboard and 18,000 of
paper, more than half of the products named being available
for export. Further, in the working up of paper Austria is capable
of good achievement. The electrical industry can employ some
25,000 hands, and the rubber and leather manufactures are of
importance. Another important raw material remains to be
mentioned: within the territory of the Austrian Republic an
output of 200,000 tons of magnesite was reached in 1913.
The two years succeeding the war were industrially unpro-
ductive in Austria, because there was a lack of numerous raw
materials, which were not to be had even for payment, since,
owing to the universal shortage, difficulties were everywhere put
in the way of export. After the deb&cle, war industries came to
a sudden standstill. The worst period of crisis was in the winter
of 1918-9, and it was only in the summer of 1919 that a slow
economic recovery began, based for the most part on the possi-
bilities of export due to the conditions of the foreign exchange;
AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF
at this time began on a large scale the " general clearance "
of Austria by foreign purchasers who could take advantage of the
low value of the Austrian krone abroad as compared with its
purchasing-power at home. "
The development of industry was wholly dependent upon the
quotation of the krone, for in the spring of 1920 a slight improve-
ment of the exchange in foreign markets caused a noticeable
halt in exports, which only revived in the month of August of
that year when the exchange was again on the down grade.
In the autumn of 1920 a continuous improvement in the situa-
tion appeared in almost every industry; the frequent curtail-
ments of working-hours gradually ceased, and new hands were
engaged. By the close of the year the furniture-manufacture,
clothing trade (including the specially prosperous shoe industry)
and the leather trade showed well. Only the metal trades,
which continued to suffer greatly from the want of raw material,
could not definitely improve; the locomotive works and the
electrical trade were fairly occupied, but the position was espe-
cially bad in respect of the manufacture of agricultural machin-
ery and motor-cars.
In accordance with the social and political conditions of the
first year of the war, a large number of social-political measures
long demanded by the working classes had been passed. Of
these some had been prepared and planned by the Austrian
Government before or during the war, but had partly been
shelved owing to political difficulties or the opposition of the
classes interested in maintaining the old conditions; partly they
had been unacceptable to the Government. Further measures of
the kind seemed called for by the conditions of the moment, which
urgently demanded State assistance for the classes of the
population most hard hit by the economic depression, especially
the rapidly growing class of unemployed whose urgency threat-
ened violence. The most important measures were: enactment of
the legal eight hours' working-day; new rules for work done
at home and by children; prohibition of night work in bakeries;
compulsory holidays for workers; compensation of workers and
employees generally in the event of the transference of an
industrial establishment or the sale of machinery abroad; legal
regulation of collective bargains; establishment, on the analogy
of the existing chambers of commerce and industry, of work-
men's chambers (Arbeiterkammern) as the official representa-
tives of the " estate " of workers; improvement of the condi-
tions of domestic service by a special law.
A large part of this social-political legislation was occupied
by the measures intended to combat the effects of unemploy-
ment. In addition to the common results of the ending of a
great war, unemployment in Austria was increased, not only
by the special causes already mentioned, but by the stream of
Germans expelled from other parts of the former monarchy.
Thus as early as Nov. 1918 State aid had to be introduced for
industrial workmen and employees. The sums allowed for relief
were fixed on the basis of the relief given in case of illness, and in
Vienna, as a rule, attained the maximum provided for, namely
six kronen, to which was added in the spring of 1919 a small
bonus by the commune for fathers of families and in the begin-
ning of 1920 a special additional grant by the State. The number
of unemployed rose very rapidly: on Dec. i 1918 for the whole
of Austria the total was 46,000, on Feb. i 1919 it was 162,000,
on May i of that year the maximum of 186,000 was reached;
but the decrease was slow, since the returns of Aug. i still showed
133,000 persons out of work, Nov. 2 87,000, end-Jan. 1920 69,000
and end-April 46,000. The number of unemployed was always
greatest in the Vienna area, where the maximum was reached
at the beginning of May with 132,000 unemployed, while on
Nov. 22 there were 73,000 and end-April 1920 38,000 persons
out of work. A very peculiar expedient was resorted to at the
time when the conditions were at their worst. In order to occupy
at any rate a part of the unemployed the factory-owners, who
on April 26 1919 employed a minimum of 15 hands, were from
May 19 of that year compelled to employ additional workmen
up to one-fifth of their previous establishment and replace
every man whose employ came to an end by a new man. This
AUSTRIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES
353
measure, which was meant to remain in force for only a short
time, was repeatedly prolonged all through 1920. Its terms
allowed exceptions and modifications under certain conditions.
But if industry was able to bear the weight of such measures at
all, if it was found possible to comply with them at any rate on
broad lines, that is probably due to the fact that when they
were made trade was progressively improving.
The recovery of industry and quieting down of the political
situation made it possible from Aug. 1919 to effect the necessary
reduction in the relief of the unemployed, and by May 1920 to
subject the whole matter of the relief of unemployment to
legislative regulation. With this object in view apart from the
fixing of a maximum period of time within the space of a year
during which relief was given all unemployment doles were
subjected to rigid conditions; further, all aid accorded was based
on the principle of insurance, inasmuch as the State advanced
the sums required for relief but thereafter recovered a .third of
the amount from the employers and a like proportion from the
workmen by the contribution these were made to pay, so that
it bore itself but a third of the total cost. The introduction of
insurance against unemployment soon led to a considerable
decrease in the total of persons who received relief payments
(at the end of April a total of 46,000, of which 38,000 were
Viennese cases, falling by the beginning of May 1920 to 19,000,
of which 15,000 were Viennese).. Thus from that time onward
the number of unemployed in receipt of State aid decreased by
about one-half. During the remainder of 1920 there was at first
a rapid increase in unemployment, which was connected with
the crisis then supervening (caused by the improvement in the
exchange, which curtailed exports). By July the total of persons
who were out of work and in receipt of relief reached 24,800
(of which total Vienna accounted for 19,500), but thereafter the
totals again proved susceptible of rapid diminution, so that by
the end of the year the decrease was illustrated by a return of
16,600 persons out of work (df whom 13,700 were Viennese).
By the end of 1920 unemployment in Vienna was greatest among
the metal workers (34,500) and unskilled hands (2,730), among
shop assistants (1,338), the employees of hotels and restaurants
(1,338), in the building trade (1,430), in the catering business
(709). In this group, however, figures a large number of un-
employed who were not in receipt of relief.
In the period which followed the termination of the war the
Social-Democratic party acquired a leading role in the govern-
ment of the country, its programme being to attain a new
economic order by the nationalization of private enterprise.
A number of laws were actually passed with this end in view.
The law of March 14 1919 on the preliminaries of nationaliza-
tion lays down in Paragraph I : "On grounds of public utility
suitable industrial concerns may be sequestrated for the benefit
either of the State, the Territories or the Communes, and may
be administered by the State, the Territory or the Commune,
or placed under the administration of public, legally recognized
bodies." For the elaboration of further legislation aiming at
nationalization a Government Commission on Nationalization
was instituted and given the right to call as witnesses persons
capable of giving information, inspect industrial establishments,
take cognizance of the account books, etc. The law of May 15
1919, which set up the industrial councils, was also meant to
serve the ends of nationalization, since on these councils the
working-men were to gain an insight into the administration of
undertakings and be trained for their future task of exercising
a determining influence upon the industry. At the same time
the system of industrial councils was so planned as to fit into the
economic order of capitalist individualism. " The industrial
Councils are instituted in order to understand and to foster
the economic, social and cultural interests of the working-men
and the employees in the undertaking." They were to safe-
guard the observance of contractual obligations entered into
collectively, and the compliance with laws protecting the work-
ing-men, etc. ; under certain circumstances they could demand the
production of the balance-sheet of the undertaking; in the case
of public companies they deputed two representatives into the
council of administration or the board of directors, though these
were not conceded the right of speaking on behalf of the com-
pany or signing for it and had no claim to monetary compensa-
tion for services of this nature. The industrial councils un-
doubtedly proved useful in maintaining discipline in the factories
during times of disturbance. The law of May 30 1919, on the
procedure in cases of expropriation of industrial concerns, lays
down very general maxims which deal with the provisions of
future expropriation bills. Of importance is only the proviso
that the process of expropriation is initiated by a resolution of
the Government, which in itself entails definite legal con-
sequences. The provisions for indemnification in the case of
future expropriation, about which a lively discussion had raged,
are very vague. The law of July 29 1919 on socialistic enter-
prises seeks, with a certain tendency to the idea of guild socialism,
to remodel the legal forms of business undertakings so as at least
to prepare for the transition to new economic forms. " The
socialistic institutions (gemeimvirtschaftliche Anstalten) are
founded by the State, by the Territory, by the Commune, or by
a majority of these territorial corporations, with the object
of transferring existing private and public undertakings to the
proprietorship or the administration of the socialistic institu-
tions, or of starting new undertakings in this form." These
institutions were to be conducted by, among others, the cor-
porations by which they had been established, the industrial
councils of workmen and employees, and organizations represent-
ing a considerable part of the consumers of the institution's out-
put. A series of such institutions was founded, partly in order
to take over Government factories formerly engaged in turning
out war material. Further socializing measures were arrested by
the change in the internal political situation.
The economic condition of Austria noticeably improved in
the course of 1920; " labour unrest " abated considerably,
and by the beginning of 1921 a distinctly favourable progress
was recorded in many branches of industry. This, however,
could not obscure the fact that the development reposed upon
thoroughly unsound basic conditions, especially upon the
difference in the price level at home as against foreign countries
with a healthy exchange, on a scale of wages which, calculated
in foreign currencies, was extraordinarily low, while the national
budget was weighted with milliards spent in the cheapening of
food. As Austria could not within a measurable time meet her
own food requirements she was dependent upon the export of
manufactured articles. It could only be hoped that, on a return
to normal times, Austria, after the recovery of the exchange, would
become a suitable field for industry capable of meeting com-
petition in the world market. The town of Vienna, thanks to
its central position in Europe, must always be an emporium of
increasing importance and also one of the principal centres of
European trade. (K. P.; R. Si.)
AUSTRIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES An addition must be
made to the classification of languages given in the article
PHILOLOGY (see 21.426) as the result of the further researches
since 1908 in the Malay-Polynesian field and S.E. Asia. The
establishment of the " Austric family " of languages may well
be considered the most important achievement of these later
years in the work of comparative philology.
The essential unity of the Oceanic languages, though partially
recognized long ago by Humboldt in his Kmvisprache, was not com-
pletely demonstrated until much more recent times. The connexion
between the Polynesian and Indonesian languages (including the
geographically outlying Malagasy) met with ready acceptance, but
the affiliation of the Melanesian was not so easy. The difficulty was
partly due to purely linguistic differences, the Melanesian type of
speech being superficially very different from the Indonesian and
Polynesian, partly to the diversity of the races which raised the
natural, but quite unjustifiable, presumption that the languages
could not be of the same stock. It was, however, eventually proved
that Melanesian could not be kept out of the Oceanic family, 1
and it has since been shown that Micronesia, though different in race,
1 Kern, " De Fidji-taal," Verhand, Kon. Akad. v. Wet. (Amsterdam,
1886), Afd. Letterk., Deel xvi.; " Over de verhouding van het Nu-
foorsch tot de Maleisch-Polynesische talen," Actes du Vie Congres,
International des Orientalistes.
AUTOMOBILE AYLMER, SIR F.J.
354
falls linguistically into the Melanesian section. Also it ultimately
became plain that of these three subdivisions Indonesian best
represented the archaic family type, while Polynesian at the other
extreme had gone furthest in the direction of simplification and
decay. 1 Thus was established, by the strictest scientific proof, the
existence of the Oceanic or Malayo-Polynesian family of languages,
extending from Madagascar in the west to Easter I. in the east,
and from Formosa and Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the
south.
Meanwhile further exploration and research had revealed the
existence in New Guinea and some of the neighbouring islands of a
number of languages which could not be fitted into this scheme of
classification, and did not even apparently form any family of their
own, but only a number of distinct groups between which no ultimate
relationship could be safely asserted. 2 These so-called Papuan
languages (which have since been found in portions of Dutch and
German as well as British New Guinea) are therefore to be regarded
as a purely provisional group, the time for their systematic classifica-
tion not having as yet arrived. But it is quite certain that they have
nothing whatever to do with the Oceanic family, though some of the
neighbouring members of the latter have undoubtedly been in-
fluenced and to some extent modified by Papuan languages, and also
vice versa, particularly in the matter of syntax. 3 Moreover there
exists in an outlying corner of Eastern Indonesia a small enclave
comprising a number of closely related and very curious languages
which differ profoundly from their neighbours of the Oceanic stock.
These are the languages of the northern peninsula of Halmahera (or
Jilolo), together with Ternate, Tidore, and a few other small ad-
jacent islands. In spite of some attempts that have been made to
show their ultimate connexion with the Oceanic family, 4 it cannot
be said that the thesis has been proved or even rendered very
probable. It is at least as likely that they are remnants of some
archaic Papuan group, though the tribes that speak them are not
Papuan in physical type. 6
The Oceanic languages having thus been delimited, 6 there re-
mained the further question of their source of origin. By an in-
genious comparison of purely linguistic data, Kern had shown 7
that the common mother-tongue from which they were derived must
have been spoken on some long coastline in the tropics, the east
coast of Indo-China seeming on the whole to be the most likely one.
Here there were actually languages, such as Cham and its immediate
neighbours, which were plainly in some way connected with the
Indonesian branch of the Oceanic family. But no really satisfactory
attempt could be made to connect the Oceanic with any of the differ-
ent groups of Indo-Chinese languages until the latter had been
properly classified. This was done in part by Forbes 8 and carried
further by Kuhn, 9 but the final achievement was the work of W.
Schmidt. In a series of admirable monographs 10 he succeeded in
proving the intimate connexion of the aboriginal languages (Sakai
and Semang) of the Malay Peninsula, the Mon-Khmer group, the
Palaung-Wa-Riang group of the Shan states, Khasi in Assam, Nico-
barese, and finally the Munda languages of India proper. All these
are characterized by a structure based ultimately on monosyllabic
roots from which more complex words are formed by means of pre-
1 S. H. Ray, " The Common Origin of the Oceanic Languages,"
"Hellas" Revue Polyglotte Internationale, Vie Annee; Thalheimer,
Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Pronomina der Sprachen Mikronesiens
(1908), reviewed by Ray in Man (1908).
2 Ray, " The Languages of British New Guinea," Jour. Anthr.
Inst. xxiv., pp. 15-39; ibid, xxvi., pp. 204-5; Reports of the Cam-
bridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, vol. iii., Lin-
guistics (1907).
3 W. Schmidt, Man (1907) 106; Ray, Jour. Anthr. Inst. xxx.
(Anthr. Rev. and Misc. 50).
4 Kern, Bijdr. tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde van Neder-
landsch-Indie (1891), Deel xl., pp. 493-530. See also A. Hueting,
" lets over de Ternataansch-Halmaherasche Taalgroep," ibid.
(1908), lx., pp. 369-411.
6 Schmidt, " Die sprachlichen Verhaltnisse von Deutsch-Neu-
guinea," Zeitschr. f. Afrik. u. Ozean. Sprachen, Jahrg. v. and vi.,
espec. vi. pp. 74-99. See also Van der Veen, De Noord-Halmahera' se
Taalgroep (1915).
6 It is hardly necessary to add that the languages of Australia and
the now extinct dialects of Tasmania lie entirely outside this sphere.
7 " Taalkundige gegevens ter bepaling van het stamland der
Maleisch-Polynesische volken," Versl. en Med. Ron. Akad. v. Wet.
(Amsterdam, 1889), Afd. Letterk Hie R., Deel 6.
8 Comparative Grammar of the Languages of Further India.
' " Beitrage zur Sprachenkunde Hinterindiens," Sitzungsb. d. K.
Bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., Phil.-hist. Kl. (1889).
10 " Die Sprachen der Sakei und Semang auf Malakka und ihr
Verhaltnis zu den Mon-Khme'r-Sprachen," Bijdr. tot de T. L. en
V. v. Ned.-Indie, 1901, Deel Hi., pp. 399-583; " Grundziige einer
Lautlehre der Mon-Khmer-Sprachen," Denkschr. d. Kais. Akad. d.
Wiss. in Wien, 1905, Phil.-hist. Kl., Bd. iii. ; " Grundziige einer
Lautlehre der Khasi-Sprache in ihren Beziehungen zu denjenigen
der Mon-Khme'r-Spracnen," Abhandl. d. Konigl. Bayer. Akad. d.
Wiss., 1905, I Kl., Bd. xxiii., Abt. iii. and op. cit. inf.
fixes and infixes (in the case of Munda and Nicobarese, suffixes
as well). Both in structure and vocabulary they are altogether
different from the large family, or agglomeration, of languages to
which Tibetan, Burmese, Siamese and Chinese belong.
On the other hand a considerable amount of work had been done,
mainly by Dutch scholars such as Van der Tuuk, Kern, and Brandes,
to analyze the structure of the Oceanic languages; they succeeded
in showing that the superficial dissyllabism characteristic of the
family was really the result of an ancient agglutinative system
building upon originally monosyllabic roots. 11 This left the way open
to Schmidt to show 12 that his newly formed synthesis of languages,
which he proposed to call Austroasiatic, was ultimately related to
the Oceanic (or as he would style it Austronesian) family, so that the
two could be conveniently grouped under the generic name " Aus-
tric." Schmidt's arguments were based both on similarity of
structure and numerous cases of identity between the very roots of
the two families; and so far as they were confined to linguistic
classification his conclusions have met with general acceptance at
the hands of those best qualified to judge. But his attempt to-
establish a corresponding anthropological unity of the very diverse
races speaking all these different tongues was not so successful and
must be regarded as altogether premature. Most of these popula-
tions are blends, and though conceivably there may be some thin
strain of common blood running through all of them, it is impossible
as yet to define it or correlate it with the common element of their
speech. Nor is any such assumption a necessary conclusion from the
linguistic data. The synthesis of the languages has established a
purely linguistic unity, implying no identity of race and admitting
the existence here and there (e.g. among the Negritos of the Malay
Peninsula, in Melanesia and even in parts of Polynesia) 13 of traces-
of older aboriginal languages embedded, like flies in amber, in the
prevailing type of speech.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Brandstetter, Tagalen und Madagassen (1902);
Ein Prodromus zu einem vergleichenden Worterbuch der Malaiopoly-
nesischen Sprachen (1906); Gemeinindonesisch und Urindonesisch
(1911); Das Verbum . . . in vierundzwanzig Indpnesischen
Sprachen (1912); An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics (1916);
Ferrand, Essai de phonetigue compares du malais et des dialectes
malgaches (1909); Kern, " Taalvergelijkende Verhandeling over het
Aneityumsch, met een Aanhangsel over het klankstelsel van het
Eromanga," Verhand. Kon. Akad. v. Wet. (Amsterdam, 1906),
N. R., D. viii., No. 2; Schmidt, " Ueber das Verhaltnis der Mela-
nesischen Sprachen zu den Pofynesischen und untereinander,"
Sitzungsb. d. Kais. Akad. d. Wiss. in Wien, Phil.-hist. Kl., Bd. cxli.,
No. vi., " Die Jabim-Sprache " (Deutsch-Neu-Guinea); ibid., Bd-
cxliii., No. ix. ; Meyer, " Die Papuasprache in Niederlandisch-Neu-
Guinea," Globus, xciv., pp. 189-92; Finot, " Les etudes indochinoi-
ses," Bull, de I'E. F. d' Extreme-Orient, viii., pp. 221-33; Cabaton,
" Dix dialectes indochinois," Journal Asiatrique., Mars-Avril, 1905,
pp. 26'j-'?44; Aymonier and Cabaton, Dictionnaire cam-franfais
(1906). (C. O. B.) ,
AUTOMOBILE: see MOTOR VEHICLES.
AVEBURY, JOHN LUBBOCK, IST BARON (1834-1913),
English banker (see 3.51*), died at Ramsgate May 28 1913.
AVIATION : see AERONAUTICS.
AYLMER, SIR FENTON JOHN (1862- ), British general,
was born April 5 1862, and joined the army in 1880. He served
in the Burma campaign and the Hazara expedition of 1891, and
greatly distinguished himself in the Hunza-Nagar operations,
winning the V.C. and promotion to brevet-major in 1892. He
took part in the Isazai expedition of 1892 and for his services in
the relief of Chitral in 1895 was promoted brevet lieutenant-
colonel. After some years on the staff, he commanded brigades
in India from 1904 to 1910, was promoted major-general in 1909,
and in 1912 became adjutant-general at Simla. This position he
held until Nov. 1915 when, now a lieutenant-general, he was-
summoned to Mesopotamia to lead the force being organized for
relief of Kut. This was composed mainly of two Indian divisions
which had been fighting in Flanders and were arriving in driblets.
The urgency of the situation obliged Aylmer to push up the
Tigris with little preparation; but he inflicted two severe defeats
upon the Turks before being brought up, 23 m. short of Kut,
by the lines of Hannah on the left bank of the river. He halted
for six weeks for reenforcements and war material before striking
11 Conveniently summed up in Brandstetter's Wurzel und Wort
in den Indonesischen Sprachen (1910).
12 " Die Mon-Khmgr-Volker," Archiv. f. Anthr., xxxiii., pp. 59-
109; and in French " Les peuples Mon-Khmer," Bulletin de I'Ecole
Franfaise d' Extreme-Orient, vii., pp. 213-63, viii., pp. 1-35-
13 Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, vol.
ii., Language; Ray, " The Common Origin of the Oceanic Lan-
guages, loc. cit., and Jour. Anthr. Inst., xxvi., pp. 204-5.
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
AYUB KHAN AZERBAIJAN
355
afresh, this time on the right bank. His plan involved a long
night march and assault on the enemy defenses, some 10 m.
short of Kut, at daybreak. But one of his divisions did not arrive
on time, and when delivered the attack failed; Aylmer was there-
upon replaced by another general. He was given the K.C.B.,
and after returning to India he commanded a division there for
some time. Gen. Aylmer was the author of an important tactical
study on Protection in War (1912).
AYUB KHAN (1855-1014), Afghan prince, son of Shere AH
(see 3.77), died at Lahore April 6 1914.
AZCARATE, GUMERSINDO (1840-1917), Spanish politician
and lawyer, was born at Leon, Spain, Jan. 13 1840, and was
educated at the university of Oviedo, whence in 1858 he went
to Madrid and graduated in law, science and philosophy (1861).
After obtaining a post as assistant in a public office he returned
in 1868 to Madrid as assistant professor of comparative juris-
prudence and in 1872 was appointed professor. He was of the
little band of Liberals who preferred to resign in 1875 rather
than submit to the famous Orovio decree limiting the liberty
of the chair. He was, however, reinstated six years later and
became one of the central figures of the group headed by Don
Francisco Giner, to which Spain owes most of its up-to-date
educational institutions. He sat as deputy for Leon from 1886
to 1890, from 1891 to 1895, and for later periods. In 1892 he
became professor of private law at Madrid. In politics he was a
moderate republican. He was a keen student of English institu-
tions and an admirer of English political life. In later years he
accepted a share in official administration, notably as the head
of the Institute de Reformas Sociales, which he had invested
with his incomparable moral authority. He had also approved
of the Reformist evolution of Senor Melquiades Alvarez. The
austerity of his political views was such that on being defeated
at the last general election he fought, he refused a seat as
senator for life, which was offered him by the Government.
He died at Madrid Dec. 14 1917.
AZCARRAGA Y PALMERO, MARCELO (1832-1915), Spanish
soldier and politician, was born in Manila in 1832. He early
saw service in Spain during the mutinous outbreaks in Isabella's
reign (1854-6) and was next sent to Cuba and on a special
mission to Mexico, later belonging to the expeditionary army
against that country. He was promoted colonel in 1866 and
entered the Ministry of War. He was employed by the Spanish
republican Government of 1868 as chief of staff at Cartagena
and later of the army of the North. After the accession of
Alphonso XII. he became field marshal and Under-Secretary
for War. He sat as deputy for Morella in the first restoration
Parliament. In 1885 he was elected senator for Navarre and
was Minister for War under Canovas (1891-2) and again
in 1895, becoming head of the Cabinet in 1897 after Canovas's
assassination. In Sept. 1904 he retired from the army at the
age of 70 with the rank of general, and in Dec. of that year
was again for a few weeks prime minister. Throughout his
political career he was associated with the Conservatives but
took little part in party struggles. He died May 30 1915.
AZERBAIJAN. The republic of Azerbaijan had no political
existence until the year 1917, when the Trans-Caucasian prov-
inces of the Russian Empire, exposed to the enemies of Russia,
found in the collapse of the empire the need and opportunity of
striking out for themselves. Nor has Azerbaijan any national
traditions or history; scarcely, till lately, had her people a
racial consciousness, the name, even, did not apply to the
present state. Under Russian administration Trans-Caucasia
comprised six " Governments." Of these Baku, with a coastline
on the Caspian Sea, and Elisavetopol, adjoining Baku on the west,
united to form the republic of Azerbaijan. The territory
included in the two " Governments" was, originally, the portion
of the Persian province of Azerbaijan (see 3.80) ceded to Russia
as long ago as 1813 under the predatory Treaty of Gulistan.
Once a Russian possession, the ceded area lost all connexion with
its previous name. But when in 1917 the two " Governments"
combined to declare a joint independence the Persian name was
adopted for the infant state from motives of policy it was hoped
thus to attract to the new republic the Persian remainder of the
old province of Azerbaijan, peopled chiefly by the same stock.
Geographical Position. Looked at broadly the republic
occupies the lowlands of two great Caucasian river basins the
Kuru and the Aras enclosed by the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus
mountains, the watershed parting of the Black Sea, and the
highlands of Armenia and Persian Azerbaijan. This fertile
territory, rich also in oil, has a coastline to the Caspian exceeding
400 m., and stands athwart the chief line of communication
between the Black Sea and central Asia. Two-thirds of its
population is a homogeneous race of Tatar origin closely related
to the Anatolian Turk. They speak a form of Turkish, but,
unlike the Turk, are Moslems of the Shiah sect: with their
Sunni kinsmen of Anatolia they have, however, a definite
sympathy.
Area and Population. The area of the " Governments " of
Baku and Elisavetopol together was about 32,000 sq. m.; their
pop., by the Russian census of 1916, somewhat less than 2,600,000.
This total comprised, in round figures, 1,740,000 Moslems,
540,000 Armenians, 230,000 Russians and other Europeans,
and diverse elements as the remainder.
The territory claimed by the republic is not, however, alto-
gether that of the " Governments " of Baku and Elisavetopol;
but it is only of these that definite figures of area and population
can be given. For districts containing in all some 15,000 sq. m.,
partly within and partly without the boundaries of the two
" Governments," and carrying a pop. of nearly a million, are
in dispute between Azerbaijan and the adjoining republics of
Erivan and Georgia. Settlement of these disputes may give
Azerbaijan a greater or lesser area and population than had the
two " Governments."
Industries and Communications. The chief industry of the
country is the production, refining, and exportation of oil and
petroleum. Within 50 years the immense oil deposit discovered
on the Apsheron peninsula had created the city of Baku, now
the capital of Azerbaijan, with a pop. of 250,000. Indeed the
production of oil in vast quantities in this region has had far-
reaching indirect political results. It has given the state an
importance out of proportion to its population, by placing wide
adjoining regions in a position of dependence regarding the
vital commodity of oil for light and fuel. Still more, it has
profoundly affected the direction given to lines of railway, and
the development of rail and other forms of communication.
By this process, and from the position of Baku as a port on
the Caspian Sea a sea nearly twice as great in area as all the
Great Lakes of America together the city became a centre with
lines of communication, by rail and sea, radiating from it in
all directions. From Baku the Caspian Sea is crossed by ferry
steamers to Krasnovodsk; and thence a railway runs for nearly
2,000 m. through central Asia, skirting the Afghan frontier, and
reaching the Pamirs. The city is in direct rail communication
with Moscow; by railway, sea, river or canal every part of Euro-
pean Russia, in fact, is within reach. By sea N. Persia ports
are only one day's steaming. Through Trans- Caucasia Baku
is in direct railway communication with Erivan, Tabriz in
N.W. Persia, Erzerum in Turkey, and Batum on the Black
Sea. Batum, indeed, is complementary to Baku as the terminus
not only of the Baku-Black Sea railway, and of the pipe-line
for conveying oil, but as the one port by which the great inland
centre of communication and oil production, embedded deep
in western Asia, can have trade intercourse with the oceans and
outer countries of the world. The interdependence of Baku
and Batum was well enough with all Trans-Caucasia under one
Government; with the two cities in separate states friction
became inevitable.
Had there been no oil at Baku events in the Near and Middle
East during the years 1913-21 would have shown a striking
dissimilarity from the events which actually befell. Such is the
important position Azerbaijan fills, by reason of Baku, on the
confines of south-eastern Europe and western Asia.
External Influences. In the Pan-Islamic dreams cherished
by the Young Turk leaders of Turkey, the republic, with Persian
356
AZERBAIJAN
Azerbaijan, forms the essential connecting link between Islam
of the West and Islam of central Asia and India. Pan-Islamic
policy therefore closely affects Azerbaijan. But a further and
more serious disturbing influence has been provided by Bolshevik
Russia. For economic reasons, and in pursuit of her ambitions
and policy in south-western and central Asia, the geographical
position held by Azerbaijan made control of the republic a pressing
necessity. The short and varied history of this small Caucasian
state is, in consequence, concerned chiefly with the interaction
of Turkish and Russian policy, and the inevitable question of
Armenia and the Armenian people.
History. The history of Azerbaijan as an independent state
may be said to have begun on Sept. 20 1917. During the spring
and summer of that year upheaval in Russia had passed from
symptoms to facts of omen for the world. In March the Govern-
ment resigned, a Provisional Government was proclaimed, and
the Tsar abdicated; and in April the Provisional Government
issued its proclamation declaring for the self-determination of
peoples and the establishment of a lasting peace. In June the
Black Sea fleet mutinied, and the Russian armies in Asia Minor,
saturated with Bolshevik theories and shouting " No annexations
and no indemnities!" abandoned their positions before the
enemy and retired behind the Russo-Turkish frontier of 1914.
On Sept. 15, Russia became a republic.
Need for common action by the Caucasian peoples was evident,
as the Turkish front was held now by troops whose military
value was fast disappearing. There was, further, at least on
the part of Georgians and Armenians, a genuine desire to use
the opportunity for securing some form of independence which
should safeguard their national rights. The creation of the
Russian Republic was followed, two days later, by a Council
of the Trans-Caucasian peoples, assembled at Tiflis, proclaiming
Trans-Caucasia a Federal Republic. This step involved remov-
ing a Russian Bolshevik Commissar who had already been
sent to Tiflis to replace the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief,
the Grand Duke Nicholas. The Commissar was ejected, but
he transferred himself to Baku and there with Armenian
aid established a Bolshevik Government. But the affairs of the
Federal Republic did not prosper. Between Georgian and
Armenian Christians, and the Tatar Moslems of Azerbaijan,
were antipathies of race and faith not to be suddenly diminished
or held in check. Each people, too, had its own particular
interests to consult. Jealousies and rivalries were acute; Erivan
and Azerbaijan had deep suspicions that Georgia was scheming
to use the Federal Republic for converting all Trans-Caucasia
into a Georgian state. A fundamental opposition of outlook
also existed on the part of each. All three desired to come under
British protection; but that being impossible Azerbaijan stood
out for Turkey, Armenia for Russia, and Georgia for Germany
as the powers best suited and able to assure Trans-Caucasian
independence. To the leaders of each of the federated peoples, in
fact, the essentials of a rapidly changing situation ever appeared
different.
The Treaty of Brest Litovsk, between Germany and Russia,
signed on March 3 1918, was followed by a Turkish invasion
of Armenian territory in order to occupy the districts awarded
Turkey under the treaty. Batum was another district allotted
to Turkey, subject to self-determination by the inhabitants;
but Georgia believed that with German aid the province might
be preserved for herself. In effect the Federal Republic was
now at war with Turkey, though with no intention or possibility
of concerted action amongst its peoples, and the Turkish occupa-
tion proceeded in spite of resistance on Armenian territory.
Batum, too, was entered by Turkish forces on April 15. In
these circumstances the republic resolved, on April 23, to make
a formal declaration of independence, and to open peace negotia-
tions with the Turks. But a German penetration of Trans-
Caucasia from the Ukraine was now in sight. Odessa and
Sevastopol were both in German hands at the beginning of May,
and Georgian policy looked more and more definitely to Germany,
to the exclusion of the wider interests of the Federal Republic.
A few days later German and Turkish delegates reached Batum
to negotiate peace between Georgia and Turkey. This matter
completed, Georgia and Germany concluded a treaty between
themselves, by which German troops were admitted to the
country, and Georgia received promises of protection, the
maintenance of her independence and financial assistance.
As has been said, a Russian Bolshevik Government had been
established at Baku after the founding of the Federal Republic
of Trans-Caucasia. The area it controlled was small, but the
Government had the advantages of position, supplies of fuel
and food, and the comparative wealth afforded by the large
and prosperous population. The Russian element behind the
Government was also supported by local Armenians, a section
of the inhabitants numbering some 60,000. These Armenians
were under the influence of the Dashnakists, the Armenian
revolutionary society of extremists, whose methods were vio-
lence, and who leaned towards Bolshevik Russia. And now,
early in March, when the affairs of Trans-Caucasia were at their
lowest, and the existence of the Federal state hung in the balance,
the Russians and Armenians of Baku ejected the Tatar Moslems
of the city, and massacred some thousands. During the suc-
ceeding three months, massacre of Moslems by Armenians
spread to various parts of what had been Russian Armenia.
With Georgia in private alliance with Germany, and Armenians
massacring Azerbaijan Moslems whenever opportunity offered,
the Federal Republic of Trans-Caucasia had become to all
merely an empty name.
The Federal Republic was dissolved on May 26 1918. On
that date Azerbaijan and Georgia each proclaimed its separate
existence as an independent republic and formed a National
Government; at the same time the National Council of Armenia
took control of Armenian affairs. As the independent Bolshevik
Government of Baku still existed Elisavetopol became the
capital of Azerbaijan for the time being. Turkish troops were
now admitted to the Tatar Republic; and others, followed by
Germans from Georgia, reoccupied Tabriz, the capital of
Persian Azerbaijan, at the end of May. The Pan-Islamic policy
of Turkey appeared to be prospering at this time, and its leaders
looked eastward to making their next step into central Asia.
With this as a possibility a small British column under Gen.
Dunsterville advanced from Mesopotamia through western
Persia to the Caspian, and passing thence by sea reached and
occupied Baku on Aug. 16 1918. Its purpose was to countenance
and support the Russo-Armenian force holding the town and
to assist the republic of Erivan, and thus prevent Turkish or
German operations in central Asia. But the assistance and
cooperation expected of the local troops did not come up to
anticipation; a large Turkish force compelled the British to
reembark on Sept. 13; and Baku fell the following day. But
Turkish and German operations in these regions were drawing
to an end. The Armistice between the Allies and Turkey, signed
on Oct. 30, and between the Allies and Germany 12 days later
ensured the evacuation of Trans-Caucasian and Persian ter-
ritory by Turkish and German troops. A British force from
Persia reoccupied Baku on Nov. 16; a British garrison was
placed in Batum on Dec. 27; and before long a whole British
division had reached Caucasia to ensure the evacuation of
Turks and Germans. The railways were repaired, and through
traffic between the inland republic and Batum resumed under
a British Board of Railway Control, thus preventing the acute
friction of the past.
On the withdrawal of Turkish troops from Baku the Govern-
ment of Azerbaijan was established there, and endeavoured to
organize an administration. This was a work of infinite difficulty,
for though the Moussavet party in power meant well, every
kind of administrative experience and knowledge was lacking.
The British military authorities assisted, but soon found it
necessary to take over multifarious civil functions, from pro-
viding and rationing foodstuffs, suppressing profiteers, working
the oil and shipping industries, and managing the State bank,
to the administration of Posts and Telegraphs, Police and
Justice. For the first time since Russian Government ceased
in Trans-Caucasia order appeared in the republic. But the
AZERBAIJAN
357
change depended on foreign ability and experience, and when
the British troops were withdrawn in Aug. 1919 Azerbaijan
relapsed into administrative confusion. An inter-state control
of railways only was provided with some success, as a matter
vital to all Trans-Caucasia.
The Peace Conference of the Allies which began its sittings
in Paris on Jan. 18 1919 did not greatly affect Azerbaijan,
though the republic sent a delegation to represent its claims to
large territorial extensions. The course taken by events in
Trans-Caucasia before the Treaty of Sevres was finally drafted
doubtless placed Azerbaijan outside the area to which it was
thought treaty provisions could be applied. Except regarding
frontiers in dispute between Azerbaijan and Armenia the Treaty
of Sevres, therefore, avoided matters affecting the Tatar Republic.
For these frontiers it provided that they should be settled by
direct agreement between the states concerned; and, failing
such agreement, they were to be determined by the principal
Allied Powers.
The Conference gave, however, no little attention to the
problems of Trans-Caucasia. Early in 1919 it offered Italy
control of the whole area, she having many interests there; but
the offer was declined after consideration. As an emergency
measure the Supreme Council appointed an Allied high commis-
sioner to prevent territorial disputes developing into hostilities
between the republics; and by his influence neutral zones for
the time being were established, and the situation was tempor-
arily eased. But months passed and the Conference became
more and more chary of intervening in Trans-Caucasian affairs,
especially in view of Gen. Denikin's operation in Cis-Caucasia,
and his aim of reuniting south-eastern Russia. Stated shortly
the shadow of Russia Russia both of the present and of the
future lay over the land and created an incalculable situation.
De facto recognition was, however, accorded all three republics.
It should be noted, further, that in the draft of the Treaty of
Sevres the importance of Batum to Azerbaijan and Armenia was
recognized by making the town and surrounding territory a
free state under the League of Nations, and giving the inland
republics definite rights in the port and of access by rail. But
this plan fell through, and Batum was returned to Georgia,
under an agreement confirming Azerbaijan and Armenia in the
privileges they were to have received from the free state of
Batum.
The Turkish Nationalist movement which became all-powerful
in Anatolia in consequence of the Treaty of Sevres had a serious
influence upon the republic of Azerbaijan. Nationalist Turkey
and Soviet Russia each found itself opposed to the Allied
Powers. They therefore followed a common policy up to a point;
and Turkish Nationalism and Russian Bolshevism went hand in
hand, supplying each other's needs as far as might be, whether
of means, material or opportunity. Turkey sought to recover
the provinces in Trans- Caucasia from which she had been ejected
by the Allies in 1918; she also required munitions from Russia,
and direct access to Azerbaijan and central Asia in execution of
her Pan-Islamic ambitions. Russia had her own quarrel with
the Allies to pursue, and her revolutionary mission to accomplish
where she could. The oil of Baku, further, was a necessity for
her economic life. These different aims of both countries
converged on Trans-Caucasia, and implied the bringing of
Turkish and Russian territory to a coterminous frontier at least
to a common frontier of effective control. Once this was attained
all other things would be secured, including direct railway
communication between Russia and Anatolia. Denikin had
been driven out of Russia and now only the independent repub-
lics of Azerbaijan, Erivan and Georgia stood in the way.
Russia therefore prepared to set up a Soviet Government
in Azerbaijan, and under cover of this change reestablish Russian
control first there, and afterwards in all Trans-Caucasia. On
April 28 1920 the XI. Soviet Army from Cis-Caucasia, some
50,000 strong, entered Baku without fighting. Simultaneously a
rising of local Bolsheviks declared the Republican Government
deposed, and established in its place a Soviet Government in
alliance with Moscow. The Russian army, it was said, had only
come to place the proletariat of Azerbaijan upon its feet.
Effective opposition to the revolution was found impossible.
The Azerbaijan army was disbanded; a revolutionary committee
set up which sent the members of the late Government and many
leading anti-Bolshevik citizens to execution; and Bolshevik
economic theories were rigorously applied. Having seized the
railways and consolidated their position in the country the
Bolsheviks attacked Georgia and Erivan across the frontiers of
Azerbaijan, but were repulsed without much difficulty. Russia's
campaign in Poland was in progress at the time, and not going
well, and further aggressions in Trans- Caucasia were therefore
suspended. During this pause a Tatar rising took place at
Elisavetopol, in which several thousand Bolsheviks were
massacred. The rising was promptly suppressed by Bolshevik
troops; and they, aided by local Armenians, retaliated by
massacring, it is said, some 15,000 Tatars of both sexes and all
ages. From this affair arose the hatred which the Tatars of
Azerbaijan have since displayed against the Bolsheviks.
Further Bolshevik and Turkish operations against Georgia and
Erivan do not properly belong to Azerbaijan history, but they
cannot be altogether ignored. Suffice to say that when Russia, in
the autumn, was relieved of her Polish embarrassments, and the
campaign of Gen. Wrangel from the Crimea had plainly failed,
she and her Turkish Allies turned their attention once again
to Trans- Caucasia. By the end of Nov. both Georgia and
Erivan were crushed, and Soviet Republics, dependent on
Moscow, established in place of the National Governments.
Turkey regained the districts of Ardahan and Kars; in addition
she was given the strip of Armenian territory through which
passed the railway from Azerbaijan to the Turkish frontier;
but Russia with an eye to her own future, insisted that Batum
should form part of Georgia, and her will in the end prevailed.
Russia, in fact, had recovered all but an insignificant portion
of her Trans- Caucasian provinces; and Azerbaijan, Georgia, and
Erivan ceased to exist as independent states, except in name.
(W. J. C.*)
358
BACCELLI BACTERIOLOGY
BACCELLI, GUIDO (1830-1916), Italian physician and poli-
tician, was born at Rome 1830, and died at Rome
Jan. ii 1916. After graduating in medicine at the
university of Rome, he was appointed assistant pro-
fessor of medical jurisprudence in 1856, and some years later
became professor of clinical medicine. He soon acquired a
great reputation as a practising physician, being especially
noted for the accuracy of his diagnosis, and he devoted
himself particularly to the pathology of the heart and to
malaria; his studies on the latter subject proved of great value
for the reclamation of the Roman Campagna and other fever-
stricken zones. In 1875 he was elected deputy for the 3rd
Div. of Rome, which he continued to represent until his death.
He was Minister of Education in the Cabinets of Cairoli
(1879-81), Depretis (1881-7), Crispi (1893-6), and Gen. Pelloux
(1898-9), and of Agriculture under Zanardelli (1901-3); from
1889 to 1893 he was vice-president of the Chamber. A keen
classical scholar, he took an active interest in archaeological
matters, although in some of his projects, such as the famous
Passeggiata Archeologica in Rome, he showed more enthusiasm
than judgment. His labours for the isolation of the Pantheon
and the creation of the Museum of Ancient Art and of the
Modern Art Gallery in Rome deserved and met with more
general approval.
BACON, HENRY (1866- ), American architect, was born
at Watseka, 111., Nov. 28 1866. In 1884 he entered the uni-
versity of Illinois to study architecture, but in the following
year began work in the office of Chamberlin & Whidden, in
Boston, where he remained three years. From 1888 to 1897 he
was with McKim, Mead & White, in New York, excepting the
years 1889-91 which he spent in Europe as Rotch Travel-
ling Scholar. From 1897 to 1903 he was a member of the firm
of Brite & Bacon, in New York, and thereafter practised alone.
Among his important works were the Court of the Four Seasons
at the Panama- Pacific Exposition; the Union Square Savings Bank,
New York City; the Public Library, Paterson, NJ. ; the Waterbury
General Hospital, Waterbury, Conn. ; and the Whittemore Memorial
Bridge, Xaugatuck, Conn. Of numerous monuments, some de-
signed in collaboration with various sculptors, the following should
be mentioned: the Lafayette Monument, Brooklyn, N.Y.; the
Lincoln Monument, Lincoln, Neb.; the Longfellow Monument,
Cambridge, Mass.; the Republic Monument and the Centennial
Monument, Chicago, 111.; the President Harrison Monument,
Indianapolis, Ind.; the Civil War Memorial and World War Me-
morial, Yale University; and the Parnell Monument, Dublin, Ireland.
In 1920 the Lincoln Memorial, at Washington, D.C., designed by
him, was completed, costing more than $2,500,000.
BACON, ROBERT (1860-1919), American banker, was born
in Boston, Mass., July 5 1860. He graduated from Har-
vard in 1880 (in the class with Theodore Roosevelt), and
the following year entered the banking house of Lee, Hig-
ginson & Co., in Boston. In 1883 he became a member of
the firm of E. Rollins Morse & Bro., and in 1894 joined the
house of J. P. Morgan & Co., in New York. After conspicuous
success in the financial world he resigned in 1903. He was
Assistant Secretary of State, 1905-9, and then for a short
time was Secretary of State, succeeding Elihu Root on the
latter's election to the Senate. He was ambassador to France
from 1909 to 1912. He attended the first Plattsburg Camp
and was commissioned major in the U.S. Reserves in 1917,
being assigned to the staff of Gen. Pershing with the A.E.F.
in France. He returned to America with the rank of colonel, in
1918, and died in New York City, May 29 1919.
BACTERIOLOGY (see 3.156). Since bacteriology is so com-
paratively young a science, dating, as it does, from the
introduction by Koch in 1880 of methods of technique which
have made it an exact science, it is not surprising that the decade
from 1911 to 1921 saw very considerable additions to our knowl-
edge of the life and functions of the microorganisms with which
it is concerned. These additions to knowledge will be reviewed
here under two headings: general and agricultural, and medical.
I. GENERAL AND AGRICULTURAL
Variations in Bacteria. It is probable that nuclear fusion
between male and female gametes is essential for the preserva-
tion of the special characters of an organism, and that in absence
of sex fusion a species will tend to break up into a number of
different strains. So far no fusion, either sexual or otherwise,
has been observed amongst the bacteria. The characters of
bacteria are extraordinarily liable to change according to the
conditions of cultivation. Variations in morphology, cultural
characters, physiological behaviour, virulence and pathogenicity
have constituted one of the most striking features of modern
bacteriology. Innumerable instances of such variations have
come to light; space will permit of the citation of only a few
typical cases.
Bacillus coli in the peritoneal cavity in the case of ascites may take
the form of a diplococcus; in milk or in urine it may develop into a
dense network of branching filaments resembling B. anthracis.
Again B. carotovorus, an organism causing disease in many vegeta-
bles, when present in the plant tissue appears as a very small rod;
cultivated on artificial media the rods are much larger; in broth it
grows in the form of long branching filaments, and in broth contain-
ing sublethal doses of antiseptics, e.g. phenol and alcohol, it de-
velops as a minute coccus.
It has recently been shown in separate communications that cer-
tain organisms, B. lepisepticum and B. dysenteriae, when cultivated
on artificial media, segregate each into two distinct types, one form-
ing round colonies, the other diffuse and spreading ones; these types
show variations also in agglutinability and in virulence, though
otherwise their specific characters are identical. Once separated, the
spreading forms in both cases remain true to type, and the question
arises whether both strains coexist in the materials taken from the
infected animals or whether the spreading forms appear as mutants
shortly after removal from the natural habitat. This question can
only be answered by investigations of cultures derived from single
cells: the finding of segregation of mutants in cultures of this type
would be of the greatest interest, but at present such investigations
have not been conducted.
The sugar-fermentation reactions upon which much reliance is
based in the diagnosis of species are unfortunately very susceptible
to change under different cultural conditions; organisms can be
" trained " to acquire fermenting powers which they do not normally
possess. Strains of Bacillus carotovorus isolated from diseased plants
grown in different localities were found to possess many various sugar-
fermenting powers, but when cultured simultaneously through sev-
eral transfers under the same conditions and again tested, all
gave identical reactions.
All pathogenic organisms rapidly lose the property of virulence
when cultivated apart from their hosts, and once lost it is very diffi-
cult to restore this character. Virulence is altered rapidly by a change
of environment; the attenuation of the anthrax bacillus by cultiva-
tion at 40 F. instead of at blood temperature is a well-known
phenomenon. Similar rapid reduction in virulence is attained by
cultivation of organisms in presence of antiseptics.
One and the same species of an organism may give rise to different
symptoms of disease in different individuals. The pathogenicity of
Bacillus anthracis is considerably altered by exposure to the ultra-
violet rays; the symptoms produced on inoculation of the altered
strain into an animal are quite unlike the normal symptoms of
anthrax. The change which the organism undergoes in the treat-
ment with the ultra-violet rays persists after daily subculture for
upwards of two months.
Transmutation in Bacteria. Many experiments have been
described wherein bacteria became so changed in character as
to suggest that they had undergone transmutation. One must
not forget, however, that usually in dealing with cultures of
bacteria one has a mixed population, the progeny of several
individuals. Even though the culture may be made from a
single colony on a plate it is more than probable that such a
colony has arisen from a number of organisms herded together.
The method of culture of such a population will tend to favour
one strain and depress others, so that this strain may eventually
be separated and appear as a mutant.
One piece of work, however, which requires confirmation before
it can be accepted, should be cited in this connexion. It has been
stated in a preliminary communication that Azotobacter may give
rise to practically every form of organism to be found in the soil.
The large round form of Azotobacter is said to pass in old cultures
into a plasmodial stage from which it may emerge in the various
BACTERIOLOGY
359
forms of bacilli, cocci, sarcinae, clostridia, etc.; in fact, all the forms
common in the soil are held to be only stages in the life cycle of a
single species. If this should be confirmed by future investigations,
the whole basis of the science of bacteriology will be profoundly
modified.
Industrial Applications of Microbiology. In the fermentation
industries much use has been made of the variations that can be
induced in microorganisms by cultural methods. For example,
in the alcoholic fermentation by yeast glycerine figures as a by-
product to the extent of some two or three per cent of the sugar
fermented; by the addition of sodium sulphite to the fermenting
complex the process is profoundly altered and the percentage of
glycerine is increased to some 33 per cent. Again, dextrose is
converted by Citromyces into citric acid, oxalic acid and carbon
dioxide; the percentage of citric acid is normally not great, but
by high concentration of sugar and low concentration of nitro-
genous food it can be raised to 50%. The production of acetone
and that of alcohol from maize by biological methods are processes
which have been successfully worked during the World War, and
encourage one to look forward to considerable developments of
microbiology as applied in the factory.
Bacteria of the Soil: Partial Sterilization. Researches at
the Rothamsted Experimental Station have proved that soils
which have been treated with certain volatile antiseptics or
heated to temperatures between 56 and 100 C. show a marked
increase in fertility. This results from a parallel increase in the
bacterial activity, whereby the rate of the conversion of the
organic nitrogenous matter of the soil into nitrogen compounds
which are readily available as food for the plant is considerably
enhanced. The number of bacteria normally present in soils
varies from about 4 to 60 million organisms per gram. Under
the above treatment with antiseptics or heat the majority of
these are destroyed and the number of active bacteria is reduced
to a few hundreds only. By no means all are destroyed, however,
since many of the organisms of the soil are of the spore-forming
kind and are thus able to withstand the treatment. After the
removal of the volatile antiseptics, or after cooling of the soil,
the germination of the spores is unhindered and the bacterial
population of the soil is quickly reestablished. The treatment
renders the soil more suitable as a medium for bacterial growth,
so that the number of organisms quickly exceeds by some six or
sevenfold the original bacterial content of the soil, or rather that
of a control sample of untreated soil kept under the same physical
conditions as the treated sample. This remarkable discovery
was made in 1909. As a matter of fact it was not an entirely new
discovery; reference to the literature showed that the phenom-
enon had been observed many years earlier by German scientists,
but they had curiously failed to grasp the important significance
in its relation to the fertility of the soil. Naturally under such
drastic treatment the bacterial flora of the soil does not remain
unaltered; many species, in fact practically all those which do not
form spores, are entirely annihilated. The very important group
of ammonia-producing organisms contains, however, very many of
the sporing kind, and the increased fertility of the soil is mainly
due to the increased production of ammonia. The nitrifying
bacteria on the other hand are destroyed, and on the belief,
current at that time, that the nitrogen of ammonia had first to be
converted into the form of nitrate before it could be utilized by
the plant, it was difficult to explain the increase in fertility. It
has been shown, however, that this belief had no real foundation
but that, in the absence of nitrates, plants can obtain their
necessary nitrogen in the form of ammonia and many other of
the simpler nitrogenous compounds.
The enrichment of the soil as a medium for bacteria seems to
be the result of the removal of an inhibitory factor which militates
against bacterial development. This factor in all probability, al-
though the hypothesis is not universally accepted, is the protozoal
fauna of the soil. On this view, which is supported by the strongest
circumstantial evidence, though at the moment direct proof is lack-
ing, the protozoa living mainly upon bacteria keep down the num-
bers of the latter within the limits stated above, and the removal or
depression of the protozoa by partial sterilization results in a
corresponding enhancement of bacterial activity.
Methods have recently been developed at Rothamsted by which
the numbers of the different protozoa can be ascertained and the
interesting fact has come to light that encystment of the protozoa
takes place with rhythmic periodicity; certain species investigated
pass from the trophic to the resting condition simultaneously every
forty-eight hours, a phenomenon which has its parallel in the de-
velopment of the malarial parasite in the human blood. By counting
daily the numbers of protozoa, active and resting, and relating these
to the numbers of bacteria in the soil, it has been shown that the
bacterial numbers vary inversely with the numbers of the trophic
amoebae.
The effect of partial sterilization upon the fertility of the soil is
such that it has become a common practice and a paying proposition
for the nurserymen in the cucumber- and tomato-forcing industries
to sterilize their soils either annually or every second year. The
beneficial effect is of rather short duration and in the course of a
few years the soil reverts to its former degree of productivity, and
in some cases shows, after the initial enhancement, an actual re-
duction of fertility. These facts are not easily explained on the cur-
rent hypothesis as set out above. Much attention was being fo-
cussed upon the subject in 1921, and very interesting results were
being obtained by the workers at the Rothamsted station, results
which bid fair to revolutionize accepted views, so that the future
might well produce a theory more in accordance with the facts.
Nitrogen It has been recognized for some time that the nitrogen-
fixing organisms of the soil are physiologically dependent for their
energy upon carbohydrates, and that the amount of atmospheric
nitrogen they are able to fix bears a close relationship to the amount
of carbohydrate material used up. It was demonstrated in 1915 that
the amount of fixation of nitrogen was also influenced by the pres-
ence of simple soluble nitrogenous compounds in the soil solution;
urea, glycocoll, formamide, etc., had a marked effect in depressing
the amount of nitrogen assimilated. These results have been fully
confirmed, and it is now known that so long as an available supply of
soluble nitrogenous matter is present the organisms will make use
of this source in preference to that of free nitrogen, for which a
greater expenditure of energy on their part is required.
It is only in recent years that the energy relations of soil bacteria
have received due consideration; in 1916 it was pointed out that
Bacillus mycoides, a typical member of the group of ammonifiers,
produces ammonia, not as an essential by-product of its metabolism,
but rather in virtue of its power of obtaining energy from the protein
molecule. If other sources of energy are available, e.g. carbohydrates,
these will be drawn upon in preference to the protein molecule with
corresponding diminution of ammonia production ; in fact, in pres-
ence of much carbohydrate the proteins will be entirely neglected
and the organism will utilize the ammonia present in the soil as its
source of nitrogen, thus competing with the growing crop. Probably
most of the bacteria and moulds of the soil are capable under suit-
able conditions of assimilating ammonia. The process has not been
observed in soils poor in organic matter, but in peaty soils it has
been demonstrated to the extent of some 30 % of the added ammonia.
Obviously then, in the use of farmyard manure, the proper ratio
of carbohydrate to protein material is a matter of considerable im-
portance. If the amount of carbohydrate is in large excess, most of
the bacterial species will tend to reduce the quantity of nitrates and
ammonia already existing in the soil ; at the same time under these
circumstances, provided the temperature conditions are satisfactory,
the nitrogen-fixing organisms will work energetically. The effect
will be a temporary depression of fertility, but eventually the
nitrogen fixed will become beneficial to the growing plant.
If the material is particularly rich in protein the organisms will
produce considerable quantities of ammonia and the effect will be
at once beneficial.
If the air supply is insufficient the organisms will tend to produce
denitrification, taking some of their oxygen from the nitrates and
liberating nitrogen as gas. It has been shown that dressings of
farmyard manure may in exceptional cases do more harm than good.
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation. At the commencement of the
decade the application to the soil of cultures of Pseudomonas radi-
cicola was advocated as a means of improving the crops of legumi-
nous plants. As far as the soils of the Old World are concerned hopes
of such improvement have been shattered by experience; its soils
are already heavily infected with the nodule-producing organism and
to inoculate them with any more is merely a case of " bringing coals
to Newcastle." In the New World virgin land exists which has never
carried leguminous crops; here inoculation with pure cultures of the
organism has met with marked success. Although from an economic
point of view the study of symbiotic nitrogen fixation has lost much
of its interest, in its academic aspects it still retains undiminished
fascination. The adaptability of the organism has been further
investigated and it has transpired in cross-inoculation experiments
that several strains of the organism exist. Based upon trials made
by various investigators the nodule organisms are separable into
at least nine groups with reference to their power of infection of the
various leguminous plants. Thus in one group fall the organisms
from all the true clovers, species of Trifolium; in a second those
from broad bean, peas, vetches, sweet pea, etc. ; in a third those of
species of Phaseolus; while those from soja bean, lupine and locust
form each a separate group, no cross inoculations with these having
been effected. It is also of great interest to find that on inoculation
into animals a reaction occurs, agglutinins being produced which are
360
BACTERIOLOGY
specific for the groups as determined by cross-inoculation. By
cultural characteristics also the organisms from different legumes
show marked differentiation. Three distinct groups can be made
with reference to the rate of growth on artificial media, stickiness
of the culture and opacity of the colonies. All these facts form per-
haps a legitimate basis for the belief that distinct species exist among
the nodule-producing bacteria. In numerous other characteristics,
however, these organisms are so much alike, and as a whole they
differ so widely from any other species of bacteria, that it seems more
consistent to regard the adapted forms as varieties of tl\e single
species Pseudomonas radicicola.
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation has been found to occur in plants
other than those of the Leguminosae; glands in the leaves of species
of the Rubiaceae and Myrsinaceae, which were formerly believed to
contain protein crystals, have been shown in reality to consist- of
colonies of bacteria living symbiotically with the plant cells, re-
ceiving their necessary supply of carbohydrates and salts from the
surrounding green tissue of the leaves, and in return giving up their
nitrogenous by-products to the plant. These organisms have been
shown to fix atmospheric nitrogen when grown in artificial culture
solutions devoid of any form of combined nitrogen. Their rela-
tionship, if any exist, to Pseudomonas radicicola has not yet been
determined. These bacterial glands have been found in a number of
plants, including Pavetta, Psychotria, Kraussia and Ardisia, and
seem to be as closely wrapped up with the well-being of the plants
as are the root nodules of the Leguminosae; the organisms are present
in the slime between the young leaves before the opening of the
leaf buds, and have been found in the seed between the scutellum
and the embryo. Their introduction to the seed takes place at the
time of fertilization, the pollen tube conveying them from the stigma
to the ovule. The infection of the leaves occurs immediately after
the opening of the buds, the ordinary water pores of the leaf usually
functioning as the ports of entry. In the cases of Pavetta and
Psychotria, however, where the glands appear on the lamina of the
leaf, a special stoma has been described as an extraordinary adapta-
tion of the plant for the reception of the bacteria. This pore is of
exceptional size as compared with the ordinary stomata of the leaf,
and is said to be filled in by growth of the surrounding tissue after
its function has been fulfilled.
The benefit derived by the host plants from the presence of their
guests has been clearly demonstrated by seedlings raised from
bacteria-free seed obtained by careful hot-water treatment of
the seed in sterile and inoculated sand cultures fertilized with pot-
ash and phosphorus but no nitrogen compounds. The plants grown
in the inoculated cultures flourished and possessed typically green
leaves, while those in the sterile sand showed all the signs of nitrogen
starvation and soon died off.
Cellulose Fermentation. The classical investigations of Omelianski
showed that the cellulose of plant remains was decomposed under
anaerobic conditions giving rise to marsh gas and hydrogen. This
knowledge, however, does not help towards an explanation of the
rapid destruction of plant residues in ordinary cultivated soils where
conditions are mainly aerobic. It is well recognized that the looser
the soil the more rapid is the destruction of carbohydrate material.
It is generally supposed that fungi play an important part in these
processes and many species of moulds and actinomyces have been
shown to possess the power of attacking cellulose. The American
workers have invented cellulose media upon which bacteria can be
cultivated, and have succeeded in isolating several species, Bacillus
rossica, B. Amylolyticus, Bacterium flavigena and some fifteen others
which are capable of using pure cellulose as their only source of
carbon. All these organisms are morphologically and physiologically
distinct from Omelianski's hydrogen ana methane organisms and
grow well on ordinary gelatine media. The most powerful oxidizer
of cellulose, however, is an organism discovered at Rothamsted in
1919. It is a peculiar organism exhibiting two distinct morphological
characters at different stages in its life history, a long sinuous thread-
like form and a large round " sporoid " form; it seems rather to be
related to the spirochaetes than to the true bacteria and has re-
ceived the name Spirochaeta cytophaga. It is an obligate aerobe
and rapidly attacks cellulose, though it has no power of fermenting
other carbohydrates; in fact, the presence of sugars, especially of
the reducing sugars, strongly inhibits its action upon cellulose. Like
the nitrifying bacteria it cannot be cultivated upon ordinary nu-
trient media containing proteins, 0-25 % of peptone being sufficient
to prevent growth. The products of decomposition of cellulose con-
sist of a mucilaginous substance, small quantities of fatty acids and a
yellow pigment allied to carotin. The discovery of this organism
helped materially towards the production of an artificial substitute
for farmyard manure, a great achievement in these days when motor
traction has so reduced the available supply of this universal fer-
tilizer. Moreover, the substitute has a considerable advantage over
the natural product since the carbon-nitrogen ratio can be perfectly
controlled.
Sulphur and Phosphorus Cycles. Considerable attention has
recently been paid to the conversion of the sulphur and phosphorus
present in the proteins of plant and animal residues in the soil;
by series of bacterial reactions, forming complete cycles, these ele-
ments pass from their combination in the protein molecule into the
forms of sulphates and phosphates, and so become taken up and,
once more, elaborated into the organic constitution of the plant. It
has long been assumed that the supply of sulphates in all soils was
sufficient for the optimum growth of crops. This assumption
was based upon the low sulphur content of plant ash; recent in-
vestigations have shown, however, that as much as 90 % of the sul-
phur of the plant may be lost in the process of ignition. The amount
of sulphur removed by the crop from the soil is now a factor to be
considered, and it has been shown experimentally that sulphur
may become the limiting factor for crop production.
Further, the sulphur and phosphorus relations in the soil are con-
sidered to be interrelated to the extent that the insoluble rock
phosphate is rendered soluble by the action of sulphuric acid pro-
duced in the oxidation by bacteria of the hydrogen sulphide from
decomposing proteins. Pot experiments have shown that the
application of sulphur as a fertilizer together with rock phosphate
tends to increase the availability of the phosphate : the evidence at
present, however, is insufficient to show whether any material profit
is to be gained by this method of fertilization.
Sewage Disposal. The purification of sewage by the aerobic
bacteria which are normally contained in it is so slow, requiring
many days for completion, that sewage disposal by this means alone
has long been regarded as impracticable. A method of hastening the
process was, however, discovered in 1913, and since 1916 the " Ac-
tivated Sludge Process " has actually been in successful operation.
When sewage is well aerated the colloidal suspended matter grad-
ually disappears, being acted upon by aerobic bacteria, and gives
place to a granular brown mass which rapidly settles, leaving a clear
solution of the inorganic salts, such as chlorides and nitrates, with
only quite small amounts of soluble organic matter. It was dis-
covered that this brown sediment added to a fresh supply of sewage
and aerated by a blast of very fine air bubbles considerably hastens
the oxidation process. On repetition, each increase in the amount of
the sediment in relation to the volume of sewage is accompanied by
an increase in the rate of oxidation, so that, when the relative
amount of sediment approaches 30 % of the total volume, oxidation
is complete in the space of a few hours. This brown sediment forms
the so-called " activated sludge," and consists very largely of a mass
of living organisms, bacteria and protozoa.
In practice two tanks are employed: (i) the aeration tank in
which the sewage and activated sludge are blown with air forced
through porous material so that it reaches the sewage in a finely
divided state, and (2) the settling tank in which the sludge is de-
posited and from which an effluent requiring no filtration is run
away. Any excess of sludge over and above that required to main-
tain the necessary quantity of 25 % to 30 % in the aeration tank is
spread out to dry by evaporation and forms a valuable soil fertilizer.
The percentage of nitrogen in the activated sludge is considerably
higher than that of the sludge from the sedimentation and septic
tanks of the older and more usually employed method of sewage
treatment. The results obtained from the activated sludge process
in operation at Manchester show a yield of nitrogen per annum
approximately equal to the total faecal nitrogen of the sewage
treated, whereas in the older method much of this and all the urine
nitrogen passes away in the effluent in the form of nitrates.
It has been stated that fixation of atmospheric nitrogen actually
occurs in the process; from what is now known of the energy rela-
tions of the nitrogenrfixing bacteria, however, any considerable
amount of nitrogen fixation in a medium where the quantity of
soluble nitrogenous compounds is large in relation to the quantity
of carbohydrate material seems very doubtful. It is more probable
that the conservation of nitrogen results from the fixation of ammonia
which in the older process of sewage disposal becomes converted
into soluble nitrates.
As at present produced the amount of nitrogen in the dry sludge
is about seven per cent. If by any means this can be increased to
about 10% and if economical methods of drying the sludge can be
found there is a great commercial future for the process. As it is,
around Worcester, England, where by the activated sludge process
something like a million gallons of sewage are treated daily', the fruit
growers take away the sludge in a semi-dry condition and pay about
303. a ton for it as it lies on the works.
Bacteriosis in Plants. The study of bacteria in relation to plant
diseases may be said to have been in its infancy in 1910. At that
time mainly through the researches of American bacteriologists
it had been shown that bacteria could enter healthy plants through
wounds and stomata and produce epidemics of disease so serious in
nature that the crops over wide areas were partially, and in some
instances entirely, destroyed. The subsequent decade saw consider-
able activity in the field of plant pathology, and the pathogenicity
of certain bacteria for plants has been fully established. In fact the
number of species of bacteria now known to produce disease in
plants is rapidly approaching that of the human pathogenes.
In comparing the disease-producing organisms in animals and
plants one finds bacilli freely represented in both groups, but
whereas the coccoid types, Streptococcus, Micrococcus and Staphylo-
coccus, are frequently responsible for disease in animals, they
have so far never been found to be associated with a disease in
plants; on the other hand the genus Pseudomonas of Migula is
strongly represented amongst the plant pathogenes while having
no place, so far as is known, amongst the organisms pathogenic for
BACTERIOLOGY
man and animals. No explanation for these interesting morpholog-
ical differences has hitherto been advanced, and if any significance
is to be attached to them it has yet to be discovered.
Exactly what it is that constitutes virulence in an organism and
makes the distinction between parasitic and saprophytic forms
is entirely unknown. One naturally asks whether an organism
may possess virulence for both plants and animals: so far as ex-
perience goes this seems not to be the case; one may perhaps as
the result of eating bacterially diseased fruits experience a tem-
porary disturbance of the alimentary system, but nothing of a
more serious nature need be feared. On the face of it such a phenom-
enon as a general occurrence would seem to be unlikely from the
fact that the reaction of the medium in the two cases is very differ-
ent; an organism which is favoured by the alkalinity of the animal
serum can hardly be expected to grow strongly in the sap of a plant
where the reaction is often strongly acid, and vice versa. On the
injection of plant parasites into laboratory animals nothing more
than a slight local disturbance an abscess results or occasionally
the animal may show a disinclination to move and take food, a
malaise for a brief period from which it quickly recovers. In the
serum of such inoculated animals antibodies, specific agglutinins,
are produced but this probably has nothing whatever to do with
virulence since it follows also upon the injection of the common
saprophytes.
The effects of bacteria upon the attacked plant are by no means so
helpful towards a diagnosis of the disease as are the effects of bac-
teria upon the human being. The specific symptoms of disease in
man by which the general practitioner is enabled to diagnose his
case with more or less certainty, although he may have only a
rudimentary knowledge of bacteriological technique, have no coun-
terpart in the diseases of plants. The plant pathologist must first
isolate and identify the causal organism, often a task of considerable
difficulty, before he can arrive at a true diagnosis, the symptoms of
disease produced by a number of different organisms being almost
exactly similar. According to these group symptoms the bacterial
diseases of plants may be divided into four main types, namely:
Soft Rots, Wilts, Intumescences and Local Lesions.
Soft Rots. The plants most attacked by rot-producing organisms
are the root vegetables and potatoes. A certain amount of disease
may occur while the plants are still in the ground, but the greatest
losses take place during storage of the roots through winter. The
rot results through the solution of the cementing substance, the
middle lamella, which holds the cells of the plant tissue together
just as mortar holds together the bricks in a building. This cementing
substance consists of pectin material and its solution is effected
through the agency of an enzyme, a pectinase, produced by the
bacteria. The removal of this substance causes the tissue to lose all
coherence and the cells to become reduced to a wet pulpy mass.
Diseases of this type are the " White Rot " of turnips, the " Soft
Rot " of carrots and other vegetables, the " Heart Rot " of celery,
and the " Blackleg " of potatoes.
Wilts. A number of very destructive diseases is included under
this head. The symptoms are almost identical in all cases and are
the result of the blocking up of the conducting system of the plant
by bacterial growth in the vessels, so that those parts of the plant,
whose natural supply of watery sap is thereby cut off, die from wilting,
and become the prey of all kinds of bacteria from the soil and air,
and finally either dry up or become reduced to a wet rotting mass.
Other symptoms are striping of the leaves, a general dwarfing of the
attacked plants, and a one-sided growth of the plants resulting
from a one-sided localization of the infection. The striping of the
leaves is due to pigments, either in the bacteria themselves or in the
wood of the invaded vessels, making the course of these vessels
apparent from the outside as streaks usually of a yellow, red, or
brown colour.
Many of these wilts are caused by organisms which are extraor-
dinarily similar in many of their characters. They belong to the
genus Pseudomonas, are strongly yellow in colour and are indis-
tinguishable under the microscope. They might be considered to be
only varying strains of one and the same species except that they
show constant differences in degree of pigmentation and in certain
of their physiological characters; moreover they seem to be quite
specific for the diseases in the plants or orders of plants in which
they have been found, and all attempts to produce disease in one
kind of host by inoculation with the specific organism of disease
in another kind have so far been quite unsuccessful.
Included in this group of diseases are the very troublesome
" Black Rot " of cabbage and other members of the family Brassica;
Wakker's disease of hyacinths, which has been responsible for the
entire disappearance of some of the most beautiful varieties of
hyacinths from the beds of the Netherlands with serious financial
loss to the Dutch growers; and a disease of sugar-cane known as
Cobb's disease which produces heavy losses in seedling canes and
also much difficulty and loss in extraction of the sugar by reason of
the gummy slime which the bacteria produce, causing trouble in the
crushing machinery and in the evaporating pans. Other serious
wilt diseases are the wilt of cucumbers, the wilt of tomatoes, pota-
toes and other solanaceous plants, including tobacco whose cultiva-
tion in parts of Malay and other districts has had to be entirely
abandoned as the result of this disease.
Intumescence Diseases. Here the disease takes the form of large
warty or pseudo-cancerous growths on the stems and leaves of the
attacked plant caused by hypertrophy of the cortical tissues and
mesophyll under the irritating stimulus of the presence of the invad-
ing organism. Crown Gall, a destructive disease of roses, grape-
vines, hops and a large number of other hosts, belongs here. In
this case the trouble is largely confined to the crown of the root
where it extends from year to year, eventually growing to such a
size that death of the tree results through destruction of the con-
ducting tissue of the root. Another disease of this type is the Olive
Knot, a well-known pest wherever olives are in cultivation.
Local Lesions. Local lesions or cankers result through destruction
of the external tissues of plants in localized areas upon the stems,
leaves and fruits. Stripe disease of tomatoes is well known to
growers in Great Britain ; the Citrus canker is a serious disease in
S. Africa and S. Florida, and in the tropics generally Leaf Spot
diseases of beans and of cotton have been shown to be caused by
bacterial parasites.
Control Measures. At present there is no means of control for
bacterial diseases in plants which can be of general application.
Obviously the prophylactic and curative methods of injection so
successfully used against disease in animals cannot be of use for
plants. The use of sprays which are often most effective against
fungal diseases of plants is of no avail against the bacterial ones.
Sterilization of the soil might be of service against such parasites as
are infective of the plant through the soil, but it is clear that, in
order to kill the parasitic form, one would at the same time necessar-
ily interfere with the normal soil flora upon the functions of which
the fertility of the soil depends.
In certain instances where the disease is carried by some biting
insect, attacks upon this carrier have resulted in more or less suc-
cessful control. A case in point is that of the wilt of cucumbers,
where the organism is introduced on the mandibles of a beetle.
In this case it is found that the beetle has a special predilection for
the wild squash, and by growing these in drills between the rows of
cucumbers almost all the beetles can be collected upon them, where
they can be periodically annihilated by spraying with kerosene.
Another means of control is found in the manurial treatment of the
soil whereby a more hardy and resistant plant is produced. In this
way by the increase of potash it has been possible to effect a con-
siderable reduction of the Stripe disease in tomatoes. The rotation
of crops, so that several years elapse before a crop which has been
diseased is again grown on the infected soil, is for the majority of
bacterial diseases the only means of control known at the present
time. In this way the parasite, not finding its particular host for
some time, may die out or may become so altered physiologically
as no longer to possess the power of attack upon the plant.
REFERENCES. Gurney-Dixon, Transmutations of Bacteria; J. A.
Arkwright, " Variation in Bacteria in Relation to Agglutination both
by Salts and by Specific Serum," Jour. Path, and Bad. (1921);
P. H. De Kruif, " Dissociation of Microbic Species," Jour. Amer.
Med. Assn. (1921); E. J. Russell, Soil Conditions and Plant Growth;
Journal of Agricultural Science; Journal of Agricultural Research;
Soil Science; G. J. Fowler, " The Conservation of Nitrogen with
Special Reference to Activated Sludge," Journal of the Indian
Institute of Science (1920) ; E. F. Smith, Bacteria in Relation to
Plant Diseases; E. F. Smith, Bacterial Diseases of Plants; Phyto-
pathology; Annals of Applied Biology; Bulletins of Experimental
Stations, U.S.A. ' (S. G. P.)
II. MEDICAL BACTERIOLOGY
It has been more and more recognized by the epidemiologist
that one of the chief structural units in the bridge which connects
one outbreak of a disease with another is the carrier. By the
term " carrier " is meant an individual who, though healthy and
thus unsuspected of infectivity, still harbours in his body
pathogenic bacteria which, passed in the various excretions,
constitute, when given favouring circumstances, a danger to
those about him. These favouring circumstances may be with-
held for long periods, but the individual, on the other hand, may
continue to conserve and distribute the microorganisms for
still longer periods even many years.
Disease Carriers. A certain number of bacteria pathogenic
to man find carriers among animals, for instance the virus of Malta
fever, which multiplies and is distributed in the milk of infected
goats, but mainly man is himself responsible.
The carrier may be a person who has survived an attack of the
disease in question and failed to rid himself of the causative or-
ganisms, which, lodging themselves in the respiratory, genito-urin-
ary or intestinal tract, continue an existence much as do the sapro-
phytic organisms normally found in those regions. He may, on the
other hand, be an individual who entertains the bacterium without
ever having displayed any symptoms of the disease. A chain of such
carriers, recording no history of illness, but passing on the virus in
secret, as it were, would be the explanation of sporadic cases, say,
of cerebros'pinal meningitis, occurring in non-epidemic times, at
362
BACTERIOLOGY
widely distant and apparently unrelated places. In the same way,
the seeds of a disease may be conserved over long periods from one
epidemic to another.
That the carrying of pathogenic bacteria by either man or animals,
together with the opportunity of their transmission to others, does
not altogether explain the spread of disease is certain. A loss of
virulence on the part of the virus or an acquisition of immunity by
the population, or both of these occurrences, must be assumed to
explain the gradual spontaneous termination of an outbreak, and,
similarly, the converse of those phenomena must be regarded as
playing a large part in the recrudescence of an epidemic.
The laws governing the loss or gain of virulence by bacteria
are very imperfectly understood; even in the laboratory patho-
genicity is largely beyond control; elsewhere it is entirely so. The
two other factors concerned in the spread of disease are less elusive.
Even though the carrier state is one which has so far shown itself
recalcitrant to treatment, carriers can be, if circumstances warrant
such a drastic step, segregated, kept under observation, and finally
recommended to adopt a course of life not likely to favour infection
of others. To hasten or forestall the immunity assumed to occur in
a community during the course of an epidemic is the object of
prophylactic inoculation, a procedure of which the success has been
further demonstrated during the World War.
Prophylactic Inoculation. The compound anti-enteric vaccine,
which includes all three typhoidal germs, B. typhosus, B. para-
typhosus A and B, was universally employed in the British armies
and was attended by excellent results, as witnessed by the following
statistics.
Typhoid cases in the British Expeditionary Forces in France up
to May 1915 numbered 827. It was found that the incidence was 14
times and the mortality 42 times greater among the uninoculated
than among the inoculated; up to August 1916 508 uninoculated
had a case mortality of 23-4 %, while 906 inoculated had one of 5-2 %.
Similar good results attended the use of anti-typhoid vaccine in the
armies of other belligerents. It clearly reduced the total number of
cases and lowered the mortality rate. Only in Germany was doubt
cast by any appreciable number of scientific workers on the efficacy
of prophylactic inoculation. A small body of opinion there considers
that only by the use of a living virus, as in smallpox vaccination, can
a reasonable immunity be conferred. It has been suggested by their
critics that the Kolle vaccine, which is used in Germany, is of in-
ferior immunising power, and certain pre-war statistics, comparing
the use of this vaccine with one prepared by Vincent's method, bear
this criticism out.
Other prophylactic vaccines, the use of which has been attended
more or less definitely by success, are those directed against cholera,
plague, pneumonia, cerebrospinal meningitis and influenza. Tenta-
tively used, because of its great toxicity, is anti-dysentery vaccine.
Vaccine Therapy. Other therapeutic employment of bacterial
vaccines has been extensively adopted and has, according to some
workers, justified itself in such widely different diseases as furunculo-
sis, rheumatoid arthritis and whooping-cough. Much work without,
unfortunately, corresponding success continues to be done with
vaccine therapy in tuberculosis. It was hoped at one time that the
administration of vaccines might be controlled by observations of
the opsonic index, made during treatment, but the method has been
discarded as not capable of furnishing a reliable guide to dosage, as
was expected of it.
Serum Therapy. Treatment by inoculation with serum specific
for the disease in question has made notable advances. Besides
those long in use in diphtheria, tetanus and streptococcus infections,
sera capable of neutralizing the toxins produced by B. welchii,
B. oedematiens and V. septique, all these gas-gangrene bacilli, are
now prepared. The efficiency of anti-meningococcus serum has
been greatly increased by the recently acquired knowledge of the
physiology of the meningococcus and by improvements in the manu-
facture of anti-toxin. Thus it was possible, by the use of more effec-
tive sera together with more rapid diagnosis generally, to lower the
death-rate for cerebrospinal meningitis in the home forces from 65 %
in 1914 to 353% in 1918, and even to less than 10% where the
infection was due to that strain of the meningococcus known as
Type I.; it is against this type that the most potent anti-toxin is
preparable. Other sera the use of which has been attended by favour-
able results are those directed against dysentery and pneumonia.
Anaphylaxis. In connexion with the administration of animal
sera, the phenomenon of anaphylaxis has to be recognized. In
animals this condition results after repeated inoculation with a
protein foreign to the animal injected. A guinea-pig, for instance, if
inoculated with even a very small quantity of, say, horse serum and
then after at least five days reinoculated with the same type of
protein, can in some cases suffer so severely that death ensues within
a few minutes, and this although the total amount of protein ad-
ministered on both occasions is very much less than that which could
with perfect safety have been given on the first occasion. The first
inoculation is regarded as rendering the animal " sensitive " to the
particular protein employed and may, for an animal like a guinea-
pig, be as little as 0-00005 of a milligramme. The second inoculation
of O'l to 0-5 of a milligramme occasions the anaphylactic shock,
which consists for the main part of convulsions, paralysis and
cessation of respiration. The causative agent has been considered
to be a poison formed by the union of the antibodies, produced in
the animal by the first inoculation, with the antigen (the protein)
inoculated on the second occasion and has been called anaphylatoxin.
A surprising feature is that, no matter what protein be employed, the
symptoms are in all cases similar. It is for this reason that other
investigators have thought anaphylaxis to be not a toxic but a col-
loidal phenomenon, in which after the second inoculation an ex-
tremely minute precipitation, a gel phase, occurs in the body,
occasioning in the lungs mechanical interference with oxygen ab-
sorption.
In man anaphylaxis is not so pronounced as in some animals,
for instance rabbits and guinea-pigs, yet the danger is sufficiently
grave to demand special care during serum treatment.
It has been found in animal experiments that if the second in-
oculation of protein is survived, the anaphylactic condition dis-
appears. In serum therapy, therefore, if any anaphylaxis is to be
feared, a very small " desensitizing " inoculation is given before
proceeding to the injection of the full amount. The anaphylactic
state is met with in persons who have, on some previous occasion,
had serum administered to them, or, more usually, it is encountered
as a natural condition, as for instance in those individuals who show
susceptibility to some particular foodstuff, such as white of egg.
Anaerobes and Gas Gangrene. A group of bacteria which the
World War threw into great prominence is that of the anaerobes.
A wide divergence exists among microorganisms as to the oxygen
pressure under which growth is possible. The anaerobes require
that oxygen be absent, or present in but minimal quantities', in their
environment. The group is found widespread in nature; its chief
breeding-ground being the intestinal tract of man and animals,
distribution proceeds for the most part along with the manuring of
the fields.
The importance of the group from a human point of view lies in
the high toxicity possessed by several of its members. Its more
special importance during the war lay in the fact that wounds
inflicted by explosive force are usually extensive and earth-soiled,
this in such highly cultivated lands as those of Flanders giving an
opportunity for infection by* anaerobes and for the subsequent
development of the very fatal gas gangrene that was, particularly
in the first months of the war, such a frequent wound complication.
Knowledge of the anaerobes has been, until the last few years of
intenser French, English and American work, in a chaotic con-
dition, only B. botulinus, which occasions food-poisoning, and the
bacillus of tetanus having been at all accurately studied and de-
scribed. Of the remaining anaerobes little was known with cer-
tainty; accounts were contradictory owing to non-recognition of the
fact that the cultures with which work was carried out were not
pure. In this way, besides there being great confusion in nomen-
clature, the group acquired an undeserved reputation for remarkable
variability; it was recorded how one species melted into another
with the mere alteration of the media on which it was grown and the
result was ascribed to an inconstancy of species. In reality, it was a
second strain, long dormant in the impure culture, which was now,
owing to a more congenial environment, able to assert itself.
The usual bacteriological methods for the establishment of pure
cultures which hold good in the case of aerobes are unreliable when
applied to the anaerobes, which appear to possess a special property
of not readily growing, unless associated in some numbers. For this
reason, the anaerobic cultures which " take " are far more likely to
be impure, and the concealed impurity may pass undetected through
a whole series of sub-cultures.
A more refined technique and a more meticulous criticism of
results proved necessary and were applied during later investiga-
tions.
In the group of spore-bearing anaerobic organisms concerned with
wound infections and apart from B. tetanus^ already well studied,
in spite of the fact that it also existed mainly in impure culture
in the laboratories, three outstanding pathogenic species have been
set up:
(i) B. welchii, the most frequently found of the gas-gangrene
bacilli, previously described under a variety of names and in various
conditions of impurity as B. aerogenes capsulatus, B. phlegmonis
emphysematosae, B. perjringens, B. enteritidis sporogenes; (2) Vibrion
septique (Pasteur), the B. oedematis maligni of Koch, and (3) B.
oedematiens, a highly toxic organism discovered by Weinberg and
Seguin in 1915.
For all three, potent antitoxic sera have been prepared and the
treatment of cases has been greatly improved by their use. Certain
slightly pathogenic anaerobes such as B. histolylicus are also con-
cerned in the polymicrobic invasion of wounds, as well as a series of
definitely non-pathogenic anaerobes, like B. sporogenes. Sonie of
these may symbiotically assist infection; others appear only in the
r61es of contaminating organisms, taking no part in the morbid
processes.
Epidemic Influenza. To our knowledge of the aetiology of
influenza the last world-wide epidemic of 1918, with its enormous
incidence and with its appalling mortality returns, such as that
of six millions for India alone, has brought but an increase of un-
certainty. Discovered by Pfeiffer in 1892, the B. influenzae was,
up till 1918, widely accepted as the cause of that disease. But the
failure, during the last pandemic, of a large number of bacteriologists
BACTERIOLOGY
to isolate the bacillus from a considerable proportion of the case
investigated, together with the fact that the disease could not b
experimentally passed on to either man or animals by inoculatio
with Pfeiffer's bacillus, caused a revolt from the orthodox beliei
It is considered by many that the primary aetiological factor sti
remains undiscovered and that the B. influenzae, like the Strepto
coccus and the Pneumococcus (the three pathogenic microorganism
most usually found associated with the disease), is but a secondary
invader of the tissues, and even though of such malignancy as tc
be frequently the occasion of the fatal termination, still not th
original causa causans. Owing to their negative findings, a large
number of bacteriologists have concluded that this must be placec
in the ever-growing ranks of the filtrable invisible viruses, organism
so minute that even with the aid of the ultra-microscope they are
not or barely to be seen ; of so diminutive a size that they are capable
of passing through the pores of even the finer porcelain filters. An
accepted instance of such a deposition of an organism from the
position of causative agent to that of a mere secondary invader may
be found in the case of B. suipestifer in the disease hog cholera. The
true virus here has been demonstrated to be a filter-passer.
From many parts of the world came reports of the proof of such
theories of a filtrable virus in influenza, but in no case have they stooc
the test of criticism. With regard to the tiny globoid bodies shown
in the filtered fluids, no evidence of their true influenzal nature from
an infective point of view was forthcoming. They have been con-
sidered to be inanimate particles of disintegrating protein or even
ordinary contaminating bacteria gaining access to the culture tubes
through a faulty technique.
Those investigators who resent the attack on the orthodox beliei
in the B. influenzae as an aetiological factor point out that not all
workers failed to find that organism in their cases; that those
employing more satisfactory media for the growth of the bacillus
were able to isolate it in as many as 90%. They further point out
that an illness recognizable as influenza has not so far been trans-
ferable to ordinary experimental animals. That man is not infected
by inoculations with living B. influenzae is, they hold, discounted by
the observation that it has not been possible voluntarily to transmit
the disease from one person to another, even by such drastic methods
as the swabbing of the mucous membranes with the inflammatory
secretions taken from the eyes, nose and throat of pronounced cases.
This paradoxical indication of a low infectivity of influenza is
qualified by the fact that the experiments have been carried cut
during and subsequent to the pandemic, when persons chosen for
the experiment as normal, because of their not having succumbed to
an attack of the disease, may be regarded on those very grounds as
possessing a considerable degree of natural immunity, and therefore
as not being acceptable as normal at all. More recently, experi-
mental infection of both monkeys and man with influenza bacilli
and the production of acute respiratory disease have been demon-
strated, but the identity of the illness evoked with that of epidemic
influenza is far from established. The whole question of the aetiology
of influenza is still sub judice.
A New Paratyphoid. Early in the war, in a number of the armies
engaged in the Near East, an illness was noticed which, although
it corresponded clinically in many ways with enteric, did not yield
a virus agreeing with any of the three well-known organisms of that
group of diseases B. typhosus, B. paratyphosus A or B though
culturally it was identical with the last-named. The bacillus that
was isolated by Hirschfeld from cases occurring in the Serbian army
was called by him B. paratyphosus C, and included in the anti-
enteric vaccine used in the Serbian forces. Neukirch, recording
recognition of it earlier on the Turkish front, gave it the name
of B. Erzindjan. As the organism agrees culturally with and is
serologically_ related to B. paratyphosus B, it has been suggested by
others that it should, for simplicity's sake, be regarded as one of
the many paratyphoid B types. Some workers have insisted on
the identity of this so-called paratyphoid C with the bacillus found in
pigs suffering from swine fever and called variously B. suipestifer,
B. of hog cholera, and B. Voldagsen, but, though the relationship is
very close, identity does not seem to have been proved. This
newly recognized type of paratyphoid B, apparently in the main of
Eastern habitat, has no doubt often in the past masqueraded as an
atypical or inagglutinable paratyphoid bacillus.
Typhus Fever. Another disease that sprang into special promi-
nence during the war, and the aetiology of which has received con-
siderable elucidation, is typhus. Nicolle and his collaborators first
gave experimental proof of the transmission of typhus to monkeys
by the body louse. In the case of man such laboratory demonstra-
tion has, however, because of the severity of the disease, been mainly
accidental and therefore incomplete. But while there are other
theories of supplementary means of infection, such as that it is air-
borne or transmitted by droplet infection, evidence that the louse is
the only carrier or communicator of typhus has accumulated to a
great _extent. The sole measure for the successful combating of
an epidemic^ has been a de-lousing campaign. The effect of good
ventilation in preventing infection spreading from patients in a
ward, at first regarded as a proof of its air-borne nature, can now
be explained by the fact that lowered temperatures are inimical to
the activities of lice. In cool, well-ventilated rooms these vermin will
refrain from leaving the bodies of their hosts, and should they be
363
driven to do so by the high temperature of a very feverish case or
the lowered one of a corpse, they will be handicapped in their search
tor a new host. Against the complicity of other insects, such as the
ttea and the bed-bug, there are the observations that typhus is con-
tracted only after close contact, which for flea-borne diseases is not
necessarily the case; while, did the bed-bug play a part in infection
typhus would be a house disease and not one transmitted for the
mam part through the agency of lice-ridden clothes.
. In 1910 Ricketts and Wilder described very small bodies seen
in the gut of lice taken from typhus patients. In 1916 Rocha Lima
repeated the observation. He regarded them as protozoal in nature
and classified them as chlamydozpa. The chlamydozoa are organisms
more minute than bacteria, consisting at one stage of but a speck of
chromatin with no cytoplasm or membrane of any kind. At some
period of their life-cycle they are filtrable. The viruses of rabies
poliomyelitis, scarlet fever and vaccinia have among others been
regarded as belonging to the chlamydozoa. The form seen in typhus
lice was called by Rocha Lima Rickettsia prowazeki, to commemorate
two workers who had succumbed to typhus infection during their
investigations; Ricketts being also, in 1909, the first to describe
bodies of this nature in the tick which transmits the disease known
as Kocky Mountain fever. The aetiological relationship of these
-bodies to typhus is being generally recognized. The criticism that
mlar bodies have been found where no typhus existed has been
countered by. the discovery that a different species, the Rickettsia
qmntana, is associated with the disease trench fever, and the as-
sumption that, as there are a variety of Rickettsia, some may well
be apathogemc for man Belief in the causative nature of such
bacilli as that of Plotz and the Proteus X 19 of Weil and Felix now
finds little support. Indeed, when lice are fed with the latter or-
ganism, they die within the period it takes a louse to become infec-
tive after it has had access to a typhus patient. The defenders of a
hltrable virus as the infecting agent are met by the fact that some
orms o\.KlckeUs^a have been described of so small a size that their
passage through a filter fine enough to retain bacteria would be possible
Trench fever. In 1916 Topfer recorded the occurrence of Rick-
ettsia bodies in the blood of and in lice taken from individuals suffer-
ing irom what has in different countries been called trench or
Volhyman fever. The justification for the association of this
Rickettsia qmntana or Volhynia with the febrile disease rests on
much the same kind of evidence as that furnished in the case of
typhus; but here experimental work on man has been possible, and
Arkwnght, Bacot and Duncan have definitely proved the in-
fectivity of the -Ric^etoa-containing lice and their excreta for
human beings.
Yellow Fever and Infectious Jaundice. A great deal of enlighten-
ing work was carried out on yellow fever during 1919-01 by the
Japanese research worker Noguchi, of the Rockefeller Institute
Previous to his investigations most of our knowledge of the aetiolog-
ical factors in this most dreaded of tropical diseases rested on the
courageous work with its attendant loss of human life performed by
the American Yellow Fever Commission in 1900. It was then
established that yellow fever was an insect-borne disease, the vector
being the mosquito Stegomyia calopus. Many other data, concerning
the incubation period of the disease and the life-cycle of the virus
which was shown to be filtrable, were also established. But the
causal agent was neither isolated nor seen. It remained for Noguchi
to detect in yellow-fever cases a spirpchaete, an organism of similar
"ature to the specific agent of syphilis, a protozoon, and to prove,
short of reproduction of the disease in man, its aetiological relation-
ship to yellow fever. This organism he named Leptospira icteroides.
He found it to be very closely related to, though not identical with
the leptospira discovered independently by Inada and Ido in Japan
and by Uhlenhut and Fromme in Germany in cases of infective jaun-
dice or Weil s disease. This latter organism has for hosts both rats
and mice, and has been named L. icterohaemorrhagiae; an anti-serum
is made with the leptospira of infectious jaundice and possesses
considerable curative value. Noguchi's reports on anti-yellow fever
inoculation are only just beginning to appear but already show
avourable results.
Wassermann Test. Among laboratory diagnostic methods of a
serological_ character, the _Wassermann test for the detection of
syphilitic infection still maintains its position of prominence. The
reaction, which is a complicated one, declares itself as positive or
negative by the power the patient's serum has or has not of going
nto combination with guinea-pig complement and an extract of
animal tissues. This was at first regarded as an immunity reaction,
nvplvmg the usual antigen, anti-body and complement, with the
bpirochaeta pallida (the virus of syphilis) acting as antigen. But
t is now known that that organism does not play a part at all in
he test, which is considered to be an interaction between lipoid
bodies (in the tissue extract), anti-lipoid bodies (present in syphilitic
era owing to the abnormal production of lipoids during the course
>f the disease) and complement (guinea-pig serum). Many modifica-
lons of the original Wassermann reaction are in use, mainly charac-
enzed by increased complexity of technique, but the new diagnostic
method of Sachs and Georgi is comparatively simple, consisting
merely of interaction between the patient's serum and a lipoid solu-
ion ; it is apparently of satisfactory reliability.
BADEN
Agglutination Test. A serological test which has undergone
some development in recent years is that of agglutination. It has
become more necessary to distinguish between specific and group
agglutination. When an agglutinating serum has been prepared by
inoculating an animal with one species of bacteria, it is found that
the serum is capable, not only of agglutinating that species to a
high degree (specific agglutination), but also frequently of aggluti-
nating other closely related species (group or co-agglutination), and
this sometimes to practically the same extent as it does the homolo-
gous species. Further, it has been observed that an organism isolated
from an individual infected with some other quite alien, bacterial
species will have acquired, more or less temporarily, the property
of agglutinating with serum specific to that alien infecting species.
This is called paragglutination. Perhaps the most striking case of
paragglutination is that of a certain strain of B. proteus, named by
its discoverers Xip, and isolated by them from cases of typhus. Here
an organism, well known as an agent of bacterial decomposition
and of some virulence for the human body, though productive of no
symptoms comparable with those of typhus and believed not to
participate in that disease at all, has acquired the property of ag-
glutinating with the serum of individuals who have contracted ty-
phus. This it does to so marked a degree that the paragglutination
has actually been used as a means of diagnosing the illness, far re-
moved from one another though B. proteus and the causal agent of
typhus are in the scale of living organisms. And in this case, the
paragglutinating character has been seen to be more than a tempo-
rary acquisition.
Absorption Test. To distinguish between specific and non-specific
or group agglutination, a modification of the agglutination test is
employed the absorption test. It is found that, after complete
absorption of a serum with its own specific species, all agglutinins
have been removed. When a co-agglutinating species is employed
only the group agglutinins will be absorbed, the specific agglutinins
remaining intact. By this means it has been possible to discriminate
between closely related strains and to divide species into a variety
of types. This has been notably the case with the pneumococcus,
the meningococcus, the dysentery and paratyphoid B groups. The
recognition of the existence of different types of pneumococci and
meningococci has proved of great importance for diagnostic, prophy-
lactic and therapeutic reasons. In the case of prophylactic inocula-
tion against pneumonia, as carried out so extensively by Lister on
South African miners, it was seen to be very essential that the types
predominant should be outstandingly represented in the vaccine
used. In the serum therapy of both pneumonia and cerebrospinal
meningitis cases it is necessary for the best results that the type of
pneumococcus and meningococcus concerned should be known and a
corresponding anti-serum administered. When dealing with B.
tetanus, on the other hand, the importance of distinguishing between
the various agglutinatory and absorptive types does not maintain;
an identical toxic element appears to be common to them all, so
that one anti-toxin serves for whatever type may be responsible for
the infection.
Schick Test. Valuable aid in combating diphtheria epidemics
is afforded by the Schick test. This supplies a criterion of the
immunity an individual possesses against infection by the diphtheria
bacillus and is carried out by the injection of a small quantity of
diphtheria toxin into the skin of the person tested. If the individual
possesses immunity the toxin is neutralized and no reaction in the
tissues takes place; if there is no immunity the toxin, by irritation-
of the skin, sets up a small inflammatory condition which is easily
recognizable. The practical application of this measure lies in the
possibility thus afforded of discovering, in, say, a school or other
large body of people who are running the risk of diphtheria infection,
which individuals possess no natural immunity and thus need safe-
guarding. The treatment, which may then be limited to those re-
quiring it, consists of passive immunization with diphtheria anti-
toxin, if protection is needed for but a short time ; or, if active
immunization, by injecting a mixture of toxinand anti-toxin, in which
case the immunity acquired may be expected to last for one to two
years. Those individuals who, without treatment, disclose by the
Schick test a natural immunity are regarded as possessing it prob-
ably for life.
REFERENCES. References to most of the work here detailed can
be found only in the journals specially devoted to those subjects, the
more important of these being: British Medical Journal; Lancet;
Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology; Journal of Hygiene; Tropical
Diseases Bulletin; Special Reports of the Medical Research Council;
Journal of Experimental Medicine; Journal of Infectious Diseases;
Journal of Medical Research; International Journal of Public Health;
Annales de I'Institut Pasteur; Bulletin de I'Institut Pasteur; Zeit-
schrift fur Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten; Centralblatt fur
Bacleriologie. Lehmann and Neumann's Bakteriologische Diagnostik
(1920) contains many literature references, mainly European.
(H. L. H. S.)
BADEN, FREE STATE OF (see 3.184). The population of
the Free State of Baden, Germany, was, according to the cen-
sus of 1919, 2,208,503.
Political and Constitutional History. Baden was, till the
revolution of 1918, a constitutional monarchy; the sovereign
bore the title of Grand Duke. The Diet (Landtag), which was
composed of two Chambers, had indeed the right of legisla-
tion and of voting taxation, but the ministers were appointed
by the Grand Duke at his own discretion. The government
had always been conducted in a liberal spirit; Baden had in
Germany the reputation of being the model of a diminutive
Liberal country (ein Liberales Musterldndle), though the popu-
lation was preponderatingly Catholic. There was certainly a
powerful Clerical minority in the second Chamber of the Diet.
When at a general election there was a danger that a Clerical-
Conservative majority would be elected, the two Liberal
parties (the National Liberals and the Progressists) concluded
an alliance for election purposes with the Social Democrats,
thus constituting the so-called " grand bloc." The result was
that the Social Democrats held a considerably different posi-
tion in Baden from that which they occupied in the empire. 1
But in Baden, too, the line was drawn ac allowing Socialists
to become members of the Government. The Social Demo-
cratic party nevertheless endeavoured to place as few difficulties
as possible in the path of the Government, and it did not, as
elsewhere, vote against the budget. When the World War
broke out in 1914, the leader of the Baden Social Democrats,
Ludwig Frank, at once enlisted as a volunteer and fell in one
of the earliest battles.
The Liberal sympathies of the Baden dynasty were main-
tained during the war. The heir to the throne, Prince Max of
Baden, tried to exercise his influence in favour of a peace by
understanding and of Liberal reforms in the internal policy of
the empire. When in Oct. 1918 William II. at last decided
to agree to the reform of the constitution by which the parlia-
mentary form of government was introduced for the empire,
Prince Max was appointed imperial chancellor. It was too late.
He could not arrest the progress of the revolution. When the
monarchy fell in the empire, it could not be maintained in
Baden, although there was in this instance no reason for com-
plaint on the score of misgovernment. On Nov. 10 the revo-
lutionary Provisional Government was formed, containing rep-
resentatives of the Social Democratic, the two Liberal par-
ties and the Catholic Centre. On Nov. 22 the Grand Duke
therefore definitely abdicated, with the assent of the heir to
the throne, Prince Max.
The Provisional Government of Baden issued as early as
Nov. 20 an ordinance by which elections were instituted for
a National and Constituent Assembly. 2 This representative
body met on Jan. 15 1919 and at once began to discuss the
draft of the constitution which had been submitted to it by
the Government. On May 21 1919 the new constitution was
passed by the National Assembly. Baden was thus the first
German state which put an end to the lawless revolutionary
situation. The consequence, it is true, has been that the Baden
constitution has in several points been nullified by the con-
stitution of the Reich, which was enacted at a later date;
for the independence of the German Territories, as the states
united in the Reich are designated, was considerably cur-
tailed by the constitution of the Reich of the year 1919. Nor
is there any room in the constitutions of the Territories for
provisions regarding the " Fundamental Rights of the People,"
since the constitution of the Reich has settled these Funda-
mental Rights.
Baden in 1921 was a republic with a democratic constitution.
The powers of State were actually vested in the Diet (Landtag),
which consists of a single Chamber. The Diet does not only possess
the right of legislation, but it chooses the ministry and selects from
among the ministers the minister-president. He has the title of
" President of the State," but he is not the head of the state, but
merely the person who presides over the ministry- The Diet can
at any time dismiss the whole ministry or individual members
1 Reich is translated " Empire " when it refers to the Hohen-
zollern regime; the German word Reich is retained when it refers
to the German Federated Commonwealth established after the
revolution.
2 Each of the German states called its Constituent Assembly a
" National " Assembly (Nationalversammlung).
BADENI BAKER
365
of it. The franchise for the election to the Diet is possessed by all
men and women who have completed their twentieth year. There
must be a general election every four years. The dissolution of the
Diet can be brought about before the end of the legislative period
by a vote of the people. Laws can also be passed by a vote of the
people, and that in two ways: a law which has been voted by the
Diet can be submitted to the vote of the people by the Referendum,
if the ministry so decides or if the people itself so demands; sec-
ondly, an appeal may be proposed by Popular Initiative. Laws in-
volving an amendment of the constitution must always be submitted
to a Popular Referendum. The constitution of Baden has thus a
great resemblance to that of the Swiss Confederation; but there
is the essential difference that in Baden the Government is de-
pendent upon Parliament. (W. v. B.)
BADENI, KASHMIR, COUNT (1846-1909), Austrian states-
man, was born Oct. 14 1846 at Surachovo in Galicia, his
family being of Italian origin. He studied law and served
some years in the Ministry of the Interior and from 1879 at
Cracow as lieutenant of the governor of Galicia. He resigned
the Government service in 1886, but two years later was ap-
pointed governor (Statthalter) of Galicia, where he ruled the
Ruthenians with a strong hand. In Sept. 1895 he was ap-
pointed Austrian prime minister, and his attitude was at
first satisfactory to the German-Austrians. In 1897, however,
in order to gain the support of the Czechs for the new Aus-
gleich with Hungary, he made certain important concessions
in respect of the official use of the Czech language in Bohemia.
This was done by ordinance, without parliamentary sanction,
and met with violent opposition from the German deputies,
some of whom were imprisoned. The storm of indignation
aroused among the German-Austrians by this policy, which
led to imposing demonstrations in the streets of Vienna, led
to Badeni's downfall on Nov. 28 1897. He died July 9 1909
(C. BR.)
BADOGLIO, PIETRO (1871- ), Italian general, was born
at Grazzano (Alessandria) Sept. 28 1871. He received his
commission in the artillery, and thence passed to the general
staff. During the Italo-Turkish War he served in Tripoli
on the staff, receiving special promotion to major after the
battle of Zanzur in June 1912. In the spring of 1915 he was
promoted to lieutenant-colonel and on Italy's entry into the
World War he held the post of sub-chief-of-staff of the II.
Army under Gen. Frugoni. In quick succession he acted as
chief-of-staff of the 4th Division, and commanded the 74th
Infantry Regiment on Monte Sabotino. In July 1916 he received
another step, and as colonel commanded the " Sabotino Sec-
tor." He planned and carried out the successful attack on
Monte Sabotino which preceded the fall of Gorizia (Aug. 1916).
For this success he was once more promoted. After serving as
chief-of-staff of the VI. Corps and commanding the Cuneo
Brigade, he became chief-of-staff of the so-called " Gorizia
Zone " under Capello, with whom he remained when the com-
mand of the " Gorizia Zone " was extended to the whole II.
Army. On the eve of that army's offensive in May 1917, Capello,
dissatisfied with the artillery preparation in the sector of the
II. Corps, obtained the appointment of Badoglio as interim
commander of the corps (May 12). After the capture of Monte
Kuk and Monte Vodice this appointment was confirmed,
and he received another step of promotion. He commanded
the II. Corps at the beginning of the August offensive but
when the XXVII. Corps on the extreme left of the attack
failed to make the progress expected he was sent to take over
the corps. This time, however, the endeavour to make up for
lost time was unavailing. At the battle of Caporetto, Badoglio
commanded the same corps, the left wing of which was broken
by Otto von Below's attack from the Tolmino bridgehead.
On the reorganization of the Italian Supreme Command (Nov.
1917) he was appointed as one of the two sub-chiefs-of-staff
then nominated, the other being Gen. Giardino. From Feb.
1918, on Giardino's transference to Versailles, Badoglio acted
as sole sub-chief-of-staff under Diaz. He conducted the Armis-
tice preliminaries at Villa Giusti, and signed the Armistice on
behalf of Italy. In Nov. 1919 he was appointed to the
rank of army general and from Diaz's resignation to Feb.
1921 he was chief of the general staff in succession to Diaz.
Badoglio's rapid rise was explained by the qualities which he
showed in a special degree: determination, energy, and thor-
oughness. These qualities, joined to a natural military instinct
developed by much study and backed by a powerful ambition,
marked him out early and brought him very quickly to the
front. He was blamed in various quarters for his disposition
of the XXVII. Corps before the Austro-German attack in
Oct. 1917, but the Caporetto Commission of Inquiry rejected
most of the criticisms made upon him.
BAEYER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM ADOLF VON
(1835-1917), German chemist (see 3.192), died at Munich
Sept. 5 1917. Up to within a year of his death he continued
in full active work as one of the best-known teachers in the
world of organic chemistry.
BAGWELL, RICHARD (1840-1918), Irish historian, was borr
Dec. 9 1840, the eldest son of John Bagwell, M.P. for
Clonmel from 1857 to 1874. Educated at Harrow and Christ
Church, Oxford, he was afterwards called to the English bar,
but never practised. As a large landowner in Tipperary he
devoted constant and conscientious attention to local affairs,
serving on all boards and committees until 1898 when, on the
passing of the Local Government Act, his wide experience led
to his appointment for five years as a special local government
commissioner. In 1905 he became a commissioner for national
education. As a historian his reputation rests mainly on his
two works, Ireland under the Tudor s (3 vols. 1885-90) and
Ireland under the Stuarts (3 vols. 1909-16), which are monu-
ments of careful research and wide learning. In recognition of
his historical work he was given the hon. degree of Litt.D.
by Dublin University in 1913 and that of D.Litt. by Oxford
University in 1917. Mr. Bagwell was an uncompromising
Unionist, and was well known as a speaker and writer for the
cause. He died at Marlfield, Clonmel, Dec. 4 1918.
BAIRNSFATHER, BRUCE (1887- ), English humorist,
was born at Murree, India, July 9 1887, and was educated at
the United Services College, Westward Ho. He became a
civil engineer, and also had some military experience in a
militia battalion of the Royal Warwickshire Regt. In 1914
he rejoined this regiment and went to France, serving there
until 1916, when he obtained a War Office appointment.
Bairnsfather's reputation as an artist was made by his black-
and-white sketches of life in the trenches, which first appeared
in The Bystander. His soldier characters became popular
favourites, and a play, The Better 'Ole (1917), founded on the
adventures of " Old Bill " and his friends, enjoyed a great
success. Many of Bairnsfather's drawings were published in
volumes entitled Fragments from France. He also produced
Bullets and Billets (1916) and From Mud to Mufti (1919). In
1919 he started Fragments, a weekly comic paper.
BAKER, GEORGE PIERCE (1866- ), American educa-
tionist, was born at Providence, R. I., April 4 1866. He gradu-
ated from Harvard in 1887 and taught English there as instruc-
tor, assistant professor and, from 1905, as professor. His courses
dealing with the theory of the drama were highly successful,
and his famous laboratory, known as the " 47 Workshop,"
afforded practical training for his students, many of whom
became well-known playwrights. In 1919 he was entrusted
with the preparation of a pageant to commemorate the tercen-
tenary of the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth in the State
of Massachusetts. This pageant, "The Pilgrim Spirit," was
presented accordingly at Plymouth in Aug. 1921.
His works include Specimens of Argumentation (1893); Principles
of Argumentation (1895); The Forms of Public Address (1904);
The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist (1907); Some Un-
published Correspondence of David Garrick (1907); The Correspond-
ence of Charles Dickens and Maria Beadnell and Dramatic Technique
(1919) and Modern American Plays (collected and edited with
introduction, 1920).
BAKER, HERBERT (1862- ), English architect, was born
in 1862, and educated at Tonbridge school. He was articled
to Arthur Baker, and later entered the office of Sir Ernest
George, where he remained as assistant for some years. He
studied at the R.A. schools, and in 1889 was awarded the
3 66
BAKER BALFOUR
Ashpital prize of the R.I.B.A. In 1892 he left England for
South Africa, and there, with Cecil Rhodes as his friend and
patron, began the work of reviving the old traditions of the
architecture and craftsmanship of the colony. For Rhodes
he built Groote Schuur, afterwards the permanent home of
the prime ministers of South Africa, and also a house which the
same patron built on Table Mountain for his friend Rudyard
Kipling. Cecil Rhodes sent him on a tour of travel and study
in Egypt and southern Europe, and, as a recognition of this
generosity and the value of such an opportunity to a young
architect, Baker founded the South African Scholarship at the
British School in Rome. After the death of Rhodes he carried
out the great Memorial on the slopes of Table Mountain,
important features of which were the sculpture work of J. M.
Swan, R.A. the bronze lions and a head of Rhodes himself -
and the mounted equestrian figure -" Physical Energy "-
by G. F. Watts, R.A.
The end of the South African War saw Baker in full practice
in the Transvaal and South Africa. In addition to the Gov-
ernment buildings at Pretoria the administrative capital of
South Africa -he carried out the cathedrals at Cape Town,
Pretoria, and Salisbury, and many colleges and schools. Amongst
the houses he built in South Africa are the Government House
in Pretoria, and that for Sir Lionel Phillips, afterwards the
governor-general's Johannesburg home. He also designed the
buildings for the S. A. Institute of Medical Research at Johan-
nesburg, and laid out many model mining villages on the Rand.
His works in England include Sir Philip Sassoon's house at
Lympne and the restoration of Chilham Castle, Kent. He was
appointed one of the three principal architects for the war
cemeteries in England and Flanders, and carried out many war
memorials in England, amongst them those at Canterbury,
Winchester and at Harrow school. Baker was appointed in
1913 joint architect for the new Imperial City of Delhi, in col-
laboration with Sir Edwin Lutyens. For this great scheme he
designed the .buildings for the secretariats, the Legislative
Assembly, the Councils of State and of Princes, and the Vice-
roy's Dome for General Assembly.
BAKER, NEWTON DIEHL (1871- ), American politician,
was born at Martinsburg, W. Va., Dec. 3 1871. He was
educated at Johns Hopkins (A.B. 1892) and Washington and
Lee (LL.B. 1894). In 1896 he became private secretary to
Postmaster-General Wilson, but the following year opened
a law office in his native town. Later he moved to Cleve-
land, O., where in 1902 he was made city solicitor and
in 1912 mayor. The latter office he had held for two terms
when in 1916 he was appointed U.S. Secretary of War by
President Wilson. He had declined the Secretaryship of the
Interior in 1912. After the outbreak of the World War he
endorsed the Administration's peace policy, supported the
League to Enforce Peace, and urged that the national guard be
tried fully before compulsory service be decided upon. After
America entered the war he recommended moderation towards
conscientious objectors and forbade men in uniform to inter-
fere with anti-conscription meetings. The charge of pacifism
was often brought against him, and his career generally as
Secretary was widely condemned throughout the United States
as lacking in energy, foresight and ability, and especially for
his failure to prepare adequately in the months immediately
preceding the American declaration of war.
BAKST, LEON NICOLAIEVICH (1866- ), Russian painter
and theatrical designer, was born at St. Petersburg May 10
(April 27 O.S.) 1866. He was educated at St. Petersburg,
where he afterwards studied art, and later went to Paris, sub-
sequently returning and working in Moscow. In 1906 he
settled in Paris, and soon became popular as a designer. In
1909 the Imperial Russian Ballet first visited Paris, and Bakst
at once leapt into fame through his designs for the setting of the
ballets Scheherazade and Cleopatre, followed in 1912 by L'Apres-
Midi d'un Faune, Helene de Sparte, and St. Sebastien, and in
1913 by La Pisanella. He published in 1913 an article in La
Hjouvelle Revue, entitled " Les Problemes de 1'Art Nouveau."
See L'Arl decoratif de Leon. Bakst, with appreciation by Ars^ne
Alexandra, translated by H. Melvill (1913).
BALAKIREV, MILI ALEXEIVICH (1836-1910), Russian
musical composer (see 3.234), died at St. Petersburg in May
1910.
BALDISSERA, ANTONIO (1838-1917), Italian general, was
born at Padua 1838, and died at Florence, on Jan. 9 1917.
His birthplace in 1858 being still under Austrian rule, young
Baldissera entered the Austrian army, in which he served
with distinction in an infantry regiment; he was captain in the
7th Jagers at Custozza (1866). But when Venetia became Ital-
ian, he opted for Italian nationality, retaining his rank in the
Italian army. In 1879 he was promoted colonel of the 7th
Bersaglieri and major-general in 1887, when he went to Eri-
trea under Gen. Asinari di San Marzano, remaining in the col-
ony as governor after the latter's return. Both as a soldier and
an administrator he showed high qualities. He occupied Asmara,
Keren and other territories, defeated the armies of Ras Alula,
and had planned still further extensions of Italian dominion,
profiting by the anarchy of Abyssinia. He organized the admir-
able native troops (Ascari), developed agriculture and built
roads. But owing to a disagreement with the home Govern-
ment over his Abyssinian policy he asked for and obtained his
recall after two years of successful activity. In 1892 he was
promoted lieutenant-general. When war with Abyssinia broke
out in 1895 the then governor of the colony, Gen. Baratieri,
did not enjoy the confidence of the Government, which decided
to send out Baldissera once more. Although the appointment
was kept secret, Baratieri got wind of it, and this probably
decided him to attack the enemy with an inferior force and
insufficient supplies, hoping to win glory for himself before
his successor's arrival. The result was the disaster of Adowa
(March i 1896); when Baldissera arrived he found a defeated
and demoralized army, and the victorious enemy advancing in
force. With lightning speed he reorganized the remains of
Baratieri's army and the reenforcements just landed, freed the
beleaguered garrisons of Cassale and Adigrat, drove back King
Menelek's army and reoccupied a large part of the lost terri-
tory. But peace was concluded before he had completely
retrieved the defeat of Adowa, and he was forced to limit his
activities to the internal reorganization of Eritrea. But even
this task he could not carry out as thoroughly as he wished
owing to the opposition of the home Government, which was
tired of African affairs. In 1897 Baldissera returned to Italy
and resumed his duties in the home army, successively command-
ing the VII. and VIII. Army Corps. In 1906 he was made a
senator. In 1908 he had to retire from the army under the
age limit.
BALFOUR, ARTHUR JAMES (1848- ), British statesman
(see 3.250), was confronted, as Conservative leader, after the
general election of Jan. 1910, with a situation of some em-
barrassment. He had to endeavour to save the effective
authority of a second Chamber and to avert Irish 'Home Rule,
with his supporters not yet completely united on the issue of
Tariff Reform, and in face of a Liberal Ministry dominated once
more by a body of 80 Irish Nationalists, who held the balance of
power in the House of Commons, and who notified their inten-
tion not to vote for Mr. Lloyd George's disputed budget unless
their forward policy was adopted. He advocated House of
Lords reform as an alternative to the Ministerial Veto Resolu-
tions, which he denounced as irrational; and when Mr. Asquith
announced that, if he could not secure statutory effect for his
policy in that Parliament, he would not dissolve except under
conditions which would ensure that the will of the people should
be carried into law in the next Parliament, he exclaimed that
the Prime Minister had "bought the Irish vote for his Budget,
but the price paid is the dignity of his office." In the lull in
the party fight which followed the death of King Edward,
Mr. Balfour welcomed the suggestion of a conference between
the parties to endeavour to arrange a compromise, and was
one of the eight leaders who met on 21 occasions between
June and Nov. without coming to an agreement. When the
BALFOUR
367
conference failed and ministers announced another dissolu-
tion, Mr. Balfour did his best to rouse the country to the dangers
which, in his opinion, threatened it. In a speech at the Albert
Hali he expressed his readiness to submit Tariff Reform to a
referendum, and maintained that the Government for their
part should be ready to submit Home Rule also to a refer-
endum. The offer was not accepted. When the second general
election of 1910 confirmed the verdict of the first, the dissatis-
faction with Mr. Balfour's leadership, which had been long
entertained by a considerable section of the Unionists, began
to spread. It was pointed out that he had now led the party
to three electoral defeats in succession; and this record was
contrasted with Lord Salisbury's victories in 1886, 1895 and
1900. The course of the session of 1911 intensified this dissatis-
faction. Mr. Balfour did indeed fight the Parliament bill, in
its passage through the House of Commons, with courage, per-
sistency, acuteness and passion. While he admitted the need
for some change in the Constitution, and promoted Lord Lans-
downe's measure for reconstructing the House of Lords and
making it a Chamber partly hereditary, partly nominated, and
partly elective, he denounced the Ministerial bill as practically
constituting single-chamber government. Ministers, he said,
were forcing constitutional changes on the country by coercion
as they had imposed them on the country by fraud. In com-
mittee he strove hard, but in vain, to get fundamental laws
exempted from the operation of the bill. But he shrank, as in
1832 the Duke of Wellington had shrunk, from encouraging the
House of Lords to persist in opposition, when ministers an-
nounced that they had obtained the King's consent to the crea-
tion of sufficient peers to make its passage certain. He did indeed
move a vote of censure imputing to ministers a gross abuse of
the Constitution in the advice they had given to the Crown;
but he declared that he would stand or fall with Lord Lans-
downe in the recommendation which the latter made to the
Unionist peers to abstain from further resistance as being no
longer free agents. This attitude was passionately resented by
a large number of " Diehards," who organized themselves under
the leadership of Lord Halsbury, and with the approval of
Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, then in retirement owing to illness.
Mr. Balfour's counsel prevailed, and the bill was allowed to
pass; but his position and authority as leader had been seriously
shaken. Though both he and leading " Diehards," in speeches
in the autumn, treated the dispute as ancient history, he
decided that the time had come for him, after 20 years of
leadership, to resign; and he announced his decision to a meet-
ing of the Conservative Association in the City of London on
Nov. 8. He said that he desired to abandon his heavy re-
sponsibility before he could be suspected of suffering from a
sort of petrifaction in old courses and inability to deal with
new problems: and that he felt he had not the vigour, at his
time of life, again to conduct a ministry. He treated the
unrest in the party as nothing exceptional, and spoke of Unionism
as on the upward grade. The announcement, in spite of the
signs of discontent, came as a great shock to the party and the
country; and the Prime Minister, Mr. Asquith, himself
expressed the general feeling when he said at the Guildhall
banquet next day that the resignation involved an irreparable
loss to the daily life of Parliament.
Mr. Balfour was then only 63, and his powers as a parlia-
mentarian were really at their height. Although after his resig-
nation of the Unionist leadership he devoted more time to his
manifold other interests in life -philosophy, science, literature,
music he still took at intervals a prominent part in debate, and
made occasional speeches in the country, giving throughout a
loyal support to his successor in the House of Commons, Mr.
Bonar Law. The renewed controversy on Home Rule afforded
him a great opportunity, and the powerful series of speeches
which he delivered, at Westminster and elsewhere, in the
course of the next three years, did much to awaken Great
Britain to the imminent danger of civil war in Ireland, and
to force ministers into the policy of excluding Ulster, in some
form or other, from the operation of their bill.
When the World War broke out he cordially accepted the
policy of the Unionist leaders in sinking all political differences
in support of the national Government. Speaking at the Guild-
hall on Lord Mayor's Day 1914, he said that the Allies were
fighting for civilization and the cause of small states, and, whether
the war was short or long, they would triumph. In this spirit
he joined the first Coalition Government in May 1915, accept-
ing the first lordship of the Admiralty under Mr. Asquith; and
from this time onward he took a statesman's share in the con-
duct of the war, and in the making of peace. The Admiralty
had been distracted by a quarrel between Mr. Churchill, the
First Lord, and Lord Fisher, the distinguished admiral, who
was First Sea Lord. Both had now resigned, and Mr. Balfour
appointed an eminent scientific sailor, Adml. Sir Henry Jack-
son, as First Sea Lord, and speedily restored the harmony of
the Board. He also reversed Mr. Churchill's policy of differ-
entiating against prisoners from submarines as compared with
other German prisoners, though he insisted that there was no
change of opinion as to the unlawful, mean, cowardly, and brutal
character of their acts. In introducing the Navy Estimates in
1916 he said that, except in armoured cruisers, the fleet was
far stronger than when war broke out; that ships, guns and
ammunition had increased and would increase; and that the
personnel had more than doubled. His principal critic was
Mr. Churchill, who averred that the existing Board had not so
much energy, speed, push and drive as his own, and who, to
the astonishment of the House, recommended the recall of
Lord Fisher a suggestion upon which Mr. Balfour commented
severely. Perhaps the best work which he did at the Admiralty
was the issue, at intervals, of some cogent papers, mainly for
the benefit of the Americans, vindicating the great work of the
British navy in the war, and exposing the fallacies involved in
the captivating phrase, " the freedom of the seas." The chief
naval battle of the conflict, the battle of Jutland, was fought
during his term of office; and he incurred widespread criticism
by the manner in which the news was officially communicated
to the public, the great losses in men and ships being dwelt on
to such an extent as to suggest that, instead of being a victory,
the action was a defeat. In a speech a few days later he claimed
that, as a result of the fight, the Germans were relatively far
inferior to what they had been. In late Oct. there was a
daring German raid by 10 destroyers into the English Channel;
an empty British transport and one British destroyer were
sunk and another destroyer seriously damaged. Mr. Balfour
confidently predicted at the Guildhall on Lord Mayor's Day
that any further Channel raiders would suffer disaster. His
confidence was probably based in part on a new arrangement
of the high naval appointments, which he announced before
the end of November. Sir John Jellicoe was brought into the
Admiralty as First Sea Lord, and Sir David Beatty was appointed
to succeed him as commander-in-chief. These changes were
promptly followed by a change of First Lords when Mr. Lloyd
George formed his Ministry in Dec. 1916. Lord Grey of
Fallodon declined to continue at the Foreign Office under the
new Prime Minister; and as it was essential to have a man of
experience and weight there, the post was pressed upon Mr. Bal-
four, who had in times past occasionally acted as Foreign Secre-
tary in Lord Salisbury's absence, and had been intimately asso-
ciated, during his Premiership, with Lord Lansdowne's work
in the department.
Mr. Balfour took up his new duties as Foreign Secretary only a
few weeks before Germany instituted the unrestricted sub-
marine warfare which brought the United States into the war;
and in April 1917 he headed a British mission which visited
America in order to arrange for regular cooperation between
the two countries. His attractive personality greatly impressed
his hosts, and he received the compliment of being invited to
address the House of Representatives on May 5; his speech
showed a complete sympathy, that was highly appreciated,
with the spirit in which the United States had entered the war.
He subsequently proceeded to Canada, and there addressed the
two Houses of Parliament. The concentration of power in the
368
BALFOUR OF BURLEIGH BALKAN PENINSULA
hands of the War Cabinet, and the great personal ascendancy
which Mr. Lloyd George, as Prime Minister, rapidly acquired,
both tended rather to reduce the importance of the Foreign Secre-
tary during Mr. Balfour's tenure of the post. It should be
noted, however, that it was Mr. Balfour, as Foreign Secretary,
who in Nov. 1917 gave a promise on behalf of his Govern-
ment to provide a " national home " for the Jews in Palestine
after the war. The exceptional amount of work to be dealt with
at this period impelled him to ask for extra help in the office;
and Lord Robert Cecil was taken from the Ministry of Blockade
in the summer of 1918 and made an assistant Secretary of
State. Mr. Balfour went to the Paris Conference in 1919 as the
second British plenipotentiary; but as eventually the terms of
peace were settled by a council of three, Mr. Wilson, M. Clemen-
ceau, and Mr. Lloyd George (or of four, when the Italian
prime minister attended), his share in the work was somewhat
subordinate, though he appended his signature to the Treaty
of Versailles, and to the treaty of guarantee to France against
German aggression. When the Conference was over, he was glad
to be relieved of the burden of a laborious office, and therefore
relinquished the Secretary of. State's seals to Lord Curzon, but
remained himself in Mr. Lloyd George's Cabinet in the honour-
able but comparatively sinecure office of Lord President of the
Council. He was appointed chief representative of the British
Government at the first Assembly of the League of Nations in
1920; and also at the Disarmament Conference at Washington,
D.C., in Nov. 1921.
Mr. Balfour's eminence, and his patriotic readiness to resume
in war-time, in spite of advancing years, official labours in a
secondary position, were suitably recognized on the King's
birthday in 1916 by the grant of the Order of Merit. In 1919
he received a distinction which he must have peculiarly valued,
when he was elected chancellor of his old university, Cambridge,
in succession to his brother-in-law, Lord Rayleigh.
(G. E. B.)
BALFOUR OF BURLEIGH, ALEXANDER HUGH BRUCE,
IOTH (or 6xH) BARON (1849-1921), British politician, was born
at Kennet, Alloa, Jan. 13 1849, the son of Robert Bruce of Ken-
net. He was educated at Loretto, Eton and Oriel College, Ox-
ford, and in 1869 was restored by Act of Parliament to the
barony of Balfour of Burleigh, to which he was entitled by
his descent from the 5th baron, who was attainted after
the Jacobite rebellion of 1715. He first came into public notice
as a member of the factory commission of 1874, and afterwards
acted as chairman of many other commissions, including that
on educational endowments (1882-9). From 1889 to 1892 he
was parliamentary secretary to the Board of Trade in the Con-
servative Government, and from 1895 to 1903 (when he resigned
as a Free Trader opposed to tariff reform) Secretary for Scot-
land. In 1903 he became chairman of the commission on food
supply in time of war, and in 1909 of that on trade relations
with Canada and the West Indies, receiving in 1911 the G.C.M.G.
as a reward for his services. From 1916 to 1917 he was chair-
man of the committee on commercial and industrial policy
after the war. Lord Balfour, who received hon. degrees from
all the Scottish universities, was from 1896 to 1899 lord rector
of Edinburgh University and from 1900 chancellor of St. An-
drews University. In 1904 he was appointed Lord Warden of the
Stannaries. He published in 1911 The Rise and Development
of Presbyterianism in Scotland. He died in London July 6 1921.
BALKAN CAMPAIGNS (1914-8): see SALONIKA CAMPAIGN and
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS.
BALKAN PENINSULA (see 3.258). Geographically speak-
ing, the Balkan Peninsula is a meeting-point of European and
Asiatic relief (see fig. i): the Dinaric ranges belong to the Alps,
the Carpathians and the Balkans seem to be connected in an
arc, and the main tectonic systems of the peninsula have a
geological structure similar to the ranges of Asia Minor from
which they have been separated since the Pliocene or diluvial
period. In the same way, areas of strongly contrasted climate
are to be found in close proximity, e.g. Mediterranean on the
Adriatic and Aegean coast; Steppe, like that in Asia, on the
extensive plain formed by the Danube and the Maritsa; Central
European in most of the peninsula; Alpine on the higher summits
(see figs, i and 2). They are sometimes intermingled: valleys
which reach far into the mountain masses enjoy a Mediterranean
climate as, e.g. the lower Drin valley in Albania.
The distribution of soil affects the character of the vegetation as
much as climate : north of the Balkans and of the Kopaonik plateau
extensive tracts are covered by lake or marine deposits, loess and
humus, where steppe meadows, forests and general cultivation
prevail. On the central highlands are coniferous forests and Alpine
pastures, while the isolated basins show the characteristics of
northern soils and vegetation. The slopes facing the Aegean Sea,
like those facing the Adriatic, give rise to deciduous bush and
pseudo-maquis. The extreme limit of Mediterranean vegetation
sometimes reaches as far as the upper Morava and the depressions
S. of the Balkans in the eastern part of the peninsula, but does not
extend farther than a few miles from the Adriatic or a few hundred
metres above sea-level in the western part. To N. and E. of this
limit, large areas, especially in Bosnia and Serbia, are still covered
with forests of oak and birch trees, remnants of extensive primitive
forest growth in the valleys as well as on the hills ; while to S. and W.
low scrub prevails on the bare rocks. Tobacco, rice and cereals are
grown in the fertile plains of Thrace and Macedonia, olive and
orange trees flourish in the most sheltered places along the coast.
The extension of mountain barriers, climatic influences and zones
of vegetation do not alone make the Balkan Peninsula a world by
itself. Peripheral influences travel from Italy over the Adriatic, by
the straits and the island-dotted Aegean to the indented Hellenic
coast, then through the great longitudinal depressions which
traverse the peninsula from N.W. to S.E. The morphological
features combine to constitute the basis of natural regions the
Aegean, the Balkans, the Morava-Vardar and the Pindo-Dinaric
regions whose main characteristics depend more on morphology
than on ethnography or history.
Natural Regions. The Aegean region is remarkable for the
indentation of its coast. On the Hellenic part (Peloponnesus and
Euboea) each morphological feature islands, gulfs and headlands
points S.E. towards Asia Minor and turns its back to Europe.
Karstic characteristics are well developed in the limestone areas of
the Ionian coast. The climate is typically Mediterranean: summers
are rainless, the atmosphere is clear and temperature is high. The
rivers are not perennial. Among the mdquis growth, cultivation is
restricted to small fields like oases. On the slopes and in the bottoms
of the sheltered depressions, oranges, grapes, lemons and pome-
granates survive the dry summer: the olive is prominent in the
landscape. Animal as well as vegetable life is very restricted. The
isolation of the units and the poorness of the soil would have almost
prevented development if the population had not turned seaward,
attracted by extraordinary opportunities for fishing, navigation and
trade. The Aegean is the only region in the peninsula inhabited
almost exclusively by Greeks, mostly seamen or traders, living in
towns of the Mediterranean type, with high stone houses and narrow
streets, or in large villages on terraces.
The Thraco-Macedoman region . combines the characteristics of
the Hellenic and continental regions. The coast is also indented,
but the large valleys of perennial streams (Vardar, Struma) give
access to the gulfs. The land surface, chiefly consisting of crystalline,
metamorphic rocks, denuded, displaced and dislocated, shows sharp
contrasts of plateaus and basins, and here and there residual ridges.
The tectonic basins, when not filled by the sea, as at Salonika and
Orfano, are occupied by alluvial and tertiary lake deposits as in
Thessaly and Thrace, or by lakes (Doiran, Langadha, Beshik) or,
in the valleys, by marshes. The climate is half continental and half
Mediterranean with rainy summers and cold winters. The Vardaras
blowing in the rear of the deep winter cyclones brings snow to the
hills and freezes the coast, while violent south-west winds bring
excessive heat in summer. The proximity to the coaet of high hill
masses has a great influence on the vegetation: the true maquis
growth extends to an altitude of 200 metres on the coastal slopes, but
olive and vine cultivation reaches as high as 400 metres. Oaks and
chestnuts, at first scattered, increase with the elevation until they
form forests, then coniferous trees appear and finally the cloud-
wrapt Alpine summer pastures provide an area of " transhumance "
to Kutzo-Vlakh and Slav shepherds, who spend the winters on the
coastal plains. The area available for agriculture lies in the basins
Thessaly for wheat, Seres for cotton, the plain of Salonika for rice,
Kavalla for tobacco. The towns (Salonika, Kavalla), inhabited by
Spanish Jews, Turks and Greeks, are built like amphitheatres on the
slopes and the villages are inhabited by Slavs and Arumans. The
latter are often of the Turkish Chiftlik type with square rooms
grouped around the landowner's house, or are composed of houses
made of sun-dried bricks.
Strongly contrasting with the Aegean, the Balkan region is a
continental mass. The straight Black Sea coast does not favour
peripheral influences travelling inward, and the high Rila and Rho-
dope systems form a barrier against western penetration. The west-
east folded Balkans divide the region into two parts, the lower
Danubian plateau on the N., and the Maritsa basin on the S., but
BALKAN PENINSULA
369
ft I A TIC
NATURAL
Hellenic Region
REGIONS
ELEVATIONS IN MET
I Over 1500
0-500
2 Thraco- Macedonian Littoral
Transition Region
3 Lower Danabian P/ateau.
4 Maritsa Basin
1a.Su.b-Ba/lfan Depression
5 Upper /sker Basin Region
6 morara , or Shumadiya , /fey/on
6a Bosnian Sab- Region
7 Centra/, or Rushka, Region
8 Lower I/ardor Sab-Region
8a Macedonian Lake Sab-Region
9 Dinaric Region
10 Pindus Region
1000-1500
500-1000
Natural Scale
English
I 7,000,000
Miles
50 100
Kilometres
MEDITERRANEAN
Long. East or Greenwich
FIG. i.
low passes render communication easier. The lower Danubian
plateau is the only part of this region in which relief, climate and
production are almost uniform; the unbroken monotonous surface
is dissected regularly by deep-cut asymmetric valleys facing fault
scarps, running from S. by W. to N. by E. Like southern Russia
and Rumania, it is covered with neogene sediments and loess of
wonderful fertility, but trees and grass are very scarce out of the
valleys, the water table being too deep down. During excessively
dry summers the small streams cease to flow, and in cold winters
even the Danube is frozen. Summer droughts make the crops of
wheat uncertain. The characteristics of extreme continental climate
and vegetation increase eastward in Dobrudja and favoured the
settlement of the steppe Slavs and Ugro-Finnish Bulgars, while the
uniformity of relief and the proximity of Constantinople made
control of the country by the Turks easy.
The central and western Balkans stand out in contrast: high hill
masses of palaeozoic schists, granite and mesozoic rocks, often chalk,
are bounded on the south by abrupt fault scarps of a few hundred
metres overlooking the plains, and, on the north, gradually fall in
folded ranges. The eastern Balkans, consisting of sandstone, schists,
flysch, are lower. Unlike the mountains of the central parts of the
peninsula, the folded Balkans contain few faulted basins (Orhaniye).
Except for the Yantra and Isker running south-north through the
massifs and the Kamtshiya and Provadiya running west-east through
epigenetic ravines, they have an undiversified drainage and are like
the basins cultivated with oats, barley and potatoes, while cattle are
raised on the grassy and forested hills. Between the schists and
granites of the Rhodopes and the mesozoic rocks of the Balkans
lies the tectonic basin of the Maritsa, showing strata of sandstone
and paleogene limestone below alluvial deposits. The climate varies :
it is Mediterranean as far north as Philippopolis, favouring the
cultivation of maize, tobacco, the pepper plant, the vine and mul-
berry trees along the Maritsa; in the east around Jamboli and Stara
Zagora a steppe climate prevails, favouring wheat. The small
tectonic basins of the sub-Balkan depression are liable to lesser
extremes of climate and are well known for their rose gardens as at
Kazanlik and fruit orchards as at Zlatitsa. The whole region facing
Constantinople felt Byzantine or Asiatic influences strongly and was
the first domain of the Bogomils during the Middle Ages.
West of Sofia, the upper Isker basin is a natural Viskar unit. In
the centre, the Viskar and Lulyin mountains are an area of eruptive
rocks and mesozoic strata folded east-west and surrounded by low
limestone ridges, gentle on the north (Srbnitsa) and ragged on the
south (Vlashka). Isolated tectonic basins and karstic depressions,
such as Kyustendil and Grahovo, are the only cultivable areas. The
country, poor and deforested, is a barrier to communication the
Shop tribe lives there under primitive conditions with Bulgars
settled at the approaches. Sofia overlooks the Isker, Struma and
Nishava, leading respectively to the Danube, to the Aegean and to
the Morava-Vardar. To the south, the Rhodope system, a high
mass showing glacial valleys and cirques, and almost perennial
snows, is covered with forests or meadows partly inhabited by
Pomaks, Yuruks and by transhumant Kutzo-Vlachs (see fig. 3).
Unlike the Balkan the Morava-Vardar region is not open to
eastern influences. Its main communications are longitudinal,
along a depression leading from Central Europe to the Aegean Sea.
Various formations are displayed in the relief the pretertiary Rho-
dope mass, the tertiary Dinaric and Carpathic ranges, the eruptive
rocks of the Ibar and Bregalnitsa with their rich iron and copper
fields, most of them by their great height impeding the west-east
370
BALKAN PENINSULA
communications. The massifs enclose tectonic basins still or
formerly occupied by lakes, and connected with the Morava and
Vardar valleys or with the Ovtshe Polye and the Strumitsa. North
of Nish, the Shumadya is the southern part of the neogene Pannonic
lake. It slopes gradually by seven terraces from 960 metres to 120
metres towards the Danube and the Sava. On a lacustrine soil, the
monotony of the crops is broken only by forested hills former
islands in the Pannonic lake and remnants of an ancient extensive
forest. Similar morphological features are found E. of the Carpathic
Rtany (1,566 metres) in the Timok basin, previously occupied by a
Pliocene lake. The climate is of modified Central European type,
with abundant rain; and a long mild autumn, and a soil of loess and
humus make Shumadya the best maize district in the peninsula.
FIG. 2.
Pigs are raised in the decreasing forest area. White villages, crowded
by a purely rural population reputed for good sense, humour,
democratic spirit and strong national traditions, are scattered
among green plum orchards. In close touch with Central European
civilization, Shumadya early cast off the yoke of distant Con-
stantinople and became the Piedmont of the Serbian renascence.
South of Nish the country is more isolated: Rashka is composed of
tectonic basins (Nish, Kosovo, and Skoplye) encompassed by
abrupt slopes of compact masses of schists and limestone. The
higher summits show ancient glacial features. Towards the south,
the relief is more and more complex. In Macedonia, crystalline
schists and granites of the Rhodope system prevail on the east, sand-
stones, serpentines and limestones of the Pindus on the west. Among
the latter are higher summits (Perister, Kajmakcalan, 2,525 metres)
and tectonic basins (Presba, 900 metres). The climate is continental
except in the south-east where several Aegean gulfs penetrate the
interior along the Struma and Vartlar, but winters last longer and
are colder than in Shumadya. The lake-floored basins are occupied
by orchards or wheat and flax, but forests and summer pastures of
the hills are a region of " transhumance," especially in the west,
equidistant from the Adriatic and the Aegean. Fields of poppies
and rice and vineyards occupy large spaces in south-eastern Mace-
donia. The inhabitants live mostly in the basins but also on the
terraces. In Rashka and Macedonia towns are more of the Turkish
type with their aggregations of 'wooden shops on narrow, dirty
streets grouped round a central covered bazaar. In Shumadya, more
open to European influence, the town streets converge towards a
central piazza or market, and the villages extend along valleys and
roads, contrasting with those of the Chiftlik type of the Vardar
country. There isolation of small natural units helped the par-
ticularism and submission to Turks which are still noticeable
amongst the people, though disappearing through the influence of
returned emigrants.
The Pindo-Dinaric region differs from that of the Morava-Vardar
in its lack of penetration and union and by a well-defined morphol-
ogy. From the Lyublyana basin to the Gulf of Arta, it is delimited on
the E. by depressions, among which are the upper valleys of the
Vrbas, Neretva and Drin. The beds are folded and dislocated
N.W.-S.E., so that from W. to E. the littoral area (primorye) is suc-
ceeded by a barren karstic plateau (zagora) and then by high
mountain ranges (pianino) parallel to the coast, which is a coast of
submergence of which the higher parts form islands. The strike of
the folds restricts transverse relations, except S. of Scutari where,
in the Pindus ranges, it becomes west-east. Crests of the underlying
carboniferous rocks often appear through the folded and dislocated
surface, but the ragged dolomitic peaks are higher. Depressions and
gentle slopes prevail in the Bosnian schists of the east, steps of
cretaceous limestones sloping from 2,000 metres to 800 metres in the
plateau of the west. These steps have been transformed into barren
karst, with subterranean rivers, high temperatures and abundant
rains, as far as a new line of ranges along the coast. Important
mineral deposits, especially iron and copper, are found in the
palaeozoic and tertiary rocks.
The karstic morphology is less important where the schists,
sandstones and serpentine predominate in the Pindus regions.
Instead of being indented and island-dotted, as in Dalmatia, the
Albanian coast is straight and deltaic. The Mediterranean type of
climate extends farther than in the Dinaric regions. Winters last
long and snowfalls are abundant on the planinas, autumn is early in
the zagora, and the barometric gradient in the " bora," a wind blow-
ing from the mountains towards the Adriatic cyclones, is extremely
steep. The rainfall reaches 4,640 mm. at Tserkvitse in the Gulf of
Cattaro. The vegetation is varied : the slopes of the planinas up to
1,700 metres are occupied by forests, farther up by Alpine villages
and fields of summer crops, then by pastures. Intensive agriculture
is possible only on the " terra rossa " of the depressions in the karst.
Mediterranean cultivation prevails on the coast. The alluvial
Pindus valleys are cultivable areas and the Albanian slopes are
covered with pasture and olives up to Elbassan on the east. The
population is scattered except on the edge of the polye, where it con-
centrates in order to avoid building on the limited " terra rossa "
area. The Alpine type of house prevails on the planinas from
Carniola to the districts occupied by the Vasoyevitschi tribe in the
upper Lim valley, the Chifllik in southern Albania, the Mediter-
ranean on the Primarye and some parts of Zagora. The towns in
Albania are of mixed Turkish and Mediterranean type (Durazzo,
Valona). On the other hand, Spalato, Zara and Ragusa, old harbours
along small bays and narrow headlands, are an element of maritime
life which helped Slav and Latin influences to combine in the early
cities, producing a high civilization. On the planinas a pastoral life
favoured a sturdy independence. The same characteristics are
noticeable in the Pindus region which, isolated from the sea by
marshes and lagoons, is still the most extensive domain of tribal life.
Thus, unity of life, as well as morphologic features, is a determinant
factor of the natural region.
Area and Population. The political divisions do not exactly
correspond with natural units described above :
Political Division
(1921)
Area in
sq. km.
(1921)
Pop. (1910
census)
Pop. per
sq. km.
Yugoslavia (S. of the Danube
and Sava) ....
202,051
8,842,667
43
Dobrudja (Rumania) .
23.304
360,000
15
Bulgaria
102,740
4,700,000
38
Turkey
10,000
1,400,000
H
W.Thrace
12,000
300,000
25
Greece
142,000
5,850,000
37
Albania . ...
26,000
780,000
3
State of Fiume ....
21
49,806
2,37i
Balkanic Italy (country of
Gorizia E. of the Isonzo, W.
Carniola, Istria, Trieste and
Zara)
7,969
739.952
92
Totals
526,085
23 022,425
42
Civilizations and Metanastasic Movements (see fig. 3). Various
civilizations Byzantine, Turkish, Occidental and Patriarchal
were adapted in their distributions to geographical, conditions,
each of them leaving a deeper impress in a definite area. Byzan-
tine influence impressed material life and moral ideals throughout
the Middle Ages, and it was carried by the Greeks and Aramuni
along the longitudinal depressions under Turkish rule up to the
Danube and the Sava, but could not be maintained in the areas
successively cleared by the Turks. It does not now appear
farther north than the Balkans and the Shar Planina. It is still
noticeable in the city life, relying on strict trade unions, in
dogmatic quarrels, and in the struggle to make money at all
costs. Turkish and Oriental influences first came across the
straits and the island-dotted Aegean. The Greeks and Turks
brought wheat, fruit trees, flowers, and methods of irrigation
from Asia Minor, the last of these especially into Bulgaria. The
Islamized Serbs extended the area of Turkish habits and mental-
ity far north and west into Bosnia. Turkish and Oriental in-
fluences are still manifested in special care for weapons and
harness, in lazy habits, and in a strange mixture of goodness with
brutal passions. Under submission for so long, the Christians
still maintain the raya mind and conceal their feelings. In Turkish
territory and Thessaly the economic system of tenure called
BALKAN PENINSULA
37i
Chifllik persists. The begs and agas, and Greek landowners of
Thessaly, the former being descendants of the landowners who
adopted the creed of the conquering race, own the ground culti-
vated by the kmets or chiftshiye and impose heavy taxes upon
them.
The western European countries and the Balkan world came
early into contact. The Romans crossed the Adriatic and Latin-
ized the old Illyrian tribes up to a line from Alessio on the Adri-
atic to Ratiaria on the Danube, south-east of which the Greek
language prevailed. Later, the House of Anjou in Albania, the
Franks in Constantinople, and the maritime and commercial
empires of Genoa and Venice hardly carried Occidental in-
FIG. 3.
fluences over the main ranges into the interior of the peninsula.
But the Mediterranean type is conspicuous in Dalmatia and in
Constantinople, and the Latin is less noticeable on the planinas.
Occidental architecture may be noticed in a Serbian church of
the i3th and isth century at Detchain. From that time, in
consequence of these commercial and intellectual relations, a
few words of Latin origin were introduced into the Serbo-Croatian
language. After the i8th century it was a principle of Austrian
policy to carry Central European influences far southwards;
the Austrians brought their habits of city life, their methods of
trade, their engineering, and their house furniture, but did not
make their mark on intellectual development. North of the Shar
Planina and of the Balkans, except on the coast and in the
Serbian plains, the patriarchal type of civilization prevails.
It is also noticeable in Albania. Its main characteristics are the
organization of the tribes in Montenegro, northern Albania
and Rashka, and that of the Zadruga from the Adriatic to the
river Iskar. In the latter three or four families live together,
obeying the oldest member of the group, and cultivating ground
which is owned in common. The Zadruga is chargeable for the
taxes, controls the expenditure, is responsible by law for, and
makes profit on the work of, each member. Some groups con-
sist of as many as 70 members. The ground, except forests or
pastures (stojer), becomes more and more divided up. The nu-
cleus of the tribes is made up of old families related together
and enlarged by the admission of foreign groups, or by conquest
of new territories. The Montenegrin tribes hardly made a liveli-
hood on the barren karst and had to keep small in number;
while the Rascian tribes, in an area full of resources, became more
and more important. On account of geographical isolation and
the prevention of exogamy amongst the old tribes, tribal life
developed into particularism, but the wars against the Turks
united those tribes which, when not fighting, were occupied only
in pastoral pursuits or the leading of convoys.
The distribution of civilization has been greatly influenced by
metanastasic movements. The invasion of the Turks in the i4th
century determined local migrations, especially among the Serbs.
The Dinaric Serbs from Montenegro and Herzegovina moved
eastward and settled in the forest glades of Shumadya, or north-
wards along the Dinaric ranges as far as Istria and Carniola.
People from Kosovo and Prizren moved northwards and settled
in the plains and valleys of eastern Shumadya. The Macedo-
nians moved along the Vardar and Morava valleys and, with the
Serbians of the old districts, crossed the Sava and Danube and
settled in Styria, southern Carniola and Croatia. Among the
Bulgarians, the Balkanyi alone left their mountains for the lower
Danubian or the fertile Thracian plains. The Albanians often
changed place. Pushed back from the Black Drin by the Slavs
in the 6th and 7th centuries, most of them adopted the creed
of the Turks in the Middle Ages, and travelled freely through
the whole peninsula; the half-Serbian, half-Albanian Malissores
settled at Novibazar; a few Mirdites pushed up to Kosovo;
the central Albanians to near Skoplye and Tetovo; the southern
Albanians to the Peloponnesus. Along the main roads are
Greek commercial colonies and Turkish military posts. The
gradual clearing of the peninsula caused metanastasic movements
of the Turks back towards Constantinople and Asia, and of
the Christians back to the homes of their ancestors. The Turkish
domination was responsible for many migrations: after revolts,
and every fourth year as one-fifth of the young Christians entered
the Sultan's service as Yenitsheri, entire families took refuge in
the high massifs. During the wars between the Turks and the
Austrians in the i8th century, the Serbian insurgents, to avoid
reprisals, had to follow the retreating Austrians. During the
liberation wars led by the Kara George vitch in 1804 and by
Milosh Obrenovitch in 1815 many Serbians migrated from
Novibazar and Nish into Shumadya. Economic conditions
also played their part in those movements: entire families left
overcrowded cultivated areas for rich but less inhabited areas.
Scarcity of food pushed 10,000 Montenegrins eastward into
Serbia in 1890. Many kmets, trying to escape bad conditions of
tenure, obtained land in the newly liberated territories. Those
metanastasic movements brought about the redistribution of
ethnic and religious groups, and extended the Orthodox Church
into the domain of the Roman Catholic, north of the Sava and
Danube. In the same way, the Dinaric dialect pushed back the
Croatian, and the Kosovo dialect was spoken farther and farther
northward. Everywhere the immigrants adapted themselves to
the life of the inhabitants among whom they had to live, but
also brought new customs and a new mentality.
Races. Owing to the continual movement of the population,
the ethnological boundaries do not coincide with those of the
great natural regions. The Greeks came from Asia Minor in
early historic times and settled in the coastal area, including the
islands between Varna and Corfu. They assimilated the Romans
in Byzantine times, the Slavs in and after the Middle Ages, the
Aramuni from the i2th to the i5th century, and the Albanians
after the I4th century. But even now their range does not extend
far from the sea, its northern boundaries being the southern
border of Albania, the river Bistritsa and Lake Beshik. Farther
east, mixed up with Turks and Bulgars, and with many Greeks
in such commercial centres as Constantinople, Adrianople and
Salonika, they occupy Thrace equally with the Turks. In the
peninsula and adjacent islands they probably number 4,500,000.
Declining since the i7th century, the Turkish population has
disappeared from the northern towns and from the Rhodcfpe
and Balkan mountains, where names given by Yuruk shepherds
are, however, still retained. The Turkish element is nowhere
found in compact masses except in the east Balkanic regions,
where the dry climate is similar to that of Asia Minor. Else-
where, it exists only in isolated districts in eastern Bulgaria,
in Thrace, on the left bank of the Vardar and in the Bujak
Kajlar basin. The total Turkish population of the peninsula
scarcely exceeds 1,800,000.
The Albanians or Shkilpetar, representatives of the primitive
Illyrian tribes, were not Slavized like the Dalmats or Liburns.
They live in the mountainous Pindus and Prokletye, encom-
passed by Yugoslavia and Greece, while, among them, the Slavs
372
BALKAN PENINSULA
Natural Scale I ' 7,OOO,OOO
English Miles
Long. East 22 of 6renich
FIG. 4.
often occupy the valleys and littoral plains. They have lost
ground in the north-east since 1878 and the withdrawal of the
Sultan's authority.
The Aramuni, numbering approximately 160,000, are found
in 154 detached settlements of the southern peninsula. They
are nomad shepherds migrating between the mountains and the
littoral plains. Remnants of the primitive Latinized population,
they have continued to decrease since the i8th century, when
it is estimated they numbered 500,000. Some of them have set-
tled in the mountains after having made money as shopkeepers
in large towns.
The Yugoslavs, numbering about 15,000,000 south of the
Danube and Sava, are the most numerous people in the peninsula.
They are divided into Serbo-Croat-Slovenes (10,000,000) and
Bulgars (4,700,000), all agriculturists. The majority of the
Serbs, Croats and Slovenes came from trans-Carpathian coun-
tries in the 7th century. The distinction between them does not
arise from any linguistic, racial or even religious difference.
The national spirit of the Serbs gained force after the battle of
Kosovo in 1389. At the end of the i5th century, the Orthodox
religion, diffused through the Serbians after metanastasic
movements, became national, and it helps to maintain unity.
The Serbo-Croat-Slovene Kingdom, generally called Yugoslavia,
does not include all the Serbians, Croats and Slovenes of the
Balkan Peninsula more than 400,000 were annexed to Italy
by the Treaty of Rapallo. The Macedonian Slavs extend south-
ward to Hellenic territory, almost to the river Bistritsa.
The Bulgars, who descend from a fusion of the Slavonic element
with a later Ugro-Finnish immigration, inhabit the kingdom of
Bulgaria, parts of Dobrudja and Thrace. On account of the
proximity of Constantinople and of the general geographical
conditions, they were more submissive to the Turks than any oth-
er part of the population, so that the word "Bulgar" often meant
a social state different from that of the Turkish conquerors. Its
political meaning dates from the creation of the Exarchat in
1870 and the wars of liberation.
The remainder of the population is composed of Armenians,
who live in trade centres like Constantinople ; of Jews, immigrants
from Spain who form half of the inhabitants at Salonika; and of
gipsies, wandering, or in scattered settlements near large towns.
BALKAN WARS
373
Religions. The Turkish conquest was followed by numerous
conversions to Islam, so that the Mahommedan population
(3,000,000) exceeds the Turkish element. More than half of the
Albanians and 32% of the inhabitants of Bosnia and Herze-
govina have adopted the creed of the conquering race. The great
bulk of the Christian population belongs to the Orthodox Church,
of which the oecumenical patriarch at Constantinople is the
nominal head. The Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek Churches are
in reality autocephalous. Most of the Serbians, Croats and
Slovenes of Slovenia, Croatia and Dalmatia, some of the Gegh
tribes in Albania, and 22% of the population in Bosnia and
Herzegovina belong to the Roman Catholic Church. Some
Bulgars belong to the Uniate Church, which keeps Orthodox
rite and discipline under Roman authority. The Gregorian and
Uniate Armenian Churches each have a patriarch.
Languages. The Slavonic and Greek Nationalists succeeded
in preserving their language. Early in the iyth century, the
Serbo-Croats in Ragusa had a common literature, written in
Herzegovinian dialect. In the ipth century, under the influence
of Vuk Karadjitsh, that dialect prevailed as the literary language.
In Bulgaria, the actual language is that of Sredna Gora, for
centuries written only in a few monasteries. The conventional
literary language of the Greeks is a compromise. Albanian, a
remnant of the ancient Thraco-Illyrian speech, belongs to the
Indo-European family, but lacks literary distinction.
AUTHORITIES. For a general description of the whole region see
Jovan Cvijic, La Pcninsule Balkanique (1918); Odysseus, Turkey in
Europe (1900); Gaston Gravier, Les Frontieres historiques de la
Serbie (1918); H. C. Thomson, The Outgoing. Turk (1897); Tjoanne,
Etats du Danube et des Balkans (1895); R. Millet, Souvenirs des
Balkans (1891); E. de Lavelaye, La PeninsuU des Balkans (1896);
F. Toula, " Materialien zu einer Geologic der Balkan Halbinsel,"
Jahr. K. K. Reichsanst., vol. xxxiii., pp. 61-114^ (Vienna, 1883);
A. Philippson, Der Peloponnes (1892); J. Cvijic, " Die Tektonic
der Balkan Halbinsel," Camples rendus, Congres geologique inter-
national (Vienna 1904) ; " Grundlinien der Geographic und Geologie
von Macedonien u. Alt-Serbien," Erg. Heft., Pet. Mitt. (Gotha,
1908) ; Mackenzie and Irby, Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of
Turkey (1866); A. Bone, La Turquie d'Europe (1840). W. Miller,
The Balkans (1896), sketches the history of Bulgaria, Montenegro,
Rumania and Serbia. See also Austrian, British, French and Serbian
staff maps, and the ethnographical maps of Cvijic and Marinelli in
the Geographical Review, New York (1919). (J. C. ; Y. C.)
BALKAN WARS (1912-3). This article gives an account of
the wars of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro as allies
against Turkey in 1912 and 1913, and the short war which
followed between the former allies, with Turkey and Rumania
intervening, in the summer of 1913.
I. The Balkan League. The formation of a military alliance
between Bulgaria and Serbia, Greece and Montenegro in 1912 was
the final step in an evolution which began in 1909, and in its last
stages was hastened by the Italo-Turkish War of 1911. The imme-
diate cause of war was the state of Macedonia under Turkish rule.
On June 19 1912 a military agreement was made between the general
staffs of Serbia and Bulgaria, in accordance with the previous politi-
cal treaty of alliance signed on Feb. 29 1912. Greece followed suit
with a political treaty in May and a military agreement on Sept. 22.
Montenegro did the same in the course of the summer, and, while
Turkey was still negotiating her peace with Italy at Ouchy, the four
allies mobilized their armies (Sept. 30 and Oct. I N.S.). Turkey,
since the Young Turk Revolution internally dislocated, was in no
condition to meet their onslaught. Although the prestige of the
individual Turkish soldier as a fighting man stood high, and the
beginnings of many reforms in the education of staff and regimental
officers had been made in the last few years, the military capacity of
the army as a whole proved to be far below the reputation which it
enjoyed amongst the military experts of Europe. Turkey's oppo-
nents, on the contrary, had in recent years not only rearmed them-
selves and secured their financial and political position, but also
made those minute and careful preparations of detail which when
the time comes translate themselves into smooth concentration, and
regular, consistent operations.
Strategically no less than politically, Turkey was on the defensive.
Her European possessions formed two separate theatres of war,
Macedonia and Thrace, which were linked only by the coastal rail-
way Dede Aghach-Seres-Salonika, and this line, open in its middle
section to Bulgarian raids from the mountains on the N. and to
Greek raids from the sea, 1 was of no high technical efficiency in any
1 The possession of one modern ship, the " Averof, " gave to the
Greeks material superiority over the Turks at sea, and the maritime
traditions and aptitudes of their race a certain moral advantage.
case. The dispersion of a large part of her army and notably of her
reserves in Asia Minor, where rail communications were few, and
roads ill-developed, made any reenforcement of the European
theatres a matter of time and difficulty ; in the case of Macedonia,
such reenforcement was practically impossible save by sea. After a
new survey of the situation in 1909-10 by Marshal von der Goltz it
was decided to treat Macedonia as a self-contained theatre of war
garrisoned at all times by a large army with Shtip (Slip) as its area
of war concentration, and to constitute in Thrace a covering army
which would be reenforced by the troops from Asia as they suc-
cessively arrived, up to the strength adequate for offensive opera-
tions against Bulgaria. To assist the defense in the first, or waiting,
period Adrianople was organized as a modern fortress, and Kirk
Kilisse, an upland town on the edge of the Istranja Dagh, re-equipped
with barrier-forts. The line of communication with Asia was secured
against the Greek fleet by the Dardanelles fortifications, which en-
abled Rodosto to be used as an advanced base.
The peace-time distribution of the Turkish forces in Europe
(other than garrison troops) was as follows: In Thrace were the I.
Ordu (Constantinople), with the I. Corps (Constantinople), II.
Corps (Rodosto), III. Corps (Kirk Kilisse), and IV. Corps (Adri-
anople). These constituted 12 active divisions, plus, on mobiliza-
tion, II first reserve divisions and 6 second reserve divisions. In
Macedonia were the II. Ordu (Salonika), with the V. Corps (Salo-
nika), VI. Corps (Monastir), VII. Corps (Uskub), and the independ-
ent 22nd Div. (Kozani), 23rd Div. (Yannina), and 24th Div.
(Scutari).
These constituted 12 active divisions, plus, on mobilization, 10
first reserve divisions and 3 second reserve divisions. Administra-
tively, the reserve formations of Smyrna, and both the active
(VIII. Corps) and reserve formations of Damascus, belonged to this
II. Ordu. Under favourable circumstances, and especially if Greece
were neutral, these forces, totalling 3 active and 15 first reserve
divisions, would be available. In the alternative, they would be
available, with some delay in point of time, to reenforce the army in
Thrace. The III. and IV. Ordus, with headquarters at Erzinjan and
Bagdad respectively, could be grouped as an army of the Caucasus
in case of a Russian war, but were practically unavailable for
Europe. So also were the forces in Hejaz and Yemen, and Tripoli.
Neglecting second reserve formations, therefore, the paper disposi-
tions gave Thrace 23 and Macedonia 22 divisions, to either of which
might be added a further 18. But, as usual in Turkish military
history, this imposing paper total of 63 divisions represented far
more than the real and available strength. Internal difficulties, low
transport capabilities, and the necessity of garrisoning almost all
parts of Albania and Macedonia to prevent local risings, added to
the customary slackness in administration and training and the
customary dishonesty in supply and equipment matters, resulted in
the putting into the field of two armies which were numerically in-
ferior, unequally trained, and poorly equipped possessing indeed
few assets beyond the solid fighting-worth of the individual Mahom-
medan Turk. 2
With all this, however, the prestige of a great Power facing a group
of small states, whose mutual hatred and rivalries had only just
been composed, stood high, especially in Germany where the
positive effects of the Turkish army reforms initiated by von der
Goltz and others were overrated. In the Turkish army itself, con-
fidence was unbounded : only a few had their misgivings.
The actual strengths of the two Turkish armies, owing to inexact
and defective returns, cannot be stated. But it appears to be true
that the Thracian army had no more than half of its nominal
strength of 226,000 men, while the Macedonian army short of the
VIII. Corps and the Damascus and Smyrna reserves and scattered
as it was, can hardly be credited with more than 200,000 of its nomi-
nal 340,000, of whom no more than 50,000 combatants were in fact
ever assembled on one battlefield.
On the side of the allies, administration being regular and senti-
ment uniform within each army, the paper strength and order of
battle represent realities, and can be summed up thus :
Bulgarian Army: Nine divisions (l Sofia, 2 Philippopolis, 3
Steven, 4 Shumla, 5 Ruschuk, 6 Vratsa, 7 Dupnitsa, 8 Stara Zagora,
9 Plevna) each of two brigades plus a reserve brigade formed on
mobilization. (The regiments being each of 4 battalions, the infan-
try strength of a division was 24 battalions, i.e. that of a normal
European army corps, and 2j times that of a Turkish division.) 3
A loth Div. and an nth Div. were formed on mobilization out of
surplus reservists and of such Macedonian volunteers as enlisted in
the regular forces (these had two brigades each instead of three).
There was also a cavalry division. Ration strength of the field
armies, about 280,000.
Serbian Army: Five divisions of the I. Ban and five of the II.
Ban, each designated by the regional name (Danube, Morava,
Drina, Shumaja, Timok and the Ban numeral, e.g. Timok I., Timok
II., etc.). The infantry strength of a I. Ban division (four 4-bat-
talion regiments) was two-thirds that of a Bulgarian division and
2 Even solidarity within the unit had been seriously shaken by the
incorporation, under new conscription laws, of Christians allied in
race and religion to the enemy peoples.
* The 6th Div. had only two brigades.
374
BALKAN WARS
not quite twice that of a Turkish. The infantry strength of II. Ban
divisions varied, but was usually three 4-battalion regiments. A
number of supplementary regiments were formed from excess
reservists, III. Ban units, for subsidiary operations. There was a
cavalry division. At the completion of mobilization the ration
strength of the field forces alone, exclusive of III. Ban units, was
287,000, almost exactly 10% of the population. In the whole war
some 450,000 men are supposed to have been mobilized.
Greek Army 1 : Four active divisions of 9-11 battalions each
(equal in number of units, and superior in effective numbers, to a
Turkish division). Reserve units forming four weak divisions, each
equal to two-thirds of a normal division. One cavalry brigade.
Ration strength of the field army, about 1 10,000.
Montenegrin Army: A militia organized in four divisions of
varying strength. Approximate total of field troops 47,000.
With regard to the proportioning of effort between the two
theatres of war, contemporary military opinion, impressed by a sor
of primacy which Bulgaria assumed in the league, by the more
regular character of her army and her civil administration, and by the
nearness of Constantinople to her eastern frontier, argued a priori
that Thrace was not only the " principal " theatre, but the single
important theatre in which practically all military effort should have
been concentrated by both sides a judgment which ignored the
relation of strategy to war policy, and one for which in the sequel
Bulgaria was destined to pay heavily. For the objective of the
war was Macedonia, as von der Goltz had foreseen in 1909 when he
increased both the present and the potential strength of the Turkish
forces allotted to that theatre. And when conquered, Macedonia
would be conquered once and for all, for the possibility of a Turkish
counter-offensive to recover the lost province was excluded by the
Greek navy as effectually as the possibility of reenforcing Tripoli had
been excluded by the Italian navy in 1911. A further important
consideration for the allies was the obscurity of the ethnographic
lines in central Macedonia. Here the population was neither
definitely Bulgarian nor definitely Serbian, and unless the two
allies concerned were both represented in the conquering army the
absent member would certainly suffer when it came to drawing the
frontier-line.
On the other hand, each of the allies had special objects which
might, and in some cases did, conflict with the common object.
Bulgaria cherished ambitions in Thrace which extended even to
Constantinople, and she had to consider the- fact that sooner or
later the Turkish forces in Thrace would be reenforced not only by
their own allotted reserves but also by those, above alluded to,
which the Greek navy prevented from going to Macedonia. Further,
Bulgaria coveted not only a coast-line on the Aegean but the great
port of Salonika itself.
Serbia, on her side, had to consider not only central Macedonia
but northern Macedonia and the Sanjak of Novibazar. These
provinces would infallibly revolt against the Turkish authority as
soon as the Turkish forces withdrew to concentrate for battle in the
S., and unless bona fide troops of the Serbian Government came to
occupy the country, a state of disorder would arise that would
equally certainly invite Austrian intervention. 2 Further, Serbia
was determined to carve for herself a way to the Adriatic through
northern Albania. Greece for her part had a minor objective in
Epirus a region of which the northern limit was vague and as a
major objective Salonika and the Aegean littoral beyond, not to
mention more remote objects in Asia Minor.
Montenegro's aims were limited to local expansion southward
into Albania and eastward into the Sanjak of Novibazar and north-
ern Macedonia; in both of these directions some conflict of interest
with the Serbian Government might arise.
All these things were, in their varying degrees, elements of policy
upon which the Allied strategy must base itself if its war aims were
to be obtained, and accordingly the military treaty between Bulga-
ria and Serbia provided for a Serbo-Bulgarian army of 7 Serbian
and 3 Bulgarian divisions to invade Macedonia, moving con-
centrically against the front Uskub-Kumanovo-Kratovo-Kochana,
forming the outer contour of the plain known as Ovche Polye which
was assumed on both sides to be the natural concentration area of
the Turks.
If the road system was judged by the staffs sufficient to permit of
the augmentation of the left wing, this was to be made up of 2
Serbian and 3 Bulgarian divisions a force equivalent to 10 Turkish
divisions, while the other 5 Serbian divisions (equal to about 8
Turkish) descended from Vranya upon Kumanovo. If not, the
central mass of 5 Serbian divisions was to be flanked on the N. by
2 divisions moving by the Kara Dagh on Uskub and on the S. by the
1 The navy consisted of the " Georgios Averof," a powerful
armoured cruiser, 3 old coastal battleships practically modernized,
and 16 modern destroyers and other torpedo craft, including a sub-
marine; as against the Turkish strength of 3 small battleships
(ex-German), one modernized coastal battleship, 2 light cruisers and
20 effective destroyers and torpedo boats.
2 The relations of Serbia and Montenegro were not such that the
Serbian Government could easily hand over to Montenegro the
entire responsibility for the conquest of the north.
3 Bulgarian divisions advancing on the front Kratovo Kochana. In
both cases the envelopment of all the forces that the Turks could
gather for battle was the object aimed at. It provided also that if
the military situation in Thrace required it, troops not indispensable
in Macedonia might be transferred thither, and vice versa.
The balance of the Serbian forces (about 3 divisions) were at the
free disposal of their Government, and in fact were intended for the
conquest of the Sanjak of Novibazar.
The 6 (or 7) Bulgarian divisions remaining were to form the army
destined for Thrace.
The rdle of Greece, when she acceded to the league, was by offen-
sive operations from Thessaly to bind as many hostile troops as
possible, incidentally occupying the country which it was intended
to acquire. The Greek navy was to -close the Aegean to Turkish
transports. A minor Greek force in the Epirus theatre, and the
Montenegrins in northern Albania, were similarly to absorb the
attention of the Turkish garrisons (3 independent divisions) and to
conquer territory.
On the very eve of operations, however, a drastic change was made
(Sept. 28) at the instance of Bulgaria. Instead of 3 divisions, I only
was to operate in Macedonia, and this was directed to move inde-
pendently from Dupnitsa in the direction of Seres and Salonika.
The striking wing of the allied army that which, directed upon
Shtip,. would have come in upon the rear of the Turkish positions on
the Ovche Polye was thereby deprived of a force of about 80,000
men. And Bulgaria, by evading at the last moment an obligation
that was not merely part of a military scheme but was included in
the basic political treaty of Feb. 29 1912, set up at once an atmos-
phere of friction which was not likely to help her in her claims to the
doubtful districts of Macedonia. Serbia, submitting rather than
agreeing, redistributed her forces, and the strategic deployment
and order of battle actually carried out was as follows:
Commander-in-chief, King Peter
Chief of the general staff, Gen. Putnik
II. Army Gen. Stepanovich Timok I. 3 and Army
(28,000 ration troops,
strength)
I. Army Crown Prince Morava I., Drina I.,
Alexander Danube I., Danube
(126,000 ration II., Timok II., Cav.
strength) Div., Army troops.
III. Army Gen. Yankovich Shumaja I., Morava II.,
(67,000 ration Drina II., Morava Bri-
strength) gade, Army troops.
Ibar Force Gen. Zhivkovich Shumaja II., Army
(18,000 combatants) troops.
Yavor Brigade Col. Angelkovich (l mixed brigade).
(9,000 combatants)
The I. Army was cantoned in the Morava valley, about Vranya,
with outposts on the frontier. The II. Army on its left (now reduced
to one division) was concentrated along with the 7th Bulgarian Div.
about Kyustendil, and the III. Army on its right, behind the
frontier, on the various mountain routes E. and N. of Prishtina.
The Ibar Force lay on the river of that name, just inside Serbian
territory, opposite Novibazar. The Yavor Brigade was temporarily
held back facing the Serbo-Bosnian frontier. The intention was that
the III. Army should advance first and make good possession of
Prishtina, and then turn S., leaving one division to hold the captured
territory, and with the remainder advance rapidly S. through the
Kachanik defile on Uskub, the unattached brigade meantime open-
ing up communication over the Kara Dagh with the Central (I.)
Army. This would have initially the difficult task of debouching
from the narrow front of the Morava valley, while the sole remaining
unit of the II. Army was to advance by Egri Palanka towards
Kratovo.
The Ibar Force, and eventually the Yavor Brigade also, were to
clear the Sanjak of Novibazar of Turkish garrisons and Albanian
bands. The Montenegrins were to cooperate to some extent in this
task, but their main effort was to be directed against Scutari.
Mobilization began in all the countries affected on Sept. 3O-Oct. I.
Montenegro was the first to declare war, on Oct. 8. Ignoring the
declaration of the Great Powers that " under no circumstances would
they agree to any change in the status quo in S.E. Europe," the other
three members of the league presented a joint ultimatum on Oct. 13.
Turkey rejected this on the I5th, and on the I7th war was declared.
By that date the movements of strategic concentration were nearly
complete, and several frontier skirmishes had already taken place.
//. The Campaigns in Macedonia and the West. On Oct. 20, while
the Serbian I. and II. Armies closed up on their advanced elements
(the I. clearing some high ground beyond the frontier to facilitate
the next day's work), the III., which had the greatest distance to
cover, marched in several columns on Prishtina. Irregular fighting on
difficult ground brought the army close to Prishtina by the 22nd, and
the Turks evacuated the town on the evening of that day.
On Oct. 21, the I. Army advanced in three columns: Morava I.,
Timok II. on the right, with flank guards in the Kara Dagh, fol-
3 The 7th Bulgarian Div. was nominally under the orders of this
army, but in fact obeyed orders only from the Bulgarian head-
quarters.
BALKAN WARS
375
lowed the Moravitsa valley; Danube I. and Danube II., on the left
that of the Pcinja ; while Drina I. moved along the watershed
between these rivers. The cavalry division was kept back till the
infantry should have gained ground in the plain. The II. Army
moved on the same day, but very slowly, along the Kyustcndil-
Egri-Palanka road, with instructions to advance thence both on
Stratsin (Stracin) and on Kratovo, gaining touch with the I. Army
W. of the former place. Bulgarian cooperation was limited to a
movement by one brigade over the mountains towards the upper
Bregalnitsa. The rest of the yth Div. frankly began its march over
Jumaya Pass into the Struma valley, heading for Seres.
That evening, without having obtained touch either with the
II. or the III. Armies, the I. Army halted on the line Tabanovche-
Star-Nagorichino, disposed in depth and entrenched, with orders to
stand fast on the 22nd and wait developments on its flanks. Resist-
ance so far had been slight, but on the 22nd Turkish forces of some
strength were reported at Kumanovo.
The Ovche Polye was, after all, not to play the part of Konig-
gratz. At first, it seems, the Goltz plan of a defensive concentration
there, to be followed by radial attacks on divided enemies, was
adhered to by the Turks. But when at the last moment it became
clear that the Bulgarian effort was concentrated on Thrace, 'Ali
Riza Pasha, commander-in-chief in the Macedonian theatre, was
ordered to take the offensive. Zekki Pasha, in charge of the three
corps grouped in the Vardar region, was at once directed by 'Ali
Riza to move forward against the Serbians as they debouched from
the mountains.
Of 'Ali Riza's 25 divisions, 3 were scattered between Prishtina and
the Austrian frontier, 35 at Scutari, j at Dibra, and I at Prizren;
2 opposing the Greek main army in Thessaly and 2 the Greek
secondary army in Epirus; 3 in the Struma valley and I guarding
the railway between Veles and Salonika, making, in all, 16 which
were totally unavailable for battle in the decisive theatre. 1 Of the
remaining 9, I was at Prishtina, 2 in the valleys of the Bregalnitsa
and the Zletovska facing Kochana and Kratovo, and 6, forming the
main group under Zekki, advanced across the Ovche Polye on the
2 1st and 22nd, the V. Corps then halting N. of Novoselyani, the VI.
N. of Slatina and the VII. N. and N.E. of Kumanovo.
Viewed as a whole, 'Ali Riza's forces, scattered as they inevitably
were through the need of holding territory, were reasonably well
distributed, in that, though the Turks were in the ensemble inferior
in the ratio of I to 2\, their handicap on the decisive battlefield
reduced itself to the ratio of I to about I j. Had still further econ-
omies been practised (in the Struma valley for instance) this handi-
cap might have disappeared. But uncertainty as to Bulgarian move-
ments and dispositions was not yet cleared up. In any case, the
seizure of the initiative at a moment when the Serbian I. Army was
rstill cramped and out of touch with its neighbours went far to
meutralize the numerical disadvantage.
As a matter of fact, Zekki intended to use the day of the 23rd for
closing up his columns and narrowing his front; and, Prince Alex-
.ander's intentions being the same, the day would have been unevent-
ful but for the initiatives of subordinates on both sides.
Turkish attacks
Turkish corps
Serbian troops
The Serbian Danube I. Div., on the evening of the 22nd, had been
tempted to go forward, out of alignment, by the evident tactical
advantages of a position farther south. On the morning of the 23rd
it was formed in an arc facing S. and S.W., with its left flank on the
Pcinja, near Voynik, its centre looking towards Slatina and its right
on hill 650, and in that position it was attacked by the heads of 4
Turkish divisions. A fierce battle raged all day on this front, while
the other 2 Turkish divisions (VII. Corps) engaged Morava I., N. of
Kumanovo with indecisive results, and the remaining Serbian
'These outlying divisions are catalogued here as such. But their
tstrengths were in reality very unequal.
divisions, Drina I. in the centre, Timok II. behind the right and
Danube II. behind the left, remained practically inactive, partly in
ignorance of what was taking place (the Army Command itself was
in the like case), partly because strict orders had been given to stand
fast during the 23rd. Only Drina I. came into action towards eve-
ning, and the situation was critical when fighting died away and army
headquarters at last became aware of the facts. During the night
the remaining divisions were urged forward to the battlefield.
Next day they came progressively into action. The stubborn
resistance of Danube I. had shaken the attacking power of two-thirds
of Zekki's force, and the intervention of Danube II. and the Serbian
cavalry division on the 24th completed the work, after hard fighting
beyond the Pcinja. And when a few advanced troops of the II.
Army from Egri Palanka reached the outskirts of the battlefield, the
V. and VI. Turkish Corps, fearing to be enveloped, retreated south-
ward into the Ovche Polye. In the centre, Drina I. drove forward
far into the weakest part of the enemy's system. On the Serbian
right, the Turkish positions between Cerno Polye and Lipkovo in the
foothills of the Kara Dagh fell to the attack of Morava I. and Timok
II. in the afternoon. With a loss of some 4,500 killed and wounded
(nearly half of these in Danube I.), the Serbians had won the first
great battle of the campaign. But it was not a bataille sans lendemain
as the Serbo-Bulgarian convention had intended it to be. Neither the
III. Army, which coming in from Prishtina was still two days'
marches distant, nor the II., which consisted effectively of one
division only, could help to make it so. And in consequence no real
pursuit was made, the I. Army halting and entrenching on the
ground it had gained. Actually, a pursuit would have closed the
campaign, for the Turkish retreat had converted itself into a rout.
Even Uskub was evacuated, and the force barring the Kachanik
defile against the III. Serbian Army withdrawn.
For some days the Serbian G.H.Q. continued to keep a tight rein
on its armies, grouping them principally for a battle against the
" Turkish main army " presumed to be about Veles-Shtip. The
cavalry division advanced to St. Nicholas, a point equidistant from
these two towns, while Timok I. (II. Army) passed Kratovo and
moved on Cerni Vzh, which was not captured till the 26th. The I.
Army followed carefully to the latitude of Gradishte, while the III.,
parts of which for the sake of earlier contact with the I. had used
routes E. of Kachanik that had now become eccentric, moved up
slowly on its right. Drina II. was left at Prishtina to secure the
country and cooperate with the Ibar Force, while Uskub was held by
Morava I. So difficult was the country and so imperfect the liaisons
that it was not till the 29th that the deployment of the I., II. and III.
Annies across the Ovche Polye was complete.
By that time the Turks had long evacuated the right bank of the
Vardar. The remains of the VII. Corps from Uskub had gone to
Tetovo and part of the V. Corps had retreated down the Vardar,
but the bulk of the V. and VI. Corps had retired through Veles
towards Monastir and were preparing to offer a new resistance in the
Babuna Pass.
But the Serbian G.H.Q. had now gleaned many details of the
Turkish rout, and, assuming Zekki's army to be reduced to a
remnant which could be crushed between a single Serbian army and
the Greeks, it made entirely new dispositions on the 29th. To aid
the Bulgarians in the siege of Adrianople, it sent the II. Army, and
actually added to it Danube II. in replacement of the Bulgarian 7th
Div. which continued its way down the Struma.
To penetrate Albania and gain the desired foothold on the coast,
the III. Army (reduced to Drina II. and Shumaja I. and army troops)
was sent eastward on Oct. 31.
The I. Army, now consisting of Morava I., Drina I., Danube I.,
Timok II., Morava II. and the Morava Brigade, was to pursue the
Turkish army and complete its ruin, in cooperation with the Greeks.
Meantime, the conquest of the Sanjak of Novibazar and of north-
ern Kosovo had been practically completed. From Oct. 10, Monte-
negrin forces under Gen. Vukovich had been operating from the
inner part of their country towards Plevlye, Byelopolye, Berane, and
Gusinye. On the igth, the Ibar Force under Zhivkovich (Shumaja
II.) had advanced in several columns which, with more or less irregu-
lar fighting and one or two critical moments, had converged on the
town of Novibazar and captured the Turkish works on the surround-
ing heights by the evening of the 22nd. On the 23rd, Novibazar was
occupied, and the work of hunting down the dispersed enemy and
their Arnaut auxiliaries began. On the 28th a force from Novibazar,
in concert with a detachment of the III. Army from Prishtina, cap-
tured Mitrovitsa. In the extreme N. the few Turkish troops avail-
able were forced, under pressure from the Montenegrins and the
Serbian Yavor Brigade, to concentrate at Plevlya; there they were
attacked on the 29th and driven over the Austrian border. On the
3Oth Ipek (Pech) fell to the Montenegrin southern columns. Thence-
forward the troops in these regions were only employed on police
duties; but their withdrawal to other theatres of war was, in view of
a possible intervention by Austria-Hungary, considered undesirable.
The Greek campaign opened on Oct. 18. The 4 active divisions of
the Greek army and 3 of the new divisions (5th, 6th, yth) formed the
main army in Thessaly under the Crown Prince Constantine, whose
chief-of-staff was Gen. Danglis. The 8th and gth Divs., composed
almost entirely of reservists and volunteers, constituted the Epirus
Army under Sapundjakis.
376
BALKAN WARS
The Turkish force opposing each of these amounted to about 2
divisions. So small an allotment on the Thessaly front can only be
explained on the assumption that the Turks supposed the Greeks to
be at the same level of efficiency as in 1897. If so, they were deceived.
From Trikkala the Greek 5th Div. moved on Diskata and the upper
valley of the Vistritsa. Two divisions (2nd and 3rd) advanced into
the salient W. of Tyrnavos and occupied Damasuli, and moved N. to
clear the way for the 1st and 4th Divs., which from Tyrnavos moved
directly on Elassona by the Meluna Pass. The 6th and 7th Divs.,
still imperfectly organized, followed on in second line.
On the igth Elassona was captured with little difficulty, the main
Turkish position lying farther N. in the defile of Sarandoporon which
traverses the mountains lying between the Xeria and the Vistritsa
basins. On the 2Oth and 2ist, the Greek divisions, which had con-
verged on Elassona for the battle that had been expected there, were
redeployed, and on the 23rd the attack was delivered by all five.
The 5th from Diskata and the 4th from the Xeria, uniting in the
Vistritsa valley, marched on Serfije, throwing out a flank guard to
Grevena, while the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Divs. attacked the defile
fron tally and threatened its rear by way of Vlaholivadia. The much
smaller Turkish force was routed with a loss of 20 guns and many
prisoners, and (what was more important) the Greek army gained
self-confidence as well as local victory, at a cost of some 1 ,300 casual-
ties. Part of the beaten force retreated from Kozianj on Monastic,
the remainder on Verria, and the Crown Prince occupied Koziani on
In view of the urgency of occupying Salonika before the Bul-
garians arrived, the Crown Prince decided to leave only flank guards
(5th Div. N. of Koziani and light troops N. of Grevena) facing the
Monastir direction, while the remainder, reenforced by the 6th Div.,
pushed on to Verria, and the 7th Div. worked along the coast towards
Katerini. These moves were successfully carried out; the 7th Div.
gaining touch with the fleet on the 28th, occupied Eleutherochori and
there created a new base, while from Verria the main army turned
sharp N. and seized Vodena, the 5th Div. at the same time advancing
to Banitsa by Khailar. This ingenious manoeuvre placed the five
divisions of the main body on interior lines with a base on the sea and
a strategic flank guard on either hand (Nov. i). But the situation
was nevertheless critical for the Greeks, for Hasan Tahsin had
drawn in forces from the Struma valley and was in position facing W.
at Yenije Vardar, while Djavid Pasha at Monastir had assembled an
effective force from troops that had come in both from the Kumanovo
and the Sarandoporon battlefields, and was moving out to attack the
5th Division. The Serbian cavalry descending the Vardar had not
yet passed the defile of Demir Kapu, the Serbian armies were being
rearranged for the new movements above detailed, and even the I.
Army was scarcely beginning its movements against the Babuna
Pass. As to the Bulgarian 7th Div., the last thing desired by the
Greek headquarters was an energetic advance of this force to fore-
stall them at Salonika.
On Nov. 2 and 3, while Constantino attacked the Yenije Vardar
position without success, Djavid fell upon the 5th Div. and drove it
with heavy losses to Khailar. Simultaneously, the Greeks from
Grevena, who had reached Kastoria, were forced back. But on the
4th, before these flank guards had been sufficiently beaten, the 7th
Div. from Eleutherochori had forced the passage of the Kara
Azmak and were threatening to interpose between Hasan Tahsin
and Salonika. A renewed frontal attack at the opportune moment
broke into his position at Yenije Vardar, and, threatened on all
sides, the Turks withdrew into Salonika, where their commander and
29,000 men surrendered to Constantine on the gth.
Next day the 7th Bulgarian Div. 1 arrived and claimed the city
for Bulgaria. An open rupture between the allies was only avoided
by the establishment of a condominium.
The Greek army was then regrouped. The 1st, 2nd and 7th Divs.
remaining for political reasons E. of the Vardar, the 3rd, 4th and 6th
Divs. were concentrated at Vodena, with the 5th at Khailar and the
Grevena force on the Kastoria road, in readiness for an advance on
Monastir in concert with the Serbian I. Army.
This army had begun its advance on the mountains surrounding
the basin of Monastir on Nov. I, Morava I. and Drina I. moving
directly from Veles, and Danube I. from Shtip by Krivolak 2 on Prilep,
while Morava II. from Tetovo marched S. on Gostivar. On the
Prilep and Kichevo routes respectively, the Turkish V. and VII.
Corps were rallied to dispute the passes while the VI. Corps
assembled at Monastir. 3
The forcing of the Babuna Pass above Prilep was a long and
difficult business, which fell on the central column alone, as Danube
I. and Timok II. had to await bridging equipment before they could
cross the Vardar. It was not until Nov. 5 that Prilep was reached,
1 This, as has been mentioned already, moved down the Struma
valley, with a detachment on that of the Bregalnitsa. The latter
rejoined by way of Strumitsa, in the last days of October. Another
detachment by the Mesta valley, marched on Drama. These col-
umns met with no serious resistance.
* Whence the cavalry with infantry support was sent to seize Demir
Kapu.
8 Part of this force took a share in the attack on the 5th Greek
Div. at Banitsa.
and then a further pause was thought necessary to reassemble the
units, scattered by mountain fighting, as well as to allow the two
flank columns to come up. On the same day, however, hearing of the
crisis on the Greek front, and arguing that it was both necessary to
relieve pressure on the 5th Greek Div. and also possible to advance
without undue risk against the Turks remaining in front of Monastir,
the Serbian G.H.Q. ordered a tentative offensive towards Alince.
This, carried out on the 6th by a part of Drina I., soon developed into
an unintended battle, in which Morava Land the cavalry division 4
were called on to join. But the result of a day's fighting, which was
marked by initiative and combination of effort in the subordinate
commanders, was to hustle the Turkish V. Corps back to the environs
of Monastir. A rash advance of the two divisions into the midst of
the enemy was only prevented by stringent orders from G.H.Q. to
halt and await the coming of the two flank columns. Of these,
Morava II. had successfully driven back the Turks from Kichevo on
Nov. 5, but was obliged to halt in order to organize its line of supply
Gostivar-Tetovo-Uskub, and the left column was only just begin-
ning the passage of the Vardar at Krivolak. Still doubtful of the real
situation on the Greek front, Prince Alexander, in agreement with
Putnik, was determined not to fight the battle of Monastir till he
should have all his forces in hand.
The assembly of the forces for battle on the line Mramoritsan-
Podine Dobrusovo was to be completed for Nov. 14.
The Turks also prepared for battle. Leaving only a few troops in
front of Verria and of the Greek 5th Div. and Grevena force, Djavid
Pasha brought back the rest of the VI. Corps to join 'Ali Riza at
Monastir, where what remained of the V. and VII. were concen-
trated. The total combatant strength was about 40,000. The
position taken up lay S. of the line of the Semnitsa and thence along
the marshy bank of the Cerna, its eastern half lying on the plain and
its western half on the heights. The V. Corps occupied the plain
from opposite Novak to Kikuricani, with its centre of gravity on the
Prilep road. The VII. Corps occupied the mountain sector; and the
V. Corps was in reserve at Monastir.
The Serbian plan was to attack the Kikuricani front and the
heights abutting on the plain with Morava I. on the right and
Drina I. on the left, to attack and outflank the Turkish left wing on
the mountains by means of Morava II. which was coming down from
Kichevo, and to do the same on the right of the defence with Danube
I. and the cavalry division operating at and S. of Novak. Timok II.
was to be in reserve behind the centre. The necessity of maintaining
at all costs the single supply route of the army that through Prilep
topointson the Uskub-Salonika railway no doubt imposed a plan of
Serbian movements
Turkish walla
Turkish Corps V.VI.VDI.
Corps counUr attacks = {VI J
battle that was to all intents and purposes frontal, for the projected
movements of cavalry on Resna and over the Cerna could hardly be
regarded as serious attempt at envelopment.
The battle, projected for Nov. 14, was ordered to be postponed till
the I7th. But on the 1 5th, as the divisions were getting into position,
part of Morava II., carried away by its own ardour, launched a night
attack on height 1, 150 S. of the Semnitsa. The enemy was well pre-
pared, position after position had to be stormed and it was not till
the afternoon of the i6th that the detachment secured the height, at
the cost of heavy losses. Meantime the rest of the army, according to
orders, was merely making its final reconnaissances. On the I7th,
the four battalions of Morava II. had to resist, still without help
from the rest of the army, a series of heavy counter-attacks delivered
by the VI. Turkish Corps under the energetic Djavid. 6
The battle of Monastir, which was finally launched on the whole
front on the 1 8th, will long be studied for its tactical incidents, but
as an ensemble it is sufficiently described by saying that the resist-
ance of the half division of Morava II. absorbed so much of the
4 Which had been relieved on the Vardar by Timok II.
6 Morava I., however, sent some reinforcements on the afternoon
of this day.
BALKAN WARS
377
fighting effort of Zekki's 1 reserves that the frontal attack of Morava
I. and Drina I. succeeded with little difficulty.
Threatened by the Greeks now again advancing on Fiorina
and pursued on front and flank by the converging divisions on the
battlefield itself, the Turkish army broke up entirely. Half of it was
killed, wounded or captured, the other half, in units or small parties,
made its way to the only friendly stronghold now remaining open
Yannina (Janina) in Epirus. The victory was completely decisive,
and all that remained for the allies to do in the western theatre was
to carry out the march to the sea, to occupy and police the region of
Okhrida-Dibra Elbasan, to reduce the two fortresses of Scutari and
Yannina (the last refuges of Turkish authority), to ensure against
Austrian intervention (for which purpose the main body of the I.
Army was moved back to Uskub after a few days' rest) and to
come to an agreement amongst themselves as to the division of the
spoil.
On Dec. 3, Serbia and Montenegro joined in the armistice signed
that day between Bulgaria and Turkey. Operations in Macedonia
and northern Albania therefore came to an end. Greece, however,
did not sign, and continued her operations, though these were in the
nature of exploitation rather than of fresh effort, except in Epirus,
where operations against Yannina were in progress.
Owing to the necessity of garrisoning Epirus, the Turks had
normally maintained two divisions in this theatre. These, and the
nature of the country were quite sufficient to make the progress of
the Greek secondary army (Gen. Sapundzakis, 8th and gth Divs.,
both newly formed) a slow and difficult matter. From the opening
of hostilities to Nov. 3, the Greeks were employed in clearing the
Luros and Prevesa region. This done, the formidable Pentepigadia
defile was attacked, and after four days' fighting cleared (Nov. 8).
Sapundzakis then advanced to the outskirts of the fortress of
Yannina (Nov. 10), while a column of irregulars from Metsovo in
Thessaly and another small detachment from Santi Quaranta came
in on his flanks to assist in establishing a loose blockade. But this
was the limit of his offensive possibilities, and the weather presently
brought operations to a close for the time being.
During the winter, however, the greater part of the field army
which had completed its task in Macedonia was brought round by
sea via Salonika. Active operations began afresh in the early spring.
With adequate numbers and material resources, the Crown Prince
was able to deliver a successful general assault on March 5 1913, and
the Turkish garrison, numbering about 30,000, wounded and un-
wounded, surrendered next day.
No further fighting occurred in the Albanian theatre, though the
Greeks on the S. and the Serbians in the N.E. attempted without
success to round up the few Turkish forces, rallied by Djavid, which
had escaped from the catastrophes of Monastir and Yannina.
///. The Campaign in Thrace. Through the change of plan which
Bulgaria forced upon her ally on Sept. 28, Thrace became for the
public, military and non-military alike, the principal theatre of war.
Nevertheless, the actual plan of campaign of the Bulgarians still
remains obscure all that is known being the fact that the first
successes caused it to be abandoned. On the Turkish side, equally
little is known with certainty as to the original project, though it is
probably safe to say that this consisted in a defensive concentration
of the I., II. and IV. Corps on the line of the Ergene and of the III.
Corps at or in rear of Kirk Kilisse, with the fortress of Adrianople
and the works of Kirk Kilisse acting as breakwaters in front. The
scheme, whatever it was, was abandoned at the last moment in
favour of a general offensive, as in Macedonia. In these conditions,
the facts must interpret themselves, at any rate in the initial stages.
Leaving the yth Div. on the Macedonian side, the Bulgarians
formed three armies between Philippopolis, Trnovo-Seimen, and
Yamboli, the latter with especial precautions of secrecy. The II.
Army (Gen. Ivanov) on the right, concentrated the 8th and gth
Divs. about Trnovo-Seimen, ana the 2nd between Philippopolis and
Haskovo. The I. Army in the centre (Gen. Kutinchev) concen-
trated between Nova Zagora and Kizil Aghach, consisted of the 1st,
3rd and (newly formed) loth Divisions. The III. Army (Gen.
Radko Dimitriev) on the left, or rather the left rear, about Yamboli,
consisted of the 4th, 5th and 6th Divisions. In front of it was the
cavalry division, with its main body in line with the main body of the
I. Army. The nth Div. was still in process of formation at Philip-
popolis.
On the day after war was declared, the ensemble, whatever the
objects of its movement may have been, began to move the I. and
III. Armies southward and the II. south-westward on Mustafa
Pasha (8th and gth Divs.) and due S. on Kirjali (2nd Div.). Siege
artillery was entrained at Sofia for Trnovo-Seimen on the lyth. On
the I9th, the 8th Div. on the right of the Maritsa, and the gth on the
left, seized Mustafa Pasha, continuing their progress on the 2Oth.
On that day, the 2nd Div. reached Kirjali on the Arda, while the I.
Army crossed the frontier 3rd Div. on both sides of the Tunja, 1st
Div. on its left, and loth in rear, all moving due south. On the 2ist
and 22nd the same movements continued, while the III. Army in its
turn entered Turkey at Ojakoi and Topchular, and the 2nd Div.
turned E.S.E., heading for Demotika.
1 'AH Riza had left Monastir, and Zekki was in general command
on the field.
On the 22nd the first serious engagements took place in front of
Adrianople. That fortress, with modernized permanent works, and a
main defence line studded with infantry redoubts farther out and a
full interval-organization, had a very considerable perimeter. It
was naturally divided by its four water-courses (Upper Maritsa,
Arda, Lower Maritsa, Tunja) into four sectors. On the Lower
Maritsa-Tunja sector the 3rd Div. of the I. Army was advancing
on the Tunja-Upper Maritsa, the 8th Div. (II. Army); and on
the Upper Maritsa-Arda front the 9th, also of the II. Army. The
last named, advancing S.E. from Kadikoi and Buldurkoi was vio-
lently counter-attacked. Each side extended southward in search
of the obher's flank till the Arda was approached. But the combat
was really decided by the intervention of the 8th Div. artillery on the
other side of the Maritsa. Enfiladed, the Turks retired to their
prepared line. Counter-attacks on the 3rd Div. moving down E. of
the Tunja had the same result. Thus the process of investing Adri-
anople began at the very outset, three put of eight divisions available
in the theatre of war being employed in it.
In the Tunja-Upper Maritsa sector the principal work of the main
line was a group formed round Chiftlik-Ekmechikoi which has been
compared to a " Feste." A group of the same character (Papas
Tepe) occupied the ridge between Upper Maritsa and Arda, a forti-
fied village barred the Ortakoi road in the Arda valley itself, and a
third " Feste " had been constructed on Kartal Tepe. Similar groups
of works at Pashachajir and Gunes Chiftlik continue the line of
defence between Lower Maritsa and Tunja, merging in the line of the
old permanent works at Fort Kuru Cheshme. The operations
round Adrianople will be summarized later.
The movement of the I. Army brought only its 3rd Div. directly
into contact with the Adrianople defences, the remainder (still with
the loth Div. in rear) aiming at the line Deremanlia-Kukiler. On
its left the cavalry division, after several engagements on the igth,
2Oth and 2 1st about Vaisa and Tashli-Muselim, found itself strongly
opposed at and E. of Seliolu on the 22nd, on which day also the
leading troops of the 1st Div. came in contact with important Turk-
ish forces in front of Seliolu and Gechkenlia. At this time the 3rd
Div. was fighting astride the Tunja at Biiyuk Sinailcha Murajilar
Tausan-Ortakji.
Instead of concentrating behind the Ergene, the Turks were in fact
advancing northward to battle in accordance with the same general
order that had sent Zekki to Kumanovo. The army in Thrace, com-
manded by Abdalla Pasha under the higher direction of Nazim
Pasha, the Minister of War, consisted of the I., II., III. and IV.
active corps and of a number of reserve divisions which were only
assembled slowly, forming a XV., XVI., XVII. and XVIII. Corps.
BATTLES OF
KIRK- KILISSE & SELIOLU. I9I2E
erian positions cvenin60ct22
Bulf.1ll.Army evening 23." =
Defence line of Adnanople
& Kirk Kilisse works.
yiife
rbend
t.ARNY
The original concentration points were for the I. Corps Yenije and
Kavakli, for the III. Corps, II. Corps and IV. Corps (in that order
from N. to S.) the zone Bunar Hissar-Lule Burgas, for the XV. Corps
(garrison) Adrianople, while the XVI. Corps was to hold the middle
Ergene and the XVII. and XVIII. Corps to constitute themselves
behind Lule Burgas. In reality the assembly of the four active corps
took place at Kirk Kilisse (III.), Yenije and Kavakli (I.), Karali
(II.), and Havsa and Kuleli (IV.), with a cavalry division in front of
the centre.
At Adrianople, the XV. Corps was duly formed but the XVI.,
XVII., XVIII. were far in rear and in an embryonic condition, the
XVI. indeed never being formed as such.
From these positions the four corps advanced on the 2 1st and 22nd
in accordance with the order to take the offensive, and two encounter-
battles ensued, one of which, the engagement of the Bulgarian I.
Army, is generally called the Battle of Seliolu, while the other, the
first conflict of Radko Dimitriev's III. Army with Mahmud Mukh-
tar's III. Corps, bears the name of Kirk Kilisse.
The front of the Battle of Seliolu is defined, roughly, by the line
Keremetlia N. of Seliolu N. of Gechkenlia S. of Erjali-Ortakji-
Kaipa (at which point it joins the front of the 3rd Div. beginning
the envelopment of Adrianople). Heavy fighting on the 22nd and
23rd (of which the most notable incident was a night-attack that
378
BALKAN WARS
penetrated the Turkish front between Gechkenlia and Seliolu)
brought the Bulgarian army victoriously to the Deremanlia-Kukiler-
Gerdeli road by morning on the 24th. The Turks had disappeared.
Owing to events on their right, they had given up their somewhat
disjointed efforts to defeat the Bulgarian centre, and retired in a
direction or directions which the victors were unable to determine.
Kirk Kilisse was a route-centre of importance, with a line of
barrier works, partly permanent, on its N. side. Von der Goltz had
intended that it should play the same part on the right flank as
Adrianople on the left. Although the permanent works were few, and
inferior to those of the great fortress, the natural positions afforded
by spurs of the Istranja Balkan gave the place advantages of site
which were lacking at Adrianople. The Bulgarians, on their side,
allocated a whole army to the task of dealing with it, by investment,
brusque assault or regular siege, or a combination of those methods.
Partly in order to develop the necessary frontage from the outset
(in case of battle between Kirk Kilisse and the frontier), and partly
in order to utilize the routes to the best advantage in a country much
more difficult than that traversed by the other armies, Radko
Dimitriev had formed his two leading divisions into four brigade
columns (a) | 4th Div. from Ojakoi on Keremetlia (liaison with I.
Army); (b) 4th Div., followed by part of 6th Div. by Devletli
Aghach and Eski Polos on Petra ; (c) f of 5th Div. with remainder of
6th Div. from Malkochlar by Erikler on Raklitsa and Kirk Kilisse;
(d) \ of 5th Div. from Topchular by Almajik on Kadikoi. Of these
columns (a) became involved in the Seliolu fighting, and took no part
in that of Kirk Kilisse.
Columns (a) and (b), forming the strongest part of the army, and
also column (c) soon met with strong resistance (morning 22nd), and
the country, the weather (stormy since the 2Oth) and tactical inci-
dents making progress uneven, the front at nightfall of the 22nd
was very sinuous, the Turks holding pronounced salients at Eski
Polos, and also at Almajik, while the Bulgarians had penetrated
nearly to Kadikoi in the centre and within 2 m. of Petra on their
right. On the 23rd, however, continued pressure on the Kadikoi and
Petra fronts forced the Turks to evacuate their salients, and at night
the Bulgarian line, with its flanks somewhat advanced, ran roughly
E.W. from the heights S.S.VV. of Petra, through that village, to
height 1,506 N. of Akmacha and thence some distance south-east.
From this line, in the night, assaults by parts of the two left columns
(5th Div.) penetrated to Karakoi on the one hand and halfway to
Raklitsa on the other. And thereupon, worn out by two days' hill
fighting and lacking in internal homogeneity, Mahmud Mukhtar's
Corps broke up, abandoning Kirk Kilisse and its fortifications, and
streamed away in panic. The Bulgarians entered Kirk Kilisse on the
24th and possessed themselves of immense booty, including 55 guns.
Mystified and ignorant of the line of retreat of the enemy, both
the I. and III. Armies stood fast on the 24th on their respective
battlefields, while the cavalry division was sent out due south. On
the 25th the horsemen reached the Constantinople railway at Baba
Eski; next, pushing reconnaissances S. and S.E., they found the
country S. of the Ergene all clear, but hostile forces between Lule
Burgas and Muradli. At the same time the divisional cavalry of the
5th Div. from Kirk Kilisse appears to have established the presence
of enemy forces at or near Bunar Hissar.
This information, showing that the Ergene line had been aban-
doned, and that Abdalla was regrouping his forces and assembling
his incoming reserve divisions in the Lule Burgas-Vaisa region,
involved a complete change of front for the Bulgarians. Hitherto
facing S., they had now to face E., pivoting on the 5th Div. at Kirk
Kilisse. And while the necessary movements were being carried out,
Abdalla again took the offensive, with the reorganized four active
corps, and the XVII. and XVIII. Corps of new formation.
On the 27th the Bulgarian wheel began, but instead of its being
carried out on a fixed pivot, the pivot itself was allowed to advance
eastward, so that, instead of presenting a united line, the Bulgarians
formed a loose echelon, left in advance, which led to successive
instead of simultaneous engagements. On the evening of that day,
the Turkish III. Corps (Mahmud Mukhtar) on the right, was on
the road between Vaisa and Bunar Hissar, the II. at Kara Aghach,
the I. at Turk Bey and the IV. partly at Lule Burgas, partly at
Sakiskoi, the total front between the Ergene and the mountains
being about 45 miles. The two new corps were a march in rear. A
general offensive had been ordered.
On the 28th, as a natural consequence, an encounter battle began
just E. of the Kara Aghach, in the forest of Sujak, between Mahmud
Mukhtar's troops and the Bulgarian 5th Div., the latter finally
drawing back behind the stream and occupying a line from Chiftlik
Teke on the left to Mura Aghach on the right. Thereupon the
various Bulgarian columns echeloned back to the right of this divi-
sion, hastened their march, and part of the 3rd Div. from the
Adrianople region was ordered up to support the 5th directly, which
by a heavy forced march it was able to do on the evening of the 29th. 1
On the other side, confusion in the command and other causes
made the general advance slow and disjointed; the initiative was
soon lost, and the battle became one of the parallel fronts along the
1 This is all the more remarkable as the Bulgarian I. Army's
movements were hampered by fears of a crisis at Adrianople,
where a serious sortie-battle was being fought at the time.
Kara Aghach. On the 2gth (afternoon) the 4th Bulgarian Div.
followed by the 6th were already on that line. On the 3Oth, the
crisis of the battle, the I. Bulgarian Army came into action opposite
Lule Burgas (ist Div.) and on and S. of the Ergene (loth Div.), while
the cavalry returning from Rodosto formed up in advance of the
BATTLE OF
LULE BURGAS 1912
Successive arrivals of
Bulgarian divisions
Turkish corps DUD etc
right flank of the loth Division. At the same date, the III. Turkish
Corps opposite Bunar Hissar and the XVII. Corps on its left, sup-
ported by parts of the XVIII. Corps, were still exchanging attacks
and counter-attacks with the Bulgarian 5th Div. and part of the 3rd
about the W. edges of the forest of Sujak. Against the Bulgarian 4th
Div. on both sides of Kara Aghach village, was the II. Corps;
against the 6th, about Turk Bey, the I., while the Turkish IV. Corps
held the line at Lule Burgas and down to the Ergene against the
Bulgarian I. Army. Of this army, however, one division only was
involved in the frontal fight, and it became evident to the Turks in
the afternoon of the 3Oth that enough enemy forces remained over to
roll up their left wing and interpose between the main body and
Constantinople. Accordingly, Nazim issued orders for retreat.
During Oct. 31 and Nov. I, with various tactical incidents, of which
the most important was a successful night-attack of the Bulgarians
at Turk Bey, the Turks disengaged themselves, beginning from the
left, and by the 2nd the three corps on the right were also in retreat.
The victors were too much exhausted to pursue, and again the
Turks vanished. The Bulgarian losses out of perhaps 110,000 com-
batants numbered 15,000; those of the enemy, whose force was
probably rather less, are not known with certainty, but are supposed
to have been about 25,000 inclusive of prisoners.
Without further resistance the Turks retired into the famous
Chatalja lines, a well-fortified position between Lake Derkos on the
Black Sea and Biiyiik Chekmeje lake on the sea of Marmora. How-
ever weakened by losses, they could hardly fail to maintain so short
and strong a line as this.
On their side, the Bulgarians were tired, far ahead of their supply
depots, and losing more and more men daily from sickness. On the
other hand, drafts had come up, the gth Div.. replaced before Adri-
anople by the new nth joined the III. Army, 2 and the combatant
strength of the two armies together was about 140,000. Made
optimistic by victory, Savov and his generals determined to storm
the Chatalja lines by open force. So confident were they that Savov
himself said: " in a week we shall be dining in Constantinople."
On Nov. 17, the Bulgarian infantry advanced and drove in the
Turkish outposts and on Nov. 18, the assault took place. It was
completely repulsed, with heavy losses, and the Bulgarian command,
sobered, took care not to waste its reserves in renewed assaults.
Armistice proposals were already under discussion, and the battle
was broken off in the afternoon of the assault. On Dec. 3, without
further fighting on the Chatalja front, a general armistice was signed,
more favourable to the Bulgarians perhaps than their military
situation warranted, for it gave them the use of the railway through
Adrianople without allowjng the Turks to revictual that place.
While the main Bulgarian armies were fighting these battles, the
2nd Div. penetrating the difficult Rhodope country had carried out a
vigorous offensive in several directions, as the result of which Adri-
anople was invested on the S.W. side, Demotika and the coast from
Xanthi to Dede Aghach occupied, and two Turkish divisions de-
2 Which also received the 3rd Div. from the I. Army in exchange
for the 6th.
BALKAN WARS
379
stroyed in a series of " drives " which ended in the relics of this
force being surrounded and forced to capitulate at Ferejik (Nov. 27).
(C.F..A.)
IV, Operations in the Spring of IQIJ. The London negotiations of
Jan. 1913 were abruptly brought to an end when Enver and the
Young Turks, fearing that the Government would, under European
pressure, make peace practically at any cost, carried out the coup
d'etat of Jan. 23 (in which the Kiamil Government was overthrown
and Nazim Pasha murdered), and denounced the armistice. Hos-
tilities began again (with Greece they had never ceased) on Feb. 3
1913. But they entirely lacked the vigour and dramatic interest of
the first campaigns. Practically, the story of the second phase is the
final instalment of that of the sieges of Yannina, Scutari and Adri-
anople. An effort was indeed made by the Turkish field forces in
Thrace to debouch from the lines of Bulair and those of Chatalja
simultaneously with a view to relieving Adrianople, but after locally
heavy fighting the Bulgarians succeeded in holding their own on each
of these fronts, and thereafter Adrianople was left to its fate. 1
The fall of Yannina has already been mentioned. The sieges of
Scutari and of Adrianople require, however, a rather more detailed
account. (C. F. A.)
The Scutari Operations. As has been mentioned already, Monte-
negro was the first to declare war. The first objective was the old
Turkish frontier fortress of Scutari, situated at the point where the
Drinasa river flows into Lake Scutari, and consisting only of a
castle and a few field-works on the hills surrounding the town. The
perimeter measured some 28 m., and the average distance of the
works from the town was about two. The works had no deep ditches
or sunk wire entanglements.
1 Shortly before this the only important naval event of the war had
occurred. On Jan. 15, the Turkish cruiser " Hamidieh " had
slipped out of the Dardanelles, and from that time till the middle of
March she cruised in the waters between Malta, Durazzo and the
Levant, raiding commerce as opportunity offered.
Meanwhile, the Turkish battle squadron came out of the Straits
on Jan. 17, hoping to find the " Averof " absent from the opposing
squadron in chase of the " Hamidieh." The Greeks, however, had
not committed the expected mistake, and after a long-range duel in
which the " Averof " inflicted some damage on the Turkish battle-
ships, the latter returned to the Sea of Marmora, where they re-
mained to the end.
At the outbreak of the war the Turkish garrison was under
Hasan Riza Bey, consisted of about 14,000 men (chiefly of the 24th
Div.), to which were added, at the last moment, a reserve division
from Elbasan under command of Essad, 10,000 strong.
With a force such as this, containing few active elements, only a
purely defensive policy was possible. The fortress artillery was
weak in numbers and out of date; it consisted (at a generous esti-
mate) of 70 guns (including the divisional field artillery), of which
the heaviest were the 12-cm. naval howitzers.
The Montenegrin army stood on Oct. 7, the eve of the declaration
of war, as follows: The main body under Crown Prince Danilo
(2nd and 3rd ,Divs., less gth Bde., 13,000 men and one battalion 12-
cm. siege artillery), near Podgoritsa (Podgorica). The southern
detachment under Gen. Martinovic (ist Div., 8,000 men and three
battalions, 12-cm. guns, one battalion 15-cm. howitzers and two
battalions 2i-cm. howitzers) was near Virpazar and Antivari. The
remainder of the army (4th Div. and gth Bde., 10,000 men, and three
mountain batteries) was at Andriyevitsa (Andrijevica), ready to
advance into the Sanjak of Novipazar. The operations of this force
are described elsewhere.
The advance on Scutari began on the morning of Oct. 9. The wide
separation of the two Montenegrin columns offered the Turks a
tempting opportunity of manoeuvre on interior lines, but, for the
reasons given above, Hasan Riza was obliged to refrain, and the
Montenegrin northern group broke through a series of passively
defended positions one after the other. They were, however, so dis-
ordered by their victory that they were compelled to halt and refit.
On the igth they recommenced their advance, moving very slowly,
and on the 25th halted once more on the Kiri on coming under the
fire of the artillery of the fortress. Not until the 28th had they com-
pleted their bridging operations; the 2nd and 3rd Bdes. then with-
out awaiting the arrival of the main body carried the hill called
Great Bardanjolt. A Turkish counter-attack on the 3Oth threw
them back, inflicting such heavy losses that the Montenegrins fell
back to Vratsa and undertook no further advance till February.
The group, which had evidently been clumsily led, took up a posi-
tion between the Kiri and the Lake of Scutari, some 3,000 yd. in
front of the Turkish defences.
The Montenegrin southern group moved on Oct. 9 with its Ist and
3rd Bdes. from Antivari to Katrkol, and with the 2nd Bde. from
Virpazar along the shore of the lake, both columns meeting with
practically no opposition. They then prepared to attack the Turkish
advanced position on hill 661. Their siege artillery opened fire only
on Oct. 22, and the Turkish forward line was stormed next day with
heavy loss. The assailants now found themselves close up against
the main defensive line. The northern group having at this time just
been driven off the Great Bardanjolt, coordinated attack by both
groups was no longer to be thought of. The southern group therefore
remained waiting in the position it then occupied.
On Nov. 19 Vukotic, his work in Novipazar completed, arrived
with 6,000 men to reinforce the besiegers of Scutari. He himself took
over the command of the whole Montenegrin army, his troops being
distributed on both fronts.
Soon afterwards the general armistice was concluded ; but Hasan
refused to recognize it, as the revictualling of the fortress during the
armistice had not been agreed to by the Balkan States. However,
only minor skirmishes took place in December and January.
The armistice ended on Feb. 3, and shortly afterwards the attack
was renewed in earnest against the Turkish strongholds of Muselimi
and the Great Bardanjolt, which had been entrenched and fortified
in places by blasting in the rocky soil. The assaulting columns were:
(a) three battalions (1,500 men) against Muselimi from the N.; (b)
five battalions (2,100 men) from the N. by hill 200 against the
northern slope of the Great Bardanjolt; six battalions (2,400 men)
from the N.E. against its eastern slope, and seven battalions (2,800
BALKAN WARS
men) from the S.E. against its southern slope. No reserves were
allotted.
The attack was delivered after an artillery bombardment of
several hours on Feb. 7. The fortified post of Muselimi fell with little
resistance, but on the Great Bardanjolt the attack was shattered at
the wire. A second assault on the 8th was no more fortunate. On
the 9th however, with the aid of a Montenegrin battery that was
got up to very close range, the trenches were carried after fierce hand-
to hand fighting. The assailants, who had lost 2,000 men, were
exhausted.
During the next few days the captured positions were consolidated
and fiela guns brought up. During the main attack the Monte-
negrins on the N. side had also pushed forward their lines from
3,000 to 1,500 yd. from the Turkish defenses. The lack of siege
artillery and of unified fire direction was much felt.
Meanwhile a Serbian contingent under Boyovich had been sent
to assist the Montenegrins and complete the investing line between
Drinasa and Boyana. Between their right flank and the Monte-
negrins on the Great Bardanjolt lay a stretch of marshy impassable
country. In aid of the attack of Feb. 7 the Serbs delivered a feint-
attack on the Tarabosh front, which reached the first Turkish line,
but was then driven back. A small Montenegrin column also
attacked Tarabosh but broke down at the wire.
South-west of Scutari there had been no change since November.
The Montenegrins had made good their casualties and lay some
600 to 700 yd. from the Turkish lines, ensconced in carefully-con-
structed trenches in the rocks. The Turkish positions here extended
for some 4 to 5 m. from the strong point of Tarabosh south-eastwards
to the Boyana. The besieging artillery (i2-cm. guns and 15 and 21-
cm. howitzers) was concentrated in two groups around Oblika and
Boboti, whence it could bring a concentric fire to bear on the lofty
commanding peak of the Tarabosh. The counter-bombardment of
the defense was weak and practically useless, owing to slow and
faulty methods of fire.
The ammunition supplies for the Montenegrins, which were sent
up across the lake, were amply sufficient for all needs.
The main attack on the Tarabosh began only on March 31,
preceded by five hours' artillery bombardment and by feints on the
remainder of the front. During the artillery preparation, the infan-
try took up their positions of assault one and a half brigades
against the northern and western forces of Tarabosh, and one and a
half brigades against the south.
On the latter, the assault was repulsed, completely and with
heavy losses. The western attack had been more fortunate. The
first Turkish position Was broken through in one place, but progress
was arrested by flanking machine-gun fire and counterstrokes, and
everywhere the Turks held their third position firmly. On April I
the attack was repeated but with no better success, and for the next
20 days, until the capitulation, Turks and Montenegrins here lay
facing one another half-way up the slope at a distance of 60 to 70 yd.
apart a situation which recalls in many respects the trench war-
fare days of the World War. The attack had cost the Montenegrins
i ,200 dead.
The Turkish position on the Tarabosh consisted of four lines of
trenches, some 30 to 40 yd. apart, and each commanding the one in
front of it. The third trench line extended into the country to the
east, and the fourth to the north. Behind the fourth line a 7-5-cm.
quick-firing gun was posted in a shelter on the crest of the hill. In
front of the first and third lines were thick belts of wire. The whole
position, which was intended for occupation by a battalion, was in
fact held by only 00 men.
The Montenegrins, after their unsuccessful attack of March 31
and April I, confined themselves to the usual bombardment. The
siege artillery was reinforced. The Serbian Gen. Boyovic now took
command of the besieging army, but there was considerable dissen-
sion between him and Vukotic. On April 16, however, the Serbian
troops suddenly left Scutari, and the Montenegrins took over the
whole line, under violent artillery fire from the Turks, who, how-
ever, made no attempt at a sortie against the thin line of the be-
siegers. And now, when the fortress seemed quite safe from further
assault, it suddenly capitulated on April 22. For some time obscure
negotiations had been going on between King Nicholas and Essad,
and the brave Hasan Riza Pasha, who had refused to surrender
despite the shortage of food, had been assassinated. But already
Montenegro was under naval blockade by the Great Powers, who
had decided that Scutari should belong to the new state of Albania,
and on May 6 King Nicholas yielded and withdrew his troops.
(F. C. E.)
The Siege of Adrianople. In the first operations of Oct., already
described, Adrianople had come within the ambit of the general
battle, and it was not till after the Turks had retreated away
towards the Kara Aghach line that operations in front of the fortress
assumed the typical siege characters of investment and concentric
attack.
The general outline of the defences has been described above.
But it is important to add that the permanent forts were old and
conspicuous, and, except in a few cases where modernization had
been actually begun, possessed only brick vaulting that was not
proof against 6-in. shell. The only modern works were a certain
number of safety-armament batteries distributed in the intervals,
of installations for 5-7 mm. close-defense quick-firing guns under
armour, and of concrete shelters and magazines. The general prin-
ciple of defense adopted was that common to Europe in the period
before the rise of the " group " or " Feste " idea that is, the forts
were infantry redoubts for close defense and the fighting artillery was
entirely in the intervals. Unfortunately for the Turks many of the
" redoubts " were open at the gorge. The whole system of the main
line was well wired in.
Outside the main position, and coinciding with it only on the N.E.
front (left bank of the Tunja), was an advanced position, or rather a
discontinuous series of field positions on selected sites astride the
saddles of ground which separate the rivers (Tunja and lower
Maritsa, Maritsa and Arda, Arda and upper Maritsa, upper Maritsa
and Tunja). From these advanced positions the Turks had delivered
the first sorties above mentioned and to them they had retired under
the pressure of the II. Army's and 3rd Div.'s advance astride the
Maritsa and Tunja on Oct. 22. In the days following, the 8th, gth
and 3rd Divs. extended the investment, and the nth Div. and siege
artillery were brought up via Mustafa Pasha, as well as some aero-
planes. Presently parts of the 2nd Div. lately operating in the
Rhodope came up, some by the Arda and some via Demotika on the
S. side. On the other hand, both the 3rd and the gth Divs. were
withdrawn to join the field army in the crisis of Lule Burgas. 1 After
establishing their line generally close up to the Turkish advanced
positions (in the course of which, on Oct. 25, Kartal Tepe was
captured, and Papas Tepe won and lost again), the Bulgarians sat
down to await the Serbians, whose II. Army, set free by the victory
of Kumanovo, was being withdrawn from the Vardar to assist their
allies. Already on Oct. 27 some Serbian troops had arrived and on
Oct. 31 Gen. Stepanovich took over the whole W. front of the invest-
ment with Timok I. and part of the Bulgarian nth Div. from Tunja
to upper Maritsa and Danube II. between upper Maritsa and Arda.
Gen. Ivanov, commanding his II. Bulgarian Army as well as the
whole siege force, had his 8th Div. between Arda and lower Maritsa
and the I ith with part of the 2nd in the broadest sector, the eastern.
At this point the armistice suspended operations, but Shukri
Pasha was not authorized by its terms to revictual his garrison and
the defenders continued therefore to consume their resources. After
hostilities were resumed on Feb. 3 it soon became evident, from
attempts at sorties and from increase of desertion, that the garrison
was weakening, and it was decided to force home the attack.
Want of transport resources, however, delayed the preparations till
the third week in March 1913, when parts of the 3rd, gth and 4th
Divs. having been brought into the Bulgarian II. Army from
Chatalja 90,000 Bulgarian and 30,000 Serbian infantry were
SIEGE OF ADR1ANOPLE.I9I2-13
Situation before final attack
Permanent work n +
Main infantry line
Advanced positions
actually available for the attack, which would be prepared and
covered by the 125 Bulgarian siege guns and howitzers of 12 and
15 cm. calibre (the latter, as mentioned above, being capable of
penetrating most of the Turkish vaults) as well as some 250 or more
field guns. At this period possibly 50,000 of Shukri's original 60,000
combatants were still available for duty. There were 216 field and
178 heavy guns (including some 2l-cm. mortars) distributed in the
defenses.
1 A Turkish sortie with the intention of preventing this was, as
before mentioned, repulsed.
BALKAN WARS
The E. front was chosen for attack. The preliminary bombard-
ment was carried out on March 24, and in the night of the 24th
25th the whole of the advanced line on the E. front was stormed, on
a 6 m. frontage. During the day of the 25th the Bulgarians suffered
a good deal in the captured positions, but Gen Ivanov determined to
push home the assault on the main position on the night of the 25th-
26th, an order which involved an approach march in broad daylight
and consequently heavy losses.
The assault was duly delivered in the night, and came to a stand-
still on the Turkish wire, save at the point where the loth Bulgarian
Regt. of the 8th Div. (brought over from the S. front for the assault)
broke into Fort Ayi Yolu, the second work from the N.E. salient of
Arnautkoi.
At dawn this regiment found itself isolated but in possession of the
fort, and the open gorges of the row of forts tempted the audacious
commander to strike out right and left along the ridge. Thus he
cleared the -way for unit after unit held up at the frontal wire, and,
growing snowball fashion, the Bulgarian attack, soon joined by
accompanying field batteries, cleared the whole line of the eastern
forts by 8 A.M. on the 26th. Meantime the Serbians had captured
Papas Tepe, though with considerable losses, and at other parts of
the front fierce local attacks were delivered. Shukri's position was
hopeless, and he surrendered about midday, with some 60,000 men
and all his materiel. This great triumph cost the Bulgarians on the
E. front 6,300 killed and wounded, and on the S. side 1,700, or 8,000
in all, while the Serbians lost 1,000 in the Papas Tepe sector and 400
elsewhere -a total loss to the allies of 9,400.
V. The Second Balkan War, 1913. The Turkish war having
again been brought to a conclusion by a general armistice, a few days
after the fall of Adrianople, peace negotiations were resumed in
London, and in these negotiations the settlement of peace as far as
Turkey was concerned was, it may be said, the least of many
preoccupations. Not only was the Balkan league on the point of
internal explosion, but the Concert of Europe was trying to create
the new state of Albania in the midst of a three-cornered diplomatic
contest between Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia. Further,
Rumania was on the point of intervening in order to secure herself
against the consequences of Bulgarian aggrandisement, and the
internal politics of Turkey became more confused than ever. In
these conditions the Peace of London, signed on May 30, lacked
every element of reality.
Already Serbia had drawn her western forces into the Ovche
Polye area, to dispute possession of the debatable region which Bul-
garia claimed, and the II. Army, which had taken part in the siege
of Adrianople, was extricated as rapidly as possible lest it be isolated
and disarmed in the territory of its allies. The Greeks, who had
concentrated the bulk of their forces in roadless Epirus for the siege
of Yannina, lost no time in getting them down to the, coast and
shipping them to Salonika. For their part the Bulgarians used the
railway lines Adrianople-Sofia and Dede Aghach-Seres (the latter
secured by the conquest of the coastal region by the 7th and 2nd
Divs. in the first campaign) to bring most of their forces into Mace-
donia.
They were deployed along a " line of demarcation " which was a
battle-front in all but name. Only one division remained in Adri-
anople and some militia on the Dobruja frontier.
The origin of the war, as between Bulgaria and Serbia, lay in the
non-observance by Bulgaria of the original treaty stipulation that
she should aid the Serbian campaign in Macedonia with 100,000
men. Having failed to fulfil her part, she now claimed the territory
about Uskub, Kumanovo, and Shtip in virtue of other clauses of that
treaty. This claim Serbia was in no mood to concede, all the less so
since her advance to the Adriatic had been forbidden by the Great
Powers. As between Bulgaria and Greece, the former's claim to
Salonika seems to have had no better basis than a desire to possess it.
As already mentioned, the Bulgarian 7th Div., in arriving from the
Struma side a' few days after the Crown Prince had fought his way
into Salonika from the W., had lost no time in publicly claiming
ownership, and it was with hardly concealed joy that the Greek
Government received and promptly executed a request to transport
this division by sea to the Thracian theatre.
On all these matters bargaining might possibly have reached
satisfactory solutions, since there was much to justify Bulgaria's
claim in Macedonia. But the Bulgarians had skilfully exploited
their primacy during the first war to induce the European press and
public to regard Serbians and Greeks as mere satellites, 1 and, as is
not unusually the case with successful propaganda, they had come
to believe in it themselves, fortified in the belief by fulsome compli-
ments addressing them as the " Prussians of the Balkans " and the
" Japanese of the West." On the other hand, the Serbs and the
Greeks, thus kept out of the banquet, were not only exasperated, but
sober as well. When war came in the last days of June 1913, outpost
" incidents " were occurring at many points of the line from Salonika
to the old Serbian frontier at Vranya. The combatants were fully
deployed, and their battle was the first example of the form that has
1 For example, a British officer lecturing at the staff college on his
return from Thrace told his hearers that the Bulgarian 7th Div.
had remained in the Macedonian theatre to stiffen the Serbs an
extraordinary travesty of the facts.
since become typical of national warfare, the front-to-front conflict
along a line which stretches from neutral ground to neutral ground
and shows no flank. In this instance it stretched from the Danube
to the sea.
The Bulgarian scheme of operations, necessarily offensive, suffered
from the weakness of having two objectives the Ovche Polye and
Salonika and being based on two main lines of communication
diverging towards the rear Kyustendil and Seres-Drama. It also
suffered from the political necessity of avoiding the outward sem-
blance of an aggression. The scheme, therefore, was to begin with a
succession of outpost affrays along the whole line (which could be
represented as a provocation suffered), and then to strike vigorous
offensive blows (a) from Seres towards Salonika, (b) from Strumitsa
and Radovishta against the Vardar at Krivolak and Gevgeli (Gyev-
gheli), (the link between the Serbian and Greek armies) ; and (c) a
blow from the region of Kochana towards Egri Palanka. The out-
post affrays duly occurred and the real offensives were launched on
June 30.
At the opening of the Bregalnitsa battle, the forces were thus
disposed :
Bulgarian Army. Commanded by Gen. Radko Dimitriev.*
I. Army (Kutinchey)
(Vidin-Berkovitsa
front).
V. Army (Petrov)
(Pirot-Vlasina
front).
III. Army (Toshev)
(Kyustendil).
IV. Army (Korachev)
(Kochana-
Radovishta front).
9th Div. ; one brigade each of 5th, 8th,
and I4th Divs. ; I3th Div.
1st Div.; main body 5th Div.; main
body I4th Div., and one brigade
loth Div.
I2th Div., 15th Div., and main body 4th
Div.
VI.
Army (Ivanov)
(Stru mitsa-Seres
front).
Volunteer brigade; one brigade 4th
Div.; 7th Div., main body 8th Div.;
one brigade 3rd Div. ; main body 6th
Div. ; 2nd Div.
Main body 3rd Div.; a volunteer
brigade; nth Div.; one brigade
loth Div., and one brigade 6th
Div.
(The divisions 12 to 15 were new formations, much weaker than the
divisions I to 9; the loth and nth Divs., created in Oct. 1912, were
of intermediate strength.)
Serbian Army. Commanded by Putnikas, Chief of General Staff.
II. Army (Stepanovich) Third Ban garrisons of Zayechar and
(Danube to Vlasina). Knyashevats. TimokL.Shumaja II.
I. Army (Crown Prince) Danube II., Danube I., Shumaja I.
(from the old
frontier to Car Vrh,
astride the Egri
Palanka road).
III. Army (Yankovich)
(along the Zletovska
and the lower Bre-
galnitsa with detach-
ments at Krivolak
and Gevgeli).
Greek Army. Commanded by Constantino (since March 18, King
of the Hellenes).
(Front : Gevgeli Left group
on the Vardar Centre "
to the Right '
Struma mouth.) Reserve
(The loth Div. was an improvised formation.)
In addition, to deal with Albanian troubles, each of the allies
retained considerable forces in the mountains; including the main
body of the Montenegrin army.
Beginning on June 30, the Bulgarian II. Army drove the Greek
front back all along the line till it lay S. of Gevgeli N. of Langaza
W. of Struma mouth. The Bulgarian IV. Army broke in between the
allies and captured Krivolak with its left, while its right, along with
the III. Army, attacked the Serbians along the whole Bregalnitsa-
Zletovska line, which was forced. On the Egri Palanka front the
Bulgarian IV. Army similarly drove in the Serbian I. Army's out-
posts.
But the Serbians, and also the Greeks, were disposed in consider-
able depth, and the Bulgarian soldier had little heart for the offensive
once it became evident that the enemy was determined to fight. By
the night of July I the offensive had died down, and it was the allies'
turn to counter-attack. At this moment the Bulgarian-Serbian battle
line ran approximately through Krivolak-Dragoyevo-Shtip line
of the Bregalnitsa and lower Zletovska-Raychani heights Gorni
Posadnik-Redki Buku-Car Vrh-heights E. of Egri Palanka-heights
W. of and parallel to the frontier-headwaters of river Pcinja. At the
apex of the Serbian salient the Bulgarians had obtained a firm hold
on Car Vrh.
Initiated on July 2, and developed on a large scale on the 3rd, the
counter-attack of the Serbian III. Army broke through the Bulgarian
line between the Zletovska and Redki Buku inclusive, hustling the
defenders back on the 3rd and 4th to the upper Bregalnitsa. Mean-
2 Gen. Savov had resigned, not being in agreement with the war
policy of the Government.
Drina II.
Morava II. Morava I., Timok II.
Montenegrin contingent, Cavalry divi-
sion.
3rd and loth Divs.
4th and 5th Divs.
1st, 6th and 7th Divs.
2nd Div.
382
BALL, SIR R. S.
time the Bulgarian forces between Shtip and Krivolak were slowly
driving back Timok II. to the Bregalnitsa, but it was now too late
for this to influence either the main battle or that of the Greek front.
On the latter, the Bulgarian advance had come to a standstill, as
soon as King Constantine had brought up his reserves, and the
BATTLE OF THE BRECALNITZA
1913
counter-offensive opened on the 3rd. His left (loth and 3rd Divs.)
retook Gevgeli, his centre (4th, 2nd, 5th) Kilkish, and his right (ist,
6th, 7th) drove back the Bulgarian left on Nigrita and also eastward
on the Seres road (July 3-4). On July 7 the Greek right reached the
Salonika-Drama railway, and their left from Gevgeli carried the pass
over the Belashitsa which leads to Strumitsa. Thus Ivanov was cut
off from the railway, and his only line of retreat lay up the narrow
Struma valley to Jumaya.
Yielding to necessity, the Bulgarian forces on the Vardar with-
drew, ere it was too late, into the Belashitsa valley, while those
pursuing Timok II. on the lower Bregalnitsa halted and drew back.
The opportunity which thus presented itself to the Serbian III.
Army of interposing between Ivanov and Bulgaria led to a regroup-
ing of the Serbian forces for the benefit of this army, which, pursuing
its advantage, drove back its opponents towards the line of moun-
tains in the upper Bregalnitsa bend (Obozna-i34O-Grlena).
But the Bulgarians, in order to relieve pressure and to keep their
hold upon Western opinion, seized the initiative again while the
regrouping was in process and the Greeks had hardly yet entered the
Struma and Strumitsa valleys.
Their new offensive was twofold local attacks by the I. and V.
Armies on all the routes leading into Old Serbia, and heavy counter-
attacks on the front of the Serbian I. Army. The first, made with
columns of varying strengths on the routes leading to Zajechar,
Kynashevats, Pirot and Vlasina, was repulsed by the Serbian II.
Army after some initial successes, and was over by July 10. The
second was more serious, and it seems that the process of building up
the strength of the Serbian III. Army opposite Kochana was not only
suspended but actually reversed to cope with a crisis. Finally,
however, the Bulgarians were repulsed here also, and retired to the
line of frontier mountains (Golemi Vrh-Bozderitsa-Rujan-Sivako-
bila), more or less in touch with the right of the forces in the moun-
tains of the Bregalnitsa bend.
By this time the Greeks were in possession of the Strumitsa basin
and had made some progress up the Struma. But Ivanov had
obtained an opportunity that he could not have gained by his own
efforts to extricate the various forces of the Bulgarian left which
were scattered from the Vardar to the Struma.
The new allied offensive, therefore, begun all along the Serbian line
on the I5th, and starting on the battle-front above mentioned
(Golemi Vrh-Siyakobila-Obochna), resolved itself into a series of
local combats with the object of cutting off as much as possible of
Ivanov's rearguard detachments and of making strategic connexion
with the Greek left at Pehchevo. At this stage, indeed, bolder strategy
was hardly required, for already Rumania had declared war on Bul-
garia and had begun an unopposed march on Sofia, while the Turks
at Chatalja and Bulair, ignoring the Treaty of London, reoccupied
Adrianople without firing a shot.
Yet this relative inactivity of the Serbs gave the Bulgarians one
more opportunity, which they seized. Using a manoeuvre which was
destined to become a familiar practice of strategy in the World War,
but, at that date and in that country of mountains and primitive
communications, was conspicuously daring and novel, they trans-
ferred Kutinchev's I. Army from theold Serbian frontier (Vidin-Pirot
front) to Ivanov's theatre, placing the newcomers on the outer
flank of the advancing Greeks. On July 25 Ivanov and Kutinchev
simultaneously attacked the leading troops of the Greek central or
Struma column l before the main body was clear of the Kresna defile.
But the capacity of resistance of the Greek troops, especially in
mountain country for which their aptitude was remarkable through-
out these campaigns, enabled them to weather the first crisis; they
were reinforced from the left as well as from the rear, and on the
night of the 26th-27th the Bulgarians withdrew towards the Jumaya
Pass.
The venture was at an end. Surrounded by hostile columns con-
verging on Sofia from every quarter, Bulgaria yielded on July 31,
and on Aug. 10 was signed the Peace of Bucharest.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The outbreak of the World War in 1914 pre-
vented all the combatants of the Balkan wars from producing
official histories, and the only sources available are books and papers
published immediately after the operations. Concise military
accounts of the first war in all theatres are Boucabeille's Guerre
Turco balkanique and Immanuel's Balkankrieg. For the Macedonian
campaign and Scutari, by far the best authority is the French general
staff publication Revue mil. des armees etrangeres (monthly numbers
Feb. -July 1914). For the campaign of 1912 in Thrace, A. de
Pennenrun's Campagne de Thrace is the best contemporary account ;
an interesting study by Mai. (afterwards Brig.-Gen.) P. Howell, The
Campaign in Thrace (1913), stops short before Chatalja. In 1915
Gen. Palat produced a volume, Guerre des Balkans, which assembles
most of the known evidence for the Thracian campaign. For the
second war of 1913 very little of military value has been published.
A summary of dispositions, movements, and events will be found in
Hazell's Annual, 1914, pp. 369-71. For the Serbian part in both wars
A. Kutschbach's Die Serben im Balkankrieg is useful as containing
official information. (C. F. A.)
BALL, SIR ROBERT STAWELL (1840-1013), Irish astronomer,
was born in Dublin July i 1840. Educated at Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, he was appointed in 1865 assistant to the Earl
of Rosse's observatory at Parsonstown, and whilst there he dis-
covered four spiral nebulae. On the death of Lord Rosse two
years later he became professor of mathematics in Dublin
University and in 1874 Royal Astronomer of Ireland. This
post he held until 1898; but in 1892 he was also made professor
of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge and director of the
university observatory. From 1897-9 he was president of the
Royal Astronomical Society. He was knighted in 1886. He
was an admirable lecturer and writer of popular books on his
subject, as well as of more learned works such as his Treatise
on Spherical Astronomy (1885) and Treatise on the Theory of
Screws (1900); and he was a congenial figure in all circles.
He died at Cambridge Nov. 25 1913.
1 The right, moving more or less independently, was at Dobri-
nishte in the Mesta valley. The left had reached Pehchevo.
BALL, THOMAS BALLISTICS
383
BALL, THOMAS (1819-1911), American sculptor (see 3.263),
died at Montclair, N. J., Dec. n 1911.
BALLIN, ALBERT (1857-1918), German merchant and one
of the most eminent representatives of German commercial
interests, was born Aug. 15 1857 at Hamburg. After hav-
ing completed his mercantile training he organized the
'tween-deck (emigrant) traffic of the Carr Line. He next
undertook the management of the passenger traffic of the
Hamburg-Amerika Line and became in 1886 director and soon
afterwards director-general of that enterprise, the expansion of
which was essentially his work. The share capital of the Ham-
burg-Amerika Line was increased tenfold during his manage-
ment. The network of its service was extended over the whole
world, largely by the acquisition of a number of other lines.
Ballin succeeded, by means of agreements with other German
shipping companies, in developing German shipping on a grand
scale; he was likewise the author of the German-American ship-
ping agreement of 1902. He was regarded as enjoying the special
confidence of the Emperor William II., who employed his serv-
ices as an expert in all matters of shipping and commerce.
Ballin died suddenly heart-broken, it is said, by the military,
political and commercial collapse of Germany at Hamburg on
Nov. 9 1918. (C. K.)
BALLISTICS (see 3.276*). I. INTERIOR BALLISTICS. Interior
Ballistics has as its province the behaviour of a projectile, its
propellant, and the gun from which it is being fired between the
moment of firing and the moment at which the shell leaves the
muzzle of the gun. From its nature it is a subject in which the
synthesis of experimental results into general laws is a matter of
great difficulty, and, in its present stage of development, striking
differences of opinion still exist on fundamental points. A review
of the work published after 1910 illustrates some of these differ-
ences.
In France the well-known system of Gen. P. Charbonnier,
published in 1908, has been modified as well as elaborated by G.
Sugot (Memorial de I'Arlillerie navale, 1913). Charbonnier, for
French nitre-cellulose powder in long flat strips, assumes a rate
of burning directly proportional to the pressure, and that the
grains burn with a distinctly- decreasing surface, while Gen.
Gossot and R. Liouville (the exponents of the other leading
French system) assume, for the same propellant, a rate of burn-
ing proportional to the pressure to the power of two-thirds, and a
practically constant burning surface.
In Italy Madaschi's revision (published in 1914) of Bianchi's
Nozioni Fondimentali di Balisticq Internet- sets forth a very com-
prehensive system on different lines to that of Charbonnier,
although it has some points in common such as the law of burn-
ing and the treatment of the resistance of the driving band.
In the U.S. official Text Book of Ordnance and Gunnery (1917)
Ingalls' system of Interior Ballistics has been replaced by that of
Tschappat, who again has adopted the same law of burning and
treatment of band resistance as Charbonnier, but then diverges
entirely from his methods.
Published in England we may note Sir George Hadcock's
" Internal Ballistics " (Proc. Royal Society, A, vol. 94, London
1918), in which the treatment of the resistance of the band is
extended to include a separate phase while the band is actually
being engraved.
The existence of such important divergencies between pub-
lished systems would in any event make it difficult to present
the subject in brief and definite form. But there is also a further
obstacle in the fact that the connexion between Interior Ballistics
and the design of artillery materiel is so intimate that much of
the resulting work is still considered by the naval and military
authorities of most countries, if not of all, as to a great extent
confidential.
On the other hand the experiences of the World War em-
phasized the importance of a due appreciation of the general
principles of Interior Ballistics not only for purposes of design,
but also for the intelligent and efficient employment of
artillery materiel. To establish such an appreciation on a con-
crete basis, working formulae are a necessity, as without them
* These figures indicate the volume
the magnitude of the effects cannot be studied, but the formulae
should be comparatively simple, or from their cumbersome
nature they will fail in their object. Formulae suitable for this
purpose, although of a purely empirical nature, are available, and
it is feasible to present and illustrate the leading principles with
the aid of these simple formulae alone.
Monomial Formulae for Velocity and Pressure. Interior Ballistics
is concerned with the circumstances attending the motion of the
shell in the bore of the gun. Considering these circumstances in a
general way, when the charge is ignited, gas is evolved from the
burning surface, and this gas exerts a gradually increasing pressure
on the base of the shell. When a certain pressure has been developed
the shell starts to move and travels up the bore with continually
increasing velocity until it leaves the muzzle of the gun with a
certain muzzle velocity. During this travel up the bore the
pressure at first increases comparatively rapidly until a certain
pressure, the maximum pressure, is reached. The pressure then
gradually decreases to the muzzle, the pressure when the shell leaves
the muzzle being known as the muzzle pressure.
Modern propellants are for the most part colloids, and the grains
composing the charge have some more or less definite geometrical
shape. Typical velocity and pressure curves for such propellants
will be found in the earlier article BALLISTICS (see 3.276-7). A
charge made up in this way is in practice ignited in the chamber of
the gun by means of a small additional charge of black powder, the
igniter (which in turn has been ignited by the cap, primer, or tube),
so that the whole of the surfaces of the grains are set alight or
inflamed as nearly as possible simultaneously. For such colloid
propellants the " Law of Burning by Parallel Layers " is well
established. This law states that at any instant during the burning
of the grain the thickness burnt through in the direction normal to the
exposed surface is the same over the whole surface, or in other
words, that the grain is diminished by an equal thickness in all
directions.
The rate of burning of the propellant is a function of the pressure,
and the greater the pressure, the quicker the grain will burn.
Consider now two charges of the same weight made up of (a)
comparatively small and (b) comparatively large grains of the same
geometrical shape.
For (a) the surface exposed when the charge is ignited (the
" initial surface ") will be greater than for (b), and the emission of
gas will be greater to start with. The pressure and the rate of burn-
ing will increase comparatively rapidly, and the whole charge will
be consumed sooner than in the case (b). In the case of (b) the
total weight of gas emitted will be the same, but the mode of emission
will be different. The initial surface is not so great, so that at the
start the pressure will rise less rapidly and the combustion will be
completed later. The maximum pressure will occur later and will be
less than for (a), but will decrease more slowly.
Coming to the geometrical shape of the grain, the different forms
employed may be divided into three main groups:
(i.) Those which burn with a continually decreasing surface. To
this group belong all solid grains and short cylinders with an axial
perforation.
(ii.) Those' which burn with a practically constant surface, such
as long thin tubes.
(iii.) Those which burn with an increasing surface to a certain
stage, the grain then
breaking up into other
forms quite different from
the original shape. An ex-
ample of this type is a
cylindrical grain pierced
longitudinally by a num-
ber of holes.
Cordite M.D.T. is an
example of Group (ii.).
The length of the tubes of
circular section of which
the charge is composed is
so great compared with
their thickness, that the
burning of the ends may be
neglected, and the surface
of combustion is practi-
cally constant throughout
the burning, as the tubes
burn both inside and out.
The proportion of the
whole thickness burnt through at any time is the same as the pro-
portion of the weight or volume of the whole tube consumed.
Cordite M.D., which is made up in long cords of circular section, is
an example of Group (i.), and other forms frequently employed are
long flat strips of rectangular section (such as the French B.N.
powders), or square flat grains (such as ballistite). In all these forms
the percentage of the thickness burnt through at any time of the
burning is less than the percentage of the whole weight of the grain
consumed.
FIG.
and page number of the previous article.
BALLISTICS
The multiperforated grains in which American nitrocellulose of the
larger sizes is made up, are an example of (iii.). The cylindrical grain
has seven equal longitudinal perforations; a typical cross section
is shown in fig. I.
One of the perforations coincides with the axis of the cylinder,
and the others are disposed symmetrically about the axis, their
centres orming a regular hexagon and being so arranged that the
least dimension of the grain or " web thickness," which is the least
distance between any two adjacent circumferences, is the same
throughout.
During the first phase of the combustion, i.e. before the grain
breaks up, the grain burns with an increasing surface, the thickness
burnt through at any time being greater than the percentage of the
whole weight of the grain consumed. When the web thickness
is burnt through, the grain breaks up into twelve slender trian-
gular prisms with curved sides known as " slivers." The slivers will
burn with a decreasing surface in a very similar manner to long
cords.
The less the percentage of the whole weight of the grain consumed
compared with the percentage of the thickness burnt through, the
more " progressive ' is the shape said to be. Fig. 2 illustrates the
burning of different forms of grain in a gun.
It shows the pressure-space curves for a charge of the same weight
made up of long cords, long tubes, and multiperforated grains; the
diameter of the cord, thickness of the tube, and web thickness of the
m.p. grain are so arranged that the whole charge is just completely
consumed at the muzzle, 1 i.e. after the same travel of the shell; the
same shell is supposed to be fired from the same gun with these
three different natures of charge.
The muzzle velocity will be the same in each case, but the pressure
curves very different. For the charge to be completely consumed at
the muzzle the diameter of the cord and thickness of tube will be the
same, but the web thickness of the m.p. grain will be considerably
less, as after this is burnt through there are still the slivers to burn.
The maximum pressure is lower and the muzzle pressure higher
with the tube than with the cord or m.p. grain, which are about level
in this respect, but the point of maximum pressure with the m.p.
grain occurs farther up the bore than with the cord, the point of
maximum pressure with the tube being between the two.
The point where the web thickness of the m.p. grain is burnt
through and the grain breaks up into slivers, is shown on the dia-
gram. From this point the pressure drops rapidly, owing to the
change from an increasing to a decreasing surface of combustion,
until it runs into the curve for the cord which it follows to the
muzzle.
If we increase the diameter of the cord and the web thickness of
the m.p. grain (keeping the weight of the charge the same) the
maximum pressure will be lower, but the muzzle velocity will also be
lower as the charge will not be consumed in the gun.
Q Web thickn
ss burnt
10
20
TRAVEL
FIG. 2.
30
40 calibres
In practice the maximum pressure is generally the limiting factor
as we must not exceed the safe working pressure of the gun, and the
endeavour is to get the required muzzle velocity combined with good
regularity; for this it is desirable that the muzzle pressure should be
low and the charge completely burnt well back in the gun.
The best practicable combination of form and weight of charge
for this purpose is the problem of the designer.
1 This is only for illustrative purposes. In practice the charge
should be completely consumed before the shell reaches the muzzle.
The main problem of Interior Ballistics may now be stated as
follows: Given the necessary particulars of the gun, charge, and
shell, to determine the corresponding values of the velocity of the
shell (with special attention to the muzzle velocity), the pressure of
the gases of the charge (with special attention to the maximum
pressure), and the proportion of the charge burnt (with special
attention to the point of complete combustion), at any point of the
travel of the shell up the bore.
Various subsidiary problems of an inverse nature required for
considering questions of design and analyzing firing results will also
suggest themselves.
The physical phenomena, as will be readily understood, are of a
very complex nature. Besides the energy expended in propelling the
shell from the muzzle with a certain muzzle velocity, we have the
work expended on the charge, on the gun and mounting (recoil) and
in giving rotation to the shell ; work is also done in forcing the driving
band into the rifling grooves (" engraving " the band), and in over-
coming friction up the bore. There is also the heat lost by con-
duction.
As regards the gun, besides the main dimensions (" calibre,"
" chamber capacity," and " shot travel "), variations in the design
of the rifling and the state of wear of the bore generally may have an
appreciable effect on the results. This does not exhaust the possible
causes of variation, and in fact two guns of the same design even
when new may not give the same muzzle velocity under conditions
which have carefully been made as nearly identical as possible.
As regards the charge, in addition to the nature of the propellant
and form of grain, we may have to take into account the circum-
stances of the ignition and the temperature of the charge as fired.
Two samples or " lots " of the same propellant, however carefully
made to be as nearly identical as possible, may give different ballistics
in the same gun, and even if they give practically the same results
when new, the matter may be complicated later by the length and
conditions of storage.
As regards the shell, besides the weight, the design of the driving
band may have to be taken into account, as this may affect its
resistance.
It must be understood that though all these causes and others not
touched on may appreciably affect the results, they by no means all
do so in all circumstances, from the point of view of their practical
effect on shooting; indeed, some of them may require very refined
experimental methods even to detect them. For this reason a due
appreciation of their relative importance in any particular case is
very desirable and can be obtained only by close study and wide
experience.
From the extreme complexity of the physical phenomena, even
under carefully standardized conditions, it may be doubted if a
complete solution of the problem is possible, but various systems
more or less complete for an approximate solution have been pro-
posed and worked out. Some of these are referred to above. The
underlying theory is of necessity difficult and the calculations
involved laborious, the complications increasing rapidly with the
degree of comprehensiveness attempted.
None of these systems up to date can be said to have gained general
acceptance, and in fact serious divergencies on the most crucial
points will be found in the different authorities. All that will be
attempted here will be a short description of certain empirical
formulae which have been and still are considerably used for prac-
tical calculations of muzzle velocity and maximum pressure. They
arc of the monomial type, and by their aid, given the muzzle velocity
and maximum pressure known to be obtained with certain com-
binations of gun, charge and shell, we can endeavour to predict the
changes in ballistics which will result from variations in the data
which give the known results.
The following notation will be employed:
d calibre in inches.
The calibre is defined as the diameter of the bore of the gun
measured across the lands (the portions of the bore between the
grooves of the rifling).
G= chamber capacity in cubic inches.
That is the volume of the portion of the interior of the gun which
is behind the shell when rammed home. In the case of guns which
use a metallic cartridge case allowance must be made for the space
occupied by this.
S = shot travel in inches.
That is the distance moved through by the projectile from the
time it starts to move till it leaves the muzzle.
W = weight of shell in Ib.
M = weight of charge in Ib.
L = least dimension of the grain in inches.
That is the diameter of the cords, the thickness of the tubes or
strips, or the web thickness of the m.p. grains of which the charge is
made up.
V = muzzle velocity in feet per second (f/s).
P = maximum pressure in tons per square inch (ton/in 2 ).
In order to facilitate calculations and comparisons of results with
guns of different calibres it is advantageous to introduce the principle
pf " similar guns," and to reduce all particulars to those correspond-
ing to a standard or unit gun of I in. calibre. The reduction of the
data to those of the standard gun, in any particular case, is effected
BALLISTICS
385
by supposing the gun under consideration, together with its shell
and charge, to be expanded or contracted symmetrically until its
calibre is equal to I inch. Corresponding to G, W, S, M, and L, for
the gun calibre d in. we shall have for the standard gun
G
S ,. M
-,-, Mi = -j- ,
d d 3
. W T L
i = -j-, Li = -j-
d 3 d
V and P will remain unchanged.
The working formulae for muzzle velocity and maximum pressure
will be based on the assumption that they can be put in the form
(1) V = K, Gi Si' Wi" Mi" Li'
(2) P = K p Gi Wi-Mi-Li'
Where g, s, w, m, and / are empirical indices, positive or negative
integral or fractional, and K v , K p empirical constants. The values
of the indices denoted by the same letter are different in (i) and (2).
These formulae are to be regarded as purely empirical, but with a
due appreciation of their possibilities and limitations they will be
found very useful working tools.
Assuming as the result of experience, suitable values for the
indices, we can from known firing results (muzzle velocity and maxi-
mum pressure) for a certain gun, charge, and shell evaluate K and
K p of (i) and (2) by simple calculation with a table of logarithms.
Then by a reverse process, using the values of K. and K p so obtained,
we can calculate the muzzle velocity and maximum pressure to be
expected with another gun, shell, and charge (of the same propellant
made up of grains of the same form), inserting the appropriate values
of d, Si, Wi. Mi and LI in (i) and (2).
The following tables have been drawn up as a guide to values of
the indices which will be found suitable for guns, at any rate for trial
purposes, with the following propellants :
Long cords of Cordite M.D. (M.D.).
Long tubes of Cordite M.D.T. (M.D.T.).
Short tubes or m.p. grains of nitrocellulose (N.C.T.).
TABLE I.
Indices for Muzzle Velocity.
g-
i.
W.
m.
I.
-0-25
+0-2
-0-4
M.D.T. +07
N.C.T. \ ,
M.D. \ +' 6
M.D.T. \
N.C.T. / --3
M.D. -0-15
TABLE II.
Indices for Maximum Pressure.
g-
w.
m.
I.
M.D.T.-i-oo
N.C.T. -i-io
M.D. -1-15
+0-6
M.D.T. +1-8
N.C.T. \ ,
M.D. / + 1 ' 6
M.D.T. \
N.C.T. / - I- 4
M.D. -0-85
An example to illustrate the uses of these tables will now be
given :
A 6-in. gun, chamber capacity 1600 in., shot travel 250 in., fires a
loo-lb. shell with a charge of 25 Ib. of M.D., diam. of cord 0-2 in.,
gives a muzzle velocity of 2650 f/s with maximum pressure of 16
ton/in 2 . What muzzle velocity and maximum pressure may be
expected from a 5-in. gun, chamber capacity 600 in., shot travel 140
in. with a 55-lb. proj. shell and a charge of 10 Ib. M.D., diam. of
cord 0-12 inches?
For the 6-in. gun we have:
G = i6oo Gi=74
8=250 81-41-6
W = ioo Wi= 0-463
L=o-2 Li =0-033.
V = 26so
P = i6
From (i) and Table I.
V = K d ' 25 Si ' 2 Wi ' 4 Mi ' 6 Li ' 15 .
Taking logarithms and rearranging,
log. K,=log. V+o-25 log. Gi+o-6 log. i /Mi 0-2 log. Si 0-4
log. i/Wi -0-15 log. i/Li
whence
log. K, = 3-524.
Similarly from (2) and Table II.
P = K p Gi Wi Mi LI
whence
Then for the 5-in. gun:
G=6oo
8 = 140
and
= io
= o-i2
G,=4-8
Si =28
Wi=o-44
Mi =0-08
Li =0-024.
log. V=log. K.+0-2 log. Si+o-4 log. 81+0-15 log. i/Li-o-25
log. Gi 0-6 log. i /Mi
which, using the value of log. K found for the 6-in. gun, gives
f/s.
Similarly using the value of log. K p found for the 6-in. gun we get
for the 5-in. gun
P = l8-6 ton/in 2 .
It must not be inferred from this that for any propellant we can
arrive at values of K v and K p and the indices g, s, w, m, I, which will
reproduce the firing results in all circumstances. Investigations to
determine such fixed values once for all, will soon lead to disappoint-
ment. It must be remembered that we have only embodied in the
formulae differences in weight, calibre, chamber capacity, shot travel,
weight of shell, weight of charge, and dimensions of the propellant.
We have not taken into account any of the other causes of variation
touched on above.
When we analyze firing results by means of (l) and (2) all these
neglected factors are as it were embodied in the values of K c and K p
arrived at, and these values of K, and K,, and also the values of the
indices are only suitable for application in other cases in which the
effects of the neglected factors are proportionally similar.
The " density of loading," ' and the position of the point of com-
plete combustion of the charge will also have an influence, and an
adjustment of constants and indices may be necessary for widely
different densities of loading, and according as to whether the charge
is completely consumed well back in the gun, or whether there is a
proportion of the charge still unburnt when the shell leaves the
muzzle.
The values of the indices in Tables I. and II. are adjusted for the
average conditions of modern practice, 2 and if the above warning is
kept in mind and the formulae used in an intelligent manner they
will, as already stated, be found extremely useful working tools.
If only a few of the data vary it is not necessary to work with the
complete formulae (i) and (2). Thus if we are dealing with the same
gun and shell and the same propellant of the same form and size, and
only wish to investigate the effect on the muzzle velocity of differ-
ences in weight of the charge, we need not introduce the standard
gun and work out the constant K, but may write
XI
V"
where the muzzle velocity V is known for a charge of weight M',
and we want to find the velocity V" for a charge M". Again if we
are dealing with differences in weight of both charge and shell we may
employ
Yl/ivr\m /w\
V" \M") \W"/ '
As an example a gun gives m.v. 2500 f/s with full charge 12 Ib.
M.D.T., what will the m.v. be with a 3/4 charge of 9 Ib.?
Here ' = 2500 for M' = i2, and we have to find V" for M" = 9
from
0-7
we have
Therefore
Yl- /Ml\
V"~ \M"j
Yl = /! V
V" ~ U /
V"
?52? =2050 f/s.
1-22
When the variations in the data are comparatively small the
monomial formulae may be replaced by a simple percentage approxi-
mation which will give sufficient accuracy while reducing the
calculations to little more than easy mental arithmetic. The follow-
ing tables derived from the indices already employed with the
monomial formulae give the information necessary for such per-
centage calculations.
1 The density of loading is defined as the " ratio of the weight of
the charge to the weight of a volume of water just sufficient to fill
the chamber." This is given by 27-7 M/G. The greater the density
of loading, the less the " initial air space " (the volume of the cham-
ber not actually occupied by the grains of the charge).
2 These indices are suitable for ordnance. For rifles they require
considerable modification, see Hardcastle " Monomial Formulas for
Pressure and Velocity for Ordnance and Small Arms," Royal Artillery
Journal, vol. xlii.
3 86
BALLISTICS
TABLE III.
Percentage alteration in muzzle velocity due to an alteration of
+ 70% in
Chamber
Capacity.
Shot
Travel.
Weight of
Shell.
Weight of
Charge.
Least
Dimension
of Grain.
->.c /
<* 5 /o
+2%
-4%
M.D.T.+ 7 %
N.C.T. +6%
M.D. +6%
M.D.T.- 3 %
N.C.T. -3%
M.D. -1-5%
TABLE IV.
Percentage alteration in maximum pressure due to an alteration of
+10% in
Chamber
Capacity.
Weight of
Shell.
Weight of
Charge.
Least Dimension
of Grain.
M.D.T.-io%
N.C.T. -11%
M.D. -i 1-5%
+6%
M.D.T. + i8%
N.C.T. +16%
M.D. +16%
M.D.T.-I4%
N.C.T. -14%
M.D. -8-5%
Example. A gun gives m.v. 1680 f/s for max. press. 15-5 ton/in 2
with a charge of 20 Ib. N.C.T. What decrease in charge will give a
velocity of 1660 f/s, and what will be the corresponding pressure?
A change from 1680 to 1660 f/s is a decrease of 1-19%. From
Table III. a decrease of 10% in weight of charge will decrease m.v.
6%. Therefore a decrease of 1-19% will correspond to a decrease
. 10X1-19
in weight of charge of :
= 1-98% or 0-396 Ib.
From Table IV. 10% decrease in charge decreases P by 16%.
Therefore 1-98% decrease in charge decreases P by 3-16% =0-49
ton/in. 2 Hence the maximum pressure for V = 1660 f/s will be about
15 ton/in. 2
For the experimental determination of any of the indices, say the
velocity index m, we require a series of firing results in which the
corresponding quantity M has alone been varied, and the muzzle
velocities recorded.
The logarithms of the corresponding values of V and M are then
plotted as ordinates and abscissae and a straight line fitted to the
points as closely as possible. The slope of this line, as measured by
the tangent of the angle which it makes with the axis of M, gives the
value of the index.
As an example fig. 3 shows the plotting by this method of a number
of firing results for a certain gun with different weights of charge,
all the other particulars being kept the same.
The firing results plotted were:
M Ib.
Vf/s
6-12 1 6-62
816 1 865
7-69
959
8-0
991
9-0
1071
10-25
1164
JI-O
1222
The points obtained are shown by small circles.
It is then evident that a straight line as shown on the diagram can
be drawn which will pass very nearly through all the points.
The best straight line could be determined mathematically by the
" method of least squares," but in practice all that is necessary is to
take a piece of thin black thread and move it about on the diagram
estimating the best position by eye. Drawing the best straight line
determined in this simple manner we can read off the index m. In
the present case we thus arrive at the result that m =0-7, so that
V
,-07
FIG. 3.
Connexion between Interior and Exterior Ballistics. When the
shell leaves the muzzle of the gun and starts to describe its
trajectory it enters the domain of Exterior Ballistics, but the
condition in which it leaves the muzzle, particularly as regards
initial velocity and steadiness and the round-to-round variations
in these conditions, will have an important influence on the
behaviour of the individual rounds, and on the dispersion of a
group of rounds fired from the same gun at the same elevation.
These initial conditions are determined by what happens as the
shell travels up the bore and at the moment it leaves it, and it is
therefore appropriate to touch on them here.
Thus, if the shell leaves with a large initial " yaw " (inclination
of the longer axis to the direction of motion of the centre of
gravity), the range will in general be less than that which would
be obtained if the initial yaw were small. Again, from the point
of view of dispersion, even although all the shell were equally
steady, the greater the round-to-round variation in the muzzle
velocity, the greater would be the dispersion in range.
From the point of view of accuracy, as measured by the small
dispersion of a group of rounds fired at the same elevation, the
round-to-round variation in the initial conditions should be as
small as possible. As far as regularity in muzzle velocity is con-
cerned, the charge is a main factor, but the driving band and the
state of the bore also have an effect.
. Considering the charge, the constituents of this should be, in
the first place, as homogeneous as possible, both as regards com-
position and dimensions. Further, for the same shape of grain
the longer the travel of the shell before the charge is completely
consumed, the more sensitive is the muzzle velocity to variations
in size, etc., so that the further back the charge can be burnt the
better, or the smaller the size that can be used the better. This
is of course limited by the muzzle velocity required ; the smaller
the size the less muzzle velocity can be obtained for the same
maximum pressure.
When we come to consider the degree of steadiness with which
the shell leaves the muzzle and the variations in this, while there
is no question as to its importance, the conditions which govern
it and their relative importance are by no means well estabh'shed.
The shell has to be given rotation, by means of the rifling
grooves, in order to maintain an end-on position in its sub-
sequent flight, and, in the first place, it is clear that it must be
satisfactorily centred when rammed home, and that the design
of the rifling grooves and driving band must be mechanically
suitable for imparting the rotation in an efficient manner. Further
we have as possible influences on the conditions of emergence,
the effect of the blast of the gases as they are released at the
muzzle, and the effect on the shell of the vibrations of the barrel.
As to the former the violence of the blast effect will depend on
the muzzle pressure, and the general practice is to keep this as
low as possible so as to decrease the chances of trouble from this
cause. As to barrel vibrations, although some experimental work
has been done in the case of rifles, there is very little really known
as to the behaviour of ordnance in this respect, and their influence
on the state of departure of the shell. It is a matter which un-
doubtedly calls for research, but the experimental and theoretical
investigation bristles with formidable difficulties.
Bibliography. A list of some recent works and papers on the
subject is appended. It is not intended to be complete but covers a
good deal of ground, and may be useful in suggesting a course of
reading which might be undertaken by anyone intending to study
the subject seriously. G. Bianchi, Nozioni Fondimentali di Balistica
Interna (1914, 2nd. ed., revised by G. Madaschi); P. Charbonnier,
Balistique -Interieure (1908); Desmazieres, " Note sur 1'etat actuel
de\a.ba.\istique'mterieure," Revue d'Arlillerie, vol. 85, April and May-
June 1920; Gossot and R. Liouville, Les Ejfets des Explosifs (1919);
A. G. Hadcock, " Internal Ballistics," Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, vol. 94, London, 1918; G. Sugot, " Les Formules de
Charbonnier," Memorial de I'Artillerie Navale (1913); W. H.
Tschappat, Text Book of Ordnance and Gunnery (1917).
(R. K. H.)
II. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS. Previously to the World War,
and under the practice in vogue in 1910, guns proper were used
only in direct fire at elevations below 20 degrees. Fire from guns,
howitzers or mortars, above. 15 elevation was known as high
angle fire, and fire from howitzers at angles of elevation below 15
was known as curved fire. Howitzers were fired at elevations up
to 45; mortars were used at angles of elevation up to 65; but
howitzers and mortars had low muzzle velocities, relatively short
ranges, and the maximum ordinates of their trajectories were
comparatively small.
BALLISTICS
387
From 1915, however, the nature of the fighting on the western
front called for the development of extreme ranges in all artillery,
and the easiest and quickest method of increasing the range of a
given gun was to modify or redesign its mount so as to permit the
piece to be fired at the angle of elevation that would produce the
maximum, or at any rate the necessary, range. The method was
adopted by all the armies for all calibres of land guns. Further-
more, anti-aircraft guns were designed to permit of all angles of
elevation up to 90 degrees. Thus for the first time it became
necessary to have a knowledge of all the elements along the tra-
jectory and not merely of the range, time of flight, etc., of the
horizontal trajectory. Soon after the war started, improvements
in projectiles, which had been developing slowly since 1900,
began to make themselves felt in still further increasing ranges.
Causes which led to New Methods. Siacci's method involves an
assumption (see 3.274, Equation 59), which introduces an error,
if an attempt is made to complete the whole trajectory in a single
arc, when the angle of departure is more than 20 degrees. The
method of " successive arcs," based on Siacci (see 3.275), has
been used extensively and has the required accuracy, providing
the arcs taken are short, but the method is laborious and has
other disadvantages arising from the discontinuity of the suc-
cessive arcs. To overcome these difficulties and at the'same time
simplify calculations on trajectories, England and France and
later the United States adopted the method of numerical in-
tegration of the differential equations of motion of the projectile
as the standard method of solution. In all these countries the
best mathematical talent was brought to bear on the solution of
this problem, which in peace-time had received the attention only
of a limited number of officers and others connected with the
military and naval services and of a few civilians.
The outline of the method of numerical integration given
below is that first proposed by F. R. Moulton in the United
States, and developed to a high degree by the mathematicians
and others associated with him in the study of ballistic problems
during the World War. Other methods worked out in England
and France, while possessing the same advantages over the older
methods, are perhaps not so simple in their application.
Preliminary Assumptions. For purposes of small arc computa-
tions, the retardation of the projectile with normal air density at the
gun is represented by
C
where R is the retardation of the projectile,
v, the velocity in metres of the projectile in the direction of its
motion.
vG(v), a function of v, experimentally determined; the retardation
due to air resistance of a projectile of ballistic coefficient = i,
moving horizontally at the height of the muzzle of the gun in
air at a temperature of 15 C. and a pressure of 760 mm., 78 %
saturated with water.
H(y), a function of the altitude y (above the muzzle of the gun);
the ratio between the density of the air at that altitude and its
density at a zero altitude.
C, the ballistic coefficient.
Law of Air Resistance. The results obtained from any
mathematical analysis of the motion of a projectile depend for
their accuracy upon the care with which the law of air resistance
has been experimentally determined. (For a description of the
method and calculations by which Bashforth's ballistic tables,
including the law of air resistance, were determined, see 3.271,
272.) In later experiments the same essential methods were
followed with the use of more accurate instruments and with
projectiles more nearly of the modern form. Such are the Krupp
experiments (see 3.273), and the Gavre Commission experiments
made in 1888. Chief Engineer Garnier has smoothed out the
irregularities in the results of the Gavre Commission firings and
has thus obtained a law of air resistance which, while not differing
essentially in any region from the results of experiments, is of a
continuous character. This cannot be said of Zabudski's law
based upon various powers of the velocity.
The G Function. The retardation of the standard projectile due
to standard air resistance is put in the form v G(v) for convenience
in numerical integration. The function G(v) here represents the ratio
between the retardation and the velocity at each instant. G(v) as
smoothed out by Chief Engineer Garnier is tabulated with as
100
an argument, velocities and retardations being expressed in his tab-
ulated form in metres.
On the next page (p. 388), Table I. gives an abridged
table of the G Function (G is the retardation divided by the
velocity, for C = i and at surface air density), based on the French
vciui.iLy, iui *~ i cuiu cit Burittus aii uenbicy;, udbtu on me rrenc
tables, giving 10 log G with the argument ; v expressed i
, _ __ J
in
metres per second.
The B Function. The retardation function is sometimes written
2 B(i;), and then B() is the ratio between the retardation and the
square of the velocity. In those regions and under those conditions
where the'" square law " of resistance holds true, B(i>) is a constant.
Figure i shows Mayevski's and Zabudski's values for B(z>) or **
v
as compared with Garnier's smoothed-out Gavre Commission
values. The tremendous change in the law in the neighbourhood of
the velocity of sound is to be noted. More recent but uncompleted
experiments indicate that the disturbance in the vicinity of the
velocity of sound may be changed in amount and displaced in
position by changes in the form of the projectile.
Density Function. The air density function H(y) is intended to
represent the normal change in density of the air with height. The
value of the density function here assumed is,
(2) _ H(y) = lo-- 000045 "
where y is in metres. The coefficient of y is subject to seasonal
variations. (See Cours de Ballistique G. Sugot, 1918.)
The density function merely expresses the law of change of density
with altitude. It is quite possible to calculate trajectories in air that
do not follow this or any other continuous law, providing we know
the density at each height. It is necessary, however, in the calcula-
tion of ballistic tables to follow some definite law in order to make
the tables consistent throughout. Seasonal variations and other
variations from the assumed law are taken care of in differential
corrections as will be explained below.
The Ballistic Coefficient. The ballistic coefficient is represented
by the formula,
TV
d\ r -^s where
(3) <- = i d?
w is the weight of the projectile in pounds.
d, the diameter of the projectile in inches.
i, a factor called the coefficient of form which accounts for differ-
3 88
BALLISTICS
TABLE I.
f 2
if
v*
p 2
1)2
v>
%
v*
IOO
log. G.
IOO
log. G.
IOO
log. G.
foo ,
log. G.
IOO
log. G.
IOO
log.G.
IOO
log. G.
IOO
log. G.
8000
9-5043
9000
9-5225
o
400
8-4354
800
8-7151
1 200
9-0661
1600
9-2282
2OOO
9-2974
6000
9-4655
IOOOO
9-5399
10
7.7244
410
8-4415
810
8-7238
1210
9-0727
1610
9-2306
2100
9-3093
6100
9-4676
IIOOO
9-5568
20
7-8655
420
8-4474
820
8-7328
I22O
9-0791
1620
9-2329
22OO
9-3.199
6200
9-4696
I2OOO
9'573i
30
7-9462
430
8-4534
830
8-7416
1230
9-0852
1630
9-2351
2300
9-3295
6300
9-4716
13000
9-5888
40
8-0025
440
8-4594
840
8-7506
1240
9-0912
1640
9-2373
2400
9-3381
6400
9-4736
14000
9-6034
50
8-0453
450
8-4654
850
8-7597
1250
9-0972
1650
9-2395
2500
9-3459
6500
9-4756
15000
9-6172
60
8-0800
460
8-4716
860
8-7688
I26O
9-1028
1660
9-2417
26OO
9-3531
6600
9-4776
16000
9-6304
70
8-1089
470
8-4776
870
8-7781
I27O
9-1083
1670
9-2438
2700
9-3598
6700
9-4796
17000
9-6429
80
8-1336
480
8-4836
880
8-7873
1280
9-II37
1680
9-2459
2800
6800
9-4815
18000
9-6549
90
8-I552
490
8-4899
890
8-7967
I29O
9-1189
1690
9-2479
29OO
9-37I5
6900
9-4835
19000
9-6662
IOO
8-1745
500
8-4959
900
8-8061
1300
9-1240
1700
9-2499
3000
9-3769
7000
9-4854
2OOOO
9-6769
no
8-1917
510
8-5021
910
8-8155
1310
9-1289
1710
9-2519
3100
9-3819
7100
9-4874
2IOOO
9-6873
I2O
8-2074
520
8-5084
920
8-8251
1320
9-1337
1720
9-2539
3200
9-3865
7200
9.4893
22OOO
9-6973
130
8-2217
530
8-5I47
930
8-8346
1330
9-1384
1730
9-2558
3300
9-3910
7300
9-4912
23OOO
9-7068
140
8-2349
540
8-5211
940
8-8442
1340
9-1430
1740
9-2576
3400
9-3951
7400
9-4931
24000
9-7159
150
8-2471
550
8-5275
950
8-8538
1350
9-1474
1750
9-2595
3500
9-3991
7500
9-4950
25OOO
9-7246
1 60
8-2586
560
8-5340
960
8-8633
1360
9-I5I7
1760
9-2613
3000
9-4029
7600
9-4969
26OOO
9-7331
170
8-2693
570
8-5405
970
8-8728
1370
9-1559
1770
9-1631
3700
9-4065
7700
9-4988
2-OOO
9-7412
1 80
8-2794
580
8-5472
980
8-8823
1380
9-1599
1780
9-2648
3800
9-4100
7800
9-5006
28OOO
9-7490
190
8-2891
590
8-5539
990
8-8919
1390
9-1639
1790
9-2665
3900
9-4I33
7900
9-5025
29OOO
9-7566
200
8-2982
600
8-5607
IOOO
8-9014
I4OO
9-1678
1800
9-2682
4OOO
9-4165
8000
9-5043
3OOOO
9-7639
2IO
8-3070
610
8-5676
IOIO
8-9107
1410
9-I7I5
1810
9-2699
4IOO
9-4196
31000
9-7710
22O
8-3I54
620
8-5745
IO2O
8-9200
I42O
9-I752
1820
9-2715
42OO
9-4226
32OOO
9-7779
230
8-3234
630
8-5816
1030
8-9293
H30
9-1788
1830
9-2731
4300
9-4254
240
8-3312
640
8-5887
1040
8-9385
1440
9-1822
1840
9-2747
44OO
9-4282
250
8-3388
650
8-5959
1050
8-9476
1450
9-I857
1850
9-2763
4500
9-4309
260
8-3461
660
8-6031
IO6O
8-9566
1460
9-1890
1860
9-2779
46OO
9-4335
27O
8-3531
670
8-6105
1070
8-9654
1470
9-1922
1870
9-2794
4700
9-4360
280
8-3601
680
8-6180
IO8O
8-9741
1480
9-1953
1880
9-2809
4800
9-4385
20X)
8-3668
690
8-6255
IOOX)
8-9826
1490
9-1984
1890
9-2824
4900
9-4410
300
8-3735
700
8-6332
IIOO
8-9910
1500
9-2014
1900
9-2838
5000
9-4434
310
8-3800
710
8-6409
IIIO
8-9994
1510
9-2044
1910
9-2853
5100
9-4458
320
8-3864
720
8-6488
II2O
9-0075
1520
9-2072
1920
9-2867
5200
9-4481
33
8-3928
730
8-6568
1130
9-oi53
1530
9-2100
1930
9-2881
5300
9-4504
34
8-3989
74
8-6648
II4O
9-0232
1540
9-2128
1940
9-2895
5400
9-4526
350
8-4051
750
8-6729
1150
9-0308
1550
9-2155
1950
9-2909
5500
9-4548
360
8-4113
760
8-681 i
II60
9-0382
1560
9-2182
1960
9-2922
5600
9-4570
370
8-4174
770
8-6895
1170
9-0454
1570
9-2207
1970
9-2935
5700
9-4592
380
8-4234
780
8-6960
1180
9-0524
1580
9-2232
1980
9-2948
5800
9-4613
390
8-4294
790
8-7065
1190
9-0594
1590
9-2257
1990
9-2961
5900
9-4634
400
8-4354
800
8-7151
1 200
9-0661
I6OO
9-2282
2OOO
9-2974
60OO
ences in air resistance between projectiles now used and those
with which the air resistance law was determined. Its value. I
for the projectiles of the form used in determining the air-
resistance law, is as low as 0-47 for modern sharp-pointed, boat-
tailed projectiles. Its value can be accurately determined for
any projectile by working backward from the results of firing.
Such determinations show that the value may and usually does
vary for the same projectile if fired at different ranges.
The Differential Equations of Motion of the. Projectile. Neglecting
the convergence of the action lines of gravity due to the spheroidal
form of the earth and also the slight diminution in the intensity of
the force of gravity due to the height which modern projectiles
reach, we may write the differential equations of motion of the
projectile considered as a material point, as follows:
(4) g'= -Rcos0 = *"
FIG. 2.
where, (see fig. 2), x is the abscissa of any point of the trajectory,
positive to the right,
x', the horizontal component of the velocity at that point,
x", the horizontal component of the acceleration,
y, the ordinate corresponding to x, positive up,
y', the vertical component of the velocity at that point,
y", the vertical component of the acceleration,
6, the angle that the tangent to the trajectory makes with the
horizontal.
Since v is the velocity of the projectile in the direction of its motion,
tf\ /- a x '
(6) Cos 9--.
(7) Sin 0=?'
and if we assume
(8) E = as the ratio between retardation and velocity, we
may write (4) and (5) as follows:
(9) x"=-Ex'
(10) y" = E y' g.
In this form the equations are used in the construction of trajec-
tories by the method of numerical integration.
By reference to (i) we see that,
In this equation, G is a function of the velocity alone, as given in
Table I. H is a function of the altitude alone as given by equation
(2). C is a function of the weight and form of the projectile as given
in equation (3). As in the older ballistic methods, C implicitly
includes unknown variations from standard conditions in such
quantities as density of the air, moisture in the air, temperature of
the air, yaw of the projectile, i.e. angle between the longer axis
of the projectile and the tangent to the trajectory. ,
BALLISTICS
389
However, for the purpose of- the construction of ballistic tables,
as distinguished from range tables, atmospheric conditions are
assumed normal and trajectories are constructed with known values
of C. In the construction of range tables by the use of ballistic tables
or by direct calculation, changes in air density at the gun are
accounted for by a factor A representing the density placed in the
denominator of the expression for C, equation (3). and changes in
form of head, yaw, etc., by the factor i, in that expression. As used
here the term " yaw " means the divergence of the axis of the pro-
jectile from the tangent to the trajectory, both on account of initial
instability and of curvature of the trajectory away from the direction
of the axis at a later period.
Example of Numerical Integration. To illustrate the manner in
which equations (9) and (io) may be integrated numerically, we
shall assume an example as follows:
Example I. A 155 mm. gun fires a projectile having a ballistic
coefficient of 3-6, with an initial velocity of 2,400 ft. per second, at an
angle of elevation of 30 degrees. To determine the elements of the
trajectory, assuming normal atmospheric conditions:
The values of G and H are given in metres-per-second velocity and
metres height respectively, so that all velocities and distances must
be reduced to metres.
Initial Conditions. At the gun we have
v =2,400 ft. per second = 731-5 metres per second
0^ = 0=30
?' = 73 i "5 sin 30" = 365-8
y =o.
Since is 5351, the value of log. G(v) from the G table is 9-4515.
Since y is o, H(y) = I.
Placing logarithms in brackets, we then have
p (9-45 ' 5~ I0 )
a*~
and
i? ,_ (9-4515-
3-6
E/= (9-45i5-io)X36 5 -8 =28 , 74
and
Ey' +2 = 28-74+9-81 =38-55 = -y".
At the start, then, the horizontal velocity of the projectile is
decreasing at the rate of 49-78 metres per second and the vertical
component of the velocity is decreasing at the rate of 38-55 metres
per second.
First Interval First Approximation. If we take a small interval
of time, we do not make any great error in assuming that the retarda-
tions during the interval can be based upon the velocity and altitude
at the beginning of the interval. Taking a J-second interval', the
change in components of velocity is 12-4 and 9-6 metres respectively,
making the velocities at the end of the first interval,
y' = 365-8- 9-6 = 356-2.
These velocities are lower than those that actually exist at the end of
the interval, since the retardations are based on the components of
the velocity at the beginning of the interval, and are consequently
higher than the true average values during the interval. Using the
velocity figures just obtained, we find the following values corre-
sponding to the end of the first interval,
)' + ( 35 6-2)'.
~
100 100
._365-8 +356-2
2X4
G() =(9-4464-10)
" ) = (9-9959-J
5120
,._
: go-2 metres
Ex'
(9-4464-10) (9-9959-10) X62i-r
3-6
(from equation (2).)
= 47-78
F , _(9-4464-io) (9-9959 -io)X356-2
~T^
27-39
Ey'-f 2 = 27-39 +9-81 =37-20.
_ Second Approximation. The values of the components of retarda-
tion at the beginning of the interval are based on the velocity at the
beginning of the interval and are, therefore, higher than the average
values during the interval. The values just obtained for the com-
ponents of the retardation at the end of the interval are based on a
velocity lower than the true one at the end of the interval and are,
therefore, lower than the average retardation during the interval.
Means between these two sets of retardation components are nearer
the average values during the interval than either set. The retarda-
tions for the J-second interval based on the mean values are,
49-78+47-78
2X4
38-55+37-20
2X4
12-2 = X"
: 9-5 = -y"
making the velocities at the end of the first interval,
y' = 356-3, and the altitude,
y =i
2X4
If we now take these values and recompute E x', E y'+g we find the
values 47-80 and 37-21 respectively. In the average components of
retardation during the interval, no essential change will be found,
showing that by a second approximation we have reached a result
sufficiently accurate.
Second Interval. -Beginning with the components of the velocity
and the altitude of the projectile at the end of the first interval we
may now proceed in like manner to determine the components of
the retardation during the second J-second interval. However, we
may shorten the work as we now know not only the values of the
retardation components at the beginning of the second interval but
also the amounts by which they have changed in the preceding
J-second. If the same rate of change continues during the second
interval we will have for the end of that interval,
Ex' =47-78 -(49-78 -47-80) =45-82 = -*"
Ey'-g=37-2i -(38-55 -37-21) =35-87 =-y".
I he corresponding velocities obtained by using the average retarda-
tions during the interval as before are:
x' = 609-6, and y' = 347-2.
The altitude at the end of the second interval is
y = 90 . 3 + 356-3+347-2 =
2X4
Using the last values and again computing retardation components
we have
Ex' =45-94
E y+g = 35-98-
Velocities and altitude computed from these do not differ from the
values obtained in the first approximation, showing that a second
approximation is unnecessary in this case.
Continuation of the Process. Using exactly the same methods, it is
possible to determine numerically, step by step, the values of y, x',
y', x", and y". We might also determine x at each step, but it is' not
needed in making the step-by-step calculations and is usually more
conveniently determined by a summation of x' after all the other
values have been determined.
Length of Interval. In the above example it was assumed that the
change in x, y, x' or y' could be found by using the mean of the
values of x', y', x" or y" at the beginning and end of the interval.
To do this without making too large an error we must use a small
interval or take account of second differences. The choice of length
of interval will depend upon the ballistic coefficient, muzzle velocity
and curvature of the trajectory at the point considered. If these, in
combination, or separately, are such as to cause rapid changes in the
components of the velocity or acceleration, a relatively short interval
should be taken, as J-second in the examples above. Otherwise, the
interval may be increased to J-second or longer, and when second
differences are used, as will be explained below, to two or more
seconds.
High velocities or low ballistic coefficients usually require smaller
intervals than low velocities or high ballistic coefficients. It will in
general be desirable to take a shorter interval at the very beginning
of the trajectory than at a later period. In changing to longer
intervals it is most convenient, in the computations, to take twice
the interval just used. As the velocities increase in the descending
branch of the trajectory it may be desirable in some cases to use
shorter intervals again. If so, half the length of interval just used
should be assumed.
Second Differences. The length of interval may be increased and
the amount of computation materially reduced if second differences
are taken into account in computing all of the functions of A as y.
x', y', x" and y".
The following table shows the results of further computations on
the example discussed above and gives first and second differences of
y' for intervals of one second.
t
y
y'
jst'Diff.
2nd Diff.
o
I
2
o
347-5
661-2
365-8
329-8
298-1
36-0
31-7
4-3
3-5
3
269-9
In determining the value of Ay from the average vertical velocity
for the interval between i = 2 and 2 = 3, we obtain, if we neglect second
differences,
= 284.
The following figure showing y' plotted on an exaggerated scale, as a
function of /. illustrates the error obtained if only first differences are
used. The area of the figure between t = 2 and t=3 is the value of
Ay determined by using first differences only, these two as well as
other consecutive points on the y' line being connected by a right
line.
390
BALLISTICS
It is evident that the area of the figure between any two ordinates
is greater than if the known y' points were connected by a smooth
continuous curve.
FIG. 3.
It has been shown mathematically that when the points to, ti, ti,
etc.. are equally spaced the quantity in brackets in the value of Ay
above should be reduced by 1/12 of the second difference, making it,
= = (269-9+28-2Xi-3-5Xi/i2)Xi :
'283-7
or more generally, since the same process is used in successively
evaluating the other functions x', y', etc., we may write,
where f(t n } = z n ,/2(X.-i) = z n -i etc.
n represents the order of the interval, or of the tabulated values
of z, a and b.
h, the uniform length of the interval
a, first differences of z
b, second differences of z.
The quantities may be arranged in tabulated form as follows:
h ................ zi ................
TABLE II. Continued
t
x
x'
Ex'
y
y'
Ey'+g
8
2842-57
284-42
10-04
2575-01
220-36
I7-58
9
3122-32
275-42
8-04-
2786-90
203-73
15-75
10
3394-00
268-22
6-41
2983-00
188-73
14-31
ii
262-46
5-20
3I64-77
174-98
13-26
12
3919-26
257-73
4-32
3333-25
162-12
12-52
13
4I74-94
253-74
3489-19
149-88
11-98
H
4426-91
250-30
3-22
3633-16
138-11
11-58
15
4675-66
247-26
2-87
3765-54
126-69
11-27
16
4921-54
244-53
2-59
3886-64
"5-54
11-03
17
5164-84
242-05
2-38
3996-71
104-61
10-83
18
5405-70
239-75
2-21
4095-94
93-87
10-66
19
5644-37
237-62
2-06
4184-51
83-28
10-52
20
5880-96
235-59
95
4262-52
72-82
10-40
21
6II5-59
-85
4330-16
62-47
10-30
22
6348-37
23I-88
77
4387-50
52-22
10-20
23
6579-38
230-I5
70
4434-64
42-07
IO-II
24
6808-69
228-47
65
447I-67
32-00
10-03
25
7036-34
226-85
60
4498-67
22-01
9-95
26
7262-40
225-27
56
4I55-72
I2-IO
9-88
27
7486-90
223-73
-53
4522-89
2-25
9-82
28
7709-87
222-21
51
4520-24
-7-55
9-75
29
7931-33
22O-72
49
4507-83
17-26
9-68
30
8151-31
2I9-24
-48
4485-74
26-91
9-62
32
8586-89
216-33
44
4412-64
-46-03
9-49
34
9016-63
2I3-40
49
4301-69
-64-87
9-35
36
9440-42
2IO-38
52
4I53-35
-83-42
9-20
38
9858-11
207-29
57
3968-23
-101-65
9-03
40
10269-50
204-07
65
3747-00
-119-52
8-83
42
10674-27
200-66
75
3490-45
-136-96
8-61
44
IIO22-OI
197-04
87
3I99-50
-I53-92
8-34
46
II462-25
I93-I5
2-OI
2875-18
-170-30
8-03
48
11844-4!
188-95
2-19
2518-77
-185-99
50
I22I7-80
184-36
2-40
2131-80
200-83
7-19
52
I258I-57
179-34
2-62
1716-11
-214-69
6-66
54
I2934-85
173-85
2-8 7
1273-82
-227-41
6-05
56
13276-66
167-87
3-n
807-33
-238-85
5-38
58
13605-98
161-43
3'33
3I9-3I
-248-90
4-66
59
I3765-72
158-05
3-44
68-14
-253-37
4-28
59.269
I3808-IO
157-12
3-47
-254-49
4-18
The application of the formula will give the successive increments
to be applied in evaluating I z dl.
The use of second differences in this manner permits the use of
longer intervals except at the beginning when no second differences
are available. In this case a shorter interval is used and a sufficient
number of trials are made or a second difference is estimated by
approximate methods.
The integral having been obtained by the methods described, up
to any interval, Simpson's rule or other similar method may be used
to check the values obtained.
Complete Solution of a Trajectory. The results of the complete
solution of the following example are given in Table II. below:
Example II. A 75 mm. gun is fired at an angle of departure of
45, using a projectile of 15 Ib. weight with a form factor, 1=0-6.
The muzzle velocity is 2,175 ft. per second. Determine the coordi-
nates-of the trajectory and the horizontal and vertical components of
the velocity and acceleration.
TABLE II.
It is to be noted that J-second intervals are used from o to I
second, half-seconds from I to 5 seconds, full seconds from 5 to 30
seconds and two seconds from 30 to 58 seconds. As this was so nearly
the end of the trajectory, judging from the value of y, a single second
interval was next taken to 59 seconds. The exact values of the other
element* corresponding to y = o, or the end of the range, are obtained
by interpolation. For this purpose it may be desirable to work out
the values for an additional short interval.
For the terminal velocity we have,
For the angle of fall,
dy dy dt V
tan u = ~-=~- -j- = .-
dx dt dx x
The results for the end of the range and maximum ordinate are:
Range = l38o8-l m = i5ioo-7yd.
Terminal Velocity 299-1 m/s = 327.1 yd /s = 98 1-3 f/s
u = tan" 1 1-61972=58 18' 55"
Max. Ord. =4523-15 m. =4946-6 yd.
Range to Max. Ord. =7538-2 m. =8243-9 yd.
Ballistic Tables. Using the method of numerical integration
described, we may construct a series of trajectories with the values
of the muzzle velocity, ballistic coefficient and angle of elevation so
chosen and spaced as to cover the field of guns and ammunition in
actual use. By proper arrangement of the principal elements of the
trajectories thus determined, it is possible to form tables in con-
t
* = 45
x
C=2
x'
867 M
Ex'
V.=2i 75
y
f/s =662.94
y'
m/s
Ey'+g
vement form for use, from which by interpolation we may obtain
the important elements of the trajectories corresponding to any given
gun. Such tables have been constructed in France and America.
o
468-77
43-81
o
468-77
53-6i
The American tables, constructed under the supervision of A. A.
}
115-85
458-08
41-70
"5-54
455-66
51-28
Bennett, consist of two main tables. The first table is a direct tabu-
I
229-09
447-91
39-72
227-88
443-12
49-09
lation of the results of numerical integration of trajectories. For
f
339-85
438-21
37-88
337-15
431-10
47-06
this purpose it has been found most convenient and economical of
i
448-23
428-96
36-14
443-47
419-58
45-15
labour to assume a ballistic coefficient and velocity at the summit
and construct the trajectory forward and backward from that point.
'i
658-33
411-70
32-97
647-76
397-90
41-66
The arguments in this table are the ballistic coefficient, the velocity
2
860-18
395-94
30-13
841-63
377-87
38-55
at the summit and the ordinate from the summit. The table gives
2 1
1054-50
381-52
1025-87
359-30
35-78
the corresponding values of x, x', y' and t from summit forward and
3,
1241-91
368-32
25-27
1201-16
342-04
33-27
backward.
3*
1423-00
356-22
23-18
1368-12
31-01
The second table is arranged with C, <j> and V as arguments and
4
1598-29
345-n
21-25
1527-32
310-99
28-95
gives X, T, Y and the velocity at the summit.
4*
1768-26
334-93
19-49
1679-28
296-99
27-08
Assumptions Made in Construction of Ballistic Tables. In com-
5
I933-36
325-60
17-86
1824-46
283-88
25-37
puting trajectories for use in the construction of these tables, the
following assumptions were made :
6
2250-54
309-23
14-94
2096-18
260-06
22-36
I. The earth is motionless.
7
2552-75
295-61
12-36
2345-5I
239-02
19-79
2. There is no wind.
BALLISTICS
39i
3. The atmospheric density varies with the altitude, according to
the H function given by equation (2) and is standard at the muzzle.
4. The action of gravity is uniform in intensity, is directed toward
the earth's centre and is independent of the geographical position of
the gun. Its value = 9-80 metres per second.
5. The G function is a function of the velocity alone and has the
values given in Table I.
6. The ballistic coefficient C is constant and known.
Differential Variations. Range tables for artillery must give the
data required to lay the gun to strike a target at any desired range,
not only for certain conditions fixed as standard for that gun, but
also for conditions varying considerably from the standard. The
variation may be in the initial conditions as in muzzle velocity,
ballistic coefficient, or angle of departure. The initial variations in
the ballistic coefficient may be due to variations in the density of the
air at the gun, variations in the weight of the projectile or variations
in the coefficient of form. Again, the variations may be in subsequent
conditions, as in the existence of a range or cross wind, in H(y) or
the air density curve for the day, in the rotation and curvature of
the earth. The latter is introduced as a variation since it is not
considered in the calculation of basic trajectories for the construction
of ballistic tables, but its effects are material at long ranges.
Ballistic tables having been constructed we may obtain by
mere interpolation the important variations such as that in range
caused by variations in the initial conditions. Such variations may
then be tabulated in convenient form in the range table.
For variations due to abnormal subsequent conditions, it is neces-
sary to make special calculations, whether these are to be incor-
porated in the ballistic tables, or merely in the range tables. It
would be quite possible to calculate a sufficient number of trajectories
under assumed abnormal subsequent conditions to enable one to
tabulate in ballistic and range tables the variations due to changes
in these conditions, but this procedure would require a tremendous
amount of work.
Furthermore, a variation in, say the range, due to variations in
conditions is the difference between the range under the normal con-
ditions and the range under the abnormal conditions. If we deter-
mine the variations by determining each range separately and taking
the difference we are introducing the errors in two large quantities
into a small quantity. The percentage error in the latter will, there-
fore, be large.
In view of these considerations, it has been found desirable to
consider variations in the elements of the trajectory due to variations
from the normal conditions as functions of the variations from the
normal conditions and to solve the differential equations of the
variations, using the same principles of numerical integration as are
used in the solution of the differential equations of the trajectory.
Equations of the Variations. Taking x and y as the coordinates at
the time t of the original trajectory of which the differential equations
are (9) and (10), let us assume that the coordinates of the modified
trajectory corresponding to the same time are #+ and y+1,
and ri representing the variations, due to some cause other than
wind, in the conditions under which the original trajectory was
constructed.
Variations due to wind affect the relative velocity between the
projectile and the air and, therefore, the value of E, independently
of the variations in x' and y' and will be considered in a later section.
Under this assumption the coordinates of the modified trajectory
should satisfy the equations:
(13) *"+{"- -(E+AE) (*'+')
(14) y"+V'=-(E+AE) (/+,') -g.
If we combine these with equations (9) and (ip), and neglect all
terms consisting of products of the small quantities , i\ and their
derivatives, and AE, we obtain upon solution for " and ij"
(15) "=-E'-*'AE
(16) V' = -Ei?'-y'AE.
On substitution of the value of E obtained from equation (9), trans-
position and division by x',
(17)
(18)
-AE
x'n"-x"r,'__y'
7 AE.
x'- 1 x'
Since the first members are the derivatives of '/*' and
respectively, we may express the integrals as follows:
or,
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
17 17
X 1 Xo'
:dt
, *v' , n y'
ij' = -. -- x ^-,
X .1 o X
j,
dt.
Here o' and 170' represent the amounts by which the initial com-
ponents of velocity differ from x a ' and y<>' respectively.
This set of equations like (9) and (10) may be integrated by the
method of numerical integration, but we must first obtain an explicit
relation between AE and ', i\' and t\.
C J-T
Effect of the Variations on E. Since by equation (u) E = -~- we
may write approximately,
/ % AE
(23)
AG
' G
Again
and
A/- <* G
AG= -T
dv
dy
f H
h H
AG =
G
AH_
H =
we may write the equation,
(24) -g- = ^
Now, (25)
Au=AVa
and Ay = 17.
Consequently we may write,
(26 ) AE^C-i^&G
AC
"C"
d logeG
dv
d logol
~~d7
Az;
'A a. d Io R- H A AC
-AH J Ay .
dy C
yV
V2
+E
AC
dv dy ) ' "~C~
The first term of the second member of this equation gives the
part of AE due to variations in the components of the velocity and
of the height. The last term gives the part due to variations in the
ballistic coefficient including variations in the air density. Equa-
tion (26) is based on the assumed law of retardation as given by
Table I. and the assumed law of air density as given in Equation (2).
There is no trouble, however, in making differential corrections for
variations from these assumed laws.
The term
d logeG
dv
i dG . , ,
f.r- ls found
vG dv
from the G function
Table I. and tabulated with as an argument in Table III. below.
100
If we assume for H the exponential formula given by equation (2)
d logcH
= -0001036 a constant.
we have
TABLE III.
, , , r i dG
Values of -^r-
vG dv
For use in making differential corrections.
Argument t^/ioo (v in metres). The expressions -05423,
etc. mean -000423, -00000378, etc.
oo
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
i, 800
2,000
2,200
2,400
2,600
2,800
3,000
3,200
3,400
3,600
3,800
4,000
4,200
4,400
4,600
4,800
5,000
5,200
5,400
5,600
5,8oo
6,000
6,200
6,400
6,600
6,800
7,000
-7T
vG dv
-0,412
-04276
-04314
-04400
-04434
-04305
-04175
-04110
-Os774
-05585
-05462
-05378
-05317
-05271
-05237
-05209
-O 6 i88
-05171
-05157
-05145
-05136
-O 6 I28
-O 6 i2i
-05114
-05108
-05104
-05102
-0.996
-06975
-05955
-05937
-05921
7,200
7,400
7,600
7,800
8 >o
8,200
8,400
8,600
8,800
9,000
9,200
9,400
9,6oo
9,800
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
20,000
22,000
24,000
26,000
28,000
30,000
32,000
05378,
j__dG
vG dv
05875
05865
05855
05845
06836
05827
05818
05810
05802
06794
05785
06779
0,771
0.764
0.757
0,693
0.637
0,586
' Oa5 ^
06488
0,446
05411
05380
06354
06332
05311
-05897
-05886
392
BALLISTICS
Integration of the Differential Equations of the Variations. By
using equation (21) with (22) and (26) we make a step-by-step
numerical integration for any assumed variation. The system re-
quires a separate integration corresponding to each assumed varia-
tion of conditions in each trajectory.' It is always assumed that the
original trajectory has been constructed and that we know its ele-
ments. The integration may proceed forward or backward from
any point, as at the muzzle or the end of the trajectory, where we
know or may estimate the values of disturbing variations and the
effects produced by them.
Bliss's Method. As may be inferred, the method for computing
differential corrections, just described, involves a large amount of
work. A method discovered by Professor G. A. Bliss and improved
by Dr. T. H. Gronwall, in which use is made of a system of linear
differential equations adjoint to the linear differential equations of
the variations, as given by equations (13) and (14), reduces the work
required to the extent that after the original trajectory has been
computed, one numerical integration of the system will suffice for
the computation of the corrections for all the variations. The
method is, therefore, invaluable when a large number of differential
variations are to be worked out.
Tabulated Differential Corrections in Ballistic Tables. Certain
differential corrections are conveniently tabulated, in separate
columns of ballistic or range tables as follows:
(a) Range and deflection corrections for the rotation of the earth
as functions of the geographical latitude of the gun, azimuth
of the plane of fire, and the three standard parameters of the
trajectory, muzzle velocity, angle of departure and ballistic
coefficient.
(6) Corrections in range for variations in assumed air density
throughout layers at convenient altitude intervals.
(c) Corrections in range for a component of wind in the plane of
fire, throughout layers at convenient altitude intervals.
(d) Corrections in deflection for a component of wind at right
angles to the plane of fire throughout layers at convenient
altitude intervals.
In addition, corrections for variations in initial components of
muzzle velocity, and variations in ballistic coefficient, may be
obtained by interpolation in the main columns of the tables. A
variation in air density at the gun may be corrected for in this way
by determining its effect on the ballistic coefficient and making the
corresponding interpolation in the table. This assumes that any
change in air density at the gun is accompanied by a corresponding
change aloft according to the law given by the H function. Of the
first list of variations referred to, more will be said below.
Effect of Wind. Any wind acting on the projectile in flight may
be resolved into two components: one along and the other per-
pendicular to the plane of fire. It is convenient to dp this in con-
sidering the effects of winds, and we thus have range winds and cross
winds.
Uniform Range Wind. Corrections due to rear or head winds may
be handled by equations (21) and (22) and (26). In using these
equations we must merely remember to increase or decrease the
velocity with respect to the ground by the wind velocity when it is
desired to get from the Tables, I. or III., the corresponding functions.
Aside from this, a correction due to wind may be handled in the
same manner as a correction due to variations in any of the initial
conditions, air density, etc.
Variable Wind. The direction and velocity of the wind will
seldom be uniform throughout the trajectory. The velocity of the
wind and also its direction near the surface of the earth is frequently
influenced by local causes, such as the presence of hills, trees, houses,
etc., to such an extent as to give no indication of the true average
values during the flight of the projectile. Under normal conditions
the wind may change both in direction and velocity as we go up-
ward. Cases in which there is complete reversal of the wind well
within the maximum ordinate of the trajectory are not unusual. The
change in direction may also be accompanied by a change in velocity.
In the preparation of range tables it is necessary to correct in some
way for the effect of this sort of wind. The method usually followed
is to divide the air above the earth's surface into zones of height, say
250 metres. By observation, the direction and velocity of the wind
in each zone are determined.
For any assumed trajectory let AR be the range correction of a
uniform range wind of I metre per second, acting throughout. Now,
dividing the trajectory into zones of height (as shown in fig. 4) let
ARi be the total range effect produced by a wind of I metre per
second blowing in the first zone and no wind in the other zones. The
ARi correction can be computed by numerical integration of
equations (21) and (22) to the limits of the zone, using the I metre
wind. With the corrections found for that point, the integration is
continued in still air until the projectile again enters the first zone.
With these last corrections and the wind again acting, the integra-
tion is continued and the final correction AR, determined.
In the same manner the correction AR 2 for a wind of I metre oer
second, acting in the second zone, and no wind in the other zones, is
determined. We then have
(27) AR = AR, + AR 2 + +AR n
If ui, us, ua, etc., represent the wind velocities in the various zones,
and AR represents the total range effect due to them, we may put
approximately
(28) AR = u,AR,+w 2 AR 2 +
+ ......... fn Un) AR
istic wind. It is the wind which, if
FIG. 4.
In this equation some of the winds may be rear and others head, so
the terms should be taken with their proper signs.
Weighting Factors and Ballistic Wind. If we place
I \ t ARl t AR2 *
(2 9) /' = AR? /2= AR- etC -
the ratios fi,/a, etc., are called weighting factors since they show the
fractional part of the total wind effect that is produced in each zone.
Using these factors we may write
(30) R = (.fi i+/2 2
The factor in brackets is the ballistic
blowing uniformly throughout the trajectory, would produce the
same range effect that is produced by the variable winds actually
blowing.
In the preceding discussion we have considered only rear or head,
that is range, winds.
Cross Wind. In the discussion of the trajectories so far given, no
account has been taken of forces which tend to move the projectile
from the plane of fire. Aside from drift, the principal cause of deflec-
tion from the plane of fire is the existence of a cross wind component.
While the deflection due to drift is constant for any one trajectory
for a given gun and projectile and is determined once for all by
experiment, that due to cross wind varies with the velocity of the
wind aS well as with the elevation and azimuth of the gun. If we
let z represent the distance in metres the projectile is blown from the
plane of fire at any instant by a cross wind TV, distances and winds to
the right being taken as positive, we will have z', the velocity from the
plane of fire, and z", the acceleration produced by the component of
air resistance normal to the plane of fire. The velocity of the pro-
jectile with respect to the air will be z' w.
Now it will be sufficiently exact to consider the motion per-
pendicular to the plane of fire in the same manner in which we
considered the horizontal motion in the plane of fire in equation (9).,
remembering that the velocity with respect to the air is z' w. We
may then write,
(31) z"=-E(z'-w).
Combining this equation with the relation x" = -E x' from (9)
we obtain after reduction and division by x' 2 ,
(32)
Upon integration from o to t this becomes,
z' _ w^_ w_
(33) 2 - F *'
or
(34) ''
Integrating again we obtain,
(35) *=
which makes the total deflection at the end of the trajectory,
(36)
-7 T W V
z _ wT ___x.
In this expression w T is the total motion of the air with respect
to the ground in the time of flight T. The deflection of the projectile
is less than the motion of the air by the amount ,pX, which is the
deflection at the total range X that would be caused by a change of
w
azimuth by the angle whose tangent is ,.
Cross wind weighting factprs and the ballistic cross wind are
determined in the manner described for range winds.
Effect of Curvature of the Earth. While in the example of the
numerical integration of a trajectory given above, and also in the
construction of ballistic tables, the effect of curvature of the earth is
not taken into account, it would be quite possible, still retaining
BALLISTICS
393
the system of rectangular coordinates with the x axis horizontal and
the y axis vertical at the gun, to take account of the effect of curva-
ture, both as it affects the direction lines of gravity and the height
of site. Corrections due to curvature become important only at long
ranges and then the most important is that due to height of site or
the curvature of the earth away from the x axis. The correction
angle at the gun due to curvature is one-half the angle at the centre
of the earth subtended by the range.
Correction for Rotation o/ the Earth. If a projectile is fired due
east or west at the equator, it has, at the muzzle of the gun, not only
the initial velocity with respect to the earth but also the velocity of
the earth at that point. If the motion of the earth were one of
translation alone, this fact would have no effect on the trajectory:
but since the earth rotates around its axis and the rising projectile
gets further and further away from this axis, an effect is produced
upon the trajectory. This may be made more plainly evident if we
assume the projectile to be fired vertically at the equator. With a
motionless earth or one moving in right lines the projectile would
fall back to the point from which it was fired. With a rotating earth
the projectile has, at the muzzle, the vertical velocity given it by the
gun, as well as the horizontal velocity of the earth's surface; as it
rises it retains the latter velocity at all heights which it reaches. If
we now consider points on that radius of the earth which passes
through but above the muzzle of the gun we readily see that they
have horizontal velocities due to the rotation of the earth in excess
of those of the projectile at corresponding heights. It is evident,
therefore, that the projectile will lag behind this radius and will fall
to the earth west of the gun. A similar range correction will exist if
the gun is fired east or west at the equator at any angle of elevation.
The value of the correction is proportional to the angular velocity of
the earth and the diameter of the equatorial section and depends
besides upon the elements of the particular trajectory.
If the gun is fired along a parallel of latitude we have a somewhat
similar condition, differing principally in that the velocity of the
earth's surface is now less in the proportion cos /, where / is the
latitude. Now if the gun at the equator were fired along a meridian,
the correction just referred to would no longer exist as a range
correction but would become a deflection correction. For a gun fired
at any point of the earth it may be shown mathematically that the
corrections due to the causes above may be represented by functions
of the form
For range, A cos / sin a
For deflection, D cos I cos a
where / is the latitude, a is the azimuth of the plane of fire measured
from the south through the west, and A and D are functions whose
values depend upon the trajectories.
The above corrections for both range and deflection arise from the
lag of the projectile behind the surface of the earth due to its greater
distance from the centre of the earth. Another consideration which
gives rise to an additional deflection is the change in the velocity of
the earth's surface with latitude. A projectile fired from the pole will
be displaced by an angular amount depending upon the time of
flight and hence by a lateral amount approximately proportional to
the product of the time of flight and the range. For a latitude / the
deflection due to this cause is equal to that at the pole multiplied by
sin / and may be represented by
B sin I.
A rough value of B is J2XT, where JJ is the angular velocity of the
earth. The total displacements due to rotation of the earth are,
therefore, given by the following equations:
(37) Range displacement, AX= A cos / sin a
(38) Lateral displacement, AZ = B sin / + D cos I cos a,
where A, B, and D are computed by integration from the data
of each trajectory. It is in this way that range and deflection cor-
rections for the rotation of the earth are worked for incorporation in
ballistic tables. If air resistance is neglected the values of A, B, and
D may be worked out without integration and are:
(40) A flXT (cot u \ tan <#>)
(41) B-fiXT
(42) D - J QXT tan 0.
Since A changes sign at cot co cot <t> (in vacuum) or at <j>~ 60",
it follows that for this angle of departure in vacuum there is no
range correction for rotation at any latitude or azimuth.
However, the resistance of the air markedly affects both range and
deflection corrections due to the earth's rotation, and the approxi-
mate equations (40) to (42) applicable to trajectories in vacuum are
not adequate for these corrections with long trajectories.
Variations from Standard Air Density. In case the observed air
density does not follow closely enough the assumed law of equation
(2) we may divide the air into zones of height, as for variable wind,
and determine air density weighting factors and a ballistic air
density. The range correction for a variation in air density
of, say, 10% from the normal is first worked out, it being assumed
that the law of air density given by equation (2) holds through-
out the trajectory. The partial corrections due to the same per-
centage variation in each zone are then worked out. The ratios
of these partial corrections to the total correction are the weighting
factors. When the weighting factors are multiplied by the observed
densities in corresponding zones, corrected to their value at the
Temperature
ground following the normal law, and the sum of the products for all
the zones is taken, we have the ballistic air density.
Effects of Temperature Variations. The temperature of the air
affects both its density and its elasticity. In so far as it affects
density, corrections in ballistic results, due to changes in temperature,
are accounted for by the density correction, and when once the
density is known no further reference need be made to temperature.
The effect of temperature on the elasticity of the air is in addition to
and almost independent of its effect on density. Elasticity of the
air may be measured by the velocity of sound therein. This is
known to increase as the square root of the absolute temperature
and is only slightly affected by density.
In fig. I of the B curve above, note was made of the disturbance
in the neighbourhood of the velocity of sound. If the velocity of
sound is moved to the right or left on the V-axis by a change of
temperature, the B curve will be similarly displaced and hence the
E function used in equations (9) and (10) will be changed. With the
quadratic resistance law, the B curve would be a right line parallel
to the V-axis, and no change would be caused in B. G or E by a
change of temperature.
Trajectories used for ballistic table data are worked out for normal
temperature
I5C. = 59F.=288A., and are so tabulated.
Standard Temperature. It would be more logical if trajectories
were worked out under some law of temperature gradient, similar
to that assumed for the density gradient, equation (2). Taking
account of the " gas law " derived from Boyle's and Charles' laws,
the density law given by equation (2) and the theorem of static
equilibrium which requires the difference in pressure at altitude y
and sea level to be due only to the weight of the intervening layer,
A. A. Bennett has arrived at the following formula for temperature
aloft:
Cf . _ TCVin -000045y
.' =122-63X10 -^
This represents fairly mean midsummer temperature in the United
States. For mean midwinter temperatures subtract 12-5 C. =22-5
F. throughout. Corrections may be worked out to enable one to pass
from the tabular data, based on constant temperature, to data
based on the temperature gradient given by these equations.
Rotation of Projectiles. Thus far we have considered the motion
as merely that of a material point, or at any rate we have taken no
account explicitly of the change in the air resistance which may result
from the oblique presentation of an elongated projectile. If pro-
jectiles were spherical, as formerly, there could be but one presenta-
tion or one section exposed to air pressure, though the projectile
might rotate in any direction.
Modern projectiles are given a motion of rotation by the rifling
to prevent them from tumbling end over end and thus meeting with
vastly increased and irregular air resistance. A projectile so designed
as to place the " centre " of pressure in rear of the centre of mass,
would doubtless travel head-on without having rotation. Attempts
have been made to design such projectiles with some success as far
as the ability to travel head-on is concerned ; but it has always been
necessary to increase the total head-on resistance, by the addition of
a tail or similar device, to such an extent as to make them inferior to
projectiles stabilized by rotation. Projectiles of this type are now
used as bombs to be dropped from aircraft but are not fired from
guns.
Yaw of the Projectile. It has been determined by experiments
that elongated projectiles do not always make round holes through
cardboard screens called " jump cards " placed at short distances
in front of the gun. By placing a sufficient number of these cards, it
is found that the holes change in regular cycles, from greater to less
and again to greater elongation. For a given round, certain positions
of the jump cards, if thickly spaced, give holes of the greatest
elongation, corresponding to the maximum yaws of the projectile,
and certain other positions give holes of the least elongation corre-
sponding to the minimum yaws. If jump cards are placed from near
the gun up to 500 or 600 yd. from it, it will be found that the
maximum yaws will diminish in value, the first one that appears in
front of the gun being the greatest. By yaw is understood the angle
between the direction of motion of the centre of gravity and the axis
of the projectile.
In the Aerodynamics of a Spinning Shell by R. H. Fowler, E. G.
Gallop, C. N. H. Lock and H. W. Richmond, F.R.S. (Phil. Trans.,
series A, vol. 221), the authors present a very complete analysis of
British jump-card experiments conducted by them. While the
existence of initial instability of projectiles had long been known,
knowledge of its laws and its effects on drift range and accuracy were
vague, prior to these British experiments made in 1918.
Causes of Yaw. A projectile fitting perfectly in the gun and hav-
ing the centre of gravity of every cross section on the axis of figure,
will move in the direction of that axis after leaving the muzzle,
unless some force should start an angular motion of the longer axis.
For the short distance with which we are here concerned the effect of
gravity in curving the trajectory away from the axis is neglected. A
projectile not fitting perfectly, or having its axis of figure not coin-
cident with its dynamic axis, will yaw slightly in the gun. On leaving
the muzzle it may receive an additional yaw from the powder
394
BALLISTICS
pressure against the base when the front bearing is unsupported,
from the jump of the gun and from the powder blast.
Furthermore, at this point the air resistance begins to act in
retarding the projectile. The action line of the resultant air pressure
on a yawing projectile intersects the axis at a point in front of the
centre of gravity. The resultant air resistance, therefore, exerts a
moment around an axis through the centre of gravity, in such a
direction as to increase the yaw. We then have a motion similar to
that of a spinning top or gyroscope when an angular motion is given
to the axis of spin, except that we have in addition a rapid motion of
the centre of gravity.
In other words, the projectile has a motion of translation accom-
panied by precession and nutation. The motion of the point pro-
jected on a plane through the centre of gravity and normal to the
trajectory, describes a rosette, as shown in fig. 5.
FIG. 5.
Condition of Stability. If the spin is insufficient the air moment
may cause the projectile to tumble. The condition of stability may
be expressed by the following equation:
A'N*
"46
where
5, is the stability factor. Its value must be greater than l-o if
the projectile is not to tumble, and not lower than 1-5 or 2-0 for
modern projectiles, if excessive yaws are to be avoided,
A, the moment of inertia of the projectile about the axis of spin,
B, moment of inertia about an axis at right angles through the
centre of gravity,
N, the velocity of rotation about the longer axis in radians per
second,
17, sin 8, the moment of the air resistance around an axis through
the centre of gravity at right angles to the longer axis when the
yaw is 5,
The value of 6 depends upon the air resistance, but is nearly in-
dependent of a for small yaws.
8, the angle of yaw.
By an analysis of the results obtained in British and American
jump-card experiments, R. H. Kent has determined that the value
of the first maximum yaw outside the gun may be computed in
terms of the stability factor and the yaw inside the gun by the follow-
ing equation:
al
01 = A
where a is the first maximum yaw
. the yaw in the gun.
Figure 6 shows the values of aj in terms of s for a value of .- =8 and
=0-2.
It appears from this relation that the maximum yaw in front of
the gun is principally due to the yaw in the gun, and that it is very
little affected by the pressure of the powder gas, during the time the
projectile is emerging from the muzzle, by the jump of the gun, or
by the blast in front of the muzzle.
Orientation of the Yaw. The plane of yaw contains the path ot
the centre of gravity and the axis of the projectile. The orientation
of the yaw is the angle between this plane and the vertical plane
containing the path of the centre of gravity. It is determined by
measuring the angle between the traces of these two planes on the
jump card. The precessional motion consists of rotation of the plane
STABILITY FACTOR
FIG. 6.
of yaw around the path of the centre of gravity, while the motion in
nutation consists of oscillations around an axis through the centre of
gravity normal to the plane of yaw.
For a small yaw not accompanied by nutations the rate of change
of orientation is,
,_AN
~7T
The motion in nutation causes abrupt changes in this rate in the
neighbourhood of the minimum yaws.
Damping of the Yaw. Reduction in the yaw of the projectile, as
it proceeds down the range, is principally due to the following fac-
tors: (a) The component of the air resistance normal to the direction
of motion of the yawing projectile causes motion of the centre of
gravity in the direction of the yaw. The effect is a virtual reduction
in the yaw accompanied by a helical motion of the centre of gravity;
(b) the resultant angular motion of the axis of the projectile due to
precession and nutation sets up an air-resistance couple which
opposes that motion, and which is quite distinct from the air-resist-
ance moment which causes the main part of the initial maximum
yaw. The effect of the couple is first to damp out the nutations and
finally to reduce the yaw; (c) as the velocity of the projectile de-
creases, the air resistance also decreases. The consequent reduction
in the air-resistance moment on a yawing projectile causes a reduc-
tion in the maximum yaws.
Effect of Yaw on Range and Accuracy. The resistance of a yawing
projectile is very much greater than that of a projectile moving in the
direction of its axis. Experiments made by G. F. Hull and L. J.
Briggs in an air stream indicate that at a velocity of 200300 metres
per second the head-on resistance of a projectile of modern form
yawing 15 is two to two and one-half times that of the same pro-
jectile moving in the direction of its axis. A considerable yaw in
front of the gun will, therefore, cause a rapid reduction in the
velocity and a reduction in range.
It is readily seen that a variation in initial yaw between rounds
will cause bad range dispersion. The same is true of dispersion in
deflection. It may be stated that irregularity in initial yaw, what-
ever may be its cause, forms one of the principal factors in dispersion
of fire.
Drift. As the projectile proceeds along the trajectory, its axis
tends to remain parallel to its original direction at the gun. Since
the effect of gravity causes the trajectory to curve toward the earth,
there is a gradual increase in the angle between the axis of the
projectile and the trajectory. This yaw, due to gravity, is quite
distinct from the initial yaw described above and does not begin to
have an important effect on the flight of the projectile until after
the greater part of the initial yaw has been damped out.
A yaw having been developed by gravity, the air-resistance
moment /* sin s, tending to rotate the spinning projectile in the
plane of yaw, causes motion in a plane at right angles. The effect
with right hand rotation of the projectile, is to cause the point of the
projectile to move at first to the right of the plane of fire and at a
later period downward 4 the projectile being bodily displaced by the
component of air resistance acting normal to the direction of motion,
on the side presented by the yaw. The initial instability and the
drift are phenomena of like nature. While the initial instability is
caused by a suddenly applied yaw, or a high rate of change of yaw,
and is accompanied by a rapid motion in precession and nutation,
the drift is caused by the gradual yaw due to the action of gravity
on the projectile, and is accompanied by a very much slower motion
in precession without nutation. (W. H. T.)
BALLOON BANCROFT, SIR S.
BALLOON : see AERONAUTICS.
BALTIMORE (see 3.288). The pop. of Baltimore, the 8th city
of the United States in number of inhabitants, increased in the
decade 1910-20 from 558,485 to 733,826, of which number
108,390 in 1920 were negroes as compared with 84,749 in 1910.
The 31-4 % increase in the total population represented in part
a normal growth or one caused by the establishment of new
industries, and in part an annexation (Act of Legislature of 1918)
of 63.13 sq. m. containing several thickly settled manufacturing
districts. This accession of territory increased the taxable basis
of the city from $915,433,444 in 1918 to $1,086,349,852 in 1920.
Manufactures. In 1914, Baltimore ranked nth in the value of its
manufactured products and 8th in the average number of industrial
wage-earners among the 130 leading American cities. The capital
invested in its manufactures was $177,301,000; the value of its out-
put was $215,171,530, and its wage-earners in manufacturing plants
numbered 73,769. There were 21 industries which exceeded one
million dollars in value of product; the clothing industry led with
products valued at $44,482,136, while copper, tin and sheet iron
($18,842,186), printing and publishing ($10,283,775), cars and
general shop construction ($10,038,911), slaughtering and meat
packing ($9,503,883), and canning and preserving ($7,789,125)
followed in the order named. Unofficial figures (Board of Trade,
Baltimore City) showed that from June I 1919 to May 31 1920 100
new industries and 134 expansions of old industries increased the
number of persons employed by 39,850 and added $72,612,200, or
40%, to the manufacturing capital of the city. This great increase
may be attributed to differential freight rate on goods from the west,
deep-water manufacturing sites, steamship connexions, coastwise
and foreign, and abundance of labour. Baltimore is a popular city
with labour because in normal times its markets are notably cheap,
and the continuance in Maryland of the ground-rent system makes
possible the purchase of homes by labouring men on easy terms. In
1919 permits were granted for the construction of 3,700 two- and
three-storey dwellings. Six hundred building and loan associations
make it possible for labouring men to purchase easily houses of this
type without hardship.
Commerce. As an export port, Baltimore advanced notably in
the amount of its business. In 1908 its exports amounted to $82, 113,-
496; its imports $23,722,045. In 1918 the total value of domestic
exports was $300,144,011; in 1920 $381,532,145. Its imports 1 in
1918 were $35,982,665, and in 1920 were $69,885,165. In 1918 it
exported 51,085,209 Ib. of bacon and ham; 156,141,175 Ib. of copper;
10,408,382 bus. of oats; 17,158,200 bus. of wheat and 76,879,176 Ib.
of leaf tobacco. In 1919, its wheat exports had increased to 25,501,-
321 bus. and its leaf tobacco to 149,529,865 pounds. Its principal
imports in 1919 were copper (22,540,577 Ib.), corkwood and waste
(7.338,391 Ib.) and mineral oil (200,298,000 gal.). In 1920, 1,809
vessels engaged in foreign trade (tonnage 5,218,089) cleared the port
of Baltimore.
Municipal Improvements. The physical characteristics of Balti-
more were much altered during the decade 191020. By a paving
loan of 1906, and by a special paving tax of 1912, funds were pro-
vided for the conversion of a "cobblestone city " into one with 210
m. of modern smooth-paved streets at a cost of $9,500,000. Three
concrete tubes were constructed in the bed of Jones Falls, which had
become an unsightly open sewer, and into these the stream and an
additional flow of stormwater sewage were directed and carried
through the city for a mile-and-a-half. On top of these tubes a
highway was constructed, known as the Fallsway, which relieved the
congestion of north and south traffic between the water front and
the up-town railroad yards. At a cost of $23,500,000 the main work
of installing a new sewerage system, begun in 1905, was completed
in 1916. A dam at Lock Raven (2,000,000,000 gal. capacity) and a
filtration plant at Montebello for impounding and purifying the
Gunpowder river water supply were constructed. A general " City
Plan," although only partly carried out by 1920, provided for the
best treatment of all city utilities, streets, harbour, parks, railways,
from an artistic as well as from a utilitarian standpoint. A civic
centre was provided and Mt. Vernon and Washington Places, the
setting of the Washington Monument, were completely changed in
their landscape and decorative features. A boulevard, almost com-
pletely surrounding the city, connects the several parks.
Annexation and Loans. One of the most important of all changes
was the passage in 1918 of an Act of the Maryland Assembly by
which to the 32.19 sq. m. of Baltimore territory were added 51.83
sq.m. of land and 11.30 sq.m. of water, making the total area 95.32
sq.m. and adding about 100,000 persons to the population. At the
Nov. election of 1920, the people voted overwhelmingly in favour of
four improvement loans, aggregating $51,750,000, the several items
of which were the Public Improvement Loan (schools, sewers, streets
and bridges, harbour improvements, etc.) $26,000,000; the Water
1 Import figures are for the U.S. Customs District of Maryland, of
which the Port of Baltimore business represents approximately
95 %
395
Supply Loan $15,000,000; the Port Development Loan $10,000,000;
the Municipal Hospital Loan $750.000.
Finance. Fifty-seven Baltimore banks and trust companies,
exclusive of private banking firms showed Jan. I 1920 aggregate
resources of $522.783.000 and deposits of $414,453,000. In 1919
Baltimore was the nth city in the country in bank clearings with a
total of $4,343.446.572, a gain of 29-4 % over the preceding year and
of 91-6% over 1917.
Education. Notable progress was made by Johns Hopkins
University in the decade 1910-20. The public library system of the
city (the Enoch Pratt Free Library) which in 1910 had one central
building, 12 branches and two stations, reported in 1920 the erection
of six additional branches, and that plans had been accepted for the
erection of four more branch buildings.
Religion, Charity, Hospitals. In 1916 there were 494 religious
organizations in Baltimore owning 455 places of worship, and church
property valued at $16,167,350. The total church membership was
296.599, approximately one-half the population. In numbers the
Roman Catholic Church led with 137.730 members (100,397 ' n
1906), and following it in the order named came the Methodist
Episcopal Church 30,217 (24,605 in 1906), the Baptist Church
(National Convention, Coloured) 24,648 (16,081 in 1906), and the
Protestant Episcopal Church 17,209 (16,812 in 1906). In 1915 all
the charitable agencies formed an administrative association, the
Baltimore Alliance of Charitable and Social Agencies, which coordi-
nated the work of the individual organizations.
History. The mayor of Baltimore from 1907 to 1911 was
J. Barry Mahool, Democrat. From 1911 to 1918 the mayor,
James H. Preston, and the City Council were Democratic. A
Republican mayor, William F. Broening, was elected in 1918,
but the City Council continued to be Democratic. In the World
War the Baltimore militia organizations, _ the 4th and sth
Maryland Regts., were combined with the ist Maryland to form
the 1 1 sth Inf., U.S.A.; the Md. F.A. (3 batteries) became the
2nd batt. of the noth F. A., U.S. A. Several smaller units
followed these into the 2gth Division and were trained at Camp
McClellan, Ala. The infantry units of this division saw service
at the front in France. Sixteen thousand five hundred men were
raised by selective draft. Many of these received their training
at Camp Meade, Md., and saw service at the front with the 79th
Division, as the 3i3th Infantry Regiment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. United States Census Reports: Manufacture,
1914; Religious Bodies, 1916; U.S. Census Bulletin, Populations
Maryland, 1920; Statements on file in Office of Collector of the Port
of Baltimore; General Message to the City Council of Baltimore,
James H. Preston, Mayor, 1918; Statistics of Baltimore Board of
Trade, 1920. (L. C. W.)
BANBURY, SIR FREDERICK GEORGE, IST BART. (xSso- ),
British politician, was born in London Dec. 2 1850. He
was educated at Winchester, and afterwards adopted a City
career. He entered the Stock Exchange, and subsequently
figured in various capacities as a director of companies. He
successfully contested Peckham as a Conservative in 1892,
and established his reputation in the House of Commons as a
constant critic on business matters and also as an expert in
parliamentary procedure. In 1902 he was created a baronet.
He lost his seat in the general election of 1906, but was elected
a few months later as one of the members for the City of Lon-
don (reelected 1918). In 1916 he was created a privy councillor,
and in 1917 became chairman of the Great Northern railway.
BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE (1832-1918), American histo-
rian (see 3.309), died at Walnut Creek, Cal., March 2 1918. He
published in 1909-10 The Book of Wealth and in 1912 Retro-
spection, Personal and Political, the latter giving an account
of his labours.
BANCROFT, SIR SQUIRE (1841- ), English actor and
manager (see 3.309), made his last regular appearance on the
stage as Count Orloff in a revival of Diplomacy at the Garrick
theatre in 1893. The company were summoned to play before
Queen Victoria at Balmoral Castle in Oct. of that. year.
He subsequently only appeared occasionally at special per-
formances, the latest and most notable of which was at His
Majesty's theatre, London, in Dec. 1918 when he played Trip-
let in Masks and Faces.
His wife, LADY BANCROFT (1839-1921), died at Folkestone,
May 22 1921. She had first appeared on the stage un-
der her maiden name of Marie Effie Wilton at Manchester
as Fleance in Macbeth and as Prince Arthur in King John as
396
BANDELIER BANKING
early as 1847. She made her debut in London in 1856 with
Charles Dillon at the Lyceum theatre as Henri in Belphegor.
Her brilliant career as an actress, from the time when in 1865
she went into management at the Prince of Wales's theatre, and
married Mr. (afterwards Sir Squire) Bancroft in 1868, came to
a close in 1885, when she and her husband retired from the
stage; but Lady Bancroft reappeared with him in the Diplomacy
revival of 1893, and twice subsequently made a single appearance
at a special matinee, the last occasion being the benefit per-
formance for Miss Nellie Farren in March 1898.
BANDELIER, ADOLPH FRANCIS ALPHONSE (1840-1914),
American archaeologist (see 3.311), died at Madrid March 19
1914. His last published works were The Islands of Titicaca
and Koati (1910) and The Ruins of Tiahuanaco in Bolivia
(1912).
BANERJEA, SIR SURENDRANATH (1848- ), Indian ora-
tor, political reformer and journalist, was born Nov. 10 1848,
a member of the Rarhi sub-caste of Kulin Brahmans, and
the second son of a medical practitioner in Calcutta. Passing
for the Indian civil service at the open competition of 1870,
he was posted to Sylhet as assistant magistrate but, at the
expiry of two years, was compulsorily retired on a small com-
passionate pension, on account of a technical irregularity a
decision since admitted generally to have been unduly harsh.
He then opened a small school in Calcutta which soon ex-
panded into the well-known Ripon College. His work as a
political reformer began in 1876 when he founded the Calcutta
Indian Association, and three years later he became editor of
the Bengalee newspaper. In subsequent years he became the
centre of many stormy episodes. He was one of those who
established the Indian National Congress in 1883, and presided
over the Poona session of 1895 and again at the meeting at
Ahmedabad in 1902.
From 1876 to 1899 he served on the Calcutta corporation,
when he resigned with 27 other leading commissioners as
a protest against the changes introduced by the Calcutta
Municipal Act. In 1893 he was elected to represent the corpora-
tion on the Bengal Legislative Council, and was twice returned
to the central Legislature as member for Bengal. He gave evi-
dence in 1897 before the Royal Commission on Indian Expendi-
ture and frequently visited England in connexion with deputa-
tions and political missions. Vehemently opposing the adminis-
trative partition of Bengal effected by Lord Curzon in 1905, he
supported the boycott of foreign goods and the movement in
favour of " national " education which arose from the upheaval.
He always exhibited, however, a preference for constitutional
agitation, and was among the first to welcome the Montagu-
Chelmsford reforms. Severing his association with the Con-
gress, which had passed under " extremist " control, he formed
an " Indian Liberal " organization, and came to London in 1919
to present the case for his party before the Joint Parliamentary
Committee, subsequently accepting office as Minister for Local
Government and Sanitation in Bengal. A knighthood was con-
ferred upon him in Jan. 1921. Possessed of a remarkable
knowledge of the English language and literature, he had earned
by his eloquence the title of the Gladstone of India.
(H.E.A. C.)
BANFFY, DEZSO [DESIDERIUS], BARON (1843-1911), Hunga-
rian statesman (see 3.315). In 1906 Banffy, who had joined the
coalition in opposition to the Government, broke with it on the
military questions at issue with the King-Emperor, which he
wished to eliminate, and in 1908 he became leader of the pro-
gressive elements and, as president of the Franchise League,
began an agitation for universal, secret and equal suffrage (see
13.920,921). In 1910 he became president of the Reform Club.
He died May 24 1911.
BANG, HERMANN JOACHIM (1858-1912), Danish author (see
3.315), died Jan. 29 1912. In 1910 a volume of essays appeared,
Masker og Mennesker, followed in 1911 by a volume of short
stories, En deilig Dag. His collected works were published in
six volumes in Copenhagen and Christiania (1912).
See F. Poppenberg, Nordiske Portrats Hermann Bang (1912).
BANKING (see 3.334). I. UNITED KINGDOM. British banking
during 1910-21 underwent vast changes, not the least of which
was seen in the direction of amalgamation. But even apart from
that, the banks had grown in size, in importance, and in the
extent of the territory covered by their branches. During this
period, the great joint stock banks, which had generally been
considered ultra-conservative in their methods, threw off to a
large extent their mantle of aloofness ; they even carried competi-
tion into foreign countries which a few years earlier had been
thought to be closed to them for the establishment of branch
banks. Whether their action is wise remains yet to be seen;
for in some cases it was found necessary after a few years' ex-
perience of foreign banking to form separate companies for carry-
ing out the operations of the foreign branch banks.
Amalgamations. Amalgamation of banks or of finance houses
was, of course, no new phenomenon; it dates back to the days
of the old goldsmiths, when it was not unusual for a man to
break adrift from one firm of goldsmiths for the purpose of join-
ing forces with another more enterprising competitor, and slowly,
but surely, the desire to strengthen their position by absorption
or alliance spread to the private banks and later to the joint stock
banks. However, it was not until the period between 1891 and
1896 that we find anything in the nature of a rush to create
bigger banks through the process of absorption or amalgamation.
During those five years a very large number of banks in the
United Kingdom ceased to be separate entities, and the policy
of amalgamation was steadily pursued up to the outbreak of the
World War. There was then a slight pause in what we might call
the race for supremacy among the larger joint stock banks; but
the great and perplexing financial problems which arose during
the war kindled afresh the desire for larger and yet larger banking
concerns. Gradually, the lesser banks were drawn into the pool;
then important institutions which had previously been regarded
as free from the temptation to amalgamate, succeeded in per-
suading their shareholders that the time had come to incorporate
their resources with those of the premier banks, and between 1917
and 1919, scarcely a month passed without the newspapers
recording the merging of one large bank into another. The
earlier absorption of local banks by larger and more widely
spread joint stock banks had created little more than passing
interest among the public, but the policy of combination between
the large joint stock banks themselves, many of them already
possessed of enormous funds and branches spread over a wide
area, caused a certain amount of concern in various directions,
doubts being expressed as to its being to the public advantage,
and in powerful business quarters the action of the banks was
keenly criticized.
To investigate the matter a Treasury Committee was appoint-
ed on March n 1918, and as the result of the deliberations of
that committee the Government were recommended to pass
legislation requiring that the prior approval of Government be
obtained before any amalgamations were announced or carried
into effect. Further, it was recommended that the approval
both of the Treasury and of the Board of Trade should be ob-
tained and that legislation should be passed requiring the two
departments to set up a special statutory committee to advise
them. These recommendations were carried into effect, and the
new statutory committee set up; but either the objections of this
body were easily met, or they found nothing to criticize in
further unions, for by 1918-9 almost the entire banking strength
of the country had become centred in five great combined in-
stitutions, the London Joint City & Midland Bank, Ltd., Bar-
clay's Bank, Ltd., the London County Westminster & Parr's
Bank, Ltd., the National Provincial & Union Bank of England,
Ltd., and Lloyd's Bank, Ltd.
The date of the establishment of the London County Westminster
& Parr's Bank, Ltd., is usually given as 1836, though as a matter of
fact the London & Westminster Bank, which was the first joint
stock bank established in London, was formed in March 1834. The
London & County Bank was established two years later in 1836.
The actual date of the formation of Parr's Bank is not quite certain:
there are records of its doing business as a private firm about 100
years ago, but as a joint stock bank it dates back no farther than
1865. Before the final amalgamation, each of the banks had obtained
BANKING
397
a position of great importance by absorbing smaller banks, and when
the London & Westminster Bank amalgamated with the London &
County Banking Company, Ltd., in 1909 it was thought that the
matter would rest there. Nine years later, however in Feb. 1918,
to be precise a further addition to the strength of the combined
institutions was made by the amalgamation with Parr's Bank, and
the title of the bank was finally fixed as the London County West-
minster & Parr's Bank. Ltd. As the bank now stands it represents
six original clearing banks, viz., the London County & Westminster
Bank; Jones, Lloyd & Co.; London & County Bank; Alliance Bank
(subsequently changed to Parr's Bank) ; Fowler, Banbury & Co.,
and the Consolidated Bank. In Ireland the London County &
Westminster Bank has affiliated with the Ulster Bank, Ltd., and it
also has foreign auxiliaries in France, Belgium and Spain. The total
number of banks and affiliations represented in 1921 was sixty.
The rise of the London Joint City & Midland Bank, Ltd., is no less
remarkable. It was first established in 1836 as the Birmingham and
Midland Bank, and although it absorbed a number of small banks
from 1851 onwards, its first great step forward may be said to date
from 1891, when it absorbed the Central Bank of London, Ltd., and
adopted the new title ofHhe London & Midland Bank, Ltd. Then,
in 1898, it absorbed the old City Bank and again altered its name to
the London City & Midland Bank, Ltd. Other amalgamations soon
followed, and the principal absorptions were those of banks of such
provincial fame as the Sheffield Banking Co., the North & South
Wales Bank, and the Bradford Banking Co. Further additions
were made by the purchase of the share capital of banks wider
afield, and the bank now owns the Belfast Banking Co. and the
Clydesdale Bank. 'The great amalgamation came, however, in 1918,
when the London Joint Stock Bank, Ltd., which came into existence
in July, 1836, was absorbed, and the title of the whole concern was
changed to its present one of the London Joint City & Midland Bank,
Ltd. As it now stands it represents what were formerly 65 banks.
Lloyd's Bank, Ltd., is remarkable for the series of amalgamations
that have marked its rise to fame. The real origin of the bank can
be traced back to 1765, although it was not incorporated as a joint
stock bank until 1865. According to repute, it has taken over by
amalgamation or absorption more banking concerns than any other
similar institution. Including its affiliated institutions and foreign
auxiliaries it represents a total banking strength of what were
formerly 119 separate banks. Among some of the more important
joint stock banks which this bank has absorbed during its career
are: the Shropshire Banking Co., the Coventry & Warwickshire
Banking Co., the Birmingham Joint Stock Bank, the West City &
County Banking Co., Bristol & West of England Bank, and the
Wilts & Dorset Banking Co. The great amalgamation came, how-
ever, when the Capital & Counties Bank, Ltd., was absorbed. The
Capital & Counties Bank, as it happens, was itself established in
1834 an d some six years later commenced to absorb other banks. In
fact from 1877 to 1907 it acquired the business of no fewer than 26
other banks. Its career as a separate institution came to an end in
the early part of 1918, when it was amalgamated with Lloyd's Bank,
Ltd. Since then Lloyd's Bank has absorbed the West Yorkshire
Bank and Messrs. Fox, Fowler & Co. of Somerset. It is also closely
associated with the London & River Plate Bank and the National
Bank of Scotland.
Barclay's Bank, Ltd., has an almost unique history. Until the
year 1896 it was simply a private banking house carrying the name
of Barclay & Co. Then it suddenly sprang into fame as being the
originator of the amalgamations as we know- them to-day. In 1896
the banking world was really taken by surprise by the announcement
that Barclay & Co. had absorbed, at one sitting, 15 other private
banks and had become incorporated at the same time. From that
moment Barclay's progressed rapidly ; the bank soon absorbed other
institutions, such as the York Union Banking Co., Bolitho Williams
& Co., Stamford, Spalding & Boston Bank, Ltd., and Neville, Reid &
Co. The absorption of the United Counties Bank, Ltd., followed in
1916. A further large addition to its sphere of influence came in
1918 when the London & Provincial & South Western Bank was
acquired, itself an amalgamation of two large joint stock banks.
By this step over 250 branches in London and suburbs were added
to its strength, and an interest acquired in the French subsidiary
Cox & Co. (France), Ltd. In 1919-20 Barclay's Bank extended
its sphere still farther by affiliations with the Union Bank of Man-
chester, the British Linen Bank and the Anglo-Egyptian Bank, thus
giving it a total banking strength of 102 banks.
The last of the " big five " is the National Provincial & Union
Bank of England, Ltd. The National Provincial was itself formed in
1833, while the Union Bank of London, though not really established
until 1839, can claim through one of its constituent institutions to
date back to 1688. The principal absorptions for which the combined
institutions have been responsible are: the County of Stafford Bank;
Isle of Wight Joint Stock Bank; London & Yorkshire Bank; Briscoe's
Bank; Smith, Payne & Smith's; Union Bank of London. The Union
Bank of London, it is interesting to note, itself amalgamated with
Smith, Payne & Smith's, London, Smith Ellison & Co., Lincoln, ,
Smith, Smith Bros. & Co., Hull, and Samuel Smith & Co., Derby,
and the title was changed to the Union of London & Smith's Bank,
Ltd., in 1902. The latter institution was amalgamated with the
National Provincial Bank in 1917, the title adopted being the
National Provincial Union Bank of England, Ltd. The Sheffield
Banking Co. was absorbed in Dec. 1917 and the Bradford District
Bank on Jan. I 1919. A year later an affiliation was made with Cox &
Co., the well-known firm of private bankers who had themselves
amalgamated with Robarts, Lubbock & Co. as recently as 1914.
Finally, the National Provincial & Union Bank of England, Ltd.,
absorbed the Northamptonshire Union Bank, Ltd., in 1920. With
its auxiliary bank, Lloyd's & National Provincial Foreign Bank, Ltd.,
this institution now Represents what were formerly 63 banks.
The resources of the " big five " were, of course, very sub-
stantial before the amalgamations, and as the following table
will show, there had been no diminution up to 1921 :
TOTAL CAPITAL, RESOURCES & DEPOSITS, 1913 AND 1920
Dec. 31 1913
Dec. 3 1 1920
London County Westr. & Parr's Bk.
London City & Midland Bank \
London Joint Stock Bank . j
Lloyd's Bank, Ltd. \
Capital & Counties Bank, Ltd. j
Barclay's Bank, Ltd. (June 1914)
National Provincial Bank . . \
Union of London & Smith's Bank f
143,000,000
101,882,000 \
41,678,000 /
98,720,000 t
41,774,000;
66,940,000
118,864,000
322,888,000
393,561,000
369,167,000
351,631,000
296,522,000
Just how the paid-up capital of the banks compares with that
shown before the principal amalgamations took place will be seen
from the following table:
Dec. 31 IQII
Dec. 31 1920
London City & Midland Bk.
London Joint Stock Bank
London County & Westr.
Bank ....
Parr's Bank, Ltd.
National Provl. Bank of
Eng
Union of London & Smith's
Bk
Lloyd's Bank
Capital & Counties Bank .
Barclay's Bank .
London & Provincial Bank
London & S. Western Bank
3,989,238
2,970,000 6,959,238
10,859,800
8,503,718
9,309,416
14-137,796
11,760,811
3,500,000
2,204,780 5,704,780
3,000,000
3,554,786 6,554,786
4,208,672
1,750,000 5,958,672
3,200,000
800,000
1,000.000 5,000,000
The great upward movement in the amount of deposits held by the
banks may be said to date from 1910; consequently, it will be of
interest to place on record the deposits of the large banks in that
year, and those at the end of 1921.
DEPOSITS OF ENGLISH BANKS AFFECTED BY THE
AMALGAMATIONS
Dec. 31 1910
Dec. 31 1920
London City & Mid-
land Bk. .
London Joint Stock Bk.
Lloyd's Bank
Capital & Counties
Bank
London County &
Westr. Bk. .
Parr's Bank
Nottingham & Notts.
Bank
Barclay's Bank .
London & S. Western
Bank
London & Provincial
Bank
National Provl. Bank
Union of London Bank
Bradford District Bank
221,635,807
58,456,304 280,092,111
371,841,968
345,028,984
305,380,214
327.788,370
278,335-365
174,697,945
58,850,522 233,548,467
147-433,697
69,227,819
5,723,389 222,384,905
129,067,901
38,795,039
36,307,726 204,170,666
112,780,401
64,833,218
9,317,982 186,931,601
Concerning the reasons for amalgamation, little need be said.
The war undoubtedly drove the leading London bankers to
look for increased financial resources, in order to cope with the
increased magnitude of the operations they were being called
upon to finance. Fashion, the desire to out-bid other institutions,
the element of self-preservation, banking evolution, the conven-
398
BANKING
ience and gain to trade to be secured by an extension of bank
areas all such factors, however, pulled their weight in what
during 1918-9 offered to be a struggle for supremacy between the
leading institutions. Probably the most naive reason advanced in
justification for amalgamation was that of the chairman of one
of the great banks, who said that " combination must come."
This was a new variant of the old petitio principii, " it is coming
because it must come and it must come because it has come."
The remark, no doubt, truly reflected a sense of the inevitability
of a further stage of evolution. Even so, to the most casual ob-
server it would seem as if the voracious appetite of the supermen
in banking had at last been satiated, for so great had been the
absorptions that any further extension of the activities of the
" big five " would of necessity be confined to the acquisition of
the relatively unimportant private or merchant banks. In a
word, amalgamation had spent itself by 1920, since any further
fusion of the larger institutions would probably be regarded
with suspicion by the general public.
As showing how the old private institutions have gone out of
existence it may be said that out of 38 private banks which were
doing business in 1891, there remained only four in 1921. The latest
absorption up to the middle of 1921 was the acquisition in Feb. of
that year of the business of Messrs. Fox, Fowler & Co., Somerset, by
Lloyd's Bank. It was interesting as marking the passing of the last
country bank which had the right to issue notes. Thus closed a
remarkable chapter in English banking, for under the provisions of
the Bank Charter Act of 1844, the right of issue lapsed on the
amalgamation with Lloyd's Bank. Further, it marked the accom-
plishment of one of the principal aims of the Bank Act of 1844
that of reducing the private note issues of the country, for they now
ceased altogether. In 1844 this note-issuing privilege was enjoyed
by 207 private banks and 72 joint stock banks, and although the
Bank of England was entitled to increase the fiduciary portion of its
note circulation by two-thirds of the lapsed issues, the Bank had
apparently not availed itself of the full privilege, for out of the
maximum issue of 8,631,000 vested in the defunct banks, the Bank
of England had only increased its fiduciary circulation by 7,551,000
of the lapsed issues.
Private banking, then, has found its resting place in the archives
of the things that have been, and the lesser lights of English joint
stock banks are not far behind. As a matter of fact the number of
English joint stock banks was reduced from 106 in 1891 to 20 in
1921, and throughout the whole of the United Kingdom, including
the Bank of England and the private banks, the number of banks
had fallen from in in 1900 to 41 in 1921.
That the resources of the banks have not suffered by this process
of absorption will presently be shown, for the question of resources is
ah all-important one. In many respects large banks are certainly
preferable, because with large resources they are in a position to make
advances on a much more generous scale than the smaller concerns.
Moreover, it was clearly desirable that the banks should be prepared
to adapt themselves to the entirely new order of things in the finan-
cial world brought about by the war.
Actually, the public would not appear to have suffered from the
fusion of the banks, for if we make a comparison of the figures of the
English joint stock banks (the Scottish and Irish banks, except in a
minor degree, were not much concerned with amalgamation), we find
that there have been very large increases in capital and reserves ; the
ratio of total cash to demand liabilities has risen, and deposits
show a striking increase. The ratio of paid-up capital and reserves
to deposits has, however, fallen considerably, though the 1920 figures
showed that the upward movement had recommenced. The follow-
ing table will reveal the true position :
ENGLISH JOINT STOCK BANKS
Ratio of
Ratio of
Paid-up
Paid-up
Cash in
Capital and
Deposits.
Capital
hand, at call
Reserves.
& Reserves
& notice to
to Deposits.
Liabilities.
1890
67,826,000
368,663,000
18-4
18
1895
69,213,000
455,561,000
15-3
19-9
1900
78,847,000
586,726,000
I3-4
20-7
1905
82,010,000
627,529,000
I3-I
23-6
1910
80,946,000
720,687,000
11*9
23
1913
82,068,000
809,352,000
IO-I
24-3
1914
81,904,000
895,561,000
9-1
27-6
1915
81,731,000
992,555,000
8-2
22-9
1916
81,089,000
,154,877,000
7'i
28
1917
84,475,000
,365,297,000
6-2
28
1918
92,901,000
,583,412,000
5-8
27-6
1919
106,273,000
,874,184,000
5-7
21-3
1920
128,154,000
,961,527,000
6-5
20-4
That there is no foundation for the accusation, sometimes heard,
that the country had suffered from the closing of branch banks, is
apparent from the fact that in 1890, when the fever for amalgamation
had not taken so large a hold on the bankers, there were 104 banks
in existence in England and Wales with 2,203 branches ; by the end of
1920, with only 20 banks functioning, the number of branches had
grown to 7,257.
In Scotland and Ireland, where the banks have preferred to
strengthen their position and spheres of influence more by working
arrangements with other large institutions than by actual union,
the number of branches show similar expansion. Scotland in 1890
had 10 banks with 975 branches; in 1920 with only eight banks she
had open 1,283 branches. Curiously enough, the number of banks
operating in Ireland has not changed since 1890; there were then
nine banks with 456 branches; in 1920, with the same number of
banks the number of branches had exactly doubled, the total being
912. The capital and reserves of the Scottish banks in 1890 was
14,755,000; cash in hand, at call, etc., 21,427,000, against deposits
of 91,610,000. By the end of 1920 the capital and reserves had
grown to 17,911,000, cash in hand and money at call to 72,974,000,
and deposits to 279,228,000. The capital and reserves of the Irish
banks in 1890 was 10,374,000, cash in hand and money at call
9,086,000, and deposits 38,521,000. In 1920 the totals were:
capital and reserves, 12,899,000; cash in hand, etc., 46,698,000;
deposits, 200,441,000.
Just how great has been the extension of banking in the United
Kingdom may be gauged from the following table, which shows the
aggregate liabilities and assets of the banks in the United Kingdom
for the pre-war period, 19134, and for the post-war period, 1920-1
and the respective increases involved. The figures for the Bank of
England are included :
LIABILITIES
I9I3-4-
1920-1.
Increase.
Capital &
Reserves
Undivided Prof-
its .
Deposits .
Acceptances
Notes, Bills, etc.
131,629,000
6,705,000
1,104,330,000
67,547,ooo
54,592,000
179,979,000
8,858,000
2,681,920,000
109,896,000
194,836,000
48,350,000
2,153,000
1,577,590,000
42,349,000
140,244,000
1,364,803,000
3,175,489,000
1,810,686,000
ASSETS
I9I3-4-
1920-1.
Increase.
Cash in hand,)
money at \
call, etc. J
Investments
Discounts and
advances
Premises and cov-
er for Accept-
ances
328,559,000
222,690,000
735,104,000
78,450,000
708,622,000
771,191,000
1,561,337,000
134,339,000
380,063,000
548,501,000
826,233,000
55,889,000
1,364,803,000
3,175,489,000
1,810,686,000
Increase in Deposits. Apart from the capital and reserves,
which show what, in the circumstances, must be considered for
1920-1 the satisfactory increase of 48,350,000, or 36-7% over
the 1913-4 total, the first item which strikes one's attention here
is the enormous increase in deposits, 1,577,590,000, or 142-8%
over the 1913-4 figures. The increase in deposits was common
to most, if not all, of the banks during the war period, and after.
Various reasons have been assigned for it. Some bankers gravely
asserted that many of the balances which went to swell their
deposits represented money awaiting employment in trade, but
however true that may have been during the trade slump of
1919-20, the true causes during the war were to be found in the
inflation arising out of the Government's war finance; while
immediately after the war, bankers were certainly too free with
their advances.
Each advance had the effect of adding to the deposits of the same
or of some other bank in the country, since when a person raises a
loan with a bank the amount is nearly always credited to his current
account. Obviously, then, an increase in bank loans and advances is
concomitant with an increase in bank deposits, and as the Bankers'
Magazine pointed out in regard to the war period " bankers were
able to extend their loans in this manner because a large proportion
of the inflated deposits of the war period still remained with them as
additional cash, notwithstanding the large sums which they invested
in Treasury Bills or were prevailed upon to lock up in the various
War Loans." Undoubtedly, the increase in deposits was largely due
to the immense creation of Government credits, which eventually
BANKING
399
found their way into the pockets of producers, traders and wage-
earners, and so on, to the banks. However, by the summer of 1921
the rate of increase in both deposits and current accounts showed
signs of slackening, and there appeared to be little doubt that,
whenever trade started to revive, the deposits of all the banks would
fall rapidly.
The increase in acceptances calls for little comment; it was falling
steadily in 1921, and showed a decline of over 49,000,000 between
1920 and 1921.
Credit Facilities. Discounts and advances gave the lie direct
to the critics who averred that the assistance of the bankers to
trade was not what it should be. Discounts and advances to-
gether showed the very satisfactory increase of 826,233,000, or
nearly 112-4%, an( i it proved that even if the bankers were
scrutinizing more carefully the applications for discounts and
advances in 1921, they were giving very active assistance to the
finance of trade and industry, so far as was compatible with the
precautions they were bound to consider it wise to take in the
interests of their depositors.
As a matter of fact, difficulties during the transitional period
from war to peace were fully appreciated as long ago as 1916,
when the Board of Trade appointed a committee to investigate
the question of financial facilities for trade. Another committee
was also appointed for similar reasons towards the end of 1917.
The terms of reference to the latter body mainly consisted of (a)
an inquiry into the financial needs of trade immediately after
the war and the respect in which these needs would differ from
the needs under normal conditions, (b) the provision of financial
facilities to meet those needs. Briefly, the committee foresaw
that there would be an increased demand for credit facilities
during the reconstruction period, and that the character of the
demand would differ from that of normal times in that it would
consist of a greater demand for loans secured upon capital goods,
compared with loans secured upon consumable goods. Further,
the considered opinion of the committee on financial facilities in
1917 was, that to achieve the reconstruction of trade and industry
on sound financial and economic lines, it would be necessary to
reestablish a sound financial basis by means of an effective gold
standard; to check any undue expansion of credit, and to take
steps to reduce to more normal proportions the inflation of credit
due to the war. In the banking world a movement towards this
end had been gradually shaping itself, though progress up to 1921
had necessarily been slow owing to the bursting of the bubble of
trade inflation, labour troubles, and world-wide depression in
trade during 1920.
That there would be some difficulty in providing the extended
credit facilities which, it was foreseen, would be necessary, was
recognized, and to meet this difficulty the committee of 1918
recommended, among other things, an increase in the capital of
the banks, and the acceptance of deposits for longer periods at
fixed rates of interest. They said:
" To enable the banks to do more in the direction of granting long
trade credits, we are also of opinion that it is desirable that bankers
should make more widely known their willingness to accept deposits
for long periods, at fixed rates of interest. We believe that, if they
were encouraged to do so, a number of depositors would be willing
to deposit their money at fixed rates of interest, for periods of from
one to five years, without the right of withdrawal. The removal of
the liability to withdrawal would thus enable the banks to grant loans
for longer periods."
To a limited extent, effect was given to these recommendations,
and in 1921 the banks were all striving to meet the abnormal
conditions with which they were faced.
The London branches of the colonial banks, of course, always
favoured the taking of fixed deposits at a comparatively high
rate of interest; but it is doubtful if the movement is destined
to extend greatly among the London joint stock banks who are
called upon to maintain greater liquid balances to meet with-
drawals than are their colonial confreres.
One good thing towards the solution of the difficulty in provid-
ing adequate banking facilities for trade was that which arose
out of the recommendations of the Board of Trade committee of
1916. As the result of the deliberations of that committee it was
resolved to form a new bank to fill the gap which was said to exist
between the home banks and the colonial and British-foreign
banks and banking houses. The new institution was called the
British Trade Corporation. Its constitution and functions were
laid down by the committee to be :
(1) To have a capital of 10,000,000. The first issue to be from
2,500,000, upon which, in the first instance, only a small amount
should be paid up, but which should all be called up within a reason-
able time. A further issue to be made afterwards, if possible at a
premium.
(2) It should not accept deposits at call or short notice.
(3) It should only open current accounts for parties who are
proposing to make use of the overseas facilities which it would
afford.
(4) It should have a foreign exchange department where special
facilities might be afforded for dealing with bills in foreign currency.
(5) It should open a credit department for the issue of credits to
parties at home and abroad.
(6) It should enter into banking agency arrangements with
existing colonial or British-foreign banks wherever they could be
concluded upon reasonable terms, and where such arrangements
were made, it should undertake not to set up for a specified period
its own branches or agencies. It should have power to set up
branches or agencies where no British-foreign bank of importance
exists.
(7) It should inaugurate an information bureau.
(8) It should endeavour not to interfere in any business for which
banks and banking houses now provide facilities, and it should
try to promote working transactions on joint account with other
banks, and should invite other banks to submit to it new transac-
tions which, owing to length of time, magnitude or other reasons,
they are not prepared to undertake alone.
(9) Where desirable, it should cooperate with the merchant and
manufacturer, and possibly accept risks upon joint account.
(10) It should become a centre for syndicate operations, availing
itself of the special knowledge which it will possess through its
information bureau.
The British Trade Corporation was designed to fill a gap
in the financial machinery of the country and to supply needs
which had been long felt by trade and industry. Apart from
the assistance which it might be able to render in connexion with
overseas contracts, the development of existing markets and the
securing of new ones, its sphere of usefulness was a large one,
and properly directed, it should prove of great value to the
development of British trade, finance and industry.
Foreign Banking.- As a matter of interest in the trend of
British banking it may be noted that all the large joint stock
banks had entered by 1921 into more or less extended foreign
relations. All had proper branches devoted entirely to the financ-
ing and developing of overseas trade, and foreign exchange
operations formed a much more important part of the work of all
London banks than had been the case before the war.
The ramifications of some of them were by 1921 very wide;
Barclay's Bank, for instance, maintained a large foreign department
in London and was also affiliated with the Anglo-Egyptian Bank.
Lloyd's Bank, in company with the National Provincial Bank, had
also its subsidiary in France under the title of Lloyd's & National
Provincial Foreign Bank, Ltd. The London County Westminster &
Parr's Bank had a subsidiary bank called the London County West-
minster & Parr's Foreign Bank, Ltd., and both Lloyd's and the
London County Westminster & Parr's Bank were closely concerned
in forming (1917) the British Italian Corporation in England and
the Compagnia Italo-Britannica in Italy. The London Joint City &
Midland Bank had formed no branches abroad, the view being that
it was better to refrain from competing with foreign banks in their
own centres; further, that besides being able to maintain amicable
relations with foreign banks, a greater security was afforded to
domestic depositors where the bank's activities were restricted to the
home country. Some of the other banks who appeared to support
this view had joined together and participated largely in the estab-
lishment of a bank known as the British Overseas Bank, which was
making steady progress in the particular branch of banking for which
it catered.
Altogether, then, whatever may have been the failings of the
British bankers up to 1910 in the provision of means for financing
overseas trade, and in attending to the foreign exchange operations
of their clients, there was in 1921 no lack of facilities for clients
whose business called for operations in foreign and colonial currencies.
War Services. A word remains to be said about the rise in the
investment figures, which was a noteworthy feature of the
aggregate balance sheets of the banks. The increase during the
decade was 548,501,000, a little over 246%, and undoubtedly a
large proportion of the investments in 1921 represented the
bankers' subscriptions to the various war loans in which they
had participated heavily. The banks' contribution to the Victory
400
BANKING
and Funding loans alone, it was estimated, amounted to some
111,000,000. In June 1921, however, a small decline had recently
been noticeable, and it seemed probable that, as time went on,
the bankers would gradually divest themselves of a large portion
of Government stocks.
Great services were rendered by the banks to the Government
during the war. In most of the large loans that were floated the
instalments were spread over a more or less lengthy period. In
determining the amounts which the banks could conveniently
handle account was taken of their reserve funds, which largely
consisted of their deposits with the Bank of England. In de-
scribing the actual process of assisting the Government in this
loan finance, the late Sir Edward Holden compared the payments
with the revolutions of a wheel. The banks were described as
placing in the wheel the payments they made for their customers
who had subscribed for the loans; the wheel carried these pay-
ments to the credit of the Government with the Bank of England,
and the subscribers received their securities. The Government
then placed in the wheel cheques in payment of commodities
and services rendered for conveyance to their creditors, and the
creditors in turn used the wheel to carry the cheques to the
credit of their accounts in the banks, thus reestablishing the
banks' reserves and preparing them for another instalment.
Another method by which the Government was helped by the
banks was by the steady absorption of Treasury bills and other
securities sold over the counter at the Bank of England. The
banks also rendered invaluable service to the Government in
making available their credit facilities with the Bank of England.
" To increase their clients' ability and their own abih'ty to invest
in Government issues they would borrow from the Bank of
England. These loans would increase their deposits with the
Bank of England, which, as reserves, would increase their ability
to grant to their own clients loans equivalent to, say, five times
such deposits " (English Public Finance). Then in the advances
to the Government on " Ways and Means " they were
of important assistance. The manner in which these Ways
and Means advances operated may be best described in the
words of the Committee on Currency and Foreign Exchanges
after the war:
" Suppose for example, in a given week the Government require
10 million over and above receipts from taxes and loans from the
public. They apply for an advance from the Bank of England,
which by a book entry places the amount required to the credit of
public deposits. The amount is then paid out to Government credi-
tors, and passes, when the cheques are cleared, to the credit of their
bankers in the books of the Bank of England in other words, is
transferred from ' Public ' to ' Other ' deposits, the effect of the
whole transaction thus being to increase by 10 million the pur-
chasing power in the hands of the public in the form of deposits in
the joint stock banks and the bankers' cash at the Bank of England
by the same amount. The bankers' liabilities to depositors having
thus increased by 10 million and their cash reserves by an equal
amount, their proportion of cash to liabilities (which was normally
before the war something under 20%) is improved, with the result
that they are in a position to make advances to their customers to an
amount equal to four or five times the sum added to their cash
reserves, or, in the absence of demand for such accommodation, to
increase their investments by the difference between the cash
received and the proportion they require to hold against the increase
of their deposit liabilities. Since the outbreak of war it is the second
procedure which has in the main been followed, the surplus cash
having been used to subscribe for Treasury Bills and other Govern-
ment securities. The money so subscribed has again been spent by
the Government and returned in the manner described to the
bankers' cash balances, the process being repeated again and again,
until each 10,000,000 originally advanced by the Bank of England
has created new deposits representing new purchasing power to
several times that amount."
It may be noted, in connexion with the part played by the
great joint stock banks in the raising of war loans, that for the
first time they were made collecting agents, being so named in
the propectuses with the Bank of England.
Note Issues. The note circulation of the English joint stock
banks remained in 1921 practically unchanged at 174,000.
Scottish notes, it was found, were on the increase, while Irish
notes showed a considerable decline. The expansion of the
paper currency of the United Kingdom may be shown as follows,
the increases since 1913 being 279% for the Scottish, 206% for
the Irish, and 349% for the Bank of England notes:
(ooo's omitted.)
End of
Scottish.
Irish.
Bank of
England.
A>
Treasury
Notes.
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
7,744
9,502
12,555
15,461
19,023
25,HI
28,032
29,363
8,074
10,918
15,000
19,112
22,336
30,896
29,054
24,718
29,608'
36,139
35,309
39,676
45,944
70,307
91,350
132.851
38,478
103,125
150,144
212,782
323,241
356,152
367,626
The total issue of the Bank of England against securities is
known as the Fiduciary Issue, and on June 30 1914, the amount
of this issue was 18,450,000, while the Bank of England notes
issued against gold coin and bullion, under the provisions of the
Bank Charter Act of 1844, amounted to 38, 476,000. As showing
how the bank's note issue increased during the war and the
period following it, it may be observed that the notes in circula-
tion on June i 1921 amounted to 144,993,235, as security for
which the Government debt amounted to 11,015,000, other
securities to 7,434,900, giving an excess circulation over the
authorized issue against securities of 126,543,235, all duly
covered by the deposit of gold coin and bullion in the Issue
Department.
The Committee on Currency and Foreign Exchanges after
the war sat in 1918 and 1919, under Lord Cunliffe's chair-
manship, to consider among other things the working of the Bank
Act, 1844, and the constitution and functions of the Bank
of England, with a view to recommending any alterations which
might appear to be necessary or desirable. Briefly, the conclusion
they came to was that the principles of the Act of 1844, which
upon the whole had been fully justified by experience, should be
maintained, namely, that there should be a fixed fiduciary issue
beyond which, subject to emergency arrangements, notes should
only be issued in exchange for gold. They said in their report:
" It is noteworthy that from 1866 till the outbreak of the war
(1914) no suspension of the Act was ever necessary." The Com-
mittee considered that the stringent principles of the Act had
often had the effect of preventing dangerous developments,
and the fact that they had had to be temporarily suspended on
certain rare and exceptional occasions (and those limited to the
earlier years of the Act's operation when experience of the work-
ing of the system was still immature), did not, in their opinion,
invalidate this conclusion. The Committee therefore recom-
mended that the separation of the issue and banking departments
of the bank should be maintained, and that the weekly return
should continue to be published in its old form. The possibility
of so modifying the Act of 1844 as to make provision for the
issue of emergency currency in times of acute difficulty was,
however, carefully considered. They said that it might, no
doubt, be sufficient to leave matters as they were prior to 1914,
and to risk the possibility of the law having to be broken, subject
to indemnity from Parliament, but evidently the Committee
were alive to the objections that had been expressed in many
quarters to this procedure. Their report states: " We are, there-
fore, of opinion that the provisions of Section 3 of the Currency
and Bank Notes Act, 1914, under which the Bank of England may,
with the consent of the Treasury, temporarily issue notes in
excess of the legal limit, should be continued in force. It should
be provided by statute that Parliament should be informed forth-
with of any action taken by the Treasury under this provision
by means of a Treasury Minute which should be laid before both
Houses. The statute should also provide that any profits de-
rived from the excess should be surrendered by the Bank to the
Exchequer." The Committee add: " It will, of course, be
necessary that the Bank Rate should be raised to, and main-
tained at, a figure sufficiently high to secure the earliest possible
retirement of the excess issue."
BANKING
401
The following table records the changes in the Bank of England
rate from 1911 to 1920:
No. of
changes.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
1911
4
4*
3
394
1912
4
5
3
3155
1913
2
5
4*
4 15 5
1914
8
10
3
409
1915
None
5
5
500
1916
i
6
5
593
1917
2
6
5
53
1918
None
5
5
500
1919
I
6
5
530
1920
i
7
6
6 14 4
A table may also be given showing (in thousands of pounds) the
amounts presented through the London Bankers' Clearing House
during the ten years ending in 1921 :
Total
Clearings.
Country
Cheque
Clearing.
Metro-
politan
Clearing.
On Consols
Settling
Days.
Exchange
Account
Days.
igii
14,613,877
,221,420
796,386
678,652
2,218,700
1912
15,961,773
,307,062
841,264
725,293
2,362,212
1913
16,436,404
,389,481
855,648
781,892
2,082,031
1914
14,665,048
,370,464
860,262
*5I5,566
11,481,780
1915
13,407,725
,567,571
929,064
589,654
1,025,775
1916
15,275,046
,872,451
1,074,027
680,381
1,238,039
1917
19,121,196
2,244,190
1,177,478
881,824
1-521,194
1918
21,197,512
2,736,273
1,429,611
929,944
1,725,563
1919
28,415,382
3,386,768
1,813,929
1,296,734
2,316,366
1920
39,018,903
4,072,220
2.093,750
1,944,205
3,090,895
* Seven settlements only, f Eighteen settlements only.
The Definition of a " Bank." One good result of the British
banking amalgamations which the critics of the policy nearly
always overlooked is the elimination of the weaker vessels.
Even a cursory glance at the figures will convince the reader that
amalgamations have given added stability to the British banks,
and this cannot but be beneficial to the general public and to the
commercial community. The amalgamated institutions, more-
over, have been unconnected with any failures; indeed, many
times they have been the means of averting bankruptcies and
panics. They came through the backwash of the American
financial panic of 1907-8 with a firmly established reputation
for that conservatism which means strength, and just as they
emerged from the black times of the Baring crisis years ago,
so have they passed through the critical periods of the war years,
1914-8, with added lustre. In the monetary stringency that
befell Europe on the outbreak of war, and brought many of the
European bourses on the verge of disaster, it was borne upon
the public what a useful function is performed by the great
banks of the United Kingdom in averting banking crises and
creating confidence in British financial methods.
It is true that between 1910 and 1921 there were one or two
failures which brought disaster to many of the poorer folk.
But these failures were not by " banks " in any proper sense of
the word. One was the Charing Cross Bank, which failed in
Oct. 1910. It was nothing more or less than a money-lending
concern. When it closed its doors it brought ruin to a large
number of poor people who, tempted by high rates of interest,
had deposited their savings with the institution. Practically
nothing was saved from the wreck brought about by the folly
of a man, named A. W. Carpenter, who was the sole proprietor
of the concern. Then there was the Birkbeck Bank, which went
into liquidation on June 8 1911, mainly through its connexion
with building society finance. In this instance, the consequences
were not so disastrous, since, largely as the outcome of the assist-
ance of the joint stock banks in the liquidation, the depositors
were ultimately paid nearly in full. More recently, on Dec. 20
1920, history repeated itself, and the public was startled by the
failure of Farrow's Bank, an institution carried on under the
chairmanship of Mr. Thomas Farrow, who was sentenced to four
years' penal servitude in connexion with the publication of false
balance sheets of the so-called bank. The failure of this bank
caused little surprise in banking circles, but, as usual, a large
number of depositors of the small tradesman and artisan class
were ruined by the failure. As with other institutions of this
type, it was the same old story the public lured by high rates
of interest offered on current accounts and small deposits.
When the bank failed it had succeeded in obtaining from the
public approximately 1,458,000 in current accounts and 2,679,-
ooo short deposits, and up to July 1921 all that it had been
possible to pay to the depositors was 2s. in the , and there
seemed no probability of anyone receiving more than 55. in the
in final settlement.
In each case the failures gave prominence to the necessity
for limiting the use of the title " bank " to institutions that
really are banks. It also emphasized the necessity for the great
joint stock banks to encourage the small depositor, with the
result that most of them now advertise their willingness to open
small deposit accounts at rates of interest consistent with prudent
banking.
Immediately following the failure of the Charing Cross Bank
the question was raised " What is a bank? " and there was a
demand for a definite ruling on the subject. It is curious, but
true, that no Act up to 1921 had ever said what was the meaning
of the word " bank, " and what is still more curious, there was
no decision of a Court of Law on this point. All the Bills of
Exchange Act of 1882 says is " A banker includes a body of
persons whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business
of banking " a definition which has never had the slightest use
in preventing scandals that have arisen in connexion with such
concerns as the Charing Cross or Farrow's Bank. After the out-
cry in the press over the Charing Cross Bank failure in 1910 had
died down, the subject was dropped, owing, it was said, to the
difficulty of framing any satisfactory definition. The question
was, however, raised again in 1911 on the amendment of the
Money Lenders' Act, but with a similar result, and nothing use-
ful was accomplished in the nature of preventive legislation.
Then, in 1915, largely as the outcome of the banks' participation
in the Government's War Loans, the question was again raised,
and a small committee was got together by the late Lord Cun-
liffe to discuss the matter in anticipation of legislation. A report
was made to the Bankers' Clearing House Committee, and the
matter was continually discussed, off and on. The first definition
proposed by the Clearing House Committee was this:
" A Bank, as the term is understood in this country, may be
broadly described as a firm or institution whose main business is to
receive from the public monies on current account repayable on.
demand by cheque."
The objection to this definition, it was considered, lay in the
words " main business, " a general term which itself calls for
explanation. It was urged that the main business of a bank is not
in the receipt of money from the public, but in the relending of
that money. Consequently, an alternative definition was pro-
posed in the following terms:
" The expression ' bank ' means any persons who hold themselves
out as carrying on the business of receiving from the public current
account money which is to be repayable on demand by cheque, or
who use the word ' bank ' or any derivative of that word as part
of the title or description under which they carry on business."
What, however, was considered to be even a better definition
was that given by the president of the Institute of Bankers,
London, Dr. Walter Leaf, in his address to the Institute of
Bankers in Nov. 1920, namely: -
" The expression ' bank ' means any persons who receive from the
public on current account money which is to be repayable on
demand by cheque, or who use the word ' bank ' or any derivative
of that word as part of the title under which they carry on business."
A good deal was said on the matter at the meeting in question,
and most bankers present were in agreement with the president
when he said that what actually was needed was a register of
bankers which could be established without a hard and fast
definition. Further, a tribunal should be set up with power to
admit applicants or reject them from incorporation in the reg-
ister on a wide view of all the circumstances of their business.
This tribunal, it was argued, should be representative, not only
of Government Departments, but of industry and commerce,
as well as of existing banks. If such a register were set up no
4O2
BANKING
one would be allowed to use the name of a bank or any derivative
from it unless his name was included in the register. On all such
registered banks such obligations as the publication of accounts,
and so forth, would be imposed as might be thought desirable.
In the meantime the Government itself had in 1918-21 a bill
under consideration which was intended to include the principal
points put forward. But during 1921 it seemed to have found
its resting-place in the archives of the Board of Trade.
Certainly the suggested register of bankers carries us a step
farther than previous efforts have done. Sir John Paget, the
eminent banking counsel, had constantly urged the necessity
for reform in this matter, and in a letter to the Journal of the
Institute of Bankers he pointed out in 1920 that the register plan
offered finality where finality was sorely needed, elasticity where
experience called for change. As he said, the register need not
necessarily be either an Index Expurgatorius or a Book of the
Righteous; it would be a true guide and friend. It would not be
derogatory to bankers, for registration is both recognized and
adopted in all professions. The Stock Exchange has its official
list of members; the Law List is the register of counsel and so-
licitors, and when we come to medicine and surgery we find in the
Medical Register and the General Medical Council the complete
exemplar of a register and tribunal which, as Sir John Paget
has argued very reasonably, might well be the pattern to be fol-
lowed by the bankers. Unfortunately the blunder made by the
Government in 1919 in introducing a"banks supervision" bill (for
controlling amalgamation), which was so badly drafted that it
had to be withdrawn, seemed to have discouraged official action.
Overseas British Banking. The recent tendency of the Eng-
lish joint stock banks to take an interest in overseas banking
has already been mentioned. Apparently, they had not yet in
1921 reached the point of carrying the process of amalgamation
into unions with the colonial banks, though, as it happens, in
1919, pourparlers were taking place between representatives of
Lloyd's Bank and the National Bank of India for the purchase
of the shares of the latter. However, before the negotiations
had reached a head the British Treasury intervened and vetoed
the transaction. Nevertheless, there was an important develop-
ment in India, namely the amalgamation of the three Presidency
Banks, the Bank of Bengal, the Bank of Bombay, and the Bank
of Madras, which, under an Act passed by the Indian Legislative
Council in 1920, became united on Jan. 27 1921, and were hence-
forth to do business as the Imperial Bank of India. As is well
known, the old Presidency Banks under the former regime were
restricted in their operations; they were looked upon as semi-
official institutions and as " bankers' banks." Under the Presi-
dency Banks Act of 1876 they were prohibited from doing foreign
exchange business, from borrowing or taking deposits payable
outside India. They were not permitted to make loans for
longer periods than six months, or to advance upon mortgage,
or on immovable property, or upon promissory notes bearing
less than two independent names, or upon goods, unless the
goods or the title to them were deposited with the banks as
security. Under the constitution of the new Imperial Bank of
India, these disabilities are to a large extent removed; the bank is
empowered to do most of the business which the Presidency
Banks were formerly prohibited from doing. Besides acting
as the bank for the Government, the Imperial Bank is permitted
to have an office in London, and to rediscount bills for the Ex-
change Banks and other banks. It does not, however, compete
with the Exchange Banks in ordinary exchange business. The
appointment of the bank as the Indian Government's sole bank
in India will make for economy, for it will enable the Government
to abolish the expensive Reserve Treasuries in India, and the busi-
ness hitherto conducted in that connexion by the Government
will be done by the Imperial Bank. To render this possible, the
Imperial Bank undertook to establish and to maintain within
five years no fewer than 100 new branches, not less than one-
fourth of which would be opened at such places as the Govern-
ment might consider desirable.
It will be convenient at this point if we give particulars of the
capital, etc., of the banks before the amalgamation and the position
as it stood in June 1921.
RESOURCES OF THE INDIAN PRESIDENCY BANKS BEFORE THEY
WERE ABSORBED BY THE IMPERIAL BANK OF INDIA
(Lakhs of rupees.)
Capital.
Re-
serves.
Deposits.
Cash.
Public.
Private.
Bank of Bengal
Bank of Bombay
Bank of Madras
Total
200
IOO
75
2IO
125
45
388
187
124
3439
2650
2228
1244
980
455
375
380
699
8317
2679
LIABILITIES.
Subscribed capital .
Rs.
9,89,60
ASSETS.
Government securities
Rs.
9,56,82
Capital paid up
5,28,65
Loans ....
,3, 4
14,76,68
Reserve
Public deposits ' .
Other deposits
Loans against secur-
ities, per contra .
Sundries .
3,69,14
12,89,10
66,17,16
16,87
1,11,25
Cash credits
Inland bills
Foreign bills
Bullion .
Dead stock '.
Sundries
Balances with other
banks
Cash ....
20,95,71
15,03,16
38
6
2,09,04
37-39
19,26
24-95,27
Total liabilities Rs.
89,32,17
Total assets . Rs.
89.32,17
(Figures are in lakhs of rupees one lakh = 100,000 rupees)
CAPITAL, ETC., OF THE IMPERIAL BANK OF INDIA, MAY 20 1921
(ooo's omitted.)
The above includes:
Deposits in London 34,500
Advances in London 130,300
Cash and balances at
other banks in London 130,607
The establishment of this bank is, of course, a great step forward
in the banking development of India; it centralizes the operations of
three large banks, but gives them larger working resources and a
much larger scope. A further advantage is found in the fact that
although the Government is fully represented the main working of
the central concern is in the hands of private individuals. The
president and vice-presidents are the representatives of the share-
holders, and practically the only Government officials on the
central board are the controller of the currency, not more than
four nominees of the Government, and one or two managing gover-
nors appointed by the Indian Government in consultation with the
central board. The first two governors were Sir N. Warren and Sir
R. Aitken, who were formerly secretaries and treasurers of the
Banks of Bengal and Bombay respectively, whilst the first London
manager was Sir Bernard Hunter, who held formerly the position of
secretary and treasurer of the Bank of Madras. Subsidiary to the
central board, forming the main governing body, there were to be
local boards, the latter being the existing boards of the amalgamated
institutions in the three presidency towns. The central board was
to function much in the same way as the Bank of England does in
England. It deals with matters of general policy, " such as the
movement of funds from one part of India to another, the fixation
of the Indian Bank rate, which will in future be uniform for the
whole of India, and the publication of the weekly statement." 1
The local boards, under the general control of the central board,
were to have a very free hand in administering the affairs of the bank,
and, altogether, the whole administration was designed to carry on
the work of the previous Presidency Banks with the minimum of
disturbance and the maximum of efficiency.
Precisely what business the Imperial Bank was in 1921 authorized
to transact was set out in the following schedule of the Imperial Bank
of India Act:
The bank is authorized to carry on and transact the several
kinds of business hereinafter specified, namely:
(a) The advancing and lending money, and opening cash-credits
upon the security of: (I.) stocks, funds and securities (other than
immovable property) in which a trustee is authorized to invest trust
money by any Act of Parliament or by any Act of the Governor-
General in Council and any securities of a local Government or the
Government of Ceylon.
(II.) Such securities issued by State-aided railways as have been
notified by the Governor-General in Council under section 36 of the
Presidency Banks Act, 1876, or may be notified by him under this
Act in that behalf.
(Ill ) Debentures or other securities for money issued under the
authority of any Act of a legislature established in British India by,
or on behalf of. a district board.
1 Economic Journal, vol. xxxi.
BANKING
403
(IV.) Goods which, or the documents of title to which, are
deposited with, or assigned to, the bank as security for such advances,
loans or credits.
(V.) Accepted bills of exchange and promissory notes endorsed
by the payees and joint and several promissory notes of two or
more persons or firms unconnected with each other in general
partnership.
(VI.) Fully paid shares and debentures of companies with limited
liability, or immovable property or documents of title relating
thereto as collateral security only where the original security is one
of those specified in sub-clauses (I.) to (IV.), and if so authorized by
any general or special directions of the central board, where the
original security is of the kind specified in sub-clause (V.) provided
that such advances and loans may be made, if the central board
thinks fit, to the Secretary of State for India in Council, without any
specific security.
(b) The selling and realization cf the proceeds of sale of any such
promissory notes, debentures, stock-receipts, bonds, annuities,
stock, snares, securities or goods which, or the documents of title
to which, have been deposited with, or assigned to, the bank as
security for such advances, loans or credits, or which are held by the
bank or over which the bank is entitled to any lien or charge in
respect of any such loan or advance or credit or any debt or claim of
the bank, and which have not been redeemed in due time in accord-
ance with the terms and conditions (if any) of such deposit or assign-
ment.
(c) The advancing and lending money to Courts of Wards upon
the security of estates in their charge or under their superintendence
and the realization of such advances or loans and any interest due
thereon, provided that no such advance or loan shall be made
without the previous sanction of the local Government concerned,
and that the period for which any such advance or loan is made
shall not exceed six months.
(d) The drawing, accepting, discounting, buying and selling of
bills of exchange and other negotiable securities payable in India, or
in Ceylon; and, subject to the general or special directions of the
Governor-General in Council, the discounting, buying and selling
of bills of exchange, payable outside India, for and from or to such
banks as the Governor-General in Council may approve in that
behalf.
(e) The investing of the funds of the bank upon any of the
securities specified in sub-clauses (I.) to (III.) of clause (a) and
converting the same into money when required, and altering, con-
verting and transposing such investments for or into others of the
investments above specified.
(/) The making, issuing and circulating of bank-post bills and
letters of credit made payable in India, or in Ceylon, to order or
otherwise than to the bearer on demand.
(g) The buying and selling of gold and silver whether coined or
uncoined.
(h) The receiving of deposits and keeping cash accounts on such
terms as may be agreed on.
(i) The acceptance of the charge of plate, jewels, title-deeds or
other valuable goods on such terms as may be agreed on.
(j) The selling and realizing of all property, whether movable
or immovable, which may in any way come into the possession of
the bank in satisfaction or part satisfaction of any of its claims.
(k) The transacting of pecuniary agency business on commission.
(/) The acting as administrator, executor or trustee for the pur-
pose of winding up estates and the acting as agent on commission in
the transaction of the following kinds of business, namely :
(I.) The buying, selling, transferring and taking charge of any
securities or any shares in any public company.
(II.) The receiving of the proceeds, whether principal, interest or
dividends, of any securities or shares.
(III.) The remittance of such proceeds at the risk of the principal
by public or private bills of exchange, payable either in India or else-
where.
(m) The drawing of bills of exchange and the granting of letters
of credit payable out of India, for the use of principals for the pur-
pose of the remittances mentioned in clause ( / ) and also for private
constituents for bona fide personal needs.
(n) The buying, for the purpose of meeting such bills or letters of
credit, of bills of exchange payable out of India, at any usance not
exceeding six months.
(0) The borrowing of money in India for the purpose of the
bank's business, and the giving of security for money so borrowed by
pledging assets or otherwise.
(>) The borrowing of money in England for the purpose of bank
business upon the security of assets of the bank, but not otherwise.
(?) Generally, the doing of all such matters and things as may be
incidental or subsidiary to the transacting of the various kinds of
business hereinbefore specified.
The business which the bank was not authorized to carry out or
transact was set out in Part II., which stated:
The bank shall not transact any kind of banking business other
than that specified in Part I., and in particular:
(1) It shall not make any loan or advance (a) for a longer period
than six months, or (b) upon the security of stock or shares of the
bank, or (c) save in the case of the estates specified in clause (c) of
Part I., upon the mortgage or in any other manner upon the security
of any immovable property, or the documents of title relating thereto.
(2) The bank shall not (except upon a security of the kind speci-
fied in sub-clauses (I.) to (IV.) of clause (a) of Part I.) discount bills
for any individual or partnership-firm for an amount exceeding in
the whole at any one time such sum as may be prescribed, or lend or
advance in any way to any individual or partnership-firm an
amount exceeding in the whole at any one time such sum as may be
so prescribed.
(3) The bank shall not discount or buy, or advance and lend, or
open cash-credits on the security of any negotiable instrument of any
individual or partnership-firm, payable in the town or at the place
where it is presented for discount, which does not carry on it the
several responsibilities of at least two persons or firms unconnected
with each other in general partnership.
(4) The bank shall not discount or buy, or advance and lend or
open cash-credits on the security of any negotiable security having
at the date of the proposed transaction a longer period to run than
six months or, if drawn after sight, drawn for a longer period than
six months.
Provided that nothing in this Part shall be deemed to prevent the
bank from allowing any person who keeps an account with the
bank to overdraw such account, without security, to such extent
as may be prescribed.
The setting up of the Imperial Bank of India was an important
step forward for India, and the results could not but be far-reaching.
As the Government of India said in placing the scheme before the
Secretary of State, the mere appearance in districts of a bank which
would conduct the Government's Treasury and Public Debt busi-
ness, and as to whose stability there would be no doubt, must in
course of time have an appreciable effect upon the native attitude
towards banking in general. Whether it would be successful in
attracting large deposits from the hoards of wealth that are said to
exist in India remained to be seen, but, at any rate, the other native
banks would now have behind them a powerful central institution to
which they could look for guidance, upon which they could rely for
assistance, and which no doubt would form a necessary adjunct for
the development of the various classes of banking in India, agricul-
tural, industrial and joint stock banks. The internal trade of the
country, too, could but benefit by the extension of branches which
it was the declared policy of the Imperial Bank to set up. 1
We may now turn from a consideration of this most important
development in Indian banking to a similar stride forward in
South Africa, in the establishment of the South African 'Reserve
Bank, which received its charter under the South African Cur-
rency and Bank Act of 1920.
Like the Imperial Bank of India, it was to be a private in-
stitution, half the capital being subscribed by the banks doing
business in the South African Union in proportion to their paid-up
capital and reserve funds, and the other half provided by public
subscription. If the applications from the public fell short of the
50% required, the balance would be made up from public funds.
The bank was to be established first at Pretoria.
The affairs of the bank were to be managed by a Reserve
Board consisting of eleven members, three being men experienced
in banking and finance, and three (actively engaged in business
at the time of appointment) representative of commerce, agri-
culture and industry. Three others were to be appointed by the
Government. A governor and deputy-governor (who must
be persons of banking experience) were to be appointed by the
Governor-General and to hold office for five years. The person
selected for the seat of the first governor was Mr. W. H. Clegg,
who, prior to his appointment, was the chief accountant at the
Bank of England.
Like the Federal Reserve system of America, the object of the
new South African banking system is to consolidate the financial
system of the country by centralizing the existing bank reserves.
Further, the keeping of balances of other banks at the Reserve Bank
will have the effect of making the central institution the sole cus-
todian of the banking reserve of the country, a feature which is
evidently modelled from the English system. The reserve regulations
make the expansion of the note issue dependent on trade demands,
and when the system is properly functioning it is expected there will
be a much greater elasticity of the currency than formerly in South
Africa.
For a period of 25 years from its inception the bank will have the
sole right of issuing notes within the South African Union. The other
banks are not ignored; they are given time to make arrangements
regarding their own note issues; they will be allowed to continue the
issue of their notes for 12 months, and if the Reserve Bank is then in
a position to issue its own notes, they will be called upon to retire
their notes gradually, and when all had lapsed (within two years,
1 Cf. Economic Journal, June 1921.
404
BANKING
it was hoped), the Reserve Bank would be the only bank of issue
in the Union. However, the other banks' issues, even in the transi-
tory periods, will require to be backed by a minimum gold reserve
of 40%, and for any excess circulation over that of Dec. 31 1919,
they will pay an additional tax of 3 % per annum.
The South African Reserve Bank itself will be obliged to maintain
a minimum gold reserve of 40 % against its note issue, but the remain-
ing; 60 % may be covered by commercial bills, and by a fixed charge
on all the assets of the bank. Further, it must keep a minimum gold
reserve of 40% against its deposits and bills payable.
The bank will act as the Government's bankers and financial
agents, and will fix discount rates. It is empowered to set up
branches in any part of the South African Union, and, subject to the
consent of the Treasury, may also open branches outside the Union.
The business in which the bank may participate does not differ
materially from that done by other banks within the South African
Union, with this exception, that it will not be allowed to receive
time deposits, nor to draw or to accept bills payable otherwise than
on demand. The usance of bills of exchange or promissory notes in
which it will deal is limited to 90 days, except bills or notes arising
out of agricultural finance, for which the usance is limited to six
months. However, all bills must bear at least two good signatures.
Dealings in these six-months' bills are limited to 20 % of the bank's
total advances, so there is not much risk of such finance embarrass-
ing the bank.
The principles of the other business allowed to be undertaken by
the bank closely resemble those peculiar to the Bank of England,
and most of the regulations governing it are designed with a view to
giving the country the greatest possible financial assistance in
times of crisis or of stress.
As this was the first central bank established in the British Do-
minions, its progress will be watched with keen interest both at
home and abroad, and as Sir Henry Strakosch has said, " In the
light of the experience gained by the central banks of Europe, the
South African Act should be capable, under wise management, of
adequately fulfilling the functions for which it was set up."
Another new development of importance in colonial banking
since 1910 has been seen in the establishment in Australia in
1912 of the Commonwealth Bank. For the purpose of starting
this bank a special Act of the Federal Parliament was necessary;
it is called the Commonwealth Bank Act of 1911-4. The bank
commenced business early in 1913, and by 1921 had. safely
survived the criticism to which, as a State bank, it was subjected.
It has become one of the recognized financial institutions of the
Commonwealth, and it has not only been a steadying influence
to the Australian financial and banking position, but has given
added stability to the banks in the Commonwealth, and has
certainly strengthened the Commonwealth's position. It was,
of course, the first State bank in the British Empire, and it is
owned entirely by the Australian Commonwealth Government.
The bank has no share capital and all its obligations are guaran-
teed by the Government. There is no board of directors, and
the bank is considered to be free from political interference.
Of necessity, however, the bank must be closely in touch with
the Government. It is responsible for practically all the Govern-
ment's business; it conducts the Government's savings banks
at all its branches, and is largely responsible for 2,800 agencies
at the Australian post-offices. It also undertakes the flotation
of the Australian loans in London, and manages the Govern-
ment stocks much in the same way as the Bank of England at-
tends to Government issues. It is also responsible for the gold
which is produced in Australia, and for the federal note circula-
tion. The net profits of the bank are utilized in the building up of
reserves; one-half of the profit is placed to the credit of a fund
called the Bank Reserve Fund, and the other half to the credit
of a reserve called the Redemption Fund. Each of these reserves
stood in 1921 at 1,378,052. The Bank Reserve Fund is available
for the liabilities of the bank, while the Redemption Fund may
be utilized for repayment of any money advanced to the Aus-
tralian Treasury or in the redemption of stock issued by the
bank, but there is a proviso to the effect that if the fund exceed
the amount of debentures or stock in existence, the excess may
be used for the purpose of the redemption of any Common-
wealth or State debts taken over by the Commonwealth.
During the eight years in which the bank had been in existence up
to 1921 it had accumulated profits of 2,756,104; it started with the
head office in Australia and one branch in London; it had in 1921
six offices in Australia, two in London, and over 30 branches and
sub-branches in all the provinces of Australia, Tasmania and
New Britain. Its deposits exceeded 41,000,000, added to which the
savings-bank deposits amounted to 17,982,000. Its total liabilities
to the public on June 30 1920, were 60,658,600, against which
assets were held in the following approximate proportions: cash,
10%; Australian notes, 3%; investments, 31 %; bills discounted and
advances, 24%.
Although the bank may be said to have justified its existence, the
fact that the Australian Government, besides being the proprietor
of the Commonwealth Bank, is largely interested in trade matters
in Australia, is considered to militate against the best principles of
central banking, and it seems likely that the Australians will watch
the South African Reserve Bank and will possibly endeavour to
develop their own system on rather different lines. The South
African Bank, it is held, indicates a very hopeful road towards
reform, and the system is certain to receive serious consideration
from Australia and most other parts of the Empire. Critics have
laid stress upon the advantages which the South African Reserve
Bank will secure for the internal finance of the Union, and that
really is what is wanted in Australia. The establishment of the South
African Reserve Bank opens the door to imperial cooperation in
banking and currency matters in a form and on a scale which had
been difficult, if not impossible, up to 1921. From the imperial
point of view the establishment of such a bank is an event of as
much importance as from the international standpoint was the
establishment of the United States Federal Reserve system, and it
is to be hoped that further developments of the same nature will
follow and so enable the British Empire to escape from the charge
that cooperation between London and South Africa, London and
Sydney, or between London and Montreal, presents greater diffi-
culties than cooperation between London and New York.
Concerning the other banks in the Empire in which Great Britain
is interested, we must be brief. To take the Canadian system first:
it has certainly all the elements of elasticity, and the years that had
elapsed between 1906 and 1921 proved its soundness. There were
18 chartered banks in 1921 with over 4,000 branches throughout
the Dominion and Newfoundland. The banking and credit system,
like that of the United Kingdom, is thus under the supervision of
large banks with tried heads, and just as the " big five " in England
are able to keep in close touch through their wonderful branch
system with commerce in every part of the United Kingdom, so in
Canada the chartered banks very efficiently collate the information
needed concerning credit, commerce and industry. As has been
well said by a Canadian writer, the " credit facilities of the Canadian
Dominion, like the Bank Note issues, follow where the need exists
and the situation is always under control. It is the case of a few
men working together against many individuals working alone."
The total assets of the chartered banks in 1921 exceeded $3,091, -
500,000; their gold reserve stood at approximately $80,900,000;
deposits at $2,319,600,000; notes in circulation $280,700,000;
deposits to secure the notes $106,200,000; investment securities
$37,100,000; capital $122,300,000, and rest $128,700,000.
An interesting recent development in Canadian banking has been
the establishment of branches or the forming of alliances in and with
outside countries. With a view to giving the Canadian exporters
every assistance, connexions have been sought in every place in the
British Empire that promises a profitable field for Canadian prod-
ucts. The experience of Canadian bankers is, that instead of foreign
branches cutting into the banks' capital and drawing funds away
from local use, such branches have been instrumental in drawing in
more deposits than have been given out in commercial loans. For
instance, in 1920 it was found that loans, other than call loans,
madeoutsideCanadaamountedtosome$l83,6oo,ooo, while deposits
from the general public outside Canada amounted to $318,200,000.
The South African banks seem to be finding out the same thing, for
they have been extending their branches and banks in many outside
colonies, dependencies and foreign countries.
The colonial banks with Eastern connexions, too, are develop-
ing the branch system in the colonies and foreign countries on a
large scale. The Hongkong Shanghai Banking Corporation, the
Chartered Bank of India, the Mercantile Bank of India and the
National Bank of India, had in 1921 all been extending their sphere
of influence in British Indian and Far Eastern markets, and nearly
all of them were increasing their resources to meet the increased
requirements. For instance, the Indian and Eastern banks estab-
lished in London in 1920 (all British institutions) were possessed of
capital and reserves amounting to 21,180,600. Their deposits
totalled 204,894,000, and cash to 52,754,000, while their total
assets amounted to over 200,000,000. Excluding the Imperial
Bank of India, five of these Indian and Eastern banks had London
offices in 1921, and the five had a total branch strength of over 130.
As showing how they compare with the other colonial banks in
London, we conclude with the following details:
Of African banks there are seven with 873 colonial branches ; total
capital and reserves 17,046,000; deposits of 189,892,000, and total
assets, 249,256,000.
There are 16 Australian banks with 2,393 branches; total capital
and reserves 51,248,000; deposits 281,477,000, and total assets of
383.470.000.
Of Canadian banks there are eight with 2,653 branches, 36,524,-
ooo capital and reserves; 386,047,000 deposits, and total assets
487,330,000, all of which leads one to the reflection that however
BANKING
405
lacking the British Empire is in central banks, it certainly does not
lack branch banks for the use of its nationals ; what is needed is the
coordination of the several systems. (W. F. S.)
II. UNITED STATES. Subsequently to the panic of 1907 and
the recovery which followed, the banking system of the United
States entered upon a period of prosperity and success which
continued practically unbroken to the opening of the World
War. The sudden outbreak of that war, 1914, caused a tem-
porary shock not only to banking but to general business.
This uncertainty, however, lasted but a few months, and was
succeeded by a restoration of confidence which continued with
expanding business and activity in all branches of banking down
to the autumn of the year 1920. In the autumn of 1920 the
development of post-war reaction in business and a violent
shrinkage of prices brought severe pressure to bear upon all
the elements of the banking system of the United States, but
this was not sufficient to cause any dangerous shock. The period
in question was one of unusual importance in American banking,
not only because of the organization of the Federal Reserve
system in which all national banks were compelled by law to
assume membership, but also because of the fact that the
strongest state banks and trust companies voluntarily entered
the system during the first three years after its formation,
with correspondingly broad effects upon financial organization,
while the effects of the war and the expansion of American
industry which accompanied the struggle greatly enlarged the
activity of American banking and added to its profits.
Pre-War Period. The years 1908-13 were characterized by
a steady and consistent growth of business. In the following
table, which shows the advance in the number of organized
banks as well as their chief assets and liabilities, the increase
of operations may be noted during the five years in question,
and may be compared with the advance during the war period:
necessity for the creation of national currency associations, since
no disturbance in business conditions seemed to be imminent,
the national banks made no effort to form them.
GROWTH OF NATIONAL BANKS BY FIVE-YEAR PERIODS
(In thousands of dollars)
No. of
banks.
Total
deposits.
Loans and
discounts. 1
Reserve
held.
Excess
reserve.
Sept. 5 1900
Aug. 25 1905
Sept. I 1910
Sept. 2 1915
Sept. 8 1920
3,871
5,757
7,173
7,613
8,093
3,699,804
5,508,643
7,140,836
9,229,516
16,751,956
2,686,760
3,998,509
5,467,161
6,756,680
13,706,066
983,333 2
l,294,298 2
1,573.522 s
1,969,398'
1,232,039*
299,208
322,170
313,415
868,756
38,092
No. of
banks.
Capital.
Surplus
and un-
divided
profits.
Circulation
Total re-
sources. 1
Sept. 5 1900
Aug. 25 1905
Sept. i 1910
Sept. 2 1915
Sept. 8 1920
3,871
5,757
7,173
7.613
8,093
630,299
799,870
1,002,735
1,068,864
1,248,271
389,469
620,294
874,038
1,022,596
1,456,067
283,949
468,980
674,822
718,496
693,270
5,048,138
7,472,351
9,826,181
12,267,090
21,885,480
1 Includes rediscounts.
2 Includes cash in vault and due from reserve agents.
'Cash in vault, $842,609,000; due from Federal Reserve banks,
$315,409,000; due from approved reserve agents, $811,380,000.
4 Lawful reserve with Federal Reserve bank. In addition, national
banks held $471,546,000 cash in vault and $1,917,438,000 due from
other banks including items with Federal Reserve banks in process
of collection.
During the years in question the National Monetary Com-
mission, appointed in accordance with the provisions of the
Aldrich-Vreeland law, was prosecuting its investigations into
existing conditions, but these investigations were academic up
to 1912, while even in the latter year the bill for banking reor-
ganization proposed by the National Monetary Commission
PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF RESOURCES AND LIABILITIES OF NATIONAL, STATE, SAVINGS, PRIVATE BANKS, LOAN AND TRUST COMPANIES
FROM 1900 TO 1920. Compiled from reports obtained by the Comptroller of the Currency.
(In millions of dollars)
Banks.
Resources.
Liabilities.
Loans
and
Dis-
counts.
Invest-
ments.
Due
from
Banks.
Cash
on
Hand.
Aggregate
Resour-
ces.
Capital
Stock
Paid in.
Surplus
Fund.
Undivided
Profits,
Less Ex-
penses:
Due
to
Banks.
Individu-
al Depos-
its.
United
States
Depos-
its.
Nation-
al Bank
Circu-
lation.
1900
10,382
5,625
2,498
1,272
749
10,785
,024
648
233
1,172
7.239
98
265
1901
11,406
6,387
2,821
1,448
807
12,357
,076
687
268
1,333
8,460
99
319
1902
12,424
7,H5
3,039
1,561
848
13,363
,201
781
315
,393
9,104
124
309
1903
13,684
7,688
3,400
1,570
857
14-303
,321
903
369
,476
9,553
H7
359
1904
14,850
7,930
3,654
1,842
990
15,198
,392
993
367
,752
10,000
no
399
1905
16,410
8,971
3,987
1,982
994
16,918
,463
,053
385
,904
",350
75
445
1906
17,905
9,827
4,073
2,029
1,016
18,147
,565
,180
378
,899
12,215
89
5io
1907
19,746
10,697
4,377
2,135
1,113
19,645
1,690
,305
339
2,075
13,099
180
547
1908
21,346
10,380
4,445
2,236
1.368
19,583
1,757
,401
359
2,198
12,784
130
613
1909
22,491
11,303
4,614
2,562
1,452
21,005
i, 800
,326
508
2,484
14,035 '
70
636
1910
23,095
12,495
4,723
2,393
1,423
22,450
1,879
.547
404
2,225
15,283
54
675
1911
24.392
12,982
5,051
2,788
1,554
23,631
1,952
,512
553
2,621
15,906
48
68 1
1912
25,195
13.892
5,358
2,848
i,572
24,986
2,010
,585
58i
2,632
17,024
58
708
1913
25,993
H.568
5,407
2,776
1,560
25,712
2,096
,676
573
2,584
17,475
49
722
1914
26,765
15,288
5,584
2,872
1,639
26,971
2,132
,7H
562
2,705
18,517
66
722
1915
27,062
15,722
5,881
3,233
i,457
27,804
2,162
,732
639
2,783
19,135
49
722
1916
27,513
17,811
6,796
4,032
1,486
32,271
2,195
,849
564
3,463
22,834
39
676
1917
27.923
20,594
8,003
4,793
1,502
37,126
2,274
,945
674
3,913
26,289
J33
660
1918
28,880
22,514
9,74i
5-136
896
40,726
2,351
2,034
684
3,595
27,808
1.037
68 1
1919
29,123
25,301
12,229
5,865
997
47,6i5
2.437
2.182
825
3.890
33.065
566
677
1920
30,139
31,256
11,387
5,833
1,076
53,0/9
2,702
2,410
976
3,7o8
37.683
175
688
In order to show the relative position occupied by the national
banks, the following tabular comparison, relating to national
institutions only, is presented. It will be understood that
while the state banks and trust companies included in their
number the bulk of the investment institutions of the nation,
the commercial banking assets were predominantly held by
the national banks.
The period 1908-13 was not, however, notable for any
far-reaching changes in method or organization; provisions
which had been enacted in the Aldrich-Vreeland law of May
30 1908 for the formation of national currency associations
(see FEDERAL RESERVE BANKING SYSTEM) remaining prac-
tically a dead letter. There being no immediate or urgent
(the " Aldrich Bill ") had small chance of success so that at
no time prior to 1913 was there a serious prospect of fundamental
change in legislation. The adoption of the Federal Reserve Act
in the latter year greatly altered the conditions under which
the national banking system, and indeed the whole banking
system of the United States, was operating, but it did not pro-
duce any direct or immediate effect upon the methods or posi-
tion of the banks themselves until a much later date. Indeed,
the Federal' Reserve Act itself did not come into practical
operation until nearly a year subsequently to its passage, the
reserve banks being organized in Nov. 1914. During the pre-
war years, however, the problems of the national banking system
which had already been recognized had been growing more and
406
BANKING
more obvious. Prominent among these was the insufficiency
of the note currency, which continued to be issued solely upon
the security of national bonds. In the accompanying table the
note issues of the national banks during the years in question
may be traced I-
YEARLY INCREASE OR DECREASE IN NATIONAL BANK CIRCULATION
FROM 1900 TO 1920
Issued
Retired
Increase
Decrease
1900
$101,645,393
$16,537,068
$85,108,325
1901
123,100,200
15,951.527
107,148,673
1902
42,620,682
21,868,006
20,752,676
1903
68,177,467
28,474,958
39,702,509
1904
69,532,176
31,930,783
37,601,393
1905
90,753,284
22,732,060
68,021,224
1906
84,085,200
25,055,739
59,029,521
1907
56,303,658
27,980,139
28,323,519
1908
141,273,164
80,025,078
61,248,086
1909
82,504,444
48,433,296
34,071,148
1910
57,101,345
33,011,051
24,090,330
1911
49,896,951
35,284,247
14,612,704
1912
38,747,149
27,586,734
11,160,415
1913
37,210,597
26,441,867
10,768,730
1914
387,763,860
20,246,418
367,517,442
1915
27,485,675
342,807,533
$315,322,858
1916
10,593,700
59,026,803
48,433,103
1917
22,749,150
37,211,370
14,462,220
1918
26,227,740
18,781,552
8,431,700
985,512
1919
29,660,850
24,864,635
4,796,215
1920
29,000,000
20,000,000
9,000,000
NATIONAL BANK NOTES OUTSTANDING OCT. 31 1920.
Denomination
Amount
One dollar
Two dollars
Five dollars
Ten dollars
Twenty dollars
Fifty dollars
One hundred dollars
Five hundred dollars
One thousand dollars
Fractional parts
Total
.
$ 341,906
163,288
125,659,460
305,429,590
243,445,080
29,862,000
30,542,700
87.500
21,000
59,800
$735.612,324
3,062,695
Less 1
Total
$732, 549,629
1 Notes redeemed but not assorted by denominations.
The figures show a practically stationary condition of the
circulation. They cannot, however, throw light upon the in-
creasing volume of demand for currency, which during those
years was growing at a rapid rate. ' Only through an enlarged
use of cheques and other credit substitutes or through additions
to the basic monetary circulation itself was it possible for the
United States to add to its circulating medium. Another factor
which had assumed very great importance during the pre-
liminary period referred to, was the growth of trust companies,
involving as it did sharp competition with national banks.
Subsequently to the year 1890 there had been a rapid develop-
ment of trust companies in many parts of the United States
as well as extension and improvement of legislation affecting
them. In some states the trust companies, either through local
restriction or as the result of custom, still confined themselves
to fiduciary business, but under the laws of most commonwealths
they had taken on banking functions, and in some they had
developed the latter with so much success as to make their
preliminary or nominal purposes largely secondary. Due to
the fact that trust company laws were usually much less re-
strictive than those which controlled the operation either of
national banks or of state banks, both of the latter classes of
institutions were feeling the competition of the trust com-
panies with considerable severity. The table on the next page
shows the relative positions of different classes of banks in 1920
and the increase in the number of trust companies and savings
banks during recent years.
Savings banks' development during this period is shown in the
following figures:
Year
Banks
Depositors
Deposits
1900
1,002
6,107,083
$2.449,547,885
1901
1,007
6,358,723
2,597,094,580
1902
1,036
6,666,672
2,750,177,290
1903
1,078
7,035,228
2,935,204,845
1904
i,i57
7,305,443
3,060,178,611
1905
1.237
7,696,229
3,261,236,119
1906
1,319
8,027,192
3,482,137,198
1907
i,4i5
8,588,811
3,690,078,945
1908
1,453
8,705,848
3,660,553,945
1909
1.703
8,831,863
3.713405,710
1910
1,759
9,142,908
4,070,486,246
1911
1,884
9,794,647
4,212,583,598
1912
1,922
10,010,304
4,451,818,522
1913
L978
10,766,936
4,727,403,950
I9H 2
2,100
11,109,499
4-936,591,849
1915
2,159
",285,755
4-997.706,013
622
8,592,271
4,186,976,600
1916
1.242
2,556,121
901,610,694'
622
8,935,055
4,422,489,384
TnT *7
1,185
2,431,958
995,532,890
1917
625
9,011,464
4,422,096,393
1918
1,194
2,368,089
1,049,483,555'
622
8,948,808
4,751,113,000'
1,087
2,486,073
i, 1 5 1, 464,000' '
1919
620
9,445,327
5,186,845,000'
1920
1,087
1,982,229
1,349,625,000'
1 In the assembling of data in relation to savings banks the classifi-
cation of banks as made by the State banking departments is closely
followed, in consequence of which a number of so-called State sav-
ings banks, formerly treated by the Comptroller's office as savings
banks, are now regarded as commercial banks, and the returns there-
from are combined with the latter, which accounts for the relatively
small amount of deposits reported for stock savings banks since 1915.
8 Dividends unpaid not included.
The number of trust companies and information with reference
to the principal items of assets and liabilities on or about June
30 of each year since 1914 are shown in the following table:
Number
(In millions of dollars.)
*
w
J
Invest-
ments
"3
'a
a
U
Cfi
j
&
[S5B
03
*OT
a
=3Q
Aggregate
Resources
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1,564
1,664
i, 606
i, 608
1,669
1,377
1,408
2,905-7
3,048.6
3,704.3
4,311-7
4,403-8
4,091.0
4,601.5
1,261.3
1,349-6
1,605.4
i,789-7
2,115.6
2,069.9
1,902.1
462.2
476.8
475-8
505.5
525-2
450.4
475-7
564-4
577-4
605.5
641.8
646.9
588.6
612.1
4,289.1
4,604.0
5,732-4
6,413-1
6,493-3
6,157-2
6,518.0
5,489.5
5,873-1
7,028.2
7,899.8
8,317.4
7,959-9
8,320.0
* Includes overdrafts.
While commercial banks, both national and state, had from
time to time considered the question of seeking permission to
exercise fiduciary functions, the problem had never assumed
any considerable importance until the Federal Reserve Act
was brought up for consideration. Their policy had been
directed towards enforcing a limitation or restriction of the
banking functions of trust companies, both in the states where
local legislation had not made much direct concession to trust
company activity, and in those where a beginning had al-
ready been made in extending to them banking powers, rather
than to competing with them. One demand which had been
made with entire justice by the national banks had been that
in so far as they exercised actual banking functions and became
liable for demand deposits, the trust companies should be re-
quired to keep a proportion of reserve equal to that required of
the banks with which they were competing. Something had
been done in the direction of applying such a requirement, but
state laws were still in an unsatisfactory condition.
The Opening of the World War. The year 1914 had opened
prosperously for the banks of the country, business being prac-
tically normal and employment at least up to the average,
while agricultural conditions were satisfactory. The sudden
advent of war in Europe at the end of July, however, necessarily
subjected the banks to a very severe shock. Due to the seasonal
character of American exportations of agricultural products
BANKING
407
RESOURCES AND LIABILITIES OF 22,109 STATE, SAVINGS, AND PRIVATE BANKS AND LOAN & TRUST COMPANIES, JUNE 30, 1920
(In thousands of dollars.)
RESOURCES
18,195
State
Banks.
620 Mutual
Savings
Banks.
1,087 Stock
Savings
Banks.
1,408 Loan
and Trust
Companies.
799 Private
Banks.
Total 22,109
Banks.
Loans and discounts (including overdrafts) .
8,963.410
2,591,480
97,483
4,601.508
128,915
17,263,796
Investments (bonds, securities, etc.)
2,226,916
2,716,282
323,596
1,902,075
32,191
7,201,060
Banking House, furniture and fixtures .
262,042
41-599
32,277
163.233
4,046
503.197
Other Real Estate owned
42,961
9,980
5,555
26,609
7,720
92,825
Due from Banks
1,549,571
183,527
70,783
878,692
29,467
2,712,040
Cheques and other cash items (including ex-
changes for clearing-house)
332,848
1,191
4,836
193-615
1,463
533,952
Cash on hand
393,935
41,942
35,215
H8,455
6,480
626,027
All other Resources . . . .
238,098
33,oi6
55,668
405,831
2,344
734-958
Total Resources
14,009,781
5,619,017
1,506,413
8,320,018
212,626
29,667,855
LIABILITIES
Capital Stock paid in
920,211
69,183
475,745
13,334
1,478,473
Surplus Fund .
527-019
334,546
39,422
509,929
13,046
1,423,962
Undivided Profits
222,599
87,975
13,247
102,194
3,458
429.473
Due to Banks .
436,644
116
841
424,542
2,139
864,282
Dividends unpaid
9,126
126
38
4,095
IOI
13,485
Individual Deposits
10,873,035
5-186,845
1,349,625
6,085,675
169,573
23,664,753
Postal Savings Deposits
10,705
I
1,726
3,673
28
16,133
Notes and Bills rediscounted ....
136,365
144
52
146,546
1,639
284,746
Bills payable
549,608
395
24,029
214,144
5,870
794,046
Other Liabilities
324,469
8,869
8,250
353,475
3,438
698,501
Total Liabilities
14,009,781
5,619,017
1,506,413
8,320.018
212,626
29,667,855
and of many of the importations of manufactures, it had become
customary in past years for English banks to hold claims upon
American institutions which gradually accumulated each year
up to the opening of the autumn season, when the movement
of crops to foreign countries provided funds which were used
for the cancellation of these balances. At .the opening of the
war it was supposed that in trade with England such balances
against American banks amounted to something like $500,000,000.
One phase of Great Britain's economic policy upon the out-
break of war was to call in the balances due to her in foreign
countries and generally to cut off trade relations that might
subject her credit structure to fresh demands. At the same
time the presence of German war-vessels in the Atlantic made
it uncertain how long a time must elapse before the movement
of goods to and from Europe would be resumed upon a normal
basis. The export trade of the United States was thus seriously
checked at the same time that extensions of credit by British
banks were practically suspended. One immediate effect of this
situation was to cause a large exportation of gold from the
United States, while the shipment of goods was first reduced,
and at last temporarily suspended. These two factors caused
serious disturbances in the eastern part of the country and
produced a general lack of confidence, while at the same time
they tended to depress the prices of American staples. Cotton
was affected with particular seriousness, its price declining dur-
ing the autumn to a point as low as five cents per pound as
against a figure, then regarded as normal or satisfactory, of
12 or 13 cents in the early part of the year. In consequence of
this stagnation of export trade, there was a somewhat cor-
responding shock to domestic business, a resulting difficulty
in making collections, and eventually a withdrawal of funds
from banks not only for export of specie, but also for the pur-
pose of domestic hoarding. Congress, which was then in session,
hastened to amend the Aldrich-Vreeland Act of 1908, the meas-
ure thus adopted taking effect on Aug. 4 1914. Under the
terms of this amendatory measure the issue of emergency cur-
rency was permitted under more liberal conditions than before.
It would have been much better if the Federal Reserve Act,
which was passed during the preceding Dec., had been brought
into operation, but as a matter of fact reserve banks did not
get under way until Nov. 1914. The action of Congress in
passing the emergency currency law was, therefore, necessary
in order to provide an immediate means of furnishing funds
for the payment of depositors. The currency thus provided
for under the new law was accordingly issued and eventually
rose to a peak point of about $430,000,000. This served to
take the place of gold which was then moving out of the country,
the total gold exports during 1914 amounting to approximately
$223,000,000. Meanwhile the Federal Reserve Board had
been organized in accordance with the terms of the Federal
Reserve Act on Aug. 10 1914, and was immediately confronted
by the great losses of gold which were being incurred by the
banks in order to satisfy the demands of British creditors.
In the belief that much of this withdrawal of gold was due to a
lack of combined action on the part of the American banks,
the board supervised the formation of what became known
as the " international exchange fund," or " gold pool," which
was in effect an agreement among American banks to provide
a total of $100,000,000 of gold for export (or gold exchange),
permitting any bank that might be drawn upon to supply
itself from the common stock by depositing therein satisfactory
funds in other forms. This measure was effective in restoring
confidence while at the same time the first fear and uncertainty
that had resulted from war conditions began rapidly to dis-
appear; German vessels were soon driven from the North
Atlantic and the movement of products from the United States
to Europe was resumed upon a limited scale. The urgency of
demands for cash declined and the banks (which had begun
the issue of clearing-house certificates on Aug. 3) were able to
retire their obligations on Dec. i, although the Stock Exchange
(which had been closed on July 31) was not reopened until
later. Thus the banks of the country passed through the dan-
gerous early stages of the war partly by exercising their own
latent power and partly in consequence of the aid which had
been extended to them through Congressional enactment and
through cooperative effort under the leadership of the Federal
Reserve Board.
The Banks and the Federal Reserve System. The projected
text of the Federal Reserve Act had been made public in June
1913, and had served as a basis for discussion from that date
up to the passage of the Act on Dec. 23 of the same year. It
may fairly be said that practically all of the banks of the coun-
try were opposed to it the national banks primarily because
it made membership in the system compulsory; the other banks
because they feared that great changes and innovations in
business would result from the new system. After the adoption
of the Federal Reserve Act the question whether or not to enter
the system became acute with national banks since the law
had provided that a failure of any national bank to enter the
system would mean the necessity of surrendering its charter
and transferring itself to a state banking system, through rein-
corporation. Accordingly during the early part of the year
1914 there was constant discussion of the wisdom or the un-
wisdom of declining to accept membership. Tfye result was a
408
BANKING
practically unanimous determination to take stock in the new
Federal Reserve banks. The principal points at which the new
Act immediately touched the national banks were in connexion
with the contribution of capital and the transfer of their reserves.
In the course of the discussion of the Federal Reserve Act there
had been an effort on the part of the national banks (especially
after membership in the system had been made compulsory) to
reduce the required amount of contribution to the capital stock
of the Federal Reserve banks to as low a level as possible. It
was eventually fixed at 3% of the capital and surplus of each
national bank, so that when the banks eventually entered the
system (as all except some eight or ten finally did) they were
obliged to pay in only about $50,000,000. In the same way
they had endeavoured to avoid the necessity of transferring
any part of their reserves to the Federal Reserve banks, except
as they might elect, but had not entirely succeeded, although
a three-year period was finally provided during which the trans-
fers might be made in instalments, and only part of the reserves
was even eventually to be transferred. At the outset the banks
paid over to the Federal Reserve banks only about $18,000,000
of capital and $227,000,000 of reserve deposits. These pay-
ments were made during the month of Nov. 1914 and, as just
shown, were only about $245,000,000 in all, so that the burden
of establishing the reserve system was not a particularly heavy
one. Indeed, with the reduction in reserve requirements which
had been made in the Federal Reserve Act (central reserve city
banks being cut from 25% of reserve deposits to 18%, reserve
city banks from 25% to 15% and country banks from 15% to
12%), the banks were in much better condition to take care of the
needs of their customers than they were before the organiza-
tion of the reserve system, even without any recourse to re-
discounting. In view of the fact that European demands for
American goods were considerably reduced during the first
months of the war, so that industry was temporarily checked
and domestic prices were lowered, bank resources were more
than adequate to the needs of customers. Later as the require-
ments of European countries became heavier and export ship-
ments from the United States were increased, the banks entered
upon a period of unusual prosperity, and the difficulty in earn-
ing dividends which they had experienced during 1915 disap-
peared. Credit in fact became comparatively safe, not only
on account of the rapidly rising prices which greatly reduced
the danger of business failure, but also because of the fact
that many of the large purchases of goods in the United States
made for European account were practically guaranteed by
foreign Governments which at that time were in a relatively
strong financial condition. The number of banks accordingly
increased steadily and the capital and surplus even more mark-
edly, as may be seen from the tables already given. What has
been said in this section is intended to apply directly to the
case of the national banks but holds equally true of state
institutions (both banks and trust companies). All went
through a somewhat parallel course of development, while the
high wages and steady employment which were due to very
large European purchases of goods provided a strong basis for
the growth of savings. Savings deposits accordingly advanced
decidedly in amount. For the same reason which enabled na-
tional banks to refrain from re-discounting, state banks and
trust companies were relieved of any urgent necessity to enter
the Federal Reserve system. The system accordingly extended
but little credit to its members up to the end of 1916, while it
enlarged its membership very little outside of the national
banks themselves.
The War Period. An entirely different situation came into
existence immediately upon the entry of the United States into
the World War in April 1917. There had already been some
growth of re-discounting during the earlier months of that
year, and Congress after the opening of the war, June 1917,
amended the Federal Reserve Act. By the terms of this new
law all reserves of national banks were to be carried in Federal
Reserve banks and nothing held in vault was to be counted as
reserves, it bekig felt that such action was practically essential
in order to concentrate the banking power of the country, to-
enlarge the lending power of the reserve banks and to relieve
the members of the necessity of carrying coin in vault. At the
same time effort was made to discourage the payment of coin>
or legal-tender money to depositors, so that the banks soon
passed to what was really a paper basis. The continued im-
portations of gold strengthened the reserve bank holdings, so
that there was at all times far more gold in the country than
before the war. The net increase in gold holdings was fully
$1,000,000,000, but gold coin had practically disappeared from
common use. Congress had also provided, in the Act already
referred to, for membership of state banks in the Federal system
under conditions which permitted them to withdraw whenever
so disposed by giving six months' notice. Partly because of
this assurance of ability to retire and partly because of a feeling
that the advent of war would naturally subject all banks to>
severe stress, while at the same time it was regarded as a matter
of patriotism to render such aid to the Government as they
could, a large number of institutions entered the system.
These accretions to membership continued rapidly during the
years 1917-8 and resulted eventually in the admission of
about 1,200 state institutions. The movement into the system
had a rather important effect upon the banks and trust com-
panies that joined. They were compelled as a condition of
membership to maintain reserves equal to those of the member
banks already in the system, so that a process of standardizing
reserves was effectively carried forward. During the years.
1915-8 there had been extensive changes in state banking legis-
lation. These changes had provided more nearly uniform re-
serve requirements, besides authorizing the local state banks
to become members of the reserve institutions if they felt so>
disposed. In consequence even those banks which did not be-
come members were in some measure adjusted to the banking
situation by being subjected to more uniform requirements.
A somewhat similar process was also going on in the matter of
types of bank paper, the new legislation both of Congress and
of the states being intended to standardize these types. Thus
the United States emerged from the war with a much more
harmonious and uniform system of banking legislation than it
had ever before possessed.
Change in Holdings. The effect of the war was, however, of a
very far-reaching character in its relation to the portfolios or
paper holdings of the banks of the country. The method of
financing the war which was chiefly resorted to by the Treasury
involved heavy taxation, but it was some time before the new
taxes could yield any returns and the Federal Government
never obtained from that source- more than about one-third of
its total outlay. The other two-thirds were obtained from the
banks and the public by borrowing. The public was encouraged
to save and to use its savings in the purchase of Liberty Bonds,,
but a very large proportion of the bonds sold to the public had
to be carried in part at least by means of loans obtained at
banks upon paper collateralled by Government obligations.
This was true of all classes of banks, both national and state,,
as well as of the trust companies, while the latter and the sav-
ings banks were also urged to purchase and hold as many
Liberty Bonds as they could. In these ways the investments of
the banks and their commercial portfolios came to consist very
largely of paper collateralled by Government obligations.
This was true not only of the paper which represented sub-
scriptions to bonds, but also of paper which took the place of
ordinary commercial borrowings. Due to the fact that many
business men preferred to borrow on their own notes collateralled
by Government bonds in order to get the lower rates of interest
made by the banks on such notes, paper of this kind rapidly
displaced ordinary evidences of indebtedness. This state of
things continued until some time after the close of the war, a
modification occurring in the autumn of 1919 and continuing to
grow more pronounced thereafter.
New Functions of National Banks. Prior to the adoption of
the Federal Reserve Act national banks had not been allowed to
perform so-called fiduciary functions, including those of acting
BANKING
409
as guardian or trustee, registrar, fiscal agent, administrator and
others. These functions had been exclusively performed by
trust companies, most states following the example of the
National Bank Act and drawing a sharp line of distinction be-
tween their own state banks and their trust companies. The
Federal Reserve Act authorized the assumption of fiduciary
powers by national banks upon permission of the Federal Reserve
Board. Such permission when granted by the Board was
promptly questioned in the courts, but was upheld by the
Supreme Court of the United States. This decision led to an
extension of the scope of the fiduciary functions so that national
banks were shortly placed upon a basis of competitive equality
with trust companies. The situation led various states to modify
their laws in such a way as to permit state banks to take on
fiduciary functions likewise. Thus the distinction which had
previously existed between national banks, commercial state
banks, and trust companies was gradually wiped out. By the
end of 1920 about 1,200 national banks had been granted per-
mission to exercise trust functions. The time has not yet been
sufficiently long to permit an accurate judgment of the effect
of these changes upon the general banking situation, the full
exercise of fiduciary functions being usually a process of com-
paratively slow development.
Organizing for Foreign Trade. One of the principal defects
of the old national banking system was that it did not function
well in connexion with foreign trade. Neither national nor state
banks had been in the habit of using bankers' acceptances, which
had become the standard basis of foreign business in Great
Britain. This defect was remedied in the Federal Reserve Act,
which authorized the making of acceptances by national banks
up to an amount equal to 100% of the capital and surplus of
the accepting bank (50% in the original Act confined to foreign
trade, but later amended to 100 % of which not to exceed 50%
might be domestic acceptances). Several of the states in which
banking had assumed the greatest development made a similar
change in their legislation at about the same time, so that at
the opening of the World War, with its great impetus to Amer-
ican foreign trade, the banking system, both national and state,
was in position to finance business on the acceptance plan. It
was seen, however, in the formulation of the Federal Reserve
Act that in order to develop foreign banking successfully the
use of the branch system would be necessary. Branch banking
had never been permitted in the United States under the
National Bank Act, and although it sporadically existed under
various state laws such systems were only local and not par-
ticularly successful. It may broadly be said, therefore, that
there had been no development of the branch bank principle
prior to 1913. Although at one time it was proposed to insert
in the Federal Reserve Act permission to establish domestic
branches of national banks, and although the Act gave to
Federal Reserve banks power to establish branches within
their own districts and at their own discretion, it withheld
from national banks power to create domestic branches. It,
however, did vest them under certain conditions with the power
to establish branches abroad. This power was used by only one
or two of the larger national banks, and early in 1915 the demand
for action which would allow national banks to subscribe to the
stock of foreign trade banks to be jointly owned by them be-
came very strong. Accordingly Congress in 1915 modified the
Federal Reserve Act to the extent of permitting the organiza-
tion of foreign trade banks. The plan, however, did not meet
with much favour and few such banks were organized. Those
which were brought into existence did a fairly successful busi-
ness, but not enough were established to give the plan a com-
manding place in American financial life. The subject, however,
of financing foreign trade was unavoidably thrown into the
background by the advent of the war and the conditions grow-
ing out of it. Foreign countries financed their purchases of
American goods upon what was practically a cash basis prior
to the time that the United States itself entered the war and
after that date practically the whole export trade of the United
States was financed upon the basis of Government credits for
which the U.S. Treasury furnished the means. The result was
to make the whole foreign banking question far less urgent or
immediate than it would otherwise have been. Not until the
war had closed, and indeed, not for some considerable time
after, did the subject receive discussion. Such discussion, how-
ever, became general about the middle of 1919, and at that
time it seemed to the Federal Reserve Board that a plan of
action modelled upon the British investment trust might
serve as a basis for the general long-term financing of American
exports. This export financing was regarded as essentially a
problem which involved the shipment of goods upon long-
term credit, it being recognized that much time must elapse
before foreign countries could send to the United States enough
goods to keep their American trade in current balance. Accord-
ingly the so-called Edge Act was passed Oct. 1919. It and the
regulations subsequently issued by the Federal Reserve Board
provided for the establishment of foreign trade financing cor-
porations of two classes, the one vested with very large powers of
acceptance and really differing in no essential way from the
foreign trade banks already referred to, except that the stock
of the Edge Act corporations might be held by individuals or
commercial establishments and not exclusively by banks.
The other type of corporation was to be organized for the pur-
pose of providing credit in the export trade, the securities and
evidences of indebtedness which it received being employed as
a basis upon which debentures or bonds would be issued and
offered to the public, thereby restoring to the corporation issu-
ing them the funds which it required, for still further dealings
and advances of the same kind. At first but little interest was
shown in the idea of such corporations. Prior to the close of
1920 only one had been actually organized although several
were under consideration, and early in 1921 the formation of
two additional enterprises of the same sort was announced. The
most important of the early undertakings under the Edge
enactment was a corporation projected by the committee repre-
senting the American Bankers' Association, whose capital
was to be $100,000,000 and whose stock was offered to the
public early in the year 1921. The Edge Act may be sum-
marized in the statement that it was in effect a plan to provide
for the financing of foreign trade apart from domestic banking
operations, and with a very much greater latitude in respect
to the granting of credit than could properly be allowed to
domestic institutions.
Growth of a Discount Market. The use of the acceptance
function to which reference has already been made progressed
comparatively slowly during the early years of the Federal
Reserve system, being retarded by the various disturbing con-
ditions attendant upon the war. The expansion of the accept-
ance proceeded most rapidly and reliably in connexion with
foreign trade, where this type of paper speedily assumed a
position of some importance. Its growth was, however, greatly
restricted as a result of the lack of branch banks maintained by
American institutions in foreign countries. At the close of 1920
it was estimated by the Federal Reserve Board that the total
amount of acceptances made by member banks of the system
and then outstanding was probably a little under $650,000,000.
The bulk of these acceptances had been made by a comparatively
small number of acceptance-issuing institutions located for the
most part at points whose interest carried them in considerable
measure into the export trade. Some interior banks had at-
tempted to develop the domestic acceptance, but with no great
success, while the commercial, or trade, acceptance, or " do-
mestic bill " as known in other countries', had shown but slight
signs of assuming importance. This was partly due to the exist-
ence of the well-known system of offering cash discounts which,
if it did not originate in the United States had attained by far its
greatest development there. Under the cash discount system,
while invoice prices were strictly maintained, a second or re-
duced invoice price was offered to those who were able to make
an immediate or " cash " payment within a specified number
of days from the date of the invoice, while to those who pre-
ferred to enjoy the full period of credit the full face value of the
4io
BANTOCK, GRANVILLE
merchandise was charged. It was clear that in these circum-
stances, with two rates of charge, the drawing of a merchandise
bill at a fixed figure would have been difficult. Hence the very
slow development of what was called the trade acceptance,
and trade acceptances thus created tended to become in many
cases long-term accommodation paper and fell somewhat into
disrepute. In the case of the bankers' acceptance, although
some bad practices prevailed during the war when the practice
of renewing acceptances gained a foothold even with the best
and strongest banks through the use of syndicate agreements
which provided for the issuing and discounting of blocks of
acceptances by groups of banks acting in common, the paper on
the whole maintained its position of solvency and reliability.
The chief trouble encountered in its development was early
found in the fact that no genuine market existed for it and that
the Federal Reserve banks had found it practically necessary to
supply such a market by taking or re-discounting freely the
acceptances of banks in their own district. Had they not done
so, it appeared, the acceptances would have found no buyers
on many occasions and the practice of making them and financ-
ing trade by that means would have been discontinued. This
tended to transfer to the portfolios or holdings of the Federal
Reserve banks an unduly large proportion of the acceptances
at any time in the market, while the bad habit of some banks in
discounting their own acceptances deprived the paper of much
of its economic virtue as a basis for dealing in commercial credit
under better market conditions. It had still in 1921 to be seen
how far and to what extent it would be possible to overcome
these bad elements in American banking practice and to resume
the development of the acceptance upon the lines followed in
the more advanced commercial countries of Europe.
History of Interest Rates. After the panic of 1907 and throughout
the whole pre-war period rates of interest on 'bank loans tended on
the whole to move in the United States steadily to lower levels. A
variety of reasons had been assigned for this drift, among them the
rapid accumulation of capital and the intensity of the competition
in the investment market. As had been the case with the American
market throughout its whole history, the movement of interest and
discount rates was by no means uniform, call loans on many occa-
sions shooting up above the general level, while even commercial
paper and bank rates tended to fluctuate sharply at different seasons.
The tendency, however, was on the whole downward, and after the
financial disorders attendant upon the opening of the World War
had subsided and the new reserve banks had become thoroughly
organized interest and discount rates fell to an extremely low level.
This was partly the outcome of the release of credit by the Federal
Reserve Act, and partly the result of scarcity of business due to the
opening of the war and the transition it implied from a peace to a
war basis. Low rates continued to prevail practically throughout the
years 1914-6, indeed, until the entry of the United States into the
war in 1917. The natural tendency of interest rates would have
been to advance immediately after the participation of the United
States in the war had become known. Recognizing this tendency,
however, the Federal Reserve banks had in conjunction with the
United States Treasury determined upon a low rate of discount for
paper at Federal Reserve institutions, such rate corresponding
closely to the coupon rate upon Liberty Bonds. This rate, however,
was put into effect upon the condition that a correspondingly low
rate should be made by member banks to their customers. Thus the
whole interest rate system of the country was " stabilized " or
" price-fixed." In ordinary conditions this stabilization at a low
figure would have given rise to an abnormal demand for funds, but
this danger was in part averted through the control of industrial
operations by the " rationing " of coal and materials for industries,
which kept producers from drawing too heavily upon bank credit
for support. In some cities, notably New York, a majority of the
banks rationed in a similar way the stockbroking and speculative
community, agreeing to furnish them with a limited amount of funds
at a specified and relatively low rate of interest on condition that
there should be no effort, to use more than this specified amount in
stock speculation and that a correspondingly low rate of interest
should be charged to customers. Capital was also rationed by the
use of analogous methods. Subject to these conditions the rate of
interest continued on an abnormally low level until after the war
when, as seen in another connexion (see FEDERAL RESERVE BANKING
SYSTEM), the rate of discount at the Federal Reserve banks was
sharply advanced. Commercial rates, which had already been on the
point of rising in some directions, advanced immediately. The action
of the Federal Reserve banks was the signal for a still further and
subsequent advance in rates, and from the opening of 1919 on
throughout the year 1920 there was a fairly steady advance in dis-
count charges which brought the current charge for bank loans at
the close of 1920 up to the highest point it had reached for many
years. Call loan rates, although fluctuating to some extent subse-
quent to the war, did not suffer the extreme variations which had
been characteristic in other periods of stress. (H. P. W.)
Savings Banks. According to the report of the comptroller of the
currency for the fiscal year ending June 30 1920, there were in the
United States 620 mutual savings banks with aggregate assets
amounting to $5,619,017,000; there were 9,445,327 depositors with
combined deposits of $5,186,845,000, an average of $549.14 for each
depositor. On the same date the number of stock savings banks
was 1,087, with aggregate assets of $1,506,413,000; there were
1,982,299 depositors with combined deposits of $1,349,625,000, an
average of $680.86 for each depositor. These figures exclude stock
savings banks of those states in which they were included with state
bank returns: namely, Georgia, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland,
Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, and North Dakota.
In the following table, for the years 1910 to 1919 inclusive, the
figures are for mutual and stock savings banks combined:
No. of
Banks.
No. of
Depositors.
Deposits.
Average
per
Depositor.
1910
,759
9,142,908
$4,070,486,246
$445.20
1911
,884
9,794,647
4,212,583,598
430.09
1912
,922
10,010,304
4,451,818,522
444.72
1913
-978
10,766,936
4,727,403,951
439-07
1914
,110
11,109,499
4,936,591,849
444.03
1915
,159
",285,755
4,997,706,013
442.83
1916
,864
11,148,392
5,088,587,294
446.58
1917
,807
11,367,013
5,418,022,275
452.15
1918
,819
",379,553
5,471,589,948
466.94
1919
.719
11,434,881
5,902,577,000
516.19
The establishment of postal savings banks was authorized by Act
of Congress, approved June 25 1910. On Jan. 3 1911 depositories for
experiment were opened in each of the 48 states and territories. At
the close of the month deposits amounted to $60,252 and by the end
of the year $il ,000,000. The original plan was gradually to designate
as depositories all post-offices doing a money-order business, but it
soon became apparent that many small offices would not be utilized.
In 1913 the number of depositories had reached 13,000, when a policy
of retrenchment was adopted. At the close of the fiscal year June 30
1920 there were 6,314 depositories. Deposits made during that year
amounted to $i 1,942,496 ; withdrawals $12,802,207 ; balance credited
to depositors $157,276,322; number of depositors 508,508; average
per depositor $309.29. On June 30 1919 there were 6,439 de-
positories with deposits totalling $167,323,260; the number of
depositors 565,509 with an average deposit of $295.88. The
majority of depositors are of foreign extraction and their deposits
constituted in 1920 75% of the total. The original law allowed a
depositor to have to his credit a maximum sum of $500; on May 18
1916 this was increased to $1,000; and on July 2 1918 to $2,500.
Any person ten years old or over may make deposits. The minimum
deposit is $1 ; but a postal savings card may be purchased for ten
cents, containing nine spaces for affixing postal savings stamps,
costing ten cents each, and a card when filled is accepted as a deposit
of $i. The rate of interest is 2% annually, but deposits may be
exchanged for postal savings bonds, issued in denominations of $20,
$50, and $500, bearing interest at 2 %. As savings banks pay regu-
larly 3 % or 4 %, and in some cases 5 %, the postmaster-general, in
his report for 1920, recommended an increase in interest on postal
savings. According to the preliminary figures (Aug. 1921) on school
savings, compiled by the American Bankers Association, covering
the school year 1920-1, 236 cities reported school savings banks.
There were 2,630 reporting schools; enrolment, 1,479,567; pupils
participating, 666,478; average weekly deposits, $205,704; total
collections for the year, $3,475,868; average saving per depositor,
$5.22 ; withdrawals during the year, $1,393,230; average net deposit,
$3-13-
BANTOCK, GRANVILLE (1868- ), English musical com-
poser, born in London Aug. 7 1868, was intended for the Indian
civil service and later for the career of a chemical engineer, but
abandoned both for music; he entered the Royal Academy of
Music in 1889. There he gained many prizes and was the first
holder of the Macfarren scholarship. In 1893 he founded the
New Quarterly Musical Review, a pioneer publication on modern
lines, and during the following two years he toured America
and Australia as conductor of a Gaiety company, after which,
in 1897 he became musical director at the Tower, New
Brighton. Three years subsequently he was elected director of
the school of music at the Midland Institute, Birmingham,
and in 1908 he succeeded Elgar as professor of music at Bir-
mingham University. A prolific composer in nearly all forms,
among his best known works are The Great God Pan (1903);
Omar Khayyam (1906); Pierrot of the Minute (1908); the truly
choral symphony Atalanta in Calydon (1912); Fifine at the
BARCLAY BARRACKS
411
Fair (1912); and the fine Hebridean Symphony (1916) for the
publication of which the Carnegie Trust made themselves
responsible. His great choral symphonies, for instance, Ata-
lanta, a colossal work for unaccompanied choirs, occupying
about 45 minutes in performance, and its companion, Vanity of
Vanities (1914), are remarkable examples of his work. Bantock
was largely instrumental in establishing the Birmingham com-
petition festivals in 1912 and in increasing their efficiency.
BARCLAY, FLORENCE LOUISA (1862-1921), English novel-
ist, was born at Limpsfield, Surrey, Dec. 2 1862, the daughter
of the Rev. S. Charlesworth, rector of the parish, and niece
of Maria Louisa Charlesworth, author of Ministering Children.
On March 10 1881 she married the Rev. Charles Barclay,
vicar of Little Amwell, Herts. Her first novel, The Wheels
of Time, appeared in 1908, but she is best known by its
successor, The Rosary (1909), which reached a circulation of
close on a million copies and was translated into many
languages. The combination of religious feeling and strong
love interest which characterized most of her novels appealed
to a very wide public, and she enjoyed for some years an,
immense popularity, the total circulation of her books ex-
ceeding 2,500,000. Later novels included The Mistress of
Shenstone (1910), specially filmed in America; The Following of
the Star (1911); The Broken Halo (1913); In Hoc Vince (1915);
Returned Empty (1920). She died at Limpsfield March 10 1921.
BARING, MAURICE (1874- ), English diplomat and man
of letters, fourth son of the first Lord Revelstoke (see 3.401),
was born in London April 27 1874. Educated at Eton and
Trinity College, Cambridge, he entered the diplomatic serv-
ice in 1898, but resigned in 1904. Taking to literature and
journalism, he acted also at various times as a war cor-
respondent for The Times and for the Morning Post; but he
cultivated belles lettres for the most part, and his poems and
essays soon gained high critical approval. During the World
War he worked on the staff of the R.F.C. in France and also
at home. In addition to various volumes of imaginative litera-
ture poems, parodies and critical essays he published sev-
eral works on Russia, especially The Russian People (1911);
What I Saw in Russia (1913); The Mainsprings of Russia
(1914), etc. In 1920 he also published R.F.C. H.Q. 1914-18, an
account of his experiences in France.
BARKER, SIR JOHN, IST BART. (1840-1914), British mer-
chant, was born at Loose, near Maidstone April 5 1840. He
was the son of Joseph Barker, a brewer, and founded the
firm of John Barker & Co., Ltd., linen-drapers of Kensing-
ton, having previously been associated with the fortunes of
Whiteley's, Westbourne Grove. He entered the House of Com-
mons for Maidstone in 1900 but was unseated on petition.
From 1906-10 he represented Penrhyn and Falmouth. In
1908 he was created a baronet. He took great interest in agri-
culture and did a good deal for horse-breeding. He died at
Bishop's Stortford Dec. 16 1914.
BARNABY, SIR NATHANIEL (1829-1915), British naval
architect, was born at Chatham in 1829, his father being a
member of a family of shipwrights who for several generations
had served in the royal dockyards. He was entered as an
apprentice to his father's trade at the age of 14, and in 1848
won an Admiralty scholarship to the Portsmouth school of
naval engineering, where he obtained distinction. He was
appointed a draughtsman in the royal dockyard at Woolwich
(1852), passing later to the constructive department at the
Admiralty and becoming its head in 1870. Two years later
he was appointed Chief Naval Architect, a title changed in
1875 to Director of Naval Construction. His work in that
capacity is described in 24.894-5. On his retirement in 1885
he was created K.C.B. He died at Lewisham June 15 1915.
He wrote the articles NAVY and SHIPBUILDING for the E.B., 9th
ed., and published Naval Development in the iQth Century (1902)
and other works on naval construction, as well as Christmas 1892 in
Connaught: a Study of the Irish Question (1893), and a collection of
hymns, Songs by the Way.
BARNARD, GEORGE GREY (1863- ), American sculptor
(see 3.410), finished the Pennsylvania State Capitol group in
1911, and the pediments of the New York Public Library in
1914. His bronze statue of Lincoln, heroic in size, was unveiled
in Cincinnati in 1917, and was highly praised by many admirers
of Lincoln (e.g. by Miss Tarbell, his biographer, and by Theo-
dore Roosevelt), but was called a caricature by many art
critics. Mr. Robert Lincoln, the hero's son, objected to the
proposed setting-up of replicas in London and Paris, and the
council of the National Academy of Design issued a formal
protest. A replica was unveiled at Manchester, England, in
1919.
BARNES, GEORGE NICOLL (1859- ), British Labour poli-
tician, was born at Lochie, Scotland, Jan. 2 1859. For many
years he worked as an engineer, and in 1892 was appointed
assistant secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engi-
neers, becoming its general secretary in 1896. In 1903 he went
with the Mosely educational commission to the United States.
In 1895 he had unsuccessfully contested Rochdale, but in
1906 was elected as Labour member for the Blackfriars (now
Gorbals) division of Glasgow, where he defeated Mr. Bonar
Law. This seat he retained in the general elections of 1910 and
1918. On Mr. Lloyd George's accession to power in 1916,
Mr. Barnes joined his ministry as Minister of Pensions, and
the same year was sworn of the Privy Council, but in Aug. 1917
resigned his office in order to enter the War Cabinet as repre-
sentative of Labour, succeeding Mr. Arthur Henderson. In
1918 when the Labour party left the Coalition Mr. Barnes
continued in the Coalition Government as minister without
portfolio. He attended the Peace Conference at Paris as a
Labour representative, and afterwards attended the Interna-
tional Labour Conference at Washington. He resigned in Jan.
1920 from the Cabinet.
BARNETT, JOHN FRANCIS (1837-1916), English musical
composer (see 3.414), died in London Nov. 24 1916.
BARNETT, SAMUEL AUGUSTUS (1844-1913), English divine
and social reformer (see 3.414), died at Hove June 17 1913.
See Life by Mrs. Barnett (1919).
BARR, AMELIA EDITH (1831-1919), author, was born at
Ulverston, Lanes., England, March 29 1831. She was edu-
cated at the Glasgow, Scotland, high school. She married
Robert Barr in 1850 and four years later they emigrated
to Texas. Here, in 1867, she lost her husband and three sons
through yellow fever. In 1869 she removed with her three
daughters to New York where she wrote for the Christian
Union and other periodicals. She continued to write unceas-
ingly until 86 years of age, publishing altogether some 75
novels. She died in New York City, March 10 1919.
Her works include the following: Romance and Reality (1872);
Jan Vedder's Wife (1885) ; A Bow of Orange RMon (1886) ; A Border
Shepherdess (1887); Remember the Alamo (1891); Prisoners of Con-
science (1897); Master of His Fate (1901); The Reconstructed Mar-
riage (1910); Playing with Fire (1914); Measure of a Man (1915);
The Winning of Lucia (1915); Profit and Loss (1916); Joan (1916);
and An Orkney Maid (1917).
BARR, ROBERT (1850-1912), British novelist, was born at
Glasgow Sept. 16 1850 and taken to Canada when four years
old. He was educated at the Normal school, Toronto, and be-
came headmaster of the public school of Windsor, Ont., until
1876, when he joined the editorial staff of the Detroit Free
Press. He had an adventurous career as a journalist for five
years, and in 1881 came to England. In 1892 he started
the Idler together with Mr. Jerome K. Jerome. He published
a number of novels and short stories, the best known being
The Mutable Many (1897); Countess Tekla (1899) and The
Sword Maker (1910). He died at Woldingham, Surrey, Oct. 21
1912.
BARRACKS AND HUTMENTS, GREAT BRITAIN (see 3427)-
The earlier article brought the account of this branch of mil-
itary administration up to about 1904. It showed the princi-
ples on which British barrack design was based (viz: on the
" Barrack Synopsis " and Standard Plans) and the provision
which had been authorized in such matters as the numbers in
one room, provision of dining-rooms and baths and other sanitary
services, in the British army at home and in India. It mentioned
412
BARRACKS
that in 1904 an architectural branch had been formed at the
War Office, under civil control, for new barracks and hospitals
at home stations; while services of a minor nature at home, and
all services abroad, were carried out as heretofore, under the
Royal Engineers. It remains here to show, as a sequel, how the
" steady and systematic progress " already indicated, prior to
1904, was continued in the following decade, until, in the period
of the great World War, the civil branch ceased to exist. During
that decade many new works were carried out, some of them
by the new civilian architects, and others by military engineers.
Broadly speaking, those carried out under the former adminis-
tration were of a substantial and permanent type, while the
latter constructed those of a less solid and less ornate character,
applicable to the exigencies of locality.
It is necessary, however, first to mention one important
development of administration which had reference to this
among other subjects affecting the soldier's well-being. In 1906
a Medical Advisory Board was instituted, consisting not only of
eminent military medical officers, but also of distinguished
medical men in civil life, the very best expert opinion in England
on sanitary questions of all sorts. With them was associated
an engineer officer of high rank. To this Board was referred all
designs for barracks and hospitals at home and in foreign sta-
tions other than India, and their authority on all questions
affecting housing was necessary before schemes could be sanc-
tioned. They selected or approved all sites for dwellings whether
for barracks, married men's quarters, or hospitals and they
were referred to in all alterations to the Synopsis or Standard
Plans. During the war their functions were carried out by an
Army Sanitary Committee, which, under the chairmanship of an
officer of high rank, made frequent tours in the theatre of war
and in all hutted camps, etc., in Great Britain.
Permanent Barracks. The principal permanent British bar-
racks (using their term to distinguish the type from those of
" light construction ") which were built during the decade
1904-14, were those for one battalion of infantry and one regi-
ment of cavalry, near Edinburgh, at Redford.
The plan of the barrack building forms three sides of a quadrangle,
and the buildings are three stories high. The ground floors are
occupied with recreation and games' rooms on a generous scale, a
sergeants' mess, regimental offices and shops, and other accessories,
while the upper floors are used for the men's dormitories, and are
divided up so that each man has a cubicle to himself. The dining-
rooms and cook-houses, etc., occupy the space in the interior of the
quadrangle. The whole scheme was on a scale of generosity far
beyond anything hitherto constructed. The fact that it was designed
with freedom from the restrictions hitherto imposed by standardiza-
tion was a potential advantage, for it is only by independent thought
that progress can be attained in any appreciable degree in this or
any other branch of scientific experiment. But the advantages
gained by such treatment of design have to be weighed against the
disadvantages, viz: the extra expense for housing even one unit,
amounting to about 80% over the last approved type, and the time
taken to Duild, which was also proportionally greater. It is also
doubtful whether the arrangement of having the dormitories avail-
able for night use only as was the intention is as satisfactory from
the point of view of military administration as the system, which
it had superseded, of having men living together in groups of 10
or 12 with the intimacies and comradeship thus entailed.
At the Redford barracks the officers' quarters are in a separate
block, together with the men's the whole forming a handsome
building, and the married men's quarters are also separate.
Light-Construction Barracks. About 1906-7 proposals were
made to the Army Council of a somewhat novel principle in
constructional work. Hitherto it had been always accepted as
an axiom in military buildings that the more substantial and
permanent the construction, the better, on the ground that
although the first cost might be greater than that of a temporary
building, such as a wooden hut, the cost of repairs for the latter
worked out at so much higher a figure and the life of the building
was so much shorter, that it was true economy in the end to
build as solidly as possible. The cost of repairs in a solid well-
built barrack might be between 0-75 and 1-25% of the capital
value, but that of huts might run to 3 or 4 %. It was pointed out
in 1907, however, that this was a fallacious argument to apply
to buildings which were required for a service subject both to
frequent changes of policy and to changes of standard imposed
by progress in science. Thus the Royal barracks in Dublin,
which in the reign of Queen Anne were considered the finest in
Europe, were in the reign of Queen Victoria still standing, solid
and substantial, but the despair of every sanitary expert. The
same applies to many barracks (and, it may be added, to many
civil hospitals) in many parts of the British Empire. It was
argued, therefore, that constructional science had now reached a-
point where it was possible to build in a manner much less ex-
pensive, much more rapidly erected, and much more easily
altered than the solid walls and heavy roofs of our fathers,
and that such buildings, not much more expensive than tempo-
rary huts, could be made to suit military needs; and that the cost
of maintenance would be no greater than that entailed in the
case of more substantial works. Any one acquainted with the
routine of military administration is familiar with the constant
" reappropriations " that have to be made to suit some change
in the requirements of accommodation. A row of married men's
quarters has to be turned into a temporary, or even permanent,
hospital, or a forage barn has to be made into a school, a gun-shed
into a recreation room. With solid old masonry this became a
serious and expensive matter. The whole subject required
reconsideration.
Just then an opportunity occurred of making the experiment
on a fairly wide scale. In the earthquake at Kingston, Jamaica,
civil and military houses alike were shattered in a few seconds.
The barracks, for about 800 men, with church, hospital and all
administrative offices and staff quarters, had been of the old solid
type. They were gone, and had to be replaced at once. Urgent
representations to England pointed out that remedial measures
must be instant, that there was neither material nor labour
available locally, and that new plans should be proof against
earthquakes and hurricanes.
It was decided at once to build the new barracks with a
skeleton steel framework, vertical steel stanchions, braced below
by steel horizontal joists, and above by a composite steel and
wooden truss. The stanchions were rooted, as it were, by a broad
flat plate, in a concrete block in the ground, and they were
calculated to carry the whole weight of floors, walls, roof and
any other contingent matters such as windows, doors, shelves,
etc. The walls, which carried no weight, but were merely screens
from weather, were composed of a double panelling of metal
lathing plastered over and fastened to the steel stanchions.
Being double, the space between the two sets of panels acted
as a non-conductor of temperature. The whole of the work was
quickly designed and the material quickly prepared. A firm of
English contractors erected the skeleton of each building on their
own premises, marked every part on a key plan, and the whole
was dispatched from Bristol under charge of an experienced
foreman of works, while a company of R. E. under a selected
officer had meantime been dispatched, soon after the disaster,
to erect the first building and arrange preliminaries for the others.
Figs. 1,2,3 and 4 show the plans and section of the main barracks
buildings. The roof has a steep slope, partly to throw off tropical
rain quickly, partly to allow locally obtained wooden shingles to be
used as a fairly cool covering. The floor is raised 4 ft. above the
ground, with a clear space beneath, the whole area below being cov-
ered with a seal of concrete to prevent exhalations from the soil. In
this design the saving in walls and foundations is obvious, while the
advantage in respect of stability, arising from the strength and
continuity of the steel and its attachment to the foundation blocks,
is also evident. As a matter of fact, there was another earthquake
BARRACKS
shortly after the work was finished (not so serious, however, as the
original one), and the buildings were quite unaffected.
The barracks were rapidly erected. Although all the materials,
except the roof-covering and the ballast for the concrete, were
sent from England, the troops were in occupation of their new
quarters in Nov. 1907, ten months after the earthquake, and
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FIG. 4.
the universal opinion was expressed that the new barracks which
cos t 7 7 1 000 were a great improvement in comfort and conven-
ience on the old ones which had cost, in days when building was
relatively cheap, 95,000.
So far, then, the principle of light construction had been justi-
fied, but it did not follow that a type which was suitable to a
hot climate like that of the West Indies would be equally ap-
plicable to Great Britain. At that time, however (1908), a small
barrack was urgently required at Bordon, near Aldershot, for a
field company of R.E., 150 men, with some accessory buildings
such as sergeants' mess, recreation rooms, stables, etc., the
estimated cost of which in " permanent " construction was
16,000; in " light construction " the estimate was 9,000, and
this sum was sanctioned, and the work was carried out within
the time estimate.
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FIG. 6.
The plan of this building, shown in figs. 5 and 6, shows the same
principles, formerly described, of 10-12 men in one room, with
ablution room, etc., in close proximity, with a room for one N.C.O.
between two barrack rooms, and with a company store under the
same roof. The walls were built, between steel stanchions, of brick
5 in. thick, rendered with ordinary plaster inside, and rough cast
outside, the steel stanchions carrying the weight of roof, windows,
etc. It was found that the building was warm and airy, and that
the cost of maintenance was at least not greater than would have
been the case with permanent construction. While the saving in cost
lay mainly in walls and foundations, endeavour was made at the
same time, by using some of the modern types of light roof-covering,
to effect saving in the roof timbers. With all these economies in
design there was a substantial reduction in cost, especially in the
case of those military buildings where the walls and roof formed a
large part of the whole. Thus stables, which had formerly cost about
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8.
60 per horse, were built on the new principle for about 32-^5,
without any reduction of efficiency. Figs. 7 and 8 show the exterior
and interior of such a stable and indicate the general style of building.
A large riding-school built at NeCheravon, Salisbury Plain, which
was constructed on the " light-construction " principle, cost less
than 2d. per cub. ft. as against 6d. to 7d. for a riding-school on the
" permanent " principle. This is no doubt the most conspicuous
example of saving in relative cost, as the building consists' of little
else than walls and roof.
Barracks on thk principle, some of them double-storeyed, were
built with satisfactory results at places as far distant from one
another as Jersey, Worcester and Glasgow.
Another administrative change about this period also affected
the design of important accessory buildings. Up to about 1909 it
was laid down that the regimental institute (coffee bar, recreation
room, etc.) should be separate from the " wet " canteen, used for
malt liquor only, and also from the dining-rooms. In 1909, however.
it was decided that, in any new construction, the wet canteen should
be abolished, being replaced by a liquor bar in the institute, that there
should be no restriction to the moderate use of malt liquor in con-
nection with food, but that there should be no place for the sale of
liquor only. The effect of this amalgamation of the institute and
canteen was extended, where circumstances made it possible, to the
amalgamation of the dining-rooms and supper bar, the men thus
having all their meals served in the same room but with separate
kitchens, one dealing with the regulation rations, and the other with
the varied forms of refreshment purchased by the soldier voluntarily.
This new departure was first embodied in the R.E. barracks at
Bordon, and there found to be so satisfactory that it was followed
in the new barracks at St. Peters, Jersey, where the combined dining
and recreation rooms were made overlooking a cricket ground, with a
large veranda forming a pleasant position for spectators of the
game. It was possible, by the economies afforded by the light con-
struction principle, to give these improvements without excessive
BARRACKS
cost, more especially as there was substantial saving in having the
three buildings, canteen, institute and dining-rooms, combined in
one.
As the light-construction principle became more established in
favour for buildings, including hospitals, in country districts espe-
cially, designs were contemplated for larger schemes (e. g. for the
cavalry brigade barracks at Chiseldon, Wilts., and for an artillery
brigade barracks near Fermoy), at the time of the outbreak of the
war in 1914, and were in part carried out. In 1912-4 this principle
of design was mainly adopted in connexion with aviation buildings,
required by the new R.F.C. The variety of new buildings, aero-
plane sheds, workshops, instructional buildings, etc., that were
involved was great, and the urgency for their provision very press-
ing. A system of construction, therefore, which would lend itself to
quick completion, not involve heavy expenditure, and be capable of
expansion, was obviously suited to a service of which the full require-
ments were still conjectural.
Allusion may be made to one particular development, for it
applied to other branches of the service as well as to aviation. This
was the construction of officers' messes and quarters. Hitherto, in
permanent barracks everywhere, these had been combined in one
continuous building, and, when enlargement or alteration of the
mess became necessary, the problem was difficult. With the new
arrangement for the R.F.C. , the mess-house was designed sepa-
rately, generally built on a site fairly central for groups of officers'
cottages erected near it. Each cottage contained rooms for four
single officers or two field officers, with an annex behind, contain-
ing servants' rooms, store-rooms, bath-rcom, etc. If the establish-
ment of officers increased, more cottages could be built; if the num-
bers were reduced, one or more buildings could be shut up or reappro-
priated. This form of accommodation was very popular.
Married Soldiers' Quarters. Accommodation for the married
soldier had in earlier years been brought up to a reasonable standard
of comfort and decency. The standard plans of married quarters,
however, were neither economical in first cost nor pleasant in appear-
ance. Frequently built in long and monotonous rows, they resembled
the mean streets of an industrial town, and occupying, as they often
did, some lovely spot in rural England, they were an eyesore and
reproach. Hence, during the decade 1904-14, much attention was
paid to (a) reduction in cost, and (b) improvement in external
treatment. As regards (a) the average cost of the standard design
was 400 per quarter of four rooms, and it was found that by
rearrangement in constructive details, reducing height of rooms,
rearrangement of chimneys, etc., the price could be reduced to about
22O-25O without sacrifice of comfort or authorized accommoda-
tion. Greater attention to (b) was possible also, in combination
with economy ; and the grouping of rows of quarters round gardens,
playgrounds, etc., gave an impression of home life in country dis-
tricts. Some groups of such cottages at Farnborough, Hants., were
visited in 1917 by the Local Government Board Committee on the
National Housing Problem, and elicited their full approbation.
Hulling during the War. When accommodation for the new
armies first came to be considered by the British War Office in
the first 10 days of the World War, it was definitely decided to
adopt some cheap design of hut which could be readily erected,
and also easily adapted to any form 6f temporary material
and to any reasonably level site. But there were many other
considerations, e.g. what nature of accessory accommodation
should be given, in view especially of recent rules regarding
dining and recreation rooms, what sort of sanitary provision
should be made, what method of lighting should be adopted, etc.
As a result of consultation between the various War Office
departments concerned the following points were settled: (a)
That huts to hold 25 men (including one sergeant) should be
constructed, giving 48 sq. ft. floor area per man (about 400 cub.
ft. of interior space) ; (6) that there should be two principal spans
of huts, viz. 20 ft. and 28 ft., and that as far as possible all the
various buildings should be planned to fit one or other of these,
so as to simplify the construction; thus, men's barracks, officers'
quarters, regimental offices, quartermaster's stores, officers'
mess and ante-room and kitchen, sergeants' mess and kitchen,
were all planned to fit into the 20-ft. span, while men's dining-
rooms, cook-house and regimental institute were on the 28-ft.
span;- (c) that there should be a battalion cook-house, fitted
with the best known pattern of cooking-range and boilers for
1,000 men, and that there should be on either side of it dining-
rooms for 500 men each, allowing 5 to 6 sq. ft. for each man on a
total floor space of 2,800 sq. ft. Between the cook-house and the
dining-rooms there should be sculleries; (d) that there should be
in each battalion a bath-house with a central heating boiler and
hot and cold water laid on to the showers, which should be in
the proportion of 5 to every 100 men; (e) that there should be a
regimental institute of three rooms, viz. supper room, games
room, and corporals' room; the bar and beer cellar to be between
the supper room and corporals' roohi so that central serving
could be arranged. There was also provided a kitchen and
scullery in an annex. There was to be no " wet " canteen
(though as a matter of fact some commanding officers made a
canteen out of the corporals' room an arrangement which was
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not in accordance with the original intention); (/) that there
should be officers' and sergeants' messes planned to accommo-
date 30 officers and 50 sergeants respectively, and consisting oi
one block with mess-room and ante-room joined by a short passage
with a kitchen block; (g) that four drying-rooms should be
provided in which wet clothing could be hung, fitted with stoves
and bars; (h) that the latrines should be on the dry-earth system,
and that the ablution rooms and urinals should either lead into
soak pits (in the chalk country in France this was invariably
done) or into sewage filters; (i) that the lighting should be done
by electric lamps and the wires carried on poles, not buried.'
FIG. 10.
Plans of the principal huts designed on the above decisions are
shown in figs. 9 to 12.
That these points were speedily settled is proved by the fact that
all the type plans in detail for a complete battalion camp were
approved 10 days after war was declared, and three days after it was
decided to raise 100,000 men for the new army.
Considering the urgency of the matter, it would not have been a
matter for surprise if extensive changes had to be made after the
camps, so built, came into use. There were not, however, many
changes, though several details were amended. Thus, it was decided
to omit some of the accessories, such as the dining-rooms, on the
ground that the men could dine in their sleeping-huts if necessary,
and dining-rooms were only a recently authorized provision. The
drying-rooms were frequently used for purposes other than that for
which they were built, and in many camps they were not used at all,
as the men found they lost their clothing when mixed up with others.
In matters of detail, it was found better to have the huts made up
in sections, bolted together in situ, rather than to build up with
gangs of carpenters on the spot. This building by sections enabled
the work to be done chiefly in central workshops and very rapidly
put together on the site. Incidentally, sectional nuts fetched a better
price after the war than others, for obvious reasons.
As regards materials, the huts were at first founded on brick piers.
This was a mistake, and it would have been better from the outset to
BARRACKS
have had a short stout pile of creosoted wood. The brick piers in-
volved bricklayers and bricks and mortar, and the provision of these
meant delay in some cases. The framework of walls, roofs and floors
was mainly red fir of market scantlings, but the multiplication of
these scantlings caused a famine in the market and much complaint.
Yet it is hard to see how this could have been avoided, except by
using a material more costly, or else by taking more time in con-
struction. A light steel framework was used in some cases, with
uled metal plastered on one side, and sheet iron painted in the
interior of the room, but this was costly compared to timber. For
lining match-boarding and 3-ply timber were used. Asbestos sheets
FIG. ii.
were used at first but were found very brittle unle_ss the backing of
timbers was fairly (say 18 in.) close, and " S X boarding " and
similar fibrous matter was also employed, but not found suitable.
The floors were in most cases of planking, grooved and tongued.
In France excellent sectional huts were made up by French work-
men, and the carpentry was somewhat on different lines to that
employed in England, lighter scantlings in roofs and subsidiary ties
and struts being used. Many of the sectional huts there had the
sides at a slight angle to the vertical, the sloping side forming like a
" mansard " roof, part of the truss supporting the roof-covering.
Hospitals. It was pointed out in the earlier article that
military hospitals, where built permanently, are designed on
much the same lines as those in civil life.
During the decade before the World War there were two
large permanent hospitals built for military needs, at Ports-
mouth and Dublin, but there were many small " reception
stations " for examination, observation, accidents, etc., and one
fairly big hospital for women, built of light construction, and
found to be most satisfactory in every way.
When the war broke out in 1914 the whole question of suitable
hospital design came necessarily into great prominence, and the
following were the main points which were then settled.
(<j) The wards should contain 25 beds, i.e. 24 ordinary cases
and one special case in a separate small room ; (ft) the nurse's
duty room should be adjacent to the entrance to the main
ward, divided by the central passage from the special-case ward;
(c) beyond the nurse's duty room should be the ward scullery
and on the opposite side of the central passage the linen cup-
board; (d) beyond this a transverse passage so as to give dear
ventilation between the foregoing parts of the ward and the
ablution and bath-rooms, which come then at the end of the hut
nearest to the main entrance.
This gives a hut 140 ft. long by 20 ft. 8 in. wide (see fig. 13). Of the
total area a little more than one-fourth is taken up by accessory
accommodation, and it is doubtful whether as much as one case out of
2i requires to be specially treated. However, the above represented
what may be called the nucleus typical ward, and hundreds were
erected either exactly the same as this or with minor modifications,
both in England at the large training-centres, and in France in the
area occupied by British troops.
The administrative offices, which are always an important
adjunct in a hospital, were combined in a hut 160 ft. by 28ft., shown
in fig. 14. At one end is the out-patient department with consulting-
room, waiting-room and dispensary, divided by a corridor from the
offices of the principal medical officer, his clerks and registrars,
beyond which are the offices of the matron, nursing sisters' duty
room, and clinical laboratory. At the rear of these are the orderly
medical officers' room and the medical board room.
In the field there was in some cases a reception block where all
wounded cases were brought, given temporary treatment, food, etc.,
and examined by the medical officers prior to being sent to one or
other of the special wards for surgical attention, etc.
In a typical operation hut, 51 ft. bv 36 ft., a wide double door, to
admit a stretcher, leads into a hall, from which open on one side a
Rontgen-ray room, an anaesthetic room, and the operation room,
while on the other side are the sterilizing-rooms, preparation room,
store and photographic rooms. The patient, after X-ray examination,
is taken into the anaesthetic room and thence, when unconscious,
into the operation room, about 20 ft. square, with windows opening
to the north.
The hospital arrangements in the field varied in some nature of
detail, but the same general principles were followed.
Hospital kitchens were based on the knowledge that, while some
patients could come to a dining-room, there were many who would
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416
BARRACKS
have to be fed in their beds, and that the diets would have to be
varied to suit individuals. The cooking and distribution arrange-
ments had therefore to be on a more elaborate plan than is provided
for in ordinary barracks.
Other hospital buildings, such as dining-room, supply stores (for
bedding and utensils), pack store, officers' quarters, nursing sisters'
accommodation, and barrack huts for orderlies, followed the usual
lines for ordinary barrack huts and quarters with certain modifica-
tions. There were, however, two other adjuncts of importance in
field hospitals, viz. mortuary block, and disinfecting block, which
deserve a brief description.
The former is a hut 30 ft. by 14 ft. 8 in., with a post-mortem
chamber 14 ft. by n ft. 9 in. at one end, fitted with table, stove,
cupboard, sink and shelves, and with wide double doors. Next to it
is the body chamber, about 8 ft. square, and beyond that a " viewing
chamber," entered by a separate lobby where friends of the deceased
can enter and see the corpse prior to burial.
The disinfecting-hut has a receiving-room 1 1 f t. 9 in. by 14 ft., into
-which the foul clothing, bedding, etc., is brought, and placed in an
air-tight disinfector, one end of which opens into the receiving-room,
and the other into an adjacent chamber, the issuing-room, whence,
after treatment in the disinfector, the material is removed. There is
a small incinerator in another chamber and, for those materials
which require liquid disinfectants, there are other rooms provided.
Portable Huts of Special Design. There were many types
of portable light huts made of wooden framework and canvas.
They were not found satisfactory for prolonged use, although
many were found very useful for rapid work and in emergencies.
The principles were the same in most cases, viz. framing of
wooden scantlings about 2 in. by if in., covered with canvas pre-
pared with some sort of waterproof solution, and, when unfolded,
fixed in position by light bolts or by hooks. The disadvantages
were that they did not afford better protection against cold and
heat than tents, and that the edges of the framing caused the
parts of the canvas in contact with them to wear rapidly.
Portable huts of corrugated steel bent to a circular form were,
however, most useful. The model invented by Lt.-Col. Nissen,
R.E., was largely used in the field. These nuts were in two patterns,
differing from one another only in the fact that in the larger one there
was a central ridge opening admitting air and light along the summit
above the normal roof level. The huts were formed of light steel ribs
of H-section bent in a semi-circular form, and resting on plates for
foundations. Over these, corrugated steel in three parts, clipped
together at the edges, and fastened to the ribs, is laid. Under the
corrugated steel, and fitting into the flanges of the ribs, are light
boards to form a lining. The floors, of wood, are made in sections
and fit in between the parts of the steel framing that reach the
ground. At the ends of the huts are doors and windows, with match-
boarding to fill the unoccupied spaces. Thus the corrugated steel
covering forms roof and walls, while light and ventilation, etc., is
obtained from each end. The great advantage of these huts was that
the materials could be packed up together so as to take up little
space; and the one disadvantage was that, at a time when steel was
much required for other services, it was difficult to get supplies of
these huts in large numbers.
It is probable that sectional huts, either of the pattern alluded to
above, or of some modification of the Nissen patent, will be con-
sidered as articles of recognized equipment in future and kept in
store. (G. K. S. M.)
UNITED STATES
In times of peace the provision and upkeep of quarters for U.S.
troops had been the function of the Construction and Repair Division
of the quartermaster-general's office. The permanent military posts
were small and in the aggregate provided housing for only about
107,340 officers and men. Upon America's entrance into the World
War the subsequent drafting of large numbers of men demanded an
unprecedented rapidity of construction. Existing facilities were
wholly inadequate. As authorized by a letter of the adjutant-general,
May 19 1917, a separate Cantonment Division was created in the
office of the quartermaster-general, reporting directly to the Secre-
tary of War, and charged with the formidable task of housing the
new army. On Oct. 10 1917, the old Construction and Repair Divi-
sion was abolished and its duties given to the new organization,
which in Feb. 1918 was placed under the Operations Division of the
office of the chief -of-staff. It was thus detached from the office of the
quartermaster-general as an independent service. On March 13
1918 its name was changed to the Construction Division.
On May 17 1917, one month after the declaration of war, the
commanding generals of the different military departments were
ordered to select 16 sites for the erection of cantonments (National
Army Cantonments) to receive the troops to be chosen by the selective
draft and also 16 sites for camps of the mobilized National Guard
(National Guard Camps). Already in April tentative plans had
been drawn for barracks and mess-halls, these to be wooden struc-
tures one storey in height, 20 ft. wide and of varying length, and this
type was used for certain buildings in the National Guard Camps,
in which, however, the troops were housed under canvas. These
camps were all situated in the southern states, and required less
protection against cold. Actual construction of cantonments began
fate in June and of camps about a month later. The last canton-
ment site was chosen July 6. It was necessary that the 32 mobiliza-
tion centres be ready for the reception of the first contingents within
90 days. The cantonments naturally presented the most difficult
construction problem, but by Sept. 4 they were prepared to house
430,000 men and their capacity was increased to 655,000 by the close
of 1917 and subsequently expanded to 770,000. The National Guard
camps provided quarters for 450,000 officers and men. At the reg-
ular army posts provision was made for accommodating 140,000
additional men. The programme of construction included also 4
centres of embarkation, 22 special camps, 30 supply depots and nu-
merous other establishments. At the Armistice, Nov. II 1918, the
total capacity of all the military establishments in the United States
was more than 1,700,000 troops.
In laying out the cantonments on the chosen sites experts in town-
planning gave advice. In general a U-shaped plan was adopted in
which the wings could be extended indefinitely. In practice this
general plan had to be adapted in each case to the local terrain.
Standardized basic units of construction were devised, but these of
necessity depended upon the size of the infantry companies to be
accommodated. It was known that the original company of 150
men would be enlarged, but it was not known to what extent. For
the 1 6 cantonments plans were issued calling for 2-storey wooden
buildings, 43 ft. wide, of varying length, to house a company of 200
men or less, each building to have mess-halls and barracks. In the
case of sites in the northern part of the United States, the barracks
were lined with wall-board, with interior air space as a protection
against the cold; in the South, barracks were merely double-boarded
on the outside. Enclosed stables were built in the North ; open sheds
for animals in the South. As originally designed these barracks pro-
vided less than 400 cub. ft. of air space per man, following the regula-
tions then in force for tent quarters. In Sept. 1917, after construc-
tion was almost finished, orders were issued calling for at least 500
cub. ft. of air space per man both in wooden barracks and in tents.
At the same time it was announced that infantry companies were
to be increased to 250 men. It was further ordered that not more
than 35 men should be housed in one room and that each room should
have four outside walls with windows and should have an independent
entrance. This required a complete rearrangement of barrack in-
teriors and much additional construction so that one company could
be quartered' in two adjacent buildings. For subsequent construc-
tion of barracks new plans were drawn, calling for buildings of a
maximum size of 30 by 60 ft., 2-storeys high, with accommodations
for 66 men. For a single company four such barracks were re-
quired, besides separate buildings for mess-halls and lavatories.
In the beginning one-storey quarters for officers had been designed
and these were retained throughout the period of mobilization. As
to the grouping of buildings, a standard block about 450 by 800 ft.
was chosen. Each block contained barracks for eight companies of 250
men. Beyond one end of the block were the officers' quarters; at the
opposite end were placed the stables. In constructing rows of
buildings the general plan was to leave at least 500 ft. between the
rows as protection against the spread of fire. In each row not more
than two blocks were grouped ; further groups were separated by at
least 300 ft. Strict regulations were observed in the setting of
stoves and heaters, and all electrical work conformed to the Na-
tional Electric Code. Water connexions were so placed that 16
streams could be thrown upon a large building. At each mobiliza-
tion centre there was a trained military fire company and full
equipment. In addition to quarters for troops a cantonment had a
remount station for 10,000 animals, railway sidings, clothing repair
shops, steam laundries, bakeries, refrigerating plants, electric power
plants, storehouses, halls for instruction, and a base hospital. Camp
welfare buildings were also maintained by such organizations as
the Y.M.C.A., Knights of Columbus and Red Cross.
A special Hospital Division was organized under the office of the
surgeon-general to provide adequate military hospitals at camps and
cantonments. In the autumn of 1917 these 32. centres each had fully
equipped hospital facilities with a combined capacity of 44,000 beds.
The larger base hospitals had a capacity of 1 ,000 beds, and com-
prised 60 buildings built at least 60 ft. apart, all connected by
enclosed corridors. They had separate steam-heating plants and
laundries, and were equipped with modern plumbing. Each ward
had a capacity of from 60 to 80 beds and provided usually 1,000
(never less than 800) cub. ft. of air per patient. The buildings were
of the 2-storey type. In addition each regiment possessed a medical
dispensary and a small hospital containing 20 beds.
To provide water, connexion was made, when practicable, with
the mains of existing systems. In other cases it was derived from
wells or streams and, if advisable, thoroughly purified. In the can-
tonments the generous quantity of about 40 gal. a day per man was
provided, and in addition about 15 gal. each for animals. In the
camps the quantity made accessible was smaller as there was less
danger of disastrous fires in quarters under canvas. For each com-
pany there was a lavatory with 12 vitreous bowls with wooden seats
and a urinal trough 18 ft. long, besides 10 shower-baths and a wash
BARRES BARTHOLOMEW
trough 22 ft. long; a storage tank of 560 gal. capacity attached to a
heater supplied abundant hot water. Where possible the sewage was
discharged directly into running streams; where desirable, septic
tanks were installed for its treatment. Steam-heating was provided
for all hospitals, and in four instances for the whole cantonment
because of rigorous climatic conditions. In 12 cantonments and in
the 16 camps stoves for heating were placed in the various apart-
ments. Central power plants furnished electric lighting in all cases.
No special type of road was required, but specifications were pre-
pared for brick, cement concrete, bituminous macadam, and water-
bound macadam. The width was usually 18 ft., but in some cases
24. Such walks as were built were usually of wood.
Tables I. and II., from official reports of the War Department, give
the name and location of each cantonment and camp, the number
of buildings erected and the amounts allotted for construction
(from July i 1917 to June 30 1918 inclusive) :
TABLE I. National Army Cantonments.
Camp
Location
Build-
ings
Capacity
Cost
Custer .
Battle Creek, Mich.
1,282
35,458
$ 9,748,694
Devens
Ayer, Mass.
1.334
36,832
11,160,839
Dix .
\Yris,'htstown, N.J.
1,414
42,806
11,687,666
Dodge .
Des Moines, la.
1,409
42,227
8,178,402
Funston
Fort Riley, Kan.
1,401
42,806
10,715,447
Gordon
Atlanta, Ga.
i. 435
41,162
8,944,980
Grant .
Rockford, 111.
L5I5
42,819
9,900,238
Jackson
Columbia, S.C.
1,554
44,009'
10,723,383
Lee
Petersburg, Va.
L532
49,721
14,004,093
Lewis .
Am. Lake, Wash
1,667
46,232
8,319,841
Meade .
Admiral, Md.
1,460
42,830
11,848,948
Pike .
Little Rock, Ark
1,488
43,843
9,603,602
Sherman
Chillicothe, O.
1,378
39,904
10,633476
Taylor .
Louisville, Ky.
1,563
45,424
8,057,065
Travis .
Ft. Houston, Tex
1,449
42,809
7,641,379
Upton .
Yaphank, N.Y.
1,486
43,567
12,554,994
Totals .
23,367
682,449
$163,723,047
TABLE II. National Guard Camps.
Camp
Location
Build-
ings '
Capacity
Cost
Beauregard
Alexandria, La. .
1, 068
29,121
$3,835,218
Bowie .
Fort Worth, Tex
1,329
44,899
3,159,282
Cody .
Deming, N.M.
1,299
44,959
3,753,088
Doniphan
Fort Sill, Okla.
1,267
46,183
2,796,228
Fremont
Palo Alto, Cal.
1,124
30,000
2,503,554
Greene
Charlotte, N.C.
1,125
48,305
4,033,081
Hancock
Augusta, Ga.
1,319
48,099
3,218,142
Kearny
Linda Vista, Cal
848
32,066
3,660,948
Logan .
Houston, Tex.
1,329
44,899
3,026,199
MacArthur
Waco, Tex. .
1,284
45,074
3,049,519
McClellan
Anniston, Ala.
i,55i
57,748
4,270,516
Sevier .
Greenville, S.C.
1,218
41,693
2,949,894
Shelby .
Hattiesburg, Miss
1,206
36,010
4,389,314
Sheridan
Montgomery, Ala
1,277
41,953
2,900,027
Wadsworth
Spartanburg, S.C
1,414
56,249
3,76i,5io
Wheeler
I 220
4.1. Oil
*,'?o'?,i62
T"O'
, O'O O,
Totals .
19,887
690,269
$54,609,682
BARRES, MAURICE (1862- ), French novelist and poli-
tician (see 3.434), published La Colline inspiree (1913); but
after 1914 was occupied almost exclusively with subjects aris-
ing out of the World War. La grande Pitie des Eglises Fran-
Daises (1914); L'Ame fran^aise et la Guerre (1915); La Lorraine
devastee (1919); Le Roman de I'Energie nationale (1919) were
amongst his later works. He also published literary addresses
and lectures.
BARRIE, SIR JAMES MATTHEW, BART. (1860- ), British
novelist and dramatist (see 3.435), devoted himself after 1910
almost exclusively to drama. He produced, amongst other
plays, Rosalind (1912); The Will and The Adored One (1913);
Der Tag (1914); Rosy Rapture (1915); A Kiss for Cinderella
(1916); Dear Brutus (1917); and Mary Rose (1920). He was
created a baronet in 1913.
BARRILI, ANTONIO GIULIO (1836-1908), Italian novelist
(we 3.436), died Aug. 13 1908. His last work, a volume of poems,
Canzoni al vcnto, was published posthumously in 1911.
BARRINGTON, RUTLAND [GEORGE RUTLAND FLEET] (1853-
), English actor, was born at Penge, Kent, Jan. 15 1853,
and was educated at Merchant Taylors' school. He appeared
first at the Olympic theatre, London, in 1874. Three years
later he joined D'Oyley Carte's company at the Opera
Comique and appeared in Gilbert and Sullivan's opera The
Sorcerer. From that time onwards he was identified with the for-
tunes of the long series of these operas, which ran continuously
from 1877 to 1889 and were revived at frequent intervals.
In 1908 and 1911 he published two volumes of Recollections.
BARROW-IN-FURNESS, England (see 3.443). The pop.
(63,770 in 1911), which more than doubled during the World
War, was estimated at 78,000 in 1920. The shipbuilding .yards
developed greatly and war vessels of all types, including
dreadnoughts and submarines, were constructed during the
war. The Cavendish dock adjoining the Ramsden dock on the
E., 146 ac. in extent, has been leased by the Furness Railway
Co. to the firm of Vickers Ltd. for the construction of airship
sheds and for the manoeuvring of airships and dirigibles. The
airship factory is situated on Walney I., which is connected
with the mainland by a bridge with an opening span of 120 ft.
for the passage of vessels. Among the public buildings con-
structed since 1911 are the town hall with a clock tower 170 ft.
high, built at a cost of 70,000, and a working-men's club and
institute, the gift of a former mayor; a new Carnegie library was
in course of erection in 1921.
Vickerstown on Walney I. is a rapidly growing township of
model workmen's houses and is becoming more and more a
residential suburb of Barrow. It has the James Dunn park on
the E. and the Biggar Bank, a public retreation ground facing
the Irish Sea, on the W. side of the island.
BARRY, ALFRED (1826-1910), English bishop (see 3.444),
died at Windsor April i 1910.
BARRYMORE, ETHEL (1879- ), American actress, was
born Aug. 15 1879 in Philadelphia, and was educated at
the Convent of Notre Dame in that city. She made her
debut in 1896 in the company of her uncle, John Drew. In
1897 she first appeared in England in Secret Service, and with
Sir Henry Irving's company in The Bells and Peter the Great
(1898). She was first starred by Charles Frohman in Captain
Jenks in 1900, and subsequently became one of the leading
actresses in the United State's.
Her brother, JOHN BARRYMORE (1882- ), who first
appeared on the stage in Magda in 1903, had also, by 1921, estab-
lished his position as one of the foremost American actors as had
also another brother, LIONEL, whose first appearance was in
1893-
BARTELS, HANS VON (1856-1913), German painter (see
3.447), died at Munich Oct. 5 1913.
BARTHOLOMEW, JOHN GEORGE (1860-1920), Scottish car-
tographer, was born in Edinburgh March 22 1860, the elder
son of John Bartholomew, also a cartographer (see 3.450).
J. G. Bartholomew was educated at the Edinburgh high
school and university, and succeeded his father as head of the
business of the Edinburgh Geographical Institute. In this
capacity he maintained and improved the unsurpassed reputa-
tion for scientific cartography and exquisite reproduction which
the firm had already acquired; in particular, he extended and
popularized the use of " layer " colours exhibiting relief of the
land, applying this method not only in the reduction of ordnance
survey maps but in many other instances, including general
atlases, of which the finest example is that published by The
Times since the close of the World War. Bartholomew was
associated with Sir John Murray and others in connexion with
the mapping of results of the " Challenger " expedition, the
bathymetrical survey of the Scottish lochs, and other scientific
studies. He planned a physical atlas on a large scale and with
the cooperation of Dr. A. J. Herbertson published the Atlas
of Meteorology in 1899, which at once became a standard work.
The volume on zoogeography, in collaboration with W. Eagle
Clarke and P. H. Grimshaw, followed in 1911. His written
works include a bibliography of authoritative maps of all
countries (1891) and a gazetteer of the British Isles; and he
interested himself greatly in geographical education, helping
to found the lectureship in geography in the university of
4i8
BARTHOU BATESON
Edinburgh, as well as the Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
He was one of the founders and for many years hon. sec. of
the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. He died at Cintra
April 13 1920, but the management of the Edinburgh Geo-
graphical Institute remained in his family.
BARTHOU, LOUIS (1862- ), French statesman, advocate,
author, journalist, and lecturer, was born at Oleron Aug.
25 1862. He was elected to Parliament in 1889, and five years
later he became Minister of Public Works. He was succes-
sively Minister of the Interior (Aug. 1896 to June 1898) ; Minister
of Public Works (March-Oct. 1906 and in the subsequent
Clemenceau Cabinet until July 1909); Minister of Justice
from July 1909 until March 1913; prime minister from May
22 to Dec. 2 1913; Minister of State in the Painleve Ministry
during the World War, subsequently succeeding Ribot as Min-
ister for Foreign Affairs; Minister of War Jan. 16 1921. His
most notable political achievement was the manner in which
he pushed through the Three Years' Service Bill, which was a
response to German military preparations before the war of 1914.
He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1918.
BARTON, CLARA (1821-1912), American philanthropist (see
3.452), died at Glen Echo, Md., April 12 1912. She is the only
woman whose name has been taken by a post of the G.A.R.
See Mrs. Corra Bacon-Foster, Clara Barton, Humanitarian
(1918), which outlines her career with extracts from records, letters,
and contemporary papers.
BARTON, SIR EDMUND (1840-1920), Australian statesman
and judge, was born at Sydney, N.S.W., Jan. 18 1849. He was
educated at the Sydney grammar school and the university
of Sydney, where he won many distinctions, and was called
to the N.S.W bar in 1871, becoming Q.C. in 1889. At the
age of 30 he entered the N.S.W. Legislature as representa-
tive for Sydney University, and remained a member of
either the Assembly or the Legislative Council for many years.
During 1883-7 he was Speaker of the Assembly and in 1889
and again in 1891 he was for a time Attorney General. In 1897,
after the death of Sir Henry Parkes, he became senior repre-
sentative for N.S.W. to the Federal Convention. He was a
keen supporter of Federation and in 1900 led the delegation
sent to London with the Australian Commonwealth bill. In
1901 he became the first Prime Minister of federated Australia,
holding also the portfolio of External Affairs. His two years of
office were much troubled by party strife. He had been a life-
long supporter of Preference, but his majority over Sir George
Reid and the Free Traders was small and the Labour party held
the balance. In 1903 he was glad to resign office and accept
the appointment of Senior Puisne Judge of the High Court of
Australia. In 1901 he was sworn of the Privy Council and in
1902 he was created G.C.M.G. He died suddenly at Medlow
Bath, near Sydney, Jan. 6 1920. Known affectionately as the
" Father of Australia," Edmund Barton inspired through his
long career as a politician a deep personal devotion. His
magnificent talents were used more for the advancement of
his ideals and the help of his friends than in the service of his
personal ambitions. Like a genial Dr. Johnson in conversa-
tion, he made easy captives of British statesmen on his visits
to London. One of his sons was the first Rhodes scholar from
N.S.W. to Oxford.
BARUCH, BERNARD MANNES (1870- ), American finan-
cier, was born in Camden, S.C., Aug. 19 1870. He graduated
from the College of the City of New York in 1889. For many
years he was a member of the New York Stock Exchange
but sold his seat in 1917. He first came into national prom-
inence when appointed by President Wilson as a member of
the advisory committee of the Council of National Defense
in 1916, and after America's entrance into the World War
he held many important positions. He was chairman of
the Committee on Raw Materials, Minerals and Metals, and
was in charge of purchases by the War Industries Board. He
was also appointed a member of the commission in charge of
all purchases made for the Allies. He became chairman of the
War Industries Board in 1918 but resigned at the close of the
year. In 1919 he was a member of the Supreme Economic
Council of the Peace Conference in Paris and in the same year
was appointed by President Wilson as a member of the Indus-
trial Conference in Washington. He wrote The Making of the
Reparation and Economic Sections of the Treaty (1920).
BASCOM, JOHN (182 7-191 1), American educationist and philo-
sophical writer (see 3.458), died Oct. 3 1911 at Williamstown,
Mass.
BASEBALL: see SPORTS AND GAMES.
BASHFORTH, FRANCIS (1819-1912), English mathematician,
was born at Thurnscoe, Yorks., Jan. 8 1819. Second wrangler
in 1843, he was elected a fellow of St. John's College, Cam-
bridge; and having taken orders, he was rector of Minting,
Lines., from 1857 to 1908. His interest in ballistics led him to
make a series of experiments between 1864 and 1880, upon which
our present knowledge of air-resistance is founded (see 3.271).
The Bashforth chronograph for recording the velocity of shot
(see 6.303) was his invention, and he received a pension from
the Government and a grant of 2,000 for his work. For some
time he was professor of applied mathematics to the advanced
class of artillery officers at Woolwich. He died at Woodhall
Spa, Lines., Feb. 12 1912.
BASSERMANN, ERNST (1854-1917), German politician and
leader of the National Liberal party, was born June 26 1854
at Wolsag in the Black Forest. He began his career in 1880
as a lawyer at Mannheim. From 1885 to 1892 he was a deputy
in the Baden Diet, and from 1893, with brief interruptions,
a member of the Reichstag. In 1905 the National Liberal
party elected him as president of the party. In the Reichstag
he enjoyed a high reputation as a speaker, and he exercised an
eminent influence on the course of politics. He died July 17
1917 at Mannheim.
BASTIAN, ADOLF (1826-1905), German ethnologist (see
3.500), died in 1905.
BATAILLE, FELIX HENRY (1872- ), French poet and
playwright, was born at Nlmes April 4 1872, and was edu-
cated at the lycee Henri IV. at Paris and the lycee Janson
de Sailly. He brought out his first play, La Belle au bois
dormant, in 1894 and his first volume of poetry, La Chambre
blanche, in 1895. His dramatic work includes La Lepreuse
(1896); Ton Sang and L' Enchantement (1900); Le Masque and
Resurrection (1902); Maman Colibri (1904); La Marche Nupliale
(1905); Poliche (1906) ; Les Flambeaux (1912); Le Phalene (1913).
Among his later poems may be mentioned La Divine Tragedie
(1916) and La Quadrature de I' Amour (1920). Notre Image, in
which Rejane made one of her last appearances, Les Sceurs
d' Amour (1919), L'Homme a la Rose (1920) and La Tendresse
(1921), are among his recent successful plays.
BATEMAN, KATE [MRS. CROWE] (1842-1917), American ac-
tress (see 3.508), died in London April 8 1917. She had since
1892 conducted a school of acting, appearing only rarely on
the stage; but she played Lady Kew in Colonel Newcome at
His Majesty's theatre, London, in 1906, the nurse in Medea
at the Savoy theatre in 1907 and Kirjipa in False Gods at His
Majesty's in 1909.
BATESON, WILLIAM (1861- ), British biologist, was
born at Whitby Aug. 8 1861, the son of the Rev. W. A. Bate-
son, some time master of St. John's College, Cambridge. He
was educated at Rugby and St. John's College, Cambridge,
and became famous for his biological investigations, which
included important researches on Mendelism and the deter-
mination of sex. In 1894 he published Materials for the Study
of Variation. In 1907 he gave the Silliman lecture at Yale Uni-
versity, from 1908 to 1909 was professor of biology at Cam-
bridge, and in 1910 was appointed director of the John Innes
Horticultural Institution at Merton Park, Surrey. From 1912
to 1914 he was Fullerian professor of physiology at the Royal
Institution, and in 1914 was president of the British Associa-
tion. He received the Darwin medal of the Royal Society, of
which he was a fellow, in 1904. His other works include
Mendel's Principles of Heredity (1902) and Problems of Genetics
(1913), besides many short studies on biological subjects.
BAUER, GUSTAV BAVARIA
419
BAUER, GUSTAV (1870- ), German Socialist, and first
chancellor of the republican German Reich, was born Jan. 6 1870
at Darkehnen in East Prussia. At an early stage of his career
he took up the secretarial work of the German Trades Unions
movement and in 1908 became president of the general committee
of the Trades Unions of Germany. Elected a member of the old
Reichstag in 1912, he was appointed on Oct. 5 1918 Secretary
of State for the Department of Labour in the Government of
Prince Max of Baden, the last Government under the old
regime. In Feb. 1919 he was appointed Minister of Labour in
the republican Government of the German Reich and on June 21
of the same year president of the Ministry which was installed
to accept the Peace Treaty of Versailles. The new constitution
of the Reich having been enacted, the president of the Ministry
resumed, in accordance with its provisions, the old title of
chancellor (Reichskanzler) and Bauer was the first to hold this
office under the republican regime. He remained chancellor
until the Kapp coup of March 1920, when he fled with the
president of the Reich, Ebert, and the rest of the Ministry to
Dresden and afterwards to Stuttgart. On their return the
Ministry was reconstructed and Bauer made way for the second
republican chancellor, Hermann Miiller, himself becoming for a
brief period the Minister of the Treasury (Reichsschatzminister).
BAUER, OTTO (1881- ), Austrian politician, was born
Sept. 5 i88r, the son of a Viennese manufacturer. He
entered the faculty of jurisprudence at the university of
Vienna, devoting himself especially to the study of economics,
principally under Bohm-Bawerk. As a student he took an active
part in the work of the Social Democratic party, and was early
a zealous contributor to the Arbeiler-Zeilung. He served in the
campaign of 1914, and was a prisoner of war in Russia from 1915
to 1917. After his return to Vienna he was elected a member of
the committee of the Social Democratic party, and became the
leader of the increasingly influential Left group. After the
revolution he succeeded, in Nov. 1918, his master Viktor
Adler as State Secretary for Foreign Affairs. In this capacity he
energetically supported the idea of the union of German Austria
with Germany. During the peace negotiations at St. Germain
in July 1919 he retired from his office, but remained until
Oct. a member of the Socialization Commission. He subse-
quently became one of the most conspicuous leaders of the
Social Democratic party in the Constituent National Assembly
and in the National Parliament (Nationalrat), his speeches
dealing mainly with financial questions, such as the tax on capi-
tal, and foreign affairs.
His works are: Die Nationalitatenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie
(1908); Die Teuerung (1911); Balkankrieg und Deutsche Welt-
politik (1912); Die russische Revolution und das europaische Prole-
tariat (1917); Bolschewismus oder Sozialdemokratie? (1920).
BAVARIA, a territory and free state of Germany (see 3.543).
The pop. of Bavaria, with which Coburg had voluntarily
united in 1920, was, according to the census of 1919, 7,i4>333;
without Coburg 7,066,024, in 1910 6,887,291.
Political History, 1910-21. The two last years of the life
of the Prince-Regent Luitpold were characterized by an in-
tensification of internal political conflicts which arose from
the increasing estrangement between the Podewils Government
and the majority of the Diet (Landtag) consisting of the Catholic
Centre party.
In the summer of 1910 Minister of Finance von Pfaff had suc-
ceeded without much difficulty in passing an important measure of
taxation reform by the vote of the non-Socialist parties and had thus
been able to introduce a general income tax in order to consolidate
the financial position of the country. But the resistance with which,
in the following year, the Minister of Communications, von Frauen-
dorfer, and the whole Cabinet met the demand of the Centre for
the suppression of the South German Railway Men's Union, on the
ground of its alleged Socialist tendencies, soon led to an open con-
flict between the majority and the Government. On Nov. 8 1911
the majority of the Finance Committee of the Diet refused to dis-
cuss with Frauendorfer the vote for the estimates of his department.
The Government, in the hope of solving the conflict and relaxing
the strain of the internal situation, induced the aged Regent to order
the dissolution of the Diet. This was done on Nov. 14. For the
elections which took place on Feb. 5 1912, the Liberal parties, the
Social Democrats and the Bavarian Farmers' League (Bayerischer
Bauernbund) concluded an alliance the effect of which was that only
one candidate was set up by the allied parties in each constituency
against the candidate of the Centre. The Podewils Cabinet resigned
on the day of the elections in order to give the Crown a free hand
according to the results. These results did not fulfil expectations.
The Centre returned an absolute majority in the Diet, although their
allies, the Conservatives, came back with much less than half their
former strength. The Liberals, the Social Democrats and the Farm-
ers' League gained seats, but not enough to overthrow the Clerical-
Conservative majority.
The Prince-Regent entrusted the university professor, Dr. Baron
von ftertling (afterwards Chancellor of the German Empire 1917-8),
who also sat in the Reichstag in Berlin as a member of the Catholic
Centre party, with the formation of a ministry. Baron von Hertling
acted in the sense of his commission; he selected two of the leading
members of the Centre and filled the remaining posts with politically
colourless officials. The hope that the elections would have relieved
the strained condition of internal politics was not at first fulfilled.
On the contrary the controversy about the treatment of the South
German Railway Men's Union was further embittered by the issue
of an ordinance which demanded from the workers on the railways
the signature of a paper certifying their loyalty ; and the issue of a
secret ordinance on toleration of the exercise of priestly functions
by members of the Jesuit Order, which was still forbidden by a Law
of the empire, roused the opposition to the Hertling Ministry to
increased violence. By a decision of the Federal Council of Nov. 28
1912 disavowing this secret edict of the Bavarian Government, the
controversy about the Jesuits was eliminated, but new subjects of
conflict soon arose.
On Dec. 12 1912 Prince-Regent Luitpold died in his ninety-
second year. His son Louis assumed the regency, and took
the oath to the constitution on Dec. 21.
The movement for ending the regency (which had lasted since
1886 and was due to the insanity of King Otto) and conferring the
royal dignity upon the Regent, coincided in point of time with the
bill introduced by the Government for increasing the Civil List from
4-2 to 5-4 million marks (270,000). After protracted debates, by
which the internal conflicts of the country were intensified, the Diet
on Oct. 30 1913 passed, by a majority of 122 against 27 Social
Democratic votes, an amendment to the constitution ending the
regency and enabling the Prince-Regent, Louis, to assume royal
authority. After the Upper Chamber had given its assent, Prince
Louis issued a proclamation on Nov. 5 announcing his assumption
of the crown. The demand for the increase in the Civil List was
granted by the Diet on Nov. 21 against a minority of 50 Liberals
and Social Democrats.
The War Period. The truce to party politics (Burgfrieden),
which had completely silenced political conflicts at the out-
break of the war, continued as an after-effect, to mitigate them.
In 1915 the edict regarding the declaration of loyalty to be
signed by the railway -men was withdrawn ; in 1916 the Minister
of the Interior, von Soden, who was widely attacked on the
ground of his agrarian food policy, was replaced by the former
Minister of the Interior, von Brettreich, while Gen. von Hellin-
grath replaced Gen. von Kress as Minister of War. In the later
years of the war, when discontent due to the oppressive war
burdens was accompanied by increasingly powerful efforts
to carry domestic reform, resolutions of the Social Democrats
in favour of proportional representation, a parliamentary
regime, and the abolition of the Upper Chamber were repeatedly
rejected by the majority of the Chamber of Deputies; but the
Government promised at least to introduce a bill for the overdue
reform of the Upper House (Kammer der Reichsrate). On
Nov. 10 1917 Count (as he had now become) Hertling resigned
the presidency of the Ministry in order to assume the office of
chancellor of the empire. He was succeeded by Herr von
Dandl, hitherto chief of the Civil Cabinet of the King.
The imminence of the revolution, a consequence of the dis-
content excited by the increasing burdens imposed by the war,
made itself felt as far back as Jan. 1918 in Bavaria as in the
empire. The band of Independent Socialists led by the Social
Democratic newspaper editor, Kurt Eisner, did not succeed,
it is true, in launching a general strike of munition workers,
but there were demonstrations in Niirnberg and Fiirth and also
in Munich, leading in some cases to street conflicts. Eisner
himself and a number of his partisans were arrested and kept
in custody with a view to their trial. He was set at liberty only
by the political amnesty which the Government of Prince Max
420
BAVARIA
of Baden issued for the whole empire. In the summer and
autumn of the year 1918 there were instances of insubordina-
tion in one or two Bavarian garrison towns among troops who
were being sent off to relieve regiments at the front. Such
breaches of discipline indicated opposition to the war in the
army and among the population. Eisner was set up by the
Independent Socialists in Oct. 1918 as their candidate at a by-
election for the Reichstag in the constituency of Munich. At
a series of election meetings he advocated the idea of a violent
rising of the masses with the object of rapidly ending the war
and overthrowing the ruling authorities.
After the War. On Nov. 7 the Social Democratic party
and the Independent Socialists organized a mass-meeting
on the Theresienwiese, a large park in Munich, in favour of
peace; it was attended by about 150,000 workmen and passed
off without incident. After the close of the meeting, however,
Eisner with his adherents marched through the city, called
out the soldiers from the barracks, occupied the guard-house
of the royal residence, and formed on the same evening a
provisional Workmen's and Soldiers' Council which held its
first sitting in the building of the Diet. It sat all night, and a
proclamation issued in the early hours of the morning an-
nounced the deposition of the dynasty and the conversion of
Bavaria into a republic. As the soldiers, with the exception
of the officers, were almost unanimously in sympathy with the
action of Eisner, and as the working classes and the rural peasantry
led by the two Farmers' Leaguers, Joseph and Karl Gandorfer,
made common cause with him, no serious resistance was offered.
The King had left Munich on the evening of Nov. 7 and taken
refuge in the castle of Anif in Salzburg. On Nov. 8 the Work-
men's and Soldiers' Council in Munich elected a new revolution-
ary Government with Eisner at its head as Minister-President.
Other members of the new Ministry, in addition to Majority
and Independent Socialists, were Prof. Jaffe as Minister of
Finance and the former Minister von Frauendorfer as Minister
of Communications. The new Government issued on Nov. 15
an elaborate programme, and Eisner himself endeavoured by
the appointment of the pacifist Prof. Dr. Foerster as diplomatic
envoy to Berne and by wireless messages to the Allies to pro-
mote the conclusion of peace on tolerable conditions. He
encountered vigorous opposition in the Bavarian press, in-
cluding Socialist journals, on account of these proceedings
and above all on account of his hostility to the Government of
the Commissaries of the People which had just been formed in
Berlin. There was a powerful movement in favour of instituting
general elections for the Constituent Bavarian National As-
sembly, but Eisner only yielded to it on Dec. 5. The elections
were fixed for Jan. 12 1919. On Jan. 6 1919 the revolutionary
Government issued an ordinance setting up a provisional
constitution, which conferred upon the Ministry supreme
executive powers and a veto upon decisions of the Diet. In
the event of the veto's being employed, the vote of the people
was to give the final decision. The revolutionary Government
was, moreover, to exercise legislative powers until the enact-
ment of a definitive constitution. The elections of Jan. 12
resulted in a powerful displacement of political power towards
the Left. The Bavarian People's Party (Volkspartei), which
had constituted itself on an independent basis as the successor
of the Catholic Centre party in Bavaria, won 66 seats, the
German People's Party (former National Liberals) and the
German Nationalists (old Conservatives) nine seats, the Farm-
ers' League 15 seats, the Democrats 25 seats, and the Social
Democrats 62 seats.
The National Assembly was convoked for Feb. 21. Mean-
while the masses had become more and more extremist in
the Bavarian capital. There were repeated demonstrations
which led to collisions and riots. Although Eisner made great
efforts to prevent bloodshed, he could not make up his mind
to dissociate himself unequivocally from the extremist elements
which were coquetting with Bolshevist ideas. On Feb. 21, when
on his way to the Diet in order to inform it of the resignation
of the revolutionary Government and to invite it to elect a new
ministry, he was shot dead by Count Arco, a former officer.
Before the Assembly could adopt any attitude towards this
assassination, it was broken up by the infuriated adherents
of Eisner. Men armed with pistols stormed the House and the
Social Democratic Minister of the Interior, Auer, who had
been wrongly accused of participation in the conspiracy against
Eisner, was severely wounded by a shot in the chest, while one
deputy and one official were mortally wounded. There followed
a period of lawlessness when everyone did as he pleased, since
there was no organ of any kind for exercising the sovereign
powers of State. The Congress of Councils (Soviets), which
met after the assassination of Eisner, arrogated to itself supreme
power, and it was only after protracted negotiations between
this Congress and the Social Democratic party, which had
identified itself with the opposition in the provinces to the
usurpation of the Munich Congress, that it was possible to
form a new Government. The Social Democratic deputy, Hoff-
mann, who had been Minister of Education under Eisner,
undertook the presidency of the Ministry; the Government was
composed of Independent (extreme) and Majority (moderate)
Socialists. The National Assembly met for one brief sitting
and transferred the power of legislation to the Ministry until
law and order could be reestablished. Meanwhile things did
not settle down; on the contrary, the situation in the capital
became more and more confused. As the Government did
not consider that it possessed in Munich the power to carry
through its will, it left the city two days before the proclamation
of the Councils (Soviet) Republic and betook itself to Northern
Bavaria, where it hoped to find support among those sections
of the population whose opinions were Democratic. In Munich
a dictatorship of a number of extremists, under the influence of
Bolshevists such as Levin and Levine-Nissen, held sway for
four weeks under the name of Councils Republic. The fugitive
Socialist Government took up its residence at Bamberg, where
the National Assembly also met. With the military support
of the Reich, action with Prussian, Wiirttemberg and Bavarian
troops was initiated against Munich and culminated in the
capture of the capital and the suppression of the extremist
insurrection after s.evere fighting on May i, 2, and 3.
The final phase of the struggle was characterized by some
acts of barbarity, such as the murder of a number of hostages,
including a Countess Westarp, in a cellar by the Soviet extrem-
ists. Unfortunately in the suppression of the " Red Terror "
grave excesses were likewise perpetrated by the other side.
There were numerous summary executions and arbitrary
arrests, so that in some instances persons who were entirely inno-
cent lost their lives or were put in prison. Northern Bavaria
had taken no part whatever in the movement. The Diet re-
mained for the time being at Bamberg. The Government, after
the Independent Socialists had left it, was converted into a
coalition by the inclusion of two members of the Democratic
and two of the Bavarian (Catholic) People's party, with Hoff-
mann as Minister-President. It submitted to the Diet the draft
of a constitution which gave effect to the ideas of parliamentary
democracy and which also provided for the exercise of the
referendum under certain conditions. A number of other
measures for completing the edifice of the democratic State
were submitted, and the whole session of the Diet at Bamberg
was occupied with the consideration of these. The constitution
(see below), the Teachers and Schools law and a number of
other important laws were passed. The new constitution bears
the date of Aug. 14 1919.
It was only in the late autumn when order had been restored
throughout the whole country that the Government and the
Diet returned to Munich. In order to prevent the recurrence
of a situation like that which had existed under the Councils
(Soviet) Republic, the Government had caused so-called
Einwohnerwehrcn (volunteer defense forces of the inhabitants)
to be formed; in these armed bodies the citizens who took their
stand upon the constitution united on a democratic basis for the
protection of public order and fpr the defense of the constitu-
tion against popular ententes. They elected their own leaders
BAVARIA
421
and endeavoured to act as private organizations without
any connexion with regular military bodies. The idea of the
Einwohnerwehren rapidly took a firm hold, especially among
the non-Socialist (biirgerliclt) section of the population, so that
these bands of volunteers developed into a powerful and well-
armed volunteer organization. The Kapp Putsch which had
resulted in a change of Government in the Reich, also pro-
duced certain effects in Bavaria. Although the movement did
not secure any open adherents there, it brought about a domestic
crisis in the course of which the Socialist ministers left the
Cabinet. A Provincial Government president, von Kahr, was
elected president of the Ministry, and the members of the
Cabinet were taken from the adherents of the Bavarian (Cath-
olic) People's party, the Democrats and the Liberal Farmers'
League (Bauernbund). The elections for the Diet, which took
place simultaneously with those for the Reichstag on June 6
1920, exhibited a natural reaction after the hardships which the
country had had to suffer from the excesses of the extremist
groups during the 18 months following upon the revolution;
there was a great increase in the strength of the non-Socialist
(burgerlich) parties. Only 27 Social Democrats, 22 members
of the Independent Socialist party and two Communists were
elected, while on the other hand 108 members of the non-
Socialist parties were returned. Among the latter the Demo-
crats had, however, lost many seats to the German Nation-
alists (the old Conservatives) and to the German People's
party (the old National Liberals). Herr von Kahr was again
entrusted with the formation of a Cabinet; he selected one
Farmers' Leaguer, one German Nationalist (Conservative)
and one Democrat, and filled the other ministerial posts with
members of the Bavarian People's party and with officials
who were in sympathy with that party. He received powerful
support from a party organization in the country which was
the rival of the Farmers' League, the Catholic Peasants' Union
(Bauernverein) , at the head of which was the gifted and popular
Dr. Heim, who has been called " the uncrowned King of Ba-
varia." On the whole the country remained free from domestic
disturbances. On the other hand the necessity of disarming and
disbanding the Einwohnerwehren in accordance with the Treaty
of Versailles led to protracted and difficult negotiations with the
Government of the Reich and to an exceedingly critical situation
for the Kahr Ministry in Bavaria itself, as that Ministry had
made the maintenance of the Einwohnerwehren one of the
principal planks in its platform.
In consequence of the ultimatum of the Allied Powers the
situation with regard to the disarmament of the Einwohner-
wehren became acute as between the Reich and Bavaria in May
1921. Direct diplomatic representations were made to the
Bavarian Government; for France, in spite of a provision in the
new constitution of the Reich (Art. 78), had accredited a
minister to Bavaria, while Great Britain had ultimately sent
a diplomatic consul. Herr von Kahr was finally constrained
to announce that in agreement with the leaders of the Einwoh-
nerwehr the Bavarian Government were prepared to make the
sacrifice of disarmament. The Government had previously
been vigorously pressed in this sense by the Opposition and
in particular by the Independent Socialists. Their leader,
Gareis, an able young man in his thirty-second year, was
assassinated, doubtless by the hand of a reactionary, on his way
home from a meeting on the evening of June 9 1921, an event
which once more threatened to arouse the insurrectionary fury
of the industrial masses.
Altogether the position of Bavaria within the Reich remained
in many respects a source of perplexity in 1921. Much would
depend upon the degree of success with which the Central
Government (of the Reich) in Berlin might be able to grapple
with problems of home, and more especially of foreign policy
in carrying out the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.
(O. S.)
The New Constitution. During the night between Nov. 7
and Nov. 8 1918, before the imperial regime had been over-
thrown in Berlin (Nov. 9), the revolution broke out at Munich.
The House of Wittelsbach was expelled. The Independent Social-
ist, Kurt Eisner, one of the most remarkable personalities of
the revolution, put himself at the head of the revolutionary
Government. It was contemplated that a newly elected Diet
(Landtag) should provide the new republic of Bavaria with a
basis of legality by means of a constitution. The electoral
regulations issued with this object on Dec. 9 1918 conferred
the franchise upon all Bavarians, without distinction of sex,
who had reached their twentieth year. In order, however, to
safeguard the results of the revolution Eisner's Government
promulgated before the elections for the Diet a provisional
fundamental law of the State for the " Socialist Republic of
Bavaria," and this fundamental law provided for the establish-
ment of parliamentary Government. The Diet was to have
met on Feb. 21 1919. On that day Eisner was assassinated; the
disorders which followed prevented the Diet from taking
in hand at once the preparation of the definitive constitution.
What the -Diet adopted in the first instance was once more a
provisional " Fundamental Law of the State," which cor-
responded in essentials with the first provisional law and came
into force on April 2 1919. Thereafter the fresh revolution of
the Communists, which had been threatening since the assassina-
tion of Eisner, broke out. Under the leadership of Russian Bol-
sheviks, the " Councils Republic " of Bavaria was set up.
By May i the domination of the Communists was again at art
end. The Diet could reassemble, though, at first, not in Munich.
On May 28 1919, the draft of the text of a constitution for the
" Free State of Bavaria " was submitted to the Diet by the
Hoffmann Ministry. After detailed consideration the Consti-
tution was voted and came into force on Aug. 14 1919.
The constitution starts from the assumption that Bavaria con-
tinues to be a state within the German Reich, although it has had
to cede a great part of its former rights to the Reich. This conception
was still more strongly emphasized in Eisner's provisional " Funda-
mental Law of the State " than in the constitution which was finally
adopted ; for Eisner's fundamental law was headed by the declara-
tion, " Bavaria is a member of the United States of Germany (the
German Reich)." Eisner indeed vigorously defended the conception
of federalism in opposition to the view that Germany had by the
revolution become a single, united state (Einheitsstaai). On the
publication of the first draft of the constitution of the Reich, which
was essentially unitarist, Eisner brought about a conference of
representatives of the German states, at which the South German
states succeeded in securing the institution of a permanent " Com-
mittee of the States." This committee or delegation cooperated
in the legislation which followed, particularly in the preparation of
the new constitution of the Reich. The Reichsrat, the federative
organ of the Reich, originated in this committee. It is true that
Bavaria, notwithstanding its resistance, had not only to give up
its " Reserved Rights," 1 but also to acquiesce in considerable limita-
tions of its independence. It had to cede to the Reich the control of
foreign policy, of the army and of communications, in particular the
railways; it may not maintain in foreign countries either legations
or consulates of its own. It has also been subjected to considerable
restrictions in its economic policy by the Reich, as economic legisla-
tion falls within the competence of the latter, while the finance
legislation of the Reich has appropriated almost all the sources of
taxation. All the greater were the efforts made in the Bavarian
constitution to give effect in its provisions to the residue of sover-
eignty which has been left to the territories (the Free States) in the
Reich. It goes so far in this regard that some of its provisions can
scarcely be brought into harmony with the constitution of the
Reich. The form of the State is prescribed for the territories by the
constitution of the Reich.
Bavaria accordingly is, like the Reich, a " Free State " (re-
public). The powers of the State (sovereignty) proceed from the
people. It is in the Parliament, the Diet (Landtag), that the powers
of the State are actually vested. Bavaria is thus, like the Reich, a
" representative democracy," but it is a democracy without " the
separation of the powers"; for it does not possess an organ for the
executive with rights equal to those of the Diet a president. The
ministry is appointed by the Diet and is answerable to it ; a minister
must at once resign when the Diet expresses its want of confidence in
him. The rights of the Diet are, however, limited by the fact that
it is left open to the people itself to exercise the powers of the State
directly. This may take place if, by a " demand of the people "
(the initiative), the popular decision (Volksentscheidung) regarding
a law or regarding the dissolution of the Diet is brought into action.
In order to bring about a decision of this character, a formal pro-
1 Reservatrechte, which were secured for it under the constitution
of the Hohenzollern Empire.
422
BAZIN BEATTY
ppsal, which must have been supported by at least one-tenth of the
citizens possessing the franchise, is requisite. If it be a case of an
alteration of the constitution or of the dissolution of the Diet, the
support of one-fifth of the electorate is required. This right of direct
cooperation by the people is intended to be a substitute for the
" balance of powers which is lacking in the constitution. To this
extent the Bavarian constitution, as indeed the constitutions of the
other German territories and that of the Reich, contains an element
which signifies " direct democracy."
The Diet consists of a single Chamber. There is no Upper House.
All men and women who have completed their twentieth year have
the franchise. They elect the deputies by secret ballot on the basis
of proportional representation, arranged so that there is a deputy for
every 40,000 inhabitants. The details of electoral procedure are
fixed by a separate electoral law. Only citizens of Bavaria who have
completed their twenty-fifth year are eligible.
The ministry is appointed by the Diet in the following manner.
First the minister-president is elected. He submits a list of the
candidates whom he proposes for the other ministerial posts, and the
ministers are appointed with the assent of the Diet. It is not req-
uisite that ministers should be members of the Diet. The real
organ of the executive is the ministry as a whole, but it is at the same
time, as follows from what has been said, dependent upoYi the Diet.
The ministry adopts its decisions by majority. The minister-
president presides over the whole ministry and has a casting vote
when the voting is equally divided. The ministry distributes the
affairs of the state among the different ministerial departments and
makes the appointments to the most important administrative posts.
It issues general ordinances for the conduct of administration and
decides upon the legislative measures which are to be submitted
in the name of the Government to the Diet. If a minister in the
exercise of his office has designedly or by gross negligence infringed
the constitution or one of the laws, he may be impeached by resolu-
tion of the Diet before the Court of Jurisdiction in State Affairs
(Staatsgerichtshof). The penalty for ministers who are found guilty
is dismissal from office. The majority of the Court of Jurisdiction in
State Affairs consists of members of the Diet ; the minority is com-
posed of official judges.
Legislation is conducted in the following manner: The Diet
votes upon the bills which are initiated among its own members or
are laid before it by the popular initiative (Volksbegehren). An
appeal to the popular decision (Volksentscheidung), or referendum,
on a legislative measure arises (l) when the Diet rejects a popular
demand (Volksbegehren) for the enactment of a law; or (2) when
the Diet passes a law without a popular demand for it having been
presented, and when thereupon an appeal is made to the popular
decision ( Volksentscheidung) either in consequence of a resolution of
the ministry or in consequence of a popular demand ( Volksbegehren)
for the referendum. There is, however, an important class of laws
which are exempt from the referendum, in particular laws relating
to the budget or relating to taxes or excise duties, and laws dealing
with the salaries of officials. There is likewise no referendum in the
case of a law which the Diet has declared to be urgent.
The estimates are annually fixed by the Diet by legislation. But,
in order to preclude reckless finance on the part of the Diet, the
constitution prescribes that, on the demand of the ministry, there
shall be a second reading of those financial resolutions which have
the effect of increasing the amount of the items or of introducing
fresh items of expenditure. At the second time of voting such resolu-
tions a majority of two-thirds of the members present is requisite.
Once the measure is voted, it is dispatched by the president of the
Diet and the whole ministry, and is promulgated. (W. v. B.)
BAZIN, RENE (1853- ), French novelist and man of let-
ters (see 3.561), produced two further novels, Davidee Birot
(1912) and Gingolph abandonne (1914), as well as a volume of
travel sketches, Nord-Sud Amfrique, etc. (1913) in the pre-war
period. After 1914 he published two volumes of war sketches,
Pages religieuses (1915) and Aujourd'hui et demain (1916), as
well as two novels, La Closerie de Champdolent (1917) and Les
nouveaux Oberli (1919).
BEACH, REX (1877- ), American writer, was born at
Atwood, Mich., Sept. i 1877. He was educated at Rollins
College, Fla. (1891-6), the Chicago College of Law (1896-7),
and Kent College of Law, Chicago (1899-1900).
His tales of adventure include Pardners (1905); The Spoilers
(1906, also dramatized); The Barrier (1907); The Silver Horde (1909'
Going Some (1910, also dramatized); The Ne'er-do-Well (1911
The Net (1912); The Iron Trail (1913); The Auction Block (1914!
Heart of the Sunset (1915); Rainbow's End (1916); The Crimson
Gardenia, and Other Tales of Adventure (1916); Laughing Bill Hyde
and Other Stories (1917); Too Fat to Fight (1919); Oh, Shoot! (1921).
BEATTY, DAVID BEATTY, IST EARL (1871- ), British
admiral, was born in Ireland in 1871, the son of Capt. D. L.
Beatty, 4th Hussars, of Borodale. He was not, as so many
naval officers are, predestined to his profession by family asso-
ciation or tradition, which in his case took its tone chiefly
from the army and the hunting-field; his father was a well-
known figure in the Leicestershire world of the 'eighties and
'nineties. That David alone of the family went into the navy
was largely a matter of accident, and his own choice at the age
of 13, when he was sent to the Royal Naval Academy at Gos-
port, can certainly have had little to do with it. Yet within 35
years of that date he had run through the whole gamut of naval
possibilities, including those attained only rarely by naval
men of any age Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Fleet,
Admiral-of-the-Fleet, and First Sea Lord to say nothing of
an earldom, the thanks of Parliament, the O.M., and the Lord
Rectorship of Edinburgh University. His sea service combined
the maximum of variety with a minimum of mere routine. As
midshipman he served in the Mediterranean flagship " Alex-
andra " and with the training squadron in the " Ruby." He
was sub-lieutenant in the " Nile " and the yacht " Victoria and
Albert." His six years of service as lieutenant were passed in
the " Ruby," " Camperdown " and " Trafalgar "; in the Ports-
mouth destroyer flotilla, and in the Nile gunboats. His service
there and in the battles of Atbara and Omdurman won
him his commandership, and in that rank he served in the
" Barfleur." The Boxer rising gave him another opportunity
of active service; he was wounded while in command of a shore
party, when his dash and leadership won him further promo-
tion, and he became captain at the record age of twenty-nine.
From 1900 to 1910 he was in command successively of the
cruisers " Juno," " Arrogant " and " Suffolk," and the battle-
ship " Queen." In the naval manoeuvres of 1912 he flew in the
" Aboukir " his flag as rear-admiral, a rank which he had
attained 24 years from the day the boy of 13 had entered Gos-
port Academy.
Even up to this point his career establishes a record in the
history of the navy. It was, in a sense, so far as the navy was
concerned, an obscure career, unhelped by " influence," un-
known to the public, undistinguished by the kind of fame
attained by the passing of examinations. It was remarkable
only by its brilliant rapidity. What he had done he had done
by himself, and he had come under no personal influence, with
the possible exception of that of Lord Kitchener as Sirdar, that
had particularly inspired or moulded him. He was never at the
top of any of the lists of his rank, but generally near the bottom,
from which he would leap, by sheer merit of service, to a similar
humble position at the bottom of the next list, thus passing on
the ladder hosts of officers who were laboriously climbing by
the routine of seniority and the death or promotion of those
above them. To make legal his promotion to flag rank in 1910
a special Order in Council had to be passed, as he had not served
the statutory time in command of a ship at sea. His two Admir-
alty appointments afforded him brief but valuable experience.
While still a captain he had acted for about a year as naval
adviser to the War Council; and under Mr. Churchill he became
naval secretary to the First Lord. In this capacity he assisted
at the conference held at Malta in 1912 when the decision was
made to reconstitute the Mediterranean fleet by replacing the
older battleships by a smaller but more modern force of battle
cruisers. In 1913 he was appointed to the command of the
First Battle Cruiser Squadron, the fastest and most powerful
scouting force ever launched, and hoisted his flag in the " Lion "
(March i).
From this brief outline of his service career it will be observed
that Beatty escaped two things. By seizing every opportunity
for fighting service he avoided that long period of drudgery in
big ships which had for some time been recognized as having
a deadening effect on the fighting spirit and initiative of naval
officers. Similarly he was equally successful in avoiding long
periods of shore service at the Admiralty which, valuable as
they may be as a training in administrative work, do not tend
to develop the entirely different set of qualities demanded of
an officer in high command afloat in time of war. Of adminis-
trative work in the large sense Beatty had practically no expe-
rience at all when he hoisted his flag in the " Lion " and pro-
BEAUCHAMP BEAVERBROOK
423
ceeded to train the newly formed squadron. In some ways it
was an advantage. He came to this vital task with an original
and untrammelled view of its essential objects, with an instinct
for warfare developed in actual fighting, and with a mind
undulled by subservience to that long grind of routine which is
the inevitable avenue to flag rank except for the fortunate few
who, like him, can gain early promotion for fighting services.
Throughout his career, when Beatty was given the choice of
decoration or other distinction as a reward for such service, he
always chose promotion. He had an instinctive certainty that
war with Germany would come in his time; and in so far as it
lay in his power to shape his career, he shaped it so that he
should be in a position to take a leading hand when the hour
struck. As it was, with all the brilliant rapidity of his advance-
ment, the war came just a little too soon to give him at the out-
set, and at the most vital moment, the position of commander-
in-chief, which no doubt would have come to him almost as a
matter of course if he had had a little longer in which to prove
his undoubted qualifications for that post. When he did suc-
ceed to it the pioneer work of fleet organization had been done
by Sir John Jellicoe, and the policy governing the use of the
Grand Fleet as a strategic weapon had been, for good or ill,
definitely established.
When the World War broke out, Beatty, although long
marked by an intelligent few as certain to achieve distinction,
was practically unknown to the navy at large. The routine
Home fleet service in which officers get to know each other
intimately had claimed little of his time; and when he took
command of the battle cruisers even Lord Fisher had never
met him. But a very few weeks of war service revealed his
quality as a leader. In the action of the Heligoland Bight
(Aug. 28 1914), a reconnaissance of light craft in which the
battle cruisers were acting in support of Commodores Keyes
and Tyrwhitt, Sir David Beatty exhibited his remarkable
instinct for being at the right place at the right moment. Partly
owing to faulty Admiralty dispositions the British light craft,
after the first object of the action had been achieved, were in
danger of being cut off when Adml. Beatty, acting not so
much on information as on his intuitive sense of the position,
turned back through a submarine-infested area and arrived
just in time to save them and sink every German ship in the
immediate neighbourhood. Then and throughout the war his
battle cruisers were the spearhead of the British naval forces.
In a score of operations of which, as they did not result in con-
tact with the enemy, history takes no note, and in the two which
developed into fleet actions, Beatty, in his famous flagship
the " Lion," was the leading spirit and pivot of the fighting
forces. A true disciple of Nelson, he was a rebel against the
official conception of British strategy that, provided the enemy
were properly contained, his destruction was a kind of luxury
that might be indulged in only on condition that the containing
force was not unduly risked. Beatty, on the other hand, was
inspired with the spirit of attack. He had unique qualities as a
leader which made men willing to follow him anywhere, and to
achieve the impossible; but apart from his dash and courage
he showed consummate skill and caution in dealing with the
new hidden elements which have placed so great a power in the
hands of the defensive in modern naval warfare. At the battle
of the Dogger Bank (Jan. 24 1915) he chased the enemy for
three hours, inflicting such severe punishment that the
" Blucher " was sunk and the " Seydlitz " and " Derfflinger "
and " Moltke " were in full flight, the two former in a bat-
tered condition, when the " Lion," which as head of the pur-
suing line had received heavy punishment, was put out of
action, and the command devolved on Rear-Adml. Sir Archi-
bald Moore. This officer, whose flag was flying in the " New
Zealand," gave no orders during the vital 40 minutes following
the " Lion's " disablement. Adml. Beatty's signals to " keep
nearer to the enemy " were either missed or misunderstood by
the ships immediately following him, with the result that touch
with the German battle cruisers was lost, and what was on the
point of becoming a complete victory was left merely as an
indecisive castigation of the enemy. The facts of this action,
which had not been officially made public up to the spring of
1921, were first given at that date in Mr. Filson Young's With
the Battle Cruisers, containing a very full account of the battle,
with track charts and the actual text and times of the signals
made. 1
Beatty's brilliant handling of the battle cruisers in the battle
of Jutland is discussed in the article on that action (see
JUTLAND, BATTLE OF). Some months later (Dec. 1916) he
succeeded Sir John Jellicoe as Commander-in-Chief of the
Grand Fleet, in which capacity he received the surrender of the
German fleet on Nov. 21 1918. He was raised to the peerage
in 1919 as Earl Beatty, Visct. Borodale of Borodale, Baron
Beatty of the North Sea, receiving the thanks of Parliament
and 100,000. At the same time he was awarded the
G.C.B., the O.M. and other honours and decorations. In
1919 he became First Sea Lord, and immediately set in motion
measures for a reorganization of the naval staff on lines which
would give the younger school of naval thought and experience
a chance to make itself felt. He attended at Washington, D.C.,
in 1921 the Conference on the Limitation of Armament.
The following estimate of Lord Beatty was given, in the book
referred to, by Mr. Filson Young, who had served on his staff in
the " Lion."
" One who has served him and observed him closely in the stress
of war may at least bear this testimony to his conduct in the chapter
of his life which is already over: that in everything that he did or
attempted he showed forth in himself and evoked in others the
fighting spirit that made England invincible in the past. The com-
mon view of him as a dashing leader trusting largely to luck, which
so much endears a man to the ordinary English mind, is singularly
untrue. It was not the mere instinct of the hunting-field, strong- as
it was in him, that brought him to the head of the Navy. His
caution and his sense of responsibility were just as remarkable as
his enterprise; but they were never allowed to obscure or dominate
the fighting spirit. Perhaps the greatest tribute one can pay to him
and to the Navy is to say that in the qualities in which he proved
supreme he was not exceptional, but typical; and it was because he
was a product of the modern Navy and contained in himself all its
most characteristic qualities, that the Navy would have trusted
and followed him anywhere."
Lord Beatty married in 1901 Ethel, daughter of Marshall
Field, sen., of Chicago; of his two sons the elder, Viscount
Borodale, was in 1921 a cadet in the Royal Navy. (F. Y.)
BEAUCHAMP, WILLIAM LYGON, 7TH EARL (1872- ),
English politician, was born in London Feb. 20 1872, the
eldest son of the 6th earl. He was educated at Eton and
Christ Church, Oxford, and afterwards entered public life as a
Liberal. In 1891 he succeeded his father in the title. He was
mayor of Worcester from 1895 to 1896, and in 1897 became a
member of the London School Board. In 1899 he was appointed
governor of N.S.W., but in 1901 returned to England. In
1907 he became lord steward of the royal household, and in
1910 entered Mr. Asquith's Cabinet as first commissioner of
works and lord president of the council, retaining the latter
post on the reconstruction of the Government in 1914. He
received the Order of the Garter in 1914, and retired in 1915.
Lord Beauchamp was from 1906 to 1907 captain of the Honour-
able Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, and in 1913 was made lord
warden of the Cinque Ports. He married in 1902 Lady Lettice
Grosvenor, daughter of Earl Grosvenor and sister of the 2nd
Duke of Westminster.
BEAVERBROOK, WILLIAM MAXWELL AITKEN, IST BARON
(1879- ), British politician, was born at Newcastle, New
Brunswick, on May 25 1879, the son of the Rev. William
Aitken, Presbyterian minister of Newcastle. He was edu-
cated at Newcastle, and afterwards went into business, where
he had a very successful career as a financier. Having made
1 The Financial Secretary to the Admiralty answered in the
affirmative a question asked in the House of Commons on May
4 1921 by Visct. Curzon as to whether the account given in
this book might be taken as correct. Its publication then relieved
Adml. Beatty of any responsibility for the somewhat misleading
version originally issued by the Admiralty of his own dispatch after
the battle.
424
BEBEL BEERBOHM
a large fortune at a comparatively early age, he came to
England in 1910, and stood successfully for the House of Com-
mons as Unionist candidate for Ashton-under-Lyne. He was
from the first an intimate friend and adviser of Mr. Bonar Law
when the latter became the Unionist leader. In 191 1 he was
knighted. In 1915 he went to France with the Canadian expe-
ditionary force as " Eye-Witness," and in 1916 became the
representative of the Canadian Government at the front, also
doing valuable propaganda work. He was created a baronet in
June 1916, and the same year was raised to the peerage. In
1917 he was appointed officer in charge of the Canadian war
records, and in 1918 entered the Government as Chancellor of
the Duchy of Lancaster in succession to Lord Cawley and direc-
tor of the Ministry of Information in succession to. Sir Edward
Carson, but resigned in Oct. of the same year. Lord Beaver-
brook became one of the chief proprietors of the London Daily
Express, and in 1916-7 published Canada in Flanders.
BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST (1840-1913), German social-
ist (see 3.601). During Bebel's last years his views regarding
the revision of the Social Democratic programme underwent a
considerable change; he ultimately favoured revision in the
sense of cooperation with non-Socialist political parties in
democratic reforms. In the Reichstag he continued to oppose
with great energy the world-policy and the naval expansion with
which William II. and his successive chancellors were identified.
At the same time he guarded himself against the reproach of
favouring a policy of non-resistance to foreign aggression, and
on one occasion declared that he would be the first to shoulder
his rifle if Germany were invaded. His attitude towards imperial
and autocratic Russia was throughout uncompromising. He
denounced the complaisance of Prince Billow's Government
towards the Russian Government in respect of the treatment of
Russian political refugees, and it would hardly be too much to
say that he would have welcomed a 'rupture with Russia on
almost any ground. His influence in this regard powerfully
contributed to foster those sentiments in the Social Demo-
cratic party which led it, a year after his death, to acclaim the
declaration of war against Russia on Aug. i 1914. In inter-
nal affairs he particularly distinguished himself by his de-
nunciation of the maltreatment of soldiers by officers and
still more frequently by non-commissioned officers. His efforts
in this matter had received great encouragement when Albert
of Saxony (1828-1902) issued an edict dealing with the mal-
treatment of soldiers in the Saxon contingent, thus cutting the
ground from under the feet of the Imperial Government, which
had persistently attempted to deny or to explain away the
cases adduced by Bebel. Bebel had amassed a fortune some
30,000, it is said from the proceeds of his writings, and this
was increased by a legacy of some 20,000 left him, curiously
enough, by an officer who had profited by his advice in a dis-
ciplinary case in which the officer had once been involved. He
owned a villa on the Lake of Zurich where in later life he spent
a great part of the year. One of his last public appearances
was at an International Peace Conference at Bern in 1913.
He died at a sanatorium at Passuggin, Switzerland, on Aug. 13
BECK, FRIEDRICH, COUNT (1830-1920), Austrian general,
was born at Freiburg im Breisgau, and entered the army in
1848. He distinguished himself as chief-of-staff of an infantry
division at Magenta, and in 1863 was made personal aide-de-
camp to the Emperor. He held this position, with that of adju-
tant-general and chief of the imperial military chancery until
1882, winning the Emperor's confidence and exercising the
greatest influence on all military questions. In 1866 he acted as
the Emperor's confidential agent at the headquarters of Field-
Marshal Benedek, before and after the battle of Koniggratz,
and his advice was of great importance, though it was not
always followed. In 1878 he was entrusted with a similar mis-
sion to the commander-in-chief of the troops operating in Bos-
nia. In 1882 he was made chief of the general staff of the Impe-
rial and Royal army, an exalted position which he occupied till
1906. Not only was his advice listened to in military affairs,
but he frequently exercised great influence on important politi-
cal and personal questions, gaining a great reputation through-
out the monarchy as one of its most influential men. His clear
judgment and practical common-sense enabled him to see and
judge men and things from a purely objective standpoint. He
was retired at the age of 77, with every possible sign of honour,
and was appointed commander of the Imperial Guard. He took
no part in the World War, and died in Feb. 1920. (A. K.)
BECKWITH, J(AMES) CARROLL (1852-1917), American por-
trait painter (see 3.610*). He exhibited at St. Louis in 1904
" The Nautilus " and a portrait of Mrs. Beckwith. Yale, Johns
Hopkins, and West Point possess examples of his works, and
the New York Public Library has a collection of his crayon
and pencil drawings. He died in New York, Oct. 24 1917.
BEECHAM, SIR THOMAS, 2ND BART. (1879- ), English
musical conductor, was born April 29 1879, son of Sir Joseph
Beecham, ist bart. (1848-1916), who. had made a large for-
tune at St. Helens, Lanes., as proprietor of " Beecham's
Pills." Young Beecham was educated at Rossall and for a
time at Wadham College, Oxford. His father was keenly inter-
ested in music and had given financial support to a number of
musical enterprises in the North of England, where the son
acquired considerable experience as a conductor. In 1905 he
gave his first concert in London with the Queen's Hall orches-
tra. A little later he founded first the New Symphony orchestra
and next the Beecham orchestra, both first-rate concerns. In
1909 he appeared in London as opera conductor, and in Feb.
of the following year the Beecham Opera Co., consisting entirely
of English-speaking singers, was inaugurated. The season was
started at Covent Garden in the following year when among
other operas produced for the first time in London were Strauss's
Elektra (Feb. 1910), Delius's Romeo and Juliet in the Village
and Debussy's L' Enfant Prodigue. In the same year there was
a further season at His Majesty's theatre during which Strauss's
Feuersnot was given, its London premiere. Further London
seasons followed in later years, all with decided artistic success.
These led up to the great climax when in 1913 the Beecham sea-
son of opera and ballet at Covent Garden included the produc-
tion of Strauss's Rosenkavalier and The Legend of Joseph.
Later in the same year there was a magnificent season at Drury
Lane of Russian opera and ballet, made famous not only by the
splendour of the productions of Russian opera in the vernacu-
lar, which in all probability would never otherwise have been
heard in London, but by the remarkable singing and still more
remarkable acting of Shaliapin, who then made his first appear-
ance in England. During the second and third years of the
World War there were Beecham seasons of opera at the Shaftes-
bury and Aldwych theatres, when pronounced success was
achieved by performances of Valkyrie and Tristan and Isolde
sung in English. Beecham's own version of Bach's cantata
Phoebus and Pan was given at the latter theatre. In 1917 the
Beecham Opera Co. were once more at Drury Lane, and in
1920 Beecham organized a somewhat ill-starred cosmopolitan
" grand " season at Covent Garden, during which Puccini's so-
called triptych, // Tabarro, Suor Angelica and Gianni Schicchi,
was given for the first time in Great Britain. From 1915 to
1918 Beecham was conductor of the Royal Philharmonic Society,
whose very existence during the World War he practically
guaranteed. In 1916 he was knighted, and shortly afterwards
he succeeded to his father's baronetcy. The lavish expenditure
of his private fortune upon opera in English ultimately led to
financial embarrassments which in 1920-1 necessitated the sus-
pension of his musical activities.
SEECHING, HENRY CHARLES (1859-1919), English divine
and author (see 3.640), who was appointed dean of Norwich
in 1911, died at Norwich Feb. 25 1919.
BEERBOHM, MAX (1872- ), English writer and carica-
turist, was born in London Aug. 24 1872, the son of Julius
Beerbohm and Eliza Draper, and half-brother of the actor,
Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree. He was educated at Charter-
house and Merton College, Oxford, and afterwards became
well known as a contributor to the Yellow Book and dramatic
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
BEERE BEHAVIOURISM
425
critic on the Saturday Review. He married in 1910 Miss Florence
Kahn, of Memphis, Tennessee, and afterwards took up his resi-
dence at Rapallo, Italy. His published writings include The
Works of Max Beerbohm, containing the famous essay on
George IV., and also A Defence of Cosmetics (1896); The Happy
Hypocrite (1897); More (1899); Zuleika^ Dobson (1911); A
Christmas Garland (1912); Seven Men (1919), and And Even
Now (1920). He also contributed to and edited the Life of Sir
Herbert Beerbohm Tree, published in 1920. He is well known
by his caricatures, of which exhibitions have been held in Lon-
don at the Carfax Gallery (1906) and the Leicester Galleries
(1911, 1913, 1921). In 1917, a Modern Loan Exhibition at the
Grosvenor Galleries included a group of 15 caricatures entitled
" Rossetti and His Friends." Many of his caricatures have
been published in Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen (1896);
The Second Childhood of John Bull (1901); The Poets' Corner
(1904); A Book of Caricatures (1907); Fifty Caricatures (1913).
His delicate and incisive satire has found its best material in
the peculiarities of individuals in every section of society.
Movements he almost invariably typifies by some well-known
personality. Pledged to no party, his friends have occasioned
some of his most characteristic work, notably the series dealing
with the New English Art Club and with Mr. Balfour. Like
Forain and Steinlein in his detachment, he lacks their univer-
sality; and complete appreciation of his art implies an intimate
knowledge of current affairs. As a draughtsman he is not fault-
less, and sometimes resorts to the veriest conventions; but his
freedom of line, feeling for delicate colour and sense of design
are remarkable, especially in his later work. (W. G. C.)
BEERE, MRS. BERNARD [FANNY MARY] (1856-1915), Eng-
lish actress, was born at Norwich Oct. 5 1856. She was the
daughter of Wilby Whitehead and was trained for the stage
by Herman Vezin, appearing first in the Opera Comique,
London, in 1877. Later she played Emilia in Othello and
various old English comedy parts at the St. James's theatre.
In 1883 she was engaged by the Bancrofts to play leading parts
in Fedora and other dramas at the Haymarket. In 1891 she
played Lady Teazle in Charles Wyndham's production of
School for Scandal, and two years later Mrs. Arbuthnot with
Herbert Tree in Oscar Wilde's A Woman of No Importance.
She was three times married, but for stage purposes retained
the name of her second husband. In 1900 she married Mr. A. C.
S. Olivier. She died in London March 25 1915.
BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER (1831-1915), English positivist
(see 3.644), died at St. Leonards-on-Sea July 7 1915.
BEGAS, REINHOLD (1831-1911), German sculptor (see 3.652),
died Aug. 3 1911.
BEHAVIOURISM. In the earlier article on INSTINCT (see
14.648) and also, though perhaps less obviously, in that on
INTELLIGENCE IN ANIMALS (see 14.680), the stress was laid on
behaviour. In later years attention has been turned more and
more to what has become known in this connexion as " be-
haviourism." What then is behaviourism? It has features in
common with pragmatism and with neo-realism. It is however
(as is the case with these other 'isms) somewhat difficult to
define. If we seek to elicit from the writings of this or that
behaviourist a clear statement of the doctrine he champions or
accepts, we find not a little divergence of opinion. And per-
haps each would remind us that J. J. Thomson has spoken of
science as a policy rather than a creed. What then is their
common policy? One may reply without much fear of misin-
terpreting their aim: A resolute application of radical empiri-
cism in the scientific interpretation of all behaviour and conduct.
In this interpretation a good deal turns on the relation of
behaviour to consciousness, in some sense of this word. " Critics
of behaviourism," says Weiss (1918), " do not recognize clearly
enough that the term ' consciousness ' varies in its meaning with
nearly every person who uses it. There is no generally accepted
definition or description; and the fact that psychologists and
philosophers have been unable to reach an agreement is one of
the conditions which has precipitated behaviourism." As to
behaviourists themselves he tells us that, thus far, they have
agreed that the most convenient procedure is not to use it at
all. It needs, however, but little acquaintance with their writings
to realize that, so far is this from being a matter of common
agreement among them, there is much discussion of the sense
in which the adjective " conscious " as applied to behaviour is
to be understood. Here again opinions differ. But let us put
the question in a rather different form. Let us ask: In what
sense is the word " consciousness " to be rejected by every
behaviourist? As to the answer to this question there is a far
larger measure of agreement.
In 1904 William James asked the question: Does conscious-
ness exist? His reply was that it does not exist as an hypos-
tatized entity with the unique privilege of activity, but that it
does exist as a function. In its negative aspect his answer
excludes " the hypothesis of trans-empirical reality," i.e. that
from which proceeds what is sometimes spoken of as " an alien
influx into nature." The transcendental Ego of the philosophies,
he urges, shows how " the spiritual principle attenuates itself
to a thoroughly ghostly condition." And he says roundly:
" I believe that ' consciousness,' when once it has evaporated
to this estate of pure diaphaneity, is on the point of disappear-
ing altogether. Those who still cling to it are clinging to a mere
echo, the faint rumor left behind by the disappearing ' soul '
upon the air of philosophy." There is no activity of conscious-
ness in this sense. " The healthy thing for philosophy is to
leave off grubbing underground (in the realm of the trans-
empirical) for what effects effectuation or what makes action
act." Activity in an empirical sense there is in plenty. It is
change in progress referred to some " storm-centre " of change.
It is change intrinsic to some system and not merely imposed
upon it from without. But there is for scientific treatment no
activity of a trans-empirical entity which may be regarded as
the source of such change. When therefore a behaviourist says
that " we need a psychology of human conduct to supplant
the psychology of consciousness" (G. A. Tawney 1911), that
which he seeks to supplant is a psychology which invokes what
James spoke of as trans-empirical agency. It is probably not
going too far to say that this marks a distinctive feature of
behaviourist interpretation.
It should here be added that though this may with some
confidence be said to be a distinctive feature of behaviourist
interpretation it does not follow that if this be accepted one
may infer that a writer who accepts it is to be ranked as a
behaviourist. It is, for example, fully endorsed by Howard C.
Warren in his Human Psychology (1920). But he says: " The
behaviourist contends that the data of consciousness should
be ruled out of science altogether because they are not causal
factors. This narrowing of the scope of science has not justi-
fied itself up to the present. Self-observation has proved more
useful than the study of behaviour in investigating the phenom-
ena of human mental life." It is questionable, however, whether
all who label themselves behaviourists do contend that the
data of consciousness should be ruled out altogether. R. M.
Yerkes would not agree that this is so in animal psychology.
And E. B. Holt, though he sails under the behaviourist flag in
his Freudian Wish, assuredly does not rule out consciousness.
Let us broaden our outlook- If we extend the use of the
word " behaviour " so as to include physical events, their
modern treatment tends more and more towards behaviourism.
" Our sole task," says A. N. Whitehead, "is to exhibit in one
system the characters and inter-relations of all that is observed.
Our attitude towards nature is purely behaviouristic so far as
concerns the formulation of physical concepts." His attitude
towards organic events and their mental concomitants may be
different. But his rejection of any " bifurcation of nature "
and his polemic against a doctrine of " psychic additions "
(Concept of Nature, ch. ii.) is in line with the neo-realistic atti-
tude of those behaviourists who deal with organic life. His
percipient event is the homologue of the organism under the
treatment of radical behaviourism. Neither the one nor the
other stands in need of any " psychic addition " ab extra for
the adequate interpretation of the facts. Each is set in a field
426
BEHAVIOURISM
which for the physicist is a field of acceleration, and for the biolo-
gist and psychologist is a field of the environment to which
the organism responds more suo. The business of science in each
case is to formulate an answer to the question: Given such a
field, having what may be called varying density, what hap-
pens therein? One does not enquire: What makes that which
happens so happen? At least one does not ask any such ques-
tion in a trans-empirical sense. To do so is to " grub under-
ground for what makes action act." But on such terms where
does psychology come in? One has here to realize that there
are two schools of behaviourists. According to one school the
study of conduct is to supplant that of consciousness through
so-called methods of introspection. According to the other
school such study is to give new value and direction to psychol-
ogy and thus involves not the abandoning but a redefining of
the concept of consciousness. Here alliance is sought with
those whom they regard as in spirit, if not in name, one with
them in aim. Behaviourists of this latter school, while still
rejecting consciousness as a trans-empirical agent, and thus
avoiding all taint of animistic interpretation, all interaction
of mind and body as disparate entities, all so-called parallelism
and the like, none the less accept consciousness as an empirical
function. What does this mean? It is connected with what is
spoken of as the relational view of consciousness, and thus has
points of contact with the relational view of space-time. Indeed
F. J. E. Woodbridge (1905) says that we should use the expres-
sion " in consciousness " in a manner like unto that in which
we use the expression " in space " or " in time "; and just as
we do not ask if space and time, as such, affect things causally,
so too we should not raise the question of the causal efficiency
of consciousness.
The wedge of entry of the psychic regard, implied by the use
of the word " consciousness," is through the concept of aware-
ness. Lotze spoke of one physical body "taking note of"
others. Thus the earth takes note of the sun in a gravitative
field; iron filings take note of a magnet in an electro-magnetic
field. But awareness commonly implies some mental as well
as physical taking note of something, however rudimentary,
of the nature of being acquainted with. Now if we speak of a
relational field of awareness as one in which this conscious
" taking note of " obtains, the organism which is stimulated
and responds is always central within that field. If then we
call this central term the psycho-organism, it is the locus of con-
sciousness in the sense of being aware. It is the experiencing
term in relation to terms in the environment which are expe-
rienced.. That is one way of regarding consciousness in the
widest sense of the word. Consciousness is the class of all
instances of experiencing on the part of psycho-organisms.
Whitehead's percipient event, taking note of physically, is also
a perceiving event, taking note of psychically. But of course
the psycho-organism, as perceiving centre, is that very com-
plexly integrated system of such psychical events which we
commonly call a mind.
There is, however, another way of regarding consciousness.
Instead of restricting the application of the word to processes
of minding within the percipient centre, the concept is extended
so as to comprise all that is in the field of awareness as minded.
That which one is aware of, no matter how distant its locus of
origin may be from the percipient centre, is " in mind," and
therefore " in consciousness," as a relational field. One is, no
doubt, conscious in seeing, or imaging, or remembering; but one
is also conscious of what is seen, imaged, or remembered. And
what one is conscious of has every right to be regarded as in
consciousness. This distinction between the " in " and the
" of " (as here used) goes back at least as far as Berkeley, who
spoke of perceiving as in mind "by way of attribute"" and
of that which is perceived as in mind " by way of idea." We
sometimes speak of the former as " in consciousness " and of
the latter as " for consciousness "; or of the former as " sub-
jective " and of the latter as " objective." But the behaviourist
is, as he might say, " out for " objective treatment. Part of his
motive is to show the futility of subjecticism. Hence, for his
treatment, the emphasis falls on that of which one is conscious.
Thus E. B. Holt would urge that there is nothing in the sub-
sistent or existent world (for our developed knowledge or our
more primitive acquaintance) of which we may not be con-
scious. For him therefore consciousness is a section through the
world of experience, of which section the organism that we speak
of as perceiving or conceiving is, in any given particular case,
the centre. And Woodbridge (1905) says: "Objects are con-
nected in consciousness in such a way that they become known.
It is important to note that, while this is so, the knowledge is
wholly determined in its content by the relations of the objects
in consciousness to one another, not by the relation of con-
sciousness to the objects."
To be " in consciousness " is thus on this view to be in a field
of awareness which may, like space-time, be coextensive with
the universe. But this is not the only view so much turns on
definition. Others, without invoking an independent psychic
entity, and without denying that there is a widely extensive
field of awareness, within which all objects for consciousness
are set, would differentiate consciousness as an imperium in
imperio and restrict it to the organism as the percipient centre
within that field. B. H. Bode (1917) goes further and advocates
a yet more restricted concept of consciousness according to
which some reference to the future is an essential criterion.
" Consciousness is behaviour that is controlled by the future."
There is much to be said for the contention that human con-
sciousness is the mental correlate of behaviour that is con-
trolled by anticipations of the future. James urged that with
every definite image " goes the sense of its relations, the dying
echo of whence it came to us, the dawning sense of whither it
is to lead." But this is not quite what Bode says. He speaks
of consciousness as " just a future adaption that has been set
to work so as to bring about its own realization." This implies
that the locus of consciousness, thus regarded, is the percipient
centre. " As Dewey has pointed out, the psychical is correlated
with intra-organic adjustments within the organism, that is
adjustments of the organism considered not with reference to
the environment, but with reference to one another." This
seems to give to psychology, as commonly understood, a more
definite place than is readily to be found in the treatment of
Watson. And Yerkes (1917) criticizing the behaviourism of
Watson " as simply and solely the physiology of organic activ-
ity," claims that there is a science of " psychics " on a par
with that of " physics," including in the latter objective physi-
ology and biology. Enough has been said in this connexion to
show that it is no easy task to bring to a focus the essentials of
behaviourist creed or policy.
Apart from philosophical implications, and apart from its
relation, if any, to consciousness, a cardinal feature of this
policy is to start out from behaviour as that which lies open to
objective observation instead of from introspection, which is
supposed to yield some trans-empirical psychic force or energy.
Behaviour is the biological " end " of all processes in the organ-
ism; it is that which we seek to interpret under the canons of
strictly scientific procedure; it is therefore that from which
such interpretation should set forth. This, it is urged, has
been realized by all the best workers on the problems of animal
life; it has been realized in a measure by those who lay stress,
in human life, on the importance of conduct. Here the realiza-
tion needs to be widened and strengthened. Watson would
add that it must be formulated in physiological and biological
terms. In human life there is no doubt much emphasis on
language and on thought. What is language, however, but a
subtle mode of behaviour " laryngeal behaviour " if we include
all the contributory bodily processes which centre round oral
speech, and, as integrated therewith, the written word? How-
large a proportion of human behaviour finds its expression in
language and its attendant modes of symbolization! But in
our adult life much of this has been rendered implicit and no
longer gets overt or explicit expression. None the less it is
present, as unvoiced " laryngeal behaviour," though " the
moment the overt slips into the implicit, instrumentation [the
BEILBY, SIR GEORGE THOMAS
427
use of delicate apparatus] becomes necessary to bring the
process out for observation " (Watson). Even then it is diffi-
cult to interpret the data owing to much abbreviation and
short-circuiting.
Now, many who would not care to be labelled behaviourists
might provisionally agree that language, expressed or sup-
pressed, is the outcome of thought. But this is not good enough
for the physiological behaviourist pur sang. Language behaviour
and thought must be identified. Thus Watson contended that
" thought is the action of language mechanisms." It is not,
as .some assume, " something, no one knows quite what, that
can go on in the absence of all muscular activity. It is a con-
stituent part of every adjustment process. ... It is not differ-
ent in essence from tennis-playing, swimming, or any other
overt activity except that it is hidden from ordinary observa-
tion and is more complex and at the same time more abbrevi-
ated." If then thought is the action of the laryngeal mechan-
isms just as swimming is the action of other bodily mechanisms,
it clearly follows that thought, for this behaviourist " psychol-
ogy," in which the word " consciousness " is taboo, is a mode of
bodily behaviour. In what sense can this be accepted on behav-
iourist principles? Not without diffidence it may be suggested
that to get the answer to this question it is essential to recog-
nize that the organism responds as an integrated whole, and
that all that follows on stimulation in some life-situation must
be regarded as behaviour. Laryngeal behaviour is the out-
come of the behaviour of effectors; their behaviour is the out-
come of that of a nervous system with its inherited and acquired
neuronic pattern; this behaviour in turn is due to that of many
receptors under adequate stimulation. All human conduct,
including speech, overt or implicit, is the final expression of
the behaviour of the organism, man, as a whole; and this organ-
ism is what it is, and finally does what it does as the result of
all that has happened to it during development under the environ-
ing conditions of life up to date. Watson seems to lay chief
stress on what has been spoken of above as the final expression
the business end of the whole business. And perhaps he would
regard what has been said as involving an unwarrantable ex-
tension of the concept of behaviour. But there is much,
even in his treatment, which lends colour to such an interpre-
tation of that which he would regard as the cardinal policy of
behaviourism.
The physiological story above outlined is a familiar one.
Watson tells it admirably and adds effective and illuminating
touches. He is honest in confessing that much still remains
conjectural. One is left in wonder, however, why when the
ship of psychology is lightened by throwing consciousness over-
board, thought also should not be silently dropped over the
stern. Then the vessel thus rendered thoroughly seaworthy
might be rechristened and given some more appropriate name
under which to pursue her voyage. Psychology seems a mis-
nomer.
The name is, however, retained. So let that pass. Revert to
the emphasis on the final expression in act and deed. Here is a
bit of sound policy. It is this final expression which is of prime
importance in animal behaviour and in human conduct. Herein
lies the pragmatic value of behaviourist treatment. Men have,
for example, to be selected for vocational work, for service in
the social community, as promising for this job or for that,
on occasion as likely to be efficient in the army. They must be
chosen for what they can do, and do rapidly, surely and well.
It is claimed, and there is evidence to substantiate the claim,
that the behaviourist with his stress on the effective output in
conduct, is able to make a wiser choice than the " orthodox "
psychologist who is said to be obsessed with the older intellec-
tualistic methods which involve too much reliance on the
methods of introspection only whose " pure psychology " is
of slender value in its application to the current problems of
busy life. In another field of practical application it is urged
that the methods of behaviourism will be fruitful. Both Watson
(1916) and Holt seek to apply them in the procedure of psycho-
analysis; and the latter author interprets the Freudian Wish in
terms of his special form of behaviourism and his relational
treatment of consciousness. One may hazard the opinion that a
judicious dose of behaviourist interpretation may serve as a
corrective of some of the tenets of what now goes by the name
of the New Psychology.
Of late years in England it is instinct in man, rather than
in animals, that has occupied the attention of psychologists and
sociologists. For this purpose the definition of instinctive
behaviour as that which is unlearnt the form of which is not
acquired in the course of individual experience, coming by
nature and not through nurture has been found not only
difficult of application in human life but scarcely serviceable
for marking a contrast which calls for emphasis. Instead
therefore of using the word " instinctive " to mark those forms
of behaviour which are unlearnt and not individually acquired,
some use it to distinguish those modes of behaviour which
take form unreflectively from those which are the outcome, of
rational thought under fully deliberate choice. Thus the in-
stincts of the herd, with which W. Trotter has dealt in an able
and illuminating manner, are, in part at least, modes of behaviour
which have been learnt under the social conditions of gregarious
life, which are in large measure due to tradition, and which are
only endorsed under the long-familiar process which has of late
been called rationalization. Here the bolstering up by some
assigned reason is subsequent to the " instinctive " perform-
ance of the act. In all this there is nothing which cannot, under
appropriate definition, be interpreted on behaviourist principles.
There is, however, another way of dealing with instinct,
either in the unlearnt or in the not-reflective sense, which will
be rejected by most, if not all, behaviourists nay more which
is rejected by many of the leading American psychologists and
philosophers who would not wish to be regarded as exponents
of behaviourism. This is the increasingly prevalent doctrine in
England according to which instincts are forces of character,
modes of psychic energy, prime movers of human conduct,
types of true mental activity, exemplars of genuine impulse,
as the rational psychologist and not the physiologist under-
stands this word. It finds able expression in W. McDougall's
Social Psychology, in A. F. Shand's Foundations of Character,
and in J. Drever's Instinct in Man. It is traceable in W. Trot-
ter's Instincts of the Herd, in L. T. Hobhouse's Mind in Evolu-
tion, and in W. H. R. Rivers' Instinct and the Unconscious.
For those who advocate a new psychology, this seems to be a
pivotal concept in the increasing literature of psycho-analysis.
Its spiritual father in this country is James Ward, whose article
PSYCHOLOGY in the E.B., gth Ed., marked a turning-point in
thought. It has been fostered through the influence of Henri
Bergson. It involves the concept of a " kind of causality so
connected with the nature of conative consciousness that it can
belong to nothing else " (G. F. Stout, to whose Manual an im-
portant chapter on Instinct has been added, 1913).
If there is any validity in the characterization of behaviour-
ism outlined above, this is the psychology which its supporters
seek to supplant, since it involves, as they aver, a bifurcation
of nature through the introduction of trans-empirical con-
cepts. And assuredly those who hold this creed will, on their
part, utterly reject behaviourism.
See J. B. Watson, " Psychology as the Behaviourist views it,"
Psych. Rep. xx., 1913 (to this article may probably be assigned the
introduction of the word); Behaviour (1914); Psychology from the
Standpoint of a Behaviourist (1920); E. B. Holt, The Concept of
Consciousness (1914), The Freudian Wish (1915). See also Jour, of
Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods from 1904 to date.
The dates in the text after the names of Bode, Weiss, Yerkes and
others refer to articles in this journal under the years of publication.
W. James's " Does Consciousness Exist? " appeared in the first
volume and is reprinted with other pertinent papers in Essays in
Radical Empiricism (1912). (C. LL. M.)
BEILBY, SIR GEORGE THOMAS (1850- ), British physi-
cist, was born at Edinburgh Nov. 17 1850, his father being a
physician. He was educated at Edinburgh University and
trained as a civil engineer. When quite young he developed,
in collaboration with the late William Young, a new method
428
BELASCO BELGIAN CONGO
of retorting oil shale, in which by carrying out the opera-
tion in two stages, each at the most suitable temperature,
most of the fixed nitrogen in the spent shale, which had pre-
viously been lost, was obtained as sulphate of ammonia. Between
1 88 1 and 1894 this method entirely displaced the older methods
of retorting, and the industry was enabled to hold its own
in competition with imported petroleum products. In 1891
Beilby invented and developed anew synthetic process for the
manufacture of the cyanides of potassium and sodium, by the
use of which gold and silver are recovered from their ores.
The cyanides are produced by passing ammonia gas through a
molten mixture of the carbonates of the alkalis with charcoal,
at a temperature of 850 C. An important British industry was
founded on this process, the first factory being opened at Leith
in 1891. Beilby was elected F.R.S. in 1906. He was president
of the Society of Chemical Industry in 1899, of the chemical
section of the British Association in 1905, of the Institute of
Chemistry in 1909-12, and of the Institute of Metals in
1916-8. In 1912 he was a member of the Royal Commission
on Fuel and Engines for the Navy. During the World War he
was a member of the Admiralty Board of Inventions and Re-
search. He was knighted in 1916. He published many scientific
and technical papers, and also The Aggregation and Flow of
Solids (1921).
BELASCO, DAVID (1859- ), American playwright and
manager, was born at San Francisco, Cal., July 25 1859.
After graduating from Lincoln College, Cal., in 1875, he was
stage-manager at several theatres and then went to New
York where he owned and managed the prosperous Belasco
theatre. He wrote or adapted some 200 plays, largely melo-
dramatic, and owing to his mastery of stage-craft he was emin-
ently successful as a producer and stage director. He presented
E. H. Sothern in Lord Chumley (1887); Mrs. Leslie Carter in
The Heart of Maryland (1895); Blanche Bates in Naughty
Anthony (1899); Henrietta Crosman in Sweet Kitty Bellairs
(1903); and David Warfield in The Music Master (1904).
Of his numerous other productions may be mentioned: May
Blossom (1884); The Charity Ball (1887, with H. C. De Mille);
Men and Women (1890); The Girl I Left Behind Me (1893, with
Franklin Fyles); Madame Butterfly (1900); Madame Du Barry
(1901); The Darling of the Gods (1902, with John Luther Long);
The Girl of the Golden West ( 1 905) ; The Return of Peter Grimm (1911);
The Governor's Lady (1912); The Temperamental Journey (1913);
The Secret (1914); A Celebrated Case (1915); The Boomerang (1915)
and Polly with a Past (1917).
BELCHER, JOHN (1841-1913), English architect, was the
son of John Belcher, an architect of some position. He prob-
ably derived much of his artistic faculty from his family con-
nexion with William Woollett, the i8th century engraver.
Following his father's profession, his education included a
couple of years in Germany. He further made a lengthy stay in
Paris, studying and sketching modern French architecture, the
result of which asserted itself in his first important commission
the Royal Insurance offices in Lombard Street a French
Renaissance building (since pulled down) in which he intro-
duced much sculptured work from the hand of Thomas Thorny-
croft. Joining his father in the latter's practice John Belcher,
Jun., received many commissions, principally, for the next
10 or 15 years, for business premises in the city and elsewhere.
Amongst the earliest of these is the well-known block at the
corner of Poultry and Queen Victoria Street, a building show-
ing how strongly he was influenced at that period by the Gothic
movement of which Street and Burges were the prominent
exponents. After his father's retirement in 1875, Belcher asso-
ciated himself at various times with a succession of partners
J. W. James, Beresford Pite and J. J. Joass. His most important
work was that resulting from his partnership with the last, and
it evidences a monumental strength and dignity of design to
which his earlier achievements had been leading. His intense
and always vividly expressed admiration for Norman Shaw
was a great factor in his artistic evolution, but even a more
powerful one was due to the preparation and study involved in
his production of the important volumes on The Later Renais-
sance in England, in which ke was associated with Mervyn
Macartney as joint author. His Electra House, Finsbury,
and Whiteley's vast store, Bayswater, are admirable examples
of business premises based upon plans thoughtfully and prac-
tically conceived, and possessing a fine and dignified architec-
tural treatment. Belcher was not responsible for many churches,
but his Holy Trinity church, Kingsway (1909), is an interesting
essay in the classic manner, and the Catholic Apostolic church in
Maida Vale being on very similar lines, may compare with any
of the Gothic town churches designed by Pearson. His domes-
tic work especially that at Stowell Park for the Earl of Eldon
had much grace and charm, and evidenced his sympathy,
previously noted, with Norman Shaw's methods. Apart from
his profession Belcher displayed considerable gifts as singer,
composer and conductor. His talents received recognition in
many directions and he was the holder of various distinctions
in his own country and elsewhere. He was elected Royal Acad-
emician in 1909, and in 1907 received the gold medal of the
Royal Institute of British Architects, of which he had been
president in the preceding year. Russia, Belgium, Germany,
Spain and the United States elected him a member of their
several architectural societies. He died in London Nov. 8 1913.
(C. H. To.)
BELGIAN CONGO (see CONGO FREE STATE, 6.917). Read-
justments of the Congo-Uganda frontier, and the incorporation
in 1919 of the greater part of Urundi and Ruanda, increased the
area of the colony by some 19,000 sq. m., and its inhabitants by,
approximately, 2,500,000 to 3,000,000. The total area of Bel-
gian Congo in 1920 was estimated at 928,000 sq. m. A census
was taken for the first time in 1917. It was not complete but
indicated that the pop. was little more than 7,000,000. In
1921, including Ruanda and Urundi the estimate was 10,-
000,000. In 1918 white inhabitants numbered 6,487, of whom
3,307 were Belgians. British numbered (in 1917) 820, of whom
588 lived in the Katanga province. Elisabethville (founded
1910), the capital of Katanga, had a white pop. in 1920
of about i, 600. It had many fine buildings and most of the
amenities of a European town.
Trade, Agriculture and Communications. The most striking
development in the resources of the country from 1909 was the
exploitation of the copper mines of Katanga. They were worked by
the Union Minifire, in which British capital was largely interested.
Since Dec. 1909 the mines had had a direct outlet by railway to the
E. coast at Beira. The output of copper rose from 997 tons in 1911
to 27,462 tons in 1917; it was 22,000 tons in 1919 and 19,000 tons in
1920. The copper-bearing belt is about 250 m. long and from 25 to 50
and more m. wide. The chief mine is at Kambove and has been
worked since 1913. The ore is smelted at Lubumbashi, where in
1918 were seven furnaces with a producing capacity of 40,000 tons
a year. Up to the outbreak of the World War all the Katanga cop-
per was bought by Germans; thereafter it was sent to Britain. Tin
is also mined in Katanga, but up to 1921 little had been done to
exploit its iron and gold deposits and diamondiferous areas. Since
1913, however, an extensive diamond field in the Kasai basin along
the Angola border has been worked. The stones, averaging ten to a
carat, are found in the river gravel or in alluvial deposits. The
output was about 90,000 carats in 1917 and over 200,000 carats
in 1920. The gold mines at Kilo and Moto, worked since 1905,
had an output in 1918 of some 90,000 ozs. The gold is found in
placer deposits.
Next in importance to copper mining was the development of
the palm-oil industry, which up to 1911 had been practically con-
fined to the Mayumba district. In that year the British firm of
Lever Bros, obtained large concessions in the interior to develop the
cultivation of the oil-palm and to erect factories on the spot for
crushing the oil. The company set to work with energy and the
result was seen in largely increased exports. In 1910 the export of
palm kernels was 6,141 tons, of palm oil 2,160 tons; in 1916 the
figures were 22,391 tons and 3,852 tons respectively. Cocoa, rice
and cotton were also increasingly cultivated and the fall in the value
of rubber led to a much larger collection of copal, the amount
exported, 2,139 tons in 1911, being 8,719 in 1916.
The value of exports, about 6,500,000 in 1910, was over l 1,000,-
ooo in 1916. During that period rubber fell from being 77% to 15%
in value of the exports of produce of the colony, though the quantity
exported 3,000-4,000 tons -was about the same. From 1914
onward copper and palm kernels and oil were the chief exports. A
considerable part of the trade, export and import, was in transit,
chiefly with French Congo, which had no direct communication
with the sea except through Belgian Congo. The value of imports
BELGIUM
429
fell horn 3,30x5,000 in 1910 to 2,380,000 in 1914. It varied much
during the World War, being 2,100,000 in 1915, not quite 5,000,000
in 1916, 3,200,000 in 1917 and 3,500,000 in 1918. Before the war
60 to 70 % of the imports came from Belgium, which also took the
bulk of the exports. During the war external trade was almost
wholly with Great Britain; after 1918 Belgium recovered part of the
trade, though that with Britain continued much above pre-war
figures and was worth 2,000,000 in 1919.
Considerable energy was shown in railway construction and by
the end of 1918 there were combined railway and steamer routes
from the mouth of the Congo to Dar es Salaam and Cape Town.
A railway 1 68 m. in length from Kabalo, on the Lualaba, along the
Lukuga valley to Albertville on Lake Tanganyika was begun in
191 1 and completed in 1915. The railway which connects at Sakania
with the Rhodesian railways and runs through Katanga reached
Elisabethville in Oct. 1910, Kambove, the mining centre, in 1913
and Bukama, at the head of navigation on the Lualaba in May 1918.
The length of the Katanga line is 450 m. and it is of the standard
South African gauge. From Chilongo, on the Katanga railway, the
building of a line westward to the- Angola frontier about 400 m.
was in progress in 1921. This line is to link up with the Benguella
railway and put Katanga in direct communication with Lobito
Bay, thus reducing the distance to Europe, compared with the
Beira route, by over 3,000 miles.
Progress was made in improving river and lake navigation.
Kinshasa, on Stanley Pool, possessing better accommodation sup-
planted its neighbour Leopoldsville as chief river port in 1915.
In 19113 a pipe-line was laid from Matadi, on the Congo estuary,
to Stanley Pool to supply the river steamers with petroleum for
fuel and reservoirs capable of holding 8,000 tons of oil were built.
In 1921 a seaplane service was started along the Congo river from
Stanley Pool to Stanley Falls.
Revenue. Taxes on imports and exports, not exceeding the
equivalent of 10% ad valorem, direct taxation of Europeans, and a
poll tax on native adult males, a tax on ivory and the Government
share in the exploitation of mines were the chief sources of revenue;
the administrative services and interest on debt the largest items of
expenditure. The abandonment of the trading monopolies of the
old Congo Free State, and the taking over of its loans put a severe
strain on the resources of the colony. Revenue increased from about
1,400,000 in 1909 to 2,320,000 in 1918. In each of those years
expenditure was greater than receipts by sums varying from 400,000
to 1,500,000 and new loans had to be contracted. The public debt
in 1919 was 349,000,000 francs. With the development of com-
merce, and especially of the Katanga mines in which the colony
had a two-thirds interest the prospects of balancing the budget
became good. A loan of 500,000,000 francs was raised in 1921 for
public works.
History. From the date of its annexation by Belgium
(Nov. 15 1908) the country was placed under the control of a
colonial minister responsible to the Belgian Parliament,
which has modelled the administration much on the lines
of a British Crown Colony. The abuses and misgovernments
which were fostered by the Leopoldian regime were remedied
as quickly as was possible. Most of the trade monopolies held
by Leopold II. and his associates were abandoned and fo'reign
traders encouraged. Care was taken that the natives enjoyed
security of land tenure though ownership remained with
the State and the right to dispose of their own labour freely.
Moreover in 1910 the natives were granted a measure of local
autonomy; their chiefs were for the first time officially
recognized and were entrusted with large powers. These powers
had a tendency, however, to make the chiefs, at least those of
minor importance, simply agents of the State.
Another step in decentralization was taken in 1912 by the
subdivision of the former unwieldy territorial division and by
the grant of wider initiative to the commissioners of the divi-
sions. But it was found that the Government was still too
highly centralized and, in 1914, the various divisions were
grouped into four provinces over each of which a vice-governor-
general presided, aided by a consultative council on which
non-official Europeans had seats. This left the governor-general,
and the council of government free to deal with matters affect-
ing the colony as a whole, including the preparation of the
budget. The governor-general had, however, practically no
authority in the province of Katanga, which, in 1910, except
that it had no separate budget, became a separate colony. Its
vice-governor-general exercised all the executive functions of
the governor-general and corresponded directly with Brussels.
In general the new native policy was successful, though
trouble arose from the difficulty, due to crippled finances, of
securing an administrative personnel of the best type. Many of
the old agents of the Congo State had to be retained. One of
these officials in the Tanganyika region was in April 1912
sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for summarily executing
ii native prisoners, including 4 women and a child. But that
the natives as a whole were satisfied was shown by their atti-
tude during the World War. A column of about 600 men coop-
erated with French forces in the operations in Cameroon and
other units aided in the defence of northern Rhodesia. An
army of over 10,000 men was raised for service in the East Afri-
can campaign. At the outset of the war Belgium had endeav-
oured unsuccessfully to preserve neutrality in her Congo
colony, and the first act of hostility was committed by the
Germans (see EAST AFRICAN CAMPAIGNS). In the result the
north-western part of German East Africa was conquered by the
Belgian native troops (as described in the article on the campaign)
and from Sept. 1916 to March 1921 a considerable area of that
country was under Belgian administration. Of this area nearly
all the province of Urundi and the greater part of Ruanda were
permanently assigned to Belgium by an Anglo-Belgian agree-
ment of Sept. 1919. This was a notable addition not so
much to the area as to the resources and population of the
Belgian Congo. Ruanda and Urundi are healthy, fertile, high-
lying regions, thickly populated and great cattle-raising areas.
The agreement made Kivu entirely a Belgian lake. By a pre-
vious Anglo-Belgian protocol (May 1910) the Congo-Uganda
frontier had been modified so as to give Belgium the western
shores of Albert Nyanza and in Feb. 1915 another agree-
ment fixed the frontier between Albert Nyanza and the Congo-
Nile watershed.
Baron Wahis, the first governor-general under Belgian admin-
istration, was succeeded in May 1912 by M. Fuchs. In 1916
M. Henry became governor-general. On his retirement the
Belgian Cabinet departed from precedent by choosing, Jan.
1921, as the new governor-general a man without previous
colonial experience M. Maurice Lippens, governor of East
Flanders. M. Louis Franck, the Belgian Colonial Minister,
paid a visit to the Congo in 1920. His visit coincided with a
period of unrest both among the white civil servants and among
the natives, due to the high cost of living. For some time the
majority of the white officials were on strike, while certain
native tribes rose in revolt.
See A Manual of Belgian Congo, a British Admiralty publication
(1920); M. Halewyck, La Charte Coloniale (3 vols. 1910-9); A. J.
Wauters, Histoire Polilique du Congo Beige (1912); E. M. Jack,
On the Congo Frontier (1914); H. Waltz, Das Konzessionwesen im
Belgischen Kongo (1917); F. Fallen, L' Agriculture au Congo Beige
(1918)- (F. R. C.)
BELGIUM (see 3.668). On Dec. 17 1909, King Leopold II.
of Belgium died at the castle of Laeken. He left behind him a
Belgium richer and fuller of vitality than that to whose throne
he had succeeded. His kingdom's immense economic develop-
ment, which he had consistently aided and encouraged, had
shown him the necessity for such a country, small but over-
populated, of ample foreign markets and colonies. Leopold I.
had sought to foster the colonizing spirit in Belgium, but without
success. Leopold II. 's eyes were opened by the great African
discoveries of 1878 to the possibility of realizing an ambitious
scheme for acquiring in his country's interests a vast territory
in the centre of the Dark Continent. Amid general scepticism,
and aided by a mere handful of men, mostly officers, he had built
up the independent state of the Congo. From 1895 onward the
Belgian Government had associated itself in his work by opening
credits to him, although Parliament remained hostile to the
King's bold and enterprising policy. Belgian finance, however,
took an interest in affairs on the Congo; and little by little there
developed a section of public opinion favourable to the taking
over by Belgium of the immense African territory. After a violent
agitation against the methods of colonial government in the
Congo State, conducted in Germany, England, and America,
and supported by certain Belgian politicians, the Congo was
Ceded to Belgium in 1908.
6 y . . .
430
BELGIUM
King Leopold realized that if his country was to remain
economically powerful her army must be strengthened, and to
effect this was his constant preoccupation; but the Catholic
party in power since 1884 always frustrated his efforts, and
up to the time of his death Belgium still preserved her system
of recruiting by drawing lots, conscripts who had been drawn
having the right to get themselves replaced by substitutes at the
cost of a fine of r,6oo francs. This system of substitution was
abolished by the Chamber in 1909, and the King on his death-bed
signed the law enforcing personal service.
Leopold II. had expressed a desire to be buried with the ut-
most simplicity, in the early morning, and without official cere-
monies. The Government did not think fit to conform to these
wishes, however, and arranged an imposing funeral. He was
succeeded by his nephew and nearest male heir, Prince Albert,
whose consort, Elizabeth, had been born a duchess of Bavaria.
I. PRE-WAR SITUATION, 1910-4. By Belgian constitutional
law the heir-presumptive to the throne does not become king
until he has taken the oath. Leopold II. 's death consequently
entailed a temporary regency which, in accordance with Belgian
law, was exercised by a Conseil de RZgence composed of members
of the Government : T. Schollaert, L. de Lautsheere, J. Davig-
non, J. Liebaert, Baron Descamps, A. Hubert, A. Delbeke,
G. Hellepette, J. Hellebrut, J. Renkin. On Dec. 23, in presence of
the Chambers and of delegations from the constituent bodies of
the country, King Albert I. of Belgium took the oath of allegiance
to the Belgian Constitution. The new King had already shown
his intention to carry on his uncle's work, having, while still
heir-presumptive, made a journey to the Congo for purposes of
investigation. But alongside that keen interest in colonial,
economic, and. military problems in which he resembled Leopold
II., he also from the first showed anxiety for his kingdom's
intellectual development and social organization.
Belgium had indeed advanced considerably during the reign
of Leopold II. She had not only achieved a high degree of
prosperity, but had also undergone an intellectual renascence,
giving birth during the second half of the century to a school of
writers, painters, and men of science worthy of comparison with
those of the neighbouring countries. Furthermore, the develop-
ment of trade, with its increase in the numbers of industrial
workers in 1910 they numbered 1,270,484 raised social
problems with increasing urgency. Belgian trade had found
immense markets, thanks in part to the cheapness of its products
due to low wages. The growing strength of the trade unions
enabled the workers to claim an improvement in their material
conditions, and Belgium began to find herself confronted by the
difficulty of entering on the path of social reform without com-
promising her economic stability. Political struggles of peculiar
intensity were rendering the situation still more delicate. In
Belgium social- and economic claims are always mixed up with
purely political questions. Social and professional organizations
are at the same time political groups, and their action makes
itself as much felt in political affairs as in the economic sphere.
In 1907 the trade-union movement was divided as follows:
Socialist unions 142,035 members
Catholic 40,521
Liberal " 1,020 "
Neutral " 11,667
Number of women in unions Io i5!7 "
The socialist unions first tested their strength in the campaign
opened by the Socialist party in 1912 for universal suffrage
" pure and simple." This campaign coincided with the violent
struggle on the education question which began just then be-
tween the parties of the Left Liberals and Socialists and the
Catholic party.. The Catholics, who commanded a majority in
the Chamber, introduced a bill to put the voluntary schools and
the State schools on an absolutely equal footing. Education in
Belgium, especially primary education, is largely in the hands of
the religious denominations. Their schools, recognized and sub-
sidized by the State, were in many communes the only teaching
institutions. It was to these denominational schools that the
Government proposed to accord the same treatment as that
given by the State to its own official schools.
The proposal raised a storm of adverse opinion throughout
the country. A monster demonstration organized by the Social-
ist and Liberal parties took place at Brussels. The Liberal party,
rallying to the principle of universal suffrage at 25 years of age
and the single vote, formed a bloc with the Labour party in
order to oppose the Right, and they issued joint lists of candi-
dates in most of the towns. The Catholic party, nevertheless,
proved successful in the elections of 1912, preserving a majority
in the Chamber.
These elections, maintaining in power a party that had gov-
erned uninterruptedly for 28 years, had grave consequences. The
Catholic party was strongest in the rural districts and in the
small Flemish towns. The Walloon districts, more industrial in
character, returned a large majority of Liberals and Socialists.
On the morrow of the Catholic victory violence of party feeling,
much exasperated by the new Education Act, led to an outburst
of rage and indignation in the more politically advanced parts
of the country. In certain Walloon circles there arose the idea
of the administrative separation of Flanders from Wallonia.
Flanders should remain Catholic; the Walloon country should
be free to have the advanced (Left) Government it desired.
This movement, combining with that concerned with the
language question, threatened serious results. " Flamingan-
tisme," which originated in democratic aspirations, seeking to
bring together in Flanders the common people, Flemish of speech,
and the French-speaking bourgeoisie, had little by little obsessed
by its dominant idea and by a sort of regionalistic mysticism
turned towards reaction. The language question had been dealt
with by various laws that of 1878 regarding the use of the
languages by public authorities; that of 1898 about the publica-
tion of laws; that of 1910 on free secondary education; and by the
laws of 1913, on the use of the languages in the army, and of 1914,
on primary education, which were designed to complete the legal
equality of the Flemish language with the French. Yet in the
hearts of a minority, a desire was shaping itself to expel the
French language from Flanders.
In 1913 a bill was introduced in the Chamber proposing the
division of the army into Walloon and Flemish units, but was
defeated by an immense majority. This did not deter three
deputies a Catholic, a Liberal, and a Socialist from proposing
to the Chamber in 1914 the Flamandization of the university
of Ghent, in which French was the official language.
The Government did not perceive that by pursuing a course
of purely party politics they were stimulating the growth of this
separatist movement, and despite the protests of the Left they
once more brought before the Chamber their Education bill,
which they had temporarily abandoned. To counter this, and
to force upon the Chamber the adoption of the universal suffrage
" pure and simple " which they demanded, in April 1913 the
Socialist party organized a general strike, which spread over the
whole country, involving many hundred thousands of workers.
The Government would not yield, however, and their Education
Act became law. If in this the Catholic party had gained an
undeniable victory, it had been at the price of adopting com-
pulsory education, which for many years past had been advocated
by the Liberals. It was now enforced by the laws of May 19
and June 15 1914.
Educational System. School attendance is obligatory from 6 to 14
years of age. The juge de paix has to admonish recalcitrant parents;
and if they persist in neglect of their duty, they are first officially
warned before the final steps are taken of the infliction of a fine and
the posting of their names in their commune. By the law of May 19
1914 each commune must possess an official school. One or more
voluntary schools, if such exist in the district, may be " adopted ";
but if this is done a communal school must still be provided, sup-
posing it is demanded by a sufficient number of the inhabitants to
ensure it an effective minimum attendance of 20 children. In all
schools, whether official or adopted, the teachers must be Belgian
and diplomes. The State inspects both communal and adopted
schools, and they receive grants from the central authorities of
province and commune. Education is free, and the necessary books
and appliances are provided free for poor families. The syllabus of
primary schools includes religion (but fathers can claim their chil-
dren's exemption from religious instruction), moral teaching, read-
ing, writing, arithmetic, weights and measures, the language used by
the majority of the local population, geography, history of Belgium,
BELGIUM
drawing, hygiene, singing and gymnastics. In the girls' schools
needlework, domestic economy, and housewifery are added. In
agricultural districts agriculture and horticulture are also taught.
Further, the State subsidizes such initiative on the part of communes
as the formation of classes (such as exist in Ghent, Brussels, and
Liege) for backward and non-normal children, on the provision of
4th-degree instruction This 4th degree, first adopted by the
commune of St. Gilles. consists of technical instruction for children
of 12 to 14. Its object is to give elementary training sufficient to
enable the child to specialize as artisan or craftsman, and so to enter
industrial life already qualified.
Belgium's efforts to develop the technical training of her popula-
tion increased steadily during the last few years before the war,
much being done in this way by the provinces and communes.
Hainault (Hainaut) organized an admirable centre of technical
instruction at Charleroi under the name of the Universite de Travail.
Future workers, male and female, are admitted to its courses at the
age of 13 and they receive salaries, which enable them to pass
through the necessary years of training. In 1912 1,700 pupils at-
tended this school. All trades are taught there, each with the best
possible equipment of tools and machinery. Reading-rooms are
open to the pupils, and even also to workmen not attending the
school who think they can in the slightest degree improve tools or
machines. Concurrently with the technical courses, general courses
are given, notably in foreign languages, so that pupils may be in a
position to follow the technical periodicals of great neighbouring
countries. The province of Hainault finds the large funds necessary
for supporting this immense institution by means of a special tax on
industrial profits. The great manufacturers of the province not
only accepted this tax without complaint, but every year make
many voluntary donations to the Universite de Travail. To encour-
age the use of this school by the working-classes the employers of
Hainault decided to accept no workers under the age of 18; while
assuring well-paid posts to every pupil passing out of the Universite
de Travail. This close collaboration of public authorities, manu-
facturers, and workers produced most remarkable results in the
course of a few years. Besides the Universite de Travail there are
provincial schools of arts and crafts, agricultural mechanics, hosiery-
weaving, and industrial chemistry. The communes and many trade
unions provide housewifery schools for young girls and schools for
adults.
As regards agriculture, the State endeavoured to promote. special-
ization in the subject by courses of lectures given all over the
country. Such efforts made by public authorities, more especially
by the provincial and communal administrative bodies, whose
powers are very extensive, are rendered necessary by the social
conditions of the country.
Population. A population which in 1900 numbered 6,693,548 had
in 1910 become 7,423,782 an increase of 10-91 %, or over I % per
annum. Density increased from 227 to 252 inhabitants per sq.
kilometre. East Flanders contained 374 inhabitants per sq. km.,
the province of Antwerp, 342, Hainault, 331, the province of Liege,
306, West Flanders, 270, Limburg, 114, the province of Namur, 99,
Luxemburg, 52. Thickly populated areas and urban centres devel-
oped with lightning rapidity: in Antwerp the population increased
187% in 50 years, in Charleroi 147%, in Liege 105%. The whole
population depended for support on the internal resources of the
country, emigration being almost negligible: in 1910 only 38,854
persons left the country (55 % of them born in Belgium), principally
for France (52 %), Germany (13 %) and Holland (12 %). On the
other hand, 44,950 immigrants settled in Belgium, coming chiefly
from France (41 %), Germany (21 %) and Holland (16%).
To maintain such a dense population agriculture had to be
brought to a pitch of intensiveness unknown elsewhere; and industry,
with such vast numbers of hands to draw on, was able to develop
with marvellous rapidity.
Industries. The various industries of Belgium employ a large
part of the population. In 1910 this industrial population comprised :
Employers, or persons employing members of Persons Per cent.
their own families as employees or workers 260,521 15-23
Members of families as above .... 91,693 5-36
Employees 87,463 5-12
Workers 1,270,484 74-29
Total 1,710,161 persons
These were divided among the different branches of industry as
follows:
Per cent.
Textile industry 15-36
Metallurgical industry 13-32
Clothing 1 1 -94
Building 9.58
Mining 9-08
Timber and furniture-making 8-30
In 1914 glass-making employed 12,000 workmen, maintained 19
furnaces and produced annually 400,000,000 francs worth of glass, or
one-fifth of the world's entire output, 95% being exported. The
unchallenged superiority of the Belgian glass-workers, with their
centuries of specialization behind them, ensured a privileged position
in the markets of the world. Even so, technical development was
still advancing, and in 1914 the new Fourcault process had just been
successfully introduced. By means of it glass is drawn without being
touched by hand from the moment it comes out of the furnace until
it is ready for sale as finished merchandise. There were, besides, seven
factories producing annually 2,500,000 sq. metres of plate glass,
representing a value of 28,500,000 francs, nine-tenths being exported ;
and the factory of Jumet produced annually 12,000,000 bottles.
The Belgian cut-glass trade was equally important. The Val
St. Lambert, with 5,300 hands, produced daily 250,000 pieces, an
output (90% exported) realizing annually 13,000,000 francs.
In 1913 the metallurgical trade included: 21 high furnaces with
20,080 hands producing 96,000 tons of cast iron; 6 steel-works with
7,700 hands producing 1,134,000 tons of rough steel and 671,000 tons
of finished products; 15 iron-works with 3,402 hands producing
27,100 tons of finished iron and 19,300 tons of finished steel. The
steel industry, including coke-fired furnaces, employed in 1913 a
total of 39,500 hands, and was represented by 41 factories with
2,498 coke-fired furnaces, employing 4,229 hands and producing
3,523,000 tons; 19 works with high furnaces, 5,289 hands, producing
2,484,690 tons; 28 Siemens-Martin furnaces producing 274,450 tons
of rough steel; 84 converters producing 2,192,180 tons of rough steel
and 1,409,940 tons of finished steel; 38 transforming plants produc-
ing 304,350 tons of finished iron and 448,400 tons of finished steel.
The zinc industry possessed 14 foundries with 600 furnaces and 10
rolling mills, and produced annually 200,000 tons of rough zinc and
51,000 tons of sheet zinc. It employed 9,300 hands. The output,
nine-tenths of which was exported, was worth 115,000.000 francs.
The collieries, the presence of which brought also the iron, zinc and
steel industries to the provinces of Liege and Hainault the coal-
yielding provinces ^occupied a particularly important place in
Belgium; 125 collieries, possessing 305 pits and employing 145,337
men, were producing annually 22,841,590 tons. In quantity this
output nearly sufficed for the needs of the country, which consumed
26,000,000 tons per annum. But in quality the deficit was con-
siderable. The output of steam and domestic coal was excessive,
permitting an export of 6,000,000 tons, 5,000,000 of which went to
France; while the lack of gas and coking coal necessitated the
importation of 9,000,000 tons from Germany.
Although since 1910 the import of coal had exceeded the export,
the discovery of two new coal fields permitted the hope that in the
future Belgium would produce a quantity far in excess of what she
needed for internal consumption. In 1901 deposits of coal were
found in the Campine at depths of 430 and 630 metres. The first
concessions were granted in 1906, the first sinkings exceptionally
difficult because of the water-bearing strata encountered begun in
1909. No pits had started work before the war. Experimental
borings, commenced in the south of Hainault in 1908, established the
existence of fresh deposits at depths of 400 and 800 metres. No
concession had, up to 1921, been granted by the State in these coal
fields.
There were 62 factories for making coal dust into briquettes and
other forms of patent fuel. In 1913 these employed 2,000 hands and
produced 2,608,640 tons.
Next to the mines must be mentioned the important industry of
the stone quarries. In 1913 1,556 quarries, 481 of them subterranean,
employed 34,893 workmen, and produced 70,500,000 francs worth
of paving-stones, broken stone, hewn stone, marble, chalk, lime,
phosphates, plastic clay, dolomite and slate. Depending on the
quarries were 70 cement factories in a state of rapid development,
the cement export having risen from a value of 12,000,000 francs in
1908 to that of 22,000,000 francs in 1912.
A third group of important industries consisted of the textile
manufactures of Flanders (flax, cotton, hemp, jute), and of the
Verviers district (wool). In 1910 they accounted for 270,000 workers,
employees, and masters; while the related clothing industry em-
ployed another 200,000 persons. The total value of the products
represented 800,000,000 francs, 350,000,000 of which came from
export.
The following table will indicate the relative importance of the
different textile industries, and their development during the last
years before the war:
Persons E
.mployed.
1896
1910
Linen .... ...
Hemp and Jute . . ...
Wool .... ...
Cotton ....
Silk ...
Artificial silk ... ...
Lace .... ...
26,205
3,610
32-285
20,435
655
o
47,571
42,279
6,509
32,846
48,157
1,391
3,573
81,213
Imports of raw materials, spun raw materials and woven goods
amounted in 1911 to 838,700,000 francs, in 1912 to 985,300,000
francs, in 1913 to 998,400,000 francs. The exports of raw mate-
rials, spun goods, and woven goods amounted in 1911 to 871,400,000
francs, in 1912 to 1,033,400,000 francs, in 1913 to 998,700,000 francs.
432
BELGIUM
Commerce. Belgian commerce wasas flourishing as Belgian indus-
try. Facilitated by a network of ways and communications com-
prising 2,000 km. of water-ways (67 m. per sq. km.), 4,665 km. of
broad-gauge railways (158 m. per sq. km.), 4,107 km. of narrow-
gauge railways, 9,851 km. of main roads, and 32,000 km. of local
roads, import and export trade and transport were intensely active.
Belgium's free-trade policy largely contributed to her commercial
prosperity. In 1913 the import duties affected only 16-8 % of im-
ported goods. They were, moreover, extremely light, in 1900 repre-
senting 2-3% of the value of imports, in 1910 1-6%, in 1913 only
1-4 %. It is true that a movement was already beginning towards
the imposition of duties to check the dumping practised by certain
foreign industries, or to induce other nations to admit Belgian goods
freely; but this was merely a defensive policy, rendered necessary by
that of foreign states.
Commercially Belgium held the sixth place in the world. The total
figures of her import and export trades, not including goods in
transit, rose as high as 8,765,673,061 francs. In 1913 this total was
composed as follows :
Tons.
Francs.
Imports . ...
Exports
In Transit
32,656,282
20,885,182
7,803,734
5,049,859,234
3,715,813,827
2,459,924,818
Between 1900 and 1913 Belgian trade had doubled, marking the
greatest rate of progress it had ever achieved.
The following table analyzes the elements of the import and export
trades :
Imports
thousands
of francs.
Per
cent.
Exports
thousands
of francs.
Per
cent.
Live animals . ...
Beverages and foodstuffs
Raw materials and goods hav- 1
ing passed through only one [
simple process of preparation '
Manufactured articles
Gold and Silver
65,273
1,034,822
2,667,035
869,478
413,251
1-3
20-5
52-8
17-2
8-2
4,444
327,663
1,826,078
1,436,430
81,230
1-2
8-8
49-1
38-7
2-2
The bulk of the imports consisted of foodstuff products and raw
materials. Exports were chiefly manufactured articles and materials
which had been subjected to a single process.
In 1913 the trade was chiefly with the following countries:
Imports in
thousands
of francs.
Exports in
thousands
of francs.
France
Germany
Great Britain . . .
Holland
United States
Argentina . . .
Russia
Congo
1,000,297
761,765
518,475
356,998
420,496
316,797
267,237
48,674
762,187
940,378
5"-7lo
320,930
103,381
91,154
88,379
26,978
It is interesting to note that 87-4 % of goods in transit travelled
by land and 57-4% by sea figures which demonstrate the immense
importance to the port of Antwerp of the foreign hinterland.
Marine trade was served by the ports of Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend,
Zeebrugge and Nieuport. The total tonnage of Belgian ports
amounted in 1910 to 15,101,171 tons, in 1911 to 16,353,933 tons, and
in 1913 to 16,907,417 tons, Antwerp taking first place. The details
are as follows :
1900
1910
1912
1913
Number of vessels
Tonnage
5,250
6,696,370
6,796
12,654,318
7,043
13,756,880
7,134
14,139,615
In 1913, out of 61,500,000 tons of total imports and exports,
23,650,000 tons passed through Antwerp. The public authorities
had devoted ceaseless attention to the development of the port of
Antwerp, and at the outbreak of the war it was one of the finest
ports in the world, possessing 5,500 metres of riverside wharves,
19,000 metres of wharf-docks, 392 cranes of 2 tons, 8 cranes of 15
to 120 tons, 12 pneumatic floating grain-elevators, one automatic
coal-weigher, one barge for ore. The Entrepot Royal could accom-
modate 100,000 tons of goods; the granary store had a capac-
ity of 350,000 tons. Numerous private stores and warehouses, a
close network of railway lines, and six great dry-docks completed the
equipment of the port.
Agriculture. Belgian agriculture was no less important than
Belgian trade and industry. In 191,1 the value of its products
amounted to two milliards of francs. Agriculture was carried on at
a high degree of intensity. Of the 2,945,000 hectares which con-
stitute the national territory, 1,950,000 were in cultivation and
pasture, among a population of nearly 7,800,000. The cultivable
area per head of population was only 25 ares (in France loo ares, in
Great Britain 45 ares). Belgium, therefore, could not be self-support-
ing. She was importing f of her consumption of corn. Other food-
stuffs were produced in almost sufficient quantity, thanks to scien-
tific specialization. In 1914 stock-breeding produced 300,000 tons
of meat, 40 kgm. per head of population per annum. Of sugar, pota-
toes, fruit, vegetables and horses there was even a considerable sur-
plus available for exportation. The subdivision of land had been
carried to an extreme point, 1,950,000 hectares being divided
among 829,000 cultivators; 458,000 holdings were of less than one-
half hectare; the average for the rest being about five hectares per
farm. Thanks to intensive breeding (Belgium in 1914 possessed 317,-
ooo horses, 1,879,000 horneti stock, and 1,954,000 pigs) agriculture
commanded larger supplies of manure than in any other country (275
kgm. per hectare). It followed that the yield per hectare of wheat,
rye, barley, oats and potatoes also exceeded that of any other country.
: The area of cereal cultivation was not very extensive: 750,000
hectares out of a total of 1,430,000 hectares of ploughed land.
Permanent pasture represented only 26 % of cultivable land (65 % in
England) ; while on the other hand plants used for industrial pur-
poses, root-crops and forage-crops which yield a much higher
return in money, were largely cultivated.
Thus industrial crops occupied 95,000 hectares; forage, 292,000
hectares ; orchards, 65,000 hectares ; market gardens, 27,000 hectares ;
horticulture, practised especially in the environs of Brussels and
Ghent, occupied 100,000 hectares, and provided a considerable
export. As regards breeding, the export of Flemish horses brought
in 50,000,000 francs.
Finance. Depite the country's growing prosperity the revenue
from taxes was not increasing in amount. Revenue and expenditure
for the period 1910-4 (in thousands of francs) were as follows:
Revenue.
Expenditure.
I9IO
1912
1914
815,404
777,501
807,314
829,456
895,773
806,754
Taxes produced an average of about 300,000,000 (40 francs per head
of population) of the revenue. In 1913 the national debt amounted
to 4,277,000,000 francs. The analysis is as follows (in thousands
of francs) :
Funded- Debt.
Floating Debt.
Total.
1910
1912
1913
3,703,403
3,739,133
3,743,027
136,204
352,485
534,272
3,839,608
4,092,119
4,277,299
The Army. Fully occupied with her economic development, and
confiding absolutely in the neutrality which was supposed to be her
safeguard, Belgium was giving no real thought in these years to
defence. The Liberal party alone stood for the principle of universal
military service. The Catholic party had always from electoral
motives been firmly opposed to any reenforcement of the army or
increase in military expenditure. The King, however, well informed
on the international situation, never ceased to press for improvement
in the country's military condition. In 1912 M. de Broqueville, then
head of the Government, succeeded, despite his party's reluctance,
in passing an Act establishing the principle of universal military
service. In 1913 a complete reorganization of the army was voted.
Having obtained the necessary credits for the fortification of
Antwerp, Baron de Broqueville got several bills passed and promul-
gated numerous orders bestowing extended powers on the general
military staff; creating a Supreme Council of National Defence
(Conseil Superieur de la Defense Nationale) ; establishing schools of
artillery, cavalry and military engineering; reorganizing the Ecole de
Guerre and the Ecole Militaire; creating inspections generates of
infantry, cavalry and commissariat ; and considerably improving the
equipment. These reforms were to be completed as a whole in five
years. Already, however, the effective forces were augmented in
number; the inclusion of all social classes in the army made it truly
representative of the nation; a completely organized mobilization
was prepared ; confidence was at last felt in both officers and troops.
Such was the situation when suddenly the army found itself
called on to the stage of war, to confront alone the formidable
hosts of Germany.
II. THE WORLD WAR, 1914. On Aug. 2 1914, the German
Minister at Brussels handed the Minister for Foreign Affairs an
ultimatum requiring him to permit the German troops to pass
through Belgian territory, and to use the citadels of Liege and
Namur for the purposes of their operations against France. A
delay of 12 hours was granted for the acceptance of Germany's
proposals; on the expiration of that time Belgium would be
treated as an enemy. That same night the King presided at the
council of ministers; the reply was formal: Belgium was resolved
to defend her neutrality, sword in hand. On July 29 the Belgian
army had been placed on a reenforced peace footing. On July
31 mobilization had been ordered; 15 classes of militia had been
called up, the eight first forming the offensive force, the others
BELGIUM
433
being reserved for the defence of the fortresses. Loyal to her
international obligations, Belgium had disposed her forces so as
to defend all her frontiers. The first division kept watch in
England's direction; the third confronted Germany; at Namur
the fourth defended the entrance of the Meuse Valley; while the
fifth, concentrated in Hainault, guarded the French frontier.
Germany's ultimatum showed on which side danger lay.
Yet the Belgian Government, wishing to sustain to the last mo-
ment the part assigned to it by the treaty of 1839, still refused
the support of France. It was only when Germany's intention
to cross her territory became evident that Belgium informed the
nations who had guaranteed her neutrality ' that she assumed
the defence of her fortresses, and that she declared herself ready
to cooperate with the Powers in maintaining the integrity of
her territory. The third division of the army, under General
Leman, was charged with the defence of Liege; the fourth
division held Namur; the bulk of the army was massed in
the centre of the country, covering Brussels and the lines of
communication with France, so as to be prepared for all
eventualities.
The Government had convoked the Chambers for Aug. 4
on grounds of urgency, and the King had announced his intention
of making the speech from the throne. On the morning of Aug. 4
the King, accompanied by the Queen, proceeded to the Parlia-
ment House, in the midst of -great popular enthusiasm. His
speech affirmed the country's definite decision to offer the
enemy an unyielding resistance. The Chamber greeted these
words with wild enthusiasm. After the departure of the King,
who proceeded immediately to G.H.Q., Baron de Broqueville,
as head of the Government, read the note just sent by Germany
to the Minister for Foreign Affairs, expressing her intention " to
execute, if necessary by force of arms, the measures of security
rendered indispensable in view of French menaces." Parliament
unanimously accepted war with all its consequences. M. Van der
Velde, leader of the Socialist party, announced that his group
would support the Government unreservedly. All parties rallied
round the King. The Government, moreover, ceased to be a
party-government, MM. Goblet d'Alviella and Hymans, leaders
of the Liberal Left, and M. E. Van der Velde being appointed
Ministers of State.
The Chamber at once set to work on the measures of law
necessitated by the situation. Suddenly M. de Broqueville rose
to read a telegram announcing the violation of Belgian territory
by the German army. The deputies from Liege and its neigh-
bourhood informed their colleagues of the news that their dis-
tricts had been brutally invaded and occupied; and at once de-
parted for their constituencies, to afford help and protection to
the suffering inhabitants. As hour by hour the invasion of
Belgium proceeded, the Chamber continued to pass laws delegat-
ing its powers, in the event of the invasion of each locality,
to the local authorities; augmenting the contingent of the army;
granting the Government a preliminary credit of 200,000,000 frs. ;
penalizing crimes and offences calculated to endanger the safety
of the State; cancelling the ineligibility of soldiers for member-
ship of Parliament, in order to permit the immediate enlistment
of several members.
The spirit of the country was the same as that of the Chamber.
Volunteers were besieging the recruiting-offices. In two or three
days 40,000 had been equipped, and tens of thousands, still in
their civilian clothes, had been dispatched to the camps for
volunteers that were being formed in all direct ions.
A series of regulations were issued by the Government intended
to prevent food-hoarding and the raising of prices, and to assure
the food supplies of the nation. Bread was rationed at 400
grammes per head per day; in Sept. this ration was reduced to
250 grammes. Maximum prices were fixed for bread and the
various kinds of flour. The right of requisition was given to
governors of provinces for bread and flour; to burgomasters for
potatoes, salt, sugar and rice; in the event of the invasion of a
province the governor's powers of requisition passed to the
commissaires d'arrondissement, in the case of their retreat to the
burgomasters of the communes.
At the Ministere de I'interieur a Central Commission was
formed, consisting of one delegate for each province, with repre-
sentatives of the central administration and of the army, its
duty being to see to the sharing-out of the food supplies among
all parts of the country. In each province the deputation per-
manente (standing committee) of the provincial council was
made responsible for the victualling of the province, and had to
form committees in the communes to distribute provisions.
Each week a return of all the food in the province had to be
made by the deputation permanente.
To ensure the proper working of this great system of food
control and distribution, newly created in every detail, penalties
were decreed for anyone trying to withhold goods from requisi-
tion; such hoards were to be confiscated and handed over to the
Bureaux de Bienfaisance.
While these regulations were framed to safeguard the nation's
economic life, its administrative life was being safeguarded in
the event of enemy occupation by the measure passed by the
Chamber on Aug. 4 providing for the delegation of powers, which
was supplemented later by various royal decrees. Notices
were posted in every commune of the country, warning the public
that civilians were definitely forbidden to take part in operations
of war, and that all arms must at once be given over into the
hands of the authorities.
The Invasion. During the night of Aug. 3-4 the German
army crossed the Belgian frontiers. It immediately put into
practice a system of terrorism in its dealings with the inhabitants,
hoping in this way to terrorize the Government, demoralize
the army, and break the national resistance.
The forward march of the German army was marked by an
uninterrupted succession of atrocities. Once it was perceived
that the Belgian army meant to offer a resistance on which
Germany had not counted, pillage, burnings, and massacres
began.
On the pretext that the inhabitants were armed, that/ranw
tireurs attacked the German troops, the invading military com-
mand methodically organized the devastation of the country.
Maps were issued to the officers indicating what towns and
villages were to be burned down. The siege of Liege, with the
preliminary repulses suffered by the German regiment which
first attacked the outer forts, gave the signal for a campaign of
reprisals directed against the civil population. The villages of
Berneau, Mouland, Blegny-Trambleur, Barchon, Melen, Sou-
magne, Romsee, Harcourt, Hermee, Heure le Romain, Vivegnies,
Julemont, Olne St. Hadelin, Battice, Grivegnee, Sprimont,
Erneux, Francorchamps, and the towns of Vise and Herve, were
burned to the ground, although they had been occupied for
several days by the German army. Scenes of indescribable
savagery were enacted: 623 persons were shot, massacred, or
driven with blows of the rifle-butt into the flaming houses to be
burnt alive. At Melen 72 men chosen haphazard were shot
en masse, and finished off by blows with the butt-end under the
eyes of their wives and children, who were then ordered to bury
them at once. At Soumagne 55 men were shot by the firing-
party detailed for executions, while the soldiers perpetrated
shocking massacres of men, women and children in the village.
At Vise, after the massacre of more than 20 persons, 631 men
were led away captive. Not a single village escaped the fury of
the troops; everywhere there was a reign of fire and sword. The
burnings were scientifically organized. All units were provided
with incendiary pastilles, and petrol was sprayed on the houses
to be destroyed. At Herve, where more than 300 houses were
burned, German inscriptions written by the troops revealed
that the abominable deed had been performed by the " In-
cendiary Army of Diisseldorf."
The entry of the German troops into Liege was marked by
tragic incidents. Although the town was completely in the
invader's hands, on Aug. 7 German companies suddenly opened
fire in the most frequented quarters, where they also set fire
to 38 houses, shooting down the inhabitants as they tried to
escape. Fifty-two persons perished in the flames or fell by the
German bullets.
434
BELGIUM
Between Aug. 4 and 20, in the province of Liege alone, 1,061
persons were massacred, shot, hanged, or burnt by the German
troops; more than 2,000 houses and 4 churches were burnt
deliberately and by order, not counting those destroyed by
bombardment. In the province of Limburg during the same
period 65 persons fell victims to similar cruelties.
Liege having been occupied, the German army advanced up
the Meuse Valley, and at the same time invaded the province
of Luxemburg. The first French contingents now joined the
Belgian troops in the neighbourhood of Dinant, Namur, and
Arlon. Everywhere advance-guard fighting was delaying the
enemy's progress and every skirmish was followed by cruel
reprisals on the civil population.
The siege of Namur began on Aug. 20, and was the signal
for more butchery. On the eve of the attack on Namur scenes
of incredible savagery were enacted in the towns of Andenne,
Seilles, and Landen. Without having received the faintest
provocation, for three whole days the German troops in occupa-
tion of these places never ceased massacring and burning. More
than 250 persons perished. These scenes of horror, accompanied
by the burning of over 150 houses, culminated on Aug. 21 in the
execution of numbers of men, by order of the military authori-
ties. They were shot en masse, and finished off with the bayonet
or the butt-end, or by kicks. The whole canton of Andenne
suffered similar horrors; nine persons were murdered by the
German soldiers after subjection to horrible tortures.
Other localities suffered as cruelly. At Spontin 130 of the 160
houses that composed the village were burnt and 43 persons
were massacred. At Somme-Leuze, Franc- Waret, Leuze-Long-
champs, fire and murder reigned. Scarcely had the tragedy of
Andenne been finished when the small town of Zamines was the
scene of a yet more terrible drama. After skirmishes with
Belgian and French advance-posts, the Germans, who had
fought pushing a screen of civilians in front of them, made the
civil population responsible for their losses. All the men were
first shut up in the church, and then massed in a field, and on
the word being given by the military commanders they were
shot down by machine-guns. Some were finished off afterwards,
chiefly by stretcher-bearers of the Red Cross; 383 men perished,
about zoo were wounded, only 200 escaped. The town was burnt
to the ground. The whole canton was subjected to horrible
atrocities; in the neighbouring villages 114 men were killed by
German troops and 567 houses burnt.
Just at the time of the fall of Namur, the German military
at Dinant organized an appalling demonstration of terrorism.
The town had been occupied on Aug. 22 after some hard fighting
with French troops. At nightfall on Aug. 23 German soldiers
rushed shouting about the streets, and everywhere fires broke
out. The church, the town hall, the entire town were soon in
flames. The inhabitants, arrested en masse, were either massa-
cred, or else driven into different enclosed places where, after
a while, a methodical extermination was commenced. In the
presence of their families men were formed into groups and shot;
665 persons were killed, including 75 women and 35 children.
This horrible butchery was copied in the neighbouring villages.
Ah 1 of them were partially or completely burnt, any men found
the inhabitants had taken to the woods were shot; at Anth6re
and Surice more than 40 men were executed. In the cantons
of Dinant, Walcourt, Florennes and Gedinne 946 persons were
put to death; and besides the whole town of Dinant and two
entire villages Outraye and Sorrines 1,732 houses and seven
churches were destroyed.
On Aug. 23 the German troops entered Namur. Warned of the
massacres by frightened peasants who had come fleeing before
the enemy, the inhabitants abstained from any demonstration
of feeling. The entry of the victorious army was devoid of
incident. Yet suddenly on Aug. 24 a violent fusillade rang out
in the streets, tc continue all that day and all the next. The
bishop, Mgr. Heylen, proceeded to the German headquarters
to protest against this useless cruelty. He was arrested. After
two days the terror ceased; 75 persons had fallen, 15 of them
women and 4 children. The town hall, the communal archives,
and no houses had been burnt down. In the villages surround-
ing Namur, also, the same brutal work had gone on; between
Aug. 23 and 26, 53 men were butchered and over 200 houses
burnt.
While thus in the province of Namur 1,949 inhabitants were
murdered, and more than 3,000 houses systematically burnt
(not counting those destroyed by ordinary acts of war), the
province of Luxemburg in its turn was suffering martyrdom.
From Aug. 1 1 onward, wherever the enemy appeared in Luxem-
burg, atrocities followed, those at Rossignol, Arlon, Zuitigny,
Ethe, and Latour being sadly notorious. All these massacres
were reprisals for engagements with the French forces. After
the battles of Aug. 22 wounded soldiers found in the cantons
of Virton and Etalle were killed, and the civil population hunted
down and decimated. At Bleid 84 French wounded were tortured
and then shot. At Latour Prince Oscar of Prussia presided in
person over the execution of 71 inhabitants. At Ethe 218 persons
were killed. The inhabitants of Houdemont, warned of the fate
which awaited them, escaped massacre by flight; n of them were
found by the Germans and put to death. At Touches the burgo-
master was hanged; at Zuitigny 84 men were executed; at
Rossignol, after the village had been set on fire, all the men were
collected together and driven as far as Arlon, where 165 of the
poor wretches were shot in cold blood. During the month of
Aug. over 800 inhabitants of this province perished, and over
1,500 houses were deliberately destroyed.
While the German army was dominating the Meuse Valley
by the seizure of Namur, it was at the same time working to-
wards the heart of the country to assure a route for the invasion
of France. The Belgian army, after its victorious stand at Harlen
on Aug. 12, isolated, unsupported, menaced by n enemy army
corps, was now forced to fall back on Antwerp.
On Aug. 19 the German army entered Louvain. Just as Vise
had been burnt to terrorize the Liegeois, and Andenne and Di-
nant to bring about Namur's submission, so Louvain had to
be burnt in order to hold a terrible example up to Brussels.
When the German army was in effective occupation of Louvain,
menaced with no further trouble, orders were suddenly given
to burn the centre of the town. The inhabitants were subjected
to cruel mental torture. The men were collected and decimated,
79 being shot in the presence of their wives and children, while
334 others were sent captive to Germany, where they were
paraded through the streets of Cologne under the insults and
threats of the populace who pelted them with mud and stones.
Louvain's cathedral of St. Pierre was devoured by the flames,
her ancient university and marvellous library were annihilated,
and 1,120 houses were ruined. The suburbs suffered likewise.
In that canton 1,71 7 houses were burnt down,86i houses pillaged,
226 inhabitants shot, and 653 deported to Germany. Aerschot
was reduced to ashes, and 178 of its inhabitants were killed.
Enraged by the opposition they met within the environs of Tirle-
mont, and by the sorties of the Antwerp garrison, the Germans
vented their fury upon the numerous villages of Brabant, 594
inhabitants of which perished in the course of burnings, pil-
lagings, and executions.
On Aug. 20 the German army entered Brussels. The entire
Belgian army was massed under the protection of the forts of
Antwerp. Sorties were made on Aug. 25 and 26 and Sept. 4;
on Sept. 9 a general sortie of all the Belgian forces took place,
with the object of diverting pressure from the French army,
which was fighting on the Marne. Forced to protect itself from
ihe Belgian army's perpetual attacks on its rear, on Sept. 28
the German army commenced the siege of Antwerp. On Oct. 6,
after the destruction of the forts, the Belgian army retreated;
and on Oct. 10, having eluded capture by the enemy, it took
up position on the Yser.
The siege of Antwerp brought yet more fire and carnage.
Over 1 60 persons in the fortified zone fell victims to the German
soldiers. The town of Termonde, where the Belgian army again
and again successfully opposed the crossing of the Scheldt by
the German troops, was at last taken, and was then burnt to
the ground.
BELGIUM
435
The province of Hainault did not escape. At Charleroi, after
the great battle which took place there, 108 persons were mas-
sacred, at Marchienne au Pont 75, at Mons 39, at Tournai 34,
at Chatelet 67. In the other villages through which the enemy
forces passed, 182 persons were put to death.
It remains to mention the massacres perpetrated by the in-
vaders in East and West Flanders. For these provinces, however,
precise figures cannot be quoted, the work of compiling the lists of
victims not being yet completely terminated.
The Occupation. Brussels once in her power, Germany began
to organize the occupation of the country. The activities of the
government of occupation headed successively by von der
Goltz, von Bissing, and von Falkenhausen were considerable
in all spheres. Always the same main policy emerged : in matters
political, economic or social, the one aim of Germany was to
make Belgium and all her resources serve the needs of the war;
while preparing for her annexation at the very least for her
absorption in the event of the German victory, and rendering
her in any case innocuous as an independent nation by effecting
her economic ruin.
The governor-general formed round him a central govern-
ment, in which the Ziviherwaltung (civil administration) played
the chief part. Executive powers were in the hands of the gover-
nor-general, who legislated by promulgation of orders. A German
governor was placed over each province. The Belgian commis-
saries were deprived of their authority over the arrondissements,
being replaced by Germans, subordinate to whom were the
military commandants who controlled the cantons. The country
was divided into the Gouvernement General, placed directly under
the authority of the Zivilvenvaltung; and the Zones d'itapes,
including Flanders, the arrondissements of Tournai and Mons,
and the southern part of the province of Luxemburg, governed
by the military authorities, who had the right of promulgating
orders. These Zones d'etapes were completely separated from
the rest of the country. Access to them and exit from them were
forbidden without permits, which were not readily granted.
Everywhere bureaux de controle were established to keep a
watch on the inhabitants, persons placed under their special
surveillance being obliged to report themselves periodically.
A network of espionage was spread over the country, enabling
the authorities to know what citizens were dangerous, or even
simply too influential, so that they might be regarded with sus-
picion, and arrested on the first pretext.
Not only was the Belgian administration completely deprived
of executive power, but the powers of the provincial councils
were gradually undermined. In 1915 the right of meeting in
ordinary session on fixed dates was taken from them, while the
deputations pcrmanenles (administrative bodies appointed by
the provincial councils from among their members) were placed
under the direct authority of the presidents of the German pro-
vincial civil administration. Still further, from 1917 onward
these presidents in each province were authorized to assume
themselves the powers of the provincial councils as regarded the
receipts and expenditure of the annual budget, and the methods
of raising the necessary funds to meet the expenditure. The
struggle between the provincial councils and German authority
became bitter indeed when the governor-general claimed their
collaboration in assessing liabilities for the enormous war-tax
varying between 40, 50 and 60 million francs per month with
which he had saddled the country. Nearly all the provincial
councils refused cooperation, preferring to accept an arbitrary
assessment decreed by the government of occupation, rather
than to yield a semblance of legality to its decisions. Hence-
forward the military governors, and also the German presidents
of civil administrations, were empowered to ensure the payment
of the tax, and to that end had the right of raising loans in the
name of the province. On July 6 1918 the provincial councils
were definitively suppressed. Nothing then remained of the
Belgian administrative system.
In vain, however, did Germany destroy the machinery of the
country's self-government; she could not break the spirit of the
nation. The glorious example set by men like M. Visart de
Bocerm6, burgomaster of Bruges, who at 80 years of age stood
up fearlessly to the German military power, or like M. Max,
burgomaster of Brussels, who boldly led the resistance of his
townsfolk, going so far as to post on the walls an official con-
tradiction of the news published by the Germans concerning the
march of military operations, from, the earliest days of the
occupation sufficiently indicated to the invaders what the public
attitude was going to be. M. Max, when arrested and sent to
Germany, there to be subjected to a system of reprisals, had for
successor M. Lemonnier, whom in his turn the Germans were
obliged to arrest and deport. In every class of society acts of
admirable devotion occurred. Hundreds of Belgians were
deported to Germany or shot. Names such as those of Gabrielle
Petit, Philippe Baucq, the Englishwoman Edith Cavell, J. Cor-
bisier, Louis Neyts, Bodson, Le Grand, Lenoir and many others
stand for the heroism of an entire population.
Neither deportation nor executions could ever prevent the
spying on behalf of the Allies carried on by thousands of Belgians,
nor the publications of a secret press which fought energetically
against the occupant power. On Feb. 2 1915 La Libre Belgique
appeared. Each week until the Armistice it was published and
distributed throughout Belgium. At Louvain the Revue de la
Presse gave the most interesting extracts from the Allied press.
In Brussels L'Ame Beige made vigorous political propaganda,
continuing to appear despite the arrest and imprisonment of its
editor. In 1918 Le Flambeau, by the method of analyzing foreign
politics, taught the public why to expect victory. At Ghent
L'Aulre Cloche stood firm against the Germans and against
Activism, as did De Vrye Stem at Antwerp. Besides these
journals, directed by secret committees of priests, lawyers,
university professors and journalists, other smaller papers,
appearing less regularly, such as La Soupe, Le Beige, Ca et La,
Patrie, and De Vleemische Leeuw, sustained Belgian patriotism.
German Legislation. German legislation was abundant,
more especially that of a repressive type. The most trivial
regulations carried penalties of extreme severity. Maximum
prices, requisitions of bread and cereals, were enforced by pen-
alties extending to five years' imprisonment and a fine of 20,000
marks. Such Draconian measures were not imposed for the sake
of the German army's safety; they applied only to the country's
internal organization, martial law reigning over all that directly
affected the army.
Military tribunals, without any intimation to the public of
their creation or of their competence, were charged throughout
the country with the application of these new laws. These courts
afforded no security to those amenable to their jurisdiction, their
procedure was neither public nor contested; the dossier not
being even shown to the defence, they constituted a purely
arbitrary means of government, not a judicial authority.
Along with these military courts von Bissing established by an
order of Feb. 5 1915 a judicial system of two degrees. The Ger-
man governors set over the Belgian provinces were given un-
limited power of instituting penalties. Heads of arrondissements
and commandants were empowered to institute penalties amount-
ing to three weeks' imprisonment. Besides being thus granted
legislative powers, these functionaries were authorized to try
persons who disobeyed their regulations, the governors sitting
as judges of appeal from the judgments of their subordinates.
This edict, conferring as it did judiciary powers on officials,
opened the door to administrative tyranny, destroying the in-
dispensable safeguard afforded by the separation of judicial and
administrative authority. Still worse, this edict established for
repressive purposes the principle that a penalty imposed on a
guilty person could, should the judge so decide, be inflicted on
some other person. Such a measure, permitting the penalizing
of an innocent person, when the culprit himself was out of reach,
annihilated the personal liberty of the inhabitants of the coun-
try. These penal powers were carried yet further by an order
of Aug. 3 1917, authorizing the governors to sentence delin-
quents to total or partial confiscation of property.
Besides endangering public liberty and security these edicts
illegally weakened the authority of the Belgian tribunals. It
436
BELGIUM
sufficed for the government of occupation to publish an order
concerning any offences, jurisdiction on which it wished to keep in
its own hands, and obviously by that act Belgian justice was
deprived of its rights, to the profit of German justice. The
creation of these tribunals occasioned public protests from the
bar of Brussels, as a result of which its president, the Batonnier
Theodor, was deported to Germany. Even certain offences
against common laws were selected by the German administra-
tion to be dealt with by itself instead of by the judicial system
of the country; a police, des moeurs (police of public morals)
formed in all the large towns being given powers which Belgian
law assigned to the public prosecutors and the Belgian courts
alone.
But soon the administration of justice was completely taken
over by the invaders. On April 7 1918 a permanent German
judicial system was established by order in Flanders and Wal-
lonia, their administrative separation having just been effected
by von Bissing. The Belgian courts were replaced by German
tribunals Kaiserliche Bezirksgerichte established in the differ-
ent arrondissemenls. The judges, the public prosecutors and
their staff, the recorders and clerks, all were exclusively German,
appointed by the governor-general in accordance with the
usages of German law. The language of these courts was German,
their procedure was that of the German code. Usually one judge
presided, but in cases where the authorized penalty exceeded
five years' imprisonment sentence was pronounced by three judges.
Procedure was rapid. The public prosecutor made all inquiries
and perquisitions, and warrants of arrest were issued without
preliminary judicial inquiry. The court dealt summarily with all
affairs in which the authorized penalty did not exceed one year's
imprisonment; in other cases procedure was by judgment. The
court decided whether or not the accused should have the right
of being defended, defence not being officially authorized save in
cases tried by three judges. There was no appeal; and in all
cases, immediately the sentence had been pronounced, the judge
called upon the military authorities to put it into execution.
In the case of a death-sentence the governor-general had the
right of pardon. Judges were removable.
This edict, therefore, replaced Belgian judges by German
judges, who, being removable, could not afford security. It
abolished the right of appeal, and replaced Belgian procedure
by German procedure. The accused found himself being tried
in a foreign language, without the right of employing defence,
or even of defending himself, the courts having power to set aside
any evidence they chose to disregard. The Assize Court was sup-
pressed; the jury, that indispensable safeguard of personal
liberty, no longer existed. Thenceforward, the same tribunals
dealt with misdemeanours and with crimes, inflicting all pen-
alties, including that of death.
In issuing an order of such scope, the governor-general was
acting as a legislator. The Belgian constitution, the judicial
organization of the country, were abolished and replaced by
German laws and judges. Belgium was being treated not as
occupied territory, but as a conquered country.
Before describing the transformation of civil justice it will be
well to glance at the principles which these German tribunals
were established to apply. On Sept. 2 1914 Marshal von der
Goltz enunciated in his proclamation the principle underlying
the repressive system of an occupant power: " It is a harsh
necessity of war that the punishment of hostile acts falls on the
innocent as well as on the guilty." The same principle is found
again in the edict of Feb. 5 1915, authorizing the governors to
decide that penalties decreed by the German courts of justice
should in certain cases be transferred to other persons in de-
fault of the culprits themselves. The same principle was applied
by a series of edicts empowering the German authorities to take
hostages who should pay with their lives for damage done to
railway tracks, to inflict heavy fines on communes, to deport
the entire population of villages in whose area railway lines had
been damaged, to punish whole families for faults committed
by single members of them, to treat as guilty all persons found
in company with anyone committing an offence. Again, the
Belgian was penalized for "not having done" or for " having had
the intention to do." Counting on having its task facilitated
by the citizens informing against one another, German justice
proclaimed that not to give information constituted a misde-
meanour, if not even a crime. That a person had " probably been
cognizant of an infraction " sufficed to place him in the same
position as the culprit, liable to the same penalty. Not only
all who should aid, lodge, or feed the subjects of states at war
with Germany, but even those who should not give information
of their presence, were punishable by imprisonment or penal
servitude. One sole mitigation is found: a wife who does not
denounce her husband wanted by the German authorities may
plead extenuating circumstances and is only liable to from 3
months' to 2 years' imprisonment or penal servitude. Again,
every citizen was obliged, under pain of 3 to 15 years' penal
servitude, to give information of the arrival in the country of any
person belonging to one of the Entente nations, to denounce
anyone making or storing munitions, to furnish all information
in his power concerning British establishments in Belgium, to
denounce anyone refusing to work for Germany.
Yet another new offence was that of being absent from Belgium
and not having returned there within a period of two months.
This offence was punishable by a fine fixed at ten times the
amount of the taxes for which the absentee was liable. And
besides new offences, new penalties were also introduced into
Belgium by this German legislation. General confiscation of
entire property, definitely forbidden by the Belgian constitution
and by Article 46 of the Hague Convention, was decreed for
infliction upon anyone not immediately denouncing to the Ger-
man authorities persons placed under special surveillance; and
upon persons under German police supervision who, being sen-
tenced, could not be found and arrested. This penalty might be
inflicted by the mere order of a governor. It may be added that
this attempt on the part of the government of occupation to
force the inhabitants of the country to denounce the activities
against Germany of persons attached to the Allied armies contra-
vened Articles 52 and 44 of the Hague Convention.
Deportation was introduced as a penalty in 1915 and was
inflicted upon those who refused to work for the German author-
ities, also upon those who did not comply precisely with their
obligations towards the police control. It is a fact that deporta-
tion was inflicted, even without trial, on persons who for any
reason appeared undesirable to the civil or military authorities.
Civil Law. Belgian civil law was also profoundly modified.
On Feb. 3 1915 the Government of occupation abolished the
decree of 10 Vendemiaire au IV, concerning the responsibility
of communes in the case of pillage committed openly by force
and accompanied by violence. At the moment of Germany's
declaration of war against Belgium certain German establish-
ments in the large Belgian towns had been sacked by the mob.
The government of occupation deprived the Belgian courts of
their competence to try these cases, establishing instead for the
purpose a special arbitration court composed of three members
the president, appointed by the German governor-general,
one member appointed by the president of the German civil
administration of the province, one member appointed by the
deputation pcrmanenle of the province (Belgian administration).
The presence of this single Belgian adjudicator afforded no
security, the president being empowered to replace him by the
president of the German civil administration.
Exceptional tribunals were also set up, supplanting the regular
Belgian courts, to try cases of dispute concerning house rents.
Belgian refugees abroad found themselves unable to enforce
their rights in these new courts, the bar always a special object
of German hostility not having access to them.
A general transformation of the judicial system was begun on
April 7 1918. A complete system of German courts was estab-
lished, comprising courts of first instance (Bezirksgerichte), and
two courts of appeal (Obergerichte), that for Flanders sitting at
Brussels, that for Wallonia at Namur. These " imperial tribunals "
administered justice in the name of the German Emperor;
their personnel was German, appointed by the governor-general;
BELGIUM
437
their language was German. The courts of first instance were
each presided over by a single judge, the courts of appeal by
three judges. The Belgian bar was denied the right to defend
persons tried before these tribunals. Such persons, if granted the
assistance of counsel, had to apply to the Justizkommissar,
who assigned them a counsel for defence. These courts dealt
with all causes in which a German or a neutral was concerned;
they could besides declare their competence in other cases. They
continued their functions until a few days before the Armistice.
The administration of justice had now been taken completely
into the hands of Germany.
Attitude towards the Belgian Magistracy. From the first days
of the occupation the German attitude towards the Belgian
magistracy had constantly impeded the normal administration
of justice. The German authorities were continually interven-
ing, either to stop prosecutions at common law of Belgians in their
own pay, or to prevent the application of repressive measures
rendered necessary by the conduct of the German soldiery
against the demoralization of minors; or to liberate prisoners on
remand or after sentence, who were for some reason favoured
by the government of occupation. The functions of juges
de, paix and juges d 'instruction were alike subject to constant
interference from German officials. Such violations of the in-
dependence of bench and magistracy raised vehement protests
from the royal procurator, the procurator-generals, and the
chief magistrates of the country. Conflicts ensued which often
ended in the arrest of magistrates, judges, or royal procurators,
and their deportation to camps of civilian prisoners in Germany.
Hostilities between the German Government and the Belgian
magistracy became peculiarly bitter in Feb. 1918, when, con-
formably to Belgian law, the arrest was ordered of the Activists
Bonn and Zack, promoters of the separatist movement in Flan-
ders. The royal procurator of Brussels was at once ordered to set
the prisoners free. Upon his refusal the German authorities
employed force to liberate their proteges. At the same time the
head of the German civil administration informed the Brussels
Court of Appeal that its judicial activities must cease. As a pro-
test the Cour de Cassation at once suspended its sessions and the
entire judicial system of Belgium followed suit. Instantly the
three presidents of the Brussels Court of Appeal, Levy M,oulle,
F.rnst and Carez, were arrested and deported to Germany with-
out trial. This final crisis of the struggle between the govern-
ment of occupation and the magistracy is but one episode of
Germany's attack on Belgium's unity, and even existence.
Separation of Flanders and Wallonia. To disintegrate the
Belgian nation was Germany's constant aim from the first days
of the war, and the exploitation of the language differences of the
country formed her chief means of pursuing it. Imagining that
favour shown to the Flemish language would suffice to stimulate
the separatist movement, the German Governrnent adopted an
attitude distinctly hostile to the use of French. In the zones
d'elape of Flanders the military authorities totally discontinued
the use of French in their public notices. The Censure only
passed Flemish posters and advertisements. Finally the German
Government announced its intention to transform the university
of Ghent, whose language had hitherto been French, into a Flem-
ish university.
These methods proving devoid of effect, they were succeeded
by others more forcible in character. In 1916 various edicts
abolished the official use of French in Flanders. From Jan. i
1917 communications to the Government from that province
and all official publications had to be exclusively in Flemish.
In 1916 the Ministry of Science and Arts was divided into two
distinct sections, one Flemish, the other Walloon, to prepare for
the complete separation of public instruction in the two different
linguistic regions.
It was on March 21 1917 that the German Government put
into execution von Bissing's carefully elaborated scheme for the
division of Belgium into two fragments, the edict running as
follows: " Two administrative regions are hereby formed in
Belgium, one of which comprises the provinces of Antwerp,
Limburg, East Flanders and West Flanders, with the arrondis-
sements of Brussels and Louvain; the other the provinces of
Hainault, Liege, Luxemburg, and Namur, with the arrondis-
sement of Nivelles. The first region will be administered from
Brussels, the second region from Namur."
A series of orders followed, organizing the separation. All
ministries were duplicated, those for Wallonia being transferred
to Namur. Language separation was complete. On Aug. 9 1917
Flemish was proclaimed the official language of Flanders, the
use of French being forbidden to all bodies either administrative
or charged with any public service. In Wallonia, on the other
hand, Flemish and German remained authorized in communica-
tions between administration and public.
Although the Belgian nation as a whole regarded German legis-
lative activities as unworthy of notice, and yielded no submission
to this new administrative organization of their country, designed
as it was to compass her ruin, yet the invaders were supported in
the matter by a handful of Belgians who had passed into their
service, and who claimed to represent Flemish public opinion.
It was from these persons, who called themselves the " Activist
party, " that the Germans formed the " Raed van Vlaenderen,"
charged with organizing the new Flemish state, to be independent
under German tutelage. That this council might have some
semblance of legality there were to be elections in Flanders in
Feb. and March 1918. As it was recognized that such elections,
if honestly conducted, could only result in disaster for the German
schemes, it was decided that the members of the Raed van Vlaen-
deren should be chosen only by such electors an infinitesimal
minority as should be convoked by name for the purpose.
The elections were to be by acclamation, held within closed doors,
and under guard of German armed forces. Electoral meetings
took place in Antwerp, Mechlin, and Tirlemont; they turned
into patriotic demonstrations, and instantly the German Govern-
ment forbade the continuance of the elections. On Feb. ir 1918
there was a huge demonstration in Brussels against separation.
Delegates from over 1,000 associations political, social, in-
dustrial, intellectual, and economic met in the Grande Place
with the object of presenting a solemn protest to the Communal
Council. German troops dispersed the demonstrators. In all
the towns of Belgium there were protests from the public bodies
and great associations. In face of such an explosion of public
feeling the German Government dared not confer on the Raed
van Vlaenderen the legislative powers it had intended to give
that body. A commission composed of the chief German civil
authorities in Belgium and of exalted members of the German
juridical world met at Brussels to study the subject of the forma-
tion of the Flemish and Walloon states. After months of work
this commission decided that, as Belgian public opinion was
utterly hostile to the separation, there could be no question of
creating two independent states; but that, on the contrary, the
new states must during a long transition period be placed under
the authority of German governors, with the assistance in
Flanders of the Raed van Vlaenderen as consultative council.
The Raed van Vlaenderen therefore, figuring as an emanation
from the Flemish people, found itself empowered to choose from
among its members u plenipotentiaries to form a permanent
council which should participate, as a consultative body, in the
exercise of that legislative power conferred on the governor-
general. This tool in the hands of Germany was perfected by
the addition of a Ministry of Defence, charged with raising in
Flanders an army of volunteers, which was to fight at the side
of the German army against the Belgian army.
At this moment the Brussels Court of Appeal intervened,
issuing orders to the public prosecutor to arrest and prosecute the
principal members of the Raed van Vlaenderen, who were ac-
cordingly immediately imprisoned by the Belgian police. This
bold act had as consequence the arrest of the presidents of the
Court of Appeal; and the conflict which ensued between the mag-
istracy and the government of occupation resulted in the sus-
pension of all sessions of justice throughout the country, despite
the reprisals taken upon the chief magistrates. This solemn
protest on the part of Belgian justice stimulated greatly the
national movements of resistance.
438
BELGIUM
The nation was further encouraged in its firmness of attitude
by the protest of the communal authorities of Ghent, whose
refusal to recognize the division of Belgium was answered by the
arrest of the aldermen and the deportation of the burgomaster,
M. Braun. Ghent was thenceforward administered by a college
of aldermen appointed by the German governor-general, who
reserved the right of controlling them and substituting him-
self for them in the exercise of their functions. A German military
officer was appointed burgomaster of the town.
The government of occupation hoped to use education as a
potent weapon for dividing the country. The Flemish language
was proclaimed the only one permitted in the State and volun-
tary schools of Flanders. Even in Brussels, where French is
spoken by a large majority of the population, Flemish was to be
the only language of instruction. A transition period was con-
ceded, but from Sept. 5 1918 primary education was to be com-
pletely Flemicized.
Flemicizing of Ghent University. The centre of the whole
scheme for the Germanizing of Flanders was to be the university
of Ghent. It was to become a tool in the hands of Germany.
Flemicization was decided upon in 1915 by the German Govern-
ment and overtures were made to the professional body. On
that body's refusal to submit to the invaders' desires reprisals
began, Profs. Henri Pirenne and Paul Fredericq, accused of
leading the resistance, being arrested and deported to Germany.
The Ghent professors did not flinch before these intimidatory
measures, but stood firm. On March 15 1916 an order was issued
that thenceforward all lectures in the university of Ghent were
to be given in the Flemish language. Professors who did not
deliver their courses of lectures were to be placed on the retired
list. The new university retained only four professors from the
staff of the Belgian university, one of them a German. To fill its
professional chairs it had to draw on students, members of the
" Activist " party, Dutchmen and Germans. Shortly after, the
German authorities celebrated the opening of the university,
and the King of Bavaria graced the ceremony with his presence.
A characteristic touch was the omission of Belgian history from
the syllabus of the university. To attract students all the scholar-
ships in Belgium were allotted to the university of 'Ghent, and a
shameless campaign of intimidation was organized: students in
the zone d'elape were given the alternative of either being trans-
ported as forced labour to Germany or pursuing their studies at
the " Activist " university. The latter alternative was backed
by substantial advantages, extra food rations being added to the
scholarship grants of money. Despite all this, and despite the
suspension of lectures in all the universities of the country, not
200 students were recruited.
In 1917 the German authorities began to understand that
Flemish opinion could not be counted on to aid in the dismem-
berment of Belgium, and consequently their treatment of the
working-class population of Flanders increased in harshness,
deportations becoming particularly frequent. But still attempts
were made to foster Activist ideas. Lectures and meetings were
promoted for the exposition of German views; the publication
of pamphlets and tracts was facilitated; every form of autono-
mistic propaganda was supported by armed force. In the end
it became obvious that no result would ever be achieved by these
means, so a new form of propaganda was adopted. At Courtrai
an association was formed with the name of Volksopbcuring
(regeneration of the people). Its supposed object was to raise
the moral standard of the Flemish people and relieve distress.
It was supported by a committee in Holland consisting of the
most exalted personages. In reality it had no other aim but to
promote the idea of Flemish autonomy. Its activities were
ignored, and remained without result until the day in 1918 when
the German Government transferred to it the responsibility, till
then belonging to the communal authorities, of distributing
sugar, syrup, jam, potatoes, butter, etc. Thenceforward, the
whole population of Flanders being forced to apply for those
necessaries to the Volksopbcuring, propaganda could be made in
terms of food, and constraint be exercised directly on each in-
dividual through the distribution of the necessaries of life. To
make this organization quite omnipotent the Government was
further inspired to entrust it with the distribution of the home-
grown food supplies. Resistance to anti-Belgian propaganda
would then have been reduced by starvation. This project,
however, produced such a fury of indignation throughout the
country that the foreign legations were moved to protest and
succeeded in preventing its realization. The true role of the
Volksopbeuring had become so flagrantly apparent that in 1918
it was disavowed by the Dutch committee which had been
formed to support it.
The Economic Situation. The occupation of Belgium by the
German army profoundly disturbed the country's economic
situation. Industry suffered from the very outset, owing to the
measures taken for military reasons. Raw materials were at
once requisitioned, and to facilitate that the declaration of stocks
was made obligatory, while they might not be disposed of with-
out permission. In Dec. 1914 the declaration was made obliga-
tory of stocks of benzine, petrol, alcohol, glycerine, oils, fats,
carbides, india rubber and pneumatic motor tires. On Jan. 25
1915 this order was extended to stocks of lead, copper, alumi-
nium, antimony, zinc, nickel, mercury, tin and alloys of metals.
Besides requisitions, other measures threatened and destroyed
Belgian industry. On Nov. 26 1914 commissaries had been
appointed by the German Government to supervise industrial or
business concerns belonging wholly or in part to nationals of
countries at war with Germany. On Feb. 17 1915 this super-
vision was changed into sequestration. All such undertakings,
whether Belgian or foreign, were sequestrated if they could be
useful to Germany or if they might be harmful to her. They were
temporarily taken out of the hands of their proprietors and their
management assumed by the government of occupation, which
either continued to work them in the interests of Germany, or
proceeded to liquidate them. Over 100 industrial concerns were
sequestrated in 1915, about 20 in 1916, about 10 in 1917. They
were great metallurgical works, building works, stone quarries,
collieries, electrical generating stations, etc. Foreign under-
takings, principally British ones, were put into liquidation.
The establishment of central depots for the monopoly of coal,
oils, fats, water, gas and electricity completed the capture of
Belgian industry by the invader. In Oct. 1914 the Belgian col-
lieries resumed work. On April 24 1913 the government of
occupation established the Kohlenzentrale. Collieries had to send
their entire output to the " Central," excepting only what was
consumed in their own works. Contracts for deliveries existing
at the moment of the publication of the edict were annulled.
The Kohlenzentrale was intended to provide coal for the rail-
ways and the German army. This object rapidly expanded, and
the " Central " became an instrument of official pillage.
The obligation to declare stocks was imposed simply to
facilitate requisitions. In Oct. 1914 Germany introduced into
Belgium a double system of requisitions: on the one hand,
requisitions made directly for the army and the military author-
ities; on the other hand, general requisitions. The scheme for
working them had been framed by Dr. Rathenau, who was en-
trusted with the creation of the " Department of raw materials
of war " at the War Office in Berlin. Such raw materials were
first seized, and could no longer be sold save tolhe " Centrals "
which fixed their price. If the vendor refused the price offered
he was expropriated, and handed a requisition voucher. From
1915 onward requisitions of raw materials and of machine tools
were made throughout the country. Belgian industries, de-
prived of raw materials, protested vehemently to the govern-
ment of occupation that the requisitions should at least be paid
for. They were told in reply that if the war tax of 60 millions
per month was regularly paid, the price of requisitions would be
paid in cash from Jan. i 1915. This promise was never fulfilled,
a thousand pretexts for delaying the payments being offered:
difficulties in transporting and classifying the goods, and in
checking the requisition vouchers; disproportion between claimed
value and the real value; the necessity of not allowing German
specie to leave Germany. Moreover, Germany never regarded
herself as responsible for the price of the requisitioned goods;
BELGIUM
439
she said they would be paid for by Belgium after the war.
The impossibility, however, for Belgian industry to go on
without capital obliged the governor-general to seek some
solution. On April 2 1915 a Caisse de prits (loan bank) was
established at Brussels to make advances on the security of the
requisition vouchers. For requisitions made by the army, prices
were fixed by the military authorities; for other requisitions
valuation was made by the indemnity office in Berlin. The Caisse
de prcts might advance 75% of such valuation, if the claimant
accepted the price offered. The Caisse de prets merely gave a
voucher, which the Societe Generale de Belgique was required to
cash; the latter in return being granted by the Reichsbank a
credit equal to the sums disbursed, but not to be drawn upon
until three months after the signature of peace. The Societe
Generale vigorously resisted this measure: on the one hand, be-
cause the payment of the enormous number of German requisition
vouchers must produce an inflation of the fiduciary circulation,
with the immediate result of raising the cost of living and in-
creasing poverty; on the other hand, because the Societe Gene-
rale objected to helping Germany in her requisitions. The So-
ciete Generale never consented to cash any vouchers save those
issued for requisitions of raw materials. As claimants usually
refused to accept the prices fixed by Berlin, the total of the
loans granted did not exceed 75 millions of marks.
Requisitions were not confined to industry alone. In all
private houses objects of copper, bronze, metal alloys and wool
mattresses were seized. The following table shows the requisi-
tions made in the area of General Government during the second
half of 1917:
Objects.
Copper and alloyed metals
from private houses .
Copper from industrial estab-
lishments ....
Zinc
Lead
Tin
Steel ....'..
Iron from demolitions .
Copper
Sulphate of copper .
Lead (different forms) .
Rough zinc ....
Cadmium
Silver
Chemical products:
Sulphuric acid
Soda
Chloride of lime .
Muriatic acid
Paper
Skins of large cattle
calves
horses
sheep ....
various animals
rabbits
Tanning-materials .
Leather and leather straps
Boots and shoes
" " " wooden soled
Osier (wicker) for munition
baskets
Osier fibre
Wool and hair
Mattress wool
Wool yarn
Woollen rags
Cotton rags
Manufactured cottons .
Cotton and cotton thread
Cottons, confiscated, various.
Manufactured flax and prod-
ucts
Hemps and jute
Coconuts and piassava .
Brushes
Strings
Transmission cables
Jute bags
Quantity requisitioned during
second half of 1917.
2,069,300 kgm.
3,975.8oo
38,870,854
3,967,970
6,600
21,000
140,000,000
5,576,375
481,414
12,309,842
6,225,147
768
3,197
20,877-7 tons
6,065-0 '
570-0 '
886-5 "
270-0 '
151,664 pieces
60,624 "
12,868
27,710
173,710
1,227,819
4,987,000 kgm.
(value of 4,915,000 mk.)
( ' 4,251.955 " )
( 79,948 " )
800 tons
165 "
840,270 kgm.
831,685
200,273
1,748,261
5,009,772
301 ,032
3,152
36,694
224,014
5,748
150,112
916,333 pieces
171.119 kgm.
8,424
574,173 pieces
9,5oo
7,000
24,000
copper from factories
private houses
Up to June 1918 there had been requisitioned:
290,000 tons of iron
7,000
3,5oo
copper produced in Belgium
lead
" in different forms, produced in Belgium
zinc
and also 8,550,330 marks worth of leather and leather straps.
Producers were obliged to deliver their total output to the
" Central " at very low prices. The " Central," after having
supplied the army and the railways, resold the surplus at very
high prices to the factories which were authorized to work.
Two offices for the distribution of coal to the Belgian population
were established at Brussels and Namur, but the quantity allotted
for this purpose was quite insufficient. Indeed, the Kohlen-
zentrale tried to export as much coal as possible to neutral coun-
tries, for the sake of the large profits realized in that way.
In 1915 the export of Belgian coal to Germany reached 115%
of the pre-war figure, in 1916 95%, in 1917 25%. Germany, on
her side, imported approximately equivalent amounts of coal
into Belgium.
The export to neutral countries was much greater, being in
1915 190% of the pre-war figure, in 1916 230%, in 1917 tailing
to 90%. The exportation of Belgian coal seemed to Germany
a lucrative operation. At the meeting of the Economic Com-
mission on June 19 1915 Kardoff, representing German trade,
declared: " The coal production of Belgium must first supply
military requirements and afterwards Belgian consumption.
The surplus must serve German purposes, notably as an export
to neutral countries." This was the accepted doctrine.
In 1917 the distribution of Belgian coal was as follows:
1st
quarter.
2nd
quarter.
3rd
quarter.
4th
quarter.
Belgian population and
authorized industries .
Troops and railways
Occupied French terri-
tories ....
Export ....
53-0%
37-5%
o-5%
9-o%
43-50%
47-50%
0-25%
8-75%
44-50%
49-75%
5-75 .',
46%
52%
2%
Military needs absorbed 4,665,975 tons, one-half of the total
output. Thanks to the Kohlenzenlrale's monopoly, the profits
realized by it were large. The figures are as follows:
Profit on sales.
1915
marks.
1916
marks.
1917
marks.
In Germany ....
" Switzerland
" Scandinavia
" Holland ....
972
340,892
1,688,646
705,693
48,619
5,856,376
10,547,467
5,542,120
176,110
3,498,449
2,557,033
2,956,870
The total profits for the three years amounted to about 34
millions of marks, which were used as a German war loan.
An oil " Central " on the same model was established on June 3
1915. It realized a profit of 11,815,266 francs in the years 1915,
1916, 1917; 6-5 millions of which were for 1917 alone. Finally,
on July 26 1915 the " Central " for water, gas and electricity was
instituted, important services thus being placed under the direct
control of the German administration.
The German Government now controlled all the elements
indispensable to industry. Henceforth no undertaking could
escape its power. Industry was forced into absolute submission
to the terms imposed by the invader.
The Belgian marine export trade had, of course, been stopped
by the war. Belgian factories closed down one after the other
and the numbers of unemployed quickly became enormous.
The Comite National, whose activities will be described later,
organized relief measures, got work of public utility started,
and established bourses de travail (labour scholarships), which,
while supporting the unemployed person, exacted meantime his
attendance at technical classes. The German authorities in-
tervened in 1915 and opposed this great organization for assisting
the unemployed.
It was soon realized that the only efficacious method of helping
the Belgian masses was to revive trade, and in Aug. 1915 a
440
BELGIUM
Comite Industriel was formed for that object. It entered into
negotiations with the Allied Governments in order to obtain
permission to import raw materials into Belgium such raw
materials, once manufactured, to be reexported and the proceeds
realized applied to the purchase of foodstuffs necessary for the
victualling of the Belgian population. The Allies were willing
to agree to such an arrangement, but the German Government
made the condition that payments for the exported goods should
be deposited in a Belgian bank. England declared that she could
not accept such a condition, which would have meant that the
Allied Powers would be helping Germany, so the Comite Industriel
dissolved without having achieved anything.
The numbers of the unemployed became dany more alarming.
In 1916 they reached 650,000. On Oct. 16 1916 the Comite
National made a fresh attempt to revive trade, proposing the
authorization of exports, their proceeds to be handed to the
Commission for Relief in Belgium as payment for food sent in
return. Germany refused consent. Part of Belgian industry
still remained active but the factories sequestrated by the enemy
had great difficulty in finding labour, considerable numbers of
the working-classes obstinately refusing to work in the interests
of Germany. On Aug. 14 and 15 1915 appeared the first edicts
instituting severe penalties for those refusing to undertake work
for the German authorities.
The government of occupation was also undermining Belgian
industries by requisitions of machinery and tools. Commissions
of German engineers and heads of industry were sent into Bel-
gium to seize from Belgian factories any machinery which could
be utilized in Germany. The real object was to destroy Bel-
gium's trade, as being a dangerous rival to that of Germany.
Pure vandalism characterized these requisitions, the experts
even destroying machinery which they found it impossible to
remove.
Again official orders of Jan. 10 and Oct. 10 1916 forbade more
than 24 hours work per week in the textile and boot-making
trades; and those of Feb. 17 and July 21 1917 forbade work in all
workshops and factories of Belgium save by authorization of the
president of the civil administration.
The working-class population of Belgium was reduced to
beggary. The masses of unemployed became more and more
numerous. Germany desired them more numerous still. Public
works started by provinces and communes to provide employ-
ment were suddenly prohibited. Germany exposed her hand.
The president of the civil administration expounded the
German theory in a speech delivered before the deputation
permanente of Luxemburg. Relief of the unemployed, he said,
was inadmissible in the case of persons deprived of work by the
German regulations. Workers aged from 18 to 50 could go to
Alsace-Lorraine or Germany, and work there for good wages.
If able-bodied members of the working-class would consent to
go to Germany, communes would be once more authorized to
provide public work for the unemployed of under 18 or over 50.
Thus, by means of a skilfully planned series of edicts, Germany
had attained her object had completely ruined Belgian indus-
try and had created an unemployed class of nearly 700,000 work-
ers, whom she forbade the public bodies to provide with work.
Nothing remained but to transport this potential labour into
Germany.
From 1917 onwards Belgian industry was subjected to sys-
tematic destruction. By June 30 1918, 167 factories had been
completely destroyed, 161 factories were mentioned by the
administrative report to the governor-general of the section
for commerce and industry as to be destroyed immediately, 93
large halls were being demolished, others had been cleared out,
52 halls were to suffer the same fate. Of the 57 high furnaces
existing in Belgium, 26 had been razed to the ground, 20 were
seriously damaged, n pnly remained fit for use.
The Service de Recuperation Induslrielle subsequently identified
in Germany 24,308 Belgian machines and 89,635,640 kgm. of
various kinds of plant. Machinery that could not be carried
away entire, had been broken up by hammer blows and the pieces
sent to Germany; 290,000 tons of iron, 7,000 tons of lead (coming
chiefly from the storing chambers for sulphuric acid) had been
taken from the factories.
Metallurgical works, textile factories, chemical works, quar-
ries (save those requisitioned by Germany), cemeteries, gun-
foundries, works of public bodies all were completely despoiled.
The collieries alone, being indispensable to Germany, were spared.
But when the German army was in final retreat measures were
taken to destroy the mines completely. On Oct. 26 1918 orders
were given for work to cease in the coal-fields of Hainault. On
Nov. i pits and machinery were mined, pumping and ventilation
were stopped, boiler furnaces extinguished. This would have
meant the putting of Belgian mines out of action for years. In
face of such an act of vandalism the neutral Powers protested,
threatening Germany with economic reprisals, whereupon
pumping was recommenced, and the pits and machinery were
spared.
In all this policy of destruction Germany had a double aim.
On the one hand, she was ruining Belgian trade and eliminating
future rivalry from that quarter; on the other hand, unemploy-
ment was being daily increased, hundreds of thousands were
being thrown out of work, and she was provided with a pretext
for requisitioning human labour as she had already requisitioned
raw materials and machinery. A series of edicts now prepared
for that.
The Deportations. In Oct. 1916 the military authorities
made the first requisition of men for work in Germany. At that
time nearly a million persons were in receipt of public relief in
Belgium. In Nov. burgomasters were ordered under heavy
penalties to furnish the German authorities with lists of the
unemployed receiving relief in their communes. In every case
the enemy Government was met by refusal on the part of the
communal authorities. The military authorities thereupon began
a general requisition of able-bodied men throughout the country,
whether unemployed or not. Notices posted in the communes
ordered all men aged from 17 to 60 to present themselves at the
Kommandantur in the town of the arrondissemenl. There the
assembled men were paraded within double lines of infantry and
cavalry. Non-commissioned officers next proceeded to designate
those who were to be deported to Germany or to the zones of the
front. These unlucky ones were immediately marched to the
nearest station, put on a train, and sent under guard to Germany.
Generally speaking, the inhabitants of Flanders the zone
d'etape were sent to the Yser front or to that in the north of
France. They were set to work constructing railways, repairing
roads, or digging trenches in the zone of fire. Many of them were
killed by the Allied bombardment. Workers requisitioned from
other parts of the country were concentrated in great camps at
Munster, Altengrabow, Guben, Cassel, Meschede, Soltau and
Wittenberg. They were ordered to sign labour contracts, and
their obstinate resistance was met by the most inhuman methods
of intimidation and coercion. Deprived of food, beaten even
with blows of the bayonet left tied to posts in the snow for
entire nights, numbers of them yet perished rather than work for
the enemy. In the camps the " purveyors of men " came to take
delivery of the human merchandise allotted to them, and dis-
tributed it to farms, factories and mines throughout Germany.
The invincibly recalcitrant were sent to Strafbataillonen at the
front, where they were treated like convicts. Such camps, that
at Sedan for instance, were responsible for many victims. From
time to time convoys of sick were sent back to Belgium; the
lamentable state in which they arrived provoked a great protest
movement through all the country.
The first voice to make itself heard was that of Cardinal
Mercier, Archbishop of Malines. He addressed a protest to the
governor-general against the inhumanity of the deportations.
In particular he said: "I will not believe that the imperial
authorities have said their last word. They will consider our
unmerited sufferings, the reprobation of the civilized world, the
judgment of history, the chastisement of God." On Nov. 9 1916
the members of the Belgian Parliament in their turn addressed a
courageous protest to von Bissing and appealed to the neutral
legations. On Dec. 16 the magistracy in its turn protested. In
BELGIUM
Nov. Senator Magnette, Grand Master of Belgian Freemasonry,
addressed a letter to German Freemasonry, in which he wrote:
" The brutal and total suppression of personal liberty, a repeti-
tion of the most painful wanderings of Jewish history, the cap-
tivity of an entire innocent nation, which for over two years has
given an example of marvellous calm, dignity, and patriotism
does not all this cry for vengeance, are you going to disregard it ? "
German Freemasonry made no reply, but M. Magnette was
arrested and imprisoned.
The censorship prevented publication of these numerous pro-
tests, which would have encouraged national resistance. Car-
dinal Mercier determined to address the nation from the pulpit
of Ste. Gudule, the cathedral of Brussels. There, on Nov. 26,
he addressed the faithful, lashing with burning words the in-
humanity of Germany, and exhorting Belgians to stand fast
in resistance, in patriotism and in faith in their ultimate victory.
The vast throng of his hearers received these words with in-
describable enthusiasm.
Finally, on Feb. 14 1917, the most important members of the
clergy, the Comite National, Parliament, the magistracy, the bar,
the nobility, financial circles, etc., addressed the German Em-
peror in a letter at once dignified and firm, demanding the re-
patriation of the deported Belgians. The foreign legations still
at Brussels those of the United States, Spain, and Holland
also showed sympathy. Cardinal Mercier had appealed to the
Pope, and on Nov. 29 1916 the Pope had approached the German
Government on behalf of the victims of deportation, but without
effect. The United States now protested to Berlin against such
violations of the principles of the Hague Convention, and the
Dutch legation did the same. At the time of the fall of Antwerp
in 1914 the inhabitants of that town, terrified by the massacres
of Vise, Dinant, Andenne, Termonde, Tamenes, Aerschot and
Louvain, had fled en masse into Holland. The German Govern-
ment had requested the Dutch Government to assure the Belgian
refugees that if they returned to their country they would not be
subjected by Germany to requisitions or any other molestation.
On the representations of Holland the people of Antwerp re-
turned to Belgium. Germany had now taken thousands of men
from among them for deportation, and Holland could not but
protest against such disloyalty to promises made to her. These
interventions also remained without result, but at last the
insistence of Spain, the country which was protecting Belgian
interests in Germany, succeeded after a preliminary repulse in
obtaining a compromise from the German Government. The
Marquis of Villalobar, Spanish Minister at Brussels, proposed
an arrangement by which Germany should engage not to deport
more than 250,000 men, who should be chosen from the unem-
ployed; to allow those of the already deported who possessed
means of existence to return to their homes; to permit deported
Belgians to correspond with their families and send them money;
and finally, to place Belgian workers in Germany under neutral
surveillance. Germany agreed to all these conditions except the
last.
The neutral legations next intervened to effect the trans-
mission to the governor-general of claims from families whose
deported members should, by the terms of the above conven-
tion, be authorized to return to Belgium. These claims were nu-
merous; in one month the Dutch legation received 33,000 for
transmission.
The deportation policy had proved a disappointment to Ger-
many. The exiles refused to work, and, when forced into a sem-
blance of submission, met coercion with an inertia which rendered
their labour valueless. The whole world's indignation at this
return to slavery seemed to decide Germany on a movement of
clemency. In reply to the letter of Feb. 14 from distinguished
Belgians the Emperor announced that he would examine the
matter with benevolence. It was speedily decided that the
victims of deportation should be repatriated on June i 1917, and
Germany published this decision far and wide. It proved but
a piece of abominable treachery. Numerous convoys of the
deported did indeed return to Belgium, but soon after they were
again summoned to the K ommandantur, and,- under pain of being
deported anew, were forced to accept work in the requisitioned
Belgian factories. Moreover, the authorities declared that the
Emperor had not promised that Belgian workmen should not be
deported into France, and many of the convoys which arrived
from Germany were immediately sent off to the invaded French
departments. A yet more hypocritical construction was put on
William II. 's words. He had promised the repatriation of the
deported Belgians, but once repatriated there was nothing against
their being deported a second time as unemployed. So the
deportation began again, only to be ended by the Armistice.
Statistics of the Deportations.
Deported into Germany.
Total number.
Age
Age
Age
Age
Age
57,718
18.
3,412
18-50.
5.S.485
50-60.
807
60-70.
9
over 70.
5
Died during deportation in Germany: 1,304.
Deported to the Zivil Arbeiterbataillonen at the front.
Total number.
Age
Age
Age
Age
Age
57,541
18.
5,118
18-50.
51,281
50-60.
1, 080
60-70.
59
over 70.
3
Died during deportation at the front: 1,227.
Total number deported: 115,259.
Total of deaths resulting from bad treatment: 2,531.
Deported from each arrondisse-
ment. '
To Germany.
To the zone of
the front.
Brussels
1,539
378
Louvain
1,923
Nivelles
5,609
Antwerp
4,661
Mechlin
1,992
3
Turnhout
314
Mons
11,254
5,53
Charleroi
6,3f>4
10
Tournai
2,572
8,609
Ghent .
10
1 1 ,074
Audenarde
ii
8,509
Termonde
736
8,936
Bruges .
4
1,323
Courtral
19
9,715
Turnes .
2
Ypres .
-
961
Liege .
5
Huy .
32
Verviers
734
Tongres
467
27
Hasselt
2,246
49
Arlon .
2,423
2,815
Larche .
1,169
12
Neufchateau
1,204
Namur .
8,607
36
Dinant .
2,883
2
Feeding the Belgian Population. Belgium could not feed her
population unaided. She did not produce above a quarter of her
wheat consumption. Thus as early as Aug. 14 1914 the Belgian
Government had rationed bread. By Nov. scarcity was being
felt in Hainault; and in the following month the provinces of
Limburg and Luxemburg and all the towns were short of flour,
while the rural districts lacked coffee, salt, yeast, coal, petrol and
soap. Prices began to rise sharply. The situation was the more
critical because, the country once occupied, the German governor
had abrogated all measures already taken by the Belgian Govern-
ment to ensure its food supplies. The public administrative
bodies could no longer act; private initiative had to take their
place. Everywhere committees were formed. At Antwerp a
Comite de secours collected 2,000,000 francs for organizing relief to
the necessitous; while a Comite de ravitaillement, formed by the
communal authorities and including ip its sphere of action the
82 communes of the fortified area, secured 10,000 tons of wheat,
bacon and lard, 2,000 head of cattle, and 2,000 pigs. At Liege a
Comite d' alimentation was formed to manage the provisioning of
23 communes. At Brussels the Comite de secours du Luxem-
bourg endeavoured to succour those left homeless by the burnings
and devastations of the German army. At Bruges and Ostend
committees were formed to purchase wheat. Everywhere such
organizations appeared, but they were impotent to save the
country from the famine which menaced it, for the German
Government, in order to exercise pressure on the Allies, declared
442
BELGIUM
that, as the British blockade prevented it from maintaining the
provisioning of Belgium, it had no further concern in the matter.
A central committee was formed in Brussels, consisting of
personages of the financial world, presided over by E. Solvay,
and under patronage of the ministers for Spain and the United
States. It took the title of Comiti centrale de secours el d 'ali-
mentation. An executive committee was appointed with M.
Francque as chairman, the first meeting taking place on Sept. 3
1914. It at once opened canteens and food depots, obtaining
through the good offices of neutral ministers a guarantee that
they would not be seized.
But by Sept. 1914 famine was already imminent. The Comitt
centrale tried to get food from England; the British Government
objected. Active negotiations procured an agreement: Marshal
von der Goltz promised to exempt totally from requisition food
so imported; the British Government on their side consented to
the importations on conditions that the supplies should be con-
veyed to the Belgian frontier under patronage of the ambassadors
of Spain and the United States, and that once in Belgium they
should be under the patronage of the Spanish and American
ministers at Brussels. The Commission for the Relief of Belgium
was constituted to organize this scheme. The importation of
food supplies now made the Comile centrale a body of great im-
portance, and its activities extended all over the country. In
each province a Comit& d' alimentation was set up, its president
sitting on the ComitS centrale in Brussels. The Comiti centrale
now took the name of Comile national de secours el d' alimentation.
Permission to import food was not enough, a method must be
found of paying for it. Von der Goltz would not allow money to
be transmitted to the Allies; funds must be procured outside
Belgium. The Belgian Government and the British Government
each opened a credit of 100,000 to the C.N. The Societe
Generale put its own foreign credits at the C.N.'s disposal. A
consortium of bankers and of the firm of Solvay et Cie. provided
a loan of 1 5 million francs in gold, advanced by the London branch
of the Banque Nationale de Belgique. In addition donations to
the amount of 60,000,000 francs were collected in Belgium itself,
and zealous propaganda was made abroad with the result that
60,000,000 francs were collected in England, 30,000,000 in
America, 10,000,000 in other countries.
Huge quantities of foodstuffs had to be imported; 60,000
tons were needed every month, which implied at the same time
180,000 tons purchased, stored, or in transit, representing a
value of 70 to 80 million francs. The funds at the C.N.'s dis-
posal were insufficient. True, the proceeds from the sales of the
imported goods would have balanced expenses, but the German
Government would not allow money thus received by the C.N.
to leave the country. An arrangement was therefore made be-
tween the C.N. and the Belgian Government, whereby the C.N.
undertook to pay the salaries of the Belgian officials, while the
Belgian Government in return paid over monthly an equivalent
sum to the Commission for Relief in Belgium. This sum was
fixed at 25,000,000 francs per month, but that proved in-
sufficient, and in Jan. 1917 it was augmented to 37,500,000 per
month. Just then, however, the submarine war stopped im-
portations for several months, and the price of foodstuffs rose
enormously in consequence. Moreover, the transference to
Belgium of 150,000 French refugees who had to be supported by
the C.N. further exhausted the latter's resources. New measures
became necessary. The Belgian Government concluded an
arrangement with the American Government, by which the latter
gave 15,000,000 dollars per month to the C.R.B. to pay for
purchases of food made in the United States. For purchases
made in Holland the C.N. obtained use of the credits possessed
in that country by all Belgian banks.
The functions of the C.N. did not consist in merely securing
the arrival of supplies of food in Belgium, but also in distributing
them throughout the country, and in those districts of northern
France whose provisioning it undertook in 1915. The essentially
private character of the C.N. and the refusal of the German
authorities to allow it to organize a police de surveillance to
safeguard its activities, made the situation very difficult. It is
true that the Cour de Cassation, by authorizing the courts to
punish persons who contravened the C.N.'s regulations, gave it
valuable help; but its task was only rendered possible by its
admirable organization. At first decentral in system, the C.N.
was forced by events to centralize. It was worked by its executive
committee, whose president, M. Francque, possessed the widest
powers. He in fact directed the vast organization, assisted by a
general secretary. The C.N. was divided into two departments:
the dipartement d' alimentation, responsible for provisioning
the country, and the departement des secours, responsible for
relief measures. These two departments worked in close col-
laboration with the Commission for Relief in Belgium, formed in
London in Oct. 1914, under direction of Mr. Hoover, and under
patronage of the Spanish and American ambassadors at London,
Paris, Berlin, Brussels, and The Hague. The C.R.B. had offices
in New York, London, Rotterdam and Brussels. The three first
effected the purchases for which they received orders from the
C.N., the fourth supervised the distribution in Belgium.
The departement d' alimentation had a subsidiary department
for the study of alimentary questions, and another for inquiry
into the needs of the country. Guided by these it gave its orders
to the C.R.B., received the goods, and distributed them among
the provincial committees. The vast scope of its functions
necessitated the creation of a goods book-keeping department
and a financial book-keeping department, also the putting under
public control of the manufacturing processes applied to some of
the materials received.
To show the magnitude of its task it may suffice to mention
that up to Dec. 31 1918 it had delivered food to the provincial
committees to the value of over 3-5 milliards of francs, 2-5
milliards having been for Belgium and one milliard for France.
A bonus was deducted from the sales of goods and paid over
to the departement des secours. The German authorities showing
signs of intending to assume a share in the control of these sales,
the C.N. asked the C.R.B. to deduct the bonus, so that it should
escape German surveillance. Thanks to these bonuses, to which
were added the voluntary donations from foreign countries,
the departement des secours accomplished a vast amount of relief
work. A commission for the purchase of clothing and materials,
with workrooms for cutting and making and for the training of
apprentices, also with technical courses for students, supplied the
provincial committees. Grants of money were also given; up
to Dec. 31 1918, 1-3 milliards of francs had been distributed to
the necessitous poor. This department gave grants besides to the
societies for aiding officers' and non-commissioned officers' wives,
families deprived of means by the war, the unemployed, and the
lacemakers, to the societies for providing food for infants,
succouring war orphans, the homeless, foreign refugees, artists,
wounded soldiers, etc. Under its patronage were the Societe
cooperative d'avance et de prfts (formed to help State officials
and employees), the Sociiti des habitations ouvribres, the Ligue
centre la tuberculose, the Union des vttles et des communes beiges
pour venir en aide aux sans-abris sinistres, the Agence de ren-
seignemenls pour prisonniers et internes, the Cantine du soldat
prisonnier, the Caissette du soldat beige. From Nov. 1917 its
scope was widened further by fusion with the society for the
relief of unemployment.
Delegates from the C.R.B. took an active part in the work
of the C.N. They attended the meetings of the provincial com-
mittees, and thus provided the necessary liaison between them
and the central executive, which could not have been done by
members of the C.N. as the Germans did not permit them to
travel about freely. The collaboration of the C.R.B. was also
valuable in regard to the transport within Belgium of provisions
for the provinces. The C.N. placed the flotilla it had formed, of
137 vessels (45,000 tons) and of 29 tugs, beneath the flag of the
C.R.B., thus avoiding requisitions.
The C.R.B. undertook the frequently necessary negotiations
with the German and British Governments. The gravest dif-
ficulty ever encountered was when in 1915 the German authori-
ties prohibited the C.N. from dealing with the distribution of
the indigenous foodstuffs. These were to be distributed by the
BELGIUM
443
provinces and communes and thus neutral control was eliminated
while Germany was enabled to requisition Belgian produce in
her own interests. Besides the crops 92,000 horses (out of
3 1 7,000) , 560,000 head of horned stock (out of i ,879,000) , 2 50,000
pigs (out of 1,494,000), 3,000 sheep, and 1,690,000 fowls were
sent to Germany. To stop this England threatened curtailment
of the food supplies for Belgium. This serious crisis was averted
by the good offices of the C.R.B.
Upon America's entry into the war Mr. Hoover resigned his
function on the C.R.B., after three years of devoted work.
Holland replaced America, and the Comite Hispano-Neerlandais
took up the task of the C.R.B.
The Belgian Government during the War. The gradual
occupation of the country by the German army compelled the
Belgian Government to retire first to Antwerp, then after the
fall of that town to Ostend, finally to Havre. Ministers ac-
credited to the Belgian Government followed it there, except the
Spanish Minister, the Marquis of Villalobar; the American
Minister, Mr. Brand Whitlock; and the Dutch charge d'af-
faires, M. van Vollenhoven, subsequently appointed Minister
these three remained in Brussels.
At the time of the Government's removal to France over a
million Belgians were fleeing before the German armies to foreign
countries: 200,000 took refuge in France, 100,000 in England,
700,000 including nearly the entire population of Antwerp in
Holland. Germany's assurances that Belgians who returned to
their country should not be molested brought back the in-
habitants of Antwerp, to suffer subsequently from deportations
despite the promises of the governor, von der Goltz. Fifty
thousand refugees remained in Holland.
The Government at Havre found itself faced by a gigantic
task. The army, deprived of bases and depots, was without
munitions, food supplies, or clothing. All had to be reorganized.
Yet not for one moment were the Belgian field forces withdrawn
from the front. To reinforce them the King appealed to Belgians
residing abroad, and they formed a first contingent. Thousands
of Belgians who had remained at home also responded to the call
of their King, and managed to get out of Belgium despite the
strictness with which the frontiers were guarded, the high-pres-
sure electric wires separating Belgium from Holland, and the
severe penalties decreed against those who joined the Belgian
army. On March i 1915, having succeeded in establishing the
necessary centres of instruction, the Government called up all
Belgians between the ages of 18 and 25 resident in non-occupied
Belgium, in France, or in England. On July 21 1916 all Belgians
aged 18 to 40 resident in allied or neutral states were called to
the service of their mother-country.
Colleges for officers were established in France at Gaillon
and Bayeux for infantry; at Onival for artillery; at Campagne
for cavalry; at Ardres for engineers. Centres of infantry in-
struction were established at Parigne Leveque, Auvoury, Hon-
fleur, Granville, Saint Lo, Coutances, Carteret, Barneville,
Valogne, La Haye-du-Puits. The artillery instruction centre
was at Eu, that for auxiliary troops at Buchard.
On March 16 1915 a royal decree ordered the creation of
building and repairing workshops, munitions factories, foundries,
farrieries, storehouses, etc. Huge establishments improvised at
Havre provided the army with all its artillery munitions.
Hospitals capable of accommodating all the Belgian wounded
were provided at the front. A school of reeducation for the
mutilated was established at Vernon. Belgian schools were
started in France, England, and Holland. Necessitous refugees
were helped.
Thanks to unremitting efforts the army was kept up at an effec-
tive average of 150,000 strong, and the field army at 75,000.
III. AFTER THE WAR. When the offensive of 1918 brought
liberation to Belgium the work of restoration to be accomplished
was enormous. The Treaty of Versailles did not facilitate it.
Shut out from the deliberations of the Supreme Council, Belgium
could neither claim her rights nor defend her interests as, if
represented, she would have been able to do.
For Belgium the most important question raised by the war
was the revision of the treaties of 1839. Those treaties had fixed
the international status of the country by declaring it neutral in
perpetuity under guarantee of the Powers. They had moreover
mutilated Belgium by taking from her the half of Limburg with
Maestricht, and giving it to Holland, and the half of Luxemburg,
which was created a grand duchy. This mutilation gave Belgium
frontiers impossible to defend Maestricht forming a bridge-head
on the Meuse, which was the country's natural line of defence.
There was, further, pressing for settlement, the question of the
Scheldt, that essential organ of Belgium's economic life; its
estuary was in the possession of Holland, who could thus control
the economic and military fate of Antwerp.
Nothing was done. Rather than take from Germany the
ancient Dutch provinces of Guelders and Cleves, which would
have served as territory to exchange for the cession of Limburg to
Belgium, the Treaty of Versailles prevented a political and
military solution of the Limburg question; while Holland on her
side refused to solve it by a treaty of common defence between
Belgium and the Netherlands. The grand duchy of Luxemburg
was the object of French designs, which prevented its restitution
to the mother-country. The question of the Scheldt was left
hung up. Belgium only obtained two of the 14 Walloon cantons
incorporated in Prussia in 1815 Malmedy and Eupen. She was
also given the right to connect Antwerp with the Rhine by a
canal.
As regarded finance, Belgium was relieved of her war debts
(six milliards) to the Allies, who declared Germany responsible
for them. Priority was granted to Belgium for a payment of 2-5
milliards from the German indemnity, this representing the
reimbursement of 2-5 milliards extorted from her by Germany
under the designation of war tax.
Belgium was left to seek unaided a solution to the grave prob-
lems which beset her. She entered on negotiations with Holland.
These were going badly for Belgium; it seemed likely that the
Scheldt would remain in Holland's possession, and that the
defence of the eastern frontier would continue to be an insoluble
problem, when Holland put forward a claim for recognition of
her sovereignty over the pass of Weilingen that is to say, over
Belgian territorial waters from the Dutch frontier to beyond
Zeebrugge. This manoeuvre made possible by the isolation
in which the Allies had left Belgium, and by the favour shown
by England to Holland's doctrine that the Scheldt should be
closed to Belgian warships had for object, and would have
entailed as consequence, Holland's right to deny Belgium access
to the port of Zeebrugge, which would have meant that she was
completely cut off from the sea. The general movement of
protest throughout Belgium against the signature of such a
Dutch-Belgian treaty compelled the Government to break off
negotiations.
In 1918 Belgium joined with France in a treaty of defensive
alliance, attempts being made to secure England's participation.
As a result of negotiation France renounced in favour of Belgium
her economic union with the grand duchy of Luxemburg.
As regarded Africa, Belgium did not succeed in gaining recog-
nition of her rights over the territories conquered by her in
German East Africa. Only Urundi and Ruanda were allotted to
her; the other territories passed to England.
In the occupation of the Rhine Belgium was represented by a
force of 1 2 ,000 men.
The Work of Restoration. Internal problems were very grave.
Before all it was necessary to ensure the food supplies of the
country. This task was enhanced in difficulty by the fact that
private enterprise could not touch it, owing to the sharp fluctua-
tions of the exchange. The State itself was thus forced to pur-
chase abroad the cattle, butter and margarine needed by the
population. Maximum prices having proved inefficacious, a
number of administrative orders were issued, forbidding specula-
tion in foodstuffs, authorizing the requisition of indigenous prod-
ucts, establishing inspection to prevent vendors from adulterat-
ing goods, and repressing excessive prices.
The social situation was terrible. There were 800,000 unem-
ployed; and 2,400,000 persons a third of the population only
444
BELGIUM
existed by the aid of public relief. The State had to assume the
support of these unemployed masses. Labour exchanges were
established to facilitate the distribution of recruits to reviving
industry. The vast numbers of the workless might have led to
famine wages; to obviate this the State decided that any workmen
offered less than the minimum rate of one franc per hour in the
towns and 0-75 in the country, might refuse work, while yet
continuing to draw out-of-work relief. Workers, moreover, were
organizing themselves so as to improve labour conditions. The
trade-union movement advanced with enormous strides. In 1919
the number of organized workers had risen to over 600,000, hav-
ing been only about 200,000 in 1914. Wages, as a matter of fact,
never fell below one franc per hour. Industrial workers in general
have obtained two francs per hour, metallurgical workers earn
2-25 to 2-50 francs per hour, miners 16 to 20 francs per day.
The astonishingly rapid reconstruction of 2,000 km. of
destroyed railway lines, effected by the end of 1919, the re-
newed activity of the collieries, which in the first quarter of 1919
produced 8-5 million tons of coal (against 11-5 million tons in
1914), and of the coke furnaces, which in May 1919 produced
58,000 tons (against 245,000 tons in May 1914), helped on the
gradual revival of industry.
The Commission de rfcuperation induslrielle gave a first stimu-
lus to industry by recovering Belgian machinery from Germany,
and by 1919 huge orders from English and American firms had
restored the country to economic activity. These orders were
made possible by credits opened to Belgian industry by the
banks. After the war the banks had indeed become of capital
importance. The 13 principal banks of Belgium increased
their capital by 380,000,000 francs.
In Dec. 1919 the output of the mines reached 81-3% of the
pre-war output. The coal-fields of Limburg were becoming active;
in 1919 the Winterslag mine began work, producing 500 to 600
tons per day, in 1920 a second mine was opened. The metal-
lurgical industry achieved 20% of its 1913 output of cast iron,
and 49% of steel and finished iron.
Alimentary industries, the building trade, industries of art
and precision, were now employing 75% of their pre-war staffs,
glass-may ng 80%, mines and transport over 100%, chemical
industries, ceramics, paper-making, linen-weaving, tobacco
manufacture 70%, clothing 87%, metallurgy 64%, the timber
trade and furniture-making 66%.
Such a revival, effectuating itself in the midst of the gravest
economic difficulties, could not but raise one problem after
another. Questions of wages and of hours of labour were con-
tinually endangering relations between employer and employed.
Thanks to a policy of foresight and moderation the Government
managed to avert most of the conflicts. In April igig two com-
missions were appointed to inquire into the possibility of re-
ducing hours of labour in steel manufactories and in mines. The
principle of the 8-hour day was admitted. On June i 1919
work was reduced to 8| hours per day, on Dec. i to 8 hours per
day.
In June another commission took up the same question for
mechanical construction. Later, national councils were appointed
for the public services of gas and electricity, for ice factories, the
building trade, the timber trade, and furniture-making, glass-
making, the textile trade of Flanders, and the port of Antwerp.
The committees, presided over by officials, and composed of
employers and employed in equal numbers, discussed questions of
wages and conditions of work. They often passed resolutions
constituting actual collective contracts, in some cases they pro-
ceeded to codify their decisions. They settled many local dis-
putes, and checked movements dangerous to national life.
The law does not enter into either their constitution or their
functions; they have no means of enforcing their decisions other
than the appeal to public opinion; yet there had not been one
instance up to 1921 where resolutions passed by the committees
had not been loyally applied. Employers and employed found
in these bodies a means of discussing and solving problems which
formerly would have been met by a strike. The establishment of
these committees marks an interesting tendency towards the
Imports 1919.
Exports.
Tons.
Thou-
sands
of francs.
1919
(tons.)
1920
(tons.)
Germany
France .
England
Holland
United States
Argentina
Congo .
1,550,142
2,087,273
1-805,573
623,868
900,804
394,165
12,252
659,921
1,850,476
1,687,474
585,098
I,547,8o8
519.954
87,327
191,032
2,213,875
166,333
1,931,946
223,364
5,044
18,107
471,883
3,885,704
685,701
1,491,553
317,961
52,656
21,342
decentralization of economic legislation, towards a professional
organization quite outside political parties, towards the assump-
tion by the worker of his share in the solution of industrial
problems.
Since the war, as a general rule, wages had risen considerably,
with a tendency towards uniformity and towards their fixation
according to index numbers published by the Government.
In Dec. 1919 the index number was 359 relatively to the month
of April 1914.
Belgium's resumption of commerce after the war is shown in
the following table in which the imports for 1919 and the ex-
ports for 1919 and 1920, from and to the chief regions in ques-
tion, are shown.
These figures show the war's disastrous effect on Belgian com-
merce. In 1914 exports and imports were fairly equivalent.
In 1915 imports exceeded exports by about three milliards of
francs. In 1920, it is true, the export trade to the seven countries
named above began to revive, improving from 4,749,701 tons
to 6,926,800 tons. But trade was involved in the gravest difficul-
ties. Markets had been captured during the war by England and
the United States. France's protectionist tendencies and Ger-
many's easy rivalry in foreign markets owing to the depreciation
of her exchange were also causes of the serious commercial crisis
that Belgium was passing through in 1920-1.
The resurrection of the port of Antwerp was rapid. In 1919
4,820 vessels, registering 5,245,048 tons, entered the port; in
1920 7,698 registering 10,852,341 tons (in the same year Rot-
terdam received 5,951 registering 7,609,777 tons). Antwerp's
development is closely linked with Belgium's prosperity. The
port's connexion with the Rhine by means of a ship canal was in
1921 under consideration.
Belgium made great efforts to develop her commercial marine.
The Lloyd Royal Beige, entirely promoted by Belgian capital,
was formed to add to the Red Star Line's already existing service
between Antwerp and America regular services to Brazil, the
British West Indies, the Far East, Australia, Spain, Italy and
the Near East.
But though Belgian commerce and industry were showing their
powers of rapid recuperation, the country's financial situation
could not but be serious. Scarcely was it back in Belgium when
the Government had to face the cost of redeeming the marks put
in circulation by Germany; the amount represented 7-5 milliards
of francs. Other heavy charges upon State finances were: the
payment of arrears of salary due to officials; the augmentation
of salaries necessitated by the enormously increased cost of
living; the expenses of victualling the country and of reconstruct-
ing railways, canals and roads; the sums voted for compensation
to industrial concerns and private persons for war damage and
destruction.
In 1919 the national debt amounted to 12,964,050,000 francs;
in 1920 it was over 30 milliards. To meet a situation of such
gravity new taxes had to be imposed. The income tax established
by vote on Oct. 21 1919 took 10% on unearned incomes, and a
graded percentage on earned incomes which only reached 10%
when such an income was over 48,000 francs.
On Oct. it 19193 new law of inheritance imposed a tax varying
with the heir's degree of kinship to the deceased from i to 50%
upon the sum inherited; while inheritance from an intestate
was suppressed in favour of the State beyond the fourth degree
of kinship. New taxes fell on beer, tobacco, alcohol, and cinemas.
On March 3 1919 war profits were taxed progressively up to 10%
and railway fares were doubled.
BELGIUM
445
Despite these efforts it was obvious that the Belgian budget
could not be restored to financial equilibrium save by Germany's
payment of the war indemnity. In order to have some guarantee
of that indemnity the Government, on Nov. 10 1918, placed
under sequestration all property belonging to subjects of the
enemy countries. The chief item of expense was the indemnifica-
tion of war damage, estimated at over 35 milliards. The State
supported the formation of cooperative societies, advancing to
persons who had suffered war damage up to 70 to 95% of the
compensation due to them, and the creation of the Credit Natio-
nal Industriel, also supported by the Banque Nationale, and serv-
ing as intermediary between the State and the claimants. To
provide the advances these organizations issued 5% bonds
guaranteed by the State up to the value of the compensation for
damages. Thus the debt was brought into the hands of several
groups, which should greatly facilitate its liquidation.
The work of national reconstruction was being accomplished
up to 1921 amid political and social calm. After the Armistice
the Government was composed of ministers belonging to the three
great parties. All political strife had ceased, a truce having been
brought about by mutual concessions. Universal suffrage " pure
and simple " at 21 years of age was established at the demand
of the Socialist party. As compensation the Catholic party
claimed votes for women, which the Chamber conceded for
communal elections but not for parliamentary elections. The
elections of Nov. 16 1919, with universal suffrage at 21, de-
prived the Catholic party of the majority it had enjoyed since
1884, while the Socialists gained considerably.
Thanks to this political calm, Parliament was able to intro-
duce such important reforms as the income tax, and the pro-
hibition of the sale of alcohol in public (law of Aug. 29 1919).
The only disturbing elements in Belgian public life in 1920-1
was the Activist movement. Promoted by German intrigue
during the war, it still existed, making the independence of
Flanders its ostensible object. At the last election its candidates
only polled 62,000 votes out of 1,757,104 cast, and it was gener-
ally condemned by public opinion. The members of the Raed
van Vlaendcren and certain Activists who had assisted the enemy
were convicted of high treason and sentenced, but they had
escaped to Holland, where they were well received by both the
Government and the public.
Belgium took an honourable part in the proceedings of the
League of Nations. Like Brazil, Greece and Spain she was in-
vited to join the Council along with the Great Powers, and her
delegate, M. Hymans, was elected president of the first general
assembly at Geneva. At that assembly Belgium was reflected
as member of the Council, to sit on it with Brazil, Spain,
China, and the Great Powers. With the object of extending
Belgian influence abroad, the diplomatic and consular services
were completely reorganized. The Association Internationale
des Academies has chosen Brussels for its centre of activity.
On Aug. 19 1920 the Academic de la langue fran$aise was
inaugurated at Brussels. Dr. Bordet, professor of Brussels
University, was awarded the Nobel prize. University life had
revived. The civil status granted to the universities of Louvain
and Brussels was on July 5 1920 extended to the universities of
Ghent and Liege. The profits realized by the C.R.B. were pre-
sented by the president, Mr. Hoover, to the Belgian universities.
Each of them was the recipient of a donation of 20 million francs,
intended to develop the scientific side of their work. Mr. Hoover
moreover presented a sum of 80 millions to the Fondation Uni-
versitaire, the income to be allocated by a committee of university
professors to encourage the advance of science in Belgium.
Finally, mention must be made of the reform of justice, the cre-
ation of single judge tribunals, reforms in the treatment of pris-
oners, and the institution of a school of criminology. The Govern-
ment established a school of agriculture at Ghent, a school of social
service, and a colonial school. A commission of inquiry was
appointed to investigate the violations of international law
committed by the Germans in Belgium. Archives of the war were
founded to collect all the documents relative to the history of
Belgium from 1914 to 1918.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. From the historical point of view: H. Pirenne,
Histoire de Belgique (5 vols.) ; idem, Les anciennes Demo-
craties des Pays-Bas (English trans.) ; Cammaerts, Belgium. From
the political point of view: H. Van der Linden, History of Belgium;
Van der Essen, A Short History of Belgium; E. Descailles, Charles
Rogier; P. Hymans, Histoire parlementaire de la Belgique; idem,
Frere Orbans; Van der Smissen, La Correspondance de Leopold I.
avec M. Beernaert; Baffin, La Jeunesse de Leopold I.; Le Lime gris
beige. From the economic and social points of view : Seebohm-
Rowntree, Comment diminuer la misere en Belgique; Levinski, Le
developpement induslriel de la Belgique; Waxweiler, Enquete Indus-
triette (published by the Ministere du Travail) ; H. Charriaut, La-
Belgique Moderne; Passelecq, Les deportations des ouvriers beiges
pendant la guerre. (H. P. ; J. P.)
BELGIAN LITERATURE
It cannot be said that any very extraordinary new talent
either in prose or in poetry revealed itself in Belgian French
literature between 1910 and 1921.
The fame of Maurice Maeterlinck and Emile Verhaeren
remained world-wide. Maeterlinck's play L'Oiseau Bleu (1911)
was first performed at Moscow, then in London (translated as
The Blue Bird), and later in Paris and New York. The writer's
poetic imagination and serene philosophy contributed to make his
play intensely popular. A continuation under the title of The
Betrothal was produced in London in 1921.
During the war Maeterlinck published, in 1916, a volume of
articles he had written in various newspapers and lectures he had
delivered in England, France and Italy, under the title of Les
Debris de la Guerre. He also wrote L'Hote Inconnu (1917),
Le Miracle de St. Antoine (1919), Les Sentiers dans la Montague
(1919) and Le Bourgmestre de Stilemonde (1920), a play dealing
with the horrors of the German invasion in Belgium.
Emile Verhaeren's tragedy Helene de Sparte was first pub-
lished in German, translated by Stcphan Zweig, then in Russian,
and appeared in French in 1912, when it was performed in Paris.
Verhaeren's forcible and rather rugged style is perhaps not
absolutely suited to the subject he treats. His poems, however,
Les Rythmes Souverains (1910), Les Villes a Pignons (1910),
Les Fleurs du Soir (1911), Les Plaines (1911) and Les Bles Mou-
vants (1912), are as intense in feeling and vitality as his earlier
work. Verhaeren'%accidental death (he was crushed by a train
in Rouen station Nov. 26 1916) was a great loss to Belgian
literature. La Belgique Sanglante (1915), Parmi les Cendres
(1916), Villes Meurtries de Belgique (1916), Les Ailes Rouges
de la Guerre (1916) have been read and admired all the world over
for their ardent patriotism and their righteous indignation as
well as for their felicity of expression. These war poems will live
wherever the French language is spoken.
In Les Libertins d'Aniiers, Legende el Histoire des Loistes,,
Georges Eekhoud has told the story of the heretic sects in
Antwerp in the i6th century. In this book Eekhoud, according
to his custom, exalts his native city in her vices as well as in her
virtues. Other books written by Eekhoud are Les Peintres
Animaliers Beiges (1911), and L'Imposteur magnanime, Perkirt
Warbeck (1914).
A tragedy in four acts by Camille Lemonnier, Edenie, set to-
music by Leon du Bois, was performed in Antwerp in 1912 with
great success. The poem, written in blank verse, has all the
charm of Lemonnier's vivid imagination and forcible style.
Lemonnier died in 1913. His last book, Au Cizur frais de to
Forct, was published in 1914.
Albert Giraud's La Frise Empourpree (1912) is a collection
of poems, in which their author remains faithful to the Parnas-
sian tradition. In 1919 Giraud published a volume of poems,
Le Laurier, written in Brussels during the war, and in 1920
Eros ct Psyche.
Ivan GUkin published in 1911 poems called La Nuit, the first
of three volumes, of which the others were to be called L'Aube
and La Lumiere, and in 1920 a play in blank verse, Le Roi
Cophetua.
Gregoire Le Roy, in his collection of poems called Le Rouet
et la Besace, illustrated by himself, deals with the sufferings of
the poor. La CoUronne des Soirs (1911), Contes d'apres Minuit
(1913) and Joe Trimborn (1913) are collections of short stories.
446
BELL
Jean Dominique (pseudonym of Mile. Marie Closset), whose
volume of poems, Le Puits d'Azur, was published in 1912,
is undoubtedly one of the most gifted of contemporary women
writers. Mile. Closset is a teacher and lives in Brussels. Another
original and interesting woman writer, Neel Doff, has published
Jours de Famine et Detresse (1911) and Contes Farouches (1913).
A considerable number of books and poems dealing with and
inspired by the war were published by Belgian writers in England
and France during the war, as well as in Belgium itself after
the refugees and soldiers returned home. During the German
occupation Belgians had necessarily been debarred from pub-
lishing works inspired by their patriotic feelings. Besides Ver-
haeren's war poems, Emile Cammaerts' Belgian Poems (1915)
may be mentioned.
Prof essor Pirenne's Souvenirs de Captivite en Allemagne (1920)
are a notable contribution to Belgian war literature in prose.
An interesting book which consists of a series of essays on the
war and the German occupation, L'CEil sur les Ostrogoths,
by Ernest Variant, director of Fine Arts, may live as a record of
the impressions of a subtle mind and a cultivated personality.
A monthly review Le Flambeau, published clandestinely in
Brussels during the German occupation, by Oscar Grojean,
Henri Gregoire and Anatole Muhlstein, a young Pole, and which
continues to appear, edited by Grojean and Gregoire, is without
doubt the most interesting literary and political review in
Belgium. Amongst contemporary writers and poets in Belgium
may be mentioned: Fernand Severin (La Solitude Heureuse,
1901); Max Elskamp (Sous les Tentes de I'Exode, 1921; Les
Commentaires et I'ldiographie du jeu de Loto dans les Flandres,
1914); Georges Raemaekers (Les Saisons Mystiques, 1910);
t'Serstevens (Un Apostolai); Blanche Rousseau (Le Rabaga,
1912; Lisette et sa Pantoufle, 1913); Glesener (Chronique d'un
petit Pays, 1913).
In 1920 Crommelynck's play Le Cocu Magnifique created a
sensation in Paris where it had a long run at the Theatre de
1'CEuvre. In Brussels it obtained more or less of a " succes de
scandale." It deals with a case of pathological jealousy. Crom-
melynck's other plays are Le Sculpteur de Masques (1908) and
Les Amants Puerils (1921). Other Belgian plays include Kaatje
and Malgre Ceux qui lambent, by Paul Spaak; Les tapes, Les
Liens and Les Semailles (1919) by Gustave van Zype, and Le
Mariage de Mademoiselle Beulemans by Fonson and Wicheler,
a picture of the life of the lower middle class in Brussels.
In Flemish literature there has been marked activity. Stijn
Streuvels, a nephew of Guido Gezelle, and by profession a baker
at Avelghem, a village in Flanders, has made a considerable
reputation both in Belgium and in Holland. His descriptions
of rural life are both poetic and realistic, and he has been com-
pared to Tolstoi, whose psychological subtleties and epic am-
plitude Streuvels however does not possess. His style is of rare
perfection, and this remark applies to the whole of the modern
Flemish school of writers. Streuvels's work, Het Glorieryke
Licht (The Glorious Light), was written in 1913. In 1914 he
published Dorpslucht and in 1920 Genoveva van Brabant, a
historical novel.
Cyriel Buysse may be called the Flemish Maupassant. He is a
realist. His works, which deal with the life of the people both
in towns and in the country and, to a lesser degree, with that of
the middle classes, form a complete picture of Flemish life.
Buysse is passionate, robust, full of revolt and of pity, very
human. His De Vroolyke Thocht (The Joyous Expedition),
Stemmingen (Impressions), and in collaboration with Virginie
Leveling, a popular woman author, Levensleer (Education
through Life) appeared between 1910 and 1912. In 1915 Buysse
published Zomerleven (Life in the Summer), a sort of diary,
and in 1921 Zooals Het Was (As It Was). Maurice Sabbe's
De Nood der Bariseeles (The Plight of the Bariseeles), In
'tGedrang (1915, a book about the war), and '/ Pastorke van
Schaerdycke (1919, The Little Pastor of Schaerdycke) and E.
Vermeulen's Herwording (Renaissance), which deals with the
life of the peasants in West Flanders, may also be mentioned.
Rene de Clercq and Karel van de Woestyne are the most
typical Flemish poets of the present generation. Ren6 de Clercq
proceeds directly from the inspiration of Guido Gezelle (1830-
89). His poems are essentially popular, vigorous, full of life and
good spirits, although through these one feels his tenderness, his
pity for the misery of the Flemish peasants. He has published a
volume of Gedichten (Poems). Karel van de Woestyne has a
more complex personality. His poems are very varied in feeling,
sometimes simple and direct, at other times complicated, full of
metaphors. His sphere is that of the soul, and for him things
are real in so far only as they partake of the spiritual life. It is
necessary to add that there are contrasts in Van de Woestyne's
nature which he does not always dominate, and which give a
certain want of harmony to his works. A volume containing
prose essays on Flemish painters and writers is Kunst en Letien
in Vlaanderen (Art and Life in Flanders). A volume of poems
is De Gulden Schaden (The Golden Shadow). In 1918 Van de
Woestyne wrote a book in poetic prose, mystic and difficult,
called De Bestendige Aanwezigheid (The Eternal Presence),
and in 1920 a volume of poems De Modderen Man (of which the
nearest translation is The Man of Clay), the first volume of a
trilogy. A new Belgian Flemish writer of outstanding importance
is Felix Timmermans who, before he became celebrated in
Belgium and Holland, sold sweets in a little shop in his native
to wn of Lierre. Pallicter ( 1 9 1 6) is epoch-making in contemporary
Belgian literature. It is as forceful as Rabelais and yet tender
and poetic, with a pantheistic feeling for nature: the ecstasy
of a human being who incorporates himself with woods and
streams, flowers and beasts, and who revels in every form of life.
One may say that this book takes an important place in European
literature. It had already reached 12 editions in 1921, and a
French translation was then about to appear. Another book of
Timmermans, Het Kindeken Jesus in Vlaanderen (1918, The
Christ Child in Flanders), is a most poetical transplantation of
the story of the childhood of Christ. This has already been done
in Belgian French literature by Eugene Demolder. But whereas
Demolder's book is full of literary devices Timmermans's comes
as it were from the heart of the people. Another Flemish prose
writer is Herman Teirlinck: De nieuive Uylenspiegel (1920, The
New Eulenspiegel), a fantasy; and amongst the best-known
recent poets Auguste van Cauwelaert, Frits Francken and Daan
Boens may be mentioned. Cyriel Verschaeve has written a
dramatic poem Judas, and Eug. Schmidt a play Het Kinder-
nummer (a turn performed by a child at a music-hall).
(L. VA.)
BELL, CHARLES FREDERICK MOBERLY (1847-1911),
British journalist, was born in Alexandria April 2 1847, the
son of a merchant. He was educated in England, but in
1865 went back to Egypt and engaged in business. He soon
began sending occasional correspondence to the London Times,
and from 1875 onwards devoted himself mainly to journalism.
By 1880, when he founded the Egyptian Gazette, he had become
the regular correspondent for The Times in Egypt. He also
published Khedives and Pashas (1884); Egyptian Finance
(1887) and From Pharaoh to Fellah (1888). In 1890 he was
summoned to London to take the post of manager (nominally
assistant-manager) of The Times, at a time when it had suffered
heavy financial losses over the proceedings connected with the
Parnell Commission (see 20.858). From that date he devoted
all his masterful energies to the journal he served. When The
Times Publishing Co. was formed in 1908, and the financial
control passed from the Walter family to Lord Northcliffe, he
became managing director. He died suddenly whilst at work
in The Times offices April 5 1911.
BELL, GERTRUDE MARGARET LOWTHIAN (1868- ),
English traveller and geographer, was born at Washington,
Durham, July 14 1868, the eldest daughter of Sir T. Hugh
Bell, Bart. She was educated at Queen's College, London, and
Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, where she graduated first class in
the final school of modern history in 1888. She travelled exten-
sively in the Near East, making a specially adventurous journey
across northern Arabia in 1913-4 over a practically unknown
route, whereby she obtained a knowledge of the country which
BELLEW BENCKENDORFF
447
proved of great value to the British Government when informa-
tion concerning routes was required for the advance of the
British army into Palestine during the World War. In 1914-5
she was in control of a special department of the British
Red Cross, occupied in trying to trace soldiers reported as
" missing." From 1916-7 she was attached to the Admiralty
Intelligence Office in Cairo. In 1917 she went with the mili-
tary authorities to Basra and followed the army up to Bag-
dad, where she subsequently acted as assistant political officer,
the first woman to occupy so important an administrative post.
In 1918 she received the founder's medal of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society.
Amongst her publications are: Poems from the Divan of Hafiz
(translations, 1897); The Desert and the Sown (1907); The Thou-
sand and One Churches (with Sir W. M. Ramsay, 1909); Palace and
Mosque at Ukhaider (1914). She is also the author of the Review
of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia, issued as a White Book
by the India Office, Dec. 1920.
BELLEW, HAROLD KYRLE (1855-1911), English actor, was
born in Lanes, in 1855. He first appeared on the stage in
Australia in 1874, afterwards coming to London and acting for
two years with Irving at the Lyceum from 1878 to 1880. He
had the reputation of being the handsomest man on the con-
temporary stage. In 1888 he joined Mrs. Brown-Potter in a
tour round the world, and for the last ten years of his life played
romantic and modern comedy parts in the United States. He
died at Salt Lake City, Utah, Nov. i 1911.
BELLOC, HILAIRE (1870- ), British man of letters, was
born near Versailles July 27 1870. His father was a Frenchman;
his mother, an Englishwoman whose maiden name was Bessie
Rayner Parkes, took an active share at an early date in the
woman-suffrage movement (see 28.787). Educated at Edgbas-
ton, he served as a driver in the 8th Regiment of French ar-
tillery before proceeding to Balliol College, Oxford. At Ox-
ford he was prominent both in his schools and at the Union,
and soon became known as a clever writer and speaker. He sat
in the House of Commons for Salford from 1906 to 1910 as a
Liberal. His very numerous writings include verse, children's
books, essays, biography and fiction, as well as military history.
Amongst them may be mentioned Danton (1899); Robespierre
(1901); The Path to Rome (1902); Esto Perpetua (1906); Cau-
tionary Tales (1907); Mr. Clutlerbuck's Election (1908); A
Change in the Cabinet (1909); Marie Antoinette (1910) and A
General Sketch of the European War (1915-6).
His sister, MARIE ADELAIDE BELLOC-LOWNDES (b. 1868),
who in 1896 married Frederick Sawrey Lowndes, a member of
the staff of The Times, also became well-known as the author
of numerous novels and striking short stories, including The
Pulse of Life (1907); The Uttermost Farthing (1908); Studies in
Wives (1909); The Chink in the Armour (1.912); The Lodger
(1913), etc. Dramatized versions of the last two, by H. A.
Vachell, were played in London as The House of Peril (1919)
and Who is He? (1915). She published besides a biography of
Charlotte Elizabeth, Princess Palatine (1889) and Told in
Gallant Deeds, a history of the World War for children (1914).
BELOW, FRITZ VON (1853-1918), German general, was born
Nov. 23 1853 at Danzig. He took part in the war of 1870-1
as a young officer. In 1912 he was appointed to the
command of the XXI. Army Corps. In this capacity he
fought with the VI. Army on the western front at the begin-
ning of the World War, but his corps was transferred in 1915 to
the eastern front. In 1916 he was chief in command of the
I. Army, which fought with success in Nov. 1916 on the
Somme. He died in a field hospital on the western front in
Nov. 1918.
BELOW, OTTO VON (1857- ), German general, was born
at Danzig June 18 1857. At the beginning of the World
War he was in command of the 2nd Infantry Div. at Inster-
burg in East Prussia. He was first of all promoted to the com-
mand of the I. Reserve Corps, and in this capacity took part
in the battles against the Russian army of the Narev which
resulted in the almost complete destruction of that army. He
was then appointed to the chief command of the VIII. Army
which bore an essential part in the victory over the Russian
X. Army at the battles of the Masurian Lakes (Feb. 7-15
1915). In May 1915 he was placed in chief command of the
German Niemen army and pressed forward with it in Courland
(Kurland) and Lithuania as far as the southern reaches of the
Dvina. In the autumn of 1916 he received the command of the
German army group in Macedonia and in the autumn of 1917
was placed in chief command of the XIV. Army, which was
fighting against Italy. In 1918 he led the XVII. Army, which
particularly distinguished itself in the battles around Arras.
After the war he was for a short period general in command of
the XVII. Army Corps at Danzig. He resigned in June 1919.
BENCKENDORFF, ALEXANDER, COUNT (1849-1917), Rus-
sian diplomat, was born in 1849. His family came from Livonia,
one of his ancestors having been burgomaster of Riga. His great-
uncle, who achieved great distinction in the Russian imperial
service in the reign of Nicholas I., becoming minister of the
police and being raised to the rank of a count, died childless,
the title and estates passing to his nephew, Count Alexander's
father. The mother of Count Alexander was a princess of Croy.
He was educated in a private school in Paris and passed his
baccalaureat in due course. He entered the diplomatic service
in 1869 and began as an attache in Florence, eventually in Rome.
He resigned in 1876 and lived nearly 10 years on his estates, in
St. Petersburg and abroad. He married in 1879 Countess Sophie
Schuvaloff. In 1886 he returned to diplomacy and served as
first secretary in Vienna under Prince Lobanoff-Rostovsky and
Count Kapnist. In 1897 he was appointed minister in Copen-
hagen and remained there until 1903. The Copenhagen post gave
him, as well as some other diplomats, an exceptional opportunity
of watching the principal moving powers of European politics
from a point of vantage, as the matrimonial alliances of the
Danish royal family occasionally brought together in a friendly
family circle the widow of Alexander III., Nicholas II. and the
Prince of Wales who was to become King Edward VII. In this
way Count Benckendorff received his initiation into the spirit of
an Anglo-Russian rapprochement even before it actually resulted
in an Entente. When he was promoted in 1903 ambassador to
the Court of St. James as a successor to Baron de Staal, the at-
mosphere seemed anything but favourable to such a rapproche-
ment. The rivalry of the two Powers in the East, cunningly
exploited by the Kaiser, was growing more and more acute.
When the storm had discharged itself in the Japanese war,
reasonable statesmen on both sides, King Edward, Lord Lans-
downe, and the Russian Foreign Minister Isvolsky, changed the
course both for Great Britain and for Russia, and thus frustrated
the plans of the terlius gaudens. Count Benckendorff had an
important share in bringing about this change. At a very critical
moment, when the Kaiser had actually mesmerized Nicholas II.
into the conclusion of a secret and personal convention at
Bjorko, which purported to aim at a defensive agreement, but
would have led by necessity to the disruption of the Franco-
Russian Alliance and to the vassalage of Russia in a continental
league against England, Count Benckendorff was invited to
Copenhagen and had an opportunity of serving as a confidential
intermediary between Russia and Great Britain. The Kaiser was
exceedingly angry and gave vent to his feelings in a letter to
" Nicky " : : " Like brigands in a wood he has sent Bencken-
dorff your Ambassador to Copenhagen on a clandestine mis-
sion to your mother, with the instructions to win her over to
influence you for a policy against me. The Foreign Office in
London knows about his journey, which is denied at your em-
bassy there." Tsar Nicholas's reply to this letter shows in what
esteem Count Benckendorff was held by his sovereign: " Ben-
ckendorff went by my permission as my mother invited him to
come as a friend of the Danish family. What sort of conversation
went on I certainly do not know. But I can resolutely assure
you that nothing can influence me except the interest, safeguard,
and honour of my country. Benckendorff is a loyal subject and a
real gentleman. I know he would never lend himself to any
false tricks, even if they came from the 'great mischief-maker
himself.'" The Bjorko intrigue evaporated without leaving any
448
BENEDICT XV. BENSON
tangible result, and the historic rapprochement between Great
Britain, France and Russia took its course. Benckendorff in
London was excellently placed to keep up and to develop this
policy. Liberal, courteous, a shrewd observer, loyal and watch-
ful in the cause of Russia, he maintained the best possible re-
lations with Lord Lansdowne and Sir Edward Grey, and became
a favourite at Court and in London society. He was peculiarly
adapted for the wise and skilful treatment of difficult problems in
the spirit of an international set, playing the great game of diplo-
macy with grace and honour. He had to face the dominant fact
of the situation the aggressive pressure of Germany at a time
when Russia was drifting into an internal crisis of the first magni-
tude and was unable to concentrate the material and moral forces
required in the coming conflict. Unpleasant retreats had to be
effected twice, before the Kaiser "in shining armour": the
first time after Aehrenthal's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina,
the second after the blocking of the Serbian advance towards the
Adriatic. Benckendorff was one of those who knew how to abide
his time, and he did not lose heart. There were greater trials in
store when the World War broke out at last. His younger son
fell in one of the first battles on the East Prussian front, and he
lived to see the collapse of the corrupt military organization of
Russia in the campaign of 1915. Fortunately for him, he did not
live to see the debacle of Russian society in 1917. He died Jan. n
1917- (P.Vi.)
BENEDICT XV. (GIACOMO DELLA CHIESA), Pope (1854- ),
was born at Genoa on Nov. 21 1854. In contrast to his immedi-
ate predecessor Pius X., who was of humble origin, and whose
ministerial experience was mainly pastoral, Benedict XV. was
descended from one of the most ancient of the noble families of
Italy, >and his work and training had been chiefly in the official
or diplomatic service of the Holy See. His ancestors in the Middle
Ages were enrolled in the patricians of Genoa, while other branches
of his family followed the popes to Avignon in the I4th century,
and eventually their sons took service in the army of the king of
France, under the name of d'Eglise. His brother served as rear-
admiral in the Italian navy. .
Giacomo della Chiesa was educated in the seminary and at the
university of Genoa, where he took his degree as Doctor of Law
in 1875. Afterwards he went to Rome and studied for the priest-
hood in the Collegio Capranica from which he passed to the
Accademia dei nobili Ecclesiastici, the usual training school for
those who devote themselves to the " camera " or diplomatic
service of the Vatican. Here he became the friend and favourite of
Cardinal Rampolla who, on being sent in 1883 as papal nuncio
to Madrid, took Mgr. della Chiesa with him as his private
secretary. He remained in Spain four years, and in 1887, when
Leo XIII. recalled Cardinal Rampolla to make him his secretary
of state, Mgr. della Chiesa returned to Rome in the suite of his
patron, and was given the post of minutante in his department.
In this, his work was the summarizing and inditing of the official
letters and dispatches of the Holy See, combined with the func-
tions of confidential secretary. As he discharged these duties for
13 years, he had a full opportunity of acquiring a unique knowl-
edge of the international relations of the Church throughout the
world. In 1903, when Cardinal Merry del Val succeeded Cardinal
Rampolla as secretary of state, Mgr. della Chiesa was retained in
his post. On Dec. 16 1907, Pius X. appointed him Archbishop
of Bologna, and on May 25 1914 raised him to the dignity of
cardinal. The outbreak of the World War in Aug. of that year,
and the death of Pius X. a few weeks later, found him in the
midst of the pastoral duties of his great diocese. At this time,
as Cardinal-Archbishop of Bologna, he delivered a remarkable
address on the attitude and duty of the Church during the war,
and strongly emphasized the paramount importance of the
Holy See observing strict neutrality, not of indifference, but of
impartiality, while leaving nothing undone to restore peace and
good-will and to mitigate suffering. The address caused a deep
impression, and it was no doubt much in the minds of the car-
dinals when they assembled in conclave for the election of a new
pope on the last day of Aug. 1914. On Sept. 3, after 10 scru-
tinies or votings, Cardinal della Chiesa was elected by a large
majority, and was proclaimed from the balcony of St. Peter's
as Benedict XV.
BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN (1858-1921), American classical
scholar (see 3.740), died May 2 1921 at Ithaca, N.Y. His later
publications include Syntax of Early Latin (two vols., 1910, 1914) ;
New Latin Composition (1912) and Horace's Odes and Epodes
(1914, in the Loeb Classical Library).
BENNETT, [ENOCH] ARNOLD (1867- ), English novelist
and playwright, was born in the Potteries district, Staffs., May
27 1867. Educated at Newcastle-under-Lyme, he was in-
tended for the law, but abandoned it in 1893 for journalism.
He was assistant-editor and then editor of the periodical
Woman, but in 1900 gave up journalism and became a prolific
writer of books, especially novels illustrating the life of his
native district, early examples of which were Anna of the Five
Towns (1902) and The Grim Smile of the Five Towns (1907).
In 1908 he established his reputation as a novelist with The
Old Wives' Tale, followed by the series Clayhanger (1910); Hilda
Lessways (1911) and, much later, The Roll Call (1919). But he
also adventured into other genres of fiction, sensational, humor-
ous and ironical, of which The Grand Babylon Hotel (1902);
Sacred and Profane Love (1905, dramatized 1919); Buried Alive
(1908); The Card (1911); The Regent (1913); The Lion's
Share (1916) and The Pretty Lady (1918) are examples. His
plays, especially The Great Adventure (dramatized in 1913 from
the novel Buried Alive); What the Public Wants (1909); The
Honeymoon (1911); Milestones (with Edward Knoblock, 1912)
and The Title (1918) showed him a master of modern comedy;
and he also produced in Judith (1919), a modernized version of
the biblical story. In 1920 he published Our Women, a series of
essays on modern feminine types and feminist problems.
BENNETT, JAMES GORDON (1841-1918), American news-
paper proprietor (see 3.741), died May 14 1918, in Paris,
whence he had long directed the policies of the New York
Herald. In his will he provided for the establishment of " The
James Gordon Bennett Memorial Home for New York Jour-
nalists " in memory oWiis father, the founder of the New York
Herald.
BENSON, ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER (1862- ), English
man of letters (see 3.745), was in 1915 elected master of Magda-
lene College, Cambridge. Among his recent books are Ruskin:
a Study in Personality (1911) and biographies of his brother
Hugh: Memoirs of a Brother (1915) and of his sister Life and
Letters of Maggie Benson (1917), besides various volumes of
essays and prose sketches.
His younger brother, EDWARD FREDERICK BENSON (1867-
), published after 1910 a large number of novels, amongst
which may be mentioned Thorley Weir (1913); Dodo the Sec-
ond (1914); David Blaize (1916); Mr. Teddy (1917); The Coun-
tess of Lowndes Square (1920). He also wrote a one-act comedy,
Dinner for Eight, which was successfully produced at the
Ambassadors' theatre, London, in March 1915.
The youngest brother, ROBERT HUGH BENSON (1871-1914),
died at Salford Oct. 19 1914. In 1911 he was appointed pri-
vate chamberlain to Pope Pius X. His later books include
The Dawn of All (1911), a curious forecast of England under
Catholic government; Come Rack! Come Rope! (1912); An
Average Man (1913) and Initiation (1914).
BENSON, SIR FRANCIS ROBERT (1858- ), English actor,
(see 3.745), was knighted in 1916. During the World War he
served for over two years as an orderly in a canteen managed
by Lady Benson, first near Belfort and later at St. Just and near
Senlis. In 1918 he was attached as an ambulance driver to
various French regiments engaged in the Somme and Aisne
campaign, and he received the Croix de Guerre on the battle-
field near Oudenarde.
BENSON, WILLIAM SHEPHERD (1855- ), American na-
val officer, was born at Macon, Ga., Sept. 25 1855. He gradu-
ated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1877, and after various
promotions became captain in 1909 and rear-admiral in 1915.
He had been commandant of the Philadelphia Navy Yard
two years when, in 1915, he was appointed chief of naval
BENTLEY BERCHTOLD
449
operations. He was a member of the commission appointed to
confer with the Allied Powers in 1917, naval representative
in drawing up terms of the Armistice, and naval adviser
to the American Peace Commission. He was retired auto-
matically in 1919 and made admiral for life.
BENTLEY, JOHN FRANCIS (1839-1902), English architect,
was born at Doncaster in 1839, and commenced his career as
an engineer, later passing three years in a builder's office, a
course of practical training the benefits of which are evident
throughout his work. He subsequently entered the office of
Henry Glutton whose practice was very largely in an ecclesias-
tical direction, and where young Bentley's bias towards that
French Gothic treatment of design, by which his earlier work
was distinguished, found support and encouragement. Estab-
lished on his own account in 1862, commissions flowed in for
work not only of an architectural nature but also giving scope
for his talent in designing for the subsidiary arts, such as stained
glass, goldsmith's work, embroidery and the like. His earliest
important undertaking was the enlargement and decorative
treatment of St. Frajicis' church, Netting Hill, followed by
other ecclesiastical work in London and the country, in which
he shows an increasing tendency towards a more English form
of expression in his design. The beautiful seminary of St.
Thomas at Hammersmith, noteworthy not only for its archi-
tectural treatment but, as usual with Bentley, for a carefully
conceived and thought-out plan, was followed by St. John's
school at Beaumont, one of the best examples of his power to
deal with design based on English Renaissance of the iyth cen-
tury. For many years he was occupied in the completion of
Carlton Towers, the seat of Lord Beaumont, left unfinished on
the death of E. W. Pugin. On the decorative work of this fine
building he spent during the 15 years he was engaged on it an
immense amount of thought and invention, and with marked
success. A very excellent example of Bentley's skill in adapting
mediaeval ideals to the circumstances of our times, while yet
infusing them with an individuality that lifts them above the
level of sheer copyism, is to be found in Holy Rood church,
built by him 1892, in which, as regards the interior, he gave
free rein to his sense of colour as a final complement of his
design.
It was after 30 years of strenuous work at his art, and in his
56th year that Bentley his claims strongly supported by the
most eminent of his fellow architects was appointed by Car-
dinal Vaughan as architect of the proposed Roman Catholic
cathedral in Westminster, his unremitting and enthusiastic
labour upon which occupied the remainder of his life. Already,
before his selection by the authorities, it had been decided that
for the new building it would be far from desirable to adopt
Gothic principles and traditions. The principal factor in com-
ing to this conclusion was the obvious danger of an unpleasant
competition, both as regards size and aesthetic treatment, with
the closely neighbouring Westminster Abbey. To equip himself
thoroughly for dealing with the problem in terms of the Byzan-
tine style settled upon, Bentley determined, as a preliminary,
to study his subject at first hand in Italy and Constantinople,
and in 1894 he spent several months in northern Italy and
Rome with this end in view. From a series of sketch plans pre-
pared on his return was gradually evolved that adopted for the
cathedral as now built, a masterly treatment of a difficult prob-
lem. The exterior dimensions of the building are 360 ft. in
length by 156 ft. in width, the interior of the nave being 232 ft.
long, and 60 ft. wide. The three bays into which its length is
divided are covered with saucer-shaped domes 112 ft. in height,
and springing from enormous piers. The aisles, narrow, as being
used for processional purposes only, give on to the seven side-
chapels. The truly imposing character of the building was per-
haps more to be appreciated when its walls, piers and arches
were in their undecorated state, and full value was given to its
342 ft. of length, and to a vast nave higher and wider than any
in England. It was always intended that the whole of .the inside
wall and arch surface should be clothed with marble and mosaic,
and to no one could so sumptuous a manner of vesting his
building in rich apparel appeal more than to Bentley, and in no
hands could it have been placed with more hope of success.
There was, however, much difficulty in arriving at a scheme for
the comprehensive treatment of the whole ot the vast building,
which should be devotional and symbolic, and above all possess
a unity of conception. Bentley himself prepared a very thought-
ful and complete proposal, partly embodied in the mosaics so
far executed, but, unfortunately, only partly so.
In May 1898 he visited the United States to consult as to
the proposed cathedral at Brooklyn, and for this he prepared a
design, in which he, this time, reverted to Gothic, and which he
left incomplete at his death. He died after seeing all but carried
into effect and full realization his dream of a church building
which should in a grand manner show forth all of the beauty
and holiness of that religion to which he had as a young man
given himself, and which was throughout his life, in all the work
of his genius, his inspiration. On the eve of being presented
with the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects
he died at Clapham March 2 1902.
See W. de l'H6pital, Westminster Cathedral and its Architect
(1920); T. J. Willson, " Memoir," Journal of R.I. B. A. (III. Series,
vol. ix). (C. H. To.)
BERCHTOLD VON UND ZU UNGARSCHITZ, LEOPOLD,
COUNT (1863- ), Austro-Hungarian statesman. The Berch-
tolds are a Moravian noble family whose patent of knighthood
and nobility of the empire dates from 1616. They became
counts in 1673, and acquired their Hungarian rights in 1751.
Count Leopold Berchtold, born April 18 1863, was employed
first in the Moravian Government, entered the service of the
Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office in 1893, and in 1894 was
attached to the Paris embassy. In 1903 he went as coun-
cillor of legation to St. Petersburg, and in Dec. 1906 was ap-
pointed ambassador there. With the Russian court and the
aristocratic society of St. Petersburg he maintained the best
relations, but failed entirely in his zealous efforts to accommo-
date the obviously increasing differences between Russian and
Austro-Hungarian policy. He took a leading part in the negotia-
tions preceding the crisis caused by the annexation of Bosnia-
Herzegovina, which aimed at securing common action of the
two powers in the Balkan question. It was at his chateau of
Buchlau, in Moravia, that the fateful conference took place
between Isvolski and Aehrenthal (Sept. 15 1908). At the
time of the strained relations between the Cabinets of St.
Petersburg and Vienna, which followed the annexation, and
under the shadow of the personal feud between the two
foreign ministers, the position of Berchtold at St. Peters-
burg was extremely difficult. For months together he had
to avoid all official intercourse with the Russian Foreign
Office; and it was not till the spring of 1909, when the violence
of the quarrel had abated, that he could resume his efforts to
improve the relations between the two states. His success was
only temporary; the tension, indeed, for a time relaxed; but
gradually it increased, and during the last months of his resi-
dence in St. Petersburg became extreme. In March 1911
Count Berchtold was recalled from Russia, and on Feb. 17
1912 he was, against his own will, appointed Aehrenthal's suc-
cessor as Foreign Minister.
His efforts were primarily directed towards securing the
position of Austria-Hungary in the Balkan Peninsula. He
wished to bind Bulgaria more closely to the Triple Alliance;
to strengthen the ties of the Habsburg Monarchy with Rumania
and Turkey; to foil the aspirations of Serbia for an extension of
territory. To the idea of solving the questions at issue with this
latter power with the sword he was at this time opposed, con-
templating a peaceful solution of the Balkan question by agree-
ment with Russia and the Western Powers. In this sense he
spoke at the first session of the Delegations in which he took
part as Foreign Minister. But the increasingly obvious efforts
of Russian statesmen .to weaken the influence of Austria-
Hungary in the Balkans, the aggressive activities of the Serbs,
and the ambiguous behaviour of Bulgaria forced him to change
his attitude, especially as he failed to receive from the Western
450
BERENGER BERLIN
Powers the support which he had sought from them. In
Oct. 1912, at a meeting at San Rossore, he came to certain
agreements with the Italian Foreign Minister, San Giuliano, of
which the objects were to secure the autonomy of Albania and
to counter Serbia's plan for an extension of her power in the
Adriatic coast -lands. The renewal of the Triple Alliance fol-
lowed at the beginning of December.
Meanwhile the struggle between Turkey and the Christian
nations of the Balkans had broken out. During the three Bal-
kan wars, fought between Oct. 1912 and Aug. 1913, Berchtold's
attitude was a weak one. He repeatedly took steps towards
active intervention, but drew back when the Entente Powers
used threats and the other members of the Triple Alliance
intervened with counsels of moderation in Vienna. His efforts
at the close of the third Balkan War to secure a revision of the
Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10 1913), which was unfavour-
able to Bulgaria, were as unsuccessful as his attempt to se-
cure an accommodation between Bulgaria and her rivals by
way of direct negotiation. The prestige of Austria-Hungary
in the Balkans noticeably declined. Serbia's endeavours to ex-
tend her power to the Adriatic, and to win recruits for the ideal
of Great Serbia among the kindred Slav races of Austria-Hungary,
became more and more evident and pressed for a decision. For
these reasons, at the conferences at the Ballplatz which fol-
lowed the murder of the heir to the throne, the Archduke
Francis Ferdinand, on June 28 1914, Berchtold maintained the
view that a definitive settlement with Serbia was essential,
even at the risk of war with Russia and France. He does not
seem at that time to have reckoned with the possibility of an ac-
tive participation of Great Britain on the side of the opponents
of the Triple Alliance.
After the outbreak of the World War he directed his efforts
to inducing Italy and Rumania to carry out their obligations
and to securing new allies for the Central Powers. These efforts
were for the most part unsuccessful. Turkey alone joined the
Central Powers. Rumania and Italy declared their neutrality;
even Bulgaria dragged out the negotiations, though Berchtold
offered great concessions in return for her active intervention
on the side of Austria-Hungary and Germany. Italy's demands
for compensation were indeed acknowledged in principle by
Berchtold, under pressure from Germany, but he embarked on
the negotiations with hesitation, and down to the day of his
resignation he refused to listen to any proposal for the cession
of territory which had long been under Austrian rule. In the
course of the war Berchtold came into conflict with German
statesmen and the German Supreme Army Command. He thought
that Germany did not give sufficient support to her ally in the
severe struggle against the superior strength of Russia, and
protested strongly against the readiness with which Germany
had agreed to the territorial and other demands of Rumania
and Italy. The reasons of his fall, which took place on Jan. 13
1915, are still obscure, but it is certain that the attitude of
Stephen Tisza and his adherents, from the autumn of 1914, in
refusing to cooperate with him was a contributory cause. In
March 1916 Berchtold was appointed Obersthofmeister (Lord
High Steward) to the heir to the throne, Charles Francis Joseph,
whom he subsequently served as Oberkammerer (Lord High
Chamberlain). After the fall of the dynasty he took no part
in politics. (A. F. PR.)
BERENGER, RENE (1830-1915), French lawyer and poli-
tician (see 3.769), died Aug. 29 1915.
BERESFORD, CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER BERES-
FORD, IST BARON (1846-1919), British admiral (see 3.770),
who was raised to the peerage in 1916, died in London Sept.
6 1919.
BERGSON, HENRI LOUIS (1859- ), French philosopher,
was born in Paris Oct. 18 1859. Educated at the Lycee Corot,
and the Ecole Normale he was successively professor of phi-
losophy at the Lycee d'Angers 1881-3, at the Lycee de Cler-
mont 1883-8, at the College Rollin 1888-9, at the Lycee Henry
IV. 1880-97, at the Ecole Normale Superieure 1897-1900
and at the College de France 1900-21. In 1912 he was Gif-
ford lecturer at Edinburgh. Of the three works which con-
stitute together the full exposition of his interpretation of ex-
perience, Les Donnees Immediate! de la Conscience was pub-
lished in 1889, Matiere et Memoire in 1896, and L' 'Evolution
Creatrice in 1907. The English translations (Time and Free
Will, Matter and Memory and Creative Evolution) all belong
to 1910-1. He had published also Le Rire (1900). With the
exception of a pamphlet, La Significance de la Guerre (1915),
nothing more appeared until L'Energie Spirituelle (1919), with
Eng. trans. Mind-Energy (1920).
For a discussion of his work, see PHILOSOPHY.
BERLIN (see 3.785). Since 1910 the city of Berlin (pop.,
Greater Berlin 1919 census, 1,902,509; 1910 census 2,071,257)
has undergone a very considerable development in respect of
the form of its municipal organization. The rapid growth of
the suburbs, which were independent communities, necessitated
the adoption of certain main lines of procedure, applicable
both to them and to Berlin, in order to prevent conflicting
action on the part of the authorities on one side and the other.
This led, in 1911, to the creation of Greater Berlin as, in the
first instance, an association of the city with the more important
outlying districts for special objects. It embraced the city of
Berlin and the towns of Charlottenburg, Schoneberg, Neukolln,
Wilmersdorf, Lichtenberg and the administrative circles of
Teltow and Niederbarnim. Its objects were to institute a com-
mon control of streets, roadways and the elevated railway,
also of building and street alignment plans, the uniform co-
ordination of police regulations and the acquisition of large tracts
of forest and of land for building. This special union came into
force on April i 1912. It soon became manifest, however,
that beyond cooperation for special purposes, a further co-
ordination of the administrations of these places was requisite.
It was only in the year 1920 that it was possible, after long
negotiations, to form a new municipality of Berlin, embracing
all the suburbs under a single united administration. A law to
this effect was carried Jhrough the Prussian Constituent As-
sembly on April 27 1920 and was put into force on Oct. i of
the same year. This law effected the centralization of Berlin
and all its suburbs into one uniform municipal region (Sladt-
bezirk), but nevertheless left large powers of local self-adminis-
tration to the individual communes (Gemeinden) .
On May 15 1912 the former Secretary of State for the Treasury
of the Empire, Wermuth, was elected chief burgomaster of Berlin in
place of Kirschner, who had resigned. Under his administration,
which lasted till Nov. 25 1920, the city experienced notable de-
velopments. The first municipal crematorium was opened in 1912.
In June 1914 the ship canal uniting Berlin with Stettin was inau-
gurated. In the same year the city acquired the estate of Lanke, thus
securing extremely valuable land for settlement purposes. In Oct.
1915 the city purchased the Berlin Electrical Works for 128 million
marks (pre-war value about 6,400,000). The years of the war
necessitated the vigorous intervention of the municipal administra-
tion in order to keep the population supplied with food and other
necessaries of life. A special commission for food supplies was
appointed as early as 1914. In 1915 the supply of meat, vegetables,
milk, etc., by the municipality was instituted. The management of
all these supplies necessitated the appointment of a host of officials.
The establishment of the War Departments of the empire and of
Prussia as well as of the city thus entailed an accession of population
which by 1917 had caused a great dearth of house accommodation,
a scarcity which constantly increased up to 1921, so that special
offices for enabling the public to obtain dwellings had to be estab-
lished under municipal supervision. Even in 1921 it was almost
impossible to find a flat. The general necessities arising out of the
war demanded vast expenditure on the part of the city, so that its
financial position had by 1921 become extremely unfavourable,
while municipal taxation had been about trebled.
The city of Berlin suffered severely from the effects of the rev-
olution of Nov. 9 1918. The revolution itself was practically
bloodless, so far as Berlin was concerned, although the stormy sit-
tings of the Workmen's and Soldiers' Councils, held in the Reichstag
building, occasionally led to minor collisions. It was not till Christ-
mas 1918 that serious fighting took place, when the Independent
Socialist party, supported by the Sailors' Division, tried to seize
power. After several days of sanguinary combats in the neighbour-
hood of the castle and the royal stables, where the sailors had estab-
lished themselves, the division was ultimately compelled to sur-
render. Early in March 1919 the Spartacist insurrection broke out;
it began in the suburb of Lichtenberg and spread over the whole
BERNHARDI BERTHELOT
45i
centre of the city. The number of those who were killed in the street
fighting was 1,175. The last victims of the revolution met their
death on Jan. 13 1920 when a mass of people incited by Spartacist
propaganda in connexion with the parliamentary debates on the
Industrial Councils bill (Betriebsrategesetz), attempted to storm the
Reichstag building. There were 42 killed and 105 wounded. The
Kapp Putsch in March of the same year was likewise attended by
some casualties, but the decisive episode was a general strike im-
posed by the Socialist parties and the working-class leaders in
order to put an end to Kapp's usurpation of power.
As a result of the assimilation of the municipal to the parliamen-
tary franchise a large Left majority composed of Social Democrats,
Independent Socialists and Communists was elected to the Municipal
Council of Greater Berlin. The Berlin school system was presently
recast in the sense of the extreme secularists, a change which the
non-Socialist parties were in 1921 still vigorously combating. The
workmen employed by the municipality and the tramwaymen con-
stantly demanded higher wages, which even the extreme Left ma-
jority in the Council were unable to concede, so that strikes in the
electricity and gas works and cessation of work on the tramway lines
were of frequent occurrence. Gradually, however, the economic
life of Berlin seemed by 1921 to be entering upon a period of greater
regularity. Chief Burgomaster Wermuth was succeeded in Nov. 1920
by the former city treasurer, Boss. (C. K.*)
BERNHARDI, FRIEDRICH VON (1849- ), German mili-
tary leader and writer, was born Nov. 22 1849 at St. Petersburg.
He took part in the war of 1870-1 as a young officer in the
I4th Hussars. When the German troops entered Paris in
March 1871 he was the first German to ride into the city.
From 1891 to 1894 he was German military attache at
Berne and was subsequently head of the military history de-
partment of the Grand General Staff in Berlin. He was ap-
pointed general in command of the VII. Army Corps at Miins-
ter in Westphalia in 1907, but retired two years later and
busied himself as a military writer. Wide-spread attention was
excited by the memoirs of his father, the diplomatist and his-
torian, Theodor von Bernhardi, which he published, and still
more by his celebrated book Germany and the Next War which
appeared in 1912. On the outbreak of war in 1914 he was again
placed at the head of an army corps and fought with success
first on the Stochod, where he stormed the bridgehead of Tsa-
recze and afterwards on the western front, in particular at
Armentieres.
BERNHARDT, SARAH [RosiNE BERNARD] (1845- ),
French actress (see 3.801), made a specially successful tour in
America in 1906. In 1909 she played Jeanne d'Arc in Paris.
In 1910 she again toured in America. In 1913 she was given the
Cross of the Legion of Honour. Though lame as the result of an
operation, she appeared in Nov. 1920 in Paris in a new play
Daniel, by Louis Verneuil, and repeated this in London in
April 1921.
BERNSTEIN, EDUARD (1850- ), German Social-Demo-
cratic politician and writer, was born in Berlin Jan. 6 1850.
From 1866 to 1878 he was employed in banks. Since 1872 he
has been an active advocate and expounder of socialism. In
1878 he acted as private secretary to K. Hochberg, editor of
the socialistic review Zukunft. From 1881 to 1890 he was
on the editorial staff of the Social-Democrat, a leading organ
of the German Social-Democratic party, which was published
at Zurich because, owing to the anti-socialistic legislation,
free expression for its views could not be found in Germany.
He was expelled in 1888 and migrated to London, where he
lived in intimate intercourse with Friedrich Engels and other
followers of Karl Marx. He returned to\Germany in 1901 and
was elected deputy to the Reichstag for Breslau, a seat
which he continued to hold till 1907. His numerous published
works include: Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die
Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie (1899); Die Kommunistischen
und Demokratisch-Sozialistischen Stromungen in England wah-
rend des iften J ahrhnnderls (1895); Zur Geschichte und Theorie
des Sozialismus (1900); Ferdinand Lassalle und seine Bedeutung
fiir die Arbeiterklasse (1904); Sozialismus uiid Demokratie in der
grossen Englischen Revolution (1908) and an edition of Lassalle's
speeches and writings with a biographical introduction (3 vols.,
1892-3), etc. In these he dealt principally with the theo-
retical and historical aspects of socialism. In 1904-5 he
edited the monthly publication Dokumente des Sozialismus and
in 1904 the weekly Das Neue Montagsblatt. In the conflict
between the orthodox Marxists and the revisionists Bernstein
was one of the foremost champions of the latter. His differences
with Kautsky, the literary protagonist of the straitest sect of
the Marxians, were gradually healed after Bernstein, like
Kautsky, associated himself with the Independent Socialists
in 1915, and still more when both of them broke with the
extreme Independents, the self-styled Communists, who advo-
cated government by councils on the Moscow pattern and
the " dictatorship of the proletariat." Immediately after the
revolution Bernstein was appointed Secretary of State for
the Treasury, an office which he held till Jan. 1919. He had again
been a member of the Reichstag from 1912-8. Subsequently
he left the Independents and returned to the fold of the gov-
ernmental German Social-Democratic party.
BERNSTORFF, COUNT JOHANN HEINRICH VON (1862- ),
German diplomatist and politician, was born in London Nov.
14 1862, the son of the Prussian diplomatist Count Albrecht
von Bernstorff. He entered the diplomatic service in 1899,
was secretary of legation successively at Belgrade, Dresden,
St. Petersburg and Munich, and (1902-6) councillor of em-
bassy in London. He then went as consul-general to Cairo,
whence he proceeded as German ambassador in 1909 to Wash-
ington and remained there until America's declaration of war
against Germany in April 1917. He made great efforts to fa-
cilitate mediation by President Wilson, but he did not re-
ceive the support he expected from authoritative quarters in
Berlin. He himself has repudiated any active connection with
the criminal plots and intrigues which were conducted by Ger-
man agents, including the German military attache, Boy-Ed, in
America before the rupture of relations; he also maintains that
he entirely disapproved of the German foreign secretary,
Zimmermann's, monstrous proposals to Mexico. If so his posi-
tion must have been an exceedingly difficult and anomalous
one. On the American declaration of war he returned to Ger-
many and was sent as ambassador to Constantinople, where
he was employed until 1918. In various publications he has
endeavoured to prove that Germany, if she had followed the
proper policy, could have avoided war with America. This
statement of his views excited much controversy in his own
country. When the revolution broke out Bernstorff left the
diplomatic service, but has since taken an active part in parlia-
mentary politics as a member of the Democratic party in the
Reichstag, and has also maintained a close connexion with the
international press and with pacific post-war propaganda.
(C. K.)
BERTHELOT, HENRI MATHIAS (1861- ), French general,
a son of the chemist, Marcellin P. E. Berthelot (see 3.811), was
born at Feurs (Loire), Dec. 7 1861. At 20 years of age he entered
St. Cyr, and in 1883 was appointed a sub-lieutenant in the ist
Regt. of Zouaves. Three years later he was promoted lieutenant.
In Nov. 1891 he was made a captain and was transferred to the
99th Inf. Regiment. In 1907 he became a lieutenant-colonel
and was posted to the 5 5th Inf. Regiment. He was then given
a staff appointment, being promoted colonel in June 1911. In
Dec. 1913 he was made a general of brigade. On the outbreak of
the World War he was appointed head of the French operations
staff at headquarters, and in this capacity he exercised a very
marked influence on the course of events in Aug. 1914, so much
so as to expose him later to the reproach of having been " the
irresponsible commander-in-chief " during the disastrous battle
of the Frontiers. In Nov. of the same year he was given command
of a division. In Aug. 1915 he became commander of the XXXII.
Army Corps, an appointment which he retained until Sept. 1916,
when he was made chief of the French military mission to Ru-
mania. Here his thoroughness was the principal factor in re-
vising the Rumanian army, and the fruits of his work appeared
in the campaign of 1917. In June 1917 he was made a grand
officer of the Legion of Honour. After a brief mission to the
United States he was, in July 1918, given command of the V.
Army. This army he commanded in the battles on the Maine
452
BERTHELOT BESNARD
and the Aisne, which initiated the final Allied offensives. Later,
he was sent on a mission to the Balkans. In Oct. 1919 he was
made governor of Metz.
BERTHELOT, PHILIPPE JOSEPH LOUIS (1866- ), French
diplomat, was born Oct. 9 1866, a son of Marcellin Berthelot,
the famous chemist and politician (see 3.811). After having
passed through the regular stages of a diplomatic career, he
was sent on a mission to the Far East in 1902, and returned to
the Foreign Office to mount the hierarchical steps of pro-
motion, many of which, by reason of his appointment as chcfde
cabinet, he was able to take at a single bound. He acted as
Briand's righthand man throughout his term of office as Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs and prime minister; became Clemenceau's
trusted adviser during the World War and the Peace Confer-
ence, and succeeded Jules Cambon, with the rank of an ambas-
sador, as general secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
BERTIE, FRANCIS LEVESON BERTIE, IST VISCOUNT (1844-
1919), English diplomatist, was born at Wytham Abbey, Oxon.,
Aug. 17 1844, the second son of the 6th Earl of Abingdon.
He was educated at Eton, and in 1863 entered the Foreign
Office. In 1874 he married the daughter of the ist Earl Cowley.
He was attached to the special embassy to Berlin in 1878,
and in 1881 was secretary to the Duke of Fife's mission to
invest the King of Saxony with the Garter. In 1894 he
became assistant Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, a post
which he retained till 1903. He was then appointed British
ambassador to Italy, but remained in Rome for only a year,
being appointed in 1905 ambassador to France. The Anglo-
French agreement had been signed in 1904, and the new ambas-
sador's personal popularity was most successful in strength-
ening the ties thus formed between England and France. On
the outbreak of war in 1914 Sir Francis Bertie's position became
one of great importance and responsibility, and he was untiring
in his efforts towards establishing the most complete under-
standing between England and France. He retired in 1918.
Bertie had been made K.C.B. in 1902, G.C.V.O. and privy coun-
cillor in 1903, G.C.M.G. in 1904, and G.C.B. in 1908. He was
raised to the peerage on his retirement with the title of Vis-
count Bertie of Thame. He died in London Sept. 27 1919
and was succeeded by his son, Vere Frederick Bertie (b. 1878).
BERTILLON, ALPHONSE (1853-1914), French anthropom-
etrist (see 3.812), died in Paris Feb. 13 1914.
BERTOLINI, PIETRO (1853-1920), Italian statesman, was
born at Montebelluna in 1853. He began his career as a barris-
ter and student of economic and administrative questions, and
entered parliament in 1891 as member for his native town. Two
years later he became Under-Secretary for Finance in the Crispi
Cabinet. He was afterwards Under-Secretary at the Ministry of
the Interior in the Pelloux Cabinet (1898-1900), in which he was,
so to speak, the representative of Baron Sonnino's party. On
the fall of Gen. Pelloux he hoped to return to office in a future
Sonnino ministry; but as the latter seemed ever less likely to
become a reality, Bertolini lost patience and joined Sig. Gio-
litti. His conduct in abandoning his old chief was much criti-
cised at the time, but his new patron chose him as Minister
of Public Works in the Cabinet of 1907. He proved a capable
administrator, but his qualities were taxed to the utmost by
the terrible earthquake at Messina and Reggio in 1908. When
Giolitti returned to power in 1911 he did not at first offer an
appointment to Bertolini, but in the autumn of 1912 he entrusted
him with the newly constituted Ministry of the Colonies. He
failed, however, to show any exceptional qualifications for that
position, and did little more than introduce some of the less
desirable features of the Italian bureaucratic system into the
new African possessions; the continued resistance of the Arabs
in Libya was generally regarded as largely due to Bertolini's
administrative errors. He was rapporteur for the extended
suffrage bill, which first came into force with the general elec-
tions of 1913; the measure had been introduced to please the
demagogic spirit which Giolitti wished to conciliate, but Ber-
tolini must be given credit for the ingeniousness of the machin-
ery which he devised for enabling illiterates to vote and for
avoiding electoral corruption as far as possible. On the out-
break of the World War Bertolini, as a faithful Giolittian, was
an uncompromising neutralist, and came in for much obloquy
in consequence. Throughout the war he remained in retire-
ment, and failed to be reflected in 1919. Sig. Nitti appointed
him senator and president of the Italian delegation on the Repara-
tions Commission. He was the author of several valuable works
on political and eonomic questions, notably a volume on local
government in England. He died at Turin, Nov. 28 1920.
BESANT, ANNIE (1847- ), English theosophist, was born
in London Oct. i 1847, the daughter of William Page Wood.
She married in 1867 the Rev. Frank Besant (d. 1917), after-
wards vicar of Sibsey, Lines., but obtained a separation
from her husband in 1873. She had become an ardent free-
thinker, and shortly afterwards she was prosecuted and con-
victed, together with Charles Bradlaugh (see 4.372), for
publishing " blasphemous " literature. From 1874 to 1888
she worked in close association with Bradlaugh both in politics
and in free-thought propaganda, as a lecturer and a writer of
pamphlets over the signature of " Ajax." Her increasing ten-
dency towards socialism of the more revolutionary type occa-
sioned a divergence between them after 1885, which was com-
pleted in 1889 by her adhesion to the Theosophical Society.
She became a devoted pupil of Mme. Blavatsky (see 4.48),
founded schools at Benares, and was elected president of the
Theosophical Society in 1007. In later years her activities again
assumed a political cast. She founded the Indian Home Rule
League and became its president in 1916, and in 1917 she was
president of the Indian National Congress. In addition to her
numerous free-thought pamphlets and a large number of later
works on theosophy, she published her Autobiography in 1893,
The Religious Problem in India (1902) and other books.
BESELER, HANS VON (1850- ), Prussian general and
governor of Poland during the German occupation, was born
April 27 1850 at Greifswald. He was one of those generals who,
after having been placed ugpn the retired list, were recalled in
1914 to assume important commands. He conducted the siege
of Antwerp, which he occupied on Oct. 9 1914. In 1915 he was
employed on the eastern front, and on Aug. 19 of that year took
Novogeorgievsk. From Aug. 27 1915 to Nov. 1918 he was
German governor-general of Poland at Warsaw, in which capacity
he endeavoured with diminishing success to organize a form of
Polish national government and representation under German
auspices, as also to form a Polish army under German control.
The Armistice and the German Revolution put an end to the
complicated attempts of Beseler and the Austrians to arrive
at a modus vivcndi with regard to Poland's political and territorial
destiny. The revolutionary Soldiers' Councils asserted them-
selves, and the German governor-general with the German troops
of occupation left the country.
BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT (1849- ), French painter, was
born in Paris in 1849 and studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts,
winning the Prix de Rome in 1874. Until about 1880 he fol-
lowed the academic tradition, but then broke away completely,
and devoted himself to the study of colour and light as con-
ceived by the impressionists. The naturalism of this group never
appealed to his imagination, but he applied their technical
method adapted to meet more complicated problems of light,
such as a union of twilight and artificial light to ideological and
decorative works on a darge scale towards which his residence in
Rome had strongly inclined him. Such are his decorations at
the Sorbonne, the Ecole de Pharmacie, the Salle des Sciences at
the Hotel de Ville, the mairie of the first arrondissement, the
Theatre Francais, the Petit Palais, and the chapel of Berck
hospital, for which he painted twelve " Stations of the Cross."
A large panel, " Peace by Arbitration," was completed seven
days before the outbreak of war in 1914. A great virtuoso, he
has handled with equal facility water-colour, pastel, oil-painting
and etching. Partly under the influence of Gainsborough and
Reynolds, whom he studied during a three-years stay in Eng-
land, he has applied his methods to a brilliant series of portraits,
especially of women. Notable among these are the " Portrait
BETHAM-EDWARDS BETHMANN HOLLWEG
453
de Theatre " (Mme. Rejane), and " Mme. Roger Jourdain."
Recent work includes " Cardinal Mercier " (1917) and " The
King and Queen of Belgium " (1919). His analysis and treat-
ment of light is well seen in " La Femme qui se chauffe "
in the Luxembourg, Paris, one of a large group of nude studies
of which a recent example is " Une Nymphe au bord de la mer ";
and in the work produced during and after a visit to India in
1911. His landscape work is represented by " L'ile heureuse,"
and " Un Ruisseau dans la Montagne " (1920). A symbolist in
his decorative work, Besnard's frank delight in the external
world and his " chic " luminous technique bring him close to
the 18th-century French painters. A foundation member of the
Societe Nationale des Beaux-Arts in 1890, in 1913 he became
a member of the Institute and commander of the Legion of
Honour. He has succeeded Carolus Duran as director of the
French Academy in Rome.
See also C. Mauclair, Paul Albert Besnard (1914); G. Mourey,
Albert Besnard (1916). (W. G. C.)
BETHAM-EDWARDS, MATILDA (1836-1919), British author,
was born at Westerfield, Ipswich, March 4 1836. She studied
French and German abroad and after some school-teach-
ing in London, she settled down with her sister in Suffolk
to manage the farm which had belonged to her father. Not
content, however, with purely rural occupations, she contrib-
uted from time to time to Household Words, having the advan-
tage at this time of the friendship of Charles Dickens and an
early association with Charles and Mary Lamb, friends of her
mother. On her sister's death she moved to London and wrote
a number of novels of French life based on her frequent visits to
France and her intimate knowledge of provincial French homes.
In this way she did much to promote a better understanding
between the two peoples. Her chief books are : The White House
by the Sea (1857); Anglo-French Reminiscences (1898); East of
Paris (1902); Home Life in France (1905); Literary Rambles in
France (^907) and the posthumously published Mid-Victorian
Memories (1919), which contains a personal sketch of its author
by Sarah Grand. She died at Hastings Jan. 4 1919.
BETHMANN HOLLWEG, THEOBALD VON (1856-1921), Chan-
cellor of the German Empire from July 1909 to July 1917, was
born Nov. 29 1856 at Hohenfinow, the family property near Ber-
lin, where he also died. He was descended from the Frankfurt
banking family of Bethmann, which attained great prosperity
in the i8th century, and a branch of which was founded by
his great-grandfather Johann Jakob Hollweg, who had mar-
ried a daughter of the house. The Chancellor's grandfather
was Moritz August von Bethmann Hollweg, a Bonn pro-
fessor of law, who was a leading member of the Prussian Diet
from 1849 to 1855 and was Minister of Education under the
Prince-Regent (afterwards William I.) from 1858 to 1862. It
was to the Liberal and West-German as well as the commercial
traditions of his family that Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg
probably owed his appointment to the chancellorship in 1909
in a time of domestic and financial crisis. He had at the same
time the qualification of a specifically Prussian career, having
risen through the regular legal and official stages of promotion
as Referendar, Assessor, Landrat, Government-President at
Bromberg and Chief President of the province of Branden-
burg. In 1905 he was appointed Prussian Minister of the
Interior and in 1907 Secretary of State for the Imperial Home
Office and Vice-president of the Prussian Ministry. At the time
of Bethmann Hollweg's appointment to the chancellorship in-
ternal affairs, under his predecessor Prince Billow, had reached
a deadlock in the Reichstag owing to the revolt of a section of
the Liberal- Conservative bloc against the proposal to establish
death duties as part of the reform of the finances of the empire.
The Catholic Centre, which had left the former parliamentary
coalition before the dissolution of the Reichstag by Prince
Billow in 1907, was once more in alliance with the Conserva-
tives, and the fiscal policy which these two parties had imposed
upon the Government and the country had alienated the com-
mercial classes and led to violent political conflicts. It was not
until the general elections of 1912 had transformed the situa-
tion by bringing a great accession to the strength of the mod-
erate National Liberals and the Left, especially the Social
Democrats, that the Government was able to reckon upon a
more amenable majority. In the interval Bethmann Hollweg
endeavoured to conciliate the Catholic Centre by a policy of
compromise in matters which had threatened to lead to a
renewal of the Ktilturkampf, such as the denunciation of the
Reformation in the Papal Encyclical of 1910 and the Catholic
demand for the modification of the Jesuit law. He secured the
final abrogation of this law under stress of war conditions in
April 1917. Bethmann Hollweg was likewise the sponsor of
the new constitution for Alsace-Lorraine, which in 1911 estab-
lished the government of that territory of the empire upon the
basis of popular representation in a territorial assembly and
admission, though without full state rights, to the Federal
Council. He was less successful with the vexed question of the
Prussian franchise, which in 1910 he attempted to solve by pro-
posing a direct system of election while retaining in a modified
form the local division of the electorate according to income-
tax assessment into three classes. His bill was ultimately re-
jected by the reactionary Chamber of Deputies. This question
was again to occupy him amid the stress of the war. Under the
impression produced by the Russian Revolution of March 1917
he was constrained to inspire the " Easter message " of the
Emperor as King of Prussia promising the abolition of the
three-class system after the war, a proclamation which was fol-
lowed in the same year by the edict of July n announcing
that a bill would at once be introduced to enact equal direct
and secret suffrage. This project of reform came too late to
reconcile the revolutionary elements in the Prussian state.
Bethmann Hollweg's political career ended immediately after
the July edict, and, although a bill was introduced in the fol-
lowing Nov. by his successor, Count Hertling, the opposition
of the Prussian Conservatives and other reactionary elements
prevented it from passing before the revolution. He was equally
unsuccessful in dealing with an outbreak of militarism in Nov.
1913 at Zabern in Alsace, where the population, exasperated
by the truculence of a young officer, was subjected to the arbi-
trary exercise of martial law by the colonel in command of the
garrison. Bethmann Hollweg's treatment of the incident satis-
fied neither the reactionaries nor the advanced parties, and,
for the first time in the history of the Reichstag, a vote of cen-
sure was passed upon the Chancellor.
The foreign policy of Bethmann Hollweg was characterized
by the indecision and half-heartedness which compromised his
action in home politics. He shared the ambition of the Emperor
and of the vast majority of his countrymen to set Germany at
the head of Europe and to establish her influence throughout the
world by the predominance of her commerce and industry and
by the ubiquitous activity of her diplomacy supported by her
preponderating military strength. In his speeches during the
war the declaration " we must secure from the military and the
political and also from the economic point of view the possi-
bility of our expansion " is characteristic and recurs in various
forms. In this sense he could truly have said " We could have
got all we wanted without war," i.e. by establishing Germany's
power in Europe, on the seas and beyond them in a way that
would make her unassailable whatever her policy and action
might be. What he could not realize was that the creation and
maintenance of vast armaments, combined with the aggressive
behaviour of those sections of German opinion which always
asserted their influence in public affairs and the truculent tone
of the Emperor's frequent public utterances, compelled Ger-
many's neighbours, including Great Britain, to concert measures
for meeting the imminent eventuality of active German and
Austro-Hungarian aggression. He maintained, like many of his
countrymen, that the Triple Entente was the arbitrary and
artificial creation of the personal policy of King Edward VII.,
acting in accord with the feelings of commercial and political
jealousy with which Germany's successes were thought to have
inspired the British people. He himself, however, had much to
endure before and during the war from the intrigues of the
454
BETHMANN HOLLWEG
military party, in particular from the hostility of the creator of
the German navy, Admiral von Tirpitz, who was once and
again put forward by the more aggressive chauvinists as their
candidate for the chancellorship. But Bethmann Hollweg him-
self did not see that the influence of that powerful section of
German opinion and its action in military and naval as in
foreign policy furnished ample justification for such measures
of precaution as the Western Powers and Russia concerted,
measures which, indeed, proved hardly adequate to confront
the first German onset in 1914.
The renewed conflict with France over Morocco in 1911, the
dispatch of the gunboat " Panther " to Agadir, the consequent
friction with Great Britain and the prolonged negotiations
which led to the mutually unsatisfactory Franco-German
Morocco agreement, mainly fell within the province of Beth-
mann Hollweg's able subordinate, Herr von Kiderlen-Waechter,
who at that time was Secretary of State at the Foreign Office.
Here, as on other occasions, the Chancellor was probably pacific
in his intentions, but in the means which were adopted to secure
Germany's objects he showed either lack of judgment or inabil-
ity to control his political and military subordinates.
In his book Bctrachtungen zum Weltkrieg (Reflections on the
World War), written in his retirement at Hohenfinow after the
collapse of Germany, he gives an account of the exchange of
views which took place between him and Lord Haldane during
the latter's visit to Berlin in Feb. 1912. This account ought
to be read in conjunction with Lord Haldane's own report of
his visit, 1 particularly with regard to the attempt of the two
statesmen to find a formula for a treaty of mutual assurance
calculated to allay apprehensions of war between Great Britain
and Germany. Bethmann Hollweg wished to obtain an engage-
ment from Great Britain to observe a benevolent neutrality in
the event of Germany's becoming " entangled in a war with
one or more other Powers," or, as he finally formulated it, " if
war should be forced upon Germany." His conception of a war
" forced upon Germany " was subsequently revealed by his
defence of Germany's declarations of war upon Russia and
France, accusing the one Power of having rendered war unavoid-
able by its precautionary measures of mobilization and the
other of having opened hostilities by air raids which never took
place. In the exchange of views regarding the German and
British naval programmes Lord Haldane received the impres-
sion that Bethmann Hollweg was pursuing a different policy
from that of Admiral Tirpitz, but that the latter had the sup-
port of a powerful and certainly active party in the country and
was able to get his way. Indeed, Bethmann Hollweg himself
says in his book that " when differences arose between the
Admiralty and the civilian leadership public opinion was almost
without exception on the side of the Admiralty." There were
from time to time evidences of a similar lack of continuous agree-
ment and coordination between the policy of the Chancellor
and that of the Secretaries of State in other departments, while
the views of the Emperor William II. himself were notoriously
liable to sudden and incalculable change. In a marginal note
on one of the diplomatic documents of July 1914 , the Emperor
contemptuously referred to Bethmann Hollweg as the " civilian
Chancellor," as if policy were the business of the generals. Yet
the Chancellor was in evident agreement with the Emperor's
view that it was legitimate for Austria, backed by Germany,
to alter the balance of power in the Balkans and to put an end
to the traditional and national Russian policy of protecting
the small Slav nations. Germany's "expansion" in the Near
East was similarly to be promoted and her supremacy at Con-
stantinople established at the expense of Russia's interests in a
sphere that was vital for the Russian Empire.
The interview between the British ambassador, Sir Edward
Goschen, and the German Chancellor, at their parting imme-
diately before the declaration of war in 1914, when the latter in
the course of " a harangue which lasted for about 20 minutes "
spoke of the international treaty guaranteeing Belgium's neu-
trality as a " scrap of paper " and asked whether the British
'See Before the War, by Visct. Haldane (1920).
Government had considered " at what price that compact would
have been kept," furnishes the crowning evidence of Bethmann
Hollweg's essentially Prussian conceptions of political morality.
" In the moment of anger the true man stood revealed. . . . To
break a treaty pledging the national honour seemed a natural
thing to him, if to keep it involved sacrifice and danger . . .
Herr von Bethmann Hollweg evidently thought that a plighted
promise need not be kept, if the engagement involves momen-
tous and unpleasant consequences. Not only does it throw the
most unpleasant light upon his own notions of honour, but it
makes the commentator ask whether it was possible to make
any permanent settlement with a nation whose leading states-
man obviously held the view that any treaty was only to be
kept so long as it was profitable to the signatory parties." 2
There is evidence that at the time when Germany broke the
peace Bethmann Hollweg was in a state of extreme nervous
tension, due probably as much to the sense of the moral quick-
sands on which Germany's case was based as to the collapse of
all his calculations regarding the effect of his policy upon the
other Great Powers. In the case of Great Britain his disillusion-
ment was complete and confessed. In the case of Russia he had
apparently hoped that a display of firmness would bring about
the same public renunciation of Russian policy which Germany
had been able to secure by the " bluff " of 1908-9 in con-
nexion with the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herze-
govina. The Austro-Hungarian ambassador Count Szogyeny's
report of his interview with William II. on July 5 is to the
effect that in the event of action against Serbia the Em-
peror Francis Joseph could rely upon Germany's support and
" he had not the slightest doubt that Bethmann Hollweg
would entirely agree with this view. . . . Russia's attitude would
be hostile, but William II. had for years been prepared for this
war, and, should it ever come to war between Austria and
Russia, we could be convinced that Germany with her cus-
tomary loyalty to the Alliance would stand at our side." In
subsequent conversation with Bethmann Hollweg Count Szo-
gyeny " ascertained that the Imperial Chancellor, just like
the Emperor William, regards immediate action against Serbia
as the most radical and best solution of our difficulties in the
Balkans. From the international standpoint he considers the
present moment more favourable than later and agrees that we
shall inform neither Rumania nor Italy [both allies] beforehand
of our eventual action."
Admiral von Tirpitz 3 testifies that upon his mind the ulti-
matum to Russia and the declaration of war produced the im-
pression of being ill-considered and due to a want of manage-
ment. "Bethmann Hollweg was throughout those days so
excited and irritable that it was impossible to converse with
him. I can still hear him as with uplifted arms he repeatedly
emphasized the absolute necessity of the declaration of war
and put an end to all further discussion." He told Tirpitz that
war must be declared because the Germans wished to send
patrols across the frontier at once. Moltke, on the other hand,
informed Tirpitz that there was no such intention and that
" from his point of view a declaration of war was of no impor-
tance." 4
During the war period of Bethmann Hollweg's chancellor-
ship (Aug. I9i4-July 1917) his public speeches were designed
to create the impression of Germany's invincibility. He was ac-
cused by his political adversaries of having all the time enter-
tained the secret hope of coming to a separate understanding
with Great Britain and of having influenced military and naval
policy through the Emperor with this object in view. In reality
he never approximated to the elementary conditions of peace
terms with the Allies, and in respect both of Belgium and
France constantly referred to guarantees in the shape of an
extension of power (Machtgrundlagen) which would be a neces-
sary condition of a settlement. " History," he said, " knows
no instance of the status quo ante after such tremendous events "
2 The Outbreak of the War of 1914-1918, C. Oman.
'Tirpitz, Erinnerungen, pp. 240-1.
4 ibidem.
BEYERS BIKANER
455
(speech of April 5 1916). On the question of unrestricted
submarine warfare he ultimately divested himself of responsi-
bility, having declared to the Emperor in Jan. 1917: "I
can give Your Majesty neither my assent to the unrestricted
U-boat warfare nor my refusal. I submit to Your Majesty's
decision " ' which was that of the General Staff and the Admi-
ralty. He must have given his explicit assent to the monstrous
note addressed on Jan. 19 1917 by his Secretary of State
for Foreign Affairs, Zimmermann, to Mexico inviting her to
attack the United States in the hope of annexing New Mexico,
Texas and Arizona and to try to detach Japan from the Allied
cause. His alleged high principles did not prevent him from
associating himself with this scheme for a treacherous assault
upon a Power with whom Germany was then at peace.
By the middle of July 1917 Bethmann Hollweg had lost all
support in the Reichstag. The Conservatives and National
Liberals were alienated by his Prussian franchise policy and his
conflicts with the higher command. The Left and the Catholic
Centre in which Erzberger with his so-called Peace Resolution
(adopted by the Reichstag on July 19) had acquired the
upper hand were convinced that the Allied and Associated
Powers would place no confidence in the overtures of men with
the past of Bethmann Hollweg and Zimmermann. Finally, on
the morrow of the publication of the second Prussian Franchise
Edict, on July 14 1917, Hindenburg and Ludendorff came
to Berlin in order to hold conferences with the chiefs of po-
litical parties regarding the terms of the " Peace Resolution."
The Chancellor could not tolerate this military interference
with his own department, and the Emperor, confronted with an
ultimatum from his two indispensable military leaders, accepted
the Chancellor's resignation. Bethmann Hollweg retired to
Hohenfinow and took no further part in politics beyond writing
his Reflections on the World War (vol. i. 1919). He died, at
Hohenfinow on Jan. i 1921, after a brief illness. (G. S.)
BEYERS, CHRISTIAN FREDERICK (1869-1914), S. African
general, was born in Cape Colony in 1869 and went as a young
man to the Transvaal, where he took a prominent part on the
Boer side in the S. African War, winning high distinction in the
field and bearing the rank of general when peace was made in
1902. Gen. Beyers had much influence, as soldier and statesman,
among the Dutch-speaking people of S. Africa, and was, with
Gen. Botha and Gen. Smuts, though in a less degree than they,
one of the recognized leaders of the Transvaal Dutch. When
responsible government was granted to the Transvaal, Beyers
became speaker of the Lower House. He showed in the speaker's
chair remarkable gifts. He was acute, tolerant and rigidly im-
partial, thus making a deep impression upon English-speaking
S. Africans, who would have supported his claims to be the first
speaker of the first S. African House of Assembly, had they been
pressed by Gen. Botha, the first Prime Minister. Instead, Beyers
was made commandant-general of the Citizen Forces of S.Africa,
and in that capacity paid a visit to Great Britain, Germany,
Switzerland and Holland in 1912. A man of fine physique, of
passionate nature, and of profound religious convictions, Beyers,
as commandant-general of S. Africa, was entertained with marked
attentions during his visit to Germany by the Kaiser. When the
World War broke out, he set himself in almost open opposition
to the policy of the Botha Government. For some months this
opposition smouldered. Then, at a moment when the S. African
expeditionary force was being mobilized for the invasion of
German S.W. Africa, and when rebellion was already smoulder-
ing among the irreconcilables of the S. African Dutch, Beyers
resigned his post as commandant-general in a letter addressed
to Gen. Smuts, then Minister of Defence, and published in
Het Volk, an anti-Government journal. In this letter he declared
that he had always disapproved the Government's intention to
invade German S.W. Africa and that this disapproval was
shared by the great majority of the Dutch-speaking people of
the Union. Gen. Smuts replied in a stern letter declaring that
the war was a test of the loyalty to their pledged word of the
Dutch-speaking people, and accepting Beyers' resignation. A
1 Scheidemann, Der Zusammenbruch, p. 74.
few weeks later Beyers took the field as a leader of the rebellion
against the Government, only to be overwhelmed by the Govern-
ment troops under the command of Gen. Botha, to be driven
from pillar to post as a fugitive, and to be drowned on Dec. 7
1914 while trying to escape from his pursuers by crossing the
Vaal river. His body was recovered two days later, and with his
death the rebellion was brought to an ignominious end.
BHOWNAGGREE, SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE (1851-
), Indian parliamentarian, the son of a Parsee merchant
of Bombay, was born in Bombay Aug. 15 1851, and began
life as a journalist, but when only 22 was appointed, on the
death of his father, to succeed to the Bombay agency of the
Kathiawar state of Bhavanagar. Called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn in 1885, in the following year the Maharaja appointed
him judicial councillor, a post in which he introduced far-reach-
ing reforms. Settling in England in 1891, he actively associated
himself with public bodies connected with India. He was the
head of the Parsee organization in Europe and chairman of the
Indian Social Club. To the Imperial Institute building he
contributed, in memory of his only sister, the eastern colonnade
leading to the Indian section. His compatriot Dadabhai Naoroji
was in the 1892-5 parliament, but Bhownaggree, elected in
the latter year in the Unionist interest for N.E. Bethnal Green,
was the only other Indian to enter the House of Commons, and
the only one to be reelected (1900). During his ten years there
he impressed the House by the vigour and eloquence of his
speeches on Indian matters, and he originated and unflaggingly
maintained in and out of the House the long battle against the
disabilities of Indians in South Africa and other overseas domin-
ions of the Crown. His cogent and detailed statement of the
case for Indians in the Transvaal after annexation was the
basis of a blue-book (Cd. 2239, 1904), and was sent to Lord
Milner by the Colonial Secretary, Alfred Lyttelton, with the
observation that he felt much sympathy for the views expressed,
and that it would be difficult to give a fully satisfactory answer.
The practical result was that the proposals of the High Com-
missioner were in some important particulars rejected. Bhown-
aggree was one of the first Indians to press forward the need for
technical and vocational education in India side by side with
the literary instruction which was too exclusively maintained.
He was made a C.I.E. in 1886 and K.C.I.E. in 1897. In early life
he wrote a history of the constitution of the East India Company,
and made a Gujarati translation of Queen Victoria's Life in
the Highlands. During the World War he assisted in repelling
German falsehoods regarding British rule in India by means of
a widely circulated booklet entitled The Verdict of India.
BIGELOW, JOHN (1817-1911), American diplomat and jour-
nalist (see 3.922), died in New York Dec. 19 1911. In 1909
he published three volumes of Retrospections of an Active Life,
covering his career to 1866. Two additional volumes, ending
with 1879, were issued by his son (1913).
BIKANER, SIR GANGA SINGH, MAHARAJA OF (1880- ),
Indian soldier and statesman, was born Oct. 3 1880, and suc-
ceeded by adoption his elder brother, Dungar Singh, in- 1887
as 2ist ruler of the state. After education at the Mayo
College, Ajmere, he was invested with full powers in 1898, and
promptly showed energy and skill in their use in combating the
great famine of 1899-1900. In the Chinese campaign of 1901
he accompanied the British contingent in command of his
famous Camel Corps, the Ganga Risala, which also did good
service in Somaliland in 1903. The first of his many visits to
England was made in 1902, when he attended King Edward's
coronation, and was made A.D.C. to the Prince of Wales, an
appointment continued by King George when he came to the
throne. In the World War the Maharaja offered the whole
resources of the state and served first on the headquarters staff
of the Meerut division in France, and later on the staff of the
British commander-in-chief. In 1915, at the head of his Camel
Corps, he took part in the fighting to withstand the Turkish
invasion of Egypt. In 1917 he and Sir S. P. (afterwards Lord)
Sinha were the first Indians to be called to London for Empire
gatherings. They were members of the Imperial War Confer-
456
BILHARZIOSIS BIRDWOOD, SIR W. R.
ence and assisted the Secretary for India at the Imperial War
Cabinet. The Maharaja's public speeches attracted marked
attention, and were collected under the title of India's Imperial
Partnership. His warm sympathy with Indian aspirations of
self-government within the Empire made the greater impression
on public opinion because of the notable moral and material
progressiveness and efficiency of his administration in Bikaner,
and his constitutional reforms. He was selected to represent the
Indian states at the Peace Conference and the Imperial Cabinet
meetings in connexion therewith, and at Versailles on June
28 1919 he affixed the first Indian signature to a great inter-
national treaty. Keenly concerned to uphold the rights and dig-
nities of the ruling princes, he formulated their views with
force and skill, and his was the dominant personal influence in
securing the constitution, under royal proclamation, of the
Chamber of Princes in 1921 as a deliberative, consultative and
advisory body. His appointment as chancellor, carrying the
presidency of the small standing committee, was indicative of
the intellectual ascendancy he had acquired in the deliberations
of the rulers. He had made himself well known as a sportsman,
and in 1920 the " record " tigress (9 ft. 7 in.) fell to his gun.
A major-general of the British army, his honours included the
grand crosses of the Victorian and the two Indian Orders, the
knighthood of the Bath, the honorary doctorate in laws of
Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh and the freedom of London,
Edinburgh, Manchester and Bristol. His permanent local salute
was raised from 17 to 19 guns. (F. H. BR.)
BILHARZIOSIS (see 3.932). The complete elucidation of the
cause, mode of transmission, prevention and cure of this disease
(Schisostoma haematobium) was one of the triumphs of
medical progress during the decade 1910-20. In 1913-4, in
his annual report on Egypt, Lord Kitchener said: " It is high
time that some steps should be taken to prevent the continuity
of infection which has been going on so long in this country."
At that time Egypt was a hot-bed of the disease, and so were
many areas of South Africa. Indeed some 625 British soldiers
were infected during the Boer War of 1899-1902, and of these
in 1914 no fewer than 359 were still on the sick-list.
Early in the World War, when British troops were dispatched
to Egypt, Sir Alfred Keogh, director-general of the A. M.S., sent
a mission there to investigate bilharziosis. At the head of it
was Lt.-Col. R. T. Leiper, helminthologist to the London
School of Tropical Medicine. Leiper's object was to discover the
intermediate host of the parasite which is the cause of this
disease. The parasite itself had already been discovered, as
early as 1852, and was called after its discoverer T. Bilharz, a
Gefman. There was, moreover, some reason to suppose that a
portion of its life-history was passed in the body of a fresh-
water mollusc, this being a usual cycle among trematode worms
(see 27.240). Leiper adopted the simple measure of engaging
a large number of native boys and paying them to collect all the
molluscs they could find. The boys brought in large quantities,
and the research workers set themselves to examine them.
Within a very short period the parasite of bilharziosis was found
in the body of one variety, a water-snail which inhabits canals
and pools and is thus found " at spots daily frequented, such as
the praying ground at the embankment crossing, in front of
the cafes, and at the bend of the canal daily used for washing."
The next step was to discover whether animals could be infected
experimentally. Leiper observed that rats and mice and other
vermin were notably scarce in the regions infested by the
snails. A professional rat-catcher was employed but he failed
to secure any animals. On June 13 1915 the first positive
result was obtained when a rat was experimentally infected.
Various experiments were now undertaken to determine the
mode of infection of human beings. It was found that both
drinking and bathing are dangerous for the free-swimming
parasites. " Cercariae, " after they have been born from the
body of the water-snail, are so provided that they are able to
pierce the human skin and so enter the body. Happily they live
only 36 hours after birth in the pools, dying thereafter unless
they find a suitable host.
The life-history of the parasite is therefore a double one. It
lives in the bodies of men from which it is passed to water where
it enters the water-snail's body. From this after six weeks it is
hatched in the free-swimming form and then re-enters the bodies
of men. The snail is safe until six weeks from its first infection
have elapsed. It retains its powers of dissemination over con-
siderable periods. The following conclusions were formulated :
1. Transient collections of water are quite safe after recent con-
tamination.
2. All permanent collections of water such as the Nile canals,
marshes and birkehs (pools) are potentially dangerous, depending
on the presence of the essential intermediary host, the snail.
3. The removal of infected persons from a given area would
have no effect, at least for some months, in reducing the liability to
infection, as the intermediate hosts discharge infective agents for
a prolonged period.
4. Infected troops cannot reinfect themselves or spread the
disease directly to others. They could convey the disease to those
parts of the world where a local mollusc could efficiently act as
carrier.
5. Infection usually takes place both by the mouth and through
the skin. Recently contaminated moist earth or water is not in-
fective.
6. Infection in towns is acquired from unfiltered water, which is
still supplied even in Cairo, in addition to filtered water, and is
delivered by a separate system of pipes.
7. The eradication can be effected without the cooperation of
infected individuals by destroying the molluscan intermediaries.
The irrigation work in Egypt being in the hands of the
Government, it is possible to have the pools in which the snails
breed drained and dealt with. Along such lines, at least, lie the
preventive measures which will in course of time be instituted.
Through Leiper's work, therefore, this disease may be regarded
as much less of a menace than it has ever been formerly.
The great success which attended this work caused other
investigators to turn their attention to the disease and to begin
the search for a cure. Many remedies had, of course, been tried,
but none of these could be guaranteed to eliminate the parasites
and so to end the mischief. It occurred to Dr. J. B. Christopher-
son to apply to this disease the method of using antimony
tartrate which had been employed with success in the treatment
of the Indian disease kala-azar. This consists in giving the
antimony by injection into a vein. Christopherson soon found
that his idea was to be relied on and that the effect far exceeded
his hopes. The parasites and their ova were killed off and the
patients became entirely free of the disease. This work has now
passed beyond the stage of experiment, and Christopherson's
treatment is universally acknowledged to be a complete cure of
bilharziosis.
Thus this formidable disease has been conquered. Its means
of transmission are known. Its prevention is only a matter of
time. Its cure is a matter of certainty. (R. M. Wi.)
BINYON, LAURENCE (1869- ), English poet (see 3.952),
produced after 1910 a book on Botticelli (1913); a catalogue of
Japanese woodcuts in the British Museum (1917); The Art of
Asia (1915); English Poetry in Relation to Painting and other
Arts (1918); For Dauntless France (1918) and Court Painters
of the Great Mogul (1920); as well as certain collections of poems,
Auguries (1913) and The Four Years (1919), the last of which
gathered together his fine war poems, which had previously
appeared in several smaller collections. In 1920 his play Sakun-
tala was performed in London.
BIRDWOOD, SIR GEORGE CHRISTOPHER MOLESWORTH
(1832-1917), Anglo-Indian writer (see 3.979), died at Ealing
June 28 1917.
BIRDWOOD, SIR WILLIAM RIDDELL, BART. (1865- ),
British general, was born Sept. 13 1865. He joined the i2th
Lancers in 1885 and was in the following year transferred
to the Indian staff corps, joining the cavalry. He served in
the Hazara expedition of 1891 and the Isazai expedition of
1892, and in the 1897-8 frontier war. He was sent to South
Africa in 1899 and served on the staff there during the whole of
the war, the close of which found him a brevet lieutenant-colonel.
He was afterwards closely associated for several years with
Lord Kitchener in India, acting as his military secretary. In
BIRKENHEAD BIRMINGHAM
457
igoS Birdwood, now a full colonel, held the position of chief
staff-officer during the operations against the Mohmunds, for
which he received the D.S.O., and he was a brigade-commander
in India from 1909 to 1912. He had been promoted major-
general in 1911; and in 1912, after holding for some months the
position of quartermaster-general at Simla, he was appointed
Secretary in the Army Department. Lord Kitchener in Dec.
1914 selected him for the command of the Australasian
forces which were being assembled in Egypt, and in the follow-
ing April he commanded the army corps from the Antipodes
which carried out the memorable landing at Anzac. He was in
charge of the troops clinging to this patch of the Gallipoli
Peninsula until Aug., and he then directed the unsuccessful
offensive that was attempted from it. His personality had made
him much liked and respected by the Australasian troops. After
the change that took place in the control of the Mediterranean
field force in Oct., Birdwood (who had been awarded the
K.C.M.G. and had been promoted lieutenant-general) assumed
charge of the forces operating at the Dardanelles, and he carried
out the very successful withdrawal of the troops from their
dangerous positions in the following December and January.
After a short period in 'Egypt he took his Australasian troops
to the western front, and he commanded them there for two
years; he was given the K.C.B. and promoted general in 1917.
On the reconstitution of the V. Army after the great German
effort of the spring of 1918 had been checked, Sir William
Birdwood was selected to lead it, and his troops bore an im-
portant part in the last phases of the British advance in the
autumn. For his services he was made a baronet and a G.C.M.G.,
besides receiving a grant of 10,000. He paid a visit to the Antip-
odes a year after the war and received a great welcome; in
1920 he took up command of the northern army in India.
BIRKENHEAD, FREDERICK EDWIN SMITH, IST VISCOUNT
(1872- ), Lord Chancellor of Great Britain, the son of a
barrister, was born at Birkenhead July 12 1872, and was educated
at the local school, whence he proceeded with a classical
scholarship to Wadham College, Oxford. He gained a first
class in jurisprudence in 1895 and was Vinerian Law Scholar
in 1896, was elected a Fellow of Merton and did a consid-
erable amount of educational work in the next few years,
being a lecturer both at Merton and at Oriel, and an extension
lecturer in modern history both for Oxford and for Victoria
University. But his attention was mainly directed to law and
public life. He had been president of the Union at Oxford, and
he entered at Gray's Inn, being called to the bar in 1899. He
went the northern circuit, and attached himself to the local bar
at Liverpool, where he rapidly obtained a considerable practice.
He also published a book on international law, which has gone
through several editions. He soon took a prominent place
among the Conservatives of Liverpool as a decided Tariff
Reformer, and was returned for the Walton division in Jan.
1906, holding the seat till his elevation to the Chancellorship in
1919. When he entered the House of Commons, he found
himself a member of a small and discouraged minority, who had
been soundly beaten at the general election, mainly on the
issues of tariff reform, Chinese labour in the Transvaal, and
religious education. He himself, though he had achieved con-
siderable local reputation, was practically unknown in London.
Within a week of the opening of Parliament he bounded into
fame by a sparkling maiden speech in a Tariff Reform debate a
speech conceived in a confident fighting spirit, calculated to
cheer dejected partisans, and full of wit and epigram. One of
his phrases went home, when he described the majority as
" begotten by Chinese slavery out of Passive Resistance." Mr.
Lloyd George, who followed him in debate, spoke of the speech
as very brilliant; and the Conservative party hailed him at once
as a coming leader. He soon acquired a large practice at the
bar in London, took silk in 1908, and became a bencher of his
Inn. In Parliament, during the year of Opposition, he justified
the expectations formed of him, but incurred the animosity of
his opponents by the vehemence of his denunciation of minis-
terial schemes. He was chosen to move the rejection of the
Parliament bill on the third reading in May 1911. In the crisis
which followed he took an extreme view, was prominent in the
disorderly proceedings when Mr. Asquith was refused a hearing
in the House of Commons, and threw in his lot with the " Die-
hards." At the coronation in that year his growing reputation
in Parliament was recognized by his admission to the Privy
Council; and in 1912 he appeared as an acknowledged leader of
the party, moving the Opposition amendment to the Address,
and the rejection of the Welsh Disestablishment bill on second
reading. He showed, moreover, as a Liverpool man, his strong
sympathy with Ulster, threatened by the Home Rule bill; he
went over to Ireland and constituted himself Sir Edward
Carson's principal lieutenant in the resistance which he was
organizing in North-East Ulster against Home Rule.
When the World War broke out, he was one of the first
Opposition leaders to place his services at the disposal of the
Government. He accepted the position of head of the Press
Bureau, and in that capacity encouraged, with a view to accel-
erate enlistment, the publication in The Times of Aug. 30
1914 of a telegram showing the serious plight of the Brit-
ish army after the retreat from Mons. But he went shortly
afterwards to France on active service, with the Indian Corps,
and was mentioned in despatches. He was captain in the King's
Own Oxfordshire Hussars, and a temporary lieutenant-colonel
in the army. When the first Coalition Ministry was formed in
May 1915, he was appointed Solicitor-General and knighted,
and he succeeded Sir Edward Carson in November as Attorney-
General, a post he held till 1919. The Defence of the Realm Act
and other war-time measures threw in these years a great
burden of anxious work on the law officers of the Crown,
including the prosecution of Sir Roger Casement for high
treason at the Old Bailey. In the autumn of 1918 Sir Frederick
Smith undertook a visit of propaganda to the United States, and
published a book about it on his return. When Mr. Lloyd George
reconstructed his Ministry after the general election of Dec.
1918, the Attorney-General was appointed Lord Chancellor
and created a peer. The appointment, though quite in the
normal course of promotion, was subjected to considerable
criticism, owing partly to his comparative youth, but chiefly to
his vehement partisanship in earlier years. But it was soon
admitted (and notably by his colleagues on the judicial bench)
to have been amply justified. Lord Birkenhead brought to the
performance of his new duties the vigour which had always been
characteristic of him; his judgments in the two final Courts of
Appeal were weighty and lucid; and he quickly made himself a
force in the Lords' debates. His zeal for the efficient adminis-
tration of justice caused him, in addition to his other heavy
work, to sit during several weeks in the spring of 1921 as a
judge of first instance, in order to clear off the enormous arrears
in the Divorce Court. He was created a viscount on the King's
birthday in that year.
He married, in 1901, Margaret Eleanor, daughter of the
Rev. Henry Furneaux, a well-known Oxford scholar, his family
consisting of a son and two daughters. He was always a man of
much physical activity, fond of a horse, of field sports and
games, and of yachting.
BIRMINGHAM, GEORGE A., pen-name of James Owen
Hannay (1865- ), Irish novelist and playwright, who was
born July 16 1865 at Belfast. He was educated at Haileybury
and Trinity College, Dublin, was ordained and became a
canon of St. Patrick's, Dublin, in 1912. He wrote amongst
other novels: The Seething Pot (1905); Spanish Gold (1908);
Lalage's Lovers (1911); The Red Hand of Ulster (1912); The
Lost Tribes (1914) and Inisheeny (1920), whilst among his plays
the best known is General John Regan, which was successfully
produced at the Apollo theatre, London, in Jan. 1913.
BIRMINGHAM, England (see 3.983). During 1910-21 the
city of Birmingham greatly increased in size and importance.
The primary cause of its growth in area was the extension of
the municipal boundaries by a local Act of Parliament, though
manufacturing enterprise and industrial developments before
the World War, as well as the extraordinary influx of munition
BIRMINGHAM
workers in 1914-8, materially contributed to the increase in
the population. For the purposes of the report of the medical
officer of health published in 1920, the population was estimated
to be 910,000. When the census was taken in 1911 the males
over 18 years of age numbered 246,881 and the females 283,366.
Just prior to the Armistice the number of men of or over military
age in the city had been reduced to 200,251, while the number
of women residing in the city had increased during the war to
323,911. The war probably accounts largely for the falling-off in
the birth-rate during the same period. In 1913 the rate was
27.3 per 1,000 and in 1918 the figure was 19-4. The intervening
years show proportionate decreases. There were 19,335 babies
born during 1919. This is equal to a birth-rate of 20-9 and
indicates an upward tendency, though the increase of population
is due more to the improvement in the death-rate than to the
recovery of the birth statistics.
The Greater Birmingham scheme, the prospect of which in
1910 had greatly disturbed the authorities of the counties of
Warwick, Worcester and Stafford, became an accomplished
fact in 1911. Although the area taken into the city included a
considerable amount of agricultural and undeveloped land in
the county of Worcester, the residential suburbs annexed to the
city in 1911 were mainly populated by people who derived their
incomes, as well as their water, gas, electricity and other urban
amenities, from the city.
The borough of Aston Manor, the urban districts of Erdington
and Handsworth, almost all of the urban district of King's
Norton and Northfield, and the rural district of Yardley were
added to the city at this time. King's Norton and Northfield, as
parts of Birmingham, ceased to be portions of Worcestershire
from the geographical as well as from the administrative aspect,
and came nominally within the new boundary of Warwickshire,
as did Handsworth, from Staffordshire.
The area of the city was increased from 13,477 ac - to 43,537
ac., or about 68 sq. m., and the rateable value of Birmingham
rose automatically from 2,963,711 to 4,340,017, leaving out
of account the differential rate for various periods granted to
certain of the added areas.
The membership of the city council was at the same time
increased to 30 aldermen and 90 councillors, representing 30
wards. Judged by municipal standards, Birmingham was in
1921 the largest city in England.
Public Health. In the decade immediately preceding the war the
death-rate was 14-8 per 1,000, and for the five years from 1915 the
figures declined from 14-4 to 13-0 in 1919. The death-rate was in
1921 the lowest but one among the large towns of Great Britain.
One of the principal causes of Birmingham's comparatively clean
bill of health, and the decline in infantile mortality, is the employ-
ment by the health committee of a large and highly organized staff
of lady health visitors. The city is divided into four quarters, each
of which is under the supervision of an assistant medical officer of
health or a lady doctor, the latter specializing in maternity and
child-welfare work. The Corporation also employs specialists in
tuberculosis, who have urban dispensaries and country sanatoria
in their charge. The lady health visitors include 13 who have charge
of tuberculosis cases, 19 who deal with the general health of certain
congested areas, and 54 who are specially concerned with infant
welfare, making a total of 86 lady health visitors.
Housing. In Oct. 1919 the Corporation submitted a return
to the Local Government Board showing that 14,000 new houses
were at that time required to meet the unsatisfied demand, and that
50,000 new houses would be required to rehouse persons displaced
by the clearance of insanitary areas, and to replace other dwellings
which fell definitely below a reasonable standard. Prior to that
date, however, the Corporation (July 1918) formulated a policy for
dealing with the housing question and a number of proposals then
suggested were incorporated in a local Act and in the Government's
Housing Act of 1919. In the following winter the Corporation ac-
quired approximately 1,050 ac. of land upon which some 10,000
houses could be erected. Other large estates were subsequently
purchased, and the Corporation was in 1921 in possession of about
1,930 ac. of land for housing purposes. This land would accommo-
date from 19,000 to 20,000 houses. In Sept. 1919 a housing di-
rector was appointed and a considerable proportion of the houses
had in 1921 been completed and occupied. Difficulty was found in
obtaining a satisfactory supply of labour and materials. This not
only delayed completion of the houses but seriously affected the,
cost of erection, the average for the first four schemes being about
900 per house; the cost of the land and other expenses brought it
up to over 1,000. By the end of Jan. 1921, contracts were
placed for 2,386 workmen's dwellings. Of these 180 houses were
built by direct labour. The Corporation also converted army huts
at Castle Bromwich into dwellings for about 100 families.
Town Planning. Birmingham was the first large town in England
to prepare a comprehensive scheme of town planning. Important
pioneer work in this direction was done by Mr. J. S. Nettlefold when
he was chairman of the Birmingham housing committee, before the
passing of the Town Planning Act of 1909. No definite steps to
carry out this scheme were possible until the extension of the city
in 1911, when 24,000 ac. of undeveloped land in the suburbs were
brought under the control of the city council and Mr. Neville
Chamberlain became chairman of the town-planning committee.
The first town-planning scheme authorized by the Local Govern-
ment Board related to Harborne and Quinton, and dealt with 2,320
ac. on the W. side of the city. The future line of main roads was
defined, some of them being 100 ft. wide, and the owners of the
adjoining land were notified that they would have to conform to a
general layout affecting the construction and character of the side
roads (which may be narrower and less expensive) and the number
of houses and kind of buildings to be erected in the area. Open
spaces and corner sites were reserved. No factories were provided
for in this area, but considerable space was reserved for them in the
E. Birmingham town-planning scheme (1,443 ac -). where the greater
part of the property is already industrial and the prevailing winds
blow the smoke away from the city. These two schemes were
approved in 1913. The N. Yardley scheme of 3,176 ac. and the S.
Birmingham scheme of 8,267 ac - were prepared before the war
and approved in 1916. A supplementary scheme for S.W. Bir-
mingham, involving an area of 9,866 ac., was launched after the war.
The public works and town-planning committee also prepared
tentative plans for improving the built-up area in the centre of the
city, and widening the arterial roads. They have experimented with
a sleeper tramway track between two carriage-ways, with wide
grass margins and avenues, and are providing specially for fast-
travelling vehicles on a ring road and arterial roads, which are to be
widened to 100 ft. or more. The first sections of road so widened
were completed in 1915 at Edgbaston and Harborne. The scheme
includes the widening of 43 m. of radial main roads and the con-
struction of 7 m. of new roads. During the trade slump of 1920-1
large numbers of unemployed were engaged in this work of road
widening and the construction of new roads. Similar labour was
employed in laying out a municipal golf course in the park known
as Warley Woods and another course on land given by members of
the Cadbury family on the Leckey hills. Another important addi-
tion to open spaces around the city is Barr Beacon given by Col.
J. H. Wilkinson during the World War.
New Buildings. The building of the new municipal offices and
art galleries on a portion of the Colmore estate, bounded by Ed-
mund St., Congreve St., Gt. Charles St. and Margaret St., which
began in 1906, was completed in 1912. The offices of the gas, health,
tramways and education departments were transferred from the
old council house to the new premises and the rooms thus vacated
were utilized for the accommodation of the water department,
public works department, town clerk's department, salvage de-
partment, parks department and the new Municipal Bank.
A legacy of 50,000 from Mr. John Feeney, who had been a
generous donor to the museum and art gallery, was utilized for the
erection of a handsome suite of picture galleries and a museum of
casts over the new municipal offices and connected with the old art
gallery by a bridge across Edmund Street. The natural history
museum was established at the same time, and a unique collection
of British birds with their nests and perfectly natural surroundings
was provided as a memorial to the late Alderman C. G. Beale. The
first of the new Feeney galleries is devoted to the work of modern
English painters and contains some of the larger pictures, such as
Millais' " Widow's Mite," Lord Leighton's " Condottieri," Henry
Moore's " Newhaven Packet," " Autumn " by Sir L. Alma-Tadema,
" The Village Philharmonic" by Stanhope Forbes, " Hayle from
Lelant " by Sir Alfred East. Gallery II. contains old masters and
portraits of local worthies, including excellent examples by Reynolds
and Gainsborough. The next three galleries are filled with works
of the English pre-Raphaelites, notably those of Sir Edward Burne-
Jones, a native of Birmingham. This collection, both in size and
importance, is unrivalled. Another interesting gallery is No. VII.,
which includes Turner's beautiful drawing " Schaffhausen," from
the Ruskin collection, and other important water-colours. A large
collection of drawings by David Cox and other local artists is in
galleries VIII. and IX. The old galleries are now mainly devoted
to decorative and industrial art, including the Feeney collection
of nearly 2,000 pieces and several important collections on loan.
One of the new galleries is reserved for loan exhibitions of pictures.
In 1914-6 a new parcel post-office was erected on the site of
the old Inland Revenue office in Paradise Street. This severely
plain structure, built by the Office of Works during the war, is
connected with the post-office in Victoria Sq. by a massive stone
bridge across the top of Hill Street. The Inland Revenue offices were
transferred to Empire House, Gt. Charles Street. The galleries
BIRMINGHAM
459
of the Royal Society of Artists were rebuilt on modest lines, and the
classic portico which was a striking architectural feature of New St.
disappeared to make room for utilitarian shop fronts. Queen's
College remains an ornament to Paradise St., though it was used in
1921 mainly for commercial purposes instead of for theological
training, owing to the exigencies of ecclesiastical finance. The
Repertory theatre in Station St. was erected in 1913 through the
munificence of Barry V. Jackson, founder of the Pilgrim Players,
and the enthusiasm of John Drinkwater, the playwright.
" Highbury," Moor Green, formerly the residence of Mr. Joseph
Chamberlain, and the adjoining residence, " Uffculme," the home
of the late Mr. Richard Cadbury, were during the war converted
into orthopaedic hospitals for disabled soldiers. When they ceased
to' be- under the control of the Ministry of Pensions they were to
revert to the Corporation as gifts from Mr. Austen Chamberlain
and Mr. Barrow Cadbury. " Sorrento," Wake Green Rd., Moseley,
was acquired by the citizens' committee during the war for the
treatment of paraplegic war pensioners. The Princess Mary Con-
valescent Centre for Disabled Soldiers is at Rednal, and one of the
city asylums at Rubery was still occupied in 1921 by the Ministry
of Pensions for orthopaedic cases. The old Children's Hospital in
Broad St. was used for various Government purposes during the
war, and larger premises were provided by voluntary contributions,
with up-to-date equipment for the treatment of sick children, in
Ladywood Road. A hospital for nervous diseases was established
after the war at Edgbaston.
Libraries. Several important additions have been made to the
public libraries of the city. In addition to the central reference and
lending libraries, which adjoin the Midland Institute, there were in
1921 21 branch lending libraries and news-rooms, two branch
reference libraries, a reading-room at Witton and a delivery station
in the outlying district of Quinton, as well as a new commercial
library and a patent library in the council house. The central refer-
ence library contains nearly 300,000 volumes, including the well-
known Shakespeare Memorial Collection of 17,000 volumes, of
which a separate catalogue was printed in 1903; the Birmingham
collection, of which a 1,140-page catalogue was published in 1918,
a collection of poetry relating to the World War ; the Sir Benjamin
Stone collection of photographs; large Byron, Milton and Cervantes
collections and a collection of manuscripts and other relics of Boul-
ton and Watt.
The lending libraries contain nearly 250,000 volumes, the annual
users numbering about 2,300,000. The lending libraries were in
1921 being converted to the open-access system. An important
innovation is the commercial library, containing about 3,000 vol-
umes, the collection of trade catalogues and files of 220 periodicals,
which was opened at the end of the war.
Municipal Bank. The Municipal Bank, which was established
mainly through the efforts of Mr. Neville Chamberlain when he was
lord mayor, loaned 300,000 to the Government during the war, this
amount being invested in small sums by 30,000 depositors, who were
all employed persons. Owing to the opposition of the joint-stock
banks through their parliamentary representatives in 1915. the
operations of the bank were severely limited during the war, but
its success in promoting thrift among the working-classes induced
Parliament to extend its powers in 1919 and in that year over 300,-
ooo was transferred from the war-time organization to a permanent
municipal institution, the first of its kind in England.
The University. A new chapter in the history of the univer-
sity of Birmingham began with the visit of King Edward VII.
and Queen Alexandra to open the new buildings at Edgbaston
on July 7 1909. The site, given by Lord Calthorpe, the
principal landlord of the district, comprises 40 ac., near the
Bourn Brook and about 3 m. from the Mason College (in
the centre of the city) where the faculties of art, medicine and the
department of education are still carried on. The new build-
ings designed by Sir Aston Webb, mainly for the technical side
of the university, cover a large semicircle and its diameter, with
a central tower 325 ft. high, erected to commemorate the
foundation of the university by its first chancellor, Mr. Joseph
Chamberlain. The great hall and workshops, laboratories,
model mine and power station for the engineering and allied
departments were lavishly equipped to meet the special needs
of the district, but the financial stringency arising out of the
war has prevented the erection of the other large buildings
necessary to make the design symmetrical, and to complete the
accommodation for the chairs contemplated when the scheme
was launched. The faculties of sciences (pure and applied)
and of commerce are now housed on the Edgbaston site.
In 1919 the Treasury grant was increased to 38,000; the city
council now contributes 15,000 per annum; and in 1920-1 a
public appeal for funds resulted in about 300,000 being raised for
the purpose of reducing the debt on the university and to increase
the efficiency of the existing departments, though the amount
available for these purposes was reduced by the fact that about
147,000 of the above-mentioned total was ear-marked for special
objects, some of which involved additional expenditure out of the
university funds. Tfte chairs, lectureships, etc., endowed since 1910
include physics, electrical engineering, metallurgy, town plan-
ning, agricultural zoology) a research department subsidized by
the Board of agriculture), Russian, Italian and brewing. Some of
these new endowments are attached to old professorships. For in-
stance, Sir George Kenrick endowed the physics chair in memory of
the late Prof. J. H. Poynting, who had occupied it ever since Mason
College was opened in 1880, 20 years before the university charter
was granted. Public subscriptions endowed the pioneer chair of
electrical engineering, which thus became in 1913 a memorial to
the first vice-chancellor (Alderman C. G. Beale). The chairs al-
lotted to modern European languages are quite new and the ap-
pointment of a lady as Italian professor is also an innovation.
The chamber of commerce was responsible for the establishment of
a chair of Russian during the war. The school of brewing has been
supported by the trade ever since the foundation of the university,
but the chair was not permanently endowed until 1919.
Lord Robert Cecil succeeded the late Mr. Chamberlain as chan-
cellor in 1918; Sir Gilbert Barling was elected vice-chancellor in
place of the late Alderman Beale in 1914, and Mr. C. Grant Robert-
son, Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, was appointed principal on
the resignation of Sir Oliver Lodge in 1919. Other important recent
events in connexion with the university were the granting by its
council of 15 free entrance scholarships for Birmingham residents
(1912) ; the erection of a women students' club adjoining Mason Col-
lege (1914) ; the transformation of the new buildings into a military
hospital, and the women's hostel into a nurses' home during the
war; and the subsequent linking-up of Birmingham with Bristol
and the northern universities for matriculation and parliamentary
purposes. The library was in 1921 being reorganized and enlarged.
The volumes accessible to students number about 100,000. The
teaching staff increased from 117 in 1910 to 216 in 1920, and the
number of full-time students from 958 to 1,754 i" tne same period.
It is a distinctive feature of Birmingham among modern universities
that it does not include in its membership part-time students, these
being provided for at the Midland Institute and the Municipal
Technical School. On the other hand the university gives generous
help to the Workers' Educational Association, both through its
governing body and through individual members of the teaching
staff. The income of the university increased from 57,143 in 1910
to 114,434 i n '9 20 ar "d its expenditure from 69,780 to about
118,320. In consequence of the generous response to the appeal
made in 1921 the council and senate hoped to make further additions
to the salary list and the curriculum in the near future.
Commerce and Manufactures. After the war the Birmingham
chamber of commerce entered into possession of the Colonnade
hotel in New St., converted into a commodious suite of offices
and conference-rooms. The enormous iron-and-glass structure
erected by the Government on the Corporation playing fields at
Castle Bromwich, for use in connection with the aerodrome estab-
lished there during the war, provided in 1921 excellent accommoda-
tion for the Birmingham section of the British Industries Fair.
Other large buildings erected during the war facilitated the de-
velopment of local industries. Fort Dunlop is an entirely new suburb
occupied by the makers of tires, golf balls and other rubber goods.
The new factories erected by large firms now amalgamated in the
Vickers-Metropolitan group have been converted from the manu-
facture of tanks, Handley-Page aeroplanes, artillery limbers, am-
bulances and engines-of-war into the more peaceful occupations
associated with the production of railway carriages, wagons and
electrical apparatus of all kinds. Some idea of the revolution in
local industries produced by the war may be gleaned from the fact
that a Birmingham firm of penmakers in the early stages of the war
contracted to produce 12 million cartridge clips and that another
firm in the jewellers' quarter made 72 million army buttons in
one year. Under the direction of a local munitions committee, be-
fore the establishment of the Ministry of Munitions, the smaller
manufactories in the city were affiliated to the national shell factory
at Washwood Heath, where the shells were produced in the rough
and finished in the smaller workshops. The output of shells in
Birmingham during the last two and a half years of the war was 15
millions. Fuses and munitions for quick-firing guns were produced
in even larger quantities, the local engineers and cycle-makers being
specially qualified for the precision work required for these munitions.
The manager of the Birmingham gas department acted as secretary
of the munitions committee, and also organized the manufacture
of toluene as an ingredient for high explosives throughout the
country. At the B.S.A. works 10,000 rifles and 2,000 Lewis guns
per week were manufactured. From the returns of the Ministry of
Munitions it appears that, although the weight of shells produced
in Birmingham was not the heaviest on record, the number and
variety of articles supplied for the use of the army, navy and air
force in Birmingham was greater than in any other part of the
country. Some of the smaller parts produced for engines-of-war by
the local brass manufacturers were measured at the Government
depots in thousands of millions.
460
BIRRELL BISSOLATI
War-time Activities. During the first month of the World War
three city battalions were raised by the Lord Mayor, and the
recruits under the voluntary system overflowed into several other
new battalions of the Warwickshire regiment.- It is estimated that
Birmingham contributed to the fighting forces of the nation at
least 148,000 men. Over 11,000 Birmingham men were killed, and
the long list of local military distinctions includes the names of II
winners of the V.C. The amount of money for the prosecution of
the war raised in four separate weeks of special War Loan cam-
paigns was 26,368,879, exclusive of several millions invested by the
Corporation and local companies, individuals and trade unions
through the banks and post-office.
Birmingham was the first city to put into operation a compre-
hensive food-rationing scheme, and this scheme afterwards became
the basis of the plan adopted by the Government for the whole
country.
At the university buildings at Edgbaston, which were the head-
quarters of the 1st Southern General Hospital, 1,358 beds were
provided and at the branch hospitals further accommodation was
provided until there was a total of 6,168 beds. In addition to the
64,000 wounded men treated at the university 20,000 patients were
received at the Poor Law infirmary in Dudley Rd., 8,000 in
elementary schools at Stirchley and King's Heath, -5,000 at the
Monyhull Colony belonging to the board of guardians and at
A. D. and civilian hospitals 5,000, making a total of over 100,000
military and naval patients. These huge figures did not include the
record of the 1st and 2nd Birmingham War Hospitals, which were
established under an arrangement with the asylums committee of
the Corporation. At the Rubery and Hollymoor Mental Hospitals
36,795 wounded men, mostly orthopaedic cases, requiring special
treatment, were nursed back to health.
The fact that Birmingham was one of the most important muni-
tion-making centres in England being well known to the Germans,
they naturally made efforts to bomb the city from the air. For
some time they were unsuccessful, owing to the severe lighting
restrictions enforced by the chief constable in conjunction with
the Home Office. Zeppelins, which caused serious destruction and
loss of life in the Black Country on Jan. 31 1916, passed over the
city without doing any damage. In consequence of representa-
tions made to the Government by the Lord Mayor of Birmingham
on behalf of the municipalities of the Midlands, more effective
means were taken to warn the inhabitants of impending air raids,
and the anti-aircraft defences were also considerably improved
before the next Zeppelin raid, which took place on Oct. 19 1917.
On this occasion bombs were dropped on the Austin works at Long-
bridge, near the city boundary, but little damage was done. The
third and final air attack on Birmingham took place on April 12
1918, when five Zeppelins set out to bomb the industrial towns
of the Midlands. L6o made direct for Birmingham, but timely
warning was received at the headquarter^ of the Birmingham
anti-aircraft defence in Newhall St., and when the airship was
passing over Coventry it was met by gunfire and searchlights. These
caused the raider to drop bombs in the open country in order to
lighten his ship. When passing over Hockley Heath, just out-
side the city boundary, at an altitude of about 5 m., L6o be-
came an illuminated target for at least one of the Birmingham
anti-aircraft guns. When the second and third Birmingham guns
came into action the enemy turned tail, dropped two bombs, the
first on the Robin Hood golf course and the other near Manor
Farm, Shirley, and made a rapid retreat over Lapworth.
In addition to the thousands of Birmingham women who worked
on munitions, 15,000 migrated into the city during the war. The
Birmingham women's war agricultural committee, the women's
volunteer reserve and the various naval and military auxiliaries
also found employment for hundreds of girls. Among the many
voluntary organizations in which ladies played a leading part,
special mention should be made of the lady mayoress's depot, from
which 273,553 garments and other articles were sent to soldiers at
the front and in hospital, and 130,162 parcels were sent to 1,531
prisoners of war, the depot being the regimental care committee
for the Warwickshire regiment. The war hospitals supply branch
of the depot, which was established in March 1916, supplied 827,176
surgical requisites to the war hospitals. The war refugees committee
and the citizens' committee were also mainly composed of women,
the latter organization being responsible for a remarkable network
of agencies for the relief of all kinds of civilian distress arising from
the war, and for meeting the needs of soldiers' families and men
broken in the war. (E. S.)
BIRRELL, AUGUSTINE (18505- ), English author and
politician (see 3.989), continued to be Chief Secretary for Ireland
till the Dublin rebellion of Easter 1916, over nine years in all a
tenure of exceptional length of this particular office. The cattle-
driving agitation died down, and Irish politics, save for labour
troubles, were comparatively quiet, till the two general elections
of 1 910 had once again made retention of office by the leaders
of the Liberal party dependent on the Irish vote. A third Home
Rule bill was now inevitable, and Mr. Birrell spent much of the
autumn of 1911 in preparation for it, being cheered by the
appreciation of him shown by his young Scottish fellow-country-
men in his election to the Lord Rectorship of Glasgow. The
main conduct of the bill was, however, taken out of his hands
in the sessions of 1912, 1913, and 1914 by Mr. Asquith, the
Prime Minister; but he frequently wound up the debates, and
was largely responsible for the treatment of details in committee.
When resistance was organized in Ulster, when volunteers were
enlisted and drilled in the province, and a provisional govern-
ment constituted, he adopted the laisser-faire attitude which
had throughout been the mark of his Irish administration; and
he applied the same treatment to the Irish volunteers who were
raised in reply in the Sinn Fein and Nationalist interest. In all
the earlier discussions in Parliament, he made light of the
Ulster difficulty, and was frequently betrayed into inappropriate
flippancy. Talking of Ulster and religious bigotry, he said that
he had his own views of ecclesiastics; he had been in close touch
with cardinals and archbishops, and " commended them all to
God." But towards the end of the debates, he adopted a
worthier manner, and advocated a national solution, and settle-
ment by consent. In a striking phrase in the debate on the
address in 1914, he spoke of a new Ireland, not necessarily
Home Rule or Nationalist, but " the renaissance of a nation."
When the World War broke out the controversy about Ulster
was stilled as Home Rule was in abeyance, and in the Coalition
Government of 1915 Mr. Birrell had Sir Edward Carson as a
colleague, and would have had Mr. Redmond also had Mr.
Redmond consented to accept Mr. Asquith's invitation. The
danger with which he had to cope now came not from Orange-
men or constitutional Nationalists, but from extremists of the
Sinn Fein, Irish-American and Irish Labour parties, of whom
Casement and Larkin were the apparent leaders. They pro-
moted a strong and largely successful propaganda against enlist-
ment in Ireland, which he entirely failed to extinguish, and
which culminated suddenly in open rebellion at Easter 1916
(see IRELAND, HISTORY). Immediately after the suppression of
the rising Mr. Birrell resigned, rather plaintively explaining that
he was aware that he had run grave and considerable risks in not
tackling Sinn Fein, but that he had subordinated everything in
order to maintain unbroken the front of Ireland towards the
enemies of the Empire. His retirement from office was followed
by retirement from Parliament in 1918. He resumed his literary
work, and published in 1920 a life of his father-in-law, the poet
Frederick Locker-Lampson. His wife died in 1915.
BISSOLATI-BERGAMASCHI, LEONIDA (1857-1920), Italian
statesman, was born at Cremona Feb. 20 1857. The son of
Demetrio Bergamaschi, he was adopted by, and took the
name of, his- stepfather, Prof. Bissolati, the philosopher. At
an early age he became a Socialist through his genuine sympathy
with the lot of the poor, and an active member of the Italian
Socialist party from its foundation in 1892. He exercised con-
siderable influence as a journalist, editing the weeklies La Critica
sociale and La Lotta di classe, and then the daily official organ
of the party, L'Avanti. In 1897 he entered Parliament as member
for Pescarolo; he afterwards was elected for Budrio and then for
the second division of Rome (1908), which he represented until
his death. Although a firm believer in the Socialist doctrine,
Bissolati became more and more dissatisfied with certain aspects
of the policy of the party, notably with its anti-patriotic attitude
at the time of the Libyan War. In 191 1 the split came, and Bisso-
lati, together with Bonomi and some other leading Socialists,
seceded from the party and formed what was known as the
Reformist Socialist group, which supported the Giolitti Cabinet
in its African policy on its promise of democratic reforms. At
the outbreak of the World War Bissolati did not hesitate, and
from the first declared himself in favour of Italian intervention
on the side of the Entente against German militarism, whereas
the " official " Socialist party was frankly neutralist and pro-
German. When Italy entered the war he joined the army as a
sergeant of the Alpini and was wounded and decorated for
valour. In June 1916 the Boselli national Cabinet was constituted
and Bissolati accepted office as minister without portfolio,
BITTER BLINDNESS
461
acting as a kind of intermediary between the Cabinet and the
army. After the Armistice he resigned (Dec. 1918) owing
to disagreements with Sig. Orlando's Government over the Pact
of London. He was opposed to the annexation by Italy of the
Alto Adige because of its German population, and of North
Dalmatia with its Slav majority; but he advocated the annexa-
tion of Fiume as a purely Italian town. His attitude on the
Alto Adige and Dalmatian questions lost him the popularity he
had hitherto enjoyed with the majority of the nation, and his
speech at Milan on the League of Nations, in which he set forth
these views, was unfavourably received. He came in for severe
criticism for having, at a moment when Italy's representatives
found their country's aspirations challenged at every turn by the
Allies, to some extent given away the Italian case and provided
opponents with arguments from the mouth of an Italian ex-
minister. At the same time everyone recognized his sterling
qualities of honesty and genuine patriotism; however much
people might disagree with his views, there was no doubt that
he was inspired solely by what he believed were his country's
best interests and noblest traditions, and his death at Rome on
May 6 1920 was deeply regretted by all, regardless of party
divisions.
BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867-1915), American
sculptor (see 4.13), died in New York April 10 1915. In 1911
he finished a model designed for the Henry Hudson monu-
ment. He was director of sculpture at the San Francisco
Exposition (1912-5), and at the time of his death was presi-
dent of the National Sculpture Society.
BJERKNES, VILHELM (1862- ), Norwegian physicist,
son of Carl Anton Bjerknes, professor of mathematics in the
university of Christiania, was born in 1862, and was educated
at the university of Christiania. He became at a very early age
assistant to, and collaborator with, his father, who had dis-
covered by mathematical analysis the remarkable apparent
actions at a distance between pulsating and oscillating bodies in
a fluid, and their analogy with the electric and magnetic actions
at a distance. Apparently no attempt had been made to demon-
strate experimentally the theories arrived at by the older pro-
fessor until his son, then a lad of about 17 or 18 years of age,
turned his mathematical knowledge and remarkable mechanical
genius to the devising of a series of instruments, by which all the
well-known phenomena of electricity and magnetism were
illustrated and reproduced, by spheres and discs and mem-
branes, set into rhythmic vibration in a bath containing a
viscous fluid such as syrup. These remarkable demonstrations
formed the most important exhibit in the department of physics
at the Exposition Internationale d'Electricite held in Paris in
1881, and aroused the greatest interest in the scientific world.
The younger Bjerknes studied electric waves (1890-1) in
Bonn, Germany, in the laboratory of Hertz, where he succeeded
in giving the explanation of the phenomenon called " multiple
resonance," discovered by Sarasin and De la Rive. Continuing
his experiments at the university of Christiania (1891-2), he
proved experimentally the influence which the conductivity
and the magnetic properties of the metallic conductors exert
upon the electric oscillations, and measured the depth to which
the electric oscillations penetrate in metals of different con-
ductivity and magnetic permeability (the " skin effect ").
Finally he furnished (1895) a complete theory of the phenomenon
of electric resonance, involving a method of utilizing resonance
experiments for the determination of the wave lengths, and
especially of the damping (the logarithmic decrement) of the
oscillations in the transmitter and the receiver of the electric
oscillations. These methods from that time have been in
continuous use, and have contributed much to the development
of wireless telegraphy. His papers on electric oscillations were
published in Annalen der Physik (1891-5). In 1895, after he
had been appointed to the newly created professorship of
mechanics and mathematical physics at the university of
Stockholm, where he had been lecturer since 1893, he returned
to hydrodynamic investigations, pursuing them in two different
directions. In his Vorlesungen iiber Hydrodynamische Fern-
krafle nach C. A. Bjerknes Theorie (1900-2) he gave the first
complete mathematical and experimental exposition of the dis-
coveries of his father, whose age and excessive self-criticism had
prevented him from finishing his work himself; and in a later
book, Die Kraftfelder (1909), he stated the same theory in a very
much generalized form according to methods of his own. On the
other hand, he developed in 1898 the general law for the forma-
tion of circulations and vortices in a frictionless fluid, and began
to apply the general vortex theory to atmospheric and oceanic
motions. This attack upon the meteorological problems from a
hydrodynamical point of view was after 1906 supported by the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, of which he became a
Research Associate. Two introductory volumes, Statics and
Kinematics, of a greater work, Dynamic Meteorology and
Hydrography, were published in 1913 under the auspices of the
Institution.
In 1907 he was called back to the university of Christiania,
where a personal professorship of mechanics and mathematical
physics was created for him. In 1912 he was called to the
university of Leipzig to create there a new professorship of
geophysics and to organize, according to his own plans, a
Geophysical Institute for atmospheric investigations. There,
in 1916, he started the publication Synoptische Darstellung
attnospharischer Zusldnde iiber Europa; but in 1917 he returned
to Norway, where he was attached, as professor of geophysics,
to the new Geophysic Institute in the city of Bergen. He was
the originator there of an improved and more scientific weather
service, afterwards controlled by his son and collaborator,
Jakob Bjerknes (b. 1897), which occasioned a new view of
cyclones and anticyclones as waves in a surface of discontinuity
separating air of polar from air of more equatorial origin, and
cutting the ground along a line which can be followed on the
weather maps, now generally called " the polar front." In 1893
Bjerknes married Honoria Bonnevie, who in earlier years
assisted him much in his scientific work.
BLACHE, VIDAL DE LA (1845-1918), French geographer,
was born at Pezenas, Herault, Jan. 22 1845. He was edu-
cated at the Ecole Normale Superieure inParis, and en-
tered upon the study of geography by way of that of history.
The relations between geographical causes and historical effects
were with him the subject of a life-study, the results of which
are seen in one of his best-known works, the Tableau General de
la Geographie de France prefixed to Lavisse's Histoire de France
(1903) and later republished separately; but he always refrained
from pressing the theory of geographical " control " to an
extreme. He joined the French school at Athens in 1867, and
was thus enabled to travel extensively in Mediterranean lands.
From 1872 to 1877 he was in charge, latterly as professor, of the
department of history and geography at Nancy; from 1877 to
1898 he taught geography in the higher grades at the Ecole
Normale Superieure, and from 1898 to 1909 he held the chair
of geography in the Faculte des Lettres at Paris. He lectured
widely, and among his publications is the monumental Atlas
General: Histoire et Geographie, first published in 1894; he
founded in 1891 and edited until his death the periodical Annales
de Geographie, and contributed constantly to its pages. He died
at Tamaris-sur-mer (Var) on April 5 1918.
BLAKE, EDWARD (1833-1912), Irish-Canadian statesman
(see 4.35), died at Toronto March i 1912.
BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT (1847-1919), American
painter (see 4.38) died near Elizabethtown, N. Y., in the Ad-
irondacks, Aug. 9 1919. Because of insanity he was kept under
restraint during the last 18 years of his life. In 1913 he was
made an associate of the National Academy of Design and
in 1915 a full member. In 1916 the Toledo Art Museum
paid $20,000 for his " Brook by Moonlight."
BLINDNESS (see 4.59). In England legislators have been
slow to recognize the claims of the blind. It is true that as far
back as the reign of Elizabeth and onwards through the reigns
of George III., William IV. and Victoria provision was made by
way of maintenance or education, mostly through the Poor Law
authorities, but this was totally inadequate. In 1889 the Report
462
BLINDNESS
of the Royal Commission on the Blind, the Deaf and the Dumb
was published, and it would appear that the Elementary Educa-
tion (Blind and Deaf Children) Act, 1893, was passed as a result.
The Act made compulsory the education of blind children be-
tween the ages of 5 and 16, the responsibility falling upon
the local Education authority for the district in which a blind
child resides. The Education of Blind and Deaf-Mute Children
(Scotland) Act was passed three years prior to the English Act.
Powers in respect of the continuation of the education of the
blind over the age of 16 are conferred on Education authorities
under the Education Act, 1902, Part II., and the Education Act,
1918. The Post Office Act, 1908, provides that a warrant may
fix special postal rates for embossed literature. Regulations
making ophthalmia neonatorum notifiable came into force in 1914.
In May 1914 Mr. (later Sir) Herbert Samuel, as president
of the Local Government Board, appointed a " Departmental
Committee on the Welfare of the Blind " to consider the con-
dition of the blind in the United Kingdom and the means avail-
able for (a) their industrial or professional training, and (V)
their assistance, and to make recommendations. This committee's
report was issued in July 1917. As a result a special department
dealing with the welfare of the blind was set up in the Ministry
of Health, and an advisory committee appointed.
In 1920 the Blind Persons Act came into operation in the
British Isles. It secures to blind persons in indigent circum-
stances, on attaining the age of 50, " old-age " pensions of los.
per week; it places the responsibility for the general care of the
blind upon county and county borough councils and makes the
registration of all charities for the blind compulsory. In Sept.
1920, the Ministry of Health appointed a committee to in-
vestigate and report on the causes of blindness, including de-
fective vision sufficient to impair economic efficiency, and to
suggest measures which might be taken for the prevention of
blindness.
In the United States statutory provision for the blind may be
divided into four divisions:
(1) Laws affecting the education of the blind.
(2) The action, to be taken by the State in the creation of special
commissions to be concerned in their general welfare.
(3) Various forms of relief.
(4) All other relations of the law to the blind, most of these being
of an indirect character.
In most civilized countries State provision for the blind exists
in a more or less adequate degree.
Statistics. Dr. Harry Best has estimated that the blind pop. of
the world in 1920 numbered at least 2,390,000 persons, exclusive of
those blinded in the World War of 1914-8, and he gives the following
ratios per million of the pop. as far as ascertainable: Canada 449,
Mexico 782, Argentina 892, Chile 800, Austria 694, Belgium 435,
Denmark 527, France 706, Germany 609, Hungary 895, Ireland 982,
Italy 1,175, Netherlands 463, Norway 926, Russia (European) 2,016,
Sweden 664, Switzerland 722, India 1,416, Egypt 13,251, Australia
705, New Zealand 478.
The blind pop. of England and Wales, as given by the Ministry of
Health, July 1920, was 30,785, or 853 per million of the population.
Education. The education of very young blind children has lately
received closer attention in England by the establishment of kinder-
garten schools and classes notably a model school at Birmingham,
and the provision by the National Institute for the Blind of the first
home in the British Empire for blind babies at Chorley Wood, Herts.
This was to be followed by similar homes elsewhere. It is a fact that
very few parents of blind children know how to treat them. Either
they are spoiled by mistaken kindness or they are greatly neglected ;
in either case the result is thoroughly bad hence the necessity of
their removal to homes where they may live under the best con-
ditions and may, in the hands of experts, receive a training suited to
their disability. The percentage of blind children under the age of
five who are mentally defective is very high, ranging from 33!%
to 50%. They are unsuitable for schools for normal blind children,
but are eligible for special schools for the blind at St. Leonards-on-
Sea at the age of three, and at Rhyl at the age of four.
A great impetus was given to the education of the blind in England
by the founding of the College of Teachers of the Blind in July 1907.
The objects of the college are primarily to promote and encourage
the training of teachers of the blind, to improve their status and to
afford them opportunities for submitting their qualifications to the
scrutiny of an accredited examining body. The status, qualifications,
training, remuneration and recruitment of craft teachers of the
blind receive the careful attention of the college, the question of
training being the most important. Great difficulty is experienced in
securing good craftsmen who are well educated and apt at imparting
their knowledge to their pupils. Until better facilities are available
it is suggested that the ranks may best be filled by making careful
selections from among the most expert craftsmen, and then imposing
the art of teaching upon their craftsmanship. The office of the col-
lege is c/o National Inst. for the Blind, 224, Gt. Portland St., W. I.
Employment. As a large percentage of blind persons had lost their
sight in adult life, professional and handicraft training is necessary
even up to the age of 50, after which it is rarely successful. It is
generally agreed that, where practicable, blind persons should
continue in the occupations which they followed before losing their
sight, but where, as is usually the case, this is not feasible a selection
from the occupations most suited to the blind has to be made. The
following is a list of trades and occupations practised by the blind,
some being suitable for the workshop, some for the home and some
for either: brush-making, basket-making, mat-making, mattress-
making and allied industries, cane and rush seating, boot-repairing
and clog-making, carpentry and wooden-toy making, ships' fender
making, netting and string-bag making, hand and machine knitting,
weaving, poultry-farming, dairy work, pig-rearing, gardening, fruit-
farming, news-vending, shop-keeping.
Every encouragement should be given to the employment of
suitable persons in professional work; blindness obviously inflicts
a lesser handicap upon the brain worker than upon the manual
worker, hence the desirability of encouraging intellectual pursuits,
of which the following are the most usual: Holy orders, law,
politics, music, lecturing, teaching, coaching, journalism, business
management, commercial travelling, organizing and secretarial
work, shorthand and typewriting, insurance and other agencies,
telephony, massage, and pianoforte-tuning.
Excluding professional careers it is generally agreed that the work-
shop provides the best means of employing the blind, as they there
obtain regular employment under skilled supervision and in many
cases receive a substantial weekly bonus by way of augmentation
of wages. Among the large workshops in the United Kingdom the
following may be mentioned: Bradford Royal Institution for the
Blind; Birmingham Royal Institution for the Blind; Bristol Resi-
dential School and Workshops for the Blind ; Cardiff Institute for the
Blind; Leeds Incorporated Institution for the Blind and the Deaf
and Dumb; Henshaw's Institution for the Blind, Manchester;
Royal Midland Institution for the Blind, Nottingham; Liverpool
Workshops and Home Teaching Society for the Outdoor Blind;
Royal Blind Asylum and School, Edinburgh; Royal Glasgow Asylum
for the Blind; Incorporated Association for Promoting the Welfare
of the Blind, Tottenham Court Rd., London.
Systems of Reading. The Braille system is used throughout the
world, and can be adapted to any language or dialect. English-
speaking countries use the British alphabet based on the original
French alphabet devised by Louis Braille. In the United States
some differences were introduced, but at the time of writing it seems
most probable that a system almost identical with that common
to all other English-speaking countries will rapidly come into vogue.
In addition to the Braille method of producing books for the blind
the system invented by the late Dr. Moon is used to a considerable
extent. It is easier to learn than Braille, but has the serious dis-
advantages of occupying very much more space, and of not lending
itself to the contractions which have been introduced into Braille,
and which greatly add to the speed of reading. The Moon Society
is now controlled by the National Institution for the Blind.
Embossed Literature.- -Great progress has been made in the
methods of printing and illustrating books for the blind. In 1909 the
National Institute for the Blind (then known as the British and
Foreign Blind Association), through its secretary-general, Henry
Stainsby, instituted exhaustive inquiries as to the best and quickest
methods of printing Braille, with the result that the slow, cumber-
some and unsatisfactory method of printing on wet paper gave place
to the introduction of dry printing on special paper by means of
fast-running electrically-driven and electrically-heated presses of
the platen type. This new method of printing was found to be 15
times faster than the old method.
Book illustrations which are essentially diagrammatic rather than
pictorial are printed on the same presses, the plates consisting of
folded sheets of zinc upon which illustrations are embossed by means
of a special machine and a variety of hand punches. The embossing
through folded sheets of metal produces a perfect die and counter-die,
between which the paper is embossed in the press.
The fact that many scientific books are produced in Braille must
be laid to the credit of Mr. H. M. Taylor, Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge, who invented the mathematical and chemical formulae
which render their use possible. Blind students in all English-speak-
ing countries owe much to Mr. Taylor for having enabled them to
read by themselves books which otherwise they could only have
mastered with the help of a reader.
Many magazines for the blind, designed to suit various classes of
readers, are published in the United Kingdom, the principal being
Progress, The Literary Journal, The Braille Musical Magazine,
Comrades, The School Magazine, Nuggets, Hampstead Magazine,
and Hora Jucunda. But the magazine which has the largest circula-
BLINDNESS
463
tion is the Matilda Zeigler Magazine published by W. C. Holmet
New York, and distributed free of charge. There are two week!
newspapers for the blind in the United Kingdom the Braille Mat
and Weekly Summary.
Music. The Braille music notation has recently undergone grea
developments at the hands of a committee of blind experts appointee,
by the National Institute for the Blind, under the chairmanshi]
of its director of music, H. C. Warrilow. The old method of writini
several bars for the right hand followed by a corresponding numbe
for the left hand has given place to the practice of writing only a ba
for each hand alternately. In music of a simple character both handi_
are written together, chord by chord. These two modes of writing
are known as the " bar by bar " and " vertical score " methods re
spectively, and emphasize the harmonic aspect as distinguishe(
from the melodic which characterized the old method, the parts
being always written upwards from the bass. So great has been
the general improvement in representing the staff notation that it
is now possible to record in Braille any kind of music, no matter
how elaborate.
Lending Libraries. Embossed books and music, being very
cumbersome, can only be stored in limited numbers in the homes o
the blind, but are admirably distributed free of charge by such
agencies as the National Library for the Blind, London, which
possesses 65,000 volumes (representing 7,500 complete works) o
general literature in the Braille and Moon types, and 11,000 pieces
of music (representing 5,000 complete works).
Apparatus. Various methods have been devised to supply the
blind with reading-matter other than through the ordinary channels
of embossed books, but none of these have so far proved very prac-
tical, though hopes are entertained that continued and patient in-
vestigation will solve many of the difficulties that now prevent their
wide adoption.
Institutions and Societies for the Blind. The accommodation
provided for schools and workshops has been greatly improved in
England either by additions to existing buildings or the erection ol
entirely new premises. Within the latter category may be men-
tioned the schools for the blind at Gorleston-on-Sea, Leatherhead,
Bristol, Bradford, and the workshops at Birmingham and Hull.
The extensive new buildings of the headquarters of the National
Institute for the Blind were opened by the King and Queen in March
1914. This Institute has, since then, made enormous strides, its
principal work being the publication of books and music, home teach-
ing, provision of homes and hostels for the blind, care of blind
babies, the relief and after-care of blind civilians, and the higher
education of the blind and the financing of other societies. It is
affiliated to St. Dunstan's and to the Canadian National Institute
for the Blind, the last-named doing corresponding work from its
headquarters in Toronto.
Obituary. Among notable blind men who have died since 1910
may be mentioned the following:
Sir Francis Joseph Campbell, LL.D. (1832-1914), the writer of
the earlier article in this encyclopaedia (see 4.59*). Born in Franklin
county, Tennessee. Blinded at the age of four by the thorn of an
acacia tree whilst playing. Educated at various schools for the blind,
also at Harvard, Leipzig and Berlin. Was first principal and co-
founder with Dr. T. R. Armitage of the Royal Normal College for
the Blind, Upper Norwood, London, through which great impetus
was given to the higher education of the blind, particularly in fitting
sightless persons to become teachers, musicians, pianoforte-tuners,
and correspondence clerks.
The Rev. H. J. R. Marston, M.A. (1853-1921). Rector of Lyd-
ford-on-Fosse. Graduated at Durham University, where he had a
brilliant career, obtaining high honours and the Hellenistic Greek
prize, also a fellowship.
John Brown Herreschoff (1841-1915). The famous blind designer
of the " Vigilant," " Defender " and " Columbia," which so success-
fully defended the American Cup against the " Valkyries " of Lord
Dunraven and Sir Thomas Lipton's " Shamrocks."
The Rev. William Hill-Murray (1841-1911). As an agent of the
National Bible Society of Scotland he was sent to China and there
became interested in the cause of the blind, and himself invented a
numeral system for the blind to take the place of the intricate Chinese
language.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir Arthur Pearson, Victory over Blindness (1919)
and The Conquest of Blindness (1921); W. H. Illingworth, The
History of the Education of the Blind (1910) ; Winifred Holt, A Beacon
for the Blind, being the Life of Henry Fawcett (1915); Harry Best,
The Blind (1919); Wm. Campbell Posey, Hygiene of the Eye (1920).
Blinded Soldiers and Sailors. Special reference must be made
to the British soldiers and sailors who were blinded in the World
War, and who came directly under the care of the St. Dunstan's
organization, which it was the writer's privilege to found and
conduct. These men form an exceptional group in the blind
world, but the success of the ideas adopted in their training, the
high example of the men themselves, and the interest awakened
by their triumph over difficulties, must have a permanent in-
fluence in raising the status of the blind even in other countries
beyond the United Kingdom. The men were exceptional, be-
cause so many of them were young and full of the vigour of
health when their sight was taken from them. Drawn from all
classes, differing greatly in education, experience and tempera-
ment, they were as a whole men with a keen hold on life, ready
for any effort that would bring them again in touch with the
everyday world of work and pleasure. Fundamental to their
training was the idea that blindness was not to be regarded as
setting men apart from their fellows. It was to be held in the
light of a handicap; never as an affliction calling for pity. They
were to rely on themselves to the utmost degree and to make it
their object to be normal. In itself such a mental outlook had a
far-reaching influence; on it was based the whole system of train-
ing for these blinded soldiers who, from the first, found them-
selves kept in touch with all ordinary interests, while the kind
of work for which their training fitted them went far beyond old-
fashioned ideas of occupations for the blind.
St. Dunstan's, a large house with 15 ac. of ground, bordering
on Regent's Park, London, was generously placed at the dis-
posal of the Blinded Soldiers' and Sailors' Care Committee by
Mr. and Mrs. Otto Kahn, and was opened in March 1915.
It became the officially recognized training centre for the British
fighting men (including those of the overseas forces) who lost
their sight in the war, with the exception of a comparatively
small number of the Scottish soldiers who were trained at New-
ington House, Edinburgh. Queen Alexandra graciously consented
to be patroness of the hostel. Other large houses in the neigh-
bourhood were lent or rented; temporary buildings including
dormitories, classrooms, workshops, two chapels and recreation
halls were erected in the grounds of St. Dunstan's. On account
of the difficulty of getting in touch with the blinded soldiers
scattered in many hospitals the military authorities arranged for
their treatment at St. Mark's, Chelsea, the 2nd London General
Hospital. In this way was avoided the danger of discharged men
returning hopelessly to their homes with no other prospect than
lives of vacuity. While still in the wards of the hospital they
learned what blind men were able to accomplish, and began,
under the tuition of visitors from St. Dunstan's, the task that
lay before them of conquering blindness, a task in which few
of the whole number were to fail. Nor was it to occupy any
great length of time. The course of reeducation, all that is in-
volved in learning to be blind, occupied in some cases less than a
year and seldom extended to two years. Many of the men were
not only blind but had been otherwise wounded; some had lost a
hand, or an arm or a leg, or were sufferers from shell-shock.
But even in spite of these additional difficulties rapid progress
was usually made.
The accepted definition of blindness was: " Unable to read
or write or to do ordinary work in any ordinary way." The
vast majority of the men who came to St. Dunstan's had had
their eyes destroyed or were what is known as " dark blind."
The remainder were able to distinguish light, and of these a
small number had some slight degree of sight. Such were the
men who with almost unexampled fortitude set themselves to
get back to active life.
It is well to emphasize the spirit of St. Dunstan's. The hostel
vas a centre of brightness, and the men were no less determined to
>e happy than the people about them were to help them to forget
what they could not do and to make the most of all that they could
do. At one time no fewer than 800 men and women were giving the
whole or some part of their time to the care, entertainment and
nstruction of the blinded soldiers. Through the carpets in the public
ooms of St. Dunstan's ran linoleum paths for the blinded men,
landrails bordered the walks through the grounds, sounding-boards
?ave warning of steps. With these helps the men quickly developed
he senses of direction and obstacle, the confidence that would enable
hem to find their way in their own homes without assistance and
o trust themselves in public thoroughfares. Self-reliance was a
onstant aim ; the blinded soldier learned the value of avoiding what-
ver might emphasize his handicap. The more normal his bearing
he more were those about him put at their ease, and from every
joint of view was his happiness increased. In the sense of touch, of
learmg and of smell he daily discovered new powers. From the
repressions thus received he began to visualize, forming mental
t
'ictures of the people he met and his surroundings. The men
it. Dunstan's had not only to learn to work but to discover how
These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
464
BLISS BLOCKADE
fully their leisure hours might be occupied. Constant entertain-
ments were given at the hostel ; the men were taken to concerts and
theatres ; they attended football and cricket matches, with escorts to
describe the games; they found much pleasure in dancing, and threw
themselves into the interest of out-door sports, swimming, foot
races, tugs-of-war and rowing. The St. Dunstan's crews practised
on Regent's Park lake, under the direction of a coach, and annually
competed against one another in regattas on the Thames; they raced,
also, against sighted crews with success.
The hours devoted to instruction at St. Dunstan's were short ; in
teaching the newly blind it is necessary to remember the effort of
intense concentration involved. Two-and-a-half hours in the morn-
ing and two hours in the afternoon were spent by the men in the
classrooms and workshops. The employment of many blind instruc-
tors was an important factor in the rapid progress that was made ;
the blind experts gained at once the confidence of the blinded soldiers,
who realized that their difficulties were understood and that nothing
beyond their powers was being demanded. Among the officers and
men were many already experienced in some branch of business or
professional work, and when it was feasible they were encouraged to
Erepare themselves to resume their accustomed employment. The
let that one of the blinded officers went back to his practice as a
barrister, and another renewed his work as a chartered accountant,
may be recorded as examples of the manner in which difficulties
were surmounted. The occupations selected as being most easily
mastered by the sightless man who seeks profitable employment were
eight : massage, poultry-farming, shorthand-writing (by means of a
machine), telephone-operating, joinery, boot-repairing, mat-making
and basketry. All of these were taught, in addition to the art of
netting, which may be regarded as a remunerative form of recreation
for the blind. Many of the blinded soldiers learnt two trades. All
of them acquired proficiency in typewriting and received instruction
in reading and writing Braille.
While the war was still in progress some 60 blinded soldiers were
already employed, largely in military hospitals, as trained masseurs.
They had passed stiff examinations, and it is a remarkable fact that,
in spite of their own disability, they had equipped themselves to
help in the cure of other wounded men. As soon as the blinded sol-
diers had mastered an occupation they were found employment or
set up in their new industry. Apart from the pensions they received
they were able to earn incomes in some cases higher than they had
gained as sighted men before joining the army.
Before the close of 1920 1,300 blinded soldiers were established
in different occupations in Great Britain, in Canada, South
Africa, Australia and New Zealand. At that time there were
still several hundred others in training or to be trained. Besides
the soldiers actually blinded in the war, 23,060 were discharged
from the army with seriously damaged eyesight, and from this
number men arrived at St. Dunstan's overcome by the blind-
ness which had for long threatened them.
Early in 1921 St. John's Lodge, on the Inner Circle of Regent's
Park, became the permanent headquarters of St. Dunstan's
work.
The generosity of the public who supported St. Dunstan's was
a tribute to the high courage of the blinded soldiers; it made it
possible to do everything that was required for their new start
in life and to create an organization for their after-care. A high
percentage of success cannot be attained in the rehabilitation of
any large body of blind men by training alone. Some definite
assistance is required after men have been trained, supplied with
their tools and equipment and settled in their own homes. A
scheme of organized assistance was first tried on a large scale
by the authorities of St. Dunstan's. The first concern of the
blind craftsman is his supply of raw material. This must be
constant, of the right quality and nature, and must be available
at a good market price. Lack of sight makes the ensuring of these
essentials difficult, and St. Dunstan's organization therefore
established a stores and materials department from which any
blinded soldier was able to obtain in small quantities the mate-
rials necessary for his trade. Many hundreds of articles or kinds
of material coming from all parts of the world were always kept
in stock. All goods were supplied strictly at average cost, all
expenses of buying, storing and distributing being met from
St. Dunstan's funds. In order to ensure a constant market, even
in times of trade depression, sales depots were established, and
the men were paid by return of post the average price obtained
when their goods were sold. All expenses connected with carriage
and achieving the sales were paid by the organization. All arti-
cles which were sent up for sale were critically examined, and any
tendency to bad or careless workmanship was quickly stopped.
A staff of experts was employed to visit the men periodically
in their homes where they were able to correct mistakes and
teach new types of work in local demand. An employment and
propaganda department was established to obtain work for,
and promote the interest of, professional men, and steps were
taken to ensure that their methods of working were modern and
up-to-date. In addition to the administration of the services
mentioned above, a number of convalescent and holiday annexes
were established throughout the country. A fund was available
from which men could obtain grants in cases of sickness, accident
or business difficulty. The Blinded Soldiers' Children Fund,
which was raised to provide a weekly allowance until the age of 16
years to every child born to a blinded soldier after his disable-
ment, and therefore not pensioned by the Government, was
distributed by this department. The men's typewriters were
kept in working order, the visitors who went to see the men at
intervals being given a short course of instruction in minor re-
pairs. Music, reading and games were encouraged among the
men, and books, magazines, cards, dominoes, and music were
provided when these were required. In general, St. Dunstan's
After-Care Organization aimed at reducing a blind man's handi-
cap to a minimum in order to enable him to compete with his
sighted rivals on even terms.
In the preparation of this article the author gratefully acknowl-
edges the assistance of Mr. Henry Stainsby, the secretary-general
of the National Institute for the Blind, and of Capt. Ian Fraser,
director of the After-Care Organization of St. Dunstan's. (A. P.)
BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833-1911), American mer-
chant and politician (see 4.72), died in New York Oct. 9 1911.
Although prominent in the Republican party and long the
treasurer of its national committee, he would never run for pub-
lic office. His lack of sympathy with Theodore Roosevelt's
growing influence led him to retire from active politics.
BLISS, TASKER HOWARD (1853- ), American soldier,
was born at Lewisburg, Pa., Dec. 31 1853. He graduated from
West Point in 1875, was commissioned second lieutenant,
and in 1880 was promoted to first lieutenant. From 1885 to
1888 he was professor of military science at the Naval War
College; then for seven years aide-de-camp to Gen. Schofield
and inspector of rifle practice, with the rank of captain from
1892. In 1897 he became military attache at the American
legation in' Madrid. In 1898 he became major, and on the
outbreak of the Spanish-American War was promoted lieutenant-
colonel, serving through the Porto Rican campaign. From 1898
to 1902 he was in charge of Cuban customs and collector for the
port of Havana. In 1902 he became a member of the Army War
College Board, and in the following year commandant of the
Army War College. From 1903 to 1905 he was a member of the
joint Army and Navy Board and also a member of the general
staff. From 1905 to 1909 he held various commands in the
Philippines. During the latter half of 1909 he was president of
the Army War College and a member of the general staff, and
then was appointed assistant chief-of-staff, becoming in 1915
chief-of-staff. In 1917 he was made commanding-general, U.S.
army, but later in the year retired, having reached the age limit.
He was a member of the Allied Conference (1917), of the Supreme
War Council (1918), and of the International Peace Conference
(1918-9).
BLOCKADE (see 4.72). The blockade enforced against Ger-
many by the Allies in the World War was both in form and extent
without precedent in naval history, and its enforcement has given
a new meaning to the word. It was not a blockade in the strict
sense of the word; that is, a cordon of ships off an enemy's coast
precluding all approach to it under ban of confiscation. In its
final form it constituted a vast system of economic pressure for
the restriction of enemy supplies, and the power of the British
navy to intercept, detain and search ships and cargoes afloat re-
mained up to 1917 an essential part of it.
The Declaration of London, under which the navy attempted
at first to enforce the blockade, proved mere filigree, entirely
inapplicable to the intricacies of naval war. It represented an
attempt to reduce prize law to a code, and its effect was to render
BLOCKADE
465
the British blockade of Germany futile up to March 1915.
Under its rules food, cotton and all conditional contraband could
not be touched so long as they were discharging at neutral ports
such as Rotterdam or Copenhagen. One saving clause had been
added in an Order of Council of Aug. 20 1914, which permitted
some latitude by rendering such cargoes liable to capture if
there were sufficient evidence of enemy destination. Unfortu-
nately even this safeguard was swept away by a British Order in
Council of Oct. 29 1914 which restricted seizure of conditional
contraband to goods consigned to " order " or without a named
consignee, a regulation which promptly produced a vast crop of
dummy neutral consignees and rendered the blockade ineffective
for five months. No further action was taken against food-stuffs,
and for five months a succession of ships streamed daily through
the Downs, bound for Holland and Scandinavia with food and
cotton for Germany. Four cargoes only were placed in prize,
whereupon the prize court in London proceeded to sweep all the
veneer of rules away and adjudged that a " named consignee "
must be a bona fide and not a dummy consignee (British and
Colonial Prize Cases, the " Rijn, " June 6 1917).
The judgment has an important general bearing, for it con-
stitutes a justification from the naval point of view of the estab-
lished system of adjudication by a qualified court, where general
principles are applied to particular cases in the light of experience
and common sense, compared with a system based on a code
operated by busy officials under a burdened Secretary of State.
It was not until March n 1915 that the blockade was tightened
up by a new British Order in Council, under which all goods with
enemy destination or of enemy origin became liable to seizure,
and it was not till July 7 1916 that the broken shards of the dis-
credited Declaration of London were finally swept out of the way.
It was not a code but machinery that was wanted, and by March
1915 the machinery was beginning to take shape. The part
played by the British navy consisted in the interception and
examination of ships, which was under the purview of the Trade
Division (Capt. Richard Webb) of the Admiralty. A British
Contraband Committee, with representatives of the Admiralty
(Capt. Horace Longden and Lt.-Comm. W. E. A. Arnold Forster),
Foreign Office and Board of Trade, had been set up in 1914 to
decide whether a ship or cargo was to be sent in for adjudication.
Its necessary adjunct, a War Trade Intelligence Department to
collect and collate information of ships and cargo, was established
somewhat later. The code disappeared, and each cargo was
dealt with on its merits.
The British naval work directly associated with the blockade
fell under two heads the work of the blockade squadrons at sea
and the service of naval control. It was the function of the block-
ade squadrons to patrol the avenues to the ocean, intercept neu-
tral craft and send them into port for examination. This was
the task of the loth Cruiser Squadron, one of the hardest tasks
of the war and one which has received perhaps too scanty a meed
of praise. The squadron consisted at first of Edgar class cruisers,
but being unable to stand the terrific seas of the North Atlantic
they were withdrawn and their place taken by large armed mer-
chant cruisers (18 in number, in Nov. 1914) under the command
of Rear-Adml. Dudley de Chair (succeeded in 1916 by Vice-Adml.
Sir Reginald Tupper). In the South the conditions were different.
The configuration of the coast, the fear of minefields and des-
troyer patrols off Dover resulted in all traffic being shepherded
willy-nilly into the Downs; and this practically dispensed with
the difficult task of interception. The practice of performing the
search of ships in harbour was an innovation, and it remains one
of the outstanding lessons of the war that " visit and search "
(if the search involves an effective examination of the cargo)
cannot be effectively performed at sea, partly on account of the
complexity and difficulty of the work under modern conditions,
partly on account of the danger of submarine attack. Ships were
accordingly sent into harbour to be searched, and though the
dispatch of neutral ships into harbour was undoubtedly a con-
siderable extension of the universally recognized right of visit and
search, it was an extension inherent in the circumstances, for
without it the search would have become ineffective and the
right null and void. The practice, however, involved some nice
legal points, such, for instance, as whether a ship sent into a har-
bour by force majeure to be subjected to visit and search comes
under the full force of municipal jurisdiction and of port regula-
tions which would have subjected a huge Norwegian liner to
quarantine for a case of smallpox on board.
The patrol lines of the loth Cruiser Squadron stretched at
first from Norway to the Shetlands (250 m.), but as the sub-
marine menace extended they were moved to the westward and
lay sometimes between Iceland and the Hebrides, sometimes
between the Shetlands and Faroes (160 m.), and the Faroes to
Iceland (160 m.). The average weekly number of ships inter-
cepted in 1915 was about 66, of which some 15 to 20 were sent
weekly into Kirkwall with an armed guard. It was the duty of
the officer of the armed guard merely to ensure that the ship was
steering a proper course, and he did not interfere in any way
with the ordinary navigation or administration of the ship.
Little has been written of the work of the loth C. S., but its
dangerous nature can be gathered from the number of its ships
lost by mine and submarine. In 1915 its losses amounted to four.
The " Viknor " (Comm. E. O. Ballantyne) was lost with all
hands, off the coast of Ireland (Jan. 13), probably on a mine; the
" Clan Macnaughton " was supposed to have foundered (Feb. 3);
the " Bayano " was sunk by U27 on March n off Galloway;
the " India " by U22 off the coast of Norway on Aug. 20. The
" Alcantara " (Capt. Thos. E. Wardle), which sank the raider
" Greif " on Feb. 29 1916, belonged too to this squadron, whose
name was a household word in the blockade. The institution
of the white-list and black-list, which gave an indication of a
ship's nature, and the issue of green clearances to neutral ships
sailing from British ports, facilitated the work of interception;
and by March 1915 nearly all the more important neutral lines
had agreed to call at Kirkwall or the Downs in order to avoid
the delay of being intercepted far out at sea and losing time in
putting back.
In 1915 the number of vessels intercepted by the loth C. S.
was 3,098, of which 743, or 24%, were sent into Kirkwall; the
remainder, including 817 fishing vessels and 408 British and
Allied ships, were allowed to pass. During the same year 19
ships succeeded in evading the patrols, of which only eight were
of real consequence, a comparatively small number in view of the
long northern nights full of wind and frost and snow.
The port of control and detention in the North was Kirkwall,
which provided a large enclosed harbour where ships could be
safe from the sea and the enemy. The average number of ships
calling and sent in was some two or three a day in 1915, but in the
latter part of 1916, when Dutch traffic began to go north for a
time, it rose to five or six.
The Downs (Comm. W. Moorsom and Capt. Walter Tomlin)
was far the largest control station, and had the really immense
task of dealing with three-quarters of the neutral trade of north-
ern Europe. All the Channel traffic up and down had to be shep-
herded through, and here some 10 to 15 neutral ships had to be
examined daily. The manifest was taken off, sent ashore, sum-
marized (no light task in the case of big Dutch East Indies cargo
ships) and telegraphed to the Contraband Committee. The ship
outside the hold was searched for contraband and German mail-
bags, and some of the items in the hold were examined and com-
pared with the manifest. To examine and search a large liner
and the luggage of some 500 passengers took 10 officers and 20
picked men the best part of 18 hours. German women were
searched by lady searchers and allowed to go on. Meanwhile the
manifest was examined by the Contraband Committee in the
light of the knowledge they had of ships, cargoes, consignors and
consignees, and instructions sent to clear the ship or to send her
in to discharge all or a portion of her cargo, or to detain her till
guarantees were received. The ordinary period of detention for
ships eastward bound was one to three days, for ships westward
bound a day or less. A smaller control station at Falmouth re-
lieved the Downs of a portion of its burden.
The power of naval interception, visit and search, was in itself
a powerful form of pressure, for neutral shipping companies in
466
BLOEMFONTEIN BLOMFIELD
order to avoid delay preferred to send lists of their cargo in
advance and to make reciprocal arrangements for rapid clearance.
It was, however, only a single weapon in the armoury of eco-
nomic pressure. Control of bunker coal, shipping insurance, censor-
ship and cables, all found their place there, and formed the basis
of agreements with large corporations of merchants formed for
the purpose, such as the Netherlands Oversea Trust (N.O.T.)
for Holland, the Danish Merchants Guild for Denmark, the
Societe Suisse de Surveillance Economique (S.S.S.) for Switzer-
land. Sweden took a different line and made all such agreements
illegal, maintaining this attitude till April 1917. She was be-
yond the reach of British sea power, and the Lulea iron-ore
trade, though attacked with considerable effect by British sub-
marines in 1915-6, remained the principal stay of the German
munition industry.
The fundamental problem of a blockade of this type is to
discriminate between enemy and neutral destination, and the
two principal systems of discrimination may be termed the
"Intelligence" or "evidential" system and the "Rationing" or
statistical system. In the first, particular cargoes or items in a
cargo become suspect if there is any evidence of enemy dealings.
In the second, the whole mass of importation becomes suspect
immediately it rises above the normal average of imports. The
blockade emphasized the weakness of the former system, which
required enormous labour and specialized knowledge to keep track
of possible enemy dealings, and as early as Jan. 1915 the " Ra-
tioning " or statistical system was being advocated, and it was
proposed that careful account should be kept of the imports
of all important commodities, and when the import figures to any
neutral country rose high above the average for no accountable
cause, a plea for confiscation should arise. To keep these statis-
tics, which were largely based on the manifests, the War Trade
Statistical Department in London came into being, and in 1916
the principle of rationing was adopted by the Minister of Blockade
as the fundamental tenet of his system. But here a difficulty
arose which was never completely solved. Legal sanction for
condemnation was difficult to obtain on the basis of figures alone,
for statistics supplied no direct evidence of enemy destination and
the system had to be largely operated by means of assurances
and agreements. But, in spite of difficulties, by the middle of 1916
the blockade was becoming really effective. It began with an
excellent (but specious) code and no machinery; it ended with
excellent machinery and no code.
There can be no question that the World War has greatly
modified our conceptions of blockade. One of its most important
lessons is that discrimination between belligerent and neutral
destination is possible and can be enforced without friction, if
only the principle be admitted that a belligerent who controls
the sea is entitled to ask for evidence or assurance of genuine
neutral trade. Mercantile cooperation can then be invoked with
official approval to supply the machinery for such assurance.
This does not mean the legal prohibition of contraband trade,
but it means that such trade would gravitate into particular
ships which would have to run the blockade. As the sphere
of agreements and economic action extended, the role of the
fleet diminished, though there still remained certain sections of
trade either immune from attack or which could be reached only
by the fleet. Examples of such sections of trade were the
German iron-ore trade with Lulea in the Baltic Sea, and
the iron-ore trade with Narvik in Norway. A score or so of
German ships were engaged in the latter, passing down the
Norwegian coast inside Norwegian waters, but there were two
areas, one off Statlandet and the other off Ekersund, where they
had to leave neutral waters, and these were periodically visited,
though not permanently patrolled. Ships were also constantly
passing from Rotterdam to Germany, and it was not till
1917 that determined efforts were made to stop this trade.
In 1917, when the United States came into the war, the block-
ade underwent a great change. The Allied Powers in conjunction
with the United States now possessed an almost complete con-
trol of many of the principal commodities, and the combined
pressure they exerted was so tremendous that the goods never
got as far as the sea, and the blockade was practically trans-
formed into an embargo.
The final cutting edge of the blockade in 1917 and 1918 was
enforced not at sea but on the custom house quays at Boston,
Liverpool and New York. The ships of the loth C. S. left their
stormy beats to do convoy work. The Downs and Kirkwall lan-
guished, and the control services were transferred to Halifax,
Jamaica and Sierra Leone.
The fact that many forms of economic pressure contributed
to the blockade must not blind us to the fact that they were to a
large extent aspects of sea power. Thus, bunker control, a power-
ful lever of the blockade, was enforced by the British Customs
and Board of Trade, but the British coaling bases abroad had
been won by sea power and remained dependent on sea power.
Where the arm of the British navy could not stretch the block-
ade broke down. The frontiers of Rumania were impervious to it
and enabled Germany to hold out during 1917. To the last the
Lulea iron-ore trade remained a menace, for sea power could not
reach so far. In its bulk the blockade remained an expression
of sea power, with the imminence of the Grand Fleet going and
coming ceaselessly behind it in the North Sea. (A. C. D.)
BLOEMFONTEIN (see 4.74). Pop. (1918): whites 15,631,
coloured (estimated) 16,000. The most centrally situated town
in South Africa, Bloemfontein is the great market for the
agricultural and pastoral produce of the Free State. The
annual sale of pure-bred stud stock, held in Sept., is
the principal fixture of the kind in South Africa; in 1920 the
pedigree stock sold realized 283,000. The growth of the town
during 1910-20 was largely due to the progressive policy of
the municipality, which provided it with an ample supply of
water, electric light, an electric trackless tramway system,
modern sewerage system and other public services. In 1918 the
rateable value of the municipality was 3,895,000, its revenue
182,000 and its indebtedness 803,000.
Among modern buildings are the new Law Courts (in the classical
style), the National museum, the Normal and Polytechnic Colleges,
Grey University College, the Government Buildings (which replace
those burned down in 1908) and the Legislative Council Chambers
(the seat of the Appellate Court). A monument to the women and
children who died in concentration camps during the war of 1899-
1902 was erected in 1913 near the Show ground. The principal work-
shops of the Union railways are situated in the town of Bloemfontein.
Grey College, incorporated as a university college in 1910, has
been since 1918 the principal constituent college of the university
of South Africa. Besides the university college the institution in-
cludes high schools for boys and girls, and the buildings stand in
grounds covering 300 acres. At Glen, 14 m. N., is an agricultural
college, opened in 1919, with an experimental farm of 4,000 acres.
There is a military station at Tempe, 4 m. from the centre of the
town, and here is the Defense College for Officers.
Its central position makes Bloemfontein .a favourite meeting-
place for conventions and congresses, educational, agricultural and
political. Here was held, in the autumn of 1920, the conference
which sought, and failed, to find a basis for vereeniging (union)
between the two great Dutch parties in the Union, the South African
and the Nationalist.
BLOMFIELD, SIR REGINALD (1856- ), English architect
and author, was born Dec. 20 1856 at Aldington in Kent,
of which parish his father was rector. He was educated at
Haileybury and at Oxford as a scholar of Exeter College. He
took his degree with a first class in literae humaniores in 1879.
On leaving Oxford he was for three years in the architectural
office of his uncle, Sir Arthur Blomfield, and also studied in the
Royal Academy School of Architecture. He was here largely
influenced by Norman Shaw, to whose work and example, as
also to those of Philip Webb, his own work owed much. After
travelling abroad in 1883, he started a practice in London in
1884. He became one of the secretaries of the Art Workers
Guild, and also of the Arts and Crafts Society. The Gothic and
Mediaeval tradition of his uncle's office had but little effect on
his work as an architect, which rather follows the classical spirit
and the inspiration derived from the later Renaissance architec-
ture of England. This is shown notably in his country-houses,
amongst which are Moundsmere, Basingstoke; Wyphurst,
Cranleigh; and Uretham Hall, Norfolk. He also carried out
BLUE SKY LAWS BOLIVIA
467
alterations to existing houses at Brocklesby Park, Lines.; Ape-
thorpe, Northants.; Chequers Court, Bucks, and elsewhere.
Amongst his London work are the United University Club, Pall
Mall; the Goldsmiths' College, New Cross; the London and
County Bank; the Imperial War Cross, Chelsea; and Paul's
Cross, St. Paul's Churchyard. At Oxford he built the new
buildings for Lady Margaret Hall, and at Bath the Holbourne
Museum. With Sir Aston Webb and Ernest Newton he was
appointed to advise as to the architectural treatment of the
Quadrant, Regent Street, London, and he designed a portion
of the fagade.
As author, Sir R. Blomfield is known by various important
volumes of history and criticism. His Academy School Lectures
were published in 1908 as The Mistress Art. His Formal Garden
in England (1892), published in collaboration with F. Inigo
Thomas, did much to make known the claim of the architect to
consider as his right not only the design of the building but of the
surroundings in which it was set. His History of Renaissance
Architecture in England (1897) and his successive works on
French Architecture (1911 and 1921) are accepted by students as
textbooks, and their illustrations show the author's considerable
powers as a black-and-white artist.
Sir R. Blomfield was elected A.R.A. in 1905, and R.A. in
1914, in which latter year he was also made Officier de ITnstruc-
tion publique by the French Government. He was professor of
architecture at the Royal Academy from 1906 to 1910. He was
elected president of the R.I.B.A. in 1914, and received its Gold
Medal in 1913.
As an old member of the Inns of Court volunteers, at the
commencement of the World War he received a commission as
officer in charge of trench work. At its termination he was
appointed a principal architect of the Imperial War Graves
Commission, and he was one of the chief designers of various
forms of local war memorial. In 1906 he was made hon.
fellow of his college, and in 1920 Liverpool University con-
ferred on him the hon. degree of Litt.D. He was knighted in
1919 in recognition of his work as architect and author.
BLUE SKY LAWS. This name is popularly applied in the
United States to those statutes enacted in many states to
protect from fraud purchasers of stocks and bonds. The first
Blue Sky law was passed in Kansas in 1911, requiring invest-
ment companies among other things to file with the Secretary of
State a full description of their business and forbidding them
to sell securities until authorized by the bank commissioner.
Following the Kansas model, within two years no fewer than 18
other states had enacted similar legislation, and by the close of
1919 some form of Blue Sky law was to be found in 44 states.
Requirements vary in the different states, but in every case
information must be filed with a designated official or com-
mission and licence obtained. In 1914 there developed con-
siderable opposition to such legislation. Its constitutionality
was attacked on the ground that it violated the commerce clause
of the Federal Constitution; that it delegated legislative and
judicial power to an executive official; that it deprived citizens
of liberty and property without due process of law. In three
states, Michigan, Iowa and Ohio, these contentions were
upheld by the lower courts; but in 1917 the U.S. Supreme
Court decided that such laws were constitutional on the
ground that " prevention of deception is within the compe-
tency of government."
BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (1840- ), English writer (see
4.93), published a complete edition of his poetical works in 1914
and two volumes of My Diaries (1919 and 1920). His wife,
Lady Anne Blunt, became Baroness Wentworth on the death
of her niece, the daughter of the i3th Baron and 2nd Earl of
Lovelace, in 1917. She completed a History of the Arabian
Horse just before her death in Egypt Dec. 25 1917. She was
succeeded in the title by her daughter Judith Anne Doro-
thea, wife of Neville Stephen Lytton (b. 1879), 4th son of the
ist Earl of Lytton.
BODINGTON, SIR NATHAN (1848-1911), vice-chancellor of
Leeds University, was born at Aston May 29 1848. A gradu-
ate of Wadham College, Oxford, he became a fellow of Oriel, and
in 1882 professor of Greek and principal of Yorkshire College,
Leeds. It was owing to his efforts that the college was endowed
and chartered in 1903 as a university. He died at Leeds
May 12 1911.
BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN (1851-1914), Austrian econo-
mist and statesman (see 4.112), died in 1914.
BOHM-ERMOLLI, EDUARD, FRE:CHERR VON (1856- ),
Austro-Hungarian field-marshal, was born in 1856 at Ancona,
then an Austrian garrison town. He entered the army, serving
in the cavalry and on the general staff. In the World War he
commanded the 2nd Army, fighting first in Serbia, then against
the Russians in Galicia and Poland. In the operation of the
pursuit of the enemy after the battle of Gorlice he captured
the Galician capital, Lemberg, on June 22 1915. He also
played a distinguished part in the summer offensive of 1917.
After the conclusion of the peace of Brest-Litovsk he marched
into the Ukraine, and directed from Odessa the measures for
turning to account the resources of that country. In numerous
battles Bohm-Ermolli showed his capacity as a general in the
field, and was highly appreciated by the Germans.
BOISBAUDRAN, PAUL EMILE FRANQOIS LECOQ DE (1838-
1912), French chemist, was born at Cognac in 1838. He was
the discoverer of gallium in 1875 and a student of spectroscopics
generally, on which he wrote several treatises. Some details as to-
his work appear in 5.761; 6.46; 8.208; .11.421, 777. He died
in Paris May 31 1912.
BOITO, ARRIGO (1842-1918), Italian poet (see 4.155), died
June 10 1918.
BOLDREWOOD, ROLF, the pen name of Thomas Alexander
Browne (1826-1915), Anglo-Australian novelist, was born in
London Aug. 6 1826 and was educated at Sydney College,
N.S.W. He had an adventurous early life in Australia, being
successively a sheep farmer, a pioneer squatter in Victoria
and police magistrate and warden of goldfields till 1895. These
varied colonial experiences furnished him with material for his
long series of bushranging novels, of which Robbery under Arms
is the most widely known. This book was published in 1888 in
London after it had run as a serial in the Sydney Mail.
Amongst his other books are The Miner's Right (1890); A
Modern Buccaneer (1894); The Babes in the Bush (1900) and
A Tale of the Golden West (1906). He died at South Yarra,
Melbourne, March n 1915.
BOLIVIA (see 4.166). No census had been taken up to 1921
since the rough enumeration of 1900 indicating 1,816,271
inhabitants. In 1910 a Bolivian publicist estimated the pop. at
1,744,568. An official estimate in 1920 set the pop. at 2,500,000.
The inhabitants are scattered through eight departments and
three " national colonial territories," the most densely popu-
lated region being the department of La Paz. The pop. of the
city of La Paz in 1920 was estimated at 107,252.
Government. The fundamental law of Bolivia was in 1921
still the constitution adopted in 1880. In 1910 some changes
were made in the pfficial nomenclature of towns and cities; and
in 1914 a law was promulgated which abolished vice-cantons.
Although according to the statutes Sucre is still the capital
of Bolivia and remains the seat of her Supreme Court, the seat of
government is the city of La Paz, where the National Congress
assembles regularly, the members of the Cabinet have their
bureaus, and where the president of the republic lives.
Communications. In accordance with the Treaty of Petropolis.
( I 9O3), the Brazilian Government began in Aug. 1907 to construct
a railway round the series of cataracts in the Madeira and Mamore
rivers, from Sao Antonio on the Madeira river to Guajara Merim
on the Mamore river (Brazil). The Madeira-Mamore railroad was
formally opened to traffic on July 15 1912. Bolivia then under-
took to build a line between the Bolivian towns of Guajara Me-
rim and Riberalta on the Beni river, in order to link her rubber-
producing region with Amazonian navigation. In accordance with
Bolivia's treaty of 1904 with Chile, that Government constructed
a railway from Arica to La Paz, which was completed May 13.
1913. Thus Bolivia was furnished with a direct route to the Pacific.
An electric railway, financed by New York capitalists, was being
constructed in 1921 from La Paz to Corioco in the Yungas region.
468
BOLIVIA
and is to be extended to Puerto Pando. The rtntoiagasta and
Oruro railway now reaches La Paz by its own tracks. A branch line
has been constructed from Rio Mulato to Potosi. In Nov. 1916
the Bolivian Government began the construction of a difficult spur
from Potosi to Sucre. Another branch from Oruro to Cochabamba
was inaugurated in July 1917. A most important road was being
constructed in 1921 between Uyuni and Tupiza near the Argentine
frontier; trains were running between Uyuni and Atocha, while
automobile service had been established between Atocha and La
Quiaca (Argentina). Many miles of newtelegraph lines have been
built. Between July 1912 and Oct. 1916 the Marconi Telegraph Co.
erected wireless stations at several points in Bolivia. On Oct.
20 1916 the first wireless message from La Paz was received in Lima.
Commerce. Official figures show that in 1908 the total imports of
Bolivia amounted to 40,807,856 bolivianos (see below under Money
and Banking), while her exports came to 48,925,616. In 1915 the
imports were 22,574,566 bolivianos; the exports 95,210,350. The
countries taking the largest amounts of the exports were, in order:
Great Britain, the United States, Argentina, France and Chile,
while the countries furnishing the largest amounts of the imports
were the United States, Peru, Great Britain, Chile and Argentina.
The imports for 1918 amounted to 34,999,886 bolivianos, while the
exports came to 182,612,850. This was an increase over the pre-
ceding year in imports of 1,519,055 bolivianos and in exports of
24,864,796. The chief articles imported into Bolivia in 1918 were
valued as follows, in bolivianos: food products and beverages,
8,957,367; manufactured articles, 16,229,072; raw and slightly
wrought materials, 7,022,630; live animals, 2,040,632. The most
important articles of export were tin, 129,611,139 bolivianos, rubber,
11,038,042, wolfram, 10,591,429, and silver, 7,491,421. As con-
trasted with 1915 the figures for 1918 show that the United States
had increased her imports from Bolivia about 200 %, while Great
Britain had increased hers about 37 %; the figures for 1918 also show
that the value of the imports of Bolivia from Great Britain had
increased slightly, while imports from the United States had grown
more than 137%.
Army. The Bolivian soldiery is composed of the regular army
and the reserves. Ordinarily the number of soldiers belonging to the
regular army is fixed by Congress each year; in 1914 it was placed
at 4,600 men. All male citizens between 19 and 49 years of age are
compelled to serve in the regular army or in the reserves. The
reserves in 1914 were estimated at 187,178 men.
Education. A Bolivian sociologist declared in 1910 that less than
13% of his fellow-countrymen could read. Primary instruction is
still managed by towns and cities. Considerable attention has
recently been paid to the establishment of rural schools, as well as
to the instruction of aborigines in the Spanish language. According
to a report of the Secretary of Public Instruction, there were in 1916
about 450 primary schools in the Republic. In 1919 some 60,000
pupils were attending primary, secondary and normal schools.
Secondary education is mainly carried on in colegios nacionales
or in private academies. Methodists from the United States have
founded an " American Institute " at La Paz, and also at Cocha-
bamba : these academies are probably the best secondary schools in
Bolivia. Bolivian teachers are mostly trained at four normal schools,
the more important of these being at La Paz and Sucre. Higher
education in Bolivia is peculiarly organized; for in addition to
ecclesiastical seminaries, each department has at its capital an
institution which is styled a university. Certain of these institutions
have few university students: their instruction is mainly secondary.
The university of La Paz furnishes instruction in law, medicine and
theology.
Finances. Early in 1908 Bolivia had only a small internal debt
composed of bonds of various sorts. In Dec. of that year the Re-
public negotiated a loan with J. P. Morgan & Co. of New York
amounting to 500,000. Subsequently three loans were floated in
France to secure funds to promote banking enterprises ; and another
loan was raised in the United States for the construction of the rail-
way from Tupiza to La Quiaca. Bolivia's proposed budget for 1919
estimated the revenue at 39,089,000 bolivianos, and the expenditure
at the same amount. Proposed expenditures by departments were
as follows in bolivianos: Treasury, 14,600,000; War, 6,300,000;
Interior and Public Improvements, 5,5O,ooo; Public Instruction,
3,100,000; Justice, 1,870,000; Worship, 58,000; and other expendi-
tures, 7,661,000. On June 30 1919 the total foreign debt was
3,114,682. The internal debt was composed of bonds aggregating
19,456,165 bolivianos, and a floating debt of 10,477,471 bolivi-
anos.
Money and Banking. By a law of Dec. 31 1908 Bolivia vir-
tually adopted the gold standard. Her monetary unit is the
boliviano, which when at par is the equivalent of $0.389, U.S.
currency. Both the English and the ; 'Peruvian libra (pound)
are legal tender and ordinarily circulate" at the equivalent of
12-50 bolivianos. A considerable amount of paper money is in
circulation. Silver coins of 50 and 20 centavos circulate, as well as
nickel and copper coins of smaller value. In 1919 the Anuario
Estadistico listed the banks of Bolivia with capital in bolivianos as
follows: the Banco Nacional de Bolivia, 9,000,000; the Banco de la
Nacion Boliviano, 18,962,500; the Banco Mercantil, 10,000,000; the
Banco Francisco Argandona, 4,000,000; the Credit Hipotecaria de
Bolivia, 750,000; the Banco Garantizador de Valores, 100,000; and
the Banco Hipolecario Nacional, 100,000.
History. On Aug. 6 1909, President Monies was succeeded
by Elidoro Villazon. Under him much economic progress
took place: foreign commerce and national revenues increased,
and railway and telegraph lines were constructed. Gen.
Ismael Montes was again inaugurated president on Aug. 6
1913. During his new administration Bob'via felt the effects
of the World War; there was a marked decline in her im-
ports. Increased attention was paid to the mining of copper,
tin and wolfram. Jose N. Gutierrez Guerra, a Liberal who
had served as Secretary of Finance under Montes, was inaug-
urated president in Aug. 1917. Shortly afterwards the agita-
tion for an outlet to the Pacific reached an acute stage. In
July 1920, because of intense opposition to his policy which
apparently aimed at a rapprochement with Chile, Guerra was
forced to resign, and was escorted out of Bolivia by way of
Arica. Early in the following year Bautista Saavedra, a
Republican, was elected president. He was inaugurated Jan.
29 1921.
According to a treaty with Peru, Sept. 17 1909, a sur-
vey of the Bolivian-Peruvian boundary was begun by a mixed
commission in June 1910. By 1915 the commission had
virtually completed the demarcation of limits, and wooden
posts had been set up to mark the boundary. In the following
year the two governments agreed to replace those posts by
pillars of iron. Commissioners, appointed in accordance with
the Treaty of Petropolis (1903), to survey the boundary line
between Bolivia and Brazil, had by 1920 practically completed
the task of demarcation. According to the protocol between
Bolivia and Argentina dated Sept. 15 1911, surveys of the
Bolivian-Argentine boundary line, which had been suspended
since Oct. 1902, were resumed in 1913, and a joint com-
mission placed iron stakes along parts of the line. A treaty
signed at Asuncion on April 5 1913 between Bolivia and
Paraguay provided that their boundary dispute should be
adjusted by direct negotiations. Commissioners of the parties
soon undertook negotiations, documents were submitted in
support of the respective claims, but no definitive decision had
been reached in May 1921. Bolivia asserts a claim to territory
on the right bank of the river, Paraguay from the mouth of the
Pilcomayo river at least as far as lat. 22 S.
Early in. the World War, Bolivia showed her sympathy with
the cause of the Allies. Some young Bolivians proceeded to
Europe and enlisted under the French flag. In Feb. 1917
Bolivia, issued an invitation to the American nations asking
them to unite in a declaration that submarine attacks upon
neutral merchant vessels were contrary to all law. On April 13
1917 her Secretary of Foreign Relations gave the German
envoy at La Paz his passports, declaring that, as a steam-
ship navigating neutral waters with the Bolivian minister
to Berlin on board had been torpedoed by a German submarine,
the Government of Bolivia could no longer maintain diplomatic
relations with the Imperial Government. Bolivia was repre-
sented at the Versailles Peace Conference, and on June 28
1919 her representative signed the Treaty of Peace with Ger-
many. The Bolivian Government ratified the treaty on Nov.
16 1919. As a signatory of that treaty Bolivia became an
original member of the League of Nations.
The question of an outlet to the Pacific raised by the terri-
torial cessions of Bolivia to Chile as the result of the " War of
the Pacific," was in 1921 a crucial international problem. The
policy of Bolivia under various presidents had been to secure
the sovereignty over territory containing an outlet to the
Pacific Ocean. At times she had wished to secure the return
from Chile of her former department upon the Pacific; at other
times by negotiations with Chile she had aimed to acquire at
least a portion of the former provinces of Tacna and Arica.
Ex-President Montes, who was dispatched to France as Minister
of Bolivia by President Gutierrez Guerra, presented to the
Peace Conference a plea that his country should be given an
outlet through Tacna. Evidently the new Bolivian regime was
BOLO BOMBTHROWERS
469
in 1921 in harmony with the Peruvian Government with regard
to the question. Bolivia's aspirations had apparently again
turned toward the " revindication " of Antofagasta.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Anuario de Leyes, Resoluciones y Disposiciones
Supremas (Repi'iblica de Bolivia) (1911); Anuario National Esta-
distico y Geografico de Bolivia (1917-9); Boletin de la Oficina Na-
tional de Estadistica (1910-5); Comercio Especial de Bolivia, Expor-
tation, Importation, Bancos, 1915-1916; E. Diaz de Medina, Bolivia,
Breve Resumen Historico, Fisico y Politico (1914); Informe y A nexos
del Ministerio de Instruction Publica y Agricultura (1916-9); Me-
moria presentada al Congreso Ordinario . . . el Ministro de Rela-
ciones Exteriores y Cullo (1910-9) ; Ministerio de Hacienda, Me-
moria presentada a la Legislatura (1911-9); Mensaje del Presidente
Constitutional de la Republica al Congreso (1910-9) ; Monthly Bul-
letin of the International Bureau of the American Republics (1910-
21); Pan-American Union, Bolivia, General Descriptive Data
(1909-20); P. Walle, Bolivia: Its People and Its Resources, etc.
(1914). (W. S. Ro.)
BOLO, PAUL (d. 1918), French financial agent and traitor,
was born at Reunion, of humble parentage. He became at an
early age a dentist in Marseilles, and afterwards appears for
many years to have lived by his wits. In 1905 he made a biga-
mous marriage with the rich widow of a Bordeaux wine merchant.
He entertained lavishly in Paris and Biarritz, and was received
by many influential people, in spite of the fact that he under-
went a term of imprisonment for fraud in connexion with one
of his financial transactions. In 1914 Bolo met in Paris Abbas
Hilmi, Khedive of Egypt, to whom he proposed various finan-
cial schemes, and the Khedive bestowed upon him the title
of Pasha. On the outbreak of the World War Bolo appears to
have entered into communication with German agents for the
purpose of supporting a " defeatist " movement in certain Paris
newspapers. In 1915-6 he travelled in the United States, and
received considerable sums, amounting to over 300,000, from
representatives of Count Bernstorff, at the time German
ambassador to Washington. During 1917, however, the French
Government under M. Clemenceau displayed much energy in
hunting down treasonable conspiracies, and in Sept. 1917
Bolo was arrested. His trial by court-martial, begun on Feb. 4
1918, ended in his being found guilty of treason. Attempts
were made to connect M. Caillaux with Bolo's proceedings,
and Caillaux's acquaintance with the adventurer was brought
up later to his discredit at his own trial in 1920. A sensa-
tional feature of Bolo's trial was the appearance of Mon-
signor Bolo, brother of the accused and a well-known preacher
in Paris, as a witness for the defense, though as he had hardly
seen his brother for thirty years, his evidence was of small value.
Bolo was sentenced to death and shot at Vincennes, April 17
1918.
BOLSHEVISM, the name given since the Russian revolution
to the form of Communism adopted under the Soviet system of
government. Bolshevism as a doctrine and an organization is
not of purely Russian growth ; it is a branch of European Com-
munism. The development of the latter is discussed in the
article COMMUNISM. The earliest and most powerful expression
of modern Communism is to be found in the Communist Mani-
festo drawn up by K. Marx and F. Engels in 1847. This Mani-
festo has remained a kind of gospel for extreme Communists,
and its pronouncements served as a guidance in the attempt of
the Russian Bolsheviks (Russian for " Majority " party) to
create a Communist republic in Russia. Another element in
the circle of ideas appropriated by the Bolsheviks was provided
by the activity of Bakunin, the indefatigable Russian anarchist,
who fought for world revolution in 1849 in Dresden and in 1870
in Lyons, and who passed 12 years of his life in prison and in
exile. He was an admirer of Marx's learning and analytical
power, but he would never submit to the tyrannical pedantry
of Marx's school and stood up for an elemental awaking of
revolutionary instincts. State and law were enemies to be
fought and overthrown without any regard for tradition or
practical considerations. A third element was introduced by
the rise of militant syndicalism in France (see SYNDICALISM).
These three currents combined to produce the three fundamental
ideas of Bolshevism : the conquest of society by the proletariat
class, the power of revolutionary instinct and the dictatorship
of a compact minority.
The combination proved admirably adapted in Russia for
the practical purpose of the overthrow of the previously exist-
ing order. Theoretically it was a compound of contradictory
elements. This was clearly discerned and exposed by a leading
Marxist writer, Kautsky. He said in his book on the Dictator-
ship of the Proletariat:
" The Socialist party which governs Russia to-day gained power
in fighting against other Socialist parties, and exercises its authority
while excluding other Socialist parties from the executive.
" The antagonism of the two Socialist movements is not based on
small personal jealousies: it is the clashing of two fundamentally
distinct methods, that of democracy and that of dictatorship.
" For us, therefore, Socialism without democracy is unthinkable."
Kautsky had no difficulty in showing that, in consequence
of this fundamental flaw, the practical results of Soviet rule
were deplorable. It was obliged to work by means of an un-
wieldy bureaucracy:
" The absolute rule of bureaucracy leads to its ossification, to
arbitrariness and stultification. The forcible suppression of all
opposition is its guiding principle. How can a dictatorship remain
at the helm against the will of the majority of the people?
" In circumstances where the majority of the population mistrust
the proletarian party, or stand aloof from it, this attitude would be
shared by the bulk of the intellectuals. In that case, a victorious
party would not only be without great intellectual superiority to the
rest of the people, but would even be inferior to its opponents in this
regard, although its outlook in general social matters might be a
much higher one.
" The method of Paraguay is therefore not practicable in Europe.
There remains to be considered the method adopted by Napoleon
the First on Brumaire 18 1799, and his nephew, the third Napoleon,
on Dec. 2 1852. This consists in governing by the aid of the superi-
ority of a centralized organization to the unorganized masses of the
people, and the superiority of military power, arising from the fact
that the armed force of the Government is opposed to a people who
are defenseless or tired of the armed struggle.
" Can a Socialist system of production be built up on this founda-
tion? This means the organization of production by society, and
requires economic self-government throughout the whole mass of
the people. State organization of production by a bureaucracy, or
by the dictatorship of a single section of the people, does not mean
Socialism. Socialism presupposes that broad masses of the people
have been accustomed to organization, that numerous economic and
political organizations exist, and can develop in perfect freedom. The
Socialist organization of Labour is not an affair of barracks."
No wonder that Lenin and Trotsky were highly incensed by
Kautsky 's criticism. They excommunicated him as a traitor
to the cause, along with other Socialist leaders. But it was
significant that they had to adopt the badge of " Communism "
in order to mark their precise position in the field of rival
doctrines. They had ceased to be Socialists in the accepted
sense of the term.
The course taken by Bolshevist rule in Russia is narrated in the
article RUSSIA.
BOMBTHROWERS. When, contrary to all expectation, and
therefore to all ideas that had governed war preparations, the
World War, instead of reaching its decision in the open field,
came to the deadlock of trench warfare, there arose a demand for
short-range engines which could throw bombs to a greater dis-
tance than was possible by hand, or, alternatively, could throw
heavier bombs to the same distance.
Eventually this need was met by the development of trench
mortars and trench guns, many types of which were loosely
called bombthrowers, but all of which are differentiated from
bombthrowers in the sense here meant by the fact that they used
an explosive propellant. These are dealt with under TRENCH
ORDNANCE. But in the first phases of trench warfare such ord-
nance either did not exist at all or existed only in such small
numbers and in so imperfect a form, that for the needs of day-by-
day trench warfare along the front temporary substitutes were
evolved. To these substitutes the name " Bombthrower " is
so far as army usage is concerned restricted.
They relied for their propulsive effort, like ancient and mediae-
val engines, on the energy of springs. In some cases the spring
was a system of powerful rubber pieces put in tension when the
weapon was cocked and suddenly released by the pulling of a
470
BOMBTHROWERS
trigger. In one case the source of power was an assemblage of
coiled springs. In others, the rubber was replaced by a system of
wire which, on being bent out of shape, stored up the power to
reassert itself. In another, perhaps the last evolved during the
war and certainly one of the most ingenious, centrifugal force
was utilized, without previous storage of power.
Under the heading of bombthrowers as above defined should
also come the class of pneumatic guns, certain representatives
of which figured in the war on both sides, but owing to the general
similarity of these to normal (i.e. explosive-propellant) trench
ordnance they are treated along with the latter.
In naval usage, on the contrary, the term is applied to
explosive-propellant derivatives of trench ordnance which were
mounted on trawlers and other craft for the purpose of attacking
submarines. The object was to throw for a certain distance very
heavy charges of explosive that, equipped with a hydrostatic
fuze, would act in the same way as depth charges. These bomb-
throwers are dealt with under ORDNANCE: Naval Gunnery.
FIG. i.
The first form of catapult to become a regulation weapon in the
British army in France was the " Leach," used in 1915-6. This was
a strong forked wooden frame (fig. l) about 7 ft. in length from front
to rear, the width at the splayed end or fork being about I ft. 10 in.
Near the ends of the forked arms or " horns " were attached two
sets of powerful rubbers, the rubbers of each set being firmly bound
together at the extremities. The inner ends of these sets of rubbers
were attached to the pouch or bomb receptacle of the catapult,
which, when the rubbers were out of tension (and the pouch there-
fore in its forward position), was about I ft. 9 in. from the front of
the fork. When, in order to fire, the rubbers were pulled back to
extreme tension the pouch was less than a foot from the tail end
of the frame. This pulling back was effected by a wire attached to
the rear of the pocket, which passed round a pulley on the tail to a
gear-box on the underside of the frame. This gear-box contained
a winding-handle, gear, and a retaining-pawl; when the handle
was turned, the wire was drawn into the gear-box (the pawl pre-
venting its unwinding) and the rubbers extended. A bomb
was then placed in the pouch, and on the word or signal to fire a
trigger release broke the connexion between the pouch and the
wire, and the rubbers, reasserting themselves violently, propelled
the bomb.
With a heavy type of grenade weighing ij Ib. the Leach catapult
was capable with new rubbers of a range of 200 yd., and like other
bombthrowers it possessed the important advantage, as against
trench mortars, of invisibility and silence in action. The main
disadvantage, the rapid wear of the rubbers, could be overcome
by the frequent issue of replacements, the rubbers being re-
garded as " consumable " stores. There was, however, a limit to
the practical usefulness of this cheap and efficient weapon. Its
ranging powers were unnecessarily great for grenade work proper
and not great enough for the tasks which came to be assigned to the
trench mortar. Accordingly, a lighter and more portable weapon
of the same type was designed later bv Capt. G. H. Wicks of the
British Trench Warfare Department. This was easily portable and
manageable by one man, and ranged, with the I \ Ib. bomb, to about
100 yards. It was, however, not used in the field, as the line had
by that time (1916) been drawn clearly between trench-ord-
nance projectiles and grenades. The heavy ij lb.-2 Ib. grenade
having ceased to exist, the necessity for a weapon to propel it
ceased also.
The catapult of the French army, known as the " Sauterelle," was
smaller and more portable, but correspondingly less powerful, than
the Leach. It was a magnified crossbow, acting by the reassertion of
springs bent in cocking.
The " West " spring gun, used by the British
army in 1915 and to some extent in 1916, was a
heavier and more powerful weapon. It derived its
energy from a group of strong coiled springs; for
extreme range, no less than 28 of these springs
were brought into action. The general principle of
action is shown in fig. 2. The
weapon having been well bedded
in with sandbags for steadiness,
the throwing-arm which carries
the bomb-cup is forced back-
FIG. 2.
wards and downwards, against the resistance of the springs, by
means of a long lever inserted in an appropriate position for lever-
age. When the " trigger bar " on this arm engages with a member
called the trigger hook (visible in the drawing under the bomb-cup
arm), the gun is cocked. The long lever is removed, a bomb placed
in the bomb-cup, and the gun is then fired by pressing on the hori-
zontal lever which actuates the trigger release. This disengages the
trigger hook from the trigger bar, and under the force of the springs
the throwing-arm, carrying the bomb, flies up. The range obtained
with this weapon using a 2 Ib. bomb was about 240 yd., 24 springs
only being in action. Variation of range was obtained, as in the cata-
pults, by varying the tension, but also, in this case, by adjustments
of the position of the bomb in its cup. The West spring gun was
an ingenious design, which probably comes near the limit of
efficiency obtainable in applying the force of springs to an act of
throwing. But it was heavy, and not very easily managed, and re-
quired as large an emplacement as a trench mortar.
The Minucciani bombthrower, though it appeared late in the
war after trench engines of the 1915 type had had their day was
probably the most efficient and ingenious weapon of its class. It was
a large metal casing, circular, supported on a pedestal. Inside the
casing was a revolving member, formed somewhat after the fashion
of a centrifugal pump. Grenades of a special design (disc percussion)
were fed into the " pump " through an opening in the casing, and
when the pump was operated by turning a handle, they were expelled
by centrifugal force through another opening in the casing. Extraor-
dinarily high rates of fire combined with accuracy were obtained
with this machine, which could throw the bombs practically as fast
as they could be fed in, while, owing to their shape, the grenades
themselves ranged well.
Other types of engine developed in the war for throwing grenades
differed fundamentally from these in that an explosive propellant
was employed. Setting aside certain throwers which are hardly
distinguishable from light trench mortars (for which see TRENCH
ORDNANCE) and throwmg-devices attached to the service rifle (see
GRENADE), there remains a type in which the grenade is formed with
a sleeve tail and the thrower consists essentially of a peg over which
this sleeve fits, the propellant charge being loaded into the sleeve.
The action is thus exactly the reverse of that of a gun or trench
mortar. An engine of this type, known as the ' ' Hay pocket howitzer,"
was experimented with in Great Britain but never adopted as a
service store. The Belgian " Van Deuren " type and the German
Granatwerfer, on the contrary, were both used in large numbers and
the latter especially played a part not only in trench warfare but in
the open warfare of 1918 in which it was carried by the infantry in
their advance for the purpose of reducing machine-gun nests.
The Granatwerfer of the German army was issued on a large scale,
12 being allowed for each infantry regiment. There were two models,
of which the later, that of 1916, is here described.
The equipment comprised the thrower and baseplate (weighing
53 Ib.) and a metal platform (weighing 35 Ib.). The " gun ' (see
fig. 3) consisted of a cylindrical firing-peg screwed into a body.
This body (which was provided with a carrying handle) had at its
rear end trunnions which rested in trunnion seatings fixed to a small
baseplate, as in German trench mortars. Elevation was given by
clamping the body at the desired angle to an arc on the left side
which was rigidly attached to the baseplate. Laying for direction
was done by moving the baseplate (and with it the whole system)
BOMBTHROWERS, NAVAL BORAH
47i
round a pivot situated at the front end of the platform, and clamping
it when on the desired line.
The grenade as such is dealt with under GRENADE while this ar-
ticle is concerned only with its tail. This is a hollow tube, fitting over
the firing-peg, and having at the inner end of the cavity a propellant
charge contained in either a service rifle cartridge (with the bullet
removed) or else a capsule with a percussion cap. The interior of
the firing-peg is formed in somewhat the same way as the interior of
a rifle-bolt, that is, it carries a striker, striker-rod and striker-spring
which are controlled by a trigger. On the right side is a cocking-lever
by which the striker-rod is forced back against its spring till the
notch formed on it is engaged by the sear of the trigger. When the
FIG. 3.
grenade, with its propellant cartridge or capsule, is placed on the
peg and the safety pin of its fuze withdrawn, the trigger lanyard is
pulled, the sear frees the striker rod, which is impelled forward by its
soring and fires the cartridge cap, exactly as in a rifle. Until 1918
this weapon used only simple H.E. bombs. In that year a second
type was introduced in which a small repellant charge in the head
of the bomb was fired on impact with the ground, causing it to
rebound and so to burst in air instead of burying itself. The ordinary
(1915 model) grenade weighed 1-85 kgm. (4lb.) and had a range of
about 330 yards. The bouncing bomb was heavier (2-5 kgm., 5^ Ib.)
and ranged only to 275 yards. (C. F. A.)
BOMBTHROWERS, NAVAL: see ORDNANCE.
BONE, MUIRHEAD (1876- ), British etcher and painter,
was born at Glasgow in 1876. He was educated at Glasgow,
afterwards studying in the school of art in that city, and in
1897 and the following years produced some excellent work in
black and white for the Scots Pictorial. He established himself
in London in 1901, where he quickly made a reputation by his
etchings. He was elected to the New English Art Club, and
was prominent in founding the Society of Twelve. In 1906 his
etching " The Great Gantry, Charing Cross," was bought by
the National Art Collections Fund and presented to the British
Museum. During the World War his services were enlisted by
the British War Office for the production of pictures of the
western front, and some of these were subsequently reproduced
in volume form.
BONI, GIACOMO (1859- ), Italian archaeologist, was born
at Venice April 25 1859 and educated in Venice, Pisa and
in Austria and Germany largely by making student journeys
through the provinces of the ancient Roman Empire. He be-
came successively superintendent of the architectural school
of the Royal Academy of Venice, inspector of antiquities
under the Ministry of Public Instruction, commissioner for the
monuments of Rome, and, in especial, director of the excava-
tions in the Roman Forum and on the Palatine Hill, begun in
1899 (see 23.591 et seq.). These he has described in numerous
reports, and he has also published a report on the campanile of
St. Mark's at Venice, which was rebuilt under his direction and
completed in 1910. He was given honorary degrees by both
Oxford and Cambridge, and is a member of the Superior Council
of Antiquities and Fine Arts for the kingdom of Italy. In 1918
he unearthed on the Palatine Hill a Greek marble statue of
Victory dating back to the sth century B.C. Besides his reports
on Roman antiquities he published Hibernica, notes on burial
places and customs of ancient Ireland (Eng. trans. 1906).
BOOT, SIR JESSE, BART. (1850 ), British business man,
was born at Nottingham June 2 1850. He started a retail
chemist's business in a small way in that town, but gradually
extended it until branches were established, with factories
in connexion, in most of the towns in the United Kingdom. He
became chairman of Boot's Pure Drug Co., Ltd., and also of
Boot's Cash Chemists, Ltd., which later added lending libraries
and departments for the sale of fancy goods to the various
chemist's shops under their control. In 1920 he sold the whole
of his business to the United Drug Co. of America, under whose
control a new company was formed with the title Liggett's
International, Ltd., for the purpose of taking over other drug
concerns in England and Canada. In 1921 he formed Sir Jesse
Boot's Social Trust, Ltd., a registered company with nominal
capital 50,000 in 10,000 5 shares, to find out " by investigation
the best means of removing or alleviating poverty, distress, and
other social evils, and promoting social service." He became its
chairman and governing director, his wife and Mr. J. W. Briggs,
secretary of the Notts. C.O.S., being the other directors. He
received a knighthood in 1909 and a baronetcy in 1916.
BOOTH, CHARLES (1840-1916), English sociologist (see
4.238), died at Gracedieu Manor, Leicester, Nov. 23 1916.
A tablet to his memory, erected in the crypt of St. Paul's
cathedral, London, was unveiled by Mr. Austen Chamberlain
Dec. 15 1920.
BOOTH, WILLIAM (1829-1912), "General" and founder of
the Salvation Army (see 4.239). Towards the close of his life
he became blind through cataract, losing the sight of one eye in
1909, and of the other, after an operation, three months before
his death. But he had continued to direct the operations of the
Salvation Army, and learned to write without the aid of sight.
As late as 1909 he had undertaken his sixth motor-car campaign.
' His last public appearance was made at the Albert Hall, Lon-
don, May 9 1912, at a meeting to celebrate his 83rd birthday.
He died in London Aug. 20 1912. His intense faith, profound
and tireless sympathy, and disinterested devotion, had won for
" General " Booth a unique place in the social and religious
world. In the early nineties of the igth century he might
have passed away simply as the fanatical hot-gospeller of a new
sect of street-corner psalm -singers; it would have been incredi-
ble then that he should end his life as one for whom Westmin-
ster Abbey was seriously suggested as an appropriate resting-
place, one of the autocrats of the religious world, the creator
of a world-wide organization of social service.
His son, WILLIAM BRAMWELL BOOTH (b. 1856), was chief-of-
staff to the Salvation Army from 1880 to 1912, and succeeded
his father as " general " in 1912. His wife, whom he married in
1882, had been commissioner and leader of the women's social
work of the Salvation Army in the United Kingdom since 1884.
In 1920 she was made J.P. for the County of London, and in
1921 was elected one of the visiting justices for Hollo way prison,
where women convicts are confined.
BORAH, WILLIAM EDGAR (1865- ), American politician,
was born at Fairfield, 111., June 29 1865. He studied at the
Enfield, 111., Academy and entered the university of Kansas
with the class of 1889, but did not finish his course. He was
472
BORDEN-BOSANQUET
admitted to the bar in 1889, practised at Lyons, Kansas,
1890-1, and thereafter at Boise, Idaho. He was an unsuccess-
ful candidate for the U.S. Senate in 1902, but was elected in
1907 and again in 1913 and 1919. At the time of the split in
the Republican party in 1912 he opposed the nomination of
President Taft but refused to bolt and follow Roosevelt, al-
though in sympathy with his policies. In 1913 he was a
vigorous opponent of Secretary Bryan's proposal to create a
U.S. protectorate over Nicaragua. The same year he intro-
duced an unsuccessful bill for raising the income tax exemp-
tion to $4,000. He had long favoured a Federal levy on
incomes but thought that with the then existing system of
indirect taxation the additional burden should fall upon the
well-to-do. He favoured woman suffrage and independence of
the Philippines, but was opposed to the league to enforce peace
on the ground that it tended toward internationalism. He
strongly opposed many of the measures of President Wilson's
administration, and in particular the League of Nations, against
which, as a delegate-at-large from his state, he was an effective
speaker at the Republican National Convention of 1920.
BORDEN, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1847-1917), Canadian
statesman (see 4.245), failed to secure reelection to the Domin-
ion Parliament in 1911 and retired from politics. He had been
created K.C.M.G. in 1902 on the occasion of the coronation of
Edward VII. He died at Toronto Jan. 6 1917.
BORDEN, SIR ROBERT LAIRD (1854- ), Canadian states-
man (see 4.245), became leader of the Conservative Opposition
in the Canadian House of Commons in Feb. 1901, on the resigna-
tion of Sir Charles Tupper. This position he held until 1911,
when the Laurier Administration was defeated on the Taft-
Fielding Reciprocity Compact with the United States; he was
then called upon to form in Oct. 1911 a new administration and
was sworn of the Privy Council Jan. i 1912, taking office as
president of the King's Privy Council of Canada in the new
Cabinet. For the purpose of more effectively carrying on Can-
ada's part in the World War he formed, in Oct. 1917, a Union
Government, comprising members of both the Liberal and
Conservative parties, in which he took office as Secretary of State
for External Affairs. The Union Government was returned to
power in the general election of Dec. 17 1917. Borden was a mem-
ber of the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference
1917-8 held in London, England, but owing to ill health
resigned the premiership in 1919. He was created G.C.M.G. in
1914.
BORGLUM, GUTZON (1867- ), American sculptor, was
born in Idaho, March 25 1867. His father was a physician
who emigrated from Denmark in 1864. He was educated
at St. Mary's College, Kan., studied art at the school of the
San Francisco (Cal.) Art Association, and during 1890-3 at-
tended the Academic Julien and the Ecole des Beaux Arts
in Paris. He then returned to America for a year, but in
1896 went to London, and during the next five years exhi-
bited much sculpture and painting there and in Paris. In
1902 he moved his studio to New York. In 1904 he received a
gold medal for sculpture at the St. Louis Exposition. He was a
member of numerous organizations, including the Royal Society
of British Artists and the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts,
France. He was a disciple of Rodin and a leader of the insur-
gency in America. His theory of representing history by sculp-
ture is thoroughly in accord with that of ancient Greece. The
huge scale of many of his conceptions can be compared only with
that of antique Oriental monuments. For example, he proposed
a Confederate memorial on Stone Mt. near Atlanta, Ga.,
to be cut in relief along the face of that granite mountain as a
frieze representing an army on the march, conspicuous from
a great distance. In 1919 he exhibited a head of Lincoln cut
from a block weighing six tons. The same year he was chosen to
design a monument for Warsaw, commemorating the rebirth of
Poland. Among his colossal figures are the Twelve Apostles for
the cathedral of St. John the Divine, in New York, and another
head of Lincoln in the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington.
Other works include the Sheridan monument in Washington;
" Mares of Diomedes " and " Ruskin " in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York; statue of Lincoln, Newark, N.J.;
statue of Henry Ward Beecher, Brooklyn; the Wyatt Memo-
rial, Raleigh, N.C.; " The Flyer " at the university of Virginia;
gargoyles for a Princeton dormitory; " Wonderment of Mother-
hood " and " Conception."
BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL (1868- ), American
sculptor (see 4.250), brother of the foregoing, completed many
important statues after 1910, including " God's Command to
Retreat " (1911, Napoleon on horseback in a snow drift, bronze) ;
"Jacob Leisler," first governor of New Amsterdam (1911,
heroic figure in bronze at New Rochelle, N.Y.); "Reverie
of a Pioneer " (colossal equestrian for the Court of Honour,
San Francisco Exposition); " Backin' 'Em Up" (1919, four
dismounted cavalrymen, with horses); " The Little Lady of the
Dew " (unveiled 1920 in the churchyard of St. Mark's in the
Bouwerie, New York City); " Inspiration " and " Aspiration "
(1920, two statues of Indians, in stone, both at St. Mark's in
the Bouwerie). He was Y.M.C.A. secretary with the French
army in 1918, won the Croix de Guerre, and later was engaged
in educational work with the A.E.F. in France.
BORIS III. (z894- ), King of Bulgaria, eldest son of King,
Ferdinand (see 10.269) and of Marie Louise de Bourbon,
eldest daughter of Duke Robert of Parma, was born at Sofia,
Jan. 30 1894. Although his parents were Roman Catholics, the
prince was, on Feb. 14 1896, received into the Orthodox church,
the Tsar Nicholas II. being his god-father. He was educated
entirely in Bulgaria, first by tutors and later at the cadet and
officers' schools, serving subsequently as A.D.C. to the King
and to various generals. On the abdication of King Ferdinand,
immediately after the Armistice which put an end to Bulgaria's
disastrous share in the World War, Boris succeeded his father,
Oct. 4 1918.
BORNET, JEAN BAPTISTS EDOUARD (1828-1911), French
botanist, was born at Guerigny Sept. 2 1828. Details of his
special work on algae and lichens will be found in 1.590, 16.578
and 26.899. He was elected a^ member of the Academic des
Sciences in 1886 and received the gold medal of the Linnean
Society in 1891. He died in Paris Dec. 17 1911.
BOROEVIC VON BOJNA, SVETOZAR (1856-1920), Austro-
Hungarian field-marshal, was born at Umetic in Croatia. As a
young officer of infantry he served through the campaign for the
occupation of Bosnia in 1878, and afterwards on the general
staff until he reached the rank of general. In the World War he
first led the VI. Corps in the victorious battle of Komarow, and
as commander of the 3rd Army beat off the Russian attacks in
the Carpathians until May 1915. He then took over the com-
mand on the Isonzo. His name is for ever associated with the
ii victorious battles fought in the defence against Italian
armies twice as numerous as the Austrians and considerably
better equipped. After the collapse of the monarchy the Yugo-
slav Government refused the " black and yellow " general
permission to return to his province.
Boroevic embodies the type of the Croat general of the past
in the more polished mould of the present. By iron industry he
had acquired the fullest mastery of the science of war, as a gen-
eral in the field he was distmguished-by his intuitive judgment
of the enemy, by his tenacious energy, and by bis ingenuity as
BOSANQUET, BERNARD (1848- ), English philosopher,
was born at Rock, near Alnwick, June 14 1848. Educated
at Harrow and Balliol College, Oxford, he was for ten
years a lecturer at University College, Oxford (1871-81). In
1881 he came to London, and until 1897 engaged in lecturing
and social work. He married in 1895 Helen Dendy, herself the
author of books on social problems. During 1903-8 he was
professor of moral philosophy at St. Andrew's University. He
became a fellow of the British Academy. A Hegelian in philos-
ophy and a disciple of T. H. Green, his logical tenets are de-
scribed in 16.886, 888 and 917.
Amongst his published works are Knowledge and Reality (1885);
Logic, or the Morphology of Knowledge (1888); Essentials of Logic
BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
473
(1895); Psychology of the Moral Self (1897); Principles of Indi-
viduality (1911); What Religion Is (1920) as well as translations of
Hegel and Lotze.
BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA (sec 4. 279). Until Oct. 1918 Bosnia-
Herzegovina remained a territory of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire. A proclamation issued on the occasion of its annexa-
tion to the Habsburg Monarchy in 1908 promised these lands
constitutional institutions, which should secure to their inhab-
itants full civil rights and a share in the management of their
own affairs by means of a local representative assembly. In
performance of this promise a constitution was promulgated
on Feb. 10 '1910. This included a Territorial Statute (Lan-
desstatuf) with the setting up of a Territorial Diet, regulations
for the election and procedure of the Diet, a law of associa-
tions, a law of public meetings, and a law dealing with the
district councils (Bezirksrdte) .
According to this statute Bosnia-Herzegovina formed a single
administrative territory under the responsible direction and
supervision of the Ministry of Finance of the Dual Monarchy
in Vienna. The administration of the country, together with the
carrying out of the laws, devolved upon the Territorial Govern-
ment in Sarajevo, which was subordinate and responsible to
the Common Ministry of Finance. The existing judicial and
administrative authorities of the Territory retained their
previous organization and functions. The statute guaranteed
generally the civil rights of the inhabitants of the Territory,
namely citizenship, personal liberty, protection by the com-
petent judicial authorities, liberty of creed and conscience,
preservation of the national individuality and language, freedom
of speech, freedom of learning and education, inviolability of
the domicile, secrecy of posts and telegraphs, inviolability of
property, the right of petition, and finally the right of holding
meetings.
The Diet (Sabor) set up consisted of a single Chamber, elected
on the principle of the representation of interests. It numbered
92 members. Of these 20 consisted of representatives of all the
religious confessions, the president of the Supreme Court, the
president of the Chamber .of Advocates, the president of the
Chamber of Commerce, and the mayor of Sarajevo. In addi-
tion to these were 72 deputies, elected by three curiae or elec-
toral groups. The first curia included the large landowners,
the highest taxpayers, and people who had reached a certain
standard of education without regard to the amount they paid
in taxes. To the second curia belonged inhabitants of the towns
not qualified to vote in the first; to the third, country dwellers
disqualified in the same way. With this curial system was
combined the grouping of the mandates and of the electors
according to the three dominant creeds (Catholic, Serbian
Orthodox, Moslem). To the adherents of other creeds the right
was conceded of voting with one or other of the religious elec-
toral bodies within the curia to which they belonged.
All males 24 years of age, and natives of and residing in the
Territory, possessed the franchise, as also Austrian and Hun-
garian citizens engaged as officials in the administration and
on the railways in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Qualifications for elec-
tion as deputy were the same as for the franchise, save that the
minimum age limit was fixed at 30, and public officials and
teachers were excluded. The law on district councils created a
district council (Bezirksral) for every district (Bezirk) to take
part in the administration of local public affairs.
The Diet. On June 25 1910 the first session of the Diet of
Bosnia-Herzegovina was opened. Shortly before this the
Emperor Francis Joseph had visited the country for the first
time, and had met with an enthusiastic reception. The Diet
was composed of three great religious parties. The strongest was
that of the Serbs (Orthodox), the next that of the Moslems
(Mahommedan), and lastly that of the Croats (Catholics).
Each of these parties struggled for the hegemony, but since
none commanded a majority, efforts at coalition began among
the three groups. The opposition between Serbs and Croats,
which had come more sharply into evidence after the annexa-
tion, had become softened, and all three parties combined in a
demand for far-reaching autonomy. The constitution had not
contented the political parties, since it did not satisfy the desire
in the country for full self-government. The Government had
not a strong majority on the opening of the Diet, but under the
favourable impression produced by the Emperor's visit, the
first budget laid before the Diet was approved even by the
opposition groups, and in this the Government saw also a
kind of vote of indemnity for their administration in pre-con-
stitutional times. The Diet started a fruitful activity, and the
Government was able to secure a majority, consisting of Croats,
Moslems and moderate Serbs.
In the spring of 1911, during the discussion of the Road Con-
struction Bill, the language question for the first time led to
quarrels in the Diet in connexion with the notices on signposts;
throughout the year party wrangles, discontent with the con-
stitution, and the obstructive tactics of the radical Serbs
hampered business; and the Government no longer had a cer-
tain majority. Early in 1912 the Austro-Hungarian Minister
of Finance, Baron Burian the author of the Bosnian con-
stitution resigned office, and was succeeded by Ritter Leo von
Bilinski. To the new minister the representatives of the various
parties in the Diet presented a memorandum asking for a re-
vision of the constitution and of the rules of procedure in the
Diet; for an alteration of the electoral law; for a Government
responsible to the Diet and at least partly recruited from among
its members; for an extension of the sphere of activity of the
Territorial Government in political and economic matters; for
an independent policy of railway rates, the appointment of an
audit office for the financial control of the Government, and the
regulation of the language to be used by officials and function-
aries. The object for which the parties were striving became
more and more evident: the greatest possible autonomy for
the Territory of Bosnia-Herzegovina and independence of the
central Government of Vienna. With the rejection of tRe
budget of 1912 began an open conflict between the Govern-
ment and the parties in the Diet, which had as its result a long
pause in the activity of the Diet.
After wearisome negotiations and the acceptance by the
Government of a series of the demands set forth in the memo-
randum, a combination of Croats, Moslems and moderate
Serbs, in a working majority, was arrived at during the summer
of 1912, under which conditions the third session of the Diet
was opened on Oct. 22. The Government succeeded in obtaining
the indemnity for the 1912 budget, and passed through the
Diet a great number of the laws which it had drafted. New
difficulties cropped up in the discussions of the proposed law on
the language question. The draft law specified Serbo-Croatian
as the future official language in all affairs, both internal and
external, connected with the civil administration, with public
educational establishments, and State railways so far as their
external traffic was concerned. The parties also demanded
Serbo-Croatian as the official language of the railways in Bosnia-
Herzegovina itself; but this the Government refused to con-
cede; and, since no agreement could be reached, the Diet was
prorogued, and the fourth session was not opened until Dec.
20 1913.
For this session the Government had managed to secure a
working majority consisting of Croats, Moslems and moderate
Serbs. The language law and several other important meas-
ures were passed. A resolution was also carried in support
of a law drafted by the Government with a view to a solution
of the agrarian question which should do equal justice to the
interests of the landlords and the Kmets (see AGRARIAN QUES-
TION p. 474).
The business of the Diet was suddenly interrupted by the
assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Sarajevo
on June 28 1914. The session was closed on July 9, and on
Feb. 5 1915 the Diet was dissolved. Owing to later political
developments, ending -with the break-up of the Austro-Hun-
garian Monarchy, there were no new elections. In spite of
political obstacles the Diet had done much towards the develop-
ment of the constitution, and during its four sessions had framed
474
BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
numerous laws, many of which were important. Their discus-
sion was generally conducted on a notably high plane and bore
witness to a thorough and many-sided examination of the mat-
ters requiring consideration.
Administration. According to the census of 1910 the pop. of
Bosnia- Herzegovina on Oct. 10 1910 numbered 1,898,044 persons,
of whom 52-4% were males and 47-6% females. As compared with
the year 1895 the population showed an increase of 21 %. The civil
pop. of the capital, Sarajevo, had risen from 38,000 to 51,900 per-
sons. According to religion the population was divided as follows:
825,418 Serbian Orthodox = 43'5%
612,137 Moslems =32-3%
434,061 Catholics =22-9%
The remainder was composed of other religious creeds. According to
occupation the figures were:
Agriculture 87%
Industry 5-5%
Trade and Commerce . . . . 3 %
and in the public service and the liberal
professions in round numbers . . 2 %
Of the whole pop. from the age of seven upwards 87-84% were
illiterate. The part taken in the public service by the indigenous
element was on the increase (in 1908, 31 %; in 1910, 44-5% of all
public officials).
Pupils of the secondary schools in Bosnia-Herzegovina who passed
on to the universities or other higher educational institutions of the
monarchy, on their return entered the Government service or the
liberal professions.
The number of public schools in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the
period 1910^-8 was, at its highest, as follows: 568 elementary
schools, 4 higher elementary girls' schools, 3 training colleges for
male and female teachers, 9 trade schools, I commercial academy, 2
technical schools, I special technical school, 4 grammar schools
(Gymnasien), 2 higher Realschulen, I lower Realgymnasium, I mili-
tary lower Realschule, 3 theological colleges.
In addition to these there were numerous denominational and
private elementary schools, Turkish mektebs and medresses (lower
and upper Moslem schools) and three private grammar schools. In
1911 the Diet unanimously decided upon compulsory school attend-
ance for four years for children over seven years of age. In 1885 the
Landesmuseum was founded, and provided with a modern building
in 1912. It contains collections of scientific, artistic and historical
interest. In 1912 was established the Bosnian and Herzegovinian
Institute for research connected with the Balkan Peninsula. Worth
attention are the Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und
Hercegovina, published by the Museum, of which the I3th and last
volume appeared in 1916.
The Press underwent a rapid development. In 1914 there appeared
43 periodicals, six of which were daily papers, three weeklies, and 32
monthlies. Of these 38 were published in the Serbo-Croatian, two in
German, and the rest in both languages. There was also a great
increase in clubs and societies, which in 1913 numbered 833 with
102,000 members, one-third of them being Serb.
The Agrarian Question. Shortly before the opening of the Diet in
1910 a strong agitation had begun among the Kmets, i.e., peasants
holding of the great landlords under the metayage system and, in
some cases, by personal services in addition (see 4.280). In 1911 the
Diet unanimously passed a law for the conversion of these tenancies
into freeholds by voluntary agreement between landlords and
tenants with Government assistance. For this purpose the Govern-
ment was empowered to issue bonds (Kmetenablosungsobligalionen) ,
and a special office (Kmetenablosungsaml), akin to the Irish Land
Commission, was established at Sarajevo to carry out the law. The
process of redemption now proceeded rapidly. Whereas during the
33 years (1879-1911) 32,681 Kmet tenancies had been converted into
freeholds at a cost of 29 million kronen, 13,371 were converted
between June 1911 and the end of 1915. According to the calcula-
tions of the Sarajevo office, redemption in this form, which proceeded
without friction and had no unfavourable influence on the existing
agrarian situation, would have been completed within 20 years.
Military Service. In the year 1913 a new military service law
came into force in Bosnia-Herzegovina, by which the liability for
military service was put on the same footing as that in Austria-
Hungary. The Landsturm was not introduced into Bosnia-Herze-
govina, but in its place the 2nd and 3rd Reserves were formed.
Liability for military service began with the completion of the igth
year of age, and ended in the year in which the man liable for service
completed his 42nd year. By a law of 1915 the military service law
was modified to make the liability for service for the duration of the
war extend from the end of the i8th to the end of the soth year of
age. The military establishment for Bosnia-Herzegovina comprised
four infantry regiments and one Feldjager battalion.
Public Health. In the field of public health the Diet decreed in
1914 the extension of the Territorial hospital in Sarajevo, and the
erection of larger hospitals in the chief town of each district (Kreis)
and of smaller hospitals in the chief town of each sub-district
(Bezirk), and granted 12 million kronen for this purpose. The
execution of this decree was interrupted by the war, but an open-air
hospital for tuberculous patients was erected in Sarajevo. The
water supply of Sarajevo was extended, and in 1 1 towns a water
supply was either newly provided or extended. The cooperation of
the town councils in the sphere of public health and other adminis-
trative affairs was of considerable importance. The budget of the
Sarajevo town council for 1914 made a demand for 4 million kronen,
those of all the other town councils together 5 million kronen. In
many places electric light was introduced.
Justice. In the sphere of justice the independence of judges in
the exercise of their judicial functions, and their security of tenure,
were established by law, together with the responsibility of the
judges for damage caused by a breach of their professional duty.
Inspectors of the law courts were introduced, the setting up of a
house of correction for women in Zenica was decreed, and law
courts erected in Sarajevo which included all the courts in Sarajevo
and the prison. In 1914 an audit office was set up to supervise the
expenditure of the administration.
Agriculture. The most important branch of production in Bosnia-
Herzegovina had always been agriculture', in which 87% of the
population were employed. The efforts of the Government for the
improvement of agriculture (agricultural departments, schools of
viticulture and fruit culture, ploughing demonstrations, loans for
implements, instruction in agriculture, schools of rural economy,
Sunday instruction) were continued.
The statistics of the harvest for the most important crops in 1914
were: Cwt
Wheat 2,024,000
Barley 1,400,000
Oats 2,171,000
Maize 6,272,000
Among fruit crops the leading one is that of plums, which was
always of the highest importance. The crop statistics of this kind of
fruit fluctuated greatly:
1912: in a raw state 330,715 cwt.
1914: in a raw state 6,877,000 cwt.
Of the 1914 crop there were also 2,161,000 cwt. dried plums;
25,600 cwt. were converted into Lequar (pulp) and 1,570,000 cwt.
devoted to immediate consumption. The residue was used for
making the liqueur known as Shvovitz.
Stock-breeding plays a great part in the agriculture of Bosnia-
Herzegovina, being favoured by the extraordinarily rich production
of hay. The census of cattle in 1910 produced the following figures
for live stock :
Horses, asses and mules .... 228,831 head
Cattle 1,309,922 head
Goats 1,393,068 head
Sheep . . 2,499,422 head
Pigs 527,271 head
Industries and Manufactures. Industry is rapidly developing in
Bosnia-Herzegovina, and is principally directed towards the ex-
ploitation of the natural resources of the country, e.g. in forestry,
mining, and manufactures of chemicals and tobacco. To forestry
and mining in particular great importance attaches. The total area
under forest in Bosnia amounts to 50% of the whole, or 9,800 sq. m.,
75'8 % of which are State forests, the rest private property or Vakuf
belonging to Moslem religious foundations; 60% of the woodlands
are marked out for timber forests. The exploitation of these woods
supports many great forestry establishments employing large cap-
ital. In 1913 there were in the country 31 steam saw-mills, whose
plant for transportation of wood comprised 176 m. of gravitation
lines and 630 m. of steam railways. In the period 1913-6 1,230,000
tons of forest products were exported, a value of 83-5 million kronen.
Among mining industries the first place is occupied by the coal
mines, financed by the Territorial treasury, of Tuzla, Zenica, Kakanj-
Doboj, Breza, Banjaluka, Ugljevik, and Maslovare which produced
on an average 800,000 to 1,000,000 tons of coal yearly. Of these
mines Maslovare was newly opened in 1917.
Bosnia's production of iron ore is rich. From 1891 onwards Vares
had already been occupied in the production of ore and its conversion
into pig-iron and other foundry products, but the working of the
great ore deposits of Ljubija near Prijedor was only begun during
the war, and the raising of the necessary capital (about 16 million
kronen) undertaken. The works can cope with a daily production
and transport of 300 waggonloads of ore. The deposits consist of a
high-grade iron ore showing a proportion of up to 50 % of iron.
In 1912 a Geological Institute was set up, the most important task
undertaken by which was the construction of a new geological map of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. The general map was planned to consist
of six sheets on a scale of 1/200,000, and in 192 1 the sections Sarajevo
and Tuzla had been issued.
Among the chemical and other industries existing in 1910-8 were:
one alkali factory, one carbide and chloride of lime factory, one salt
distillery, one cellulose factory, one petroleum refinery, one alcohol
distillery, several breweries, a sugar manufactory and, finally, four
tobacco factories.
For the protection of workmen compulsory sickness insurance
was introduced in 1910, and preparations were completed for
legislation as to compulsory accident insurance for workmen. An
industrial inspector had already been appointed before this.
BOSTON
475
Finance and Trade. Numerous new credit institutions were at the
disposal of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Austro-
Hungarian Bank set up three branch establishments in the country,
and in addition 15 new credit institutions were founded, among them
the Serbian and Moslem Central Bank which, together with the
Croatian Central Bank, which was founded earlier, represent native
capital. In 1910 a Post Office Savings Bank was set up.
The chief statistics of foreign trade were published annually by
the statistical department. The last publication appeared in 1913 :
Imports : 460,000 tons of goods and 40,000 head of cattle
(in round figures).
Exports: 1,090,000 tons of goods, and 207,000 head of
cattle.
The total turnover of foreign trade in 1913 amounted to 338-8 million
kronen, 59.2 % of which represented imports and 40-8 % exports.
The export and import of goods in the years 1910-3 amounted to
the following:
Imports
Tons Mill. Kr.
1910 303.800 144-5
1911 35 2 .8oo . . . 154
1912 392,000 174
1913 460,600 200-7
Exports
1910 -1,078,000 I3 2 '9
1911 1,058,000 121-8 '
1912 1,078,000 130-2
1913 1,087,800 138-1
There were in the period 1910-8 1,300 m. of main roads and
930 m. of railways. A law was passed by the Diet sanctioning the
construction of 463 m. of new railways on the normal gauge and
65 m. narrow gauge, including the new sections Banjaluka-Jajce,
Samac-Doboj, Bugojno-Arzano, Bugojno-Rama, Brcko-Tuzla-
Bjelina Raca. The costs were estimated at 270 million kronen.
For payment of the interest and sinking-fund on this loan Austria
and Hungary pledged themselves to pay a yearly contribution of 10
million kronen for 60 years. Of these projected lines construction
was begun in 1914 on the sections Banjaluka-Jajce, Bugojno Arzano,
and Samac-Dpboj but interrupted owing to the outbreak of war.
The construction of the section Nivi Bihac was begun in 1914 and
continued during the war.
The traffic on the State railways of Bosnia-Herzegovina amounted
to:
Goods Traffic
1910 225 million net kilometre tons
1913 284 million net kilometre tons
Passenger Traffic
1910 119 million
1913 181 million.
During the period of the war the traffic showed a decrease in goods,
but an increase in passenger-travelling owing to army transport.
The economic and cultural development of Bosnia-Herzegovina
from the first years of the occupation till the end of the Austro-
Hungarian Government is reflected in the development of the
budget to the administration of these territories. The first com-
plete budget was drawn up in the year 1880, and provided for ex-
penses to the amount of 6 million gulden (12 million kronen). In
the year 1914 the expenses amounted to no million kronen with an
equal credit balance. The administrative expenses and the revenue
thus increased nearly tenfold in the period 1878-1918. Financial
activity during this time was considerable, and based exclusively on
money raised in the country. For the construction of railways and
common undertakings loans were raised which produced in round
figures 200 million kronen.
With the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in
Oct. 1918 Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia-Herzegovina also
came to an end. On Nov. i 1918 the newly formed National
Government (Narodna Vlada) in Sarajevo declared that it took
over the government of the country and broke off all connexions
with the former central Government in Vienna. Subsequently
the territories of Bosnia-Herzegovina proclaimed their union
with the newly founded State of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
(O. v. K.)
BOSTON (see 4.290). The pop. of the area incorporated as
"the City of Boston "was in 1920, 748,060; in 1910, 670,585, an
increase of 77,475 or n-6%, being by far the smallest percentage
of increase in the history of the city, and the smallest numerical
increase for 50 years. But the two figures are not precisely com-
parable, as the municipal area was increased from 43 to 48 sq. m.
in 1912 by the inclusion of Hyde Park which in 1910 had a pop.
of 15,507. During the five years 1915-20 the increase of pop.
was less than i %. The " metropolitan area," constituted by the
Legislature of Massachusetts for certain purposes of common
action, includes in addition to municipal Boston 38 adjacent
cities and towns and had in 1920 a pop. of 1,641,756 (according
to the provisional U.S. census returns), and in 1910 1,423,439.
The percentage of pop. in " the city " as compared with that of
the "metropolitan" area thus decreased from 47-8% in 1910
to 4S'S% in 1920.
Commerce. Boston's coastwise trade is important, the tonnage
being much larger than that of its trans-Atlantic commerce. Boston
is still second only to New York in export of meat and dairy products;
and is the largest leather, wool, and fish market in the world. The
port's foreign commerce is shown in the following tables:
Vessels in Foreign Trade
Entered :
Number Net Tonnage
Cleared :
Number Net Tonnage
1910
1915
1920
1.355 2,714,382
1,488 2,463,651
1,089 2,021.152
1,136
1,161
850
1,828,887
1,659,802
1,293,681
This shows a falling off in 10 years of: vessels entered 20%; tonnage
entered 26%; vessels cleared 25%; tonnage cleared 30%.
Imports and Exports of Boston District
Imports
Exports
1910
1915
1920
$129,006,184
152,653,791
456,246,322
$ 70,516,789
107,475,677
281,614,919
Manufactures. The following table shows the value of products
and of materials and the amount paid in wages in the years 1909,
1914 and 1918:
Manufactures of Metropolitan Boston
Year'
Value of Products
Value of
Materials used
Wages paid
1909
1914
1918
$ 510,583,337
584,115,582
1,240,496,193
$284,354,062
323,455.579
737.506,555
$ 93.125,349
107,139,932
210,781,794
First in importance among manufactures is outer footwear
$216,392,449 (leather boots and shoes $101,811,715, boot and shoe
cut stock $70,105,251, and rubber boots and shoes $44,475,483).
Next in importance are: slaughtering $98,047,504, machinery and
foundry products $91,155,376, printing and publishing $51,193,923,
men's and women's clothing $41,670,694, confectionery $37,988,668.
These are the industries in which growth has been most rapid, but
not rapid enough to overcome the slowing down as compared with
other industrial centres. The increase in value of product due to the
World War in the years 19148 was rapid, but did little more than
keep pace with the increase in prices. The total increase in the
number of persons thus employed from 1913, before the war, to 1918,
the period of highest production under war pressure, was 40,235,
following which, however, a large number of employees was laid off.
With immigration of foreign workers, the constricted industrial
opportunity has caused increasing numbers of native born to move
away from Boston. The actual increases in population have been
largely in the ranks of the immigrant peoples, 35 % of the inhabitants
of municipal Boston being in 1915 foreign born (24% of them Irish,
17 % Russian, 16 % Italian, 5 % English, 3 % German, 35 % all other
nationalities). Of the municipal pop. in 1915, 72 % was wholly or in
part of foreign parentage.
Railways During the 10 years 1910-20 the subway system was
enlarged. The Boylston addition from Arlington to Kenmore street
(1911-4) and the extension under the Common over the Charles
river basin and underground in Cambridge to Harvard square
(1914-8) developed a system 9 m. long, at a cost of $36,368,000.
These new subways with the elevated system have given central
clearance and ease of transfer throughout the district. The cities
and towns have permitted several of their interurban lines to be
abandoned. They have permitted many of their roads and streets
to go into disrepair, but the motor transport service by private
initiative has been greatly increased. The second transportation
requirement the need for equipment to keep in touch with outside
markets has not been met. Boston has failed to provide adequate
terminal and storage facilities: and it is constricted in its railway
service. There are three railway systems that look to Boston for
clearance and outlet: the Boston & Maine, the Boston & Albany,
and the New York, New Haven & Hartford. But the lack of
facilities for transfer from one system to another makes Boston
virtually three ports instead of one -competitors with each other
instead of with outside ports. The cities to the north (as Lowell,
Lawrence, etc., only a few miles from Boston) often find it of
advantage to ship via New York. The same is true for freight
originating on each of the three systems.
Education. The public-school system is under state guidance
and patronage (see MASSACHUSETTS). The growing interest in
higher education is reflected in the table below. It is significant that
476
BOTANY
Boston University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
which have undertaken to provide" technical and professional train-
ing to students who meet entrance requirements, have increased their
student enrolment far more than any of the other institutions.
Registered Attendance at Chief Colleges and Universities.
"E
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1910-1
1915-6
4,123
5,226
1,506
1,900
785
1,083
194
487
1,142
1,541
1,153
1,984
500
683
1,378
1,512
1920-1
5,667
3,475
1,253
735
2,128
7,7i8
652
1,551
Incr.
37%
131 %
60%
279%
86%
570%
30%
13%
The trend of higher education has been toward increasing oppor-
tunity for the masses. This is shown not alone by the increasing
number of full-time college students, but also by the rapid growth
in the number taking part time " University Extension Courses."
In Harvard, for example, the number taking these courses increased
96% from 1910 to 1920; in Boston University, 187%; under the
direction of the State Department of Education the number increased
from 1,360 in 1916 to 24,231 in 1920, nearly one-half of these stu-
dents being registered in metropolitan Boston. The estimated
number for 1921 was 30,000.
Municipal Boston in 1920 had 264 permanent and 137 portable
school houses, besides 21 rented quarters for schoolroom use;
provided 130,669 school sittings; and employed 3,413 teachers; also
97 assembly halls and 15 drill halls and gymnasia. It had 52 park
and 32 schoolyard playgrounds; employed 153 recreation teachers,
f6 school physicians, 48 school nurses, and 25 attendance officers,
n 1919 it registered 122,452 regular day-school pupils; 8,260 in
evening schools and 9,651 in continuation schools. The registration
in normal, high and latin schools for the same year was 17,018. Of
the pupils 82-6 % were in public schools, and 17-4 % in private schools.
Buildings, Libraries and Museums. -In 1910 the old Museum
of Fine Arts was demolished and on the site was erected the
Copley Plaza Hotel, built at a cost of $3,800,000 and opened in
1911. The new building of the Museum of Fine Arts, erected on
Huntington Ave., was opened Nov. 15 1909, and a second section
opened Feb. 3 1915, the total cost at that time being $3,900,000.
To the State House east and west wings were added during
1914-9, at a cost approximating $3,000,000. John Sargent's
series of panels in the public library was practically completed in
1916, when he added a third sequence, the " Theme of the
Madonna." In Jan. 1919 the public library contained 1,197,498
volumes (922,348 in Jan. 1908). It continued to be the largest
free circulating library in the world, with a circulation of 2,300,-
732 for 1919 (1,529,111 for 1907). The New England Con-
servatory of Music remained the largest in the United States,
having in 1919 3,700 students. The Boston Opera House was
erected on Huntington Ave. in 1909.
History and Finance. Boston, as a metropolitan district, has
retained much of the institutional structure of the old towns
which have grown together and become consolidated for certain
purposes by legislation. Several things have happened in the 10
years 1910-20 indicating a drift toward political unification.
What was called the " Boston 1915 " movement resulted in
better business leadership, in more ample support given to the
chamber of commerce and other trade bodies; and legislation
looking toward a unified harbour place. A new charter adopted
in 1909 gave to the city a small council (9 members) elected
" at large." In 1920, under the leadership of Mayor Peters, a
first effort was made to consolidate the several independent
cities and towns under a " Greater Boston " charter. In many
ways the whole metropolitan district had developed the habit
of acting together, as was exemplified in the Liberty Loan
and Victory Loan drives, the results of which were as
follows: First Liberty Loan $133^90,360; Second Liberty Loan
$147,259,650; Third Liberty Loan, $77,202,500; Fourth Liberty
Loan, $139,008,150; Victory Loan, $83,852,700; total amount
subscribed $581,113,350.
Boston's per capita expenses continued to be the largest of any
American city; but in the lO-year period ending in 1918 the net
debt increased only 17-11 %. The average yearly expenditure for
the five years ending in 1917 was $32,990,507, excluding payments
on funded and floating debts. The running expenses per capita in
1917 were $31.68 (New York, $25.64; Chicago, $22.26). The
Metropolitan Water Board, of whose expenditures Boston bears
only a share, expended from 1900 to 1919 $22,463,201. The system
has a capacity of 80,000,000,000 gallons. The city park system cost
from 189910 1919 $1,954, 738. The city debt in 1919 was $80,908,397
(gross debt $124,410,101) ; this included the debt of Suffolk county,
which in 1919 was $1,435,335. The chief objects for which the city
debt was created were in 1919: highways, $21,600,000; parks, $10,-
750,000; drainage and sewers, $21,540,000; rapid transit, $36,340,-
ooo. Boston paid in 1919 27-4 % of all state taxes, and about 32-65 %.
and 8 1 % respectively of the assessments for the metropolitan sewer,
parks and water service. The city's tax valuation in 1919 was
$1,528,153,778, of which only $198,863,678 represented personalty.
(F. A. CL.)
BOTANY (see 4.299, with references on p. 302 to separate
articles on botanical subjects).
I. Introductory. Any attempt to record the progress of
botanical science during the decade 1910-20 is made peculiarly
difficult by the fact that specialization has rendered it impossible
for any one person to keep abreast of all its manifold advances.
In the following survey, the subject is accordingly treated in
separate sections. Special reference, however, may be made
here to the remarkable developments of applied botany which
have been a feature of progress in England. The development of
forestry (see FORESTRY) is now recognized as a function of the
State and the Forestry Commission is actively engaged in
schemes for the promotion of research. The Ministry of Agri-
culture, which had previously established a number of agricul-
tural research stations, has not only been able to make provi-
sion by increased endowments for. larger and more adequately
remunerated staffs of investigators, but has also established
two new stations of first importance. These stations, located
together at Cambridge, are the seed testing station and the na-
tional institute of agricultural botany. The ultimate object
which the former will achieve is increased agricultural pro-
duction by an improvement in the quality of seed. The
latter which owes its existence to the initiative of Sir
Lawrence Weaver and to the financial assistance of the
Ministry of Agriculture, the Development Commission
and members of the agricultural industry, aims at increasing
production by the carrying out of large scale tests of the true-
ness, cropping capacity and specific usefulness of plants of
agricultural importance. To this end the station not only tests
both existing and new varieties but provides for the working up
of stocks of new and promising varieties on a scale sufficient to
ensure adequate supplies for commercial use.
Scientific horticulture has also received a great impetus by
the enlargement of the Royal Horticultural Society's experiment
station at Wisley. Already the investigations conducted at the
various experimental stations have led to results of great
botanical importance. Of these may be mentioned the researches
conducted at the John Innes Horticultural Institute on self-
sterility of fruit trees, those at the East Mailing and Long Ashton
stations for research in fruit trees, problems which have resulted
in an important advance in knowledge of fruit-tree stocks a
subject of equal botanical and horticultural importance.
The close association which has been established between the
department of practical physiology and pathology at the
Imperial College of Science, South Kensington, on the one hand,
and the research stations at Rothamsted and East Mailing, on
the other, marks an advance in organization destined to have an
important and beneficent influence on the progress of botanical
knowledge; for as it is certain that progress in applied science
must depend on the pioneer work of pure science, so is it no less
certain that applied science quickly discovers problems which
would otherwise long await the interest and attention of the
worker in pure science. (F. KE*)
II. General Physiology. The most striking aspect of advance
in plant physiology of recent years is the further development of
the attempt to relate the fundamental activities of the cell with
the colloidal nature of protoplasm. Protoplasm is considered to
be of the nature of a hydrosol with protein and lipoid material,
and possibly carbohydrate, as its disperse phase. It may,
however, assume temporarily during life, or permanently at
death, the condition of a gel, as is shown by the cessation of the
BOTANY
477
Browniaa movement of the particles {see Bayliss, Principle
of General Physiology, 1918). On the basis of the colloid natur
of the plasma membrane many of the phenomena of cell per
meability may be explained. On the colloid theory of protoplasm
the living organism has been defined as " a specific complex o
dynamic changes occurring in a specific colloid substratum
which is itself a product of such changes and which influences
their course and character and is altered by them " (Child
Senescence and Rejuvenescence, 1915).
Further investigation of the fundamental process of carbondioxide
assimilation has confirmed the work of F. F. Blackman and his
school, which showed that the rate of the process is controlled mainly
by temperature, light intensity and concentration of carbondioxide
Any one of these factors may control the rate of the process and so
act as a " limiting factory." The amount of chlorophyll, since i(
controls to a large extent the amount of light absorbed, should also
be a controlling factor, and Willstatter and Stoll (Untersuchungen
Tiber die Assimilation der Kohlensaure, 1918) have shown .that this is
so. With the help of the methods of extracting and estimating the
leaf pigments developed earlier by Willstatter they have been able
to relate chlorophyll content with rate of assimilation. Their
observations have brought out the interesting fact of the importance
of some unknown factor (possibly of enzymic nature) which may be
termed the protoplasmic factor. The existence of this factor is
demonstrated by the observation that, relative to the amount of
chlorophyll it contains, the assimilating activity of a yellowing
leaf may be many times that of a green leaf. The existence of some
such factor is also demonstrated by the observations of Miss Irving
(Annals of Botany, 24, 805, 1910) and Briggs (Proc. Roy. Spc. B.,
91, 249, 1920), who demonstrated that during the greening of
etiolated leaves chlorophyll appears some time before the process
of assimilation begins. Osterhout (Jour. General Physiol., 1919)
and Warburg (Biochem. Zeit., 100, 1919) have confirmed the high
temperature coefficient of the process of carbon assimilation which
was first demonstrated by Matthaei. This high temperature
coefficient shows clearly that the process of carbon assimilation is
not solely a photochemical process but is linked with one or more
" dark " reactions. Warburg has also been able to show that light
which was intermitted 16,000 times a minute the light and dark
periods being of equal length caused as much assimilation as con-
tinuous light of the same intensity. Light received intermittently
by the plant was thus twice as effective as that received during
continuous illumination. Reference must also be made to a work of
great value, Jorgensen and Stiles' critical review of investigations
of carbon assimilation up to the year 1917 (Jorgensen and Stiles,
Carbon Assimilation, 1917; originally published in the New Phytol-
ogist,_ 1916-7). An important method of estimating assimilatory
activity under natural conditions by following the growth of the
leaf area and of the dry weight of the whole plant was first used by
Gregory (Report Exper. & Res. Sta. Cheshunt, 1918), and has been
employed by Briggs, Kidd and West (Annals of Applied Biology
VII., 1920). The permeability of the living cell is another aspect of
plant physiology which has received much attention ; but although
many observers have studied the rate of entry or exit of substances,
it cannot be said that great progress has been made in elucidating
the mechanism of absorption, accumulation and translocation.
Measurements of electrical conductivity have been largely used
for estimating the rate of passage of electrolytes in or out of the cell,
and methods based on the rate of deplasmolysis have also been
employed. Stiles and Kidd (Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 90, 1919) using carrot
slices and the conductivity method, have estimated carefully the
rate of the entry of the cations and anions of a number of simple
salts, the rate of entry being apparently related to the mobility of
the ions. They have confirmed (using, however, a more satisfactory
method) the work of Nathansohn on the balance between the
concentration of salts inside and outside the cell. They show that
with weak external solutions there is a very marked " heaping up "
of material in the cell. For example, at equilibrium the concentra-
tion of potassium chloride in the cell may be 25 times that of the
external solution. The mechanism of accumulation is obscure, but
the equilibrium appears to follow the adsorption law. That marked
and repeated changes of permeability can occur in the living cell
has been shown by Osterhout (Science, 35, 1912; Bot. Gazette, 59,
1915; and other papers), who used the method of measuring the
effect of various salts on the electrical resistance of a pile of discs of
the thallus of Laminaria. The electrical resistance is taken as a
measure of the permeability to ions of the plasma membranes.
Increases of 50% and decreases of 20% in the resistance could be
sustained repeatedly without injury. Lepeschkin and Trondle have
demonstrated that changes in permeability can be brought about by
light, and so must be normal phenomena in the life of the cell ; and
Blackman and Paine (Annals of Botany, 32, 1918), using the elec-
trical conductivity method for determining the rate of exosmosis of
electrolytes from the pulvinus of Mimosa, have been able to follow
the change continuously and have demonstrated that although light
increases and darkness decreases permeability, yet the sudden
change from light to darkness causes a sudden small increase of
exosmosis which is soon, however, followed by a rapid decrease.
The question of the meaning of the growth process and its analysis
have engaged the attention of many workers on both the animal
and vegetable side. Robertson especially has applied an auto-
catalytic equation to express the growth period of an ordinary organ,
but as shown by Enriques it is only one of a number of possible
equations. Mitscherlich (numerous papers from 1909 onwards in
Landw. Jahrb., Land. Versuchs-Stat.,etc.) has put forward an equa-
tion to express the relation of crop yield to external factors, based
on the supposition that the increase of the deficient factor is effective
m proportion to the departure of the yield from the maximum yield
obtainable. V. H. Blackman (Annals of Botany, 33, 1919) has laid
stress on the fact that the plant increases on the continuous com-
pound interest principle, since with increase of leaf area its capacity
for assimilation increases, and this leads to a still further increase in
the rate of assimilation. The rate at which dry material is added,
assuming it to be added continuously, is termed the " efficiency
index."
_ J. C. Bose has continued his investigations of the growth and
irritability of plants (Researches on Irritability of Plants, 1913, and
Transactions of the Bose Institute, 1918). He has devised a special
instrument, the high magnification Crescograph, by means of which
the elongation of plant organs can be magnified more than a million
times. By this instrument not only can very minute contractions
and expansions be observed but also changes which occur in as
short a time as a fraction of a second. Bose has also investigated in
great detail the various electrical responses to stimulation which
plants exhibit. He has shown, for example, that when a stem which '
contains movable starch grains in its endodermis is placed hori-
zontal, a marked difference of potential is to be observed between
some neutral point (such as a leaf) and the interior of the stem. It
was further demonstrated by the use of a probe, in the form of a
fine insulated platinum point which could be forced into the tissue
of the stem, that the difference of potential developed is highest
when the point of the probe is in contact with the endodermis of
one side of the stem, falls to a minimum when the probe reaches the
centre of the stem, and rises again to a maximum (but with the
direction reversed) when the probe reaches the endodermis at
the other side of the stem. These observations provide additional
evidence of the part played by the statoliths of the endodermis in
the gcotropic response.
In the field of irritability the most important new point of view
put forward is that of Blaauw (Med. Landouw., Wageningen, 15, 91,
1919) on the nature of the phototropic reaction. This investigator
5rst concentrated his attention on the effect of light as such, apart
Tpm light direction. He made a very careful series of experiments
with the sporangiophore of Pilobolus and the hypocotyl of Heli-
anthus. By an ingenious arrangement of mirrors the plant was
lluminated equally all round with electric light of various intensities.
The rate of growth was measured every few minutes, and thus it
was determined that the " light growth reaction," as Blaauw terms
t, is a very complex effect. With continuous light Phycomyces shows
a latent period of 3-9 min., and then the rate of growth begins to
rise, reaching in 7-10 min. a maximum increase of 41-74%. The
ncrease is followed by a fall and then several rises and falls follow,
:he normal rate of growth being finally reached, except with very
ligh intensities.^ A similar result is obtained with Helianthus, but
:he main effect is a reduction of growth instead of an increase as in
Phycomyces. Blaauw explains phototropic effects as quite in-
dependent of light direction, holding that they are really due to
:he different intensity of the illumination of the two sides as de
Candolle maintained long ago. The fact that both Phycomyces and
Helianthus show a positive phototropic reaction while the light
growth reactions of the two are opposite in nature, is explained by the
ens-like action of the glassy sporangiophore, which causes a higher
ight intensity on the further side. Buder confirmed this explanation
or he has shown that by placing the sporangiophores in paraffin
oil, which abolishes the lens action, the response is reversed. The
oot of Sinapis alba shows a negative light growth reaction and nega-
ive phototropism, but here again, owing to the shape of the apex,
he side away from the light is the more highly illuminated. Blaauw
:laims that plants have no mechanism for the perception of light
direction, and that there is no such thing as a real phototropic re-
action, but only a light growth reaction. (V. H. B.)
III. Chemistry of the Sap Pigments of Plants. Flowers derive
heir tints from two very different classes of coloured com-
iounds, termed plastid and sap pigments respectively. The
ormer include chlorophyll, carrotin, xanthophyll and allied
ompounds, and are not soluble in water. Chlorophyll rarely
nters into flower colourings, but compounds of the carrotin and
canthophyll group are responsible for most of the bright yellow
.nd orange flower colours, whilst in the presence of anthocy-
ns they yield browns, bronzes, etc.
The sap pigments are water-soluble glucosides, and may in the
lain be subdivided into two groups. One group, the flavone and
avonol colours, contains compounds which, though usually present
n the cell sap of flowers, rarely give rise to colour effects as they are
478
BOTANY
pale yellow or colourless unless in the form of alkali salts. In certain
cases a fraction of a % of a carrotin colour may cover completely
more than 20% of a flavonol colour. The researches of A. G. Perkin
and others have resulted in the isolation and examination of a large
number of the members of this group, whilst the investigations of
Kostanecki have led to their synthetic preparation.
Colours of the second group of sap pigments are called anthocyans,
(the glucosides being termed anthocyanins ; the non-glucosides,
anthocyanidins). They give rise to the red, purple and blue colours
in flowers, and owing to their brilliant effects, have long been the
subject of speculation and research. It is only recently, however,
that their chemical nature has been disclosed. Willstatter and
Everest obtained the pigment of the cornflower in a pure state, and
proved that it exists in the flowers as a glucoside. They also showed
that by change in the condition of the cell sap one pigment may pro-
duce red, purple or blue colours: red in the presence of an acid cell
sap, purple if the sap be neutral and blue if it contain the pigment
in the form of an alkali salt. Indeed the same pigment (cyanin) has
been isolated from red roses and from the blue cornflower. These
observations have been extended by Willstatter and Mallison to
show how when the presence of pigments of the other groups is
allowed for, all variations of flower colours can be explained. Shibati,
Shibati and Kasiwagi have recently put forward alternative sug-
gestions to account for flower colours, but much of their experi-
mental evidence has been shown by Everest to be untrustworthy.
Other chemical work by Willstatter and by Everest has elucidated
the chemical structure of anthocyan pigments, has shown that
they are products of the reduction of the flavonols, and has led to
their synthesis. The accompanying formulae show how closely
anthocyan pigments are related to the yellow flavonol compounds.
(I.) represents kaempferol, a flavonol isolated by A. G. Perkin from
a species of larkspur, and (II.) represents pelargonidin, which is the
anthocyan pigment present in the flowers of various species of
pelargonium.
(ID
H
Cl
H
X)H
H
H
A considerable number of these pigments has now been isolated
in a pure condition. It is interesting to note that the honour of hav-
ing first prepared crystals of these pigments outside the plants falls
to the botanist H. Molisch. Both in the yellow sap pigments and in
the anthocyans, the individual pigments only differ from other pig-
ments of their own group in the number and position in the molecule
of OH, methoxy, or sugar groups.
Before the relationship between flavonol and anthocyan pig-
ments had been demonstrated by chemical means, much botanical
work had been carried out on this problem, notably by Wheldale
and by Keeble, Armstrong and Jones. These investigations con-
firmed views expressed many years previously that there was some
definite connexion between the yellow sap pigments and the antho-
cyans. They also led to the belief that the anthocyan pigments were
formed from flavonols. This belief has been greatly strengthened by
the proof of the close chemical relationship that exists between the
two groups of pigments, and by the work of Everest, Willstatter
and Combes, which proved that flavonols could readily be converted
into anthocyans. Moreover Everest has shown that in all probability
the anthocyan present in the Black Knight viola is accompanied by
the flavonol pigment from which it would be produced by reduction.
A number of flavonol compounds has been found to exist in plants
in the sugar free condition, but thus far only one anthocyan has
been definitely proved to exist in nature in the non-glucoside form
that occurring in black grapes.
It is of interest to mention that whilst many of the yellow sap
pigments have long been used as mordant colours for commercial
dyeing processes, and are so still used to some extent in Europe and
more in the East, the beautiful anthocyan pigments also have well
marked tinctorial properties and yield fine shades on tannin mor-
dants. In the non-glucoside condition they have affinity for metallic
mordants, but owing to their lack of fastness in washing their use to
any large extent is commercially impracticable.
Beyond the two main groups mentioned above, sap pigments
exist which differ in constitution from the members of the main
groups. Doubtless the number of these will increase as investiga-
tions proceed. An interesting case is that of the pigment of the
" Red Pea Gall " recently investigated by Nierenstem.
For reference to the literature see M. W. Onslow, Practical Plant
Biochemistry (1920); M. Wheldale, The Antkocyanin Pigments of
Plants (1915); A. G. Perkin & A. E. Everest, The Natural Organic
Colouring Matters (1918); Shibati, Shibati & Kasiwagi, Jnl. Amer.
Chem. Soc., vol. 41, p. 208 (1919); Everest & Hall, Proc. Roy. Soc.
B. vol. 92, p. 150 (1921); Everest, Jnl. Soc. Dyers & Colourists,
vol. 34, p. 47 (1920); M. Nierenstein, Jnl. Chem. Soc., vol. 115,
p. 1328 (1919). (A. E. Ev.)
IV. Mycology. The recognition of the primary importance
of the physiological point of view as compared with the older
morphological (or systematic) point of view was prominent as
the inspiration of perhaps the most important work in plant
pathology during the period 1910-20. In England the brilliant
work of Blackman and his school laid the foundations for a
scientific knowledge of the physiology of infection by parasitic
fungi. These studies have been concerned with Botrytis (Black-
man and Welsford, 1916); (Brown, 1915-17); Colletotrichum
(Dey, 1919) and Synchytrium endobioticum (Curtis, 1920).
The study of specialized or adaptive parasitism has been followed
with fruitful results. The validity of the conception of " bridging
species " involving as it does a certain physiological plasticity of
the fungus which was accepted by Marshall Ward and Salmon,
has been alternately affirmed and denied. Pole-Evans (1911) has
asserted that a rust when growing on the susceptible Fi hybrids
may thereby become capable of infecting the immune parent used
in the cross; Freeman and Johnson (1911) have stated that barley
acts as a " bridging species " for biologic forms of Puccinia graminis
on other cereals. On the other hand, the number of investigators is
increasing who, working with isolated strains of the parasitic fungus
under rigidly controlled conditions, have found no evidence for the
existence of " bridging hosts." The admirably systematized and
patient researches of a band of workers in America, headed by Stak-
man, seemed destined to solve this most important question of the
constancy, or plasticity, of the " biologic form." The complexity of
the problem may be gauged by the fact that a considerable number
(at least 22) of " biologic forms " of P. graminis on wheat have now
been discovered a fact explaining why the same variety of wheat
may be immune in one locality and susceptible in another (Stak-
man, Piemeisel, Levine and Leach, 1917, 1919).
Specialized parasitism has been studied also by Barrus (1918),
who has found local " biologic forms " of Colletotrichum lindemuthia-
num; by Reed (1912-8) and Vavilov (1913) in the Erysiphaceae
and by Fischer (1912-7) in the Uredineae. In England Wormald
(1919), investigating the " brown rot " (Sclerotinia) diseases, has
discovered the existence of two " biologic forms " in S. cinerea, of
which one, capable of causing a blossom wilt and canker disease of
the apple, is characterized by a more abundant secretion of oxidase.
Brierley (1919-20) working with single spore cultures of strains
from a " mixed population " of Botrytis cinerea has shown that their
phenotypic characters are modifiable but are specific in relation to
constant factors.
As illustrating the physiological bent of' many important re-
searches that have been made, the following may be mentioned :
the relation of soil temperatures to root infection (Jones and Gil-
man, 1914-6); (Tisdale, 1916-7); (Edson and Shapovalov,
1920); relations of temperature and humidity to infection by
certain fungi (Lauritzen, 1919); (Brooks and Cooley, 1917); re-
lations of some rusts to the physiology of their hosts (Mains, 1916) ;
chemical changes produced in host tissues (Hawkins, 1916), (Rose,
1915); relations between climate and disease (Stevens, 1917);
influence of soil conditions on Thielavia (Johnson, 1919) and Pseu-
domonas citri (Lee and Fulton, 1920); physiological studies on
spinach showing " Mosaic " disease (True et al., 1918) ; effect of the
" black rot " fungus on the chemical composition of the apple
(Culpepper et al., 1916).
The bionomics of " potato blight " (Phytophthora infestans)
have been much studied. The investigations of Melhus (1915)
and Pethybridge (1911) have thrown lighten the nature of the
primary seasonal outbreaks; Clinton (1911) made the notable
discovery that oospores are formed by the fungus when grown on
a certain artificial medium a fact confirmed by Pethybridge
and Murphy (1913). Eriksson (1917-8) has stated that " myco-
plasm " and non-resting oospores occur in " blight-infected |'
potato leaves; since, however, this observer now sees " mycoplasm "
in so many directions (rust on cereals, rust on hollyhock (1911),
mildew on the gooseberry) independent confirmation of its existence
in at least one of the cases is necessary before the " mycoplasm "
hypothesis can be accepted. Evidence in marked opposition to
Eriksson's statements as to the primary outbreaks of hollyhock rust
has been published by Bailey (1920).
From the study of bacterial diseases of plants, no previous period
of ten years had seen the collection of so rich a harvest of facts. The
indefatigable work of Erwin F. Smith constitutes by itself an in-
valuable library of exact information. In his researches (1912-20)
with Bacterium tumefaciens, the organism causing " Crown gall '
in plants, proof has teen obtained that the gall formed at the point
of infection gives rise to tumour strands which push their way
through the surrounding tissues and develop secondary and tertiary
growths, analogous to what is found in animal sarcoma, carcinoma
and embryoma. Numerous other workers, e.g. Morse (1917) in
the United States, Doidge (1915-9) in South Africa, and Paine
BOTANY
479
(1917-9) in England, have been rapidly adding to our knowledge
of this group of parasites.
Among the notable outbreaks of plant diseases which have
occurred are the American gooseberry mildew (Sphaerotheca mor-
suvae) originally introduced from America and now fixed past all
eradication in the fruit-growing countries of Europe; the terrible
" wart disease " of the potato (Synchytrium endobioticum) neglected
in the early days of its appearance in Great Britain and now firmly
entrenched in the Midlands, in Wales, in the seed-growing districts
of Scotland and sporadically elsewhere in England, reaching in 1920
to the great potato-growing county of Lincolnshire. On the Conti-
nent it has appeared in Hungary, Holland, Sweden, Germany etc.
Such is the virulence of this potato disease that in infested soil
potato growing becomes impossible unless recourse is had to an im-
mune variety. The disease has been made the subject of much inter-
national legislation, affecting export trade. In 1918 it appeared in
the United States in miners' gardens among the coal-fields of Penn-
sylvania; a strict quarantine has been established round the infested
regions, and a publicity campaign has been started in America with
an organization and vitality unknown in Europe, the results of
which later years will reveal. In South Africa, Australia and
America the Citrus canker (Pseudomonas cilri), originally intro-
duced on a plant from Japan, has swept through the citrus planta-
tions with devastating results. In South Africa the canker eradica-
tion campaign up to 1919 had cost over 60,000. In the United
States the white pine Blister Rust (Cronartium ribicola), which was
introduced into America from Europe about 1892, continued to
make steady progress in the white pine regions of the eastern and
north-eastern states, notwithstanding that for several years a
coordinated campaign by the State and agricultural organizations
had been in progress, under which " scouts " and " State eradication
crews " destroyed wholesale the species of Ribes which constitute
the alternate host of this heteroecious Rust. In one survey of an
area of 72 sq. m. in New Hampshire, one-fourth of the pines was
found to be infected. The Chestnut Bark disease (Endothia para-
sitica), which appeared in 1904 in a park in New York, increased to
such an extent that by 1921 losses of hundreds of millions of dollars
had already been caused and it threatened to destroy every chestnut
wood in North America. This disease, probably introduced from
Japan, girdles and kills the chestnut tree; its spores are distributed
from tree to tree by the wind, insects and birds.
Renewed warfare (reminiscent of the Massachusetts Barberry
law of 1755 and the similar law in Denmark in 1903) has been
declared in the United States against the barberry. In 1916 it was
estimated that Black Rust (Puccinia graminis) on wheat caused a
loss of nearly 200 million dollars in the United States. This Rust is
heteroecious and field observations in the States have shown that
the aecidiospores from the barberry start, in the spring, epidemic
outbreaks of Rust on wheat.
Another group of diseases which excites alarm in the United
States and also in Europe is the " Mosaic " diseases or " infectious
chlorosis." A prominent American pathologist has said of this class
of diseases that " it gives one the creeps," so obscure is the cause,
so infectious is it and so increasingly prevalent on a rapidly increas-
ing number of host plants (potato, tomato, tobacco, cucumber,
spinach, bean, red clover, sugar-cane, maize, grasses). The investiga-
tions of a band of workers, among whom may be mentioned Allard
(1914-8), Brandes (1920), Dolittle (1920), Schultz et al. (1919),
appear to show that the cause of these menacing diseases is an
ultramicroscopic organism, rather than an enzyme as previously
supposed. On some plants the disease is freely transmitted by cer-
tain sucking insects, such as Aphides. In Europe the chief example
is the disease of the potato called " Leaf curl," the subject of im-
portant investigations by Appel (1911) (1915), Quanjer (1913-20),
Doby (1911-5), Artschwager (1918), Neger (1919) and Murphy
and Wortley.
The decade ending in 1920 was rich in investigations bearing on
the scientific control of plant diseases. Stimulated by the now
classic discovery made by Biffen in 1907, that the inheritance of
Rust resistance follows on Mendelian lines, workers in genetics
(see Genetics) in many countries, e.g. Nilsson-Ehle, Biffen, Pole-
Evans, Stakman, Parker and Piemeisel, and Hayes, Parker and
Kurtzweill, have been engaged in the breeding of disease-resistant
plants. It has been shown that resistance and susceptibility to Rust
can hardly be considered as simple characters, the F 2 results giving
evidence in favour of the multiple factor hypothesis. Immunity
from, or resistance to, many different types of fungous diseases has
been sought for and found, either by selection or cross breeding, in
many genera of economic plants. Varieties of beans and sugar-cane
immune to " Mosaic disease " have been discovered (Reddick and
Stewart, 1919); Earle (1919); beans immune to Colletotrichum,
found by Barrus (1915) and used in cross breeding by Burkholder
(1919) and McRostie (1919); asparagus resistant to Rust (Norton,
1913), resistance to citrus canker (Peltier, 1918); wilt (Fusarium)
resistant cottons, tomatoes, cabbages and flax (Orton) ; potatoes,
English, German and American varieties, immune to " wart dis-
ease " (Malthouse, Snell et al.); Werth (1919), Marlatt (1919);
potatoes immune to " blight " (Salaman, 1910); cereals immune to
Erysiphe Graminis (Vavilov, 1913), Reed; hops immune to Sphaero-
theca Humuli (Salmon, 1917-20).
Of great importance, economically, has been the scientific study
of fungicides. The great work of Pickering (1907-12) in elucidat-
ing the chemistry of " Bordeaux mixture ' profoundly affected the
method of making copper-containing washes. Additional knowledge
has been gained by the researches of Sicard (1914) and Vermorel
and Dantony (1914) in France, Ewert (1912) and Wober (1919) in
Germany, Mond and Haberlein (1919) in England, and Butler (1914-
20) in America. Gimingham and Barker (1911-14) showed that
a biological rather than a chemical explanation holds good for the
efficacy of copper-containing fungicides on the sprayed plant.
A notable advance, accelerated in many countries by wartime
organizations, has been made in the legislative control of plant
diseases by the State. In most countries the grower is now required
by law to notify the outbreak of certain infectious diseases of plants.
In Great Britain " wart disease " of the potato (Synchytrium endo-
bioticum) has been the subject of numerous legislative orders, where-
by the sale of " seed " potatoes, and their import and export, are
controlled, and the grower prohibited from growing susceptible
varieties of potatoes in affected districts. On the other hand, the
State, by a system of inspection, guarantees the purity of stocks of
immune varieties. Other recent examples of legislation against fungi
in England are the " Silver leaf " order of 1919 and the Onion Smut
order of 1920. The former was introduced to try to save the " Vic-
toria " plum and other valuable plums from being exterminated
by the " Silver leaf " disease, now definitely known, through the
work of Percival and of Brooks (1911-9), to be caused by the
fungus Stereum purpureum. The grower is now required by law to
burn the dead tree or the dead wood of the tree on which the
Stereum fructifications are formed. This order, however, is ad-
ministered as an educational rather than as a punitive measure. The
United States, in their efforts to stop the importation from Europe
of new fungous pests, passed in 1912 a " Plant Quarantine Act,"
under the provisions of which the importation of all five-leaved
species of Pinus from Europe and Asia was prohibited, for fear of
their carrying the white pine Blister Rust; also, potatoes coming
from many European countries were excluded in fear of " Wart
disease." Later legislation has prohibited altogether the importa-
tion of plants into the United States except under special licences.
In this step South Africa has followed. In the United States, an
Act to prevent fraud in the sale of fungicides and insecticides is in
force, and in England, where during the World War the purity of
copper sulphate for spraying was legally guaranteed, further legisla-
tion to secure the purity of lime sulphur and arsenical washes has
been contemplated. Legislative measures against plant diseases
commonly affect international interests, and the first of what were
planned as regular international Phytopathological Conferences
(interrupted, however, by the World War) was held at Rome in
1914. A Convention was signed at Rome by the delegates of some
30 states pledging themselves not only to maintain an official
phytopathological service for the detection and suppression of
certain diseases, but also to maintain institutes for scientific re-
search, so that state officers may be supplied with the best technical
advice. Another branch of state activity is seen in the surveys of
plant diseases which are being made in many countries. The
" Report " (1918) of the American plant pathologists, compiled by
Lyman and others, is a document of absorbing botanical and eco-
nomic interest, and from it can be gathered a good idea of the wide
development of extension work with field laboratories and of " team
work ' in research now existing in the United States. Similar
organization for plant disease surveys exists also in Germany
(Appel, 1914). The Annual Reports of the Plant Diseases Branch
of the Ministry of Agriculture in England, and the similar reports
issued in France, Holland and other European countries, as also in
India and pur Colonies, are forming the basis for a world-wide census
of plant diseases, the necessity for which has been so ably put for-
ward by Sorauer and Eriksson in Europe, by Butler in India and
by the leading American plant pathologists. (E. S. Sa.)
V. Soil Sterilization. Intensification of culture leads always
to an increase in the soil flora and fauna, and among the forms
that assume importance are many that are directly or indirectly
harmful to plants.
It has been found that a simplification of the soil population
leads to increased productiveness and greater healthiness of crop.
This simplification can be brought about by mild killing agents
which are not too drastic in their effect which will kill living
germs, but not all spores.
Steam heat is the most effective agent: it is so effective that it
would always be adopted if questions of cost and convenience
never arose. It not only kills animal pests, ova and larvae of
eelworms, wireworms, woodlice, etc., and reduces fungi, but it
also brings about a certain amount of useful soil decomposition,
thus greatly facilitating the work of the food-producing organisms
of the soil. Steam heat is used in two ways in the glasshouses
of the Lea Valley in England: in one the soil is dug over, then
covered with a large wooden tray under which steam is blown
480
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for about an hour; in the other the soil is trenched in the usual
way, but at the bottom of the trench is placed a grid made of
iron piping perforated with holes through which steam is blown
as soon as the soil has been replaced. The grid is then pulled
out and placed in the next trench. The cost before the war was
not less than 24 per acre, and in 1921 it varied according to the
thoroughness of the steaming from about 90 to 300 per acre.
In small nurseries or private glasshouses baking the soil is usually
effective and is much cheaper, a coke oven being worked at very
little cost. There is, however, a limit below which the cost can-
not be brought, and in practice 12 tons or more of coke are
needed to steam an acre of soil.
Attempts have therefore been made to find some chemical
agent that will prove as effective as heat in dealing with undesir-
able organisms.
The method of investigation is to take each organism and
find the toxicity of various chemical groupings. An example is
as follows:
Amount required to kill Wireworms.
(Gram molecular weights.)
Basal Substance
Added Group
One Group
Two Groups
Benzene
100
Methyl
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
Amide
Nitro
Hydroxyl
Chlormethylene
54
26
H
6
3'5
3
1-4
o-5
3 8
Non-toxic
Non-toxic
Proceeding in this way it is found that chlorcresol and dichlor-
cresol are very effective, and they are being studied on a large scale.
Some complications arise from the fact that soil bacteria have re-
markable powers of decomposing many poisonous substances such
as carbolic acid, cresol, naphthalene, etc., and in some cases the
decomposition proceeds so rapidly that the substance disappears
before it has had proper time to act. This difficulty is being met by
the introduction of stabilizing groups.
See E. J. Russell and H. B. Hutchinson, " Partial Sterilisation of
Soil," Jour. Ag. Sci. 1909, iii., 111-144, 1913, v., 152-221; E. J.
Russell and F. R. Pethybridge, Jour. Ag. Sci. 1912, v., 86-111;
Jour. Bd. Agric. 1912, xviii., 809-826, 1913, xix., 809-827 and 1914,
xx., 102; E. J. Russell, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 1920, xlv., 237; D. W.
Cutler and L. M. Crump, Annals of Applied Biology (1920).
(E. J. R.)
VI. Ecology. In the domain of ecology the most important
work since 1910 has been the intensive study of the habitat
conditions in a number of limited areas. It is on such data alone
that broad generalizations can be safely based, but much more
needs to be accomplished in this direction before the significance
of the results obtained can be rightly estimated. Of these
intensive studies it is possible here to indicate only a few. Of the
numerous types of plant communities that have been investi-
gated, forests and woodlands have received a large share of
attention and well illustrate the chief lines of progress.
Descriptive or primary survey work has elucidated interesting
points respecting the courses of the altitudinal and polar tree limits.
The meteorological conditions above and immediately below the
timber line have been shown to exhibit an abrupt change associated
with the cessation of shelter, but the gradual upward extension of
the tree zone is limited by climatic conditions of which the duration
of the snow-free period is an important factor. Both in America
and Switzerland a rise of the timber line has been noted on the
larger mountain masses and, as Brockmann-Jerosch has pointed
out, the polar tree limit approaches the poles on the great con-
tinental land masses whilst it recedes from them in the oceanic
regions of high latitudes. In other words, a continental climate is
favourable to tree growth whilst an oceanic climate is unfavourable
except at low latitudes. Modifications of the altitudinal timber limit
by soil and aspect have brought out the different demands and
toleration of individual species. As a consequence of such changes
the successive timber zones rise to a higher altitude on south ex-
posures and on dry warm soils whilst on north aspects not only are
the zones lower but they may also be more numerous. In Switzer-
land, for example, successive zones of chestnut, beech and larch
occur on slopes facing southwards whilst on northern slopes zones
of silver fir and spruce become interpolated, the lower limit of the
latter being apparently determined by the diminishing rainfall. The
study of the biology and physiology of the constituent forest species
has served to demonstrate the adaptational character of many of
their salient features. The periodicity of the herbaceous vegetation
is, for example, intimately related to that of the shrubs and trees
above, the assimilation of the more specialized members of the
former being chiefly carried on before the canopy of the latter is
complete.
Again, it has been shown that the optimum assimilation of such
plants takes place in relatively weak illumination whilst their
osmotic pressure, as in the plants of other habitats, is intimately
related to the humidity of the environment. This has been shown to
obtain in the case of some prairie species; even for the different
parts of the same individual and in the different seasons of the year.
Investigations of the soil conditions in relation to the plant covering
have yielded promising results. Thus, the distribution of natural
vegetation seems to be largely associated with changes in such fac-
tors as acidity, water content, humus content and proportion of
bases. The study of the first named has received a great impetus
during the past few years, and in Sweden Hessellman has shown that
the absence of natural regeneration in many forests is connected
with high acidity and deficiency of nitrates.
Another aspect of vegetation is the change to be observed when
the environment is altered or the original plant covering removed.
The investigation of such succession phenomena has already yielded
important economic results in relation to the improvement of
pasture. The work of W. G. Smith in Scotland, of Dr. L. Cockayne
in New Zealand and Prof.-J. W. Bews in South Africa has drawn
attention to the possibilities of artificial control of the natural suc-
cession. This principle is capable of wide-spread application wherever
natural vegetation has an economic value; but it demands as a
preliminary an intensive knowledge of the ecology of the individual
species. It is as an outcome of such knowledge that Oliver has sug-
gested the use of the plastic plant in place of groynes in fore-shore
control.
On the philosophical side of the subject more has been written
than the present state of our knowledge or its usefulness warrants.
An extensive literature has developed on the classification of plant
communities but most of these centre around one or other of four
main view-points. The first emphasizes the importance of soil
conditions as the basis of classification and is exemplified by the
system proposed by Gola in 1910 based on his theory of osmotic
edaphism. The second lays most stress on the physiognomy of
the constituents of plant communities and with this are associated
the names of Brockmann-Jerosch, Gams, Raunkiaer, Rubel and
Warming. The third, associated with the American school, lays
especial stress on succession, and Clements, who has done most to
develop this view, classifies plant associations according to the clima-
tic climax of which they represent phases of development. The
fourth regards floristic composition as of paramount importance
and has been upheld by Braun-Blanquet, Du Rietz, etc.
The first two and the last tend to result in systems that are too
artificial, whilst that of Clements demands a knowledge that we
often do not possess and tends to segregate phases which, though
developing along divergent lines, are, regarded as plant communities,
more closely related to one another than to the other phases of the
same succession. Ecology is in much the same position as taxonomy
in the early days when systems were frankly artificial because of
the inadequacy of the knowledge to establish a natural system.
Doubtless in time we shall find that, as with plant groups, different
sets of characters must be used for different communities; but, in the
meantime, these systems, however deficient, have served as an
inspiration for valuable research which is yielding that knowledge
on which the classifications of the future must be based.
REFERENCES. The chief literature prior to 1907 is cited by Fla-
hault (Progressus Rei Botanicae, 1907), whilst for the literature sub-
sequent to 1913 reference should be made to the Journal of Ecology
(1913 el seq.) and Ecology (1918 et seq.), the respective organs of
the British and American ecological societies. The following may
be consulted either as illustrating particular aspects or as furnishing
extensive bibliographies; J. W. Bews, The Grasses and Grasslands of
S. Africa (1918); J. Braun-Blanquet, Les Cevennes meridionales
(1915); H. Brockman-Jerosch, " Der Einfluss des Klimacharakters
auf die Verbreitung der Pflanzen und Pflanzengesellschaften,"
Englers Jahrb. (1913); " Baumgrenze und Klimacharakter," Ber.
d. Schweilz. Bot. Ges. (1919); F. E. Clements. Plant Succession
(1916), L. Cockayne, papers dealing with New Zealand grassland.
N. Z. Jour. Agric. (1919), H. Hessellman. papers on nitrate forma-
tion in soils, Ur Meddelanden Fran Staten Skogsforsokanstalt (1917),
C. E. Moss, Vegetation of the Peak District (1913); E. J. Salisbury,
" The Significance of Calcicoly," Jour. Ecology (1920) ; W. G.
Smith, " The Improvement of Hill Pasture," Scottish Jour. Agric.
(1918); A. G. Tansley, " The Classification of Vegetation,'' Jour.
Ecology (1920); Types of British Vegetation (ed. by A. G. Tansley,
1911). (E. J. S.)
VII. Horticultural Exploration. Botanical exploration in
relation to horticulture centred during 1910-20, as in the pre-
ceding decade, in S.-E. Asia, particularly in western China.
The gradual acquisition from all parts of the world of species
new to cultivation has proceeded on a steady course, but the
novelties from the East so far surpass in number, and in some
BOTANY
481
ways in interest, those from other regions as to warrant our speak-
ing of this Chinese invasion as the dominant feature of plant
introduction since the opening of the 2oth century.
Explorers have discovered the richest relic of the Palaearctic
flora, its richness conditioned by an unique assemblage of deeply
riven, snow-clad mountain ranges traversed by three mighty rivers
Salween, Mekong, Yangtse of parallel course north to south
separated by narrow divides, also deeply incised, across the monsoon
trend. A paradise of species in the making! The first exploration
with declared horticultural aims, tempted by records of the finds
of French missionaries and Henry's wonderful Ichang collections,
was that of Wilson, in 1 899, who made Western Hupeh and Szechwan
his field of work during the succeeding 14 years, later passing east-
wards to Korea and Formosa. He was followed in 1904 by Forrest
still exploring who took Yunnan and adjacent Tibet and N.-E.
Burma for his sphere. Through these pioneers thousands of new
species have come to our ken. Later explorers who have affected
horticulture have been Purdom in Kansu, Kingdon Ward still
exploring in the same area as Forrest, Farrer in Kansu and, later
with Cox, in N.-E. Upper Burma. Among the horticultural prizes
and the plants of economic value that have come to us through these
explorations in the shape of shrubs and trees, there are some two to
three hundred new species of rhododendron alone, and amongst
herbaceous plants primula gives us far over a hundred novelties.
Genera to name a few that are prominent in the number of
new species of shrubs and trees, indicating clearly the nature of the
flora and the plants added to cultivation, are : acer, alnus, berberis,
betula, buddleia, carpinus, clematis, cornus, corylus, cotoneaster,
crataegus, deutzia, euonymus, fraxinus, hydrangea, ilex, ligustrum,
litsea, lonicera, magnolia, photinia, pieris, populus, prunus, pyrus,
quercus, rhododendron, rosa, rubus, salix, smilax, spiraea, styrax,
syringa, tilia, vaccinium, viburnum, vitis; of conifers, abies, keteleeria,
picea, pinus, tsuga. Similarly amongst herbaceous plants some of the
noteworthy genera are: aconitum, adenophora, allium, androsace,
anemone, aster, codonopsis, corydalis, cremanthodium, cyananthum,
delphinium, didissandra, dracocephalum, gentiana, impatiens, iris,
liliiim, lysimachia, meconopsis, nomocharis, oreocharis, pedicularis,
pleione, polygonum, potentilla, primula, rheum, roscoea, saxifraga,
sedum, senecio, silene, trollius, thalictrum.
To the west of this partially explored region lies a vast area un-
explored extending to Bhutan, whence, ere long, riches, perhaps in
diminishing amount, will be gathered. Cooper at the Himalayan
end of this area has done splendid exploration work over Griffith's
ground in Bhutan and further east, enriching horticulture with
many good plants.
Apart from the new species which these explorations have brought
to horticulture, two biological problems of horticultural interest
are touched especially by the work of Forrest. One is raised by the
modification of form observed in the direction of specific differentia-
tion exhibited by single phyla in relation to the multiplicity of
environmental conditions offered by the exceptional physical con-
struction of the region. It suggests possible results positive or
negative ^bearing upon evolution through correlation of plants in
nature with similar forms in cultivation. The other that of
humus plants growing on limestone immediately concerns horti-
culture in view of the fact that rhododendron, for instance, cannot be
grown in cultivation upon a limestone soil. That so many of the
rhododendrons collected by Forrest have their leaves densely covered
by a penetrating mycelium makes the suggestion admissible that the
fungus of mycorrhiza has migrated from the uncongenial lime-soil
environment to the leaf to function there forming a mycophyllon
as a nitrogen-adjuvant. The following-up of these discoveries is for
the future. (I. B. B.)
VIII. General Morphology. The wider problems of the origin
of plant life on this world, its relation to animal organism, and
above all the evolutionary progression of the flora of the land
surface, have claimed the attention of successive generations of
botanists. The older deductions of the Hofmeister school were
admirably and lucidly summed up and amplified by Bower
(1908) in The Origin of a Land-Flora, and this book has so held
its own as a text-book that there has been little to add to it. In
a posthumous volume Arber (1920, Devonian Floras) attempted
even to visualize the actual geological epoch at which the
transition took place from archaic aquatic algae to the first
types of land-vegetation, as expressed in the change from a
Lower Devonian flora of Thallophytes to the Upper Devonian of
Archaeopteridae. Apart from the intensive investigation of the
vestigial races of Pteridophyta of the present day, or of the
recent debris of Palaeozoic times, it is possible to approach the
subject indirectly, and to state the nature of the problems to
be solved from the new view-points opened up in connexion with
the earlier phases of plant life on the world surface by the
consideration of conditions of life in the sea.
Since early papers by Luther (1899) and Bohlin (1901) on the
relation of the reproductive cells of fresh-water algae to flagellates,
the Flagellar theory has entered on a new phase to the extent that it
is now freely accepted that all phyla of plant-life, as also all animals,
must be based on a flagellate ancestry: that motile reproductive
cells have not been evolved specially for the reproductive purposes
which they serve, but indicate the retention of an older phase of
aquatic existence. To this may be added the recognition by pro-
tistologists (Doflein, 1916) of the fact that the autotrophic (plant)
flagellate must be regarded as the precursor of all heterotrophic
and animal flagellate phyla: while the vast variety of marine or-
ganism in which the flagellated phase is still dominant or readily
regained in reproductive stages implies that it is to the pelagic
flagellates that one must look for conceptions of the origin of higher
organism, rather than to the Amoeba of fresh water or sea bottom.
As shown by Pascher (1917), the amoeboid habit may be attained
secondarily, in connexion with available substratum, in any line of
elementary flagellate evolution. In this way the conclusion appears
inevitable, not only that life as we know it arose in the sea, but
from the material of sea water, as the physico-chemical constitution
of protoplasm suggests at the present day. Since no other factors
but those of pelagic water and solar radiation are required to deter-
mine the physiological and structural response of such living zoi'ds,
a phase of continuous deep water over the entire world surface must
have obtained to give rise to such " plankton " organism. The cell-
unit, of which all higher life is composed, thus represents the soma
attained in such an environment, established for all time with
nuclear mechanism and faculty for division and fusion, as also all
plasmic functions and assets inherited as the cell equipment of
plant and animal organization.
It is to the sea that one must look for the incipient syntheses of
early life, and the introduction of land or sea bottom within the
photic zone will lead to the progression of attached organism (hor-
mon) which responds to the more elaborate factors of water plus
substratum. With the assumption of a sessile habit on the part of
originally free zoi'ds of the plankton, the attached plant or animal
proceeds to a benthic phase of existence, and in the case of auto-
trophic zoi'ds it begins to be possible to define the scope of algology.
The cell soma becomes enlarged and multiple as it successfully
solves the problem of increased nutrition by a surface area exposed
to a medium which is constantly renewed so long as the capacity for
attachment is unimpaired. As opposed to the successful detachment
of predatory animal organism (nekton), the detached autotrophic
plant fails from impoverished nutrition. The development of the
algal soma thus follows the infinite series of compromises between
maximum surface for nutrition and minimum exposure to mechan-
ical strain, from quiet dark levels to illumined surface-zones of
rough water, giving rise to morphological differentiation of branch-
ing axes, growing points, laminar extension, and ultimately to mas-
sive highly differentiated shoot-systems with ramuli subserving
attachment which come within the more popular connotation of
plant-form. In all such cases, however, exigencies of racial continua-
tion imply_ a resumption at some period of the older plankton-
soma, and in this phase phenomena of sexual fusion may be main-
tained; to attain a more complex differentiation (sex-distinction)
as the wastage of protoplasts in regaining the sessile condition, on
a substratum increasingly occupied in a violently agitated medium,
may be brought under control. The development of algal form and
volume commonly runs parallel with increasing specialization of
sexual and asexual reproductive mechanism. The latter implies
that a cytological alternation may be requisite in the life cycle.
Highly specialized growth-forms of the benthic soma of autotrophic
plants parallel the equally advancing benthic somata of holozoic
nutrition (sponges, hydroids); and in both very comparable differ-
entiations of sexual cells, sexual organs, and the retention, at any
rate on the part of the male gamete, of the older flagellated soma
illustrate the parallelism of the biological problems.
From such highly organized somata of the sea the flora of the
land takes origin, both as compulsory transmigrants on the first
exposed land-surfaces, and as left residual in water now renewed by
atmospheric precipitations as " fresh," and devoid of much of the
essential food salts. Starvation in fresh water and desiccation on dry
land become the determining factors of all advancing land-vegeta-
tion i ; though in the case of the latter the implied light-supply may be
far in excess of older photic relations, as the oxygen capacity of the '
atmosphere again is beyond the available free supply of the water.
The insistent problems of the land plant are mechanical support and
orientation in the lighter medium of the air, protection from ex-
treme loss of water, absorption and conduction from an attachment-
surface following separation of the absorptive and photosynthetic
tracts, and the adjustment of older reproductive organs to the
exigencies of dispersal by air-currents instead of by moving water.
In this way the inherited equipment of the algal soma is specialized
and amplified to meet the new requirements. An epoch in which
such natural selection may be rigorous over long-continued ages of
slow progression and regression, has been visualized as a period of
" Transmigration," effected in situ, as the sea-bottom may be
partially exposed or again covered by oscillating changes in the
earth's crust over geological epochs, as the net result of foldings of
the surface-layers. Older laminar ramuli of algae attain further
482
BOTANY
elaboration of mechanism, orientations, and anatomy as "leaves";
attachment-ramuli exaggerate their absorbing function as they
penetrate massed decaying material, now for the first time asso-
ciated with minute heterotrophic organisms as bacteria, constituting
the first soil. Internal and effete cell-units storing waste polysac-
charide of photosynthesis are utilized as mechanically supporting
fibres; others from a water-storing function attain a conductive
significance as tracheides; intercellular spaces are elaborated in
connexion with a transpiration mechanism which now becomes the
only means of obtaining food-ions of inorganic nature. Most re-
markably and constantly the asexual spore-tetrads, following meiosis
in an asexual generation (as in Diclyola and Florideae) are utilized
as air-borne spores; while the sexual gametes retain their older
plankton mechanism of sexual fusion in an aqueous medium, so
far as this may be available From such beginnings arise the Bryo-
phyta (Mosses) in which fertilization in situ is associated with the
more or less complete parasitic decadence of the spore-producing
generation, and the Pteridophyta (Ferns), in which great perfection
of the free asexual land-plant is associated with a sexual phase re-
duced to a mere protonema stage with precociously effective sexual
organs, correlated with a minimum period in which the necessary
water may be available; and sori of tetraspores are adapted to a
sporangial mechanism'which will dehisce in the air.
No plant-phylum which had not previously attained to a two-
phase cycle has made good on the land ; since following the attain-
ment of fertilization in situ the asexual spores of the complementary
generation or " person " were required for a dispersal function.
Higher types of land-vegetation follow the Pteridophyte progression,
passing on to the evolution of the seed-habit as Spermatophyta;
in so doing expressing the successful method of evading problems of
the utilization of free external water for the plankton process of
fertilization. Much residual algal life of simple category persists
as heterotrophic races of fungi, in which the problem of aquatic
cross-fertilization is largely solved by eliminating it altogether, or
retaining mechanism in the merest vestigial expressions. Sugges-
tions as to the time involved in such evolutionary progression have
been emphasized by data for the decay of radio-active minerals,
as affording a time-chart by means of which geological epochs may
be approximately estimated. The datum of 300 million years for
the Carboniferous and Devonian, in which forest-trees of coniferous
habit are known to have existed, as also the Rhynia group of the
Lower Devonian which may express extreme types of Pteridophyta
or limiting cases of Bryophyta, appears but of small value in the
evolution of such high-grade land organisms as timber-trees from
mere marine algae. A general estimate of 2,000 million years for
the first stages of transmigration may not appear excessive; and
behind this stretches the indefinite range of the evolution of the
algal series, to the more remote epochs of the plankton-phase of the
evolution of the cell in all its manifold possibilities and controlling
functions, from the material of sea water alone. Yet in these re-
spects there can be little doubt that the autotrophic plant, as the
sole response of what is termed life to the biological factors of ancient
seas, is more likely to be a sure guide to the history of the more
modern world than any biologically unsupported and equally
fragmentary testimony of the rocks. From the standpoint of con-
ventional views of " descent " the story of evolution now becomes
the history of biological and physiological progression to higher
horizons as determined by changes in the condition of the external
environment, of which residual plant-groups, each as absolutely cut
off behind as non-progressive in other respects, remain as " Land-
marks of Limitation " to point the way the progression has passed,
as wholly isolated genetically as if the independent creations of an
older philosophy, yet all meeting in the phase of the common
initial medium of the sea.
See Bower, Origin of a Land Flora (1908) ; Doflein, Protozoenkunde
(1916); Pascher, Archiv fur Prolistenkunde 36 (1917); Kidston and
Lang, "Rhynia," " Hornea," Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. (1920);
Church, " Building of an Autotrophic Flagellate," " Thlassiophyta
and the Subaerial Transmigration," Oxford Botanical Memoirs, I
(1919); "Somatic Organization of the Phaeophyceae," ibid. JO,
(1920); Arber, Devonian Floras (1921). (A. H. CH.)
IX. Anatomy and Palaeobotany. Progress in anatomical,
and in palaeontological Botany essentially go hand in hand.
The discoveries of well-petrified new forms of fossil plants, which
are often difficult of identification, lead to more critical examina-
tion of the structure of recent plants, and thus bring to light
interesting features in the latter. Yet both the methods pursued
and the type of material available for the botanist and palaeo-
botanist tend to differ. Knowledge of the anatomy of the fossil
Angiosperms, for instance, has been naturally restricted owing
to the scarcity of material other than of Tertiary age; while the
isolated fragments of Tertiary wood have not attracted any
particular attention in recent years, largely owing to the diffi-
culty of mastering the overwhelming mass of living species with
which they have to be compared. The origin and phylogenetic
source of the Angiospermic families is thus still wrapt in mystery
in spite of various theoretical conceptions. The only secure
fact is that in geological time corresponding to the Wealden in
Great Britain, and approximately to the Neocomian of the
world, no reliable material of Angiosperms of any sort has yet
been discovered. Claims to have identified Angiosperms in
these or earlier rocks are not substantiated, and originated from
such errors as incorrect diagnosis of ferns possessing reticulated
venation like Dictyophyllum (see exposures by Berry, 1911, and
Slopes, 1915).
The earliest authentic Angiosperms are found in the Lower Green-
sand or Aptian of Great Britain. The flora of this epoch was mark-
edly distinct from that of the Wealden, which is of the Jurassic type;
that of the Lower Greensand, on the contrary, was a rich, mixed
flora, including many varieties of coniferous woods, the famous
Bennettites Gibsonianus described by Carruthers, and other Ben-
ncttitalian plants, and, in particular, several Angiospermic woods.
The systematic position of these Angiosperms is scarcely delermin-
able, owing to the fact that modern plant anatomists have not yet
codified the significance of woody structures in the living genera in
spite of the extensive beginning made by Moll and Jannsonius. The
petrified features of the ancient genera Cantia, Woburnia, Sabulia,
Aptiana and Hythia are in no way " primitive " or pseudo-Angio-
spermic, but exhibit typical features of highly organized Angio-
spermic timbers. Hence the origin of the Angiosperms remains
obscure, and a problem to be solved only by the discovery of the
anatomical features of Angiosperms of an even earlier age.
The American school headed by Jeffrey, although contributing
little to the description of new fossil Angiosperms, has worked on the
problem of their descent on the basis of a series of well-defined
theories. Jeffrey's main thesis is that the herbaceous forms are less
primitive than the woody, and " the degenerate herb is derived
from ancestral forms characterized by woody stems." While
Jeffrey's conclusions and deductions are not universally accepted,
workers of his school have contributed handsomely to the apcumula-
tion of data from living forms, and his text-book of anatomy at-
tempts to bring out guiding principles, chief among which is the
" Doctrine of Conservative Organs," springing from Scott's ob-
servations on the Cycadales, and the " Doctrine of Reversion." In
Britain no comprehensive theoretical work on general anatomy has
appeared recently. The anatomy of seedlings has been pursued
(Hill and Thomas), but, unfortunately, has no corresponding de-
velopment in palaeontological works owing to their tenuous rarity.
From rocks of Palaeozoic age onwards, well-petrified Gymno-
sperms are constantly being discovered, and the study of their
structures has necessitated the reexamination of all the modern
genera. A steady output of memoirs dealing with the anatomy of
living and fossil gymnosperms has been maintained (see in particular
the works of Seward, Groom, Slopes, Gothan, Thomson, Hollick
and Jeffrey, Coulter and Chamberlain, and others). While the
English school have in the main added wherever possible new data
on the recognized accepted lines of the generic grouping, Americans
under Jeffrey have actively maintained the heterodox view that the
Araucarincae are less primitive than the Abietineae, basing most
of their generalizations on the minutia of tracheid structure,
which appeared clearer and more dogmatic guides so long as com-
paratively little was known of the infinite variety of the Mesozoic
forms, but which have become self-contradictory as generic or even
specific diagnostic features when such a wealth of material as is now
available has been examined.
The primitive Palaeozoic gymnosperms are gradually becoming
very well known from the relative frequency with which their stems,
leaves and other parts are found petrified. The most notable recent
addition to the.group is the exceptional little flora of plants from the
very base of the Carboniferous of Kentucky (see Scott and Jeffrey)
which bears considerable likeness to the primitive Saalfeld flora
described long since by Unger.
Anatomical work on the large group of the Bennettitales (which
became entirely extinct before the Tertiary period) has yielded re-
sults of morphological and phylogenetic importance, and enriched
general concepts of fructification and seed structure. Such work,
initiated in 1870 by Carruthers, with his acute determination of the
type fossil, remained for long in abeyance owing to the dearth of
material in Britain, but was continued on the Continent in the last
decade by Lignier and recently in England by Slopes. Studies on
this group were actively pursued in America by Wieland, the main
results of which are collected in his Iwo magnificenl volumes Amer-
ican Fossil Cycads, from which ihe diagrammalic resloralion of the
peculiar fructifications and many interesting points of vegetative
anatomy have proved a mine of information for theorizcrs. The
view lhat the Bennettitales were ancestral angiosperms was, tem-
porarily at any rate, held by a number of leading botanists and
received definite expression by Arber and Parkin. This view, how-
ever, is not built on a sufficiently secure anatomical foundation.
The vascular peculiarities and vegetative appearance of the Ben-
nellilales are so closely allied to those of Cycads still living that their
complex gymnospermic fructifications are best looked upon as no
BOTANY
483
more than a specialization on " prophetic " lines by a cohort which
became extinct, comparable to another specialization in another
family in an earlier epoch, viz. the " seed-like " structures of the
tree forms of the Lepitlodendrons, which though truly Lycopodia-
ceous, developed " seeds." Another branch of the great Mesozoic
group, the Williamsoniaceae, may prove to be better accredited
forerunners of some angiospermic cohorts. The small form William-
soniella, described by Thomas from the Jurassic, has an interesting
and suggestive morphology. Anatomical work on the genus, how-
ever, still awaits the discovery of suitably preserved material.
Interest in the Cycads proper, stimulated in the preceding decade,
has been continued. Their fructifications and general anatomy have
been searchingly examined for primitive features (Matte, Stopes,
Chamberlain, Seward, Worsdell), but still remarkably little is known
of the geological history or early structure of the Cycads proper.
Anatomical work on the Pteridophytes has made steady progress,
as is evidenced by the considerable enlargement of the first volume
of the new edition of Scott's classic " Studies." Data of interest to
anatomists have been chiefly based on Coal Measure species, filling
in supplementary details in previously well-established schemes.
The most important contribution in this connexion has been the
thorough handling of the Osmundaceae, made possible by dis-
coveries of well-petrified Mesozoic and Tertiary species (see in
particular the series of Memoirs by Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan).
From an anatomical study of a series of species, the authors were
able to present a phylogenetic sequence in the evolution of the
family from Palaeozoic times, and held that the group arose from
solid protostelic ancestors. Their view has been substantiated by
the recent discovery of a true protostelic Osmundaceous form. The
Botryopterideae, with their intricate series of stelar variations con-
tinued to receive detailed consideration (see Bertrand, Scott, Za-
lessky, Gordon and others) in the last decade, and are now very
thoroughly known. A fern of wide geological distribution and of
peculiar anatomical structure was at last made clear by the work of
Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan on Tempskya. Access to the original
paper published in Russia is difficult and reference should also be
made to Stopes, 1915. The work of Schoute on the branching of
the Pteropsida should be read in connexion with Tempskya which had
an extraordinary, massive tree-fern-like trunk, really built up of a
weft of fine solenostelic stems, petioles and roots. Although ana-
tomical work (by Tansley, Lang, Seward and others) has been done
on various genera of recent ferns, good petrified material from the
Mesozoic or Tertiary is either very scarce or has no.t received that
anatomical attention which makes it possible to demonstrate the
phylogenetic series connected with the higher families of recent
ferns, such as Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan have presented for
the Osmundaceae. Yet where anatomical studies have been under-
taken on recent genera, as by Lang on the Ophioglossaceae, they are
largely influenced by the general principles of palaeobotany and
the theme (as a sort of leit-motif) of the solid ancestral stele, runs
through such work.
Of the lower Pteridophytes, our knowledge of those impressive
members of the Lycopodiaceae, the Lepidodendroid series, was al-
ready essentially established, and in the last decade has merely
received detailed amplification.
In the more primitive groups, however, great advances have
recently been made through the active interest taken in the De-
vonian flora by Halle of Norway, who described the morphology
and part of the structural details of a number of noteworthy species.
This was soon followed by Kidston and Lang, to whom were en-
trusted the plant materials of the now famous Rhynia cherts. The
Psilophyton of Dawson, so long relegated to insignificance and by
many considered to represent merely imperfect fragments, has thus
suddenly become of great interest. In the Scottish cherts are well-
petrified genera whose anatomy shows very much the type of
structure postulated so long before by Dawson. Sporangites of
Halle, Rhynia, Hornea, Asteroxylon of Kidston and Lang represent
the earliest known land plants, and though varying in details, all
show a remarkable simplicity of structure and arrangement of their
aerial stems and terminal sporangia. These plants are stimulating
discussion on the origin of land plants, the evolution of the Pterido-
phytes from the lower groups, and the morphology of the various
organs in higher plants, and their anatomy is of deep morphological
and phylogenetic significance.
Anatomical work on the Bryophytes still has to confine itself to
living forms because fossils are almost non-existent. Various fea-
tures of the last-described group of new fossils, however, are highly
suggestive for those who consider the phylogeny of the mosses. That
isolated family, the Characeae, is well represented in many deposits,
and has been seriously taken in hand by Reid and Groves with full
examination of the anatomy of many beautiful fossil forms.
In palaeontological as in modern anatomy, observation is gener-
ally concentrated on the vascular tissues, and particularly on the
arrangement and character of the wood. This leads not infrequently
to difficulties for the palaeobotanist, who sometimes finds in his
specimens other portions of plants which are difficult to diagnose
owing to the practical neglect of the comparative study of such
organs by recent botanists. For instance, especially since the
" clearing method " was popularized by Nathorst, the study of
the " mummified " cuticles from fossils of all kinds has brought
into prominence the general ignorance concerning the diagnostic
value and main characters of the stomata and epidermal cells among
recent plants. The palaeobotanist, therefore, has had to investigate
groups of living forms to effect his own comparisons. This in small
genera of gymnosperms has not been crushingly burdensome, and
has resulted in considerable additions to our knowledge of the
details of recent forms (see Berry, Halle, Thomas, Bancroft, Antev
and others). But for workers among the more extensive families
of recent angiosperms, comparisons have become overwhelmingly
arduous. Recognition of the " mummified " or semi-preserved seeds
of angiosperms found in Tertiary deposits has become a work of
the highest specialization in the hands of Mr. and Mrs. Clement
Reid, who have greatly extended our knowledge of recent deposits,
both in England and on the European Continent.
In the above paragraphs the more botanical and phylogenetic
aspects of plant anatomy have been considered. But the palaeo-
botanist has other functions, and he finds wider fields of application
for an anatomical knowledge of fossil species. The value of the
anatomical structures of the leaves, stems and so on of fossils of given
localities and epochs in determining the nature of the climates of
the past has long been recognized, and in the last decade this subject
has chiefly been pursued by Berry in America, who has extensively
surveyed the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary climates and dis-
tribution of species. In the southern hemisphere, that " terra
incognita," the Antarctic, has been a little illuminated by the col-
lections (see Seward and others) brought back by the Scott expedi-
tions. And Gothan has worked on the woods from the Arctic.
A specialized application of anatomical knowledge has developed
in connexion with a detailed study of coal. Many of the earlier
workers (Dawson, Williamson, Huxley and others) were interested
in the spores and small structures to be seen in coal and in recent
years section cutting has been improved by Lomax, who has dem-
onstrated many beautiful structures in coal sections. More exact
consideration of the relation of the different parts of the plants to the
character and accumulation of different types of coal in conjunction
with their chemical analyses, ash content and so on has recently
been made by Stopes, Stopes and Wheeler, followed by Lessing,
Tideswell and others. The detailed chemistry of the different cell
units composing the plant body is now gradually being correlated
with the qualities of the different fractions of a band of coal. The
resistant properties of certain cells such as spores and cuticles
(yielding fuels of peculiar types on a big scale such as the " Cuticle
Coal " of Russia) are being followed up on a minuter scale in the fine
zones in an ordinary band of British coal, which have been shown
to contain correlated differences, both in the anatomical nature of
their plant content, their physical and chemical properties, the nature
of their ash and so on.
The bibliographies in the following books will give most of the
references, except those of monographs published quite recently:
E. W. Berry, Lower Cretaceous Deposits of Maryland (1913), and
Upper Cretaceous and Eocene Floras of South Carolina and Georgia
(Washington, 1914); J. M. Coulter and C. J. Chamberlain, Mor-
phology of Gymnosperms (Chicago, 1910) ; E. C. Jeffrey, The Anatomy
of Woody Plants (Chicago, 1917); D. H. Scott, Studies in Fossil
Botany, ed. 3 (London, 1920); A. C. Seward, Fossil Plants, vol. in.
(Cambridge, 1917); M. C. Stopes, Catalogue of the Cretaceous Plants
in the British Museum, vol. ii. (London, 1915); M. C. Stopes and
R. V. Wheeler, The Constitution of Coal (London, 1918); G. R. Wie-
land, American Fossil Cycads, vol. ii. (Washington, 1916). (M. C. S.)
X. Cytology. Great advances have been made in the study
of cytology, but considerable divergence of opinion still exists
with regard to many details of nuclear phenomena (see also
the separate article CYTOLOGY).
The discrepancies and contradictions present in the accounts
of mitosis are due to the fact that no animal or plant has been
found in which all of the phases connected with nuclear division
can be elucidated. Each form has individual cytological char-
acters, and its nuclei may show some stages with exceeding
clearness, whilst others may be disguised or apparently even
eliminated. The true version will only be attained by wider com-
parative investigations.
(1) Somatic divisions (fig. i). Most cytologists agree that, as a
rule, during telophase each somatic chromosome splits into longi-
tudinal halves (threads), and these halves tend to separate, forming
more or less of a reticulum, according to the degree of interkinetal
rest assumed by the nucleus. The prophase stages are interpreted in
two ways : (a) that the pairing of threads in the prophase is the
reassociation of the chromosome halves which separated during the
preceding telophase, that these gradually come together to form the
univalent chromosome, and separate as daughter chromosomes on
the ensuing spindle; (V) that the pairing of threads and the splitting
of the univalent chromosomes into daughter halves are purely
prophasic phenomena and bear no relation to the splitting of the
chromosomes in telophase. (Fraser and Snell 1911, Miiller 1921,
Gr<5goire 1912, 1913, Sharp 1913, Digby 1919.)
(2) First Meiotic division. Controversy rages over the mode of
484
BOTANY
origin of heterotype chromosomes. The differences between the
two schools of thought (" telosynaptists " and " parasynaptists ")
rest on the interpretation of the heterotype prophases (Farmer
1912) (fig. 4). Telosynaptists regard the paired threads of the
Anaphase Telophase Rest Prophase Metaphase Anaphase
FIG. i.
K ; ~- ! ./ X.-
-Diagram of a Somatic Division
presynaptic and synaptic phases (fig. 2) as the associating halves
(homologous with the threads of the somatic prophases) of a somatic
chromosome which separated during the preceding telophase, and
maintain that the conjunction of the two entire homologous somatic
chromosomes takes place prior to, and during second contraction
(fig. 3). Consequently the associating threads of synapsis only
separate as daughter chromosomes on the homotype (2nd meiotic)
spindle.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 2. Synapsis (Osmunda
regalis)
(After Gregoire)
(From La. Cellule, vol. XXIV.)
FIG. 3.
FIG. 3. Second Contraction
(Smilacina)
(After Lawson)
(From Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin-
burgh, vol. XLVIII.)
" Parasynaptists " (Gregoire's school), on the other hand, regard
the parallel threads of the presynaptic and synaptic prophases
(fig. 2) as the pairing of two entire homologous somatic chromosomes
which will separate on the heterotype (ist meiotic) spindle. They
attach no significance to the second contraction phase. (Stomps
1911, Davis 1911, Lawson 1912, Gregoire 1912, Fraser 1914, Noth-
nagel 1916, Digby 1919.)
Anaphas* Tetophe Prophase SympMB
(Ust Premiottc (Last Premiotic (Heterotype)
Division) Division)
.^
Hollow Second Htterotype Himotyp* Spindl.
Spirm* Contraction Spindle
'Parasynaptic' Interpretation
FIG. 4. Diagram of Meiotic Phase.
The doctrine initiated by Boveri concerning the individuality
of chromosomes is now widely supported. It is based on three
main facts: (a) the continuity of chromosomes can sometimes
be traced from telophase into the ensuing prophase, especially
in rapidly dividing tissues; (6) the specific number of chromo-
somes, in any given animal or plant, recurs at each mitosis with
extraordinary regularity. 1
Tischler (1915) and Ishikawa (1916) have collated the numbers
recorded in plants : (c) chromosomes with striking individual charac-
ters of size and shape, distinguishing them from others in the nucleus,
occur in many animals and plants. These characteristic chromo-
somes invariably reappear at every mitosis.
Recently much attention has been given to the significance of
specific numbers of chromosomes. It has been conclusively shown
that closely allied species of many families have related chromosome
numbers, i.e. multiples of a common factor. Thus diploid, triploid,
tetraploid, 2 etc., forms are distinguished (Marchal 1912, Gregory
1914, Winge 1917, Holmgren 1919, Kuwada 1919, Rosenberg 1920).
This multiplication of chromosomes may prove to have an important
bearing on mutation, e.g. Primula sinensis 12 (haploid number),
P. sinensis (giant) 24 (haploid number), Crepis virens 3 (haploid
number), Crepis tectorum 4 (haploid number), Crepis rubra 5 (haploid
number), Oenothera Lamarckiana 7 (haploid number), O. gigas 14
(haploid number) (fig. 5).
1 The number of chromosomes is inconstant in degenerating tissues
such as endosperm and tapetum ; nuclei with a double number may
FIG. 5.
Oenothera Lamarckiana Oenoikera gigas
(7 pairs of chromosomes) (14 pairs of chromosomes)
(Interkinesis between Heterotype and Homotype Mitoses)
(After Davis) (From Ann. of Bo/., vol. XXV.)
As regards dimensions, the width of chromosomes, both in ani-
mals and plants, is inconstant and more or less variable, and is in no
way correlated with phylogenetic affinity (Farmer and Digby 1914).
Among other points of importance, recent work on hybrids
(Rosenberg 1917) confirms previous observations, that the offspring
of parents with an unlike number of
chromosomes show irregular meiotic
divisions. The classical experi-
ments of Nemec who, by submit-
ting root tips to the action of
chloral hydrate, produced multi-
nucleate cells and abnormal mitoses,
have been extended (Sakamura
1920). Extrusion of particles of
nuclear substance, especially as glob-
ules from the nucleolus, has been
repeatedly observed in animal and
plant cells (fig. 6) ; this phenomenon
probably denotes some important
physiological interchange between
nucleus and cytoplasm (von Der-
schau 1915 and 1920).
Many authorities believe that
chromosomes determine the segre-
gation of Mendelian characters and
that mitosis provides precisely the
mechanism required. Gates and
FIG. 6. Extrusion of Nu-
clear Substance (Funaria
hygrometrica)
(After von Derschau)
(From Archil) fur Zellfor- Thomas (1914) have shown that
schung, vol. XIV.) those Oenothera mutants lata and
semilata, which possess an extra
chromosome, i.e. 15 instead of 14 (somatic number), always have a
characteristic type of foliage and habit (fig. 7).
Bibliography. Two new text-books have been published (Agar
1920, and Doncaster 1920), and Wilson's Cell has been reprinted
(1919). On special points, the following may be mentioned: Davis,
" Cytological Studies on Oenothera III. A Comparison of the
Reduction Divisions of Oenothera Lamarckiana and O. gigas," Ann.
of Bot. (1911, vol. XXV.) ; von Derschau, " Der Austritt ungeloster
Substanz aus dem Zellkerne (Eine zusammenfassende Studie),"
Archiv f. Zellforschung (1915, vol. XIV.), " Pflanzliche Plasmastruk-
turen und ihre Beziehungen zum Zellkern," Flora (1920. vol. XIII.);
Digby, " On the Archesporial and Meiotic Mitoses of Osmunda,"
Ann. of Bot. (1919, vol. XXXIII.); Farmer, " Telosynapsis and
Parasynapsis," Ann. of Bot. (1912, vol. XXVI.); Farmer and Digby,
" On Dimensions of Chromosomes considered in relation to Phylog-
eny," Phil. Trans. Series B. (1914, vol. CCV.) ; Fraser, "The Be-
haviour of the Chromatin in the Meiotic Divisions of Vicia Faba,"
Ann. of Bot. (1914, vol. XXVIII.); Fraser and Snell, " The Vegeta-
tive Divisions in Vicia Faba." Ann. of Bot. (1911, vol. XXV.);
Gates and Thomas, " A Cytological Study of Oenothera mut. lata
and Oe. mut. semilata in Relation to Mutation," Quart. Journ.
Micr. Sci. (1914, vol. LIX.); Gregoire, " Les Phenomenes de la
metaphase et de 1'anaphase dans la caryocinese somatique," Ann.
Soc. Scientif. de Bruxelles (1912, vol XXXVI.), "La verite du
occur in root tips (Strasburger 1911).
2 Winkler (1920) has produced tetraploid forms artificially.
BOTHA, LOUIS
485
schema heterohomeotypique," Comptes Rendus (j9J2i vol. CLV.) ;
" La telophase et la prophase dans la caryocinese somatique,"
,
FIG. 7. Oenothera biennis lata.
(Homotype division. Distribution of chromosomes)
(After Gates and Thomas)
(From Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. LIX.)
Comptes Rendus (1913, vol. CLVI.); Gregory, " On the Genetics of
Tetraploid Plants in Primula sinensis," Proc. Roy. Soc. B. (1914,
vol. LXXXVIL); Holmgren, " Zytologische Studien uber die
Fortpflanzung bei den Gattungen Erigeron und Eupatorium,"
Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Hand. (1919, vol. LIX.); Ishikavva, "A
List of the Number of Chromosomes," Bot. Mag. Tokyo (1916,
vol. XXX.); Kuwada, " Die Chromosomenzahl von Zea Mays L,"
Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo (1919, vol. XXXIX.); Lawson,
" A Study in Chromosome Reduction," Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh
(1912, vol. XLVIIL); Marchal, " Recherches cytologiques stir le
genre ' Amblystegium,' " Bull. Soc. Royale Bot. de Belgique (1912,
vol. LI.); Miiller, " Kernstudien an Pflanzen," Archiv. f. Zellfor-
schung (1912, vol. VIII.); Nothnagel, " Reduction Divisions in the
Pollen Mother-cells of Allium tricoccum," Bot. Gaz. (1916, vol. LXI.) ;
Rosenberg, " Die Reduktionsteilung und ihre Degeneration in
Hieracium," Sv. Bot. Tids. (1917, vol. XL); "Weitere Untersuchun-
gen iiber die Chromosomenverhaltnisse in Crepis," Sv. Bot. Tids.
(1920, vol. XIV.) , Sakamura, " Experimentelle Studien uber die
Zell- und Kernteilung mit besonderer Riicksicht auf Form, Grosse
und Zahl der Chromosomen," Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo
(1920, vol. XXXIX.); Sharp, "Somatic Chromosomes in Vicia,"
La Cellule (1913, vol. XXIX.); Stomps, " Kernteilung und Synap-
sis bei Spinacia oleracea L," Biol. Centralbl. (1911, vol. XXXI.);
Strasburger, " Kernteilungsbilder bei der Erbse," Flora (1911, vol.
CIL); Tischler, " Chromosomenzahl, -form und -indiviclualitat
im Pflanzenreiche," Progr. Rei. Bot. (1915, vol. V.); Winge, " The
Chromosomes: Their Numbers and General Importance," C. R. des
Traveaux Lab. Carlsberg (1917, vol. XIII.); VVinkler, "Uber die
experimentelle Erzeugung von Pflanzen mit abweichenden Chromo-
somenzahlen," Zeit. f. Bot. (1916, vol. VII.-VIIL). (L. D.)
BOTHA, LOUIS (1862-1919), Dutch South African statesman
(see 4.303). The intention which Botha declared during his
visit to England in 1907 to work for the welfare of South
Africa regardless of racial differences he subsequently carried
out to the full. It became the main object of his life. During
the Imperial Conference of 1907 Botha met Dr. (later Sir Starr)
Jameson for the first time; at least there is no known record of
any earlier meeting between the two men. Their meeting was
destined to have momentous results for South Africa. They
became close friends. Already in the minds of both there must
have been the belief that the true interests of the country
demanded union between the four colonies, Cape Colony, the
Transvaal, the Orange River Colony (as it had been called
since the South African War), and Natal. The belief was gain-
ing ground, and in 1909 it took shape in the calling of a National
Convention to form a scheme of closer union. Botha led the
Transvaal delegation; Jameson that from the Cape. As the
two leading colonies, the Cape and the Transvaal had on the
whole the decisive voice in the Convention.
Botha's personal share in the work of the Convention was
important. It confirmed the opinion, already strong in South
Africa, that Botha was the natural leader of the South African
Dutch, and had qualities of personality and statesmanship
which marked him out as the inevitable man to be first Prime
Minister of a united country. Botha's qualities were put to a
severe test while the Convention sat. Then, and when the
Union Act had been framed and he went with the South African
delegation to England to see it through Parliament, Botha
gave proofs of steady wisdom, self-control, and a far-sighted
patriotism. Thus, when the Union was inaugurated by the first
Governor- General, Lord Gladstone, in 1910, it was with the
approval of the great majority of South Africans that Lord
Gladstone summoned him as Prime Minister to form the first
South African Cabinet.
Suggestions had been made that the first Union Ministry
should be formed of both the principal parties in the old colo-
nies. Botha rejected these proposals, though it was believed at
the time that they appealed to his personal desires. His Min-
istry represented, in the great majority of its members, the
Dutch of South Africa and the political parties in the old colonies
to which they adhered, though it included a representation of
the English-speaking people of Natal. Botha had decided that
to form what was known at the time as a " Best Man " Govern-
ment would be to invite a fatal reaction towards crude racialism
among the mass of the South African Dutch. Nevertheless the
reaction came, for all his attempts to avoid it, before his Cab-
inet had been in office even for half of its term of five years.
It came in the form of a revolt against his moderation and his
attempts to hold the balance even as between English and
Dutch. The revolt was led by General Hertzog, and caused a
split in the Ministry and the dismissal of Hertzog in Dec. 1912.
Botha reformed his Ministry, again without the inclusion of
any members of the Unionist party representing, with account
taken of the influence of the Labour party in the cities, the Eng-
lish-speaking population.
In 1914 came he World War. Botha at once declared him-
self for Great Britain, prepared an expeditionary force against
the neighbouring German colony of South- West Africa, and had
landed his first detachments upon its coast when a rebellion of
the Dutch flared out behind him in the Transvaal and the
Orange Free State, whose old name had been restored by the
Act of Union. Botha took the field himself, crushed the rebellion
by a series of rapid thrusts, went himself to German South-
West Africa and completed the conquest of that country, and
then organized both a force to assist in the British invasion of
German East Africa and an expeditionary unit to fight for the
Allies on the western front in Europe. These achievements
were made possible by a decisive victory at the polls in 1915
and by the steady cooperation of the Unionist party in Parlia-
ment. When Mr". Lloyd George became Prime Minister of
Great Britain at the end of 1916 and summoned the Imperial
War Cabinet, Botha found his South African preoccupations
too heavy to allow him to attend it; but he sent in General
Smuts his alter ego, whose abilities, insight and cool judgment
were invaluable to the British Government. Smuts became the
single permanent dominion member of the Imperial War
Cabinet, but his absence from South Africa threw a vast bur-
den of work on Botha as Prime Minister. Botha found time to
come to Europe to represent South Africa at the Paris Peace
Conference, where his wisdom and sound judgment increased
a European reputation already equal to that of any other
dominion Prime Minister. He did not approve of many of the
terms of the Peace Treaty, and did not hesitate to say so.
But he was in full accord with the development in British insti-
tutions which accorded to the dominion representatives in
Paris the status of delegates from self-governing States equal
in nationhood to the other Powers, and upon this development
he insisted repeatedly after his return to South Africa. He died
very soon after his return. His health had been failing for some
time. Influenza attacked him, and at midnight Aug. 27-28
1919 he succumbed to heart failure resulting from it.
To his country Botha's death was an irreparable loss. He had
attained an influence there, unprecedented even when the dis-
position of the Dutch South African to give his heart to trusted
leaders is taken into account. He had won the devotion of the
English-speaking people of the country as no other leader of
Dutch birth had been able to win it. The native population
486
BOURASSA BOYNE
believed in him and trusted him. Simple, modest, without
personal ambition, he had yet the greatest gift in a national
leader, personality. His kindliness was transparent, his tem-
perament always inclined to compromise, his mind naturally im-
partial. In small things he inclined too often to give way. But
in the big things his discernment of principle was unerring, his
resolution adamant. Greatness was his by right of nature, a
greatness recognized and acclaimed in his last years by the
world no less than by his own countrymen. (B. K. L.)
BOURASSA, HENRI (1868- ), French Canadian politician,
was born in Montreal Sept. i 1868, his mother being a daughter
of L. J. Papineau. He became well known at a comparatively
early age as an active writer and speaker on the side of the Na-
tionalist movement in Canada, and a leader of the younger
school of French Canadians. He was elected to the Dominion
House of Commons in 1896, but resigned in protest against
Canadian participation in the S. African War, 1899; he was re-
elected, however, in 1900 and in 190.4. He was a member of the
Quebec Legislative Assembly in 1908-12. A gradual severance
took place between him and his old chief, Sir Wilfrid Laurier,
until in later years he became obsessed with the idea that Laurier's
policy was fatal to the best interests of Canada and especially to
Quebec. A speaker of extraordinary power and fascination,
both in Parliament and on the platform, even Laurier himself
could not sway the French Canadians as Bourassa could; and in
spite of his extreme views he was heard with respect even in
the strongholds of his opponents in Toronto.
BOURCHIER, ARTHUR (1864- ), English actor (see
4.329), produced in 1910 Henry VIII. and Macbeth at the Gar-
rick theatre, London, and in the same year joined Herbert Tree
at His Majesty's theatre, where both he and his wife played
again in these and other Shakespeare plays. He also played lago
to Mr. Matheson Lang's Othello in 1920. After the dissolution
of his earlier- marriage with Miss Violet Vanbrugh he married in
1918 Miss Kyrle Bellew, with whom he continued to appear in
modern melodrama. He acted Old Bill in Capt. Bairnsfather's
war play The Belter 'Ole (1917).
BOURCHIER, JAMES DAVID (1850-1920), British publicist,
who came of a good Irish family, was born at Bruff, co. Limer-
ick, Dec. 18 1850. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
and King's College, Cambridge, and afterwards was for some
years an assistant master at Eton. Subsequently joining the
staff of The Times, in 1888 he went as special correspondent of
The Times to Rumania and Bulgaria, and for nearly 30 years he
was its principal representative in south-eastern Europe. In this
capacity he established a unique authority for information on
Balkan affairs, and was in the confidence of the leading states-
men. He played an important part behind the scenes in the
formation of the Balkan League (1911-2); and though from
time to time his advice to one party or another proved unpalat-
able, his disinterestedness was always as unquestionable as his
accurate knowledge of the political issues involved. In the later
years before the World War his prepossessions were somewhat
markedly on the side of Bulgaria, and even during the war his
sympathies were with Bulgaria as a country. He died at Sofia,
Dec. 30 1920, and was given a public funeral there. Besides his
contributions to The Times he was the author of many review
articles, and also of the general articles, historical and descrip-
tive, on the different Balkan States and Greece in the nth
Edition of this Encyclopaedia.
BOURGEOIS, LEON VICTOR AUGUSTS (1851- ), French
statesman (see 4.330), became minister without portfolio in the
Briand Government during the World War. He took an active
interest in the movement for a League of Nations, was appointed
to draft its statutes and became president of the French section.
He was elected president of the Senate in 1918.
BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH (1852- ), French
novelist and critic (see 4.331), published after 1910 several new
novels, including La Vie passe (1910), Le Sens de la Mart (1915),
Lazarine (1917), Nemesis (1918), and Laurence Albani (1920),
as well as three volumes of short stories and two plays, La Bar-
ricade (1910) and Le Tribun (1912). Two other plays, Un Cas de
Conscience (1910) and La Crise (1912), were written by him in
collaboration. A volume of critical studies appeared in 1912
and one of travel sketches, Le Demon du Midi, in 1914.
BOURNE, FRANCIS (1861- ), English Cardinal and Arch-
bishop of Westminster, was born at Clapham on March 23
1 86 1, and educated at Ushaw, Ware, St. Sulpice (Paris) and
the university of Louvain. He was ordained priest in 1884,
and in 1889 became rector of the Southwark diocesan seminary
which he had founded. In 1895 he was appointed domestic
prelate to Pope Leo XIII., and in 1897 Bishop of Southwark.
In 1903 he succeeded Cardinal Vaughan as Archbishop of West-
minster, and on Nov. 27 1911 was created cardinal (titular of S.
Pudenziana) by Pope Pius X.
BOVEY, HENRY TAYLOR (1852-1912), English engineer,
was born in Devon in 1852. He was educated at Queen's College,
Cambridge, of which he was afterwards elected fellow. Joining
the staff of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, he became
assistant engineer, but in 1887 was appointed professor of civil
engineering and applied mechanics at McGill University,
Montreal. In 1909 he was appointed to be the first rector of the
Imperial College of Science and Technology in London, but ill-
health obliged him to resign the post after a few months. He
died at Eastbourne Feb. 2 1912.
BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE (1823-1917), Canadian statesman
(5664.342), died at Belleville, Ont., Dec. 17 1917.
BOWLES, THOMAS GIBSON (1841- ), British journalist
and politician, was born in London in 1841, and was educated at
King's College, London. In 1860 he entered the Inland Revenue
office, remaining there until 1868, and afterwards travelled
extensively. He subsequently became connected, either as
journalist or proprietor, with various newspapers, notably
Vanity Fair, The Lady, and offshoots from the last-named
periodical. From 1870 to 1871 he was correspondent for the
Morning Post in Paris. He was elected as a Conservative for
King's Lynn in 1892, and held the seat till 1906, when he was
defeated, largely owing to his advocacy of free trade. He was
elected for the same seat as a Liberal in 1910, but was unsuccess-
ful in the second general election of that year. He became well
known as an expert in parliamentary procedure and a critic on
public finance. In 1916 he was elected for the southern division
of Leicester. Mr. Gibson Bowles was always prominent as an
opponent of any diminution of British sea power, and he pub-
lished Maritime Warfare (1878); Flotsam and Jetsam (1882); Log
of the Nereid (1889) ; The Declaration of Paris of 1856 (1900) and
Sea Law and Sea Power (1910).
BOXING: see SPORTS AND GAMES.
BOYLE, JOHN J. (1851-1917), American sculptor (see 4.354),
died in New York Feb. 10 1917. He was made an associate
member of the National Academy of Design m 1910, and re-
ceived a silver medal at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, San
Francisco, 1915.
BOYLESVE, RENE, the pen-name of RENE MARIE AUGUSTE
TARDIVEAU (1867- ), French novelist, who was born at
La Haye Descartes, Indre-et-Loire, April 14 1867. He was
educated at Poitiers and Tours, and afterwards adopted litera-
ture as a profession. His first work was Le Medecin des
Dames de Neans (1896), and henceforth he wrote voluminously,
publishing not only novels but many short stories. He is a close
observer of the provincial society of France. His later works
include Sainte Marie des Flews (1897); Le Parfitm des lies
Borromees (1898); L' Enfant a la Balustrade (1904); Le Bel
Avenir (1905); Man Amour (1908); Tu n'es plus Rien (1917);
and Nymphes dansant avec des Satyr es, a volume of tales (1920).
He was received into the French Academy on March 20 1919.
BOYNE, LEONARD (1853-1920), Irish actor, was born at
Westmeath April n 1853 and was educated for the army. He
first appeared on the stage in Liverpool in' 1870. On May 2
1874 he played John Fern in Progress at the St. James's
theatre, London. He played the principal part in Henry Ar-
thur Jones's The Masqucraders in 1894, and appeared in
Pinero's The Benefit of the Doubt in 1895. In 1902 he made a
success with Miss Marie Tempest in The Marriage of Kitty
BOY SCOUTS
487
(the English version of de Gresac and de Croissel's La Passerelle),
and he toured with this play in America. Later he played Conan
Doyle's Raffles in the English provinces. He died in London
April 17 1920.
BOY SCOUTS. A brief reference was made in the article
SCOUT (24.476) to the institution in England in 1908 of the Boy
Scout movement. In later years it developed so strongly, both
in England and in other countries, being also imitated, hardly
less successfully, by that of the Girl Guides on similar lines, that
its history requires fuller record.
In 1893-4, when serving with his regiment, the I3th Hussars,
Sir Robert (then Lt.-Col., and later Lt.-Gen.) Baden-Powell
realized that the ordinary peace training of soldiers for service in
the field was not sufficiently practical, and he therefore carried
out classes of training in his squadron for the men individually
in scouting and campaigning. In 1897-8, having been transferred
to command the 5th Dragoon Guards, he carried on similar
training, but on improved lines, with a view to developing
character i.e. manliness, self-reliance, and reliability as well
as field efficiency since these were largely lacking in lads coming
into the army from the ordinary board school. His lectures and
practices were collated and published in a small book, Aids to
Scouting.
During the South African War, 1899-1900, Maj. Lord Edward
Cecil, Baden-Powell's chief staff officer, organized the boys of
Maf eking as a corps for general utility on scout lines rather than
those of cadets, and the experiment was an entire success. The
experience showed that, if their training were made to appeal to
them, boys would learn readily, and also that boys were capable
of taking responsibility to a far greater degree than was generally
believed, if only they were trusted. The troop was made a small
unit, in order that the commander should be able to deal with
each individual on personal knowledge of him; the system of
patrols was instituted, of six boys under a leader. In carrying out
the organization of the South African Constabulary, 1901-3,
Baden-Powell employed the same principles on an extended
scale. Responsibility was thus given to the junior non-commis-
sioned officers, and emulation between the patrols produced a
good spirit and a higher standard of efficiency all round. The
human side was appealed to, and the men were trusted on their
honour to a very large degree in carrying out their duties. Their
uniform for field work was the cowboy hat, shirt, green tie, and
shorts. Badges were awarded for proficiency in different lines
of work.
In 1907 Sir Robert held a trial camp for scout training for boys
at Brownsea I., at which he had boys of every class to experi-
ment upon, and its results exceeded his expectations and prompted
him to go on with the idea. The training was based on that
which he had employed with soldiers and the constabulary,
with some adaptation to make it suitable for boys, following the
principles adopted by Zulus and other African tribes which re-
flected some of the ideas of Epictetus and the methods of the
Spartans, and of the ancient British and Irish, for training their
boys. He also looked into the Bushido of the Japanese, as well
as the more modern method of John Pounds for dealing with
boys, and Jahn for their physical culture, as well as those put in
practice by Sir William Smith, Seton-Thompson, Dan Beard
and others. In Jan. 1908, he brought out the handbook of the
training, entitled Scouting for Boys, in six fortnightly parts.
A number of troops were started in different parts of the United
Kingdom before the series was half completed. Although he had
only anticipated that scouting would be taken as an additional
attraction for their boys by the Boys' Brigade and Church Lads'
Brigade, it became evident that a separate movement was required
to deal with the number of boys who were taking it up uncon-
nected with these bodies.
In 1910, the Boy Scout movement had grown to such dimensions
(123,930) that Sir Robert felt it incumbent upon him to leave the
army in order to take the movement in hand as " Chief Scout."
With a view to making the subject appeal to boys, and to meet their
spirit of adventure, he held up for their ideal the doings of back-
woodsmen, knights, adventurers and explorers, as the heroes for them
to follow. These he grouped generally under the title " Scouts."
Through camp life, boat work, pioneering and nature study could
be found all the attractions for a boy which at the same time would
be the medium of instruction. The instruction took the form of
active self-expression on the part of the boy, rather than his passive
reception of ideas.
Partly from his own experience and partly from that of others, Sir
Robert worked out what was lacking in the training in the average
schoolboy. The deficiency lay chiefly in the direction of: (i)
Character and general intelligence; (2) skill and handicrafts; (3)
physical development and health knowledge; (4) service for others
and for the State. The activities and practices of scouting were,
therefore, framed as far as possible to develop in (i), (2), and (3) the
efficient individual, and then to harness his individuality for the
good of the community, i.e. citizenship. Honour was made the high
ideal for the boys. The Scout Law, on which the movement hinges,
was taken from the code of the knights.
King Edward, and later King George V., became the patron of
the association of Boy Scouts, and the Duke of Connaught its
president. Administration was decentralized from the Imperial
Headquarters Council (at 25, Buckingham Palace Road, London)
through county commissioners, district commissioners, and local
associations to the scoutmasters in charge of troops.
For organization the troop was purposely kept small in numbers
(40 being regarded as the best maximum), in order that the scout-
master should have personal knowledge of each of his boys, this
being the only possible way of developing the character of the
individual. The patrol system was adopted from that of the South
African Constabulary, and for the same reason. An extensive sys-
tem of badges was instituted, as in the Royal navy and the constabu-
lary, for excellence in different branches of work.
The Boy Scout movement is non-military, non-political, non-class
and interdenominational. Its aim is to make good citizens, and for
this reason it was judged unnecessary to introduce military drill.
Scoutcraft is a means through which the veriest hooligan can be
brought to higher thought and to the elements of faith in God; and,
coupled with the scout's obligation " to do a good turn every day,"
it gives the base of duty to God and to neighbour on which the parent
or pastor can build with greater ease the form of belief that is desired.
The Scout Promise, to carry out, on his honour, as far as in him lies,
the Scout Law, is the binding disciplinary forcg. The aims and
methods of the movement were inquired into by the Privy Council
in 1912, and a Royal Charter of Incorporation was granted as an
official recognition.
The outbreak of war in 1914 found thousands of scouts just sally-
ing forth in their little, self-contained units with their trek carts and
tents, and the Sea Scouts with their boats and equipment for their
campings in the August holidays. By telegraph the object of their
outing was changed; the Land Scouts were mobilized all over the
country under the chief constables to protect the railway bridges,
waterworks, telegraph and cable lines. At the same time Sea Scouts
at once took over the duties of watching the coast from the coast-
guardsmen, who were called up for service afloat; and there they
remained till the end of the war, working under the orders of the
Admiralty. Some 23,000 boys took their turn at this service. Over
100,000 of the older scouts and scoutmasters took their places on
sen-ice, and they did well. Ten thousand of them gave their lives
for their country. Some of the V.C. heroes were Craig, Gates,
Dimmer (also a Boys' Brigade man), Laidlaw, Toye, Cruikshank,
McKean, Jack Cornwall, Dean, Haine and Hallowes, formerly Boy
Scouts.
Through scouting the boy has the chance to deck himself in a
frontier kit as one of the great brotherhood of backwoodsmen. He
can track and follow signs, he can signal, he can light his fire and
build his shack and cook his grub. He can turn his hand to many
things in pioneer and campcraft. His unit is a band of six, com-
manded by their own boy leader. Here may be seen the natural
gang of the boy, whether for good or for mischief; responsibility and
self-discipline for the individual; and esprit de corps for the honour
of the patrol, as strong as any house-spirit in a public school.
To the outsider's eye the scout's staves are so many broomsticks,
but to the scout they are different. His staff, decorated with his own
particular totem and signs, is typical; like his staff, among a mass
he is an individual having his own traits, his own character, his own
potentialities. He may be one of a herd, but he has his own entity.
He gets to know the joy of life through the out-of-doors. Then there
is the spiritual side. Through sips of nature lore, imbibed in wood-
land " hikes," the puny soul grows up and looks round. The out-
doors is par excellence the school for observation and for realizing
the wonders of a wondrous universe.
At Olympia, London, in July and Aug. 1920, was held perhaps the
most significant gathering of boys that has ever been known, when
some hundred thousand Boy Scouts from 27 different countries
for the movement has spread over the world came together to show
to the public something of the aims, methods and results of " Scout-
ing for Boys." The fact that these boys, wearing the same uniform
and obeying the same Scout Law, had started a remarkable personal
inter-comradeship, might well be an important factor toward de-
veloping that spirit of good-will on the part of the peoples them-
selves that was essential to the hopes founded on the League of
Nations.
488
BRACQUEMOND BRAGG
In 1921 there were 350,000 Boy Scouts in the British Empire, and
approximately a million and a half throughout the world.
(R. B.-P.)
United Stales. Early in 1910 the idea of introducing into
the United States the Boy Scout movement, with methods
similar to those of the English Boy Scouts, which had been in-
stituted in 1908 and developed under the personal supervision of
Lt.-Gen. Sir Robert Baden-Powell, was first proposed by Mr.
W. D. Boyce of Chicago. Before this time a number of troops
had been started in various parts of the country by men who
had been impressed with the possibilities of the scheme
through reading Sir Robert's English handbook, " Scouting for
Boys." It is significant that Mr. Boyce's interest was aroused
by a service rendered him in true scout spirit by a London Boy
Scout who, because of his obligation to do a good turn daily and
the rule against the acceptance of gratuities, greatly astonished
and impressed Mr. Boyce. After a conference with Sir Robert
he secured the cooperation of friends in Washington, D.C., and
on February 8 1910 incorporated an organization of the Boy
Scouts of America under the laws of the District of Columbia.
With the cooperation of other agencies interested in boys, the
plans for the organization were developed, and the administration
was undertaken by a national council working through an ex-
ecutive board and through local councils and scout officials
throughout the country. In 1910 a small office was opened in
New York and in 1911 headquarters were established at 200
Fifth Ave. in that city. Federal incorporation was granted by
Act of Congress in June 1916.
Boy Scouts are organized in patrols, 8 boys to a patrol, 2 to 4
patrols to a troop. Each troop is under the charge of a scoutmaster,
who must be an adult American citizen, and one or more assistant
scoutmasters. Troops are organized in connexion with schools,
churches and other institutions, or under the auspices of a group of
representative citizens. For each troop there is a supervising group
of adults known as a troop committee. Where there are two or more
troops in a community their activities are directed and supervised
by local councils.
The national council is made up of representatives from these local
councils and other distinguished men from every state in the union.
This body meets annually in New York City, where the Council has
its administrative and executive headquarters. The president of
the Boy Scouts of America in 1921 was Mr. Colin H. Livingstone
of Washington, D.C.; its honorary president, the President of the
United States, and its chief scout executive, James E. West.
The purpose of the Boy Scouts of America as stated in its consti-
tution is " to promote through organization, and cooperation with
other agencies, the ability of boys to do things for themselves and
others, to train them in scout-craft, and to teach them patriotism,
courage, self-reliance, and kindred virtues, using the methods which
are now in common use by Boy Scouts, by placing emphasis upon
the Scout Oath and Law for character development, citizenship
training and physical fitness." The movement is non-sectarian and
non-partisan. The motto of the organization is: " Be prepared."
The membership in Sept. 1921 was 410,676 registered scouts,
119,283 scout officials, 17,738 troops, 607 local councils. (J. E. W.)
Girl Scouts. In March 1912 Mrs. Juliette Low organized in
Savannah, Ga., a group of Girl Guides, patterned after and bear-
ing the same name as the organization developed in England by
Lt.-Gen. Sir Robert Baden-Powell and Lady Baden-Powell. In
both cases the purpose was to offer girls activities similar to those
open to Boy Scouts. The movement spread rapidly and on June
10 1915 the organization was incorporated and its name changed
to Girl Scouts. At first the national headquarters were in
Washington, D.C., but later removed to New York City. In
Oct. 1921 the number of registered Girl Scouts was about 120,-
ooo, and applications for membership were being received at the
rate of 3,000 per month. The purpose is to instill patriotism, to
arouse the spirit of helpfulness, and to develop character, largely
through outdoor group activity. The motto is " Be prgpared ";
and the slogan, " Do a good turn daily." Each member promises:
" On my honour, I will try to do my duty to God and my
country, to help others at all times, to obey the Scout laws."
These laws, ten in number, require a Girl Scout to be trustworthy,
loyal, helpful, friendly, courteous, kind to animals, obedient, cheer-
ful, thrifty, and clean in thought, word, and deed. Originally the age
limit was fixed from 10 to 18 years, and this central group continued
to be the largest; but later a separate division was formed for little
girls, known as Brownies or Junior Scouts, and another division for
mature girls, known as Citizen Scouts. The unit is a patrol of eight
girls, who choose from their number a leader. One or more patrols
form a troop, whose captain must be at least 21 years old and ap-
proved by the national headquarters. A captain may have one or
more lieutenants, at least 1 8 years old and approved by the national
headquarters. The official magazine is The American Girl, a
monthly publication. (X.)
Camp Fire Girls. Another organization, wholly distinct, repre-
senting the scout movement in the United States is the Camp Fire
Girls, for girls over twelve. It was founded in 1912 to promote
the ideals of the " home, health and citizenship." The training
stimulates love of being out of doors and an interest in simple
handicrafts like block-printing and weaving. The organization
accomplishes its work by recognizing the doing of small tasks
well and by awarding " honour-beads " in the seven Camp Fire
" crafts " of " home, nature, health, hand, camp, business, and
patriotism or citizenship." The slogan is " Give Service," and
the watchword " Wohelo " (work, health, love). There were
130,000 members in 1921, living in every state of the United
States and in 18 foreign countries. An allied junior organization
is the Blue Birds. The official organ is Everygirl's Magazine.
The headquarters of the Camp Fire Girls are in New York City.
BRACQUEMOND, FELIX (1833-1914), French painter (see
4.369), died in Paris Oct. 29 1914.
BRADBURY, SIR JOHN SWANWICK (1872- ), English civil
servant, was born at Winsford, Cheshire, Sept. 23 1872 and
educated at the Manchester grammar school and Brasenose
College, Oxford. He entered the civil service in 1896. Begin-
ning in the Colonial Office, he was soon transferred to the
Treasury. In 1911 he was appointed a member of the National
Health Insurance Commission, but in 1913 returned to the
Treasury as joint permanent secretary. In that capacity it fell
to his lot to sign the currency notes issued by the Government
when gold was withdrawn from circulation on the outbreak of
the World War. Hence their first popular name of " Brad-
burys." He was made K.C.B. in 1913, and in 1919 was
appointed chief British representative on the Reparations Com-
mission. In 1920 he was given the G.C.B.
BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH [MRS. JOHN MAXWELL]
(1837-1915), English novelist (see 4.369), died at Richmond,
Surrey, Feb. 4 1915. Among her latest novels were The Green
Curtain (1911) and Miranda (1913).
Her son WILLIAM BABINGTON MAXWELL (1866- ), born
June 4 1866, became known as a novelist and newspaper cor-
respondent. His novels include Vivien (1905); The Guarded
Flame (1906); Mrs. Thompson (1911); The Mirror and the
Lamp (1918); A Man and his Lesson (1919) and A Remedy
against Sin (1920). He served with the Royal Fusiliers during
the World War (1915-7) and attained the rank of captain.
BRAGG, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1862- ), British physicist,
was born at Wigton, Cumb., on July 2 1862 and was educated
at King William's College, Isle of Man. He subsequently
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, being elected to a major
scholarship in 1882. He was third wrangler in 1884 and in
the following year obtained a first class in part III. of
the mathematical tripos. In 1886 he was appointed professor
of mathematics and physics in the university of Adelaide, S.
Australia, where he carried out his earlier researches upon ra-
dioactivity. He took an active interest in the development of
scientific enterprise in Australia, was a member of the council of
the Adelaide University from 1893 to 1908, of the council of the
South Australian School of Mines and Industries from 1895 to
1908 and president of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, Brisbane, 1909. In 1909 he was
appointed Cavendish professor at Leeds University, where he
remained until his election in 1915 to the Quain professorship of
physics in the university of London. His researches upon various
radioactive phenomena and his power of lucid exposition brought
recognition from scientific bodies both at home and abroad; in
1906 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1915 he
received the Nobel Prize for Physics and the Barnard gold medal
(Columbia University), both of which distinctions he shared
with his son William John Bragg (b. 1890), who in 1919 became
BRAMLEY BRAUN
489
Langworthy professor of physics in the university of Man-
chester. The joint work of father and son has gone far towards
elucidating the arrangements of atoms in crystals, an achieve-
ment rendered possible by their development of the X-ray
spectrometer. During the World War Sir William Bragg's
services were placed at the disposal of the Admiralty, where he
served in an advisory capacity; he was more especially asso-
ciated with the problem of submarine detection. His public
services of a confidential nature were acknowledged by the
bestowal of the C.B.E. in 1917 and by his creation as K.B.E. in
1920. In the same year he was elected an hon. fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge, and served as president of the
Physical Society of London.
In addition to many publications, chiefly upon radioactivity, in
the Philosophical Magazine and the Proceedings of the Royal So-
ciety, he has written The World of Sound (1920), a compilation of a
series of lectures given to a juvenile auditory at the Royal Institution
in 1919 and, in collaboration with W. L. Bragg, X-Rays and Crystal
Structure (1915).
BRAMLEY, FRANK (1857-1915), English painter, was born
near Boston, Lines., May 6 1857. He studied art at Lincoln
and later at Antwerp, first exhibiting in the Academy in 1884.
Bramley became one of the best-known members of the
group of English painters known as the Newlyn school, and
in 1888 his picture, " A Hopeless Dawn," was bought under the
terms of the Chantrey bequest. He became A.R.A. in 1894,
and was elected R.A. in 1911, being also a gold medallist of the
French Salon. He died at Chalford Hill Aug. 10 1915.
BRANDEIS, LOUIS DEMBITZ (1856- ), American lawyer
and jurist, was born in Louisville, Ky., Nov. 13 1856. He
was educated in the public schools of his native city and at
the Annen Realschule, Dresden, Germany. He graduated
from the* Harvard Law School in 1877, was admitted to
the bar in 1878, and practised in Boston from 1879 to 1916.
As a member of the Public Franchise League he took an ac-
tive part in preserving municipal control of the Boston
subway. He was instrumental in securing the passage of the
Boston Sliding Scale Gas Act and was a pioneer in the move-
ment for establishing life insurance through savings banks. He
opposed the monopoly of transportation by the New Haven
railway in New England. He was much interested in labour
legislation, acting as counsel for the people in cases involving the
constitutionality of fixing hours of labour and a minimum wage
in several states. In 1915 he acted successfully as counsel for the
Government in the suit brought by the Riggs National Bank in
which the bank charged the Secretary of the Treasury and the
Comptroller of the Currency with conspiring to wreck it. In
Jan. 1916 he was appointed by President Wilson to succeed
the late Justice Lamar as associate justice of the United States
Supreme Court, being the first Jew to attain this position. He
was the author of Other People's Money and Business as a Pro-
fession, besides numerous articles on public franchise, business
efficiency, labour and trusts. He was prominent in Zionism and
in 1914 was made chairman of the provisional committee for
Zionist affairs.
BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN (1842- ), Danish
critic (see 4.427). The complete popular edition of his works
was published in Copenhagen in 18 vols. between 1899 and 1910,
and the German edition appeared in Munich in 8 vols. between
1902 and 1904. His later monographs include Armand Carrel
(1911); Goethe (1915); Voltaire (1916); Napoleon and Garibaldi
(1917) and Caius Julius Caesar (1918). He produced in 1919 a
study of the Schleswig-Holstein question, S onderjylland under
projsisk Tryk (South Jutland under Prussian Tyranny), and a
drama, Tragediens anden Del. Fredslutningen.
BRANGWYN, FRANK (1867- ), English painter (see
4.430). Among his later works are decorations for the Courts of
Justice, Cleveland, U.S.A., and the new Parliament building
at Winnipeg, Canada. He also decorated the Court of the
Seasons at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, San Francisco, and
in 1921 was engaged on work for the State Capitol of Missouri
at Jefferson City.
BRANTING, HJALMAR (1860- ), Swedish statesman, was
born in 1860. As a student he seemed at first destined for a
scientific career. He early devoted himself to astronomy and for
a period he acted as junior official in the observatory of Stock-
holm. His keen interest in political and social questions, how-
ever, soon drew him into journalism and into active politics,
and he threw in his lot with the then small group of Social Demo-
crats in Sweden. In 1886 he assumed control of the weekly
journal Socialdemokraten, their leading organ, which later was
converted into a daily. In 1888 he was condemned to a short
term of imprisonment on account of his articles. He was elected
a member of the Second Chamber of the Riksdag in 1896. An
able speaker and tactician, he exercised in Sweden an influence
proportionate to the growing numbers of his supporters. He
joined the Eden Government in the autumn of 1917 as finance
minister, and when this ministry fell in 1920 Branting became
prime minister and formed an entirely Social-Democratic ad-
ministration which, however, resigned office in the autumn of the
same year (see SWEDEN). Meanwhile he had played an important
role in international labour politics. He acted as representative
of Swedish Social Democracy at all the congresses of the First
International, and in the summer of 1917 he was chairman of the
Dutch-Scandinavian delegation which sat in Stockholm and
conferred in turn with delegations from the Socialist parties of
most of the belligerent countries with a view to devising a
platform for joint intervention by them in the interests of peace,
the moving power being Camille Huysmans, the secretary to the
International. Their efforts were unavailing. In Jan. and Feb.
1919 Branting was chairman of the International Social-Demo-
cratic Conference in Berne, at which British, French and Germans
met for the first time since the war. He was a member of the
executive committee of the Second International, which later sat
in London with Mr. Henderson as its chairman. He had taken
an active part in most of the Scandinavian workmen's congresses
since 1886; and at the ninth congress in Copenhagen in 1920 he
introduced the question of "democracy and dictatorship,"
the debate on which ended with the passing of a resolution by a
solid majority, representing up to 800,000 organized workmen,
against a small Norwegian minority, disapproving of the Bol-
shevik policy and adhering to the Second International.
Branting took a warm interest in the claim of the inhabitants
of the Aland Is. to be allowed to decide the permanent position
of the islands by means of a plebiscite, and he represented
Sweden in this matter at the first attempt in Paris in 1919 to
secure a decision from the Supreme Council, at the consideration
of the problem by the Council of the League of Nations in London
in July 1920, in Paris in Sept. 1920, and at Geneva in July 1921
(as Sweden's leading delegate). He was Sweden's leading dele-
gate also at the first meeting of the League of Nations at Geneva
in Dec. 1920 and chairman of the sixth commission which dealt
with the questions of disarmament, of blockade and of mandates.
He was elected by the Council a member of the " Commission
temper air e pour la reduction des armements," for the carrying-out
of which the commission made an appeal.
BRASSEY, THOMAS BRASSEY, IST EARL (1836-1918),,
British politician (see 4.435), who was created an earl in 1911,
died in London Feb. 23 1918. He was succeeded by his son,
THOMAS ALLNUTT BRASSEY (b. 1863), who died in London
Nov. 12 1919. The 2nd earl left no children, and the title
became extinct.
BRAUN, HEINRICH (1854- ), German Social Democrat
and writer on social questions, was born Nov. 23 1854 at Leipzig,
and studied at Vienna, Gottingen, Berlin and Halle. He suc-
cessively edited the important Socialist publications, Die neue
Zeit; the Archiv filr soziale Gesetzgebung und Verwaltung; Die
neue Gesellschaft; and Annalen fur Sozialpolitik und Gesetzgebung.
After the revolution and the election of a Prussian Constituent
Assembly, Braun was Minister for Agriculture in the Prussian
Socialist Ministry formed under the presidency of Hirsch on
March 24 1919.
LILY BRAUN (1865-1916), wife of the above, was one of the
most remarkable women Socialists and writers of modern Ger-
490
BRAZIL
many. She was the daughter of Gen. von Kretschmann, of an
old East Prussian Junker stock, and was born at Halberstadt
on July 2 1865. Her grandmother was the issue of one of the
amours of Prince Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia. Her
whole early life was passed in a Junker and militarist atmosphere,
on the East Prussian estate of her grandfather, or in the various
garrisons where her father held command. She had a deeply
introspective nature and read widely. The romantic as well as
the social and ethical ideas which she developed contributed
to alienate her from her class and her family and to draw her into
the Socialist movement. Her first marriage (against the wishes
of her family) was with an invalid socialistic professor, von
Gizycki. After his early death she was attracted by the Socialist
author and politician Heinrich Braun and married him in 1895.
She visited England and was on terms of friendship with leading
members of the Fabian Society. She was the author of many books
and pamphlets on social questions, particularly on the place of
woman in politics and industry, e.g. Fraucnfrage uitd Social-
demokratie (1901); Frauenarbeit und Handwirtschafl (1901);
Die Politik und die Fraucn (1904). But her most remarkable
work was the story of her own life, told, h'ke Goethe's auto-
biography, with some embellishments of fancy and, indeed,
professedly in the form of a novel. The two volumes are entitled
Memoiren einer Sozialistln (i) Lchrjahre (2) Kampfjahre (1909
and 1911). They give an elaborate picture, coloured no doubt
by the intense self -consciousness of the writer, of the growth of
the German Social Democratic movement in the 'nineties, with
sketches of the leading figures, such as Bebel, Liebknecht, Rosa
Luxemburg, and her own husband, Heinrich Braun. No German
book brings out more clearly the nature of the cleft between the
German and Prussian governing and military classes on the one
side and the industrial masses and their leaders on the other.
The contrast between German life in the country and in the cities
is also vividly portrayed, as is the social life of a regiment and a
garrison. Other books of hers are Im Schatten der Titanen
(memoirs of her grandmother, who lived for a time in Goethe's
circle) ; Liebesbricfe einer Marquise; a play, Mutter Maria, and a
novel, Lebenssuchcr. She died on Aug. 8 1916.
BRAZIL (see 4.438). No general census of Brazil had been
taken between 1900 and 1920, but the total pop., estimated in
1908 at 20,515,000, was officially stated in 1917 to be 27,473,579.
This figure, which is probably somewhat exaggerated, would
give an average density of 8.3 per sq. mile. Estimates of munic-
ipal pop. in 1913 (probably not very accurate) were: Rio de
Janeiro, 976,000; Sao Paulo, 400,000; Bahia (Sao Salvador),
348,000; Para (Belem), 275,000; Pernambuco (Recife), 216,500;
Porto Alegre, 1 50,000. The problem of immigration for so scantily
peopled a country is a vital one. Its great fertile plains yield
all the products of the tropics and sub-tropics, and it has immense
wealth in natural resources, yet its forests are almost untouched,
its enormous mineral deposits scarcely tapped, while grazing and
agriculture are still far behind their possible development.
Vast regions in the interior are still unsettled, and some even
unexplored. The most notable geographical achievement of the
decade 1910-20 was the expedition made in 1914 by Theodore
Roosevelt, in conjunction with Col. Rondon and other Brazilian
officers, down the Rio Duvida (River of Doubt), of which by far
the greater part had never been visited. The personnel of the
expedition included, besides Theodore Roosevelt, his son, Kermit
Roosevelt, two biologists, an engineer and a surgeon. The
journey, interrupted by many portages, involved a distance of
470 m., and lasted two months, from Feb. 27 to April 26. After
four days' progress down stream, cataracts were met with, and
the next 60 m. took 42 days to accomplish. The river proved to
be a tributary of the Madeira, some 940 m. in length, and
joined the main stream in lat. 5 20' S. The general course,
though very tortuous, is due N. running through rugged, densely
wooded country almost devoid of animal life. It is now officially
known as the Rio Roosevelt. In Through the Brazilian Wilderness,
Roosevelt gave the credit for the discovery to Col. C. M. da
Silva Rondon and to those associated with him on the Telegraph
Commission during their six years' work before his own journey.
The number of immigrants registered during the years 1908-19
was as follows:
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
94-695
85,410
88,564
135,967
180,182
192,683
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
82,572
32,206
34.033
31,192
20,501
37,898
Of the total 926,312, for the period 1908-16 inclusive, 354,820
were Portuguese, 190,767 Spaniards, 153,950 Italians, and 33,5/8
Germans. There were also 49,477 from Russia (chiefly Poles),
41,534 Turko-Arabs, and 21,843 from the Slavic parts of Austria.
No racial statistics for 19179 are available. In 1911 arrangements
were concluded with Japan to allow the immigration of Japanese
agricultural labourers into Sao Paulo, and over 13,000 entered in the
next two years. The agreement was renewed in 1916 so as to permit
the coming of 5,000 annually. Immigration was greatly retarded by
the World War, and when Italy entered the conflict in 1915 not only
did Italian immigration cease, but many Italian subjects in Brazil
were called home for military service, with the result that the labour
market was seriously depleted. It was estimated that 50,000 sailed
from Sao Paulo alone. When the Armistice was concluded in the
autumn of 1918, the Brazilian Government notified all consular
agents in the country that to agricultural immigrants accompanied
by families aid would be gratuitously supplied, including food, tools,
medical treatments, freedom from duties on baggage, transport by
rail or water, etc. Those settling in the Federal colonies would
also be given employment to the extent of 15 days' work a month for
each adult, and temporary quarters would be provided for such as
desired to build dwellings. In 1921 difficult post-war conditions in
Europe were rapidly turning the tide of immigration again in the
direction of Brazil.
Agriculture continues the chief source of Brazil's wealth. The
leading crop is coffee, of which it produces about four-fifths of the
world's supply. Over half is grown in the state of Sao Paulo alone,
the rest coming from the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes and
Espirito Santo. The average production is somewhat over 12,000,000
bags a year (bag = 6p kg. = 132 lb.), the harvest fluctuating greatly
with varying climatic conditions. The following official figures are
published for the years 1915-9:
Bags
Exported
Value in
Pounds
Sterling
Per cent of
Agric. Prod.
Exported
Per cent of all
Prod.
Exported
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
17,061,398
13,039,145
10,606,014
7-433,048
12,963,250
32,190,547
29,280,694
23,054,280
19,040,764
72,607,208
68
63
49
42
66
59
52
36
31
55
A constant effort is made to maintain the price, by imposing an
additional tax on exports over a certain amount, by encouraging
consumption through propaganda abroad, and in Sao Paulo by
prohibiting further extension of coffee plantations. The Coffee
Convention or Valorization Scheme of 1907 (see 6.647) was resorted
to again in 1917. In 1907, when the planters of Brazil faced ruin
owing to over-production, the state of Sao Paulo, supported by the
Federal Government, and with funds borrowed largely from foreign
bankers, bought up 8,000,000 bags and stored them for disposal in a
more favourable market. When the World War broke out, coffee
to the amount of 3,000,000 bags still lay in European warehouses,
most of which was eventually taken over by the belligerent Govern-
ments. In 1917 the state of Sao Paulo, to stabilize the price which
was threatened by a large crop and restricted markets, purchased
about 3,000,000 bags, and constructed enormous warehouses for
their storage on the docks at Santos. The destruction by frost of a
large part of the 1918 crop saved the Government from an anxious
situation.
The areas of cultivation of mandioca, corn, cotton, tobacco, sugar
and cacao haye all increased in recent years. Rice, once imported, is
so extensively grown that imports of it have virtually ceased. Of
cacao Brazil supplies the major part of the world's demand, most of
the crop coming from the state of Bahia. The output increased from
about 33,000 metric tons in 1910 to over 65,000 in 1919. Sugar, the
country s principal export in colonial times, is produced largely in
the states of Rio de Janeiro and Pernambuco. The entire crop in
1917 was reckoned at about 420,000 metric tons, of which 138,169
tons were exported. This last figure was unusual and due to the
encouragement of war prices abroad. Brazil consumes most of its
own supply, the normal export rarely exceeding 60,000 tons. With
the continued introduction of modern milling machinery, the
production of sugar should become one of the principal sources of
national wealth. Tobacco is grown in various states, but especially
in Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul. The Bahia product challenges in
quality that of the Vuelto Abajo district of Cuba, and finds a ready
market in Europe, while that of Goyaz and Minas Geraes is highly
esteemed for cigarettes. The annual production of Brazil was placed
in 1917 at 45,000 metric tons of which about 26,000 were exported.
BRAZIL
491
Cotton is native to Brazil, and may be grown in all parts of the
republic. The best cotton lands are in the centre and along the
N.E. coast to the mouth of the Amazon, where the finest varieties
produce a long silky fibre equal to the Sea Island or the Egyptian.
Annual production is reckoned at from 90,000 to 100,000 metric
tons, but the export of raw cotton, mostly to England, fluctuates
widely from year to year. The best year of the period 1910-20 was
1913, when 37,500 tons were shipped abroad, worth over 2,300,000.
The average in recent years has been about 5,000 tons. By a presi-
dential decree of March 27 1920 a cotton service was established to
investigate the properties of the soil and climatic conditions, create
experimental stations, and provide the planters at cost with
machinery, implements and fertilizers. With these measures of
encouragement taken by the Federal Government, the increasing
enterprise of individual firms and planters to improve conditions of
production, and with more careful selection and standardization of
the fibres, Brazil should some day become the world's greatest
exporter of high-grade cotton. The only important wheat-producing
state in 1921 was the southernmost, Rio Grande do Sul, which
supplies about half of its own needs; but Santa Catharina, Parana,
and the high interior of the south-central states are also suitable for
the cultivation of this cereal. Stock-raising advanced notably during
1910-20, especially in Rio Grande do Sul, but also in the states of
Minas Geraes, Parana, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Matto Grosso.
The industry is being put on a modern basis, packing plants of the
latest design and of high efficiency are in operation or projected, and
dairy products have become valuable. The first two packing houses
in Brazil were established in the state of Sao Paulo, one with North
American capital, the other with Brazilian. A packing plant has
been completed at Rio Grande by the Companhia Swift do Brazil,
and another in the city of Sao Paulo by the Companhia Armour do
Brazil. Canning establishments have been erected at Rosario and
Sant' Ana do Livramento, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, and
Rio de Janeiro now possesses cold-storage plants with large capacity.
Official statistics of live stock in 1913 were as follows:
Cattle
Horses
Mules
30,705,400
7,289,690
3,207,940
Goats
Sheep
Swine
10,048,570
10,549,930
18,400,530
The increasing importance of the cattle industry since 1914 may be
gathered from the following figures:
Exports of Chilled and Frozen Beef.
Metric tons Value
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
i 62
8,514 309,706
33,661 1,414,460
66,452 3,184,461
60,509 3,246,359
51,634 3,381,486
Exports of Preserved Meats.
Metric tons Value
123 8,201
856 78,571
6,552 5H-695
17,223 1,402,892
25,398 2,447,095
Rubber is still the most important of the forest products of the
republic, and ranks next to coffee in export value, although it is being
rapidly overtaken by exports of meats and hides. Since 1910 the
rubber industry has suffered severely from the competition of cheaper
plantation rubber from the Orient, especially since the slump in the
market following the artificial demand stimulated by the World
War. The Federal Government in 1913 undertook, in cooperation
with the state of Para, an ambitious plan for the relief of the indus-
try, involving reductions in export duties, developments of trans-
portation facilities, and the establishment of an experiment station.
But, although a few plantations have been created, there is as yet
little improvement in the industry at large. The " rubber " state
of Para will probably be forced to direct its attention in part to the
production of other crops, such as cereals, sugar, mandioca and
various vegetable fibres.
The exports of Para rubber and their value during the years
1915-9 were as follows:
Metric tons Value
1915
1916
7,039,697
7,496,386
7,484,170
3,998,770
6,239,794
35,165
. ....... 31,495
33,998
1918 ......... 22,662
1919 ....... 33,252
In Parana the lumber industry, while still in its infancy, was
making rapid progress in 1920. Two large saw-mills, recently erected
and equipped with the most modern North American machinery,
were cutting Parana pine and shipping the product to other parts
of the country and to Argentina. Cedar for the manufacture of cigar
boxes was also being shipped from this state to Rio de Janeiro and
Bahia. Brazil has very great wealth in fibre and wood-pulp for paper-
making, especially in the huge pine forests of Parana and Santa
Catharina. In 1921 only common grades such as wrapping paper
were manufactured, but enough newsprint could be produced to
supply the entire republic and even neighbouring nations, as Argen-
tina and Uruguay. Another valuable forest production of Parana is
mate or Paraguay tea, most of which is purchased by Argentina,
Uruguay and Chile. Over 76,000 tons were exported in 1916, and
90,000 tons in 1919, representing a value of 1,885,000 and 3,200,000
respectively.
Minerals. Lack of transportation and high export duties still
serve to check the exploitation of Brazil's immense mineral resources.
Gold and diamonds are now produced only in small quantities.
Minas Geraes possesses considerable deposits of iron ore, which are
being carefully examined by foreign experts, and plans are on foot
for the erection of modern furnaces. The output of manganese ore,
mostly in the states of Minas Geraes and Bahia, increased rapidly
during the World War, rising to 532,855 tons in 1917, the major part
going to the United States. The production of mica was also greatly
stimulated, exports increasing from 51 tons in 1915 to 162 tons in
1918. The world's supply of monazite sand comes largely from
Brazil, although its exportation declined during the World War.
There are coal deposits in Rio Grande do Sul, Parana, Santa Cathar-
ina and elsewhere, but most of it is of poor quality. In March 1918
the Federal Government offered assistance in the way of loans to
coal-mining enterprises whose output exceeded 150 tons a day.
Most of the coal used for industrial purposes is still imported from
England and the United States.
Manufactures. Factory products showed a marked development
during 1910-20, especially after 1914 when the World War decreased
the supply of goods from abroad. The city of Sao Paulo, rapidly
becoming the chief industrial centre, claimed in 1920 over 350 fac-
tories, large and small, with an investment of about 25,000,000.
But manufacturing is also very active in the states of Minas Geraes
and Rio de Janeiro, especially where water-power is accessible.
Some of Brazil's industries, such as cotton textiles, tobacco and sugar,
are natural to the country as they consume raw materials produced
at home; others are at present purely artificial, encouraged by the
protective barrier of heavy import duties from which the Federal
Government secures the larger part of its revenues. In some indus-
tries practically every item entering into the manufacture of their
product comes from abroad. The textile industry has made greater
progress perhaps than any other, chiefly in cotton goods, and in 1921
it accounted for about 40 % of the total production of manufactured
articles. In 1905 there were no cotton mills in Brazil, with 26,420
looms and 734,928 spindles, representing a capital of 10,384,000,
and producing nearly 264,000,000 yd. of cloth. In 1915 there were
240 mills, with 51,420 looms and 1,512,626 spindles, 21,596,000
capital, and an annual production of over 500,000,000 yards. The
whole of this native textile production is sold in Brazil, supplying
over 80 % of the fabrics used.
There are several large shoe factories in Rio de Janeiro and Sao
Paulo. Brazil manufactures 97 % of its footwear. Great progress
has been made in the tanning industry but owing to the inferior
quality of native hides the output is confined mostly to sole and
belting leather. The grazing regions of Rio Grande do Sul, however,
produce fairly high-grade hides, and with importations from Uruguay
and Argentina the tanners have begun to turn out a good quality of
leather which competes with imported stock. The principal tanneries
are in or near Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, but there are a number
of small establishments in Rio Grande and Porto Alegre and in a
few of the northern cities. In 1919 sole leather was exported to the
value of 246,692. It seemed probable that within a few years
Brazil would become a producer of rubber goods as well as of the
crude "Para." There were already in 1921 a few 1 small rubber fac-
tories in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, doing an increasing business,
and a North American rubber corporation was about to erect a large
factory near Rio for the manufacture of tires.
Commerce. The value of Brazilian imports and exports during
the years 1910-9 is shown in the following table:
Imports
Exports
Total
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
47,872,000
52,822,000
63,425,000
67,166,000
35473,000
30,088,000
40,369,000
44,510,000
52,817,000
78,177,000
63,092,000
66,839,000
74,649,000
65,451,000
46,803,000
53,951,000
56,462,000
63,031,000
61,168,000
130,085,000
110,964,000
119,661,000
138,074,000
132,617,000
82,276,000
84,039,000
96,831,000
107,541,000
113,985,000
208,262,000
Arranged by countries of origin or destination, the figures for
1916-9 are given in 'the tables on the next page. The effect of the
rise in prices is shown, of course, in the period after the war started ;
and this superficially neutralizes to some extent in money-value the
effect of the restrictions on over-sea trade. The jump in the figures
from 1918 to 1919 represents the freeing of commerce combined
with the rise in prices, particularly in the case of France, America
and Great Britain.
492
BRAZIL
IMPOHTS FROM
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
United States ... .
9,651,305
15,840,605
21,065,302
18,984,413
37,422,752
Great Britain ... . .
6,596,897
8,228,784
7,979,264
10,783,721
12,737,231
Argentina ... . :
4,786,628
5,675,425
5-791,925
10,020,245
12,032,250
France .... . .
1,486,525
2,095,378
1,785,118
2,518,993
2,967,405
Portugal .... . .
1,490,323
1,872,049
1,435,574
2,027,917
2,364,524
Italy . .
1,327,013
1,410,597
878,005
1,126,521
1,067,111
Newfoundland . . .
647,229
691,195
746,686
1,283,556
1,232,676
India .... . .
560,746
651,783
984,414
661,977
1,691,720
Norway .... . .
500,095
411,104
360,547
229,830
380,767
Germany .... . .
458,285
17,729
48,049
201,033
Uruguay .... . .
447,344
600,566
867,678
2,208,341
1,741,645
c
Spain .... . .
431,883
469,222
601,252
937-184
872,483
Switzerland ... . .
318,453
512,430
349,722
407,850
415,621
Sweden .... . .
265,436
526,482
398,069
498,152
879,024
Canada ... .
245,353
268,692
236,668
222,922
253,487
Netherlands ... . .
206,807
241,562
46,397
63,093
314,190
Mexico .... . .
142,500
257,270
187,241
334,342
555,333
Denmark .... . .
'131,652
228,666
79,684
41,464
28,387
Paraguay .... .
66,690
41,684
64,604
9,727
23,838
Belgium .... .
51,777
57,959
22,191
110,132
Austria-Hungary . . . .
39,678
304
86
4,646
Japan .... .
io,759
23,321
72,321
326,226
500,624
EXPORTS TO
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
United States
22,149,556
25,831,905
28,013,136
21,287,015
54,079,947
Great Britain
6,475,698
6,493,249
7,811,815
6,168,829
9,483,666
France
6,031,852
8,899,577
8,325,754
5,564,065
27,267,743
Sweden
4,775,722
1,531,800
77,674
290,179
3,337,429
Netherlands
3,369,821
1,684,819
320,347
4,090,386
Argentina
2,692,439
3,393,699
5,707,387
9,296,626
5,836,881
Uruguay
1,796,54
2,698,549
4,685,202
6,362,338
5,708,210
Italy .
1,662,748
3,401,060
4,853,614
6,421,278
3,821,439
Norway
1,568,316
294,578
296,757
512,723
1,016,129
Denmark
1,221,285
414,134
156,863
99,546
2,386,736
Portugal
486,117
313,600
273,807
554,625
693,138
Cape Colony
379,973
440,774
612,379
478,834
577,095
Spain
3 8 , 6 75
446,859
852,745
1,332,927
2,028,899
Egypt
263,858
91,094
291,284
174,769
365,175
Greece. . . . .
203,844
4,700
37,363
438,567
Chile
147,390
151,429
150,976
186,684
337,127
Cuba
43,865
140,672
269,161
200,233
185,053
Belgium
323,434
4,740,757
Austria-Hungary
I35,4i8
444,963
Germany
23
-
701,497
Approximate figures for the year 1913 provide means of com-
parison with conditions before the outbreak of the World War.
Imports from: Exports to:
Great Britain 16,450,000 8,587,500
Germany 11,747,000 9,141,000
United States 10,562,000 21,121,000
France 6,577,500 7,966,500
Argentina 5,003,000 3>57,5oo
Belgium 3,435,ooo 1,657,500
Portugal 2,950,500 327,000
Italy . . ' 2,546,500 837,500
Uruguay 1,451,000 1,064,000
Austria- Hungary .... 1,015,000 3,i3',5Oo
Newfoundland 788,500
Netherlands 728,500 4,788,500
Norway 709,500 100,000
Spain . . . ^ . . . 642,000 367,000
India 552,500
Sweden 294,500 658,000
Among the leading imports of Brazil are iron and steel manufac-
tures, machinery, railway supplies, coal, kerosene, cement, cotton
goods, foodstuffs, and raw materials and articles for use in the arts
and industries.
The principal ports of entry are Rio de Janeiro and Santos, but
Para, Pernambuco, Bahia, Porto Alegre and Rio Grande have a large
and increasing foreign trade.
Shipping. The Brazilian merchant marine increased but slowly
in 1910-20, except for the German steamers seized during the war.
Brazilian shipping in 1911 consisted of 238 steamers of 130,582 tons
net, and 290 sailing vessels with a net tonnage of 60,728. At the
end of 1917 there were 405 steamers of 236,535 tons net, and 54
sailing ships representing 17,920 tons net. Brazil in that year took
over all the German ships interned in her ports at the outbreak of
war in 1914, a total of 45 vessels with a net tonnage of 148,255.
Thirty were leased to France, the rest turned over to the Lloyd
Brasileiro, which considerably expanded its foreign service, especially
to the United States.
Communications. The railways of Brazil, aggregating 13,271 m.
of track in 1910, had increased in 1917 to 17,159 m., with 2,223 ro-
under construction and 4,697 m. projected. The states having the
greatest railway mileage were Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, Rio de
Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul and Bahia which together contain over
70 % of the mileage of the republic. One of the most extensive
systems is the Central of Brazil, a Government-owned and operated
property, connecting the federalized district with the states of Rio de
Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes. The total length of the line
in 1917 was 1, 466 miles. In that year it carried 32,639,600 passengers,
2,388,000 tons of freight, and 530,000 head of live stock.
Owing to the wide separation of the principal centres t>f population
along the coast, Brazilian railways have developed as a series of
independent systems. Thus Pernambuco became the focus of one
system, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and Rio Grande do Sul of
others. For some time the need was recognized of connecting the
various systems by interior lines running N. and S., to afford com-
munication independently of the sea, and to stimulate internal settle-
ment and trade. Such plans have been carried out N. and S. of
Pernambuco (from Natal to Maceio), and from Rio de Janeiro N. to
Victoria and S. to the Uruguayan frontier, where connexion was
made in 1913 with Uruguay Central. It is therefore possible to
travel by rail from Rio direct to Montevideo, a distance of 1,967
miles.
Construction, however, was not limited to the coastal region. In
1916 a line of considerable importance was completed between
Itapura on the Parana river and Porto Esperanca near Corumba on
the Bolivian frontier, the principal city of the state of Matto Grosso.
The resulting direct rail connexion with the state of Sao Paulo
reduced the time between Rio and Corumba to six days, in place of a
trip by water of from six to eight weeks. Extensions of the Rio
system northwestward into the state of Goyaz and of the system
of Ceara were planned or under construction in 1921. The Madeira-
Mamor6 line, passing round the dangerous falls of the Madeira river,
was practically completed in 1912. Driven through deep forest in a
deadly climate, it is one of the most costly railways in the world.
It is 182 m. in length and of great importance for the Acr6 territory
and Bolivia.
BRAZIL
493
In 1909 there were 36,199 m. of telegraph reported in Brazil which
had increased to 41,799 m. in 1917, of which 24,640 m. belonged to
the Government. In the latter year 680 telegraph offices were
reported, and 33 radio stations. The station at Para (Belem) has a
range of 4,000 m., and is thus capable of direct communication with
the United States. The station at Cape Santa Marta, with the
same range, connects with Cape Town in South Africa. In 1911 a
new trans-Atlantic cable was completed between Monrovia (Liberia)
and Pernambuco, and in 1919 an American-controlled connexion
established with the United States, via Argentina and the W. coast.
Brazil has now three cable lines connecting with Europe, two with
North America, and two with the River Plate. The number of
post-offices in the republic in 1918 was3,6n. Brazil from Jan. I 1914
adopted standard time and the longitude of Greenwich.
Finance. The following official figures are reported for 1919:
National debt, Foreign . . . 116,281,960 pounds sterling.
National debt, Internal . . 1,042,000,000 milreis paper. 1
Currency in circulation . . . 1,709,113,473 milreis paper.
Conversion fund .... 20,922,410 milreis gold.
Guarantee fund .... 48,391,020 milreis gold.
Unredeemed bills and notes, gold
and paper 14,632,500 milreis.
General taxes for 1920 . . . 119,452,949 milreis gold;
514,258,200 milreis paper.
Estimated expenditure . . . 72,372,326 milreis gold;
599.578,557 milreis paper.
Army and Navy. The army is organized on the basis of compul-
sory military service between the ages of 21 and 44, under the terms
of a law promulgated in Jan. 1908. The service required is two years
with the colours, seven in the reserve, seven in the second line, and
eight in the national guard. By a decree of Dec. 1917 the national
guard is incorporated with the second line. The total strength of
the active army in the autumn of 1918 was 54,000, but mobilization
would yield about 120,000. There is also a gendarmerie of 26,000.
The Brazilian navy in 1920 comprised two Dreadnoughts, two
coast defence ships, three protected cruisers, two river monitors,
four river gunboafs, four small cruisers, four torpedo boats, ten
destroyers, a mine ship, three submarines and a submarine salvage
vessel. Five destroyers and three large submarines were under
construction. The personnel comprised about 13,000 men.
Education. The latest figures available in April 1921 gave the
number of primary schools in the republic at about 13,000, with an
enrolment of over 700,000. Of these schools about half are supported
by the state Governments, one-fourth are municipal, and the rest
private institutions. Secondary and normal instruction is cared for
by various institutes and private establishments, of which there are
between three and four hundred attended by some 40,000 pupils.
The republic also possesses 28 industrial schools, n agricultural and
9 commercial schools. To further industrial education the Federal
Government may aid the state Governments, or municipal and
private schools which meet its requirements. Twenty-five faculties
confer technical and professional degrees and those in the Fed-
eral capital have been recently organized as a university. A
school of fine arts, a national institute of music, a military college, a
naval academy and a preparatory school of tactics are maintained
by the Government at Rio de Janeiro, and there are schools of
art and music in a number of the states.
Political History. Marshal Hermes da Fonseca, leader of the
Conservative party and former Minister of War, was elected
President of the republic in March 1910, over Snr. Ruy Barbosa.
The latter part of the year was marked by serious disturbances
in Rio de Janeiro and in the north. At Manaos, capital of the
state of Amazonas, the governor was forcibly removed by the
Opposition, aided by Federal troops and by the flotilla on the
river, but was reinstated by order of the President of the re-
public. At Rio de Janeiro on the night of Nov. 22 the crews of
two new Dreadnoughts, the " Minas Geraes " and the " Sao
Paulo," mutinied in the harbour, killed several officers, and,
training their guns on the city, sent a demand to the President for
the abolition of corporal punishment, increased pay and shorter
hours of labour. Four other ships joined the movement so
that it included most of the Brazilian navy. As no response was
received the city was bombarded next day, whereupon Congress
granted the demands and passed an act of general amnesty. The
mutineers meanwhile had put out to sea, but returned Nov. 27
and gave up the ships to the Government. On the night of Dec.
9, the marine corps stationed on Cobras Island in the harbour
also mutinied. Their position was bombarded next day, the
mutineers replying with shrapnel. After an action lasting ten
hours, the rebels surrendered, having lost over 200 killed and
1 The paper milreis during 1920-1 varied between sd. and i6d. or
$ .10 and $ .32. The gold milreis is equivalent to 2s-3d. or $ .546.
wounded. The revolt was followed by reforms in naval ad-
ministration, and by the dismissal of about 1,000 men. The
Government had difficulty in 1912 in maintaining tranquillity,
election disturbances occurring in the state of Bahla in Jan. which
required the calling out of Federal troops, and in the autumn
disorders threatened in the states of Parana in the south and
Para in the north.
The death in 1912 of Baron Rio Branco, Brazil's most dis-
tinguished Minister for Foreign Affairs, withdrew an influential
figure from South American politics. Through his efforts
boundary disputes with several of Brazil's neighbours had been
amicably adjusted and the territories of the republic considerably
increased. He was succeeded as Foreign Minister by Dr. Lauro
MUller. In 1913 a protocol was signed with Peru arranging for a
commission to survey the frontier in accordance with the Treaty
of Demarcation of Sept. 8 1909. On May 9 1913 the plenipo-
tentiaries of Brazil and Uruguay agreed to a convention establish-
ing a new frontier line between the two republics on the river San
Miguel, and recognizing Brazil's navigation rights on that stream.
A perennial difficulty was that of national finance. In spite of
annual messages of the President to Congress urging economy
and the reestablishment of a financial equilibrium, public ex-
penditures increased in alarming proportion to receipts, re-
sulting in heavy deficits. In 1913 the financial stringency was
increased by a sharp decline in the price of rubber and coffee, and
the result was an industrial and commercial crisis, intensified by
the outbreak of the World War in 1914. A symptom of the finan-
cial situation was the failure of three railways in the rubber
district, with liabilities of 5,000,0x30, held mostly by French in-
vestors. The war reacted seriously on most of the Hispanic-
American countries, due to the fact that they had looked to
Europe for their financing, and that the belligerent countries in-
cluded those to which they had shipped a very large percentage
of their raw products. In Brazil the reduction of exports and
imports (the latter in the second half of 1914 were two-thirds less
than in the corresponding period of 1913), and consequently of
customs receipts, together with the closing of the European
money market, came at a time when the Government was heavily
obligated to local and foreign contractors. As a result the
Government defaulted. In Oct. 1914 a funding scheme was
announced by which interest on all foreign loans, excepting
funding bonds of the 1903 loan, became payable in script for
three years, and the redemption of nearly all securities was
postponed for thirteen years.
The crisis was complicated by a rebellion in the state of Ceara
in Feb. 1914, starting among the rubber collectors who could no
longer obtain employment, and led by an ex-priest, Padre
Cicero. It quickly reached such proportions that the Federal
Government had to proclaim martial law and reinforce the
Federal troops at Fortaleza, the state capital. The political
opponents of the state president, Col. Rabello, apparently used
the movement to get rid of him, and on the Federal Govern-
ment's taking over the state administration the tension was
somewhat eased. The rebels were disarmed and the region
gradually quieted. Ominous signs of unrest at Rio de Janeiro at
the time of the presidential election in March 1914 led to arrests
and restrictions upon the press. As a result of the election, Dr.
Wenceslao Braz, who had been vice-president under Marshal
Fonseca, became head of the state.
Before the end of 1915 adjustments had been made to new
conditions and the economic situation became more normal.
New customers were found, especially in the United States, and
the high prices prevailing throughout the world encouraged
exportation. National expenditure was much reduced, the
national revenue increased by over 6,000,000, and a small
surplus appeared in the budget, a most unusual state of affairs for
Brazil.
In the course of that year there were important developments
in the relations of Brazil, Argentina and Chile, the three countries
constituting what was already known as the A.B.C. Entente.
Dr. Lauro MiiOer at the end of April paid official visits to the
other two republics as well as to Uruguay, to bring about closer
494
BREAL BREST LITOVSK
diplomatic, industrial and commercial relations. On May 23 a
treaty was announced in which the countries of the A. B. C.
undertook to submit to an international committee any dif-
ferences that might arise among them, and not to open hostilities
until the committee had concluded its labours. The treaty was
ratified by the Brazilian Chamber of Deputies in Oct. 1916. The
A. B. C. in the spring of 1914 had offered its mediation in the dis-
pute between the Government of the United States and Victoriano
Huerta,, provisional President of Mexico. In Aug. 1915 President
Wilson invited the A. B. C. Powers, together with Uruguay,
Bolivia and Guatemala, to enter into a conference on Mexican
affairs, the result of which was the unanimous recognition of
Venustiano Carranza as " chief of the executive of the de facto
Government of Mexico." Brazil also took a prominent part in
the Pan-American Financial Conference held in Washington in
May 1915, in an attempt to better existing financial conditions
in North and South America.
The administration of President Braz, which ended in Nov.
1918, was from a financial point of view very successful. He
succeeded in reducing public expenditures, restored specie
payment for internal debts, promoted the development of
natural resources, and improved the economic relations between
Brazil and her neighbours. Prices were high, but industry and
commerce prospered, and the excessive demand abroad for Bra-
zilian products so increased exportation that the country was left
with the largest trade balance it had ever known. In the
national elections of 1918 there was no contest, the sole candidate
for the presidency being Snr. Rodrigues Alves, a native of Sao
Paulo and senator from that state, who had been president of the
republic in 1902-6. The president-elect, however, was too ill
to be inaugurated in Nov., and died on Jan. 15 1919, without
assuming office. Another election was held in April to fill the
unexpired term, and Dr. Epitacio da Silva Pessoa was chosen.
Dr. Pessoa was then in Paris as chief of the Brazilian delegation
to the Peace Conference. On his return journey in 1919 he paid
official visits to England, Portugal and the United States.
From the outbreak of the World War in 1914, popular sym-
pathies in Brazil had been almost wholly on the side of the
Entente Powers, in spite of some annoyance caused by the
British " black lists." The German policy of unrestricted sub-
marine warfare announced early in 1917 forced the nation to
assume an active share in the conflict. On Feb. 8 the Brazilian
Cabinet dispatched a strongly worded protest to Berlin, declaring
that the proposed " blockade " was contrary to international
law, and that Brazil would hold Germany responsible for any
consequences that might ensue to Brazilian shipping. A similar
note was sent to Austria. On April 4 the steamer " Parana " was
sunk by a German submarine off the coast of France and several
of the crew drowned. On April 10, after an inquiry into the inci-
dent, the German minister at Rio de Janeiro was handed his
passports. In the crisis Dr. Lauro Miiller, minister for foreign
affairs, resigned his portfolio, apparently feeling that his German
name and antecedents might embarrass the Government. Snr.
Nilo Pecanha, a former president of the republic, was appointed
in his place. Rupture with Germany did not involve an im-
mediate departure from neutrality, but with the sinking of
another steamer, the " Tijuca," the drift toward war became
more rapid. Late in May President Braz sent a message to
Congress advising that neutrality be revoked, on the score that
unity of action with the United States, now a belligerent, was a
tradition of Brazilian foreign policy. On May 29 the Chamber of
Deputies unanimously passed a bill authorizing revocation
whenever the executive deemed the occasion appropriate. Con-
gress also authorized the seizure of the German ships interned in
Brazilian waters, aggregating nearly 150,000 tons. After the
sinking of another vessel, the " Macao," a state of war was
formally declared Oct. 26 1917. Many anti-German demonstra-
tions took place during the year, especially in Rio de Janeiro,
Sao Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul.
Brazil, considering her immediate resources, gave valuable aid
to the Allied Powers. Although the larger units of the navy had
not been entirely renovated by the time of the Armistice, destroy-
ers and other small vessels saw active service on both sides of the
Atlantic. Many physicians and a few aviators went abroad to be
attached to the Allied armies. The Federal Government in Dec.
1917 also promulgated a new military law, by which all citizens
of the republic between the ages of 21 and 30 were subject to
selective draft. But up to the cessation of hostilities comparative-
ly few had been called out, because the Government lacked the
means for adequate instruction and equipment.
As a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles, Brazil was one of the
original members of the League of Nations, and became one of
the nine Powers represented on the League Council.
(C. H. H.)
BREAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED (1832-1915), French
philologist (see 4.481); resigned his chair at the College de
France in 1905. He died in Paris Nov. 25 1915.
BREMEN, Germany (see 4.493). Pop. 311,266 according to
the census of 1919; in 1910 it was 299,526. The economic life
of the city state of Bremen in Germany was, in the period from
1908-14, in a state of high prosperity. The North German Lloyd
attained its highest figures of emigrant traffic (107,124) in the
first half of the year 1909. The number of emigrants carried was
beginning to diminish about the year 1912. In the course of
the years 1912 and 1913 the competition of the port of Emden,
the construction of which had been completed by the Prussian
State, began to make itself felt.
Bremen gradually passed from being a purely commercial
city to a development as an industrial city, the result of which
was to impose a heavy burden upon the finances of the city
state. Towards the middle of 1913, conflicts of interest arose
between the North German Lloyd and the Hamburg-Amerika
line; the North German Lloyd chose the path 'of more unobtru-
sive development of its business. The prospects of shipping,
and therewith the prospects of the business expansion of Bremen,
had begun to deteriorate as far back as the beginning of the year
1914.
The effect of the war was to paralyze almost completely the trade
of the city seaport. Bremen was the first of the German states to
introduce a tax upon war profits (May 1915). Attempts to con-
solidate the maritime traffic led, in the year 1916, to the establish-
ment of the Bremen association for the import trade. On Aug. 24
1916 Bremen celebrated the return of the mercantile submarine
" Deutschland " from its successful voyage to New York.
Conflicts on the subject of the constitution began in April 1917.
Bremen was the first town which, after Kiel, entered upon a revolu-
tionary movement (Nov. 6 1918). The Workmen's and Soldiers'
Council seized political power on Nov. 14. On Dec. 28 it was decided
to arm the proletariat. This was followed, on Jan. 10 1919, by the
formation of a Socialist republic of Bremen with a council of com-
missaries of the people. On Jan. 28 1919 the Government of the
Reich sent troops to deliver Bremen from the domination of the
communists. This force entered the city on Feb. 4 after protracted
negotiations. Elections were held for the Bremen State Assembly
on March 9, and a coalition government of the Socialist and non-
Socialist parties was formed. The new constitution was passed on
May II 1920. It conferred upon the Senate (as in Hamburg)
political and administrative powers. Side by side with the demo-
cratic Parliament the following representative bodies were likewise
established: -A chamber of the working classes, a chamber of
salaried employees, a chamber of agriculture, a chamber repre-
senting the retail trade, and a chamber representing the large
commercial and wholesale interests. The constitution of Bremen
contains a special declaration that the Church is separated from the
State. (O. KR.)
BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH [called Lujo] (1844- ),
German economist (see 4.496), was one of the German delegates
sent over to London in Nov. 1919 to attend the economic con-
ference convened by the " Fight the Famine " Council. At the
first session of the conference, held at the Caxton Hall Nov. 4,
he urged the organization and encouragement of German in-
dustry to enable Germany to fulfil her treaty obligations. His
more recent publications include a pamphlet on the proposed
League of Nations, and two short works, 1st das System Bren-
tano zusammengebrochen ? and Russland, der kranke Mann (both
1918).
BREST LITOVSK, BATTLES ROUND, 1915. The operations
round Brest Litovsk (see 4.500), from July 15 to Aug. 26 1915,
formed an important part of Mackensen's campaign in Poland
BREST LITOVSK
495
in the north-eastern offensive of the Central Powers that year
(see EASTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS).
On the completion of the regrouping of Mackensen's group
of armies, which now consisted of the Austro-Hungarian IV.
Army, the German XI. Army, the German Army of the Bug
and the Austro-Hungarian I. Army, the Central Powers had
resumed the offensive along the whole front from the Bug to the
Pilica. Mackenscn, with three of the armies, was to direct the
attack between the Vistula and the Bug. The main body of
the I. Army was to cooperate in this attack on the eastern flank
by delivering an assault in the direction of Vladimir Volinski,
while the remainder of the army was to provide cover along the
Bug up to the N. wing of the II. Army. The II. Army and the
Southern Army were to cover the attack on the Upper Bug and
the Zlota Lipa, and were themselves to attack only if this became
necessary for the protection of the neighbouring armies or if
the Russians showed signs of any dislocation of their forces.
Woyrsch was to fall in with the IV. Army's offensive between
the Vistula and the Pilica and, if occasion arose, to attack across
the Vistula. Forcing the Dniester, the VII. Army was to push
forward E. of the Strypa towards Czortkow and Buczacz, and to
let its cavalry attack in force E. of the Sereth.
Battles of Sokal, July 15-24, and Krasnostaw, July i6-g.
On July 15 at n A.M. Mackensen's attack began. On the very
first day Puhallo's army made its approach all along the Bug,
which, in spite of the high water-level, was forced on the i6th
by a division of the I. Corps N. of Sokal. By that time the Army
of the Bug had obtained possession of the positions between
Terebin and Grabowiec, and Arz's Corps, on the right wing of
the XI. Army, had stormed the very obstinately defended
positions at Skierbieszow. The Guard Corps and the XXII.
Res. Corps won the heights to the S.W. of Krasnostaw. The
IV. Army was working steadily up to the Russians' strong
main position. In spite of the dogged resistance of the Russians
the Guard of the XI. Army succeeded in taking Krasnostaw
in the next few days, and in pushing on to the heights N. of the
Zolkiewka. The I. Army meanwhile had taken Sokal, which was
stormed by its I. Corps, and had constructed a bridge-head
on the E. bank of the Bug. Farther N., Szurmay's group gained
the right bank of the Bug at Zdzary, and, on the S. wing,
portions of the II. Corps the E. bank at Krystynopol.
Mackensen's right flank now appeared to be adequately
protected, but for the present the attack on Vladimir Volinski
was impracticable, on account of the Russian counter-attacks
which soon developed and the limited strength of the I. Army.
West of the Vistula, Woyrsch and the army group of Kovess,
which had been placed under him, had on the i6th begun an
attack which led on the following day to the battle of Sienno
of which the object was to break through the Russian lines.
On the i8th this attack ended in a complete victory. The
Russian IV. Army evacuated its positions along Woyrsch's
whole front, and retired to new defensive positions behind the
Jlzanka and S.W. of Radom. But here again the Russians were
unable to stand against the powerful forward push, and were
thrown back beyond Zwolen by the right wing after heavy
fighting. While Kovess on the 2oth was occupying Radom and
advancing victoriously along the E. bank of the Pilica, the
front N. of Zwolen was successfully pierced over a stretch of
2 km., and the Russians were driven back to the Vistula and to
a kind of bridge-head position S.W. of Ivangorod. But on the
same evening Woyrsch broke through these positions also, E.
of Zalasy and at Czarnolas, and took possession of the heights
at Janowiec. All attacks launched by the Russians from the
fortress zone at Ivangorod proved fruitless. Farther N. the
Russian II. Army, being pursued by the German IX. Army,
fell back on Grojec and Blonie and the defences of Novo
Gcorgievsk.
The successful battles of the XI. Army, the obstinate attacks
by the IV. Army, and, not least, Woyrsch's menacing position
on the left bank of the Vistula, induced the Russians, although
they had obtained all the reinforcements available, to retreat
on the ipth. Pursued by the Army of the Bug, the IV. and the
XI. Armies, they once more took a firm footing in new and well-
prepared positions on the heights N. of Grubieszow, Rozana,
Gardzienice, and N. of the Chodel, thus covering the railway
line Ivangorod-Lublin-Chelm. In the days that followed they
made all possible efforts, reenforced by the XIII. Rifle Div.,
to drive the Austro-Hungarian forces at Sokal back across the
Bug, but all their attacks, vigorous as they were, failed. All
their assaults against the fronts of the XI. Army and the Army
of the Bug whose right wing had gained ground beyond
Grubieszow towards the N. were also unsuccessful, and they
were driven back from the heights N. of the Chodel by the
IV. Army along a front of about 40 kilometres.
The general effect of these successes on the allied attack was
to bring about a short pause in the fighting. The Russians had
established themselves in strong positions, and brought up fresh
forces. It seemed equally urgent to overhaul the allied forces,
and fresh preparations were also necessary before the renewal
of the attack. While the pause lasted the allies strengthened
their positions against new Russian counter-attacks.
Within the next few days the right wing of the Army of the
Bug pushed forward up to the carriage road running from
Horodlo to Wojslawice. The Russians renewed their embittered
attacks on the bridge-head at Sokal, but without [any success
whatever. Certain portions of the I. Army succeeded in taking
the obstinately defended height of Gora Sokal. The II. Army
was able to establish its 32nd Infantry Div. to the E. of Kami-
onka Strumillowa on the right bank of the Bug.
Meanwhile Woyrsch's army was making due preparations
for the crossing of the Vistula. Kovess's group, the XII.
Corps and the yth and gih Cavalry Divs. remained beside the
Vistula from Janowiec to the Pilica estuary, while the Landwehr
Corps with the Bredow Div. moved behind the left wing of the
army. Aided by the self-sacrificing efforts of the Austro-
Hungarian and German pioneers, who suffered many losses
through the heavy artillery fire, the Landwehr Corps and the
Bredow Div. crossed the river on the 28th in five places between
Kobylnica and Tarnow, fighting fiercely, and established them-
selves at Maciejowice on the opposite bank.
Battles of Chelm (Kholm) and Lublin: Capture of Ivangorod
and Warsaw (July 2^-Aug. 4). On the 2gth the offensive was
resumed on Mackensen's whole front. The main blow on
Biskupice was to be delivered by the XI. Army, on whose
right the Army of the Bug was to continue the attack on Chelm.
The IV. Army was to cooperate with the attacking group of the
XI. Army by pushing its strong right wing through to Lublin.
The assault, led by Gen. von Emmich, broke through the
Russian front in the battle of Biskupice (July 29-30), and an
advance was made to beyond Olesniki, where the right bank of
the Wieprz and the bridge of the railway leading to Chelm were
taken. North of Krasnostaw the Guard Corps joined in the
battle, but without winning any immediate success. The IV.
Army was for the time being able to come only as far as the
Russian wire entanglements.
In consequence of the reviving offensive, and also probably
of the ever-increasing pressure of the German armies on the
Bobr-Narew front, the Russians once more evacuated their
positions E. of the Vistula early on the 3oth, their only stand
against the pursuit being made at Grubieszow. The XVII. Corps
of the IV. Army, after overcoming the seven-fold wire entangle-
ments, made five successive assaults on the Russians during
the night of the 3oth. In the afternoon the cavalry of the
XVII. and IX. Corps rode into Lublin unopposed. The XIV.
Corps advanced to the heights N. and N.E. of the town, and the
IX., X. and VIII. Corps captured the heights S. of Snopkow
and approached the road running through Markuszow
Konskowola and Nowo Aleksandrya. On the following day
these successes were everywhere extended by violent fighting.
In the IV. Army the German 4yth Res. Div. at Kurow flung
itself across the road named above, and the left army wing
reached Nowo Aleksandrya.
On Aug. i the Russians continued their retreat step by step,
losing heavily. They also left the Bug below Krylow. In the
496
BREST LITOVSK
pursuit Puhallo's whole left wing pushed forward over the Bug
below Zdzary, and up to the hollow S. of Ustilug. The Army of
the Bug established itself along the Bug from this point to
Dubienko, while the Beskiden Corps, fighting on its left wing,
pursued the Russians beyond Chelm. The XI. Army came
upon fresh opposition in the line Kulik-Leczna, and in front of
the IV. Army the Russians were able to maintain the positions to
which they had retired after the abandonment of Lublin.
West of the Vistula great events were in preparation at this
time. Kovess's Transylvanian troops captured, by a vigorous
attack on Aug. 2, eight concrete entrenchments on the front
of Ivangorod, of which four were taken by the $oth Infantry
Regt. The Landwehr Corps, too, penetrated into the enemy's
positions at Domaszew. The successes of this group assumed
for the Russians an ever more threatening aspect. On the one
hand the railway between Warsaw and Ivangorod would be
in serious danger if the Landwehr Corps pushed their advance
any farther; on the other the enveloping of Ivangorod's N.
front would admit of considerable pressure being brought to
bear on its defenders.
In the next few days Mackensen's group of armies by their
tenacious attacks ousted the Russians from one position after the
other. The forces of the Russian III. and IV. Armies, which were
being hemmed in more and more closely, tried in vain by counter-
attacking to obtain breathing space and relieve the pressure.
While Mackensen continued his irresistible advance between
the Bug and the Vistula, and Prince Leopold of Bavaria and
Woyrsch were on the point of taking Warsaw and Ivangorod,
there were signs in the N. also that the fortresses on the Bobr-
Narew front were doomed. Pultusk and Rozan had been taken
by Gallwitz's Army, and Ostrolenka was seriously threatened.
Farther N. the VIII. Army (Scholz's) was equipping itself to
attack I/omza and Ossowiec, while the X. Army (Eichhorn's)
and Below's Army of the Niemen were advancing on Kovno
and Riga. The Russians were, no doubt, considering the
abandonment of their front on the Vistula; and they had begun
to send off their war material and the enormous food supplies
needed to support the armies during a retreat which was to be
only gradual. But in spite of all the strength they displayed
they were being constantly forced backward. On the 3rd,
Leczna was captured by the left wing group of the XI. Army.
The cavalry of the I. Army entered Vladimir Volinski, and
Szurmay was nearing the Luga. Aug. 4 crowned all previous
successes. The German IX. Army under Prince Leopold of
Bavaria threw the Russians out of both the outer and inner ring
of Warsaw's forts, and, after the Russians had evacuated the
town and withdrawn to Praga on the right bank of the Vistula,
made their entry into the town. Simultaneously the western
quarter of Ivangorod on the left bank of the Vistula was taken
by the XVI. Infantry Div. of Kovess's group, while the garrison
retired to the right bank and blew up the Vistula bridge.
The IV., XI., and Bug Armies, continuing the pursuit, forced
back the Russians, in spite of violent resistance, behind the
line Sawin-Baranowka-Kurow. The left wing of the IV. Army
advanced to the heights N. of Konskowola.
The Battle at Lubarlow, Aug. 5-8. When the Russians
began their retreat from the Vistula position between Warsaw
and Ivangorod it fell upon Mackensen to deliver his blow on
the left flank of the retreating army. His desire was to push
forward with all possible speed beyond Parczew to the railway
line running from Warsaw to Brest Litovsk. The I. Army and
the Bug Army were to cover the attack by holding the bridge-
heads constructed on the E. bank of the Bug. The Bug Army
removed its right wing to Dubienka and was to advance with
its left on Wlodawa and across the Wlodawka. The IV. and XI.
Armies, whose attacks were to be continued, were to reach the
Tysmienica and Wieprz section as quickly as possible. As a
guiding line for the inner wings of both armies Mackensen
selected the river bed of the Wieprz.
The shifting of the XI. Army, which now became necessary,
was made possible by the transference of the Beskiden Corps
from the Bug Army to the rear of the XI. Army's right wing.
The troops occupying the stretch of the Bug below Ustilug
could now gradually loosen their hold, for here the Russians,
under pressure of what had occurred, were retiring by successive
stages on Kovel. They were being pursued for the moment
only by the I. Army cavalry.
On the IV. Army devolved the task of attacking the strong
positions at Lubartow within the next few days. By the 6th
it was able to take the Russian trenches S. of that place, and
at Brzostowka and Krasny German troops penetrated into the
Russian positions. On the yth the decisive blow was given by
the attacking group on the army's right wing, composed of
seven divisions of the XIV. and XVII. Corps, commanded by
Lt. -Field-Marshal Roth. The enemy was driven out of several
lines, lying one behind the other, during the morning, and in
the afternoon and evening this group, with the XLI. Honved
Infantry Div. and the XI. and III. Infantry Divs., pushed
their way to beyond Firley, driving a wedge into the Russian
front. The Russians fell back in complete disorder across the
Wieprz. Meanwhile the X. Infantry and XLV. Light Infantry
Divs. had crossed the Wieprz to the N.E., at and N. of Baran-
owka, in order to join in the battle of the XL Army, which was
also being assisted by heavy artillery fire in the direction of
Brzostowka. West of the Rudno-Kamionka road the XVII.
and IX. Corps also joined in. Here the Russian XXV. Corps
had advanced from the area S. of Michow to a counter-attack
on the Austro-Hungarian X. Corps, which after a hard struggle
succeeded in forcing the enemy back to the Lower Wieprz and
snatching from him some of his points d'appui. The immediate
effect of these battles was the evacuation by the Russians of
the Vistula bank N.W. of Ivangorod also. Thereupon Kovess
and Woyrsch took up the pursuit on both sides of the Sololew-
Zelechow road. On the 8th and gth the pursuit of the hurriedly
retreating enemy was vigorously carried on. The IV. Army
crossed the Wieprz close to its estuary and also at Leszkowice.
On the pth, too, the Bug Army and the XL Army penetrated
the enemy's lines at several points after extremely heavy fighting,
but on the zoth they again encountered the greatest resistance.
Woyrsch and Kovess crossed the Warsaw-Lublin road and
went in pursuit of the Russian IV. Army, which was falling
back on Lukow and Radzyn. The Archduke Josef Ferdinand's
Army now advanced also on the N. bank of the Wieprz, and,
on the loth, reached the region N.W. of the Lower Tysmienica
and the area in the bend of the Tysmienica; the Emmich group,
fighting on the left wing of the XL Army, approached the
Upper Tysmienica in its pursuit of the Russian IV. Army's left
wing. On Woyrsch's left were the German IX. and XII. Armies,
the latter of which, coming from Gallwitz's Army, had penetrated
to the Bug and the area of Sadow, Kaluszyn, and Ceglow. Up
to Ossowiec all the fortresses of the Bobr-Narew line had fallen.
Novo Georgievsk alone still held out, but around it Gen. von
Beseler was drawing his siege-ring ever closer.
The Brest Litovsk Offensive. The IV. Army's flank attack
on the Russians retreating eastwards had in the last few days
changed into a frontal pursuit in a north-easterly direction,
carried out in conjunction with Prince Leopold of Bavaria's
group of armies. For the XL and Bug Armies, however,
Mackensen still held to the proposed flank attack, to be delivered
in a northerly direction.
The S. wing of Hindenburg's group of armies (the German
VIII. and XII. Armies) and the two groups of Prince Leopold
of Bavaria and Mackensen were forcing back the Russian main
force ever farther towards the Bialystok-Brest Litovsk railway
line. This main force was composed of the XII., I., II., IV.,
and III. Armies, and counted roughly 60 infantry and 7 cavalry
divisions. Mackensen's part in the great scheme of operations
was to attack the southern portion of this section of the railway,
which had the support of the powerful Brest Litovsk fortress.
Within the area which it sheltered, down the Bug as far as
Janow, the Russian III. Arrny, with about 14! infantry and 2
cavalry divisions, made its retreat, while the Russian IV. Army
took the direction of Janow and approached the Bug from the
north-west. On the i2th the III. Army, between the Bug and
BREST LITOVSK
497
the Tysmienica, gave up the resistance and fell back step by
step through Macoszyn, Hola and Parczew, followed by the
XI. Army and the left wing and centre of the Bug Army. The
right wing of the IV. Army remained in the bend of the Tysmie-
nica, the centre and left wing crossed the Bystrycza and came
towards the Bialka section and Radzyn. Kovess and Woyrsch
advanced by way of Lukow and Siedlce.
As the offensive progressed the allies' front had become
considerably shorter. For whereas the length of front in the
middle of July, at the beginning of the offensive, had been
about 720 km. long from the German VIII. Army's left wing at
Ossowiec to Mackensen's right wing, it had by the middle of
Aug. been curtailed to the extent of 480 km. The armies drew
closer together, and it thus became possible to relieve the
fighting troops more frequently and also to withdraw whole
corps and throw them into the battle at another point.
On the I3th the vigorous pursuit S. and W. of Brest Litovsk
gained considerable ground. The IV. Army advanced in the
general direction of Biala, the XI. steered straight for Brest
Litovsk and fought its way to the region round Opole, and the
Bug Army pushed forward its left wing as far N. as Hanna on
the Bug. On the following day the Russians offered renewed
resistance, but fell back again still farther early on the I5th,
after the Guard Corps, reenforced by the XIX. Infantry Div.
and the X. Reserve Corps, had penetrated their lines S.E. of
Razwiedowka and at Gorodyszeze respectively on the i4th, and
the IV. Army had also successfully attacked their positions.
The German X. Corps came in to reenforce the ever-lengthening
front of the Bug Army and, taking up its position on the army's
right wing, undertook the protection of the Bug in conjunction
with the I. Army at Dubienka.
On the isth the XI. and IV. Armies reached to Tuczna and
the area S. of Biala in their pursuit. The left wing corps of the
Bug Army gained the cross-roads N.W. of Slawatycze. Early
on the 1 6th portions of the IV. Army crossed the Krzna hollow
and established themselves N. of the road leading westward
from Biala. To the N. of the IV. Army Prince Leopold of
Bavaria's group of armies, with Woyrsch's . Army and the
Kovess group, reached the Bug N. of Konstantynow, and the
IX. Army crossed over in the direction of Leniatycze.
On the iyth the XI. Army had come up so near to the outlying
positions of Brest Litovsk that the Guard and the Austro-
liungarian VI. Corps, who were to invest it, could now move
into the blockade position S.W. of the fortress on the line Okczyn-
Dobrynka-Lachowka. The X. Reserve Corps established itself
E. of Janow on the Bug, and the XXII. Reserve Corps pushed
in between that corps' right wing and Lachowka on the front
facing east. At Wlodawa the Bug Army built out a bridgehead.
The main body of the IV. Army was' echeloned N.W. of Janow
and crowded together on the S. bank of the Bug. The left wing
was opposite Niemirow, where the VIII. Corps was fighting
its way across the Bug. Adjoining was Kovess, who had taken
the N. bank of the Bug between Niemirow and Mielnik, and
was continuing the advance in conjunction with Woyrsch and
with Prince Leopold of Bavaria's group of armies, which had
reached Zerdycze.
The Bug Army, to which Arz's Corps had been added, and
which now stretched as far as Krzna with its left wing, took
the offensive across the Bug in a N.E. direction starting
from the Wlodawa area. In the battle of Wlodawa the German
I. Infantry Div. broke through the Russian positions on the
i pth and pushed forward, followed by the XXII. Infantry Div.
to Piszcza. The XXIV. Reserve Corps attacked Dubok and
Czersk for the time being without success. At Slawatycze on
the E. bank of the Bug the Russians put up a very strong
resistance. They were concerned at this point to delay the
advance as long as possible.
The Russian XXIX., XXIII., and II. Caucasian Corps
were to take advantage of the protection of the lakes E. of
Wlodawa to bar the approach to Brest Litovsk. But the
retreating movements of their train columns, and the withdrawal
of troops in the general direction of Kovel, Kobryn and Pruzany,
pointed to a fight to gain time, which would have to be cut short
by the I. Army and the Bug Army in a vigorous attack. On the
N. wing of the Bug Army no change took place that day as
regards the Russian positions at Brest Litovsk, but the XI.
Army gained ground N. of the Krzna in the direction of Kolczyn.
The Russians attempted, by repeated counter-attacks, to
delay the pressing pursuit of the allies until they should have
had time to cross the Bug. The IV. Army succeeded in advancing
as far as the Pulwa.
In face of the right wing attacks of the Bug Army the Russians
had established themselves on the 2oth along the Kapajowka.
Arz's Corps, before Brest Litovsk, forced the Russians back on
both sides of the road leading from Biala to the fortress, to
beyond the area N. of Dobrynka. In the zone of the XI. Army
the angle of the Bug at Krzna was almost completely cleared
by the XXII. Corps. The X. Reserve Corps pushed across the
Bug at Ogorodniki without meeting with any great opposition.
The Archduke Josef Ferdinand's Army and the Kovess group
encountered renewed violent resistance on the line Wolczyn-
Wolka-Tymianko. After hard fighting the Russians were
driven farther back. The investing troops of Brest Litovsk
also gained some ground.
On the 22nd the XLI. Reserve Corps of the Bug Army, after
making their way through the lake defiles, reached the region
E. of Oriechowo, and on the 24th, together with the XXIV.
Reserve Corps, advanced to the line Zbunin-Mielniki after
fierce fighting. The Beskiden Corps and Arz's Corps meanwhile
were working their way step by step up to the particularly
powerful positions and forts of Brest Litovsk. The XXII.
Reserve Corps and the X. Reserve Corps of the XI. Army were
also fighting hard to repulse the Russian counter-attacks. On
the 24th Arz's Corps and the Beskiden Corps succeeded in
penetrating the Russian lines in several places and in forcing
back the Russian garrison (III. and V. Corps) behind the
permanent ring of forts. In the meantime the XI. Army,
fighting furiously, advanced over the Bug to the line Neple-
Minkowice, and threatened the fortress from the north. Mean-
while the XII. Corps of the Kovess group had broken through
the Russian front, already greatly shaken, at Riasno, and had
wrested from it the Pulwa position. A vehement fighting pursuit
was carried out by the IV. Army and Leopold of Bavaria's
Army group as far as Minkowice-Babinka. The S. wing of the
German XII. Army pushed forward with the IX. Army to the
swampy valley of the Orlanka.
Capture of Brest Litovsk (Aug. 25-6). On the 25th the
XXXIX. Honved Infantry Div. of Arz's Corps broke
through the outer ring of forts at Kobylany, S.E. of the railway
leading from Biala, and took the fort from the rear. The posi-
tions on both sides of the road coming in from Biala were also
stormed. The XII. Infantry Div. of this corps captured a
fort S. of Koroszczyn, and the XXII. Reserve Corps took the
place itself and several forts on the N. front of the fortress,
after which the Germans advanced to the railway bridgel and
drove the Russians back into the citadel.
Farther N. the Guard Corps and the X. Reserve Corps
pushed the Russians back to the Lesna, which river was crossed
by the Guard Corps on the 25th to the N. of Brest Litovsk.
The IV. Army and Prince Leopold's group beat the Russians
back to Kamieniec Litowsk and the Lesnaja marshes.
After the hard battles fought on the 25th around the forts
of the fortress, which culminated in the capture of the redoubt
by the XXII. Reserve Corps and Arz's Corps, the Russians,
on the 26th, abandoned the fortress and withdrew to the Ryta
and the Muchawiec section, closely pursued by the Bug Army
and the XI. Army. In the Bug Army the XLI. Reserve Corps
and XXII. Infantry Div. pushed forward on both sides of the
road from Wlodawa to Kobryn, to beyond the road leading E.
from Brest Litovsk. Gerok's Corps gained the Ryta section, and
the Beskiden Corps, advancing along both sides of the road
from Brest Litovsk to Kobryn, reached the Szebryn region. The
VI. Corps remained in the fortress and was once more put under
the XL Army command. The XI. Army advanced in the area
498
BRETON BRIDGE, AUCTION
N. of Brest Litovsk as far as the line Saki-Poliszcze, and by
hard fighting drove out the Russian rearguard. In the IV.
Army, portions of the XXXVII. and XLI. Honved Infantry
Divs. had occupied a sort of bridge-head position E. of Kam-
ieniec Litowsk on the Lesna. The main body of the army (the
VIII. and XVII. Corps) concentrated at Monaczki and Zad-
vvorzany in readiness to withdraw bodily from the front as
soon as its troops stationed E. of the Lesna should be relieved.
The fall of the Brest Litovsk fortress and the simultaneous
capture of Bialystok by the German VIII. Army compelled the
main force of the Russian N'.W. front to retreat.
The A ustro-Hungar ian I. Army's Offensive at Kovel (Kowel).
The arrival of the reinforcements transferred from the IV. Army
(the IX., X., and XIV. Corps) to the I. Army gave the signal
for a renewed offensive advance by the I. Army. If an advance
in the direction of Kovel were made, and the Russians were driven
E. and W., the result would be to divide the Russian N.W. from
the S.W. front. The impassableness of the Polcsie, lying between
the two fronts, was an appreciable aid to this separation. The
offensive was opened on the igth against the Russian XXXI.
and IV. Cavalry Corps by Heydebreck's Cavalry Corps, of
which the Austro-Hungarian IV. Cavalry Div. reached the
Dubienka area and the XI. Honved Cavalry Div. the locality
of Luboml. On the 2oth, in a further advance, the German V.
Cavalry Div. reached Bobly, and the Austro-Hungarian IV.
and XI. Olesk and Ruda, while infantry detachments of the
IX., X., and XIV. Corps followed, moving concentrically up
to Mokrec and Luboml.
On the following day the Russian XXXI. Corps took up a
position to meet them on the line Turyjsk-Nowosiolka-Ruda,
whereupon the whole II. Infantry Div. was brought forward
to Solowicze. On the 22nd, together with the Cavalry Corps,
it engaged in fierce fighting at Maciejowa and Turyjsk, and drove
back the XXXI. Corps on Kovel. The main body of the
Russian XXXI. Corps attempted to join the Russian III. Army
to the N. by v/ay of the Pripet. The Russian IV. Cavalry Corps
was aiming at a similar junction through Kamien Kaszyrskiy.
In their retreat the Russians had undertaken a regrouping of
the N.W. front's S. wing in the area N. and S. of Polesie.
The XIII. Army, which had been fighting on the S. wing,
was disbanded. The army command with three of the corps
were transferred to other fronts, and the remaining four corps
incorporated with the III. Army defending Brest Litovsk.
On the 24th the German V. Cavalry Div. and the Hungarian
XI. Honved Cavalry Div. took up the pursuit to the N., the
IV. Cavalry Div. to the east. The separation of the N.W. from
the S.W. front had been accomplished. Up to the end of Aug.,
Mackensen, who after the fall of the fortress had again been
placed under the Supreme Army Command, carried the pursuit
up to Kobryn and Pruzany; Prince Leopold of Bavaria's and
Hindenburg's S. wing (the XII. and VIII. Armies) advanced
along the roads to Wolkowica and Grodno on to the line
Pruzany-Jalowka-Nowinka Nowydwor and Sopockinie, and the
Austro-Hungarian armies attacked the S.W. front together
with the German S. Army.
On the 25th the Austro-Hungarian IX. Corps of the I. Army
had begun an enveloping advance against the N. wing of the
Russian VIII. Army. On the 26th their offensive was in full
swing. The XIV. Corps and the IV. Cavalry Div. advanced on
Zydyczyn from Kovel, the IX. and X. Corps won the area N.
and N.W. of Lokaczyn by fighting, and Szurmay's N. wing
crossed the Bug at Markostaw. By the end of Aug. the main
body of the Archduke Josef Ferdinand's army, which had been
set at liberty N. of Brest Litovsk, had been brought over to
the N. wing of the I. Army. On the arrival of the army command,
the two armies, under the Archduke's Higher Command,
continued the offensive begun by Puhallo against Luck and
Dubno. The advance which followed, with which the II. and
Southern Armies were associated in their attack across the Zlota
Lipa, led to the Rovno campaign. (E. J.)
BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE AIME LOUIS (1827-1905), French
painter (see 4.501), died in 1905.
BRIAND, ARISTIDE (1862- ), French statesman (see
4.515). Few men in France had gained so much in political
knowledge, ability and influence, during the 15 years preceding
1921, as Aristide Briand. The year of the separation of Church
and State (1905) marked his entry into the ranks of the coming
men in France. His tolerant interpretation of that measure, his
desire to bring about a cessation of the bitter strife between old
Radicals and the growing body of men who, while remaining
Conservative, nevertheless accepted the Republic, marked him
out as a man capable of interpreting the signs of the times. At
the age of 59 Briand had been seven times prime minister of
France. He was first Minister of Public Instruction in the
Sarrien Ministry of 1906, and maintained that portfolio in the
succeeding Clemenceau Government until Jan. 1908, when, still
under Clemenceau, he became Minister of Justice, a portfolio
which he resigned to become prime minister on July 24 1909.
After a reshuffle he continued as prime minister from Nov.
3 1910 until Feb. 27 1911. He again took office as Minister of
Justice in the Ministry formed by Raymond Poincare on Jan.
14 1912. He followed Poincare as prime minister between Jan.
21 1912 and Feb. 18 1913, and retained that office under
Poincare's presidency until March 18 1913. He was Minister of
Justice in the Viviani war Cabinet from Aug. 26 1914 until Oct.
29 1915, when he again became prime minister, remaining in
office until March 20 1917. He succeeded Georges Leygues as
prime minister on Jan. 16 1921. (See FRANCE: History.)
By his eloquence and the suavity of his manner Briand earned
for himself many soothing nicknames, such as the " charmer,"
the " siren " and the " endormeur." He had in his command a
voice of pleasing resonance and yet capable of humour, and a
wealth of gesture and a knowledge of histrionics acquired from
his friend the great actor Antoine. These, with a handsome and
dominating personality lightened by a very ready and supple
intelligence, explain his countless successes at the tribune.
They were reinforced by statesmanlike qualities of courage and
firmness, and a proper appreciation of the right moment at
which to strike or to stroke recalcitrant sections of the com-
munity. M. Briand struck hard when, in 1910, he mobilized the
railwaymen and thus put an end to the most grave labour
trouble that had yet threatened France. Leaving far behind him
the bitter doctrines of class warfare from which he started,
Briand, in speeches at Perigueux St. Chamond, appealed to the
country to breathe the atmosphere of appeasement, to accept the
clerical struggle as over, and to work unitedly on sane measures
of social reform. He was, in these utterances, seeking to create
a centre party of moderate Republican sentiment. The con-
stant labour troubles and the dangerous pandering to the greed of
labour which had marked previous Radical administrations
made his task easy. It was upon this Republican centre that
Briand based his majority. His chief work was done during the
World War. He succeeded Viviani at a time of considerable
difficulty. The first battle of the Marne had been won, but the
second was still to come. He had ambitious desires to bring
about the unification of allied war effort which Clemenceau and
events alone had the power to achieve. It was under his influ-
ence that the first steps towards coordination were taken. He
had to fight against the French Parliament's desire to play a
greater part in the conduct of the war than that to which it was
entitled. He had also to support in conference against British
representatives the claims of the Salonika expedition. As
Minister of Foreign Affairs he was largely responsible for the
entry of Rumania into the war. In 1921 France gave him her
confidence as being exceptionally qualified, by suppleness of
character and firmness in argument, to maintain her claims for
national security amid the difficulties encountered in enforcing
the Peace Treaty. He attended the Disarmament Conference
at Washington in Nov. 1921, and stated the case for his country.
(G. A.)
BRIDGE. AUCTION (see 4:531). As the game of Bridge had
succeeded Whist among card-players, so in turn after 1908-10
did the first form of simple or " straight " Bridge give way to
Auction Bridge but the second step was the more complete, for
BRIDGE, AUCTION
499
while Whist is still played, " straight " Bridge practically died at
Auction's birth. Even before 1908 it had long been recognized
that the great weakness of " simple " Bridge was the restriction
of the trump-making power to the dealer and his partner, and
their inability to evade that privilege at will a ruling which
enforced the playing of too many poor hands and the forfeiture of
too many good ones. Hence arose the plan of putting up every
hand to auction, forcing the dealer to open the bidding, allowing
every player a chance to buy the declaration (naming at each bid
the suit which he desired to play), and selling it to the highest
bidder (or to his partner in the event of that partner having been
the first to name the final suit, in which case the second part-
ner was considered merely the " raiser," not the bidder). Bid-
ding continued until three successive players had passed in lieu
of bidding, doubling or re-doubling; any player might abandon
his original suit and switch to a new suit, to his partner's suit,
or even to his adversary's. The bidding having closed, the part-
ner of the buyer became dummy, and the buyer's left-hand
adversary became the leader. At first the original suit-values
and ranks were retained as at " straight " Bridge, but many vital
changes were made. The rubber-bonus was raised to 250. The
adversaries of the buyer (hereafter called the Declarant) were
debarred from scoring points toward game (" below the line "),
taking their profits invariably in the honours-column at 50 a
trick regardless of suit. The book for the declarant remained at
six; over that he had to take as many tricks as he had bid; if he
took more, he could score them all; if he took fewer, he could
score nothing except for possible honours his adversaries scor-
ing 50 for each trick stolen from the contract. The book for the
adversaries varied with the size of the bid, being always the
number of tricks that the declarant dared lose; it was deter-
mined by deducting the bid from seven in a 2-bid the adverse
book was 5, in a 3-bid 4, and so on. In a doubled hand, the
adversaries scored 100 for each trick over their book, in a
re-doubled hand 200. But if a declarant who had been doubled
succeeded in keeping his contract, his trick-points were doubled,
he received a so-point bonus in the honours-column, and an
additional 50 points for every trick over contract; if he had re-
doubled, each of these 50*5 was raised to 100, and his trick
points went to four times their normal value. Doubling was re-
stricted to one double for each side.
All these points remained in the game as played in 1921, but
meanwhile the next move after 1910 was to change the suit-
values competition in the market-place having proved their too
great discrepancy, and having shown also that a good spade hand
was invariably wasted. The dealer being still forced to bid,
his solace for a poor hand was provided by spades at 2 a trick
and a stop-loss of 100 honour-points, while good spades were to
be bid as " lilies " or " royals " and at 9 a trick. The suits thus
ranked: clubs 6, diamonds 7, hearts 8, royals 9, and no-trumps
10 with the merely nominal spade at 2. All went well until
certain American players seized the chance to use the low spades
as codes, telling their partners the exact make-up of their hands
without assuming proper responsibility or risk. It was thus that
the first " false " bids appeared. A system of high-spade bids
came into Vogue in American play ranging from 2 to 7 in-
clusive, and forming a code (" 6 spades," for instance, meant
" Partner, take your choice between hearts and no-trumps; I
can play either." The point value being but 12, the partner was
enabled to make a comparatively low safe bid). Though this
became known temporarily as the " American " game about
1912-3, the sobriquet was really unfair to the majority of Amer-
can players. These false bids received no support in England
and they were equally anathema to the majority of American
players, though accepted by all the contemporary American
writers on the game except one. Miss Florence Irwin immediate-
ly waged a vigorous war upon them, and the result was that the
system was killed. To accomplish this end, however, the game
had to be re-made. Spades at 2 vanished, and spades at 9 took
the place of royals, the latter term disappearing. The dealer's
refuge in the case of a poor hand thus having been removed, the
forced opening bid was also abolished. Three successive passes
still closed the bidding, except in the case of three opening passes,
when the fourth player was still given his chance to bid. An
entire hand might be thrown. It was thus that the game con-
tinued to be played in 1921.
Certain variants were experimented with during 1913-21, but
without disestablishing the recognized game of Auction. " Nullos "
were an early variant, their object being to destroy the undue
advantage of high cards. The nullo-player had to lose tricks on a
poor hand a much harder thing than to win them on a good
one. The idea had long been discussed but had been deemed
impossible, as no player could contract to lose all the tricks while
carrying an exposed dummy of whose make-up he knew nothing
when bidding. Miss Irwin evolved the plan of allowing 6 safe
tricks to the bidder of i nullo, 5 safe tricks to the bidder of
2 nullos, and so on. She became an ardent champion of this
difficult and scientific variant, collecting a large following. Mr.
Robertson of England also wrote an extremely deep and clever
book on nullos, adding much to the sum of knowledge concern-
ing them. But it was a losing fight; the nullo game was far too
difficult for most people. Another variant appeared in America
under the name of " Pirate Auction," but it never received any
official recognition, and died almost before it lived. More sup-
port was given in some London and Paris clubs to "Contract
Auction " of which the essential point is that no more tricks can
be scored toward game than the declarer has contracted to make,
a special system of scoring, different from that of ordinary
Auction, being adopted; but in 1921 it had still failed to pene-
trate beyond a limited circle.
In American play, the method of false-bidding was meanwhile
revised under the form of 'a false double. On this system
to double any low bid is not meant as a genuine double, but
operates as a code. The person who doubles a one-trick bid in
any particular suit practically says, " Partner, I have a no-
trumper except that I do not stop that suit. Do you? ", while the
person who doubles one no-trump says, " Partner, I, too, have a
no-trumper. Bid 2 in your best suit, for 1 have general assist-
ance." But here again it would be quite unfair to call this the
" American " game, although it is very commonly practised by
American players, for many of the best American authorities
have been opposed to it. English players had, up to 1921, de-
clined to adopt any such code.
The American laws have always followed the English laws in
substance, with one important exception: in England, the total
of a bid must exceed the total of the previous bid, or must
equal it and contain more tricks: in America, it is merely neces-
sary to equal it with new tricks, or to out-bid it in number of
tricks regardless of total value. Thus in 1921, in England, it
was still necessary to bid 5 clubs ( = 30) to out-bid 3 no-trumps
( = 30) and 6 diamonds ( = 42) to out-bid 4 spades ( = 36) ; where-
as in America, 4 clubs and 5 diamonds would suffice. The
American laws have also reduced the revoke-penalty to 50 and
abolished " chicane," as having no place in a bidding game;
and they make a touched card in dummy a played card. The
latest English laws, up to 1921, were drafted in 1914; the latest
American in 1920.
Hints to Players. A minimum first-round opening bid is:
S trumps with ace or king at the top, worth 7 points (count-
ing every honour two and every plain card one), and an out-
side ace or guarded king. A first-round bid that is not an
opener may (in the case of great trump-length) dispense with the
outside trick. Later-round bids may dispense both with that
and with top-trumps; their great requisite is length. No-trumps
are bid on three stopped suits (an ace and two guarded honours,
two aces and one guarded honour, or even four or more guarded
honours without an ace). After an adverse suit-bid, the no-trump
bidder must be able to stop that suit.
To raise his partner's bid once a player should hold one
" trick " and one " raiser "; to raise it twice, one " trick " and
two " raisers " and so on. A " trick " is any one of three things,
and a " raiser " is any one of five those same three and two
additional. " Tricks" are: guarded trump-honours, or side-aces,
or side-kings, guarded. And " raisers " are: guarded trump-hon-
5oo
BRIDGE, F. BRIDGING, MILITARY
ours, or side-aces, or guarded side-kings, or singletons, or blank
suits. A plain singleton is one raiser, a singleton ace or a blank
suit two raisers each. The " trick " and the first " raiser "
should lie in different suits.
The bidder makes his bid, and then counts his losers (reckon-
ing all " guards " as losers and the things which they guard as
takers). His partner announces as many necessary raisers as his
hand warrants. The bidder then deducts his partner's takers
from his own losers, and knows how high a bid the combined
strength warrants. Count losers to bid and takers to raise or double.
No one should double the only bid he can defeat. No one
should double any very low bid, nor one that affords an easy
means of escape to his quarry. A doubler should hold the sure
book in his hand (trusting his partner for the odd) and should be
practically sure that his double affords his enemy no probable
means of escape.
The declarant's scheme of play in any declared trump is to
exhaust the adverse trumps and then to make his side-tricks; he
foregoes this trump-exhaustion only in the case of a cross-ruff
between his two hands, or a quick ruff in dummy. The adver-
saries' scheme in declared trumps is to make quick aces and kings.
The declarant's scheme in no-trumps is to hold up the control
of the adverse suit or suits, and to establish his own as soon as
possible, remembering that " length is strength in no-trump."
The adversaries' scheme is to withhold as long as possible the
controlling card or cards of the declarant's suits, seeking mean-
while to establish their own best suit.
Quick tricks are the motto in declared trumps, slow tricks and
continual " hanging-back " in no-trumps. (F. I.)
BRIDGE, FRANK (1870- ), English musical composer,
born at Brighton Feb. 26 1879, was musically educated at
the Royal College of Music, which he entered as violin stu-
dent in 1896, but gained a scholarship for composition three
years later. For many years subsequently he was equally in
demand both as composer and as viola player, in which latter
capacity he was quite first-rate. Often he was called upon to
play the viola in quintets with the Joachim Quartet. Bridge was
at one time or other a member, as violist, of the Crimson and the
Motto quartets. A vast number of songs were produced by
him, but it is as a composer of chamber music for strings that
his reputation stands. In this category there are four quartets
for pianoforte and strings or for strings alone and a sextet; a
phantasy trio; a quartet in E minor, which was crowned by an
honourable mention at Bologna in 1906. His sonnet, Blow out,
you bugles, has been sling ubiquitously. Among the other works
of real importance are his orchestral compositions, Isabella
(1907); Dance Rhapsody (1909); a suite, The Sea (1912); A
Dance Poem (1914); a suite for stringed orchestra and A Lament
for the same; a tone-poem, Summer. As a conductor Bridge
also established his reputation. In 1910-11 he conducted at
the Savoy theatre for Marie Brema, and was at Covent Garden
with Beecham in 1913.
BRIDGE, SIR FREDERICK (1844- ), English organist,
composer and conductor, was born at Oldbury, Worcs., Dec.
5 1844. Educated at first at the Cathedral school, Rochester,
where his father was a vicar-choral, he became a chor-
ister there in 1850 and 15 years later assistant organist. In
1865 he became organist to Trinity church, Windsor, in 1869
to Manchester cathedral, and in 1875 he was appointed
permanent deputy organist to Westminster Abbey. In 1882
Bridge succeeded Turle as organist and master of the choristers
at Westminster Abbey, a post he retained until 1918, when he
retired with the title of emeritus organist. In 1890 he was
appointed Gresham professor of music; in 1896 conductor of the
Royal Choral Society; in 1902 King Edward professor of music
in London University. He was knighted in 1897, received the
M.V.O. in 1902 and was promoted C.V.O. nine years later.
Belonging to what has come to be regarded as the " old school,"
but remaining a popular figure as the organizer of important
musical functions, Bridge was a voluminous composer, especially
of church music. He has written about a dozen oratorios and
cantatas, many successful glees and part-songs; primers on
counterpoint, organ accompaniment and musical gestures. Also
he published Samuel Pepys, a Lover of Music (1903); A Shake-
spearean Birthday Book and an autobiography, A Westminster
Pilgrim (1919).
BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844- ), English poet (see 4.532),
was in 1913 appointed Poet Laureate. Among his later publica-
tions were I bant Obscuri (1916) and an ode on the Tercentenary
Commemoration of Shakespeare (1916); as well as an Essay on
Keats, several addresses on poetical subjects, and occasional
poems during the World War. He also edited The Spirit of Man
(1916), an anthology in English and French. In the summer of
1920 he originated a letter, subsequently signed by many Oxford
tutors, lecturers, professors and some heads of colleges, addressed
to the learned world of Germany and intended as an eirenicon,
which was published in the autumn. Its advisability was the
occasion of much difference of opinion in academic and other
circles.
BRIDGING, MILITARY (see under PONTOON, 22.69). At the
beginning of the 2oth century all the armies of the civilized
Powers were equipped with pontoon trains of various forms.
The European continental nations all had steel boat-shaped
pontoons varying in size from the large German bipartite pon-
toon, which had about 8 tons effective buoyancy, to the Italian
high-prowed pontoon specially suited for the swift current of the
rivers in that country and capable of carrying lorries when two
pontoons were placed stern to stern, and the French and Belgian
pontoons, which were somewhat smaller than the British. The
British army adhered to the bipartite wooden boat-shaped
pontoon, 21 ft. over all in length, 5 ft. 3 in. beam, and 2 ft. 5 in.
in depth, with a maximum effective buoyancy, when immersed
to within 6 in. of the gunwale, of about 45 tons. The advantages
of the wooden pontoon with waterproof canvas skin, as proved
by the South African War, were lightness, quietness for night
work, and the ease with which bullet holes could be plugged, or
holes caused by shell splinters repaired. On the other hand, the
steel pontoons undoubtedly stood the rough handling of active
service better, and did not suffer like the wooden pontoons when
they had to be stored in the open under a hot sun. They can also
be more readily manufactured in large quantities in war-time,
whilst the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient supply of thoroughly
seasoned material greatly hampered the rapid expansion of the
British bridging trains. Taking all considerations into account
it seems probable that the next pontoons designed for the
British army will be of galvanized steel, somewhat larger and
appreciably deeper than the present pattern.
FIG. u.
The British pontoons (as shown in fig. 11) were made in two sec-
tions, the bow section having its gunwale rising towards the bow,
and the body curved and tapered forward, so as to reduce the force
of the current against the bridge. The stern section was rectangular
in form, so that two pontoons could be coupled together stern to
stern, or any number of sections could be coupled together to form
rafts capable of bearing the weight of the heaviest gun carried in the
field. Figure 12 shows the various uses to which the pontoon sec-
tions are put in forming light, medium, or heavy bridge. Normally
when packed for travelling (as in fig. n) and when used in the nor-
mal form of light bridge designed to take a column of infantry in
fours, field guns, and horse transport, the bow and stern sections
were coupled together as one pontoon, which could be lifted off its
carriage and launched by sixteen men gripping the handles at each
side. The wagons carried also the superstructure of timber road-
bearers (or " baulks "), which fit on the saddles of the pontoons to
form the bridge, " chesses " or planks forming the roadway, and
" ribands " or wheel-guides which hold the ends of the " chesses "
BRIDGING, MILITARY
501
secure and form the curb of the roadway. In addition to the pontoon
wagons a bridging unit always included wagons carrying adjustable
timber trestles known as " Weldon trestles." These were an im-
portant part of the equipment, being used to form the piers of the
bridge in shallow water near the bank where the pontoons could not
float, or to make a landing-stage when the pontoons were used as
rafts on a wide river, or without the pontoons to bridge the narrow
streams or dry gaps.
LIGHT BRIDGE.
n
w
MEDIUM BRIDGE.
H*****-^ ,, ,, ., .1 \-f'f<^ ,**
- Pontoon tMl or ritaojfi
Double chessed
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Baulks or Ritende
'Saddle txam
LONGITUDINAL SECTION.
HEAVY BRIDGE.
nnoi
Pontoon ffeu/ks f
Ritenda alternately.
Tn,aru.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION.
FlG. 12.
In the organization of a British division of 1910-14 were in-
cluded two, and in the division of 1915 three, " Field Companies
Royal Engineers," each of which, besides its other military
engineering equipment, included two pontoons and one trestle
wagon, the latter carrying two trestles; the three wagons among
them carried also five bays of superstructure for light bridge,
using five baulks to a bay. 1 This gave every division the means
of crossing a river independently, the engineers being able rapidly
to form three bridges up to about 75 ft. in length, or one bridge
of about 200 ft.; if used to form bridge of half -pontoons capable
1 The length of bridge section between two points of support
technically called a " bay " is normally 15 ft.; thus a bridge sup-
ported on the two shore transoms, with piers formed of two pontoons
and two trestles, would consist of five bays equal to a span of 75 ft.
The width of the roadway of the bridge as normally formed is 9 ft.
clear between ribands.
of carrying infantry in file and pack animals, the equipment could
be extended to bridge about double this width.
Bridging trains moving in rear of the army carried each 42
pontoons and 16 trestles with superstructure, as a reserve for
the crossing of wide rivers, and these were later supplemented
with a superstructure of heavy steel joists, so that the pontoon
equipment could be used to form medium and heavy bridges to
carry mechanical transport and the heaviest guns and tractors
on the road. The pontoon trains were originally drawn by
horses, but to save the great number of horses a pontoon train
requires, and to give greater mobility, some were adapted for
mechanical transport. These consisted of " four-wheel-drive "
lorries, each trailing two pontoon or trestle wagons, and were able
on good roads to cover much greater distances in less time than
the horse-drawn bridging trains.
The " Field Squadrons Royal Engineers " attached to cavalry
divisions were equipped with a lighter form of collapsible boat,
and each cavalry regiment was provided with an air-raft equip-
ment. A special cavalry bridging train equipped with small
steel pontoons was provided for use in Egypt and Palestine.
These forms of bridging equipment could take the h'ghter natures
of transport accompanying a cavalry brigade, including horse
artillery guns.
On the other hand, the British army when it took the field in
1914 had no reserve of heavy bridge equipment, nor any of the
portable steel-girder bridges which were found so invaluable later
in the war.
The British army, unlike most European armies, had no
specialized bridging units. All the field units of the engineers
carried out the annual course of bridging as part of their normal
duty. This course was held wherever possible on the banks of a
tidal river, and work was mainly concentrated on the pontoon
drill which enabled the sappers to handle the material with
great celerity. But the training also included practice with vari-
ous forms of light improvised bridges, and the crossing of rivers
by means of barrels, tarpaulin rafts, spar and timber trestles,
and the construction of light suspension bridges. Little was done
in the way of heavy bridging, but all units were taught the use
of spars as derricks and sheers for launching girders and moving
heavy loads, and a certain amount of pile-driving and heavy
trestle work was done. The officers' theoretical course included
the design of timber and steel girder bridges of all types, and
some gained practical experience in bridging works in India and
elsewhere abroad in the course of their employment in peace on
the public works. Never, however, before the World War of
1914-8 had the problem to be solved been of such a varied and
complex nature. The immense advance in the use of mechanical
transport of all kinds, from motor-cars to steam traction engines,
the greatly increased weight of artillery in the field, and finally the
coming of the tank, demanded the use of heavy road bridges not
far short of railway bridges in strength.
On the other hand, owing to the ease with which destruction
can be carried out by means of modern explosives, advancing
troops were more frequently than ever before confronted with
the problem of crossing a river or canal when all existing bridges
had been destroyed, approaches broken up by explosives, and
the river and its environs defended by artillery and machine-gun
fire. In such a case pontooning was clearly impracticable, and
other means had to be devised by which the infantry could be
given a footing on the opposite bank to form a bridge-head to
cover regular bridging operations.
For these fighting bridges, which were practically the most
important because without them no advance could be made, no
standard equipment existed. Each field company improvised its
own solution to the problem after reconnoitring the crossing to be
forced. Usually the material could only be carted to within a
mile or so of the site, and had to be carried by hand the remaining
distance across shell-pitted ground, or marshland intersected by
dykes. Lightness and extreme portability were thus essentials
of the design. Then the material might suffer from shrapnel
fire whilst en route or when lying hidden behind a bank or wall,
and might be pierced by machine-gun bullets whilst actually
502
being placed, hence strength and impermeability were required.
Lastly, the bridge had to be put together in the dark in perfect
silence, exposing as few sappers as possible on the bank, so that
simplicity and interchangeability of parts were essential.
BRIDGING, MILITARY
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#fe*fl' Cylinder
Cork
'kept in position
with wire netting
_."-
^i,
-^
3
f _.
-'/" *"*
- - io a--.
K- 'h Filling Piece ^
GENERAL PLAN
SIDE VIEW
.-} S-,
<J I
~
ELEVATION OF ~ tfocme for w :rt
CYLINDERS binding
ELEVATION OF CORK FLOATS
-LL
ELEVATION OF PETROL TINS
FIG. 13.
The lightest and least vulnerable pattern evolved was probably
the cork-float footbridge with light wooden footboards hooked over
the saddles of the float and interlocking. A pattern of this type is
shown in fig. 13, which also shows the employment of captured
German canister floats and of petrol tins to support these light foot-
bridges. A petrol-tin raft was used by the engineers of the British
25th Div. for the crossing of the Sambre-Oise canal near Landrecies
in 1918; in this case each raft consisted of two floats each of eight
petrol tins laid flat and built into a wooden crate for carriage. Eighty
of these rafts were carried for 3,000 yd. under fire to the canal bank,
and each when launched carried across a man with full equipment.
When sufficient men had been ferried across by this means to secure
a foothold on the far bank the rafts were connected by light foot-
boards to form a bridge 55 ft. in length.
A form of light ferry-boat which was very useful was made as
shown in fig. 14 by tying the standard-size waterproof trench shelter,
or bivouac sheet, measuring 13 ft. by io ft., over a light wooden fram-
ing made in parts for easy transport. In the little boat thus formed
six men could squat, and be pulled across b'y a rope worked by a
sapper who had swum to the far bank or paddled across in the first
boat, another man on the near bank pulling the empty boat back;
and considerable numbers of infantry could thus be put across even
before a light footbridge could be constructed. The boats also
formed a very serviceable footbridge when connected together as
illustrated in fig. 3 (plate) . I n a case where a crossing could be effected
at a canal lock or other point where the width to be spanned was
not more than about 20 ft., a light trussed timber bridge was built
up complete, and carried or rushed forward from undercover on wheels,
and launched across the gap by the sappers, somewhat as a fire-
escape is handled. Similar devices have often been used in the storm-
ing of a fortress for the crossing of the ditch. A notable example of
this method was the crossing at a lock on the Sambre-Oise canal
made by the British 1st Div'. on Nov. 4 1918.
Another notable piece of front-line work was the construction
of a crib causeway, built of railway sleepers bolted together and sunk
in the bed of the river, to carry tanks across the river Selle in the first
line of the assaulting troops (1918). This was kept just below water-
level for concealment, and was built in the nights just preceding
the attack under the nose of the enemy holding the opposite bank.
As soon as a foothold on the opposite bank has been gained by
the infantry, and the enemy's machine-guns put out of action,
the next step for the engineers is to establish the crossings more
strongly so that pack-animals can be got across with ammunition
and supplies; these pack-bridges usually took the form of rough
improvised trestle or pile bridges, but in some cases tarpaulins
lashed round a wooden framing were used as floating supports in
the same fashion as the waterproof sheets above mentioned.
Not e :- Framing about 5'*%. Bottom same
form 3s"B"bvt wider.
Alt frames to&e fashed together, not nailed
4 Carpenters 2fe hours per raft .
|B
l3',Ky7renct>Sfc.
te
Cashed roan d too '
A
"3 me "A "
Frame A -
6-Q
-
.Frame 3
For the crossing of minor streams and dykes often met with
bsfore or after the main crossing, various devices were used to
suit the varying conditions. Plank or light footbridges of the
pattern shown in fig. 13 were often sufficient to carry the infantry,
but where the span exceeded 10 ft. light trussed bridges of timber,
strutted and tied with hoop iron or stout wire, were made up to
about 15 ft. in span. Above this limit some form of intermediate
support in the form of a float or trestle became necessary. For
marshland, muddy ravines, or shell-pitted ground, mats of canvas
and wire netting stiffened with wood battens and rolled up for
convenience of carriage were found very useful to give a foot-
hold. For horse traffic, corduroy mats of timber bound together
with wire and picketed down in place were used, as also were the
artillery " trench bridges," 12 ft. in span with timber bearers
and ij in. flooring, made up in sections 3 ft. 6 in. wide to be laid
side by side. These were a little heavy for hand carriage; but in
most cases they were issued to the artillery before the advance
and carried by them in their limbers to be laid down where
required.
Next, it becomes necessary to bring forward the field artillery
into position on the far bank. For this work the pontoon equip-
ment is invaluable, as it enables a bridge for horse transport to be
made across a river more quickly than it is possible by any other
means, and the peace training of the British engineers in pon-
tooning work justified itself in the fine work done, notably in the
advance across the Aisne in Sept. 1914. The field companies of the
New Army were likewise instructed in and equipped for pontoon-
ing work, and the material was used to advantage on nearly
every waterway on the entire front in France, on the Piave, on
the rivers of Palestine, and in Mesopotamia.
Figure I (plate) illustrates the type of bridge built with pontoon
equipment across a tidal estuary in which the standard service trestle
with adjustable transom is used for the bays nearest the shore; that
part of the bridge which will ground on the fall of the tide is carried
on barrel-piers strong enough to carry the load when grounded, and
the floating portion is composed of pontoons. A " cut " is formed in
the bridge by disengaging the central floating portions and allowing
it to swing on the tide or stream so that vessels may pass freely along
BRIDGING, MILITARY
1. Pontoon Bridge with Tidal Ramp and " Cut."
2. Bridge over Moat at Conde.
3. Footbridge Supported on Ground Sheets, Round Frame.
4. High Trestle Bridge.
9 and 10. Inglis Bridge.
5. Span Bridge over Escaut Canal on Cambrai-St. Quentin Road.
6. Hopkins Bridge i85-ft. Span.
7. Hopkins Bridge at Pont de Nieppe.
8. Inglis Pyramid Bridge.
BRIDGING, MILITARY
503
the channel. The bridge is reformed by pulling up on the anchor
cables until the cut portion regains its position in bridge. The pon-
toon bridge shown is the normal bridge capable of carrying columns
of infantry in fours, field guns, horse transport, and light cars up to
2-ton axle loads. Where a pontoon bridge has to be built to carry
heavy mechanical transport, siege artillery tractors and other heavy
loads it is necessary to use more pontoons and group them in the
form of rafts as shown in fig. 12, the medium bridge being designed
to carry 8-ton axle loads and the heavy bridge i6-ton. The roadway
from saddle to saddle of the rafts is carried by heavy steel joists on
which two or three layers of chesses are laid.
As the pontoon equipment is always required to move on with
the army other types of bridge are substituted for the pontoon
bridges as soon as practicable, and these in the late war usually
took the form of timber trestle bridges of tree trunks or any
other timber found available in the locality. For heavy loads
these bridges were constructed of stout squared timber as in
fig. 4 (plate), and with a roadway carried on heavy steel joists
were capable of carrying all traffic. Where the bottom was soft
piles were used in place of trestle piers to support the spans, as a
trestle is very liable to sink or tip in soft mud or on an irregular
bottom and so throw the roadway out of level. Pile-driving is,
however, a slow operation, and plant for this purpose had to be
improvised in the field, as no satisfactory portable apparatus
has yet been standardized for army purposes.
These heavy timber bridges necessarily take some time to
prepare and erect and are not very suitable for extreme loads,
and after some war experience it became evident that for a
general advance on a large scale the army must be equipped with
steel girder bridges to carry the heaviest loads, and capable of
transportation in small portable sections and speedy erection
on the site. Many types of these bridges were designed to suit
the various spans likely to be required, and held in reserve ready
for dispatch to the most convenient railhead. Bridging schools
were formed to train officers and men in the use of this heavy
bridging material, and, when the advance came to be carried out,
the corps and army engineers were able to replace the light
bridges made by the divisional field companies so rapidly that,
almost as fast as the fighting troops could gain ground, the
heavy artillery, mechanical transport, and all the other heavy
traffic were able to follow up.
Where intermediate support could be obtained on firm ground,
piers were often built up of skeleton steel cubes 3 in. by 3 in. by 3 in.,
each capable of supporting a weight of 40 tons and built up with
timber crib work to form single, double or treble cube piers as re-
quired. A bridge consisting of a series of comparatively short steel
spans could then be built on these piers. The bridge of this type
illustrated in fig. 2 (plate) has two spans of 30 ft. and one of 18 ft.
on piers about 15 ft. in height.
For larger spans a very useful bridge was the 6o-ft. span \Varren
girder of which an example is shown in fig. 5 (plate). The inadequate
support given by the abutments of the broken bridge is here reen-
forced by the use of a heavy timber trestle pier on the towpath.
For larger semi-permanent bridges on the main routes great use
was made of the " Hopkins " bridge, which was a girder bridge made
in two sizes capable of erection in spans to any multiple of 15 feet.
The lighter type was suited to spans of 60 to 90 ft., and the heaviest
design for spans over 100 feet. This was normally used for spans of
about 120 ft., but in fig. 6 (plate), representing a bridge over the dry
Canal du Nord, the span is 180 feet. The loading must of course be
calculated according to the span adopted, 150 ft. being the limiting
span at which this type will carry 35-ton tanks singly.
The special feature of the design of this bridge is that of great
portability, the heaviest piece weighing only io| cwt., so that the
whole bridge may be carried in G.S. wagons if required. Usually,
however, the bridge was delivered on site by lorries, the-iao-ft. span
being carried in 35 lorry loads. The bridge is built up upon the near
bank in extension of the centre line of site and all the parts bolted
together to complete the two main girders with cross bracing. The
construction of the abutments usually proceeds simultaneously with
the erection of the girders.
The method of launching this bridge is shown by fig. 7 (plate),
which shows a iso-ft. span being got into position at Pont de Nieppe,
near Armentieres. The flooring, consisting of rolled steel joists as
cross girders and longitudinals, with timber decking laid crossways,
is added when the bridge is in position.
Another very clever design of bridge specially adapted for the
military requirement of speed in erection is the " Inglis " bridge.
This bridge in its pyramid form is illustrated in fig. 8 (plate), but
the rectangular form afterwards designed is better suited for
mechanical transport.
The particular feature of this bridge is the absence of any bolting
or riveting of joints. The steel tubes of which the girder is composed
have merely to be fitted into the special junction boxes carried on the
ends of the transoms and stiffeners, and are held in place by pins
secured by split pins. The launching of the bridge is most quickly
done by constructing the bridge in skeleton parallel to the river with
enough counter- weight on the tail to enable it to be swung on a special
trolley or carriage as shown in fig. 9 (plate).
The bridge, when in place, is then lowered from its carriage and
decked over, and lastly the tail is dropped to form an approach as
in fig. 10 (plate) in which a tank is shown crossing the bridge. This
bridge can carry a tank over a gap of 105 feet. Where a wider river
than this has to be dealt with the bridge is carried on special heavy
pontoons (fig. 15), or four bays of the bridge may be used on three
of these pontoons as a raft, which is then warped across the river.
The projecting bay forms the landing stage for the tank (fig. 16).
Fro. 15. Inglis Rectangular Tubular Bridge Mk II. combined
with the heavy pontoon.
Wire row to far balk
FIG. 16. A 35-ton Tank being ferried across a river on a raft..
The construction of bridges to carry mechanical transport always
involves work on approaches, sometimes of considerable length, to
carry this traffic on and off the bridge to the main road, and the
officer selecting the site has to take carefully into account the time
which will be entailed in this construction, as well as the best span
or combination of spans to use for the bridge itself. For instance, on a
high level site it may sometimes be advantageous to build several
smaller spans supported on timber trestles or steel-cube piers to reach
the main span so as to save the delay of filling a high embankment
approach. Usually the time for constructing a permanent macadam
approach road to the bridge would be too great, and the common
form of approach to a bridge for heavy traffic was a road of beech
slabbing cut in the forests to a thickness of 2 in., about I ft. in width
and 10 ft. in length. These slabs were best laid for a single roadway
in herring-bone fashion, so as to make a road of about 15 ft. in width,
the slabs being spiked to longitudinal sleepers and secured by a
heavy timber curb along both sides of the road. It is important that
the immediate approach to the bridge should be laid out in true
alignment and level with the bridge decking, which also should be as
even as possible, so that stresses due to impact are reduced to a
minimum, and traffic is able to reach the bridge, and move clear
of it without special effort.
SIDE ELEVATION
FIG. 17.
In mountainous country where pack transport has to be chiefly
used, and in theatres of war where still more primitive conditions of
transport exist, the field suspension bridge (fig. 17) is the most com-
mon form of bridge for any considerable span. Suspension bridges
have been built in the field to carry lorries, but usually they are only
required for pack or even foot traffic. The best materials to use for
the cables are chain or steel wire ropes; but telegraph wires are
frequently used, and hemp ropes, thongs of hide, or ropes of creeper
or grass, have been employed.
Aerial ropeways, too, have been of great value in mountainous
countries for the supply of ammunition, stores and water, to save
transport up a long steep incline, or as a temporary means of com-
504
BRIEUX BRITISH COLUMBIA
munication across a deep gorge or wide river. Many forms of floating
bridges have also been constructed from local boats or barges where
the pontoon equipment has not been available.
In uncivilized countries the chief problems for the bridge-
builder are to devise the best use to which to put the scanty
supply of materials available, and to adapt the local resources
of the country to advantage, knowing that the transport difficul-
ties render it impossible to obtain all he would desire. But, great
as is the task of bridge-building for an army in undeveloped
countries, greater still is the work of reconstruction during an
advance in a highly developed theatre of war such as France.
There the accumulation of means of attack and defence on a
grand scale is made possible by the fulness of the communica-
tions, yet at the same time each of these many lines of commu-
nication is sensitive at every river-crossing. Almost without
exception these bridges are destroyed by the enemy on his retire-
ment, and an army cannot safely push on its advance without
its full equipment of battle means and without clear routes for
its supply transport. Hence it is no exaggeration to say that in
the final campaign of 1918 in France the power of the British
army to advance depended on the speed with which the Royal
Engineers could construct bridge-crossings and roads.
During the period Aug.-Nov. 1918 no less than 539 heavy
bridges were erected on this front alone, of which 326 were
standard steel bridges and 2 13 of heavy timber or salved material,
not taking into account the innumerable light improvised cross-
ings and footbridges by which the leading infantry were enabled
to attack, and the pontoon and light trestle bridges for field
artillery and horse transport.
For such a task executive energy, organization and technical
skill are equally, and each in the highest degree, necessary. And
to these qualities of the military bridge-builder must be added,
for the work in the forward zone, that of personal devotion under
fire. It is significant that of the Victoria Crosses awarded to
officers and men of the Royal Engineers in the World War more
than half were won by acts of conspicuous gallantry in the con-
struction and demolition of bridges. (E. N. S.)
BRIEUX, EUGENE (1858- ), French dramatist (see 4.563*),
published four plays after 1910: La Foi (1912); La Femme Seule
(1913); Le Bourgeois aux champs (1914) and Les Americains
chez nous (1920). He also wrote some accounts of travel, Voyages
aux Indes et a Indo-Chine (1910) and Au Japan par Java, la
Chine, la Corie (1914), as well as a couple of pamphlets addressed
to soldiers, one before and one during the World War, during
which he devoted himself with particular ardour and activity
to the care of those blinded by wounds.
BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1841-1913), American theo-
logian (see 4.566), died in New York June 8 1913. His last
published works were Church Unity (1909); The Fundamental
Faith (1913) and, posthumously, Theological Symbolics (1914).
BRIGHT, JAMES FRANCK (1832-1920), English historian,
was born in London May 29 1832. He was the son of Richard
Bright, the physician who first diagnosed " Bright's disease "
in 1827, and his mother was Eliza Follett, sister of Sir William
Follett, who was solicitor-general and attorney-general in
Peel's administration (1834-44). He was educated at Rugby
under Dr. Arnold and at University College, Oxford, where he
graduated with first-class honours in 1854. In 1856 he was
ordained deacon and joined the staff of Marlborough College,
and was the first public schoolmaster to organize a modern side.
For this purpose he wrote the necessary school-books himself,
including his well-known History of England. After his wife's
death in 1871 he left Marlborough and went to Oxford as a
modern history tutor and lecturer at University, Balliol and New
Colleges and in 1874 was elected to a fellowship at University and
in 1878 to an honorary fellowship at Balliol. In 1881 he became
master of University College, and threw himself with vigour into
university and City life, becoming treasurer of the Radcliffe
infirmary, and founder of the first technical school in Oxford, for
which he presented a site. His latter years were spent at Ditch-
ingharn, Norfolk, where he died Oct. 23 1920. He also published
Lives of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. (1897).
* These figures indicate the volume an
BRINKLEY, FRANK (1841-1912), British author, was born
in 1841. Having entered the British army, he went to Japan in
1867 in command of a battery of artillery. In 1871 he became
principal instructor at the Marine College, Tokyo, under the
Japanese Government, and henceforth devoted himself to things
Japanese. He left the army, married a Japanese lady, and in
1 88 1 founded the Japan Mail, of which he was proprietor and
editor till his death. He was also correspondent for the London
Times in Japan. He published Japan (1901); Japan and China
(1903), as well as a Japanese-English dictionary, and was the
author of the article JAPAN in the earlier volumes of this encyclo-
paedia. He held a unique position among foreign residents in
Japan, alike as a profound student of its history and art, and as
a powerful factor in international politics. He died at Tokyo
October 28 1912.
BRISSON, EUGENE HENRI (1835-1912), French statesman
(see 4.574), was again elected president of the Chamber in 1912,
and died at his official residence April 14 1912.
BRITISH COLUMBIA (see 4.598). This Canadian province is
traversed from S. to N. by four principal ranges of mountains
the Rocky and Selkirk ranges on the east, and the Coast and
Island ranges on the west. The Rocky Mountain range preserves
its continuity, but the Selkirks are broken up into the Purcell,
the Selkirk, the Gold and the Cariboo mountains. Between these
ranges and the Rockies lies a valley of remarkable length and
regularity, extending from the international boundary line
along the western base of the Rockies northwards for 700 miles.
West of these ranges extend the remains of a vast plateau or
tableland with an average elevation of 3,000 ft. above sea-level,
which has been so worn away and eroded by watercourses that
in many parts it presents the appearance of a succession of
mountains. In others it spreads out into wide plains and rolling
ground dotted with low hills, which constitute fine areas of
farming and pasture lands. This interior plateau is bounded on
the W. by the Coast Range and on the N. by a cross-range which
gradually merges into the Arctic slope.
The area of British Columbia according to the census report
of 1911 was 353,416 sq. m. of land, 2,439 sq. m. of water, a total
f 355)^55 sq. m., and in 1919 was estimated at 395,610 sq. m.
Population. The pop. of British Columbia increased from 36,247
(less than 10,000 of whom were whites) in 1871 to 392,480 in 1911.
The estimated pop. in 1920 was about 650,000. The Chinese pop.
was 19,568 in 1911. Japanese immigration took place chiefly after
the restriction of Chinese immigration in 1906: in the census of
1911 Japanese numbered 8,587. It is, however, limited by agree-
ment between the Governments of Canada and Japan to 400 per
year. After 1906 Hindus, mainly Sikhs, attracted by the high wages
paid to other Orientals, came in large numbers and objection to
their immigration was quite as strong as that to Chinese and Jap-
anese. The situation was a delicate one from the fact that these
people were British subjects and many of them had served in the
British army as soldiers. Their further influx was prevented by
diplomatic arrangement. The number of Hindus in the census of
1911 was recorded as 2,292. The Indian pop. was returned as
24,744. Of these all but 1,334 were professing Christians. Although
about 750,000 ac. have been set apart and occupied as Indian
reservations, not more than 2 % of the land has been cultivated.
The only Indians of British Columbia who devote themselves to
agriculture to any extent are several tribes in Yale and Okanagan
districts. The Indians are entirely self-supporting: those of the
northern interior sell furs to the various trading companies; those
on the coast and southern interior are employed in fishing, in the
salmon canneries, and in hop-picking. To some extent they are
employed in the lumber woods and in various other capacities.
Their education is almost exclusively in the hands of several religious
denominations, Methodist, Presbyterian, Anglican and Roman
Catholic, whose respective spheres of influence are recognized by
the Department of Indian Affairs. The Indians of British Colum-
bia have always been peaceably disposed, largely in consequence of
the satisfactory manner in which the Hudson's 'Bay Co. dealt with
them for many years. Several of the tribes on Vancouver I. and
mainland coasts and one or two in the interior were at one time
regarded as a dangerous element, but they are now quiet and peace-
able. The Indians are divided into many tribes under local names,
but fall naturally on linguistic grounds into a few large groups.
They are made up of the following stocks: Haidan, Tsimshian,
Wakashan, Dgne (or Athapaskan), Kootenaian and Salishan. More
than 2,000 belong to nomadic tribes whose affiliations are probably
Athapaskan. There was for some years a considerable decrease of
Indian population on account of the ravages of disease, but it would
d page number of the previous article.
BRITISH COLUMBIA
505
appear that it is again on the increase. By origins, the chief ele-
ments of the pop. of British Columbia in 1911 were: English 133,186;
Scotch 74,493; Irish 40,642; Welsh, etc., 4,362; German 11,880;
Chinese 19,568; Indian 24,744; Japanese 8,587; Hindu 2,292;
Scandinavian 15,968.
Vancouver, by far the largest city in the province, had in 1919 a
pop. of 115,000. Victoria, 84 m. from Vancouver, is the capital of
British Columbia, and rests on the most southerly point of the
peninsula into which Vancouver I. tapers to the Straits of Juan de
Fuca. While it possesses some important industries and is the head-
quarters of others, it is essentially a residential and social centre,
to which the fact that it is the capital city adds much. The Legis-
lative buildings, which form the most striking feature of the city
upon entering the harbour, contain fine collections of natural his-
tory, mineral, agricultural and horticultural specimens. The pop.
in 1919 was 39.500. Three m. from Victoria is the fine harbour of
Esquimalt, with a naval dockyard. On Saanich mountain, near
the city, is the Dominion Observatory. New Westminster, known
also as the " Royal City," 12 m. from Vancouver and connected
with it by an electric railway, had in 1919 a pop. of 19,000. It is
the centre of the rich farming section of the Westminster district,
and from its situation on the Eraser river is naturally associated
with the salmon-canning industry. It is also largely interested in
the lumber business. Nanaimo, popularly known as " The Black
Diamond City," is the headquarters of the oldest colliery in the
province. In the neighbouring country fruit-growing is carried on
extensively, and diversified farming is increasing at a rapid rate.
It has a fine harbour and very picturesque surroundings, and is the
centre of the herring industry. The pop. in 1919 was 7,800. Prince
Rupert is a western terminus of the Canadian National railways.
Other towns are Ladysmith, Vernon, Nelson, Armstrong, Kelowna,
Enderby, Kamloops, Fernie, Rossland, Revelstoke, Trail, Cran-
brook, Kaslo, Salmon Arm, and the two Albernis.
Government. The Government of British Columbia consists
of a lieutenant-governor appointed by the governor-general in
Council, an Executive Council of n members chosen from the
Legislative Assembly, and a Legislative Assembly of 47 members,
elected every four years. Every adult British subject who has
resided six months in the province is entitled to vote. The
province is represented in the Dominion Parliament by 13 mem-
bers of the House of Commons and 6 senators. Municipal
government has been introduced, though a large area is still
unorganized.
Education. The school system of British Columbia is free and
non-sectarian. In each district where 20 children between the ages
of 6 and 16 can be brought together the Government builds a school-
house, makes a grant for incidental expenses, and pays a teacher.
In cities having charge of their own schools liberal grants are made
by the Government. Attendance at school is compulsory from 7
to 14 years of age. In 1919 933 schools were attended by 72,006
pupils. There were 45 high-schools in 1919 with 5,806 pupils, and
the Government maintains two normal schools, one at Victoria
and one at Vancouver, for the training of teachers. The univer-
sity of British Columbia, founded in 1908, is supported by the
province, and has magnificent grounds at Point Grey, near Van-
couver. It had about 900 students in the session 1918-9.
Finance. The revenue and expenditure of the province were
respectively $10,479,259 and $15,970,877 in 1913-4; $6,291,693 and
$10,422,206 in 1915-6; (estimated) $9,868,325 and $10,800,805 in
1917-8; and $12,609,960 and $13,313,303 in 1919-20. The liabili-
ties of the province were $52,288,067 and assets $59,642,124 in 1919.
Agriculture. The area of farming land in British Columbia prob-
ably does not exceed 10,000,000 ac. and it is distributed in widely
separated valleys. Hence agriculture cannot be regarded as a basic
industry of the province, although it has made wonderful progress.
Owing to the natural conditions small mixed farming is predom-
inant, including fruit-growing, grain-growing, stock-raising, poultry-
raising and the growing of roots and vegetables, to which may be
added the raising of sugar beets, tobacco and hops. Many tracts
rendered fertile by irrigation have been shown to be unusually well
adapted to the cultivation of both fruits and cereals, though a large
acreage is suitable merely for grazing.
Fruit-growing in the interior is largely restricted to apples which
find an extensive market in the Middle West, eastern Canada, and
Great Britain. Apples, grapes, apricots, peaches, tomatoes and
melons grow to perfection in the southern interior of the province.
Small fruits such as strawberries, raspberries, cherries, loganber-
ries, prunes, etc., produce excellently in all parts of the province,
but the cultivation of these is largely confined to Vancouver I. and
the N. side of the Fraser river on the lower mainland. The prin-
cipal fruit-growing districts are Vancouver I., portions of Westminster
district, Okanagan valleys, and land along the Arrow and Kootenay
lakes. Tobacco is grown successfully in the Kelowna district and in
Okanagan, which also produces onions. Hops are grown in the
lower Fraser valley. Wheat was formerly grown somewhat exten-
sively in parts of the interior but most wheat lands have given
place to fruit-growing and mixed farming, and wheat is now grown
for poultry food. Oats is the staple grain crop although barley and
other grains are also grown. The rich pastures, the prolific forage
crops .and pure water are natural conditions which have brought
both dairying and live stock into prominence. The raising of hogs is
profitable in certain parts and there is a large demand for all pork
products. Draft horses are bred extensively and there are many
herds of choice cattle especially in the lower mainland and on Van-
couver Island. Poultry-raising has attained large proportions, the
demand for all kinds of poultry being far in excess of the supply.
The yields of the principal field crops in 1920 were: wheat 874,300
bus.; oats 1,663,000 bus.; barley 364,100 bus.; potatoes 2,933,700
bus.; roots 3,220,000 bus.; hay 254,000 tons.
Lumbering. The stand of timber in British Columbia is esti-
mated to be 400,000,000,000 feet. The value of the manufactured
timber is about $30,000,000 annually and it is estimated that the
forests are growing faster than they are being cut, so that if prop-
erly conserved and developed the timber supply of British Colum-
bia should be inexhaustible. Throughout the coast region, and to a
lesser degree in the wet belt of the interior, there are great stands of
Douglas fir, hemlock, red and yellow cedar, spruce, large and com-
mercial pines. The Douglas fir, however, is not found farther N.
than the northern end of Vancouver Island. The amount of hard
woods such as oak, maple and alder is inconsiderable and com-
mercially negligible. Douglas firs, cedars and spruce 8 to 10 ft. in
diameter are not unusual in the coast region, while there are indi-
vidual specimens of Douglas fir 300 ft. high with a girth of 50 to 55 ft.
A stand as high as 300,000 ft. to the acre exists in places on Van-
couver I. and the coast. Douglas fir, also commercially known as
" Oregon pine," is the largest commercial factor. The red or giant
cedar is probably the most useful of the trees, nearly every portion
of the tree being available for some use, principally shingles, fence
posts, telegraph poles and interior finishing. The western white
spruce is also very valuable and is employed for various purposes
such as box-making, furniture and pulp wood. Saw-mills are located
at all the important points of the settled province. There is a con-
stant demand for British Columbia timber in the prairie provinces
and quantities are exported abroad. The number of lumber firms
reporting to the Dominion Bureau of Industries in 1918 was 201.
The quantity of lumber cut was 1,157,636,000 ft. at a market value
of $28,351,207; of this 714,018,000 ft. was of Douglas fir. The total
capital invested in the industry was stated as $42,408,448 and the
average number of employees 13,268 to whom $31,621,118 was
paid in wages.
The manufacture of pulp and paper has developed on the coast
of British Columbia and is one of the largest and most profitable
industries. Pulp is largely produced from white spruce, although
hemlock, Douglas fir and other coniferous trees can be used with
success. The total production of pulp in 1918 was 173,161 tons
valued at $4,062,724. The principal production was newsprint
and wrapping papers. The value of the newsprint was over $7,500,-
ooo and of the total production $9,264,705.
Sport. British Columbia is rich in big game, fur-bearing animals
and game birds. The principal districts which are resorted to by
sportsmen are Cassiar, where moose, caribou and mountain sheep
are plentiful; the interior of Vancouver I. is famed for its wapiti,
bear and cougar; the Bridge river and Chilcotin districts where the
bighorn, mountain goat, grizzly and black bear, mule-deer and, in
parts, caribou, are plentiful; the Similkameen district near the
International Boundary; E. Kootenay, where E. of the Columbia
river there are moose, wapiti, bighorn sheep, mountain goat, sev-
eral varieties of deer and black and grizzly bears; and the Nelson
district. Between Fort George and the Little Smoky river is a
magnificent moose country.
The game birds are ducks and geese, both abundant, and grouse,
pheasants, quail, pigeons, plover and snipe. The game fish, as dis-
tinguished from commercial varieties, are principally trout, sprim*
salmon and steelhead, and are everywhere abundant in their respec-
tive habitat.
Fisheries. The chief fisheries are salmon, halibut, cod, oolachan,
sturgeon, herring, smelts, sardines. The varieties of salmon are
Quinnat, Chinook or Tyee salmon, silver salmon or cohoe, sock-
eyes or blue-black salmon, dog salmon, humpback. Next in impor-
tance, at least to the angler, are the cut-throat trout, steelhead and
Dolly Varden trout (Malina) ; all of these are exceedingly abundant.
The spring salmon is the first to appear and varies from 10 to 75
Ib. in weight. It is largely shipped fresh to the markets. The sock-
eye and cohoe are almost exclusively used for canning, and the dog
salmon and humpback, which run in immense numbers, are among
the most important sources of supplies for the canneries. Next to
the salmon the halibut is the most important commercial fish. It is
found all along the coast from Bering Strait to San Francisco, but
the chief source of supply in Canadian waters is in Hecate Strait
and N. of it. It finds an extensive market in the United States and
eastern Canada. Herring run in enormous numbers at certain
periods; the headquarters of the herring fisheries are at Nanaimo.
The cod, the Cultus cod, the Alaska black cod or " ski!," the red
rock cod and other varieties of fish which pass under the name of
cod abound all along the coast, and enter largely into the fishing
industry. The oolachan, smelts, anchovy, and sardines run in
enormous numbers and are caught principally for the local market.
506
BRITISH EAST AFRICA BRITISH EMPIRE
Sturgeon, rock fish and shad are other varieties of food fish. The
mackerel is unknown on the Pacific coast. A native oyster, locally
known as the " Olympian," is found in considerable quantities at
many places along the coast of British Columbia and the state of Wash-
ington and is edible. The eastern oyster has not been propagated,
but young oysters are imported from eastern Canada and success-
fully cultivated. So far it has not been found practicable to propa-
gate lobsters. The rivers are abundantly stocked with fish, prin-
cipally salmon or trout, and there are also whitefish and graylings
in the northern waters. The whaling industry was established about
1906 by the Pacific Whaling Co. with headquarters near Nootka
and has been most successful. The once important sealing industry
is now extinct. Only native Indians are permitted to take seals in
Pacific waters and as the seals are again increasing in numbers the
catch is correspondingly great. Dog-fish are very numerous at
various points along the coast and are rich in oil.
The salmon-canning industry is still considerable, but the Eraser
river has been much depleted and steps were being taken in 1920
towards conservation. The fishing industry was greatly stimulated
during the war and increased in respect of many of the smaller fishes
by 100 per cent. Great Britain is the jargest market for British
Columbia salmon. The values of the varieties caught in 1919 were:
salmon, $17,537,164; halibut, $4,617,484; herring, $1,109,870; pil-
chards, $371,871; cod, $368,838; flounders, etc., $130,940; black
cod, $116,580; soles, $90,848. British C9lumbia contributed $25,-
301,607 in 1919, almost half of the entire fisheries production of
Canada. There were then 74 salmon canneries and one other can-
nery in operation. There were 9 whale and fifeh oil factories and 20
fish-curing establishments, representing a capital in all fisheries of
$16,358,505. The principal canning operations are carried on in
the Fraser river, Skeena river, Rivers Inlet, Naas river, on the coast
of Vancouver I. and in a few outlying districts.
Mining. Mining in British Columbia originated with the placer
deposits of the Fraser river and its far-off tributaries in the Cariboo
district, from which it is estimated that some $55,000,000 or $60,000,-
ooo of gold has. been extracted. The undeveloped coal-fields of Brit-
ish Columbia have been estimated to cover 1,351 sq. m., of which 834
are in yancouver and Graham I. (Queen Charlotte Is.), and 517 on
the mainland. Their resources are stated at 3,110 million tons on
the islands and 37,115 million tons on the mainland, of which 61
million tons are anthracite, 39,674 million tons bituminous coal
and 490 million tons lignite. There are large deposits, as yet unde-
veloped, of magnetite and haematite iron. New interest attaches
to the Queen Charlotte Is. on account of the extensive deposits of
oil shale extending along the W. coast of Graham Island.
The mineral production in 1919 amounted to $33,296,313, made
up of gold, $3437,145; silver, $3,592,673; lead, $1,526,855; copper,
57,939,896; zinc, $3,540,429; coal, $11,337,705; coke, $637,966;
miscellaneous products, $1,283,644.
Manufactures. Lumber in all its forms is manufactured for home
consumption and export in over 200 saw-mills. The Canadian Pa-
cific railway owns and controls large smelting works at Anyox and at
Trail. The coking of coal, manufacture of pulp and paper, salmon
canning, sugar refining, and the manufacture of cement are other
industries. There were in 1918 1,786 factories with $244,697,000
capital, giving employment to 48,779 persons who received $51,051,-
ooo in wages and salaries. The value of materials used was $103,-
936,000 and of goods produced $207,678,000.
Shipbuilding was greatly stimulated by the World War. Owing
to the shortage of shipping after its outbreak, a programme of build-
ing wooden ships was undertaken under the auspices of the Provin-
cial Government. The Foundation Co. constructed a number of
vessels for the French Government, and steel vessels for the Domin-
ion Government were constructed at Victoria and Vancouver.
Transport. The main line of the Canadian Pacific railway enters
British Columbia through the Kicking Horse pass on its way to
Vancouver. Another line of the same railway, entering the province
by means of the Crow's Nest pass, serves the Kootenay country and
joins the main line, by several water connexions, at Revelstoke.
The Canadian National traverses the Yellowhead pass and proceeds
through the northern part of the province to Prince Rupert, near
the Alaskan boundary. The Canadian National railways also run
through the Yellowhead pass, turning S. to Kamloops, parallel to
the Canadian Pacific, on the opposite side of the Fraser river, to
Vancouver. From Victoria, the Esquimalt and Nanaimo railways
run as far N. as Comox, and there is also a Canadian National line
on the island. The Pacific Great Eastern from N. Vancouver to
Fort George, owned and to be operated by the Provincial Govern-
ment, was under construction in 1921. Many portions of the prov-
ince are tapped from the United States by "branches of the Great
Northern railway. The total mileage of railways in 1917 was 3,885.
The British Columbia Electric railway has radial lines extending
from Vancouver to points in the Westminster district, and a subur-
ban line from Victoria running through the Saanich district.
The Canadian Pacific railway operates a fleet of steamships which
reach coastwise all points northward from Victoria and Vancouver
to Prince Rupert and several ports in Alaska (including also ports
on the coasts of Vancouver I. and the Queen Charlotte Is.) and S.
to Seattle. There is also direct steamship connexion with San Fran-
cisco. The Canadian National, with a terminus at Prince Rupert,
makes regular connexions by fine twin-screw steamers with Van-
couver and Victoria. The coastwise trade, especially in the sum
mer, is enormous. The Canadian Pacific has also a splendid fleet of
steamships plying to and from Japan and China, on the outward
trip touching at the Philippine Is., and traffic arrangements with
lines of steamers to and from Australia and New Zealand. There
are numerous lines of steamships on the Pacific which make Vic-
toria and Vancouver ports of call. The opening of the Panama
Canal has proved of great advantage to the province. Steamers also,
ply on the navigable rivers and lakes in the interior of the country.
(W. L. G.*)
BRITISH EAST AFRICA. The East Africa Protectorate,
or " British East Africa, " was in July 1920 annexed to the
British Crown and renamed Kenya Colony (see KENYA).
BRITISH EMPIRE (see 4.606*). The white population of the
British Empire in 1921 was (approximately) 60,693,000 (of
whom about three-fourths lived in Great Britain and Ireland).
Its brown or black population was (approximately) 360,670,000
(of whom British India, the Protected Indian Statas, Ceylon and
the other Eastern colonies and dependencies contributed ap-
proximately 323,375,000, West Africa 20,151,000, East Africa
6,315,000, South Africa 5,801,000, British Central Africa 2,600,-
700, and the West Indies 1,490,000). The population of Tan-
ganyika Territory (German East Africa) is estimated, in the
British sphere of influence, at 3,500,000. The native population
of German South-West Africa is small, owing mainly to the
system of repression in force under German rule; the white
inhabitants are between six and seven thousand. Forty-two-
per cent of the population of the German colonies in Africa were
assigned under the Peace of Versailles to Great Britain, against
33% assigned to France and 25% assigned to Belgium. The
total area of what was German New Guinea, along with the
Bismarck Archipelago and the other islands attached to it, is
about 90,000 sq. miles.
A remarkable development took place between 1910 and 1921,
both in theory and in practice, in matters relating to the con-
stitutional framework of the British Empire. It is true that at
the Imperial Conference of 1911 a proposal, not thoroughly
thought out, to set on foot an Imperial Council, of a somewhat
nebulous character, received little support; and that, as long
as Sir Wilfrid Laurier held the helm in Canada, closer cooperation
among the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations
was practically out of the question. But this same Conference
witnessed a new departure which proved of singular good fortune
for British interests. At a secret meeting of the Imperial Defence
Committee Sir Edward Grey explained to the dominion prime
ministers the hidden mysteries of European and world politics.
Mr. Fisher was at the time the Labour Prime Minister of the
Commonwealth of Australia, and the feelings of confidence and
goodwill aroused by this spontaneous act on the part of the
British Government bore abundant fruit when, after a brief
interval, he returned to power in the autumn of 1914.
In other ways the proceedings of the 1911 Conference were of
importance. Although the proposal of a permanent council or
committee, to give continuity to the work of the Imperial Con-
ferences, had come to nothing, mainly owing to the objections
raised by Canada, still the establishment of a separate " Domin-
ions Department " of the Colonial Office in London and the issue
by it of annual reports were distinct steps in this direction. In
any case, in going through the proceedings of the 1911 Conference,
one notes a closer grip of existing facts than had been shown at
previous conferences. Thus a satisfactory solution was arrived
at of the problem of naturalization within the Empire, a solution
which was afterwards embodied in imperial legislation. Each
dominion must continue to retain the power of regulating its
own system of naturalization; but five years' residence in any
portion of the Empire qualifies an applicant for the grant of
imperial nationality, the decision of the question resting with
that portion of the self-governing Empire in which such ap-
plicant has resided during the twelve months immediately pre-
ceding his application. A discussion of the subject of emigration
brought out the great increase which had taken place in the most
recent years in the number of British emigrants to the dominions,
compared with the number of such emigrants to the United States.
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
BRITISH EMPIRE
507
The Conference, further, revealed the weakness of the existing
system of political intercommunication. It was shown that the
Declaration of London, which involved important questions of
maritime law of vital interest to communities separated by thou-
sands of miles of sea from Great Britain, had been approved with-
out any consultation with or even notice given to the dominions.
The excuse was that the dominions had not been parties to the
Hague Conference; and that the Declaration of London had
been the outcome of the proceedings of that body; but the British
Government adopted a very apologetic tone and readily en-
dorsed a resolution that, in future, the dominions should be given
the opportunity of considering the matter before the signing of
any convention which might affect their interests by the British
delegates at the Hague Conference; and this same general rule
should, as far as possible, hold good in the negotiation of other
international agreements.
The anomalous character of the British Empire was well
illustrated by the adoption of a resolution which was, indeed,
the logical sequel of the action of Lord Salisbury in 1897 in
connexion with the grant of a fiscal preference by Canada to
British goods; but was none the less of a centrifugal character.
It was agreed that in cases in which a British commercial treaty
with a foreign Power bound the dominions, negotiations should
be opened with the object of securing liberty to any of them to
withdraw from the operation of such treaty, without impairing
its validity with regard to the rest of the Empire. In some cases
foreign Powers were unwilling to agree to such a proceeding;
so that the only alternative was the denunciation by Great
Britain of a treaty which otherwise it might be in her interest
to retain.
Apart, however, from details, the Imperial Conference of 1911
'did important work in cementing the intangible links connecting
the different parts of the British Commonwealth. In the words
of General Botha, it called into life " that friendship which must
lead to cooperation, and better cooperation than we have had in
.the past."
Towards the end of 1911 Sir Wilfrid Laurier's long period of
rule in Canada came to a close, the Liberal leader suffering defeat
.at the general election which took place over the question of
trade reciprocity with the United States. In Ontario, whatever
may have been the case elsewhere, the contest was fought as one
connected with the maintenance of the British connexion; and
the triumph of the Conservatives was hailed as a manifestation
of imperial loyalty. The new Prime Minister, Sir Robert Borden,
had for some years consistently maintained the view that, whilst
.a more generous contribution by Canada to the needs of the
imperial navy was necessary, such contribution must involve a
real partnership in the decision of those questions of foreign
policy on which might depend the issues of peace or war. For
the time being he was satisfied with the undertaking of the
British Government that a Canadian representative would al-
ways be welcome at meetings of the Imperial Defence Committee,
tut it was obvious that this could not be the final solution of the
problem. Sir Robert's attempt to give substantial help to the
British navy by the gift of three battleships failed, it is true,
through the action of the Canadian Senate in rejecting the meas-
ure; but the political claims which went along with the proposed
gift were soon to find a partial fulfilment, the tremendous efforts
put forth by the dominions in the World War forbidding, in any
case, a simple return to the practice of the past.
On the purely naval and military side of the question, indeed,
the results of the war might seem to vindicate the past policy.
Dominion statesmen pointed with pride to the action of the
little Australian navy, which, at the outbreak of war, promptly
gave its services to the capture of the German colonies in the
Pacific, whilst it was forthwith placed under the British Admi-
ralty. The question of separate navies was for a long time a bone
of contention between British naval experts and dominion public
men, but it seems now impossible to contest the principle, though
as late as 1918 the British Admiralty continued to advocate a
single navy, under a single naval authority. In military matters
the development of an imperial general staff and improvement
in military education had gone on, under the scheme initiated
by Lord Haldane in 1909. Congenial ground was afforded for
military reforms by the system of compulsory military training
prevailing in Australia and New Zealand, a system which in the
former country had been introduced by the Labour party. One
may admit that the successes of the dominion troops in the war
were mainly due to the individual initiative and valour of the
rank-and-file and yet recognize the merits of the machinery
through which these worked.
The independent character of the various portions of the
Empire was well illustrated by the different attitudes they took
up towards conscription, the Parliaments of New Zealand and of
Canada, in spite of the hostility of the province of Quebec, having
adopted it, whilst the people of Australia at two referenda refused
its endorsement.
From the political standpoint, however, the situation was less
satisfactory. The British Empire had gone to war in 1914 with-
out the dominions having any voice in the decision. The circum-
stances, indeed, with regard to the violation of Belgian neutrality
were so manifest as, in this particular case, to prevent the pos-
sibility of discussion; but, in the event of trouble in the future,
the casus belli for the whole Empire may not always be so clear.
It was obvious, then, that there was a real weakness in the sys-
tem, requiring a practical remedy.
No Imperial Conference was held in 1915, owing to the exigen-
cies of the war; and when it met in 1917, and again in 1918, it was
accompanied by a new organ of government, of extreme signifi-
cance. The Imperial War Cabinet was not, indeed, a Cabinet
in the strict use of the word; because it had no direct executive
authority, and because a majority at its sittings could not bind
a dissentient minority; but, for practical purposes, it fulfilled the
functions of a Cabinet, in concentrating upon a single objective
the whole moral and material strength of the scattered Empire.
It was hoped that an instrument which had proved so useful for
the purposes of war might give the solution to the problem of the
Empire in times of peace; such being the expectation of Mr.
Lloyd George and of Sir Robert Borden. But a Cabinet of this
kind requires a sacrifice of separate interests to the collective
good such as is not often found except in times of emergency.
Accordingly the meeting of Prime Ministers held in 1921, what-
ever may have been Lord Milncr's intention when summoning it,
bore at least in its initial stages little resemblance in its proceed-
ings to a constitutional Cabinet, though in its final report it gave
expression to the unanimous views of the Governments of the
Empire.
At the opening meeting Mr. Lloyd George declared that,
while in the past Downing Street controlled the Empire, to-day
the Empire took charge of Downing Street. The main subject
of discussion was the question of the renewal of the Anglo-
Japanese Alliance. It was agreed by all parties that the alliance
would require changes in its form, because of the changed con-
ditions of the world, and in order that it should comply with
the obligations imposed by membership in the League of Nations.
But on the general question of the renewal of the treaty there
was a difference of opinion. The Canadian Prime Minister,
adopting the point of view of American public men and intent
upon the promotion of the closest friendly relations between the
British Empire and the United States, was opposed to the re-
newal of the treaty in any form. The Australian and New Zealand
representatives, on the other hand, who had much to fear from
the presence in the Pacific of an unfriendly or offended Japan,
recognized in the renewal of the treaty the surest pledge for
future peace. The friendship of Japan during the war had un-
doubtedly been of the greatest service to the British Empire;
and the role of a Power, such as Great Britain, with over 300
million Asiatic subjects, might well be to act as a connecting
link between the United States and Japan, playing to some ex-
tent the part played by France after the Anglo-French agree-
ment of 1904 in establishing more friendly relations between
Great Britain and Russia.
It fortunately proved unnecessary that the question should
be decided forthwith; and in July the invitation of the United
508
BRITISH EMPIRE
States to the various Powers to attend a general conference later
in the year on the subject of disarmament and the political
questions connected therewith gave the opportunity for the
whole question to be discussed from every point of view.
With regard to the question of naval defence the Conference
resolved " that, while recognizing the necessity of cooperation
... to provide such naval defence as may prove to be essential
for security, and while holding that equality with the naval
strength of any other Power is the minimum suggested for that
purpose, this Conference is of opinion that the method and ex-
tent of such cooperation are matters for the final determination
of the several Parliaments concerned, and that any recommenda-
tions thereon should be deferred until after the coming con-
ference on disarmament."
It should further be noted that the dominion Prime Ministers
attended the Cabinet Council at which the reply to the French
note on Upper Silesia was considered. It had been intended
to hold a special constitutional conference in 1922, but, having
regard to the constitutional developments since 1917, the meeting
saw no advantage in holding such a conference. They recognized,
however, the necessity of continuous consultation, which could
only be secured by an improvement in the communications
between the different parts of the Empire.
Whether or not an Imperial Cabinet, on the model of the
Imperial War Cabinet, be found to be practicable, it should
be noted that a more elaborate method of solving the problem
has been put forward. The " Round Table " movement took
its rise from a small body of able and hard-working men who,
having helped to bring about the union of South Africa, trans-
ferred their energies to the solution of the British imperial prob-
Jem. A patient and detailed investigation of the whole subject
was made by groups of inquirers, mainly belonging to the univer-
sities, throughout the Empire; and the results were recorded in
carefully annotated volumes. The final outcome of the views of
the majority in most groups there was a dissentient minority
was the volume, The Problem of the Commonwealth, by Lionel
Curtis, published in 1917. Though the book bound no one to the
author's individual views, it is not likely ever to be superseded
as a solution of the problem, from the point of view of an im-
perial federationist. Whilst the necessity of an Imperial Parlia-
ment and Executive was insisted upon, the necessity was also
recognized of limiting, as far as was compatible with imperial
safety, the functions of such Imperial Parliament and Executive.
Dominion nationalism forbade that questions other than the
management of foreign affairs, Imperial defence and finance in its
relation with defence, along with the control of subject races,
should be the province of the central authority. Thus the sub-
ject of the tariff was held to be outside its province.
Whatever its logical merits, the proposal failed to secure the
support of public men and of the electors in the dominions;
largely on the ground that the people of the dominions would
never tolerate any form of taxation imposed by a Parliament not
sitting within their own borders.
But, though imperial federation be in the existing state of
public opinion an impossibility, it does not follow that a satis-
factory scheme is not any nearer than it was before the war. The
effects of the war seemed indeed in 1921 to be working in two
directly opposite directions. On the one hand the war brought
about a greater knowledge of Great Britain and its people among
the many thousands of dominion soldiers who were in England
when training or on leave, and had thus created bonds of mutual
affection and sympathy. (The feeling embodied in the well-
known warning, " No Englishman need apply," is now, we are
told, in Canada a thing of the past.) Again, the visits of the
Prince of Wales to the dominions in 1919-21 called forth an
expression of loyalty and devotion to the monarchy, as embody-
ing imperial unity, and to the individual Prince, as embodying
in its most attractive shape at once the youth and the demo-
cratic spirit of these new nations, such as promised well for the
permanence of the British connexion.
Upon the other hand, the war, with its consequences, was,
as was inevitable, a forcing-house in the development of the
political status of the dominions, and hastened the putting for-
ward of claims which might otherwise have lain dormant for
many more years. During the peace negotiations dominion
statesmen sat at the council table as representatives of their own
communities, and not as mere assessors to the British representa-
tives, their countries being recognized, for certain purposes, as
separate states. At the signing of the Peace, King George, in
each case, acted on the advice of the minister representing each
individual dominion separately. Lastly, the dominions became
full members of the League of Nations, undertaking, individually,
the many serious obligations involved by such membership.
These privileges, Sir Robert Borden has explained, were not
obtained without struggle; but the opposition in no case came
from the British Government.
Moreover, whilst the international position of the British
Empire was thus being modified, General Smuts, the protagonist
of the movement to reconcile complete local autonomy with the
permanence of the Empire, was explaining the measures neces-
sary to make theory to harmonize with practice. (It should be
remembered that General Smuts was at the same time denouncing
secession as at once a violation of the South African Constitution
and a blow aimed at the British population.) No shred of author-
ity, General Smuts insisted, must remain with the British Parlia-
ment or the Colonial Office. When dominion matters were in
question the King must act exclusively on the advice of his
dominion ministers, and, accordingly, the Governor-General
must be appointed on their recommendation. Whence it follows
that the only link left between Great Britain and the dominions
is the personal link of the Crown, and that, logically, the domin-
ions should have separate diplomatic representation in every
capital. A beginning had been made in 1921 in the latter direc-
tion by the decision to appoint a Canadian minister at Washing-
ton, though it was doubtful how far such an appointment was
really demanded by Canadian public opinion.
It is obvious how difficult under the new system might become
the position of a constitutional monarch who found himself
called upon to act in several different ways, on the advice of
separate ministers, whose policies might be wholly discordant.
When General Smuts first broached his views in 191 7 he laid great
store on the necessity for frequent meetings of the Prime Minis-
ters of the British Commonwealth of Nations, with the object
of insuring a common and collective policy; but latterly, under
the stress of local conditions in South Africa, and perhaps
under the influence of a natural impatience with the situation in
Europe, this side of the shield seems to have been less before his
attention.
At the Imperial Conference of 1917 it was agreed that the
readjustment of the constitutional relations of the component
parts of the Empire should form the subject of a special imperial
conference, to be summoned as soon as possible after the cessa-
tion of hostilities; and it was settled provisionally that the con-
ference should take place in 1922; but it seemed clear by 1921
that, in the reaction following upon the efforts of the war, any
immediate attempt to draw closer the bonds of union would not
meet with a favourable reception. To judge from the criticisms
made on Lord Jellicoe's suggestions, the dominions were not yet
prepared to contribute a fixed proportionate quota to the cost
of the imperial navy. Underlying, however, this attitude of
caution and distrust, there was still in reserve that spirit which
made the Empire one in the supreme crisis of its history, the
World War.
Other difficulties, besides the constitutional problem, beset
the British Empire during the decade. Of these none caused
greater anxiety than the treatment accorded to British Indians
in the British dominions. With regard to immigration, it had
become generally recognized in 1921 that each dominion had the
right to make, and to enforce, such rules as it deemed necessary
for its own individual interests. No sane Englishman would ven-
ture to quarrel with the policy of a white Australia, or with the
consequences it may entail. Similarly, if the Union of South
Africa, with its huge black population, refuses admission to
British Indians, no complaint can be made. But it is a matter
BRITISH EMPIRE
509
of the utmost importance, in the interests of the Empire as a
whole, that such Indians as have already found a home there
should receive fair and generous treatment. The recognition of a
modified form of self-government in India under the system
known as " dyarchy " and the extension of representative in-
stitutions have greatly stimulated the political consciousness of
the peoples of India; and things are now noted and resented which
a few years earlier would have been treated as matters of course.
The presence of Indian representatives at the Imperial Confer-
ences of 1917 and 1918 served to bring home to the minds of
dominion statesmen the new status obtained by India in the
British Commonwealth of Nations, and the need for a new spirit
in dealing with its population. Rules against Indian immigration
could be reconciled with Indian dignity when reciprocal measures
by India were formally sanctioned, and the hardships of existing
laws with regard to the introduction of the wives of those already
domiciled, or with regard to facilities for temporary or occasional
visits, admit of easy mitigation. More difficult is the question of
the franchise. In the past the argument has been that, as Indians
had no voice in public affairs at home, they could not resent being
treated in a similar way in a dominion. But now that they have
begun their political apprenticeship in India itself the case is
different; and, at the meeting of the Prime Ministers in 1921, the
Indian representatives having laid great stress on the necessity
of finding a remedy for this grievance, the conference, " in the
interests of the solidarity of the British Commonwealth,"
recognized the desirability of granting citizenship to Indians
lawfully domiciled in a dominion. It is significant, however,
that the representatives of South Africa were unable to accept
this resolution.
Nor is it in the dominions alone that this difficulty has been
encountered. The Highlands of British East Africa (Kenya
Colony) have developed into a white man's land, and Kenya is
probably on its way to full responsible government. But Indians
have for generations resorted to the shores of East Africa, and
Indians have held that British East Africa's destiny lay in
becoming a field for Indian immigration, under the British flag.
The complete failure of such expectations, and the treatment
accorded to British Indians in Kenya Colony by the British
settlers, have doubtless been a contributory cause in promoting
feelings of distrust and suspicion in India.
Under the Peace of Versailles a new form of colonial possession
came into being. It seemed impossible, both in the interests of
the natives and for military reasons, to restore to Germany the
colonies that had been taken during the war. At the same time
it did not appear seemly that a war, fought for moral ends, should
be followed by a mere division of the spoil. The " mandatory "
system was, therefore, evolved; the aim of which is to enforce
the lesson that the possession of colonies, inhabited by savage or
semi-civilized peoples, entails moral obligations toward such
peoples. Accordingly their tutelage is entrusted to advanced
nations who, by reason of their resources, their experience, or
geographical position, can best undertake this responsibility, and
who thus become mandatories on behalf of the League of Nations.
The character of the mandate is differentiated according to the
stage of development of the people, the geographical situation of
the territory, its economic conditions, and other similar circum-
stances.
There are three kinds of mandates. Under the first (class A)
ithe mandatory power stands in the position of administrative
adviser and assistant until such time as the dependent com-
munity may be able to standalone; its existence as an independent
nation being provisionally recognized, subject to the execution
by the mandatory of its trust.
In the case of the second form of mandate (class B) the popu-
lation, as in German East Africa (assigned mainly to Great
Britain), was still at the stage in which the mandatory must be
exclusively responsible for the administration of the country;
under conditions, however, which would guarantee freedom
of conscience and religion (subject to the maintenance of public
order and morals); the prohibition of abuses, such as the slave
trade, traffic in arms or in liquor; and would prevent the estab-
lishment of fortifications or military and naval bases, and the
military training of the natives for other than police purposes and
actual defence. In territories under this form of mandate equal
opportunities must be given for the trade and commerce of all
nations belonging to the League of Nations.
Lastly (class C) there were territories, such as German South-
West Africa and certain of the islands in the Pacific south of the
Equator (assigned to the Union of South Africa and to Australia
and New Zealand), which, owing to the sparseness of their popu-
lation, their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of
civilization, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of
the mandatory Power, could be administered most conveniently
under the laws of the mandatory as integral portions of its
territory; but subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the
interests of the indigenous population.
The recognition of this last class was, in great measure, due
to the exigencies of the British dominions. The Union of South
Africa, Australia and New Zealand were all countries having a
protective tariff. Had their new possessions come under the
provision applying to class B, they must either have set on foot
different tariff arrangements in their possessions or else have
incurred the obligation to throw open their commerce to all
members of the League.
That the League of Nations intended to take very seriously
its work under the mandatory system was shown by the amend-
ments proposed by the sub-committee of the executive com-
mittee which dealt with the British draft of the mandate for
Tanganyika. Amongst other alterations of a stringent character
it was proposed that, on the coming into force of the mandate,
" all lands not already alienated by regular title, whether oc-
cupied or unoccupied," should be declared " native lands," and
that no native lands should be alienable, a provision which would
apparently render impossible any kind of European colonization
or development. The further proposal that any person in the
territory should be able, through the medium of the mandatory
Power, to bring complaints to the League with regard to the non-
observance of the terms of the mandate might, conceivably, lend
itself to abuse, in the event of such complaints being manufac-
tured or encouraged for political purposes.
With regard to trade relations, there was no movement during
1910-21 in the direction of an imperial Zollverein. In Canada
the party that in opposition had denounced protection had found
insuperable difficulties in the way of changing the policy of their
predecessors and contented themselves with maintaining the
British preference. But the effect of reciprocity with the United
States, had it come into force, must have been to diminish the
advantage to British trade of such preference. In these years,
whilst the policy of preference for British goods gained in favour
throughout the dominions, it was seldom advocated unless it
could be accompanied by a general raising of the scale of the
general tariff. In Great Britain the Unionist leaders had found
themselves faced with the difficulty of proposing duties upon
primary articles of food; and the revised platform merely de-
manded a preferential treatment of goods produced in the Empire
which were already subject to duties, a modest proposal which
was carried into effect by the budget of 1919.
At the 1911 Conference Sir W. Laurier, tired of general dis-
cussions in which neither party was able to convince the other,
made the practical proposal that a peripatetic Royal Commission
should be set on foot, to take stock of the existing resources of the
Empire, and to consider how trade might be increased between
its component parts. This commission did much useful work in
the years before the war; and the appointment of new trade com-
missions in the different dominions and colonies had the effect
of stimulating trade with Great Britain. Unfortunately, in the
special circumstances which were the aftermath of the war,
there were more formidable obstacles in the way of the expansion
of British trade than ignorance or indifference on the part of
possible customers.
In another direction the war has had regrettable results.
Nothing can help so much to promote imperial unity as a cheap
postage system, both for letters and for newspapers, and cheap
BROADBENT BROADHURST
facilities for travel. But the taxation necessitated by the cost
of the war, and the increase in prices generally, gave a rude set-
back in these directions. Conquests of the air may eventually help
to solve the problems of time and space the Prime Minister at
the Conference of 1921 decided upon an extension of wireless
telegraphy and on the retention of existing material useful for
the development of imperial air communications, but in 1921
the condition of things prevailing had been made less favourable
to habits of intercourse between the members of the scattered
Empire than it was at the beginning of 1914.
As regards the Crown colonies, the period, until the changes
brought about by the war dealt with above, was one concerned
with the development of the existing possessions rather than
with the acquisition of new ones. Great attention was paid to the
solution of the problems connected with the natives, with, on the
whole, satisfactory results; e.g. the recognition by cotton experts
that cotton-growing in the Empire can be more successfully
carried on under a system of cultivation by small native pro-
prietors than under the system of large plantations owned by
Europeans, with its attendant moral dangers, has gone some way
to remove the standing crux of colonial administration how to
combine the due development of the material resources of these
countries with the necessary safeguarding of the moral interests
of the native populations. Similarly, the treatment of the land
question has shown more and more respect for native customs and
ideas. The amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria in
1914 enabled the development of the largest British Crown
colony or protectorate to be carried on with greater speed and
efficiency. In Northern Nigeria, as in the Federated Malay
States, a system is at work which, when conditions are favour-
able, gives admirable results. The native chiefs govern their
subjects without the existence of direct communication between
the British officials and the people. The difficulty in the way of
the employment of this system more generally is that it requires
both strong and upright native rulers and British residents of no
little tact as well as ability. Whatever be the system of govern-
ment, it is clear that the interests of a numerous native population
must not be abandoned to the will of a small minority of educated
and Europeanized natives, who are wholly akin to their country-
men in aims and ideals, any more than they should be the victims
of the needs of the few European settlers. The establishment in
Nigeria, side by side with an extended executive council, of a new
council, including amongst its members the leading official and
unofficial representatives both of the European and of the native
community, enables the Government to keep in touch with such
public opinion as can find expression. A council of this kind
may play a useful part, although it has no direct executive or
legislative powers. During the war the striking loyalty of the
Mohammedan states in Northern Nigeria and the attitude of
the natives throughout the British colonies bore witness to the
soundness of the principles upon which the British native policy
has been built. There are, no doubt, serious difficulties in the
way. The effects in the more civilized communities of a super-
ficial and ill-assimilated education tend to increase indiscipline
and vanity amongst the young; whilst the gradual weakening of
the tribal system, and of the authority belonging to the chiefs, is
fraught with danger. But the experience of British East Africa
has shown that, in a country where the disintegrating forces are
exceptionally strong, something may be done by skilful admin-
istration to revive the tribal authority and to resuscitate the
native tribunals. Everywhere it has been made clear that no
form of compulsory labour on behalf of private employers can
be tolerated. The question of taxation, with the view of develop-
ing the natives' inclination to work, has given rise to difficulties.
Attention may be called to the system prevailing in Papua,
under the Australian Commonwealth Government, where the
proceeds of such taxation are strictly earmarked for purposes
connected with the interests of the aborigines.
A marked feature of the period has been the extension of
railways which followed upon the financial success of the so-called
Uganda railway. In East Africa there has been established a
network of railways, steamers and roads, extending into the
heart of the Uganda protectorate, and tapping a vast area of
country; whilst in West Africa the progress has been no less
noticeable.
In the Far East the addition, in the beginning of 1914, of
Johor to the number of the Federated Malay States was an
event of importance, the undeveloped resources of the country
being great. In no quarter of the world has the British system of
government met with more success than in the Malay Peninsula.
The wonderful wealth of the country has, no doubt, made things
easier nowhere else could a first-rate railway system have been
built entirely out of revenue; and the establishment of the plan-
tation rubber industry upon a large scale, before its introduction
into other countries, enabled the pioneers to reap the benefits of
high prices. Nor was the British Government unmindful of the
interests of the natives, special legislation being passed to pre-
vent them from yielding to their natural inclination to alienate
their ancestral holdings to European capitalists. The sponta-
neous gift of the battleship " Malaya " to the British navy by the
Federated Malay States in 1912 attested the popularity of the
British rule; and even more striking were the expressions of
loyalty from the Asiatic population at the outbreak of war,
followed by a voluntary annual contribution towards its ex-
penses which had the warm support of the unofficial members of
the Council. An economic reaction inevitably occurred after
the fictitious prosperity caused by the high prices that prevailed
during the war, but such depression was in no way connected
with the system of government.
In the West Indies the years 1910-21 saw few changes of
importance. Criticism of existing political conditions had come
more to the surface, and proposals were more often heard for
the establishment of a federal system of government. In Jamaica
the attempt is being made to interest the unofficial members of
the Legislative Council more closely in the work of the Govern-
ment. With regard to federation, the difficulties in its way, in
the case of islands separated from each other by hundreds of
miles of sea and possessing different forms of government and
different ideals and prejudices, remain as great as ever; but the
work of the imperial department of agriculture for the West
Indies has tended to promote economic development gener-
ally; and the agreement, setting on foot a system of reciprocal
trade preference, made between Canada and the West Indies
in 1917 should be of benefit to the latter.
Parliamentary papers, the Annual Reports from the Crown
Colonies and Dominions, Hansards, together with A. B. Keith,
Imperial Unity and the Dominions (1916), are the best authorities
for the last 1 1 years of the British Empire. With regard to the future
form of its constitution R. Jebb, The Britannic Question (1913),
L. Curtis, The Problem of the Commonwealth (1917), and H. Duncan
Hall, The British Commonwealth of Nations (1920) represent different
points of view. (H. E. E.)
BROADBENT, SIR WILLIAM HENRY, IST BART. (1835-1907),
English physician, was born at Lindley, Yorks., Jan. 23 1835,
the son of a woollen manufacturer. Educated at Huddersfield,
he afterwards studied medicine at Owens College and the
Royal School of Medicine, Manchester, and at Paris. From
1859 to 1896 he was physician to St. Mary's hospital, London,
and from 1860 to 1879 physician to the London Fever hospi-
tal. In 1893 he was created a baronet, and in 1898 became
physician extraordinary to Queen Victoria, an office in which
he was continued by King Edward VII. Broadbent was an
authority on heart affections, and also carried out much
research on tuberculosis. His chief works are The Pulse (1890),
and The Heart (1897). He died in London July 10 1907, and
was succeeded in the baronetcy by his son, now Sir John Broad-
bent, Bart. (b. 1865), also a distinguished physician.
BROADHURST, HENRY (1840-1911), English Labour leader
and Liberal politician, was born at Littlemore, near Oxford,
April 13 1840, the son of a stonemason. He was educated
at the village school, and at the age of 13 was apprenticed
to his father's trade. He worked at it for nearly twenty years,
going to London finally in 1865, where he was employed in the
erecting of the House of Commons. In 1872 he was elected
chairman of the masons' committee during a strike, and from
BROCK BROWNE
that time was prominent as a trade union official. In 1875 he was
elected secretary of the parliamentary committee of the trade
union congress. He entered Parliament in 1880 as Liberal mem-
ber for Stoke-on-Trent. In 1885 he was elected for the Bordesley
division of Birmingham, and in Feb. 1886 was appointed
under-secretary to the Home Office, going out with the Glad-
stone Government later in the year. He belonged to the older
school of trade unionism and was opposed to such demands as
an 8-hour day fixed by law. His moderate policy was defeated
at the trade union congress of 1890, and he then resigned his
secretaryship. Both in 1892 and 1893 he was unsuccessful in
his parliamentary candidatures. In 1892 he was appointed a
member of the royal commission on Labour, and in 1894 he was
elected Liberal member for Leicester, which seat he held until
1906, when he retired on account of ill health. He died at Cromer
Oct. 111911. He published the story of his life in 1 901 , and a book
on Leasehold Enfranchisement in conjunction with Lord Lore-
burn in 1885.
BROCK, SIR THOMAS (1847- ), English sculptor (see
4.623), was in 1911 created K.C.B.
BROCKDORFF-RANTZAU, COUNT ULRICH VON (1869- ),
German diplomatist, was born May 29 1869 at Schleswig. After
having held various diplomatic positions at St. Petersburg,
Vienna and Budapest he was appointed German minister at
Copenhagen, a post which he held from 1912 to 1918. He was
very active in the Danish capital during the World War in
collecting news and keeping in touch with the various inter-
national agencies which were interested in paving the way for
peace or endeavouring to undermine the war spirit of the
Western Powers. On Dec. 20 1918 he was appointed Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs and in March 1919 went to Versailles
as chief of the German delegation for the peace negotiations.
He resigned on June 20 in consequence of his unwillingness to
advise the German Government to accept the terms of the
Treaty of Versailles.
BROOKE, SIR CHARLES JOHNSON (1829-1917), 2nd Raja of
Sarawak (see 24.208), died at Cirencester May 15 1917. He
was succeeded by his eldest son, Charles Vyner Brooke (b. 1874).
BROOKE, RUPERT (1887-1915), English poet, was born at
Rugby Aug. 3 1887, and educated at Rugby and King's Col-
lege, Cambridge, where he afterwards won a fellowship. In
1911 he issued his first volume of Poems. In 1913 he under-
took a journey through America and on to Samoa, sending
home vivid letters, which recall those of R. L. Stevenson, to a
London evening paper; they were published after his death in
volume form as Letters from America (1916) with a prefatory
appreciation by Henry James. These two books and a second
and posthumous volume of poetry 1914 and other Poems, with
an essay on John Webster and the Elizabethan Drama (1916), make
up his literary output; but its quality and high promise render
the greater the loss to English literature by his premature
death on active service. He had joined the Naval Brigade very
early in the World War, took part in the ill-fated effort to
relieve Antwerp, spent the winter in an English camp and went
out to Gallipoli in the spring, but on the way there fell ill of
blood-poisoning and died at sea in a French hospital ship April
23 1915. He was buried on the island of Lemnos. His Col-
lected Poems, with a prefatory memoir by Edward Marsh, were
published in 1918.
BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS (1832-1916), English
divine and man of letters (see 4.645), died at Ewhurst, Sur.,
March 18 1916.
See L. P. Jacks, Life and Letters of Stopford Brooke (1917).
BROOKFIELD, CHARLES HALLAM ELTON (1857-1913),
English actor and playwright, was born in London May 19
1857, and educated at Westminster and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. He studied law for a time at the Inner Temple,
though he was never called to the bar, and he was for several
years on the staff of the Saturday Review. In 1879 he took to the
stage, appearing first in Still Waters Run Deep and becoming a
member of the Bancrofts' company at the Haymarket theatre,
London, from 1880 to 1885. Later he played there with Herbert
Tree in Jim the Penman, The Red Lamp and other melodramas,
as well as in Oscar Wilde's An Ideal Husband. But it was rather
as a wit and a writer that his reputation was gained, his stories
and mots becoming famous. He wrote alone, or in collaboration,
a number of lively plays, of which the best known was Dear Old
Charlie, and he published his Random Reminiscences (1902). He
also collaborated with his wife, Frances Mary Brookfield, in an
account of his parents Mrs. Brookfield and her Circle (1905).
Frances M. Brookfield was also the author of The Cambridge
Apostles (1906) and of some notable novels, especially My Lord
of Essex (1907) and A Friar Observant (1909). In 1911 Brook-
field was appointed joint-examiner (censor) of plays under the
Lord Chamberlain an appointment which had an element of
humour in view of the character of some of his own plays. He
died in London Oct. 20 1913.
BROUGH, FANNY WHITESIDE (1854-1914), English actress,
who came of a well-known family of actors, was born in Paris
July 8 1854. She first appeared on the stage at Manchester in
1869 in a pantomime written by her uncle, William Brough.
In 1870 she appeared in London with Mrs. John Wood at the
St. James's theatre. She played in Money with the Bancrofts
in 1872, in The Wife's Secret and The Ironmaster with the
Kendals in 1888, and in The Man from Blankley's with Charles
Hawtrey in 1901 and again in the United States in 1903. She
died in London Nov. 30 1914.
BROUGHTON, RHOOA (1840-1920), English novelist, was
born in N. Wales Nov. 29 1840, the daughter of a clergyman,
who was squire as well as rector of Broughton, Staffs. She
produced her first novel, Cometh up as a Flower, in 1867, fol-
lowing it at brief intervals by Not Wisely but too Well and Red
as a Rose is She. In the English county society, in which she
had been brought up, such novels were then regarded as toe-
daring experiments, to be kept as far as possible out of the hands
of the young. But this succ'es de scandal e was short-lived and, as
mid-Victorianism began to fade, Miss Broughton's reputation as
a shocker of convention soon gave place to a more sober recogni-
tion of her merit as a story-teller. " I began life as Zola," she
said of herself, " I finish it as Miss Yonge." In the interval she
had spent 20 years in Oxford, where she was a distinguished
social figure, and the last 30 years at Richmond as a semi-
invalid, and she had published some 20 novels, the latest, A Fool
in her Folly, appearing after her death, with a prefatory apprecia-
tion by Marie Belloc-Lowndes. She died at Headington near
Oxford, June 5 1920.
BROWN, FRANCIS (1849-1916), American Semitic scholar
(see 4.658), died in New York Oct. 15 1916. He had been
president of Union Theological Seminary, New York, since
1908. In 1911 he was tried for heresy before the Presbyterian
General Board on the ground that he had published state-
ments " contrary to cherished Presbyterian and evangelical
doctrines," but was exonerated.
BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831-1913), American painter (see
4.661), died in New York City Feb. 8 1913.
BROWN, PETER HUME (1850-1918), Scottish historian, was-
born in Haddingtonshire Dec. 17 1850, and educated at
Edinburgh University, where he afterwards became professor
of ancient history. In 1908 he was appointed Historiog-
rapher Royal for Scotland, and from 1913 to 1914 Ford
lecturer at Oxford. Besides his various histories, he is the
author of a Life of John Knox (1895) and is mentioned as an
authority in the bibliography of John Knox (see 15.882). He
died at Edinburgh Nov. 30 1918; his unfinished Life of Goethe
was completed by Lord Haldane and published in 1920.
BROWNE, SIR BENJAMIN CHAPMAN (1839-1917), British
engineer, was born at Stout's Hill, Glos., Aug. 26 1839
and was apprenticed to the Elswick works near Newcastle-
on-Tyne. He became an expert on harbour work and car-
ried out harbour works at Tynemouth, Falmouth and in the
Isle of Wight. In 1870 he took over the locomotive works of R.
& W. Hawthorn at Forth Banks, in 1886 combined these with
those of Andrew Leslie & Co., and until 1916 was chairman of
512
B RO WNING B RUSSELS
the combination. He was knighted in 1887. He died at West-
acre, Newcastle-on-Tyne, March i 1917.
BROWNING, JOHN M. (1854- ), American inventor, was
born at Ogden, Utah, in 1854, of Mormon parentage. His father
was a gunsmith. The son, from childhood, displayed remarkable
talent for invention. In 1879 he secured his first patent for a
breech-loading single-shot rifle. He made 600 of these guns in
his Ogden shop before selling the patent to the Remington
Company. He designed many types of sporting firearms such as
the Remington autoloading shotguns and rifles; the Winchester
repeating shotguns,, single-shot and repeating rifles; the Stevens
rifles; and the Colt automatic pistols. From all these he drew
large royalties. In 1890 a machine-gun of his design, but known
as the Colt, was adopted by the U.S. army. He always
avoided publicity and in no case required that his invention bear
his name. In one establishment alone was his name used, the
Fabrique Nationale at Liege, Belgium, which fell into the hands
of the Germans at the beginning of the World War, in 1914.
Browning had shortly before been made a chevalier de 1'Ordre de
Leopold and decorated by King Albert, on the occasion of the
completion of the millionth Browning, automatic pistol at
Liege. He later developed two types of machine-gun which were
adopted by the United States in 1918 for use in the World War.
One of these guns on test fired 39,000 rounds before breakage
developed. In lieu of royalties, which would have amounted to
some $10,000,000, he accepted from the U.S. Government a
lump sum of $1,500,000.
BRUCE, SIR DAVID (1855- ), British bacteriologist, was
born at Melbourne May 29 1855. He was educated at Stirling
high school and Edinburgh University, where he took his
degree of M.B. in 1881. He entered the R.A.M.C. in 1883,
and from 1884 to 1889 served in Malta and Egypt. His stay in
Malta was marked by his researches into the origin of Malta
fever, and in 1887 he discovered the micro-organism of this
disease, propounding the theory that it was spread by the use
of goats' milk (see 17.514). In 1889 he became assistant pro-
fessor of pathology at Netley, and in 1894 went to South Africa,
where he remained until 1901, serving throughout the South
African War. In 1902 he became a member of the Army Advisory
Board, a post which he retained until 1910. For many years
Bruce conducted researches into the origin of sleeping-sickness,
and in 1894 he discovered the micro-organism not only of that
disease but also of nagana (tsetse fly disease), and the method of
their dissemination. In 1903 he went to Uganda as director of
the Royal Society's commission for the investigation of sleeping-
sickness, and in 1904 proceeded to Malta to carry on further
investigations into Malta fever, returning to Uganda in 1908.
In every case a great advance in the study of tropical medicine
was the result. From 1911 to 1914 he was in Nyasaland, investi-
gating the possible connexion between human -and cattle dis-
eases, and in 1914 became commandant of the Royal Army
Medical College, holding the post till 1918. Bruce, who was
knighted in 1908, was created K.C.B. in 1918 and retired in 1919.
He published many papers on tropical diseases.
BRUCE, SIR GAINSFORD (1834-1912), English judge, was
born in 1834. He graduated at Glasgow University and was
called to the bar in 1859. He joined the northern and afterwards
the north-eastern circuit, and during 1869-1882 reported Admi-
ralty and ecclesiastical cases for the Law Reports. His strength lay
in Admiralty law, and he made several contributions to its
literature, notably an edition of Williams and Bruce's Admiralty
Practice, and the 4th edition of Maude and Pollock on Shipping.
He was recorder of Bradford during 1877-92, and successively
solicitor-general (1879) and attorney-general (1886) to the
county palatine of Durham. A Conservative in politics, he
represented Holborn in Parliament from 1888 till he was raised
to the bench in 1898. He was made a privy councillor on his
retirement in 1904. He died at Bromley, Kent, Feb. 24 1912.
BRUGES, Belgium (see 4.678). Pop. 53,595 in 1914. In
1914, 685 vessels of 316,000 tons entered the port, and just prior
to the World War the improvement of transport between the
town and Zeebrugge promised to restore its former prosperity.
The Hotel de Louis de Gruthuuse (who was given the title of
Count of Winchester by Edward IV.) was converted into a
museum of antiquities about 1890.
Up to Oct. 10 1914, Bruges was the headquarters of the
British force that was first ' sent to Belgium after the out-
break of the World War. The town remained some 20 m.
behind the German front at Dixmude and was at first of little
military importance, but with the growth of submarine warfare
and the abandonment of Ostend as a naval base, it became
important as a place for the assembling of parts of submarines
brought overland from Germany. Capt. Fryatt, of the steam
packet " Brussels," was shot in the cavalry barracks of the rue
Longue on July 27 1916. The town remained in the hands of
the Germans until Oct. 19 1918.
BRUNNER, HENRY (1840-1915), German historian (see
4.685), published in 1909 Geschichle der englischen Rechtsquellen
im Grundriss. In 1913 he issued a sixth edition of Grundzuge d-r
deutschen Rechtsgeschichte. He died in 1915.
BRUNNER, SIR JOHN TOMLINSON, IST BART. (1842-1919),
British chemist, was born at Everton near Liverpool Feb. 8
1842, the son of a schoolmaster of Swiss nationality. Edu-
cated in his father's school he entered a Liverpool merchant's
office in 1857, and in 1873 established, with the distinguished
chemist Ludwig Mond (see 18.693), the alkali works at North -
wich which became the largest in the world. He was a member
of several royal commissions, represented Northwich in Parlia-
ment during 1885-6 and again from 1887 to 1909, was created
a baronet in 1895 and a privy councillor in 1906. His public
benefactions, especially to Northwich and Runcorn, were numer-
ous, and he also gave largely to Liverpool University. He died
at Chertsey July i 1919.
BRUNTON, SIR THOMAS LAUDER, BART. (1844-1916),
British physician, was born at Hiltonshill, Roxburgh, March
14 1844. He was educated at Edinburgh, where he grad-
uated M.B. in 1866 and M.D. in 1868, also studying for
short periods at Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna and Paris. In 1870 he
was appointed assistant physician to St. Bartholomew's hospital,
with which he was connected for the rest of his life, both as
physician and lecturer. One of his most noteworthy discoveries
was the introduction of nitrate of amyl for the relief of angina
pectoris (1867). In 1886 he was a member of the commission
which investigated the Pasteur discoveries, and in 1889 went to
Hyderabad on the invitation of the Nizam to conduct experi-
ments on the results of the administration of chloroform. He
was knighted in 1900 and created a baronet in 1908. Lauder
Brunton published various valuable works, including A Text-
Book of Pharmacology, Materia Medica and Therapeutics (1892);
Lectures on the Action of Medicines (1897) and Therapeutics of
the Circulation (1908). He died in London Sept. 16 1916.
BRUSSELS, Belgium (see 4.692). The pop. of the city proper
in 1920 was 156,924, showing a decrease since 1910 of 39,645,
due to the expropriation and demolition of houses for public
improvements. The total pop. of Greater Brussels (comprising
ten suburbs and including the recently annexed suburb of
Laeken) was 831,396 on Jan. i 1920. The most populous sub-
urbs at the same date were Schaerbeek 108,590, Ixelles 91,956,
Molenbeek, 77,708, St. Gilles 69,716, Laeken 43,729, Forest
32,926.
The various areas composing the city having certain interests in
common, notably the maintenance of police and charitable services,
a Conference des bourgmestres, on which 15 communes were repre-
sented, was instituted in 1909, but subsequently the unification of
areas was resisted by the greater number of the larger com-
munes. A law of April 2 1921, however, initiated by the burgo-
,master, Adolphe Max, decreed the annexation to Brussels proper
of the communes of Laeken, Haeren, and Neder Overheembeek,
as well as part of Molenbeek, and a small part of Schaerbeek,
in order to facilitate the construction of the proposed new outer port
which the authorities wished to bring entirely within area of the
city proper. As a result, the area of the city proper has more than
tripled; it covers 3,286 hectares 94 ares instead of 1,071 hectares 95
ares, and includes an additional pop, of about 4,000.
During 1910-21 Brussels underwent considerable transforma-
tion. The old harbour basins were filled in in 1910; the Isabelle quarter
of the city, situated between the rue Royalc and the Place Royale,
BRUSSILOV BRYAN
as well as the Putterie quarter near the university, were demolished
in order to make room for a new central station, which project,
however, seemed in 1920 unlikely to materialize, the Nord-Midi
junction being abandoned. Numerous banks 'were established in
the upper town in the rue Royale and Place Royale. In the
Schaerbeek area, new arterial roads were made and the Pare Josa-
phat was endowed with a fine sports ground. The palace of the
Count of Flanders became the Banque de Bruxelles, and, in Nov.
1918, the city acquired the palace of the Due d'Arenburg, and
gave it again its old name of Palais d'Egmont.
The harbour works planned in 1896 for making Brussels an in-
land seaport, including the widening of the canal and the construc-
tion of three large basins, the largest of which, the Vergote basin,
has 20,000 metres of quayage were completed in 1908. These
being found inadequate, the construction of a vast outer port in the
plain between Laeken and Vilrode was begun. As an outcome of
this undertaking, Laeken was brought within the city area.
The German occupation of the capital during the World
War extended from Aug. 1914 to Nov. 1918. General Sixt
von Armin's troops entered on Aug. 20, and on Sept. 2
Field-Marshal von der Goltz was appointed governor-general
of Belgium, but was succeeded by General von Bissing in
1915. Numerous social relief movements were instituted
outside of German intervention; among them the Comitg
National de Secours had its headquarters at Brussels, and with
the aid of Mr. Hoover's American committee organized the
feeding of the Belgian population. On the suppression of Allied
newspapers, a patriotic journal, La Libre Belgique, was secretly
printed in Brussels and widely circulated during the war, the
Germans being unable to discover the press from which it issued.
Among the many infamous executions, that of Philippe Baucq
and of Nurse Edith Cavell stand out. A revolt of German
soldiers against their officers broke out on Nov. 10 1918, and
a violent conflict occurred in the Place Roger opposite the Gare
du Nord. The Belgian army reoccupied Brussels on Nov. 18
1918, and the King and Queen reentered the city in state on
Nov. 22.
BRUSSILOV, ALEXEI (1856- ), Russian general, was born
in 1856. His military career began in the Caucasus. His cour-
age and capacities brought him to notice in the war with Tur-
key in 1877-8. The greater part of his military life was passed
at the cavalry school for officers in St. Petersburg, of which he
became director in 1900. Well acquainted with cavalry tech-
nique, of great erudition, he was very useful in this capacity.
In 1905 General Brussilov commanded the second guard cavalry
division, in 1909 an army corps, and somewhat later he was
assistant to the commander-in -chief of the Warsaw military
district. At the beginning of the World War he was nominated
commander of the Russian VIII. Army, which acted with
brilliant success in Galicia in 1914 and 1915. General Brussilov's
reputation grew steadily, and in the winter of 1915-6 he was
called to the command of the armies of the south-western front.
During the summer of this year he conducted the great offensive
in Galicia, which resulted in the capture of over 450,000 prisoners^
with enormous booty and trophies, and the relief of the Italian
army by the withdrawal of considerable enemy forces thence to
meet the crisis of Lutsk. In May 1917 after the revolution he
was appointed to the supreme command, but he did not hold the
appointment long. Later, he accepted the Bolshevik regime,
and was often, though erroneously, reported to be in supreme
command of the Bolshevik armies during the wars of 1919-20.
BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS (1860- ), American political
leader (see 4.697), announced that he was not a candidate for the
Democratic presidential nomination in 1912, but he attended
the Democratic convention, and it was largely owing to his
personal influence and his large popular following that the
nomination went to Woodrow Wilson. In 1913 he was appointed
by President Wilson Secretary of State, and from the start
devoted much attention to the negotiation of peace treaties
with foreign countries. He declared that America should wage
no war while he was Secretary. Soon after entering office he
went to California and urged, unsuccessfully, that the state
Legislature and the governor delay action on the proposed
Webb anti-alien land ownership bill, so displeasing to the
fapanese Government. In 1914 he supported the repeal of the
Panama Canal tolls bill, which excluded American coastwise
shipping from the payment of fees. After the outbreak of the
World War he was deeply interested in attempts to restore
peace. His attitude toward foreign war loans was clearly
expressed in an announcement from the Department of State
(Aug. 15 1914), that " There is no reason why loans should
not be made to the governments of neutral nations, but in the
judgment of this Government loans by American bankers to any
foreign nation which is at war is inconsistent with the true spirit
of neutrality." When, however, in Dec. of the same year,
Senator Hitchcock introduced a bill to lay an embargo on the
shipment of arms, the Secretary informed the British ambas-
sador that it had not been introduced " at the suggestion of the
administration"; and later, in 1915, in a letter " to the German
Americans " he declared that it would have been in violation of
the laws of neutrality to change international rules during war
by forbidding the exportation of arms. After the sinking of the
" Lusitania," in 1915, he signed the first strong note of protest
to Germany. Upon the receipt of the German reply, and while
the second note was being prepared, Dr. Dumba, the ambassador
of Austria-Hungary, called at the Department of State and asked
Secretary Bryan why the United States dealt more harshly with
Germany than with Great Britain. The Secretary replied that
Great Britain had only interfered with the commerce of the
United States while Germany had drowned its citizens. This
plain statement was ignorantly or wantonly misinterpreted by
some German official, and the report was widely spread that
Mr. Bryan had said that the note was for " home consumption,"
and not to be taken too seriously. There was, however, abso-
lutely no truth in this report, even Dr. Dumba denying it in a
dispatch to his Government. When the President wrote his
second " Lusitania " note, Secretary Bryan resigned, June 8
1915, saying in his letter of resignation: " You have prepared
for transmission to the German Government a note in which I
cannot join without violating what I deem to be an obligation
to my country."
During his term of office he had negotiated 30 treaties with
foreign nations, requiring the submission of disputes to impartial
inquiry and a delay of a full year for arbitration before going to
war. Such a treaty had not been concluded with Germany, but
was under consideration when interrupted by the World War.
As Secretary he was often criticised because of numerous paid
engagements on the lecture platform, undertaken, he said, to
supplement his inadequate salary; but it was never shown that
he was less attentive to the demands of his office than any prede-
cessor. He continued, after his resignation, to work in the
interests of peace; opposed the Anglo-French war loan; attacked
the Navy League and the National Security League; and tried
to resist the growing demand for preparedness in America. In
1916 he was defeated in Nebraska as candidate for delegate-at-
large to the Democratic National Convention. He went, how-
ever, as a reporter and gave full support for the renomina-
tion and later the reelection of President Wilson. From the
announcement by Germany of the resumption of submarine
warfare to the actual declaration of war, he favoured any
measure that would keep America out of war no matter how
largely it involved the surrender of American rights on the sea.
But when war was declared he asked to be enrolled as a private,
though then 57 years of age; urged loyal support of the Presi-
dent's war measures; and in his own paper, The Commoner,
strongly condemned obstruction of the selective draft as well
as abuse of liberty of speech. He supported the League of
Nations but thought that the Monroe Doctrine should be
specifically recognized. He desired a constitutional amendment
changing the two-thirds vote required in the Senate for making
a treaty, so that the country could get out of war as easily as it
got in. In 1920 he attended as a reporter for his paper both the
Republican and the Democratic National Conventions and
worked in vain for a dry plank in their platforms. The same
year he was tendered the presidential nomination of the Pro-
hibition party but declined. He was disappointed with the
nomination of James M. Cox as Democratic candidate, but
514
BRYANT- -BUCHAN, JOHN
declared that he would not leave the party. For the most
important " progressive " measures adopted by the United
States in recent years, the popular election of senators, an
income tax, the requirement of publication of ownership and
circulation by newspapers, the creation of a Department of
Labor, national prohibition and woman suffrage, Bryan la-
boured earnestly, and their adoption was due in part at least
to his popular persistent appeal.
BRYANT, SOPHIE (1850- ), British educationist, was
born in Dublin Feb. 15 1850, the daughter of the Rev. W. A.
Willock. She was educated privately, but later gained a schol-
arship to Bedford College, London, where she graduated with
honours in mathematics and moral science (1881). At the age
of 19 she married Dr. William Hicks Bryant, of Plymouth, but
on his death a year later resumed her work, and in 1884 took
the degree of D.Sc. in moral science, being the first woman to
take that degree. In 1875 she became mathematical mistress
at the North London Collegiate school for girls, and in 1895
succeeded Miss Buss as its headmistress. Dr. Bryant served
on the royal commission on secondary education (1894), and
was a member of various educational committees. She retired
from her post at the North London Collegiate school in 1918.
She published, besides many articles on scientific and educational
subjects, Educational Ends (1887); The Teaching of Morality in the
Family and the School (1897) and How to Read the Bible in the Twen-
tieth Century (1918) ; besides Celtic Ireland (1889), and The Genius of
the Gael (1913).
BRYCE, JAMES BRYCE, IST VISCOUNT (1838- ), British
jurist, historian, politician and diplomatist (see 4.699), remained
in the United States as British ambassador till 1913, a period
of six years. The appointment, criticised at the time as with-
drawing from the regular diplomatic corps one of its most
coveted posts, proved a great success. The United States had
been in the habit of sending, as minister or ambassador to the
Court of St. James's, one of its leading citizens a statesman,
a man of letters, or a lawyer whose name and reputation were
already well known in Great Britain. For the first time Great
Britain responded in kind. Mr. Bryce, already favourably
regarded in America as the author of a classical work on the
American Commonwealth, made himself thoroughly at home
in the country; and, after the fashion of American ministers or
ambassadors in England, he took up with eagerness and suc-
cess the r61e of public orator on matters outside party politics,
so far as his diplomatic duties permitted. These duties he per-
formed to the satisfaction of his own Government and the Gov-
ernment to which he was accredited. The difficulty between
America and Newfoundland about fisheries was referred to the
Hague Tribunal for final settlement. Most of the questions with
which he had to deal related to the relations between the United
States and Canada, and in this connexion he paid several visits
to Canada to confer with the governor-general and his ministers.
He was criticised, both in England and in Canada, for for-
warding, in 1911, in the course of his duties as ambassador,
an arrangement for reciprocity between the two North Ameri-
can states; but' the general election, which substituted Sir R.
Borden as Prime Minister of Canada for Sir W. Laurier, put an
end to the negotiations. At the close of his embassy he told
the Canadians that probably three-fourths of the business of
the British embassy at Washington was Canadian, and of the
ii or 12 treaties he had signed nine had been treaties relating to
the affairs of Canada. " By those nine treaties," he said, " we
have, I hope, dealt with all the questions that are likely to arise
between the United States and Canada questions relating to
boundary; questions relating to the disposal and the use of
boundary waters; questions relating to the fisheries in the
international waters where the two countries adjoin one another;
questions relating to the interests which we have in sealing in
the Behring Sea, and many other matters." He could boast that
he left the relations between the United States and Canada on
an excellent footing.
For his services he was created a viscount in 1913, and in
1914 his old university, Oxford, gave him an honorary degree.
Along with other English scholars, who had ties of close associa-
tion with German learning and German savants, he was extreme-
ly reluctant in the last days of July 1914 to contemplate the
possibility of war with Germany; but the violation of Belgian
neutrality and the outrages committed in Belgium by German
troops brought him speedily into line with national feeling.
He was appointed chairman of a strong committee to consider
the evidence of such outrages not only in Belgium but in France;
and his report convinced the most incredulous of the reality of
the charges. He welcomed warmly the entrance of the Ameri-
cans into the war in the spring of 1917. He also presided, as an
eminent constitutional lawyer, over a committee set up in that
year to consider the reconstruction of the House of Lords, and
spent much labour in a task which all parties were disposed to
shirk. During these latter years he was largely engaged on the
composition of a valuable book, published in two substantial
volumes, in 1921, on Modern Democracies, a comparative study
of a certain number of popular governments in their actual
working. For this monumental work he had been gathering
material for several years before the war. Besides visiting
Switzerland and other parts of Europe, he availed himself of
his experiences in the United States and in Canada, and jour-
neyed to Spanish America, Australia and New Zealand. Lord
Bryce married, in 1880, Elizabeth Marion, daughter of Thomas.
Ashton, of Hyde, and sister of the ist Lord Ashton of Hyde.
He was appointed O.M. in 1907 and G.C.V.O. in 1918.
BUCCLEUCH, WILLIAM HENRY WALTER MONTAGU-
DOUGLAS-SCOTT, 6xH DUKE OF (1831-1914), British politician
(see 4.712), died at Montagu House, Whitehall, Nov. 5 1914.
He married in 1859 Lady Louisa Hamilton, daughter of the
ist Duke of Abercorn, and one of the seven sisters depicted
by Disraeli in Lothair. She was an intimate friend of the
royal family, and was mistress of the robes to Queen Victoria and
Queen Alexandra. She died at Dalkeith March 17 1912.
BUCHAN, ALEXANDER (1829-1907), British meteorologist,
was born at Kinneswood, Kinross, April 11 1829. He was
educated at the Free Church normal school and the university
of Edinburgh. From 1848 to 1860 he worked as a teacher, but in
1860 was appointed secretary to the Scottish Meteorological
Society, and in 1869 published his first series of monthly charts
showing the mean distribution of atmospheric pressure over
the globe, which remained for many years a landmark in the
progress of meteorology. In 1878 he became curator of the
library of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1887 a mem-
ber of the meteorological council of the Royal Society. He
published a Handy Book of Meteorology (1867); Introductory
Textbook of Meteorology (1871); besides a report on The
Weather and Health of London (with Sir Arthur Mitchell), and
edited sections on Oceanic Circulation (1895) and the volume
on Atmospheric Circulation (1889) in the voyage of H.M.S.
" Challenger." He received the Makdougall-Brisbane prize
(1876) and the Gunning Victoria Jubilee prize (1893) of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, besides the Symons medal of the
Royal Meteorological Society, and was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society in 1898. He died at Edinburgh May 13 1907.
BUCHAN, JOHN (1875- ), British author, was born at
Perth Aug. 26 1875, the son of the Rev. John Buchan. He
was educated at Glasgow University and Brasenose College, Ox-
ford, where he won the Stanhope historical essay prize (1897)
and the Newdigate prize for poetry (1898), and graduating
first class in literae humaniores (1899). In 1901 he became
private secretary to Lord Milner, then High Commissioner
for South Africa, and remained with him till 1903. In 1906
he joined the Edinburgh publishing firm of Thomas Nelson
& Sons. Even as an undergraduate he had " commenced
author" with Sir Quixote (1895), and he followed this with
other tales and novels. His African experiences suggested The
African Colony (1903), A Lodge in the Wilderness (1906), and
Prester John (1910). During the World War he served with the
headquarters staff of the British army in France (1916-7), at-
taining the rank of colonel, and later was Director of Informa-
tion under the Prime Minister (1917-8), and his History of
BUCKLE BUENOS AIRES
the War (Nelson) was an admirable piece of work. He wrote
too some excellent tales of adventure, notably The Thirty-Nine
Steps (1915) and Greenmantle (1916). Later works include The
South African Forces in France (1920), and a biography of
Francis and Riversdale Grenfell (1920).
BUCKLE, GEORGE EARLE (1854- ), English editor and
man of letters, was born at Tiverton-on-Avon, Som., June 10
1854 , eldest son of Canon George Buckle of Wells. He was
educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, being a
scholar of his college, and graduated first class both in literae
humaniores (1876) and in modern history (1877). He won the
Newdigate prize poem in 1875. In 1877 he was elected to a fel-
lowship at All Souls College, which he held until 1885. In 1880
he joined the staff of The Times; four years later, at the age of
thirty, he succeeded Thomas Chenery as its editor. This posi-
tion he occupied for nearly thirty years, retiring in Aug. 1912.
When Mr. Monypenny, the biographer originally entrusted
with the official Life of Disraeli, died in 1912 leaving his task
unfinished, Mr. Buckle took over the work of completing it;
under his authorship vol. 3 was published in 1914, vol. 4 in 1916,
and the concluding vols. 5 and 6 in 1920.
BUCKMASTER, STANLEY OWEN BUCKMASTER, isx BARON
(1861- ), English lawyer and politician, was born at Wands-
worth Jan. 9 1861. He was educated at Christ Church,
Oxford, and in 1884 was called to the bar, becoming a K.C.
in 1902. He entered politics as a Liberal, and in 1906 was
elected M.P. for Cambridge. In 1910 he lost his seat, but in
1911 was elected for the Keighley division of Yorks., and the
same year became counsel to Oxford University. In 1913 he
was made solicitor-general and knighted. He was from Sept.
1914 to May 1915 director of the Press Bureau. In the latter
year he was Lord Chancellor, being raised to the peerage, but was
displaced on the fall of the Asquith Government in 1916.
BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR (1823-1914), American soldier
and political leader (see 4.732), died in Munfordville, Ky., Jan.
8 1914. He was the last surviving major-general of the Con-
federacy and the then oldest living graduate of West Point.
BUCKNILL, SIR THOMAS TOWNSEND (1845-1915), English
judge, was born at Exminster April 18 1845, the son of Sir
John Charles Bucknill (1817-1897), a famous mental specialist.
He was educated at Westminster school, and afterwards at
Geneva. He was called to the bar in 1868, became a Q.C. in
1885, and a bencher of the Inner Temple in 1891. From 1885
to 1899 he was recorder of Exeter. He sat as Conservative
member for Mid-Surrey from 1892 to 1899, in which year he
was raised to the bench and knighted. He died at Epsom
Oct. 4 1915.
BUDAPEST (see 4.734). In 1910 the civil pop. of Budapest
was 863,735, showing an increase of 20-55% i n the decade.
To this must be added a garrison of 16,636 men, making a
total pop. of 880,371. Of the total pop. 756,070 were Magyars,
78,882 Germans, 20,359 Slovaks and the small remainder was
composed of Poles, Ruthenians, Serbs, Croatians, Rumanians
and others. According to religion there were 526,175 Roman
Catholics, 9,428 Greek Catholics, 6,962 Greek Orthodox, 86,990
were Protestants of the Helvetic and 43,562 of the Augsburg
Confessions, 203,687 were Jews and the remainder belonged to
various other creeds. During the World War the extraordinary
increase in the population of Budapest diminished, the census
Jan. i 1921 showing a pop. of -1,184,616.
In the years immediately preceding the war there were over
6,000 students at the university, and from 4,000 to 5,000 at the
Polytechnic Institute. A new faculty of political economy was
founded at the university in 1919, and the Geological and
Meteorological Institutes are also of recent foundation.'
The new Tisher rampart in Romanesque-rGothic transition
style, with a bronze statue of St. Stephen, rises round the
Matthias church. At the N. extremity of the fortress is the
Gothic building of the National Archives, unfinished in 1921.
The development of Budapest came to a standstill during
the war, and the lack of housing accommodation caused great
distress among the increased population. The city suffered
severely during the Bolshevist ascendancy, and many robberies
were committed by the Rumanian troops who occupied it in
disregard of the decisions of the other Allied Powers (see
HUNGARY). Fortunately, the English, American and Italian
missions prevented the sacking of the museums and art galleries.
See Eugen Cholnoky, " The Geographical Position of Budapest,"
Bulletin of the Hungarian Geographical Society, 1914-20, abridged.
BUDGE, SIR ERNEST ALFRED WALLIS (1857- ), English
archaeologist, was born in Cornwall July 27 1857 and educat-
ed at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he became Assyrian
scholar and Tyrwhitt Hebrew scholar. In 1885 he became
keeper of the Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities in the
British Museum, and he conducted excavations at Assuan, at
Gebel Barkal on the island of Meroe (the site of the capital
of ancient Ethiopia), at Nineveh and Der in Mesopotamia
(1888-9) an d in the Sudan, when the ancient monuments on
the banks of the Nile were threatened with inundation by the
raising of the Assuan dam. His long list of publications includes
The Gods of Egypt (1903); The Egyptian Sudan (1907); The
Nile (1910; I2th ed. 1912); Literature of the Ancient Egyptians
(1914); By Nile and Tigris (1920), and very many others.
He was knighted in 1920.
BUENOS AIRES (see 4.752) continued to be in 1921 the
largest city in Latin America, the largest city in the world south
of the equator and the fourth city in the two Americas, being
exceeded only by New York, Chicago and Philadelphia in the
order named. In total shipping, Buenos Aires ranks as the
second port in the two Americas, coming directly after New
York. The pop. in 1920 was 1,676,041, an increase of 486,379
or 38 %, since 1909, when Buenos Aires had 1,189,662 inhabi-
tants, and an increase since 1914 of 184,062, or 12 %. It will be
seen that the relative growth for the period 1914-20 was not
so great as previously. This is partly accounted for by the fact
that between 1914 and 1918 there was a balance against Argen-
tina in migration of 213,000 people; however, this movement
turned the other way in 1919, and in 1920 the balance resulted
in favour of Argentina by 39,800. A large proportion of immi-
grants remain in Buenos Aires, in spite of the efforts of the
Argentine Government to distribute them. In 1919, only 6,675
building permits were granted, as against 19,538 in 1910.
The celebration of the Argentine Centenary in 1910 in Buenos
Aires drew many visitors not only from all Argentina, but also from
abroad. In 1913 new diagonal avenues were begun, the plan being
to change the rectangular pattern which had been followed since the
colonial period by cutting diagonal avenues through the city on the
model of Washington and Paris. The two chief new ones were to
radiate from the corners of the central Plaza de Mayo, formerly the
chief central square of the city. In 1921 only about five blocks of
each of these avenues had been completed, the World War putting
a stop to the extensive expenditures upon the project, which in-
volved the widening of alternate streets coming from the river and
the demolition of many of the older parts of the city. The parkway
lying between the city proper and the Rio de la Plata was greatly
improved during the IQ years 1910-20, much land was reclaimed
from the river, and a new post-office and custom-house were erected
on this parkway, adding greatly to its beauty. The centenary gifts of
various nations to Argentina now adorn important parts of Buenos
Aires. Among them may be especially mentioned the handsome
clock tower erected by the British colony at a cost of 50,000, which
stands opposite the new railway station opened in 1916 (the largest
railway station in South America), the statue of George Washington
in Palermo Park erected by the U.S. colony, and other statues from
the French, Syrian and other foreign communities. The statue
erected by the Spanish colony in Palermo Park is particularly
beautiful.
The Congress building was finished in 1912 and the park in front
of it, the Plaza del Congreso, covering three city blocks, was opened
for the centenary celebrations in 1910, over $500,000 having been
spent.
Buenos Aires transacts approximately 80% of the entire foreign
trade of the republic. It continues to be preeminently the banking,
as well as the industrial, centre of the country. The first branch of a
U.S. national bank ever established abroad was opened in Buenos
Aires Nov. 10 1914, by the National City Bank of New York.
Since then two other U.S. banking institutions have opened
branches there. The number of U.S. business houses in Buenos
Aires increased from 10 in 1910 to 80 in 1920, while the British and
French firms and those representing other Allied countries also be-
came more numerous. The war was very injurious to German
i
BUFFALO BULGARIA
enterprises in Buenos Aires, many of them practically going out of
business.
Other improvements in the decade 1910-20 were the erection
of a number of thoroughly modern hotels and of a greatly improved
immigration station; the opening of 80 new parks and plazas; the
construction of several new school buildings; the extension and
enlargement of the medical faculty of the university of Buenos Aires ;
and the erection of the large building which houses its faculty of
commerce. Improvements in sanitation and sewerage have also
been effected and a new subway was installed in 1912 by a German
firm. Several large modern office buildings have been put up since
1916, chiefly with English capital, and new department stores, almost
wholly operated with English capital. (C. L. C.)
BUFFALO (see 4.754). The population in 1920 was
506,775, an increase of 83,060 or 19.6% for the decade, as
compared with 71,328 and 20.2% for the preceding decade.
The death-rate of Buffalo in 1920 was 12.08, the average from
1900 to 1920, 15.18. In 1914 a new commission charter was
adopted which did away with the bicameral city council and
mayor formerly in existence. The first commission government
took office Jan. i 1916.
The citizens choose by direct non-partisan nomination and election
a mayor and four councilmen. These constitute the sole legislative
body and are also the chief executive heads. The mayor is ex
officio the head of the departments of fire, police and health, which
comprise the Department of Public Safety. The four other depart-
ments are Finance and Accounts, Public Works, Parks and Public
Buildings, and Public Affairs. A councilman is appointed as head of
each of these departments. The principal subordinate officials are
nominated by the mayor and appointed by the council. The mayor
has a vote in the council, but no veto power. All ordinances and
appropriations for purposes outside ordinary city expenses may be
referred to vote of the people on petition of 5 % of the citizens who
voted at the last regular election for mayor.
The schools are under a board of education appointed by the
mayor and council, but subject mainly to state laws. The city
court, consisting of a chief judge and seven associate judges, is also
under state law. A technical and four other high schools were
built between 1902 and 1920. The sum of $8,000,000 was appro-
priated for new grammar schools in 1919. The university of Buffalo
was given an endowment fund of $5,200,000, raised by popular
subscription, in 1920. In 1909 it acquired a site of 106 ac. in the
northern part of the city, to which 44 ac. were added in 1919. Cani-
sius College (Jesuit) also, in 1920, raised by popular subscription an
endowment fund of $1,000,000. D'Youville College for women
(Roman Catholic) was opened in 1908. Among important new
structures may be mentioned: Marine Trust Co., Erie County
Savings Bank, New York Telephone, Electric, Iroquois and
Y.M.C.A. buildings. The new city hospital was under process
of development in 1921. The city also maintained the J. N. Adam
memorial hospital for tuberculous patients at Perrysburg, N.Y.
The new Erie canal, rebuilt by the state as a barge canal at a cost
of $150,000,000, was opened for traffic in 1919. It provides water
transportation to the seaboard for barges up to 2,000 tons' capacity
and drawing not more than 12 ft. of water, adding greatly to the
city's commercial facilities. The city completed in 1915 a new pump-
ing station and tunnel 6,500 ft. long, by which water is brought
from Lake Erie. The capacity of the plant is 150,000,000 gal.
each 24 hours.
The city's greatest growth in recent years has been in manu-
factures. It has very diversified industries, producing 58 % of all
the different lines of goods recognized by the United States Census
Bureau. Among the chief manufactures are: iron and steel prod-
ucts, meat products, soap, cars, flour, lumber, linseed oil, clothing,
automobiles, etc.
The grain elevators in Buffalo harbour had in 1920 a capacity of
28,500,000 bushels. The receipts of grain by lake boat in 1920 were
108,825,000 bushels. Receipts of flour approximate 5,000,000 bar.
yearly. More than 20,000 carloads of live stock are handled yearly
in the stock-yards at East Buffalo. Other important articles of
commerce are: iron ore, in which Buffalo stands second in receipts
among the lake ports; coal, flax-seed, manufactured iron and steel
and lumber.
Buffalo furnished over 10,000 volunteers and selected service
men to the U.S. army in the World War. The greater
number of these served in the 77th and 78th divisions and had
an active part in the Argonne and other battles. In addition,
the 74th Infantry, N.G.S.N.Y., became the io8th Infantry in
the United States service; the Third Field Artillery, N.G.S.N.Y.,
became the io6th Field Artillery; Troop I, N.G.S.N.Y., became
the i02nd Trench Mortar Battery, and Base Hospital No. 23
was recruited in Buffalo. The io8th regiment, forming a part
of the 27th division, participated in the breaking of the Hin-
denburg line near Le Cateau, France, Sept. 29-Oct. i 1918.
The io6th Field Artillery and io2nd Trench Mortar Battery
were in the battle of the Argonne. Nearly 4,000 Buffalo men
served in the navy and about 1,000 in the U.S. marine corps.
There were also over 600 Buffalo men who volunteered for the
Polish army. The Buffalo men who died in the war num-
bered 966.
Recent important books on the history of the city are History of
Buffalo (1911) by J. N. Larned, and An Old Frontier of France
(1917) by F. H. Severance. (M. M. W.)
BULGARIA (5664.772). Political History 1908-12. The
condition of Macedonia and Thrace, which since the Treaty
of Berlin in 1878 had been a constant source of anxiety and
difficulties for Bulgaria, became even worse under the regime
of the Young Turks. The Serbs, whose hopes of reunion with
their own kin and of an outlet on the Adriatic had been de-
stroyed by the annexation of Bosnia and the Herzegovina by
Austria-Hungary in 1908, began to seek expansion in Mace-
donia towards the Aegean. Rival bands of Serbs, Greeks,
Bulgars, Wallachs, Albanians and Turks now carried on the
propaganda of their respective nationalities in Macedonia by
force of arms, and the life of the peasant became unbearable.
The perpetual menace of war with Turkey and, latterly, the
strained relations with Greece and Serbia, entailed on Bulgaria
a military expenditure which in 1909 was proportionately higher
than that of any other European state. Bulgaria was obliged,
moreover, to support thousands of destitute refugees who had
escaped over her frontier from Turkish territory; current con-
sular reports stated that the Bulgarian population of Mace-
donia had diminished to a quarter of what it had been 15 yeare
earlier. There was again a fear that the Young Turks meant to
exterminate the Bulgars of Thrace and Macedonia altogether,
and the Macedonians living in Sofia, many of whom were men
of ability and influence, were continually urging the Govern-
ment to take energetic steps with regard to Macedonia.
The Balkan Alliance. In March 1911, the Malinov Cabinet fell
and Gueshov, head of the Nationalist party, became president of the
council. Balkan statesmen were slow to realize that it was to their
common interest to put an end to the troubles in Macedonia, and
that this could be done only by joint action. In the winter of
19101, negotiations in this direction were begun at Athens
between Bulgaria and Greece, the first negotiations taking the form
of private conversations between J. D. Bourchier, principal Times
correspondent in the Balkans, and Venizelos. Eventually, Venizelos
entrusted Bourchier with the transmission to King Ferdinand of a
definite proposal which was known only to King George, Venizelos
and Bourchier; the greatest secrecy was observed throughout, even
after the matter had been put on a diplomatic footing. In June
1911, the Grand Sobranye empowered the Government to make
secret treaties without submitting them to the Sobranye. In May
1912, a treaty of defensive alliance between Bulgaria and Greece
was signed, but this treaty was kept entirely secret for the next two
months. Meanwhile, negotiations had also taken place between
Bulgaria and Serbia, and in Oct. 1911, the Serbian premier,
Milovanovitch, and Gueshov came to a general agreement as to
terms of an alliance. The negotiations with Serbia proved difficult
throughout. The Bulgars were in favour of autonomy for Macedonia ;
the Serbs, in favour of dividing the country into three zones, an
uncontested Serbian zone, an uncontested Bulgarian zone and a
contested zone, the fate of which should be left to the arbitration
of the Tsar of Russia. After much discussion in which both sides
showed an uncompromising spirit, a treaty of friendship and alliance,
with a secret annex, was signed in Sofia on March 13 1912. By this
treaty Serbia recognized " the right of Bulgaria to the terri-
tory E. of the Rhodope Mountains and the river Struma " ; while
Bulgaria recognized " a similar right of Serbia to the territory N.
and W. of the Shar Mountains "; if autonomy for the rest of Mace-
donia was found to be impossible, the two states bound themselves
to accept an agreed line running southwestwards from Golem
Mountain to Ochrida Lake, should the Tsar of Russia pronounce in
favour of this line. Russia was kept informed of the negotiations;
the Tsar's Government, while it welcomed the rapprochement be-
tween the three Orthodox states, discouraged active measures, but
events in Turkey tended to force the hands of the allies. In June
1912, the Young Turk Government fell; a serious Albanian rising
led to the concession of a measure of autonomy to the Albanians;
there was a bomb outrage at Kochen, followed by a massacre of
Bulgars by Turks; Bulgaria considered herself menaced by proposed
Turkish military manoeuvres near Adrianople. The Great POWITS,
which had by the autumn become aware of the Balkan alliance,
made efforts to prevent the outbreak of war, which culminated in a
proposal from Austria-Hungary that the Powers should guarantee
BULGARIA
the autonomy of Macedonia. Unfortunately, the offer came many
years too late. On Sept. 30, the Balkan allies ordered the mobili-
zation of their armies, and on Oct. 8 Montenegro, with which coun-
try no formal agreement had been made, declared war on Turkey.
On Oct. 13, the allied Balkan Powers sent a virtual ultimatum to
the Porte; on Oct. 17, Turkey declared war on Serbia and Bul-
garia, and on Oct. 18 Greece declared war on Turkey.
First Balkan War 1912-3. The war with Turkey was popular
throughout the country, for the people of Bulgaria, though they
are often represented as self-centred and materialistic, had felt
the sorrows of their kinsfolk in Macedonia as their own, and were
prepared for any sacrifices in order to set them free. The campaign
in Thrace brought out once more the admirable qualities of the
Bulgarian soldier, his power of endurance, his courage and his
obedience to discipline, but the success of the campaign was in
reality less complete and satisfactory than it appeared to be in press
accounts. The Bulgars, it is true, forced the Turkish army back in
disorder, after severe fighting near Kirk-Kilisse and Lule-Burgas,
to the strong defensive position of the Chatalja lines; but, owing to
lack ot heavy artillery, they failed to capture Adrianople and proved
unable to force the Chatalja lines and so to advance on Constanti-
nople. For all its supplies, the army was dependent on ox transport ;
nearly every cart and draught animal in Bulgaria had been re-
quisitioned. The rough tracks by which supplies had to travel had
been rendered almost impassable by rains, and it was fully ten days'
trek from the railhead at Yambol to Lule-Burgas; there was heavy
mortality among the draught animals. The enforced pauses, whilst
the army was waiting for supplies to come up, twice gave the Turks
time to withdraw and finally permitted them to reorganize their
forces at Chatalja. The campaign had revealed great shortcomings
in the medical and supply services, and the Bulgars suffered only a
degree less cruelly than the Turks themselves from shortage of
food and absence of sanitary and medical care. The assaults on
Chatalja, which cost the Bulgars some 10,000 casualties, were
undertaken contrary to the advice of Fichev, chief of staff, and
were inspired by Ferdinand, whose ambition it was to take Con-
stantinople regardless of the cost. Fichev, who had realized that
the troops were too much exhausted after the five weeks' fighting
in Thrace to follow up their success to complete victory, was com-
pelled by the King to ask for sick leave and was succeeded by
Nerezov.
On Dec. 4 an armistice between Turkey, Bulgaria and Serbia was
signed. At this moment the position was everywhere favourable
to the allies. The Greeks, who did not sign the armistice, had oc-
cupied most of southern Macedonia and held Salonika. The Serbs,
after heavy fighting at Kumanovo and Prilep, had taken Monastir,
and the Turkish army had retreated into Albania. The Turkish
fortresses of Scutari, Yanina and Adrianople still held out, but
their garrisons were suffering from shortage of supplies. The sig-
natories of the armistice met in London to arrange terms of peace.
The Bulgarian demands, which included the vilayet of Adrianople
and the port of Rodosto on the Sea of Marmora, seemed likely to be
accepted by the Turks, but a coup d'etat in Constantinople brought
the Young Turk party back to power, and as the Young Turks
seemed as determined to hold Adrianople as the Bulgars were
to obtain it, the conference was broken up. On Feb. 3 1913,
hostilities again began. Yanina surrendered early in March, the
Serbs and Bulgars entered Adrianople almost simultaneously on
March 25, and Scutari fell a month later. After the surrender of
Adrianople, the Turks sought the mediation of the Powers, and
after another conference in London, the delegates were, on May
30 1913, induced to sign a treaty, the terms of which had been
drafted by the Powers. Turkey surrendered to the allies all her
possessions in Europe up to a line drawn from Enos on the Aegean
to Midia on the Black Sea, Midia being about 63 m. from Con-
stantinople. Albania was granted independence. The Bulgarian
casualties in the war were officially given as 93,000 while the Serbian
and Greek official figures of their respective casualties were given as
31,000 and 29,000.
Rupture of Balkan Alliance. The discussions at the conferences
in London had shown that considerable friction existed between the
allies. Apart from the antagonism of national character and the
mutual distrust and dislike, which events in Macedonia during the
. last few years had accentuated, the difficulties which now presented
themselves arose from the interpretation of the treaties of alliance.
The military successes of the allies had been unexpectedly complete,
and had thus created a situation which had not been foreseen in the
treaties of alliance. The Serbs claimed that as new conditions had
arisen, the treaties should be revised as a whole, and the arbitration
of the Tsar should be sought for all matters in dispute. The Bulgars
characteristically held out for the letter of the agreement as regards
territorial arrangements, and they were, moreover, unwilling to
submit even the contested zone to the arbitration of the Tsar, as
they doubted his impartiality. By Article 2 of the secret annex
to the treaty between Bulgaria and Serbia (March 13 1912), it
had been agreed that " all territorial gains acquired by combined
action . . . shall constitute the common property (condominium)
of the two allies," and the lines of partition, to be effected within a
period of three months after restoration of peace, were then laid
down. Serbia, however, as a result of her victories in Macedonia,
hold much of the territory which had been assigned by the treaty
to Bulgaria; whereas Bulgaria held Adrianople and all Thrace, a
situation which had not been provided for in the treaty. Moreover,
Greece occupied Salonika (where a Bulgarian detachment had been
left for political reasons) and many districts of southern Macedonia
in which Bulgars formed a majority of the population. It was
impossible for Bulgaria to give up her claim to Macedonia, where the
bulk of the inhabitants were of Bulgarian nationality, as it had been
for their sake that she had made immense sacrifices; on the other
hand, since Serbia was now cut off from the Adriatic by the creation
of an Albanian state, Serbia was naturally anxious to have access
to Salonika, without having to pass through Bulgarian territory
before reaching the Greek frontier. Controversy also arose as to the
fulfilment of the terms of the military convention of June 1912, in
which it had been agreed that Bulgaria and Serbia should each,
" if no other special arrangement be made," send at least 100,000
men to the Vardar theatre of war. Serbia asserted that Bulgaria
had sent only 32 ,000 men to the Vardar theatre, whereas Serbia had
voluntarily sent 50,000 men to Adrianople to help the Bulgars, and
she claimed that, without the Serbian heavy artillery, that fortress
could not have been taken. It must, however, be remembered
that the Thracian campaign had proved the longest, the most
difficult and the most costly of the allied operations, and that the
taking of Adrianople was essential to the allied cause as a whole.
The Serbs, again, attributed the prolongation of the campaign to
the intransigeance of the Bulgarian delegates in London. It was
evident that there was never mutual confidence between the allies,
and that personal contact between the respective armies had often
given rise to friction rather than good-will. Bulgarian suspicion of
Serbian designs was intensified by an official circular written by
Pashich in the autumn of 1912, in which he spoke of Prilep and
Ochrida as belonging to Old Serbia, although both these places
were within the zone allotted to Bulgaria. In Jan. and March
1913, meetings took place between Prince Alexander of Serbia and
Prince Nicholas of Greece, and Bulgaria had reason to suspect that
some agreement was made as to combined action against herself.
The occupation by Serbia and Greece of regions of Macedonia which
had not been actually allocated by treaty to either Power seemed to
Bulgaria to be assuming a permanent character. The murder of
King George of Greece in March 1913 meant the removal of a factor
which made for peace and moderation, whereas in Bulgaria, the
military party, with whom King Ferdinand was in full sympathy,
had, by the early spring, gained ascendancy over the policy of the
country. In April a Cabinet council was held at Adrianople when,
according to Gen. Savov, it was decided to retain in Thrace
only such armed forces as were absolutely necessary for defence, and
to transfer the rest of the army as quickly as possible against the
Greeks and Serbs in Macedonia. There were good reasons for haste,
for the military authorities, with the King at their head, were
now convinced that war was inevitable, and, moreover, they were
aware that the troops were becoming increasingly anxious to return
to their homes. The concentration of troops on the Macedonian
frontier was gradually effected during June. The Serbs, on their
part, had not failed to make corresponding preparations on the other
side of the frontier. On June I Gueshov and Pashich, both of them
men of moderate and prudent views, met in the hope of coming
to an agreement ; on the same day a treaty was signed at Salonika
between Serbia and Greece. During the month of June the Tsar of
Russia put all possible pressure on Serbia and Bulgaria, both directly
and through his diplomatic representatives, Hartwig at Belgrade
and Nekludov at Sofia, to prevent the outbreak of hostilities, but
Ferdinand's replies to the Tsar's proffered mediation showed an
increasing arrogance. On May 30 Gueshov, finding that his policy
of caution and moderation was not supported by the King, resigned :
his place was taken by Danev, a politician who stood well with the
military party and who had shown marked intractability as delegate
to the London conference. On June 19 a speech by Tisza in the
Hungarian Parliament indicated that Austria-Hungary considered
that the Balkan states should be free to choose their own method of
settling their differences.
Second Balkan War. On June 29 the Bulgarian Fourth Army,
acting on orders signed by Gen. Savov, made the treacherous
attack on their Serb and Greek allies which alienated from Bulgaria
the sympathy and respect of Europe, and proved the first step
towards her downfall. The manner of the attack was unjustifiable,
but it must be remembered that the attack was not unexpected,
and that it probably forestalled a declaration of war on Bulgaria by
Serbia and Greece. The treaty of June I between Serbia and Greece,
the concreted entrenchments at Oyche Polye, the secret orders given
by the Serbian commander-in-chief, Gen. Putnik, ten days before
the attack and King Peter's proclamation, issued to the troops on
July I, must count as evidence that the Serbs were fully alive to the
situation. On July I Savov forbade further hostilities; he himself
was recalled a few days later. It has been officially stated that the
reports of the ministerial council contain no minute ordering the
opening of hostilities against the Greeks and Serbs June 29 1913,
and Danev denied in the press that his Government had ever con-
templated such orders. A judicial inquiry into the causes of the
second Balkan War was opened in Sofia, but was never concluded.
Savov asserted that the King himself, as commander-in-chief,
BULGARIA
gave the order to attack. The war which was so rashly and un-
justifiably started by the Bulgars ended in disaster for them.
They were driven back on their own frontier by the Serbs and Greeks
and on July 10 the Rumanians, who had given previous warning
of their intentions, crossed the Danube and advanced unopposed on
Sofia. A few days later the Turks retook Adrianople and invaded
Bulgaria. Danev resigned and a Stambulovist Cabinet was formed,
with Radoslavov as prime minister. Bulgaria was thus closed in by
four enemies at once and had no choice but to submit unconditionally
to the Rumanian terms. On July 30 an armistice was signed at
Bucharest. The failure of Bulgarian arms in the second Balkan War
was due to several causes. The moral of the troops had suffered
owing to the prolongation of the campaign in Thrace and discontent
had been rife; the troops were exhausted by their forced march in
hot weather from Thrace to Macedonia immediately before hos-
tilities, while many had no inclination to fight against their late
allies and brother Slavs. The war was the work of politicians rather
than of soldiers. Ferdinand and his entourage had underestimated
the strength of the Serbian and Greek forces, and they had imagined
that if once both these armies could be driven out of territory which
had been assigned to Bulgaria by Article 2 of the secret annex to the
Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty of 1912, the Powers would acquiesce in a
Bulgarian occupation of that part of Macedonia, and also of Sa-
lonika. The civil population of southern Macedonia suffered cruelly
during the second Balkan War ; atrocities were committed both by
Greeks and Bulgars.
Treaty of Bucharest. This treaty, which was signed on
Aug. 10 1913 after a fortnight's conference, deprived Bulgaria
of almost all her territorial gains of the first Balkan War and
also of any immediate prospect of the reunion into one state of
all Bulgarian-speaking people. Rumania acquired from Bul-
garia that portion of the Dobruja which had been Bulgarian
since 1878, from Tutrakan on the Danube to Balchik on the
Black Sea. The inhabitants of this region were almost exclu-
sively Bulgarian and it comprised some of the best cereal-growing
land which had been held by the Bulgars. Serbia and Greece
divided Macedonia between them, with the exception of the
mountainous region of the Perin and Despoto Dagh. Bulgaria
thus retained one outlet on the Aegean, in the shallow-water
port of Dede Aghach; her so-called harbour at Porto Lagos
consisted only of a short length of quay and a score of buildings.
Turkey regained Adrianople and most of Thrace. The Balkan
Wars of 1912 and 1913 thus resulted in an increase of territory
for Serbia and Montenegro by four-fifths and for Bulgaria by
one-fifth, while Greece almost doubled her territory. Serbia
and Montenegro increased their respective populations by
three-sevenths, Bulgaria by one-twentieth and Greece by two-
thirds. The total casualties of the two wars were in inverse
ratio to the gains of the three states concerned, viz.: Bulgaria,
150,000; Serbia, 79,500, and Greece, 50,000. The terms of the
Treaty of Bucharest King Charles of Rumania himself said of
it: " It is not a treaty, it is only a truce and it cannot last "
were punitive rather than pacific in tendency, and the attempts
of Russia, and possibly of Austria-Hungary also, to secure some
modifications for Bulgaria were unsuccessful.
Radoslavov Government, 1913-4. On July 5 1913 the Radosla-
vov Cabinet, at the. critical moment when they assumed office,
addressed a letter to the King, which was probably inspired by
him, expressing their opinion that " the salvation of our State can
only be found in a policy of intimate friendship with Austria-
Hungary. That policy should be adopted at once and without
hesitation, because every hour is fateful. We invite you to act
immediately in order to save Bulgaria from further misfortunes and
the dynasty from further responsibility." This letter was signed by
Radoslavov, N. Ghenadiev and D. Tonchev. In the personnel of
thj Cabinet the King found ready tools for the pursuance of his
policy; several of the ministers, including Radoslavov and Ghena-
diev, had been prosecuted for corruption, peculation and illegal
practices during their previous tenure of office, and Radoslavov him-
self had been condemned to a term of imprisonment and loss of
civil rights. The elections of Dec. 1913 gave the Opposition a
majority of 14 seats in the Sobranye, although the Government had
resorted to the usual methods of controlling the elections. Owing
to the impossibility of forming a new Cabinet, the Sobranye was
dissolved. The suffrage was now extended to the territory which
had been ceded to Bulgaria by Turkey by the Treaty of Bucharest.
This measure was held by some to be unconstitutional, but the
efforts of the Government to conciliate the new Moslem voters and
the 150,000 refugees who had been settled in this region resulted in a
Government majority of ten in the new Sobranye. The Turkish
deputies, many of whom were members of the Committee of Union
and Progress, thus held a casting vote in the Sobranye. and, through
them, the Sublime Porte was able to exercise a direct influence
on the Bulgarian Government. It became imperative to raise a
foreign loan in order to meet the obligations of the country and for
certain necessary constructive work. Appeal was made to France,
England and Russia successively, but assistance was refused or else
only offered on conditions which it did not suit the Bulgarian
Government to accept. These conditions, however, can hardly
have been more unfavourable than those eventually accepted from
the German Disconto Gesellschaft which provided the loan of 500
million francs. By the terms of the loan the syndicate secured the
control of the state coal mines, of the projected railway which was to
connect central Bulgaria with Porto Lagos, and of that terminal
port itself. These terms met with angry opposition throughout the
country, for it was realized that Bulgaria was handing over some of
her chief economic assets to Germany. The syndicate further sought
to obtain the control of the export of tobacco, but, owing to strong
expression of public opinion, the Government was obliged to refuse
this demand. The consent of the Sobranye to the conditions of the
loan was only obtained after violent protests from the Opposition,
the uproar preventing the actual reading of the bill (June 1914).
Political Parties and Public Life. The old broad distinctions of
Russophil and Russophobe which had marked the two main political
camps in the time of Stambulov, gave place later to an increasing
number of subdivisions of parties, between whose respective pro-
grammes there was not always much apparent difference. Public
life in Bulgaria has hitherto left a good deal to be desired ; elections
have not been free and ministers have not always been above
reproach as regards incorruptibility, patriotism and efficiency, and
they have looked on themselves as personal employes of the King
rather than as servants of the nation. The King, who was always
well informed as to the private affairs of his entourage and who knew
their weak points, preferred ministers over whom he had a hold
of this description. The Sobranye often showed itself amenable to
the manipulation of ministers or of the King. In practice, a change of
government meant a change in the holders of most government
appointments. The King's control of the army was absolute;
according to the constitution he was commander-in-chief, and the
power of promotion and dismissal was in his hands. Each officer was
made to feel that the success of his career depended on royal favour.
There can be no doubt that Ferdinand used his undoubted talents
and power in such a way as to debase rather than to elevate the moral
standard of his country. The real life of Bulgaria, however, is not
to be found in the bureaucracy, but among the peasants who form
about 80% of the population. The peasants have no reason to like
politics or politicians and they prefer to hold aloof as much as pos-
sible from both. It must be remembered that, in spite of corruption
in high places, the standard of life among the peasants compares
favourably as regards industry, morality and freedom from crime
with that of any other European people.
Period of Neutrality (Aug. igiq-Oct. 15 15/5). At the out-
break of the World War in 1914 the great majority of Bulgars
wished to preserve neutrality; from force of circumstances,
however, Bulgaria was already more than half way towards the
Central Powers. The policy of the Radoslavov Cabinet, the
German loan, the establishment of friendly relations with Tur-
key, resentment against Russia for her non-intervention in
Aug. 1913, together with the deep sense of humiliation and
disappointment created by the Treaty of Bucharest, all com-
bined to indicate the direction in which Bulgarian sympathy
was likely to be drawn. Moreover, Macedonia, the fate of which
had been the dominant factor in the policy of Bulgaria during
the whole of her existence and the cause of her sacrifices in the
two Balkan Wars, was now in the hands of Serbia and Greece.
The Bulgarians naturally asked themselves which group of
Powers would be able to help them to realize their national ideal
and their material ambitions. It seemed to them unlikely that
the Powers which were ranged on the side of Serbia would be
willing to deprive their ally of the fruits of her victory in 1913
and to restore Macedonia to Bulgaria. The victory of the Entente
might mean Russia at Constantinople, the union of the Serb
peoples in one important state and the permanent loss of Mace-
donia. To the King, who held the direction of the policy of the
country absolutely in his hands, the victory of the Entente
might mean the loss of his throne and the end of his dynasty.
From an early date it was clear that Turkey would join the
Central Powers, while the attitude of Rumania and Greece was
uncertain. Owing to her geographical position Bulgaria would
evidently be unable to preserve her " benevolent neutrality "
for an indefinite time. Should she abandon it, it would be to
join the winning side, and there were many in Bulgaria, including
the King himself, who believed that Germany was invincible.
BULGARIA
It is not yet known at what precise moment Ferdinand secretly
promised his support to the Central Powers, but the Agrarian
leader, Stamboliiski, as early as Aug. 1914 accused the Govern-
ment of having bound itself to the Central Powers, and there
are certainly indications that the decision had been taken in the
early part of 1915. The Opposition press at the outbreak of
war appeared to be decidedly pro-Entente, though non-inter-
ventionist in tendency. Gueshov and Stamboliiski constantly
pressed for an agreement among the Balkan states themselves.
During the year in which Bulgaria maintained her neutrality,
the rival groups of Powers made considerable efforts to secure
her cooperation. It may be that Ferdinand had from an early
date committed himself to a line of policy, but among Bulgars
it is thought that, had the Entente encouraged the Opposition,
who represented the great majority of the people; had the men-
tality of the people been better understood; had the Entente
been definite in the proposals which from time to time were put
before Bulgaria; had these proposals been made at propitious
and not always at unpropitious moments; had the Entente been
skilful and vigorous in its propaganda, it might well have been
that the people would have imposed their will on the rulers whom
they hated and despised. But the Entente policy pursued no
certain course: the Entente Governments were slow to recognize
the importance of Bulgarian cooperation; they were unwilling
to pay the price which was asked for that cooperation ; they did
not realize the importance of the personal element in dealing
with the Bulgars and with the King. The best propaganda for
the Entente was the declaration that they were fighting for the
cause of small nations and for the principle of nationality, since
to the Bulgar this declaration meant protection for the Bulgarian
state and reunion with the Bulgars of Macedonia and Thrace.
The most propitious moment to secure the support of Bulgaria
would have been at the time of the Russian successes in the
Carpathians in 1915, as the old feeling for Russia had never died
out among the peasants. The chances of winning Bulgaria for
the Entente lessened after the failure to pass the Dardanelles
in March. German propaganda was skilfully handled; war news
came chiefly through German sources; Tarnowski, the Austro-
Hungarian minister at Sofia, either from personality or from force
of circumstances, apparently controlled the situation there.
The Entente proposals were hedged about with conditions;
at the^end of May 1915, they offered the Enos-Midia line and the
uncontested zone in Macedonia, provided that, at the end of the
war, Bosnia and the Herzegovina had been united to Serbia.
Early in June, Austria-Hungary promised to Bulgaria, as the
price of her neutrality, all Serbian Macedonia as well as the
territory claimed by Bulgaria and now occupied by Rumania
and Greece. On June 15 Bulgaria replied to the Entente
note, asking for more specific guarantees. During July personal
pressure was brought to bear at Sofia by special missions a
British mission composed of Mr. O'Beirne, Sir Valentine Chirol
and Mr. G. Fitzmaurice; a French mission, and, on behalf
of Germany, by Prince Hohenlohe while active negotiations
continued with Turkish delegates. On Aug. 3 the Entente
answered the Bulgarian note of June 15; the Entente offered
to Bulgaria, if she declared war on Turkey, the occupation of
half the non-contested zone at once, the fate of the rest of this
zone and of the contested zone to be decided at the peace; the
immediate occupation of Seres and the promise of Kavalla, if
Bulgaria would renounce all claims to Salonika, Kastoria and
Vodena; and the promise of the Enos-Midia line. As these terms
involved the retrocession of certain territories and places then
occupied by Serbia and Greece, the allied representatives in
Belgrade and Athens had the ungrateful task of trying to per-
suade Serbia and Greece to give up what they had won by force
of arms, as the price of Bulgaria's cooperation. Greece, inspired
by Germany, refused absolutely to consider any cession of
territory and Serbia, where the military party was at the time
dominant, was equally intransigeant.
On Aug. 19 Gen. Fichev, Minister of War, who was thought
to be averse to further military adventures, resigned, and was suc-
ceeded by Gen. Jekov, who had lately been acting as negotiator
with the Turks. The Opposition, becoming increasingly anxious,
in vain demanded that the Sobranye should meet. On Aug.
23 Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on Aug. 25
Venizelos returned to power. The moment had now come
when the Central Powers desired the entry of Bulgaria into
the war, and the Duke of Mecklenburg, who as special per-
sonal representative of the Kaiser and from his ability and
personality was known to have a strong influence on the King,
was sent from Germany to make the final arrangements. On
Sept. 6 a military convention and treaty between Bulgaria
and the Central Powers was signed at Pless. By this convention
Germany and Austria-Hungary each agreed to send six infan-
try divisions within a space of 30 days, and Bulgaria four in-
fantry divisions within 35 days, against the Serbs; F.-M. von
Mackensen was to be commander-in-chief of the combined
force. Turkey was, if so desired, to send troops to Dede Aghach
to prevent an enemy landing. Germany agreed to advance 200
million francs to Bulgaria for military expenses, and to provide
as much military material as she could spare. On Sept. 10
the existence of the treaty was admitted by Radoslavov, who
stated that Bulgaria was " coming in on the side of the vic-
tors." On Sept. 12 the Opposition issued a manifesto, signed
by many notable Bulgars, protesting against the policy of the
Government and urging all citizens to unite to prevent the fatal
step; the manifesto was, however, suppressed and the Opposition
then demanded an audience of the King. On Sept. 15 the Entente
made a final effort to induce Bulgaria to declare war on Turkey;
Macedonia was promised unconditionally and the allied troops
would occupy Macedonia for the time being, if Bulgaria so
desired, as a guarantee that it would eventually be handed over
to Bulgaria. On Sept. 17, at n P.M., the King received the
Opposition leaders in audience. Malinov warned the King
that if Bulgaria remained neutral, she might become the
battlefield between the Germans invading Serbia and the Allies
who would land at Salonika; and that, if she joined the Central
Powers, she would be fighting against three Balkan peoples and
four Great Powers and that it would mean the end of her national
existence. Stamboliiski it was the first time a representative of
the Agrarians had entered the palace put the views of his party
before the King with characteristic vigour and bntsquerie. The
Agrarians, he said, desired to preserve neutrality; they demanded
the convocation of the Sobranye and the formation of a national
Government. He rejected all appeal to sentiment, whether on
behalf of Russia or of Germany, and he warned the King that the
people were still suffering from the terrible effects of the debacle
of 1913 and that they had lost all confidence in their rulers,
including the King himself. He told the King that after the
Treaty of Bucharest, it was only the leaders of the Agrarians
who prevented a general movement against the authors of the
pogrom, among whom the King held the chief place, and that,
should the King repeat the criminal act of plunging his country
into war, the leaders would not check the revolt against him
but would themselves head it. Tsanov, the Radical leader, spoke
with equal emphasis and sincerity. An account of the audience
was published, but its circulation was forbidden, and Stamboli-
iski was condemned to imprisonment for life on a charge of
lese-majeste. On Sept. 22 the terms of the Turco-Bulgarian
agreement were published; the Bulgarian frontier was to
follow the Tunja valley as far as the suburbs of Adrianople, in-
cluding the railway station, and then to follow the left bank
of the Maritsa southwards at a distance of about 2 km., thus
safeguarding Bulgarian railway communication between Sofia
and Dede Aghach.
Mobilization was decreed on Sept. 22, the Greek army
being mobilized immediately afterwards. On Oct. 4, Savinski,
Russian minister at Sofia, informed the Bulgarian Government
that he had been instructed to leave the country if within
24 hours Bulgaria did not break with the enemies of the Slav
cause and forthwith send away the military officers of hostile
belligerent states. On Oct. 5 the Bulgarian Government replied
that the mobilization was a measure of internal importance only,
that the landing of Allied troops at Salonika did not tend to
520
BULGARIA
reassure Bulgaria as to the friendly intentions of the Entente,
and that it was impossible to send away the German officers, as,
with the exception of officially accredited military attaches,
there were no such officers serving with the Bulgarian army.
It is still maintained by the Bulgars that no German officers
arrived till after the departure of the Entente ministers. On
the receipt of this note the ministers representing the Entente
Powers asked for their passports and left Sofia for Dede Aghach.
On Oct. 12 Bulgaria declared war on Serbia; on Oct. 15 Great
Britain declared war on Bulgaria, while France and Italy de-
clared war on her on Oct. 16 and Oct. 17 respectively.
The World War 1915-6. The King's proclamation to his
people showed the same duplicity as had marked all his diplo-
matic dealings with the Entente. After enlarging on his efforts
to maintain neutrality, he said: " Both groups of belligerent
Powers acknowledge the great wrong inflicted on us by the
partitioning of Macedonia, and both belligerent parties are agreed
that the greater part of Macedonia should belong to Bulgaria.
Only our treacherous neighbour, Serbia, has remained obdurate
to the counsels of her friends and allies. Serbia not only refused
to listen to their advice, but, inspired by envy and cupidity,
even attacked our territory, and our brave troops have been
obliged to fight in defence of their own land. . . . Our Allies
the Serbs were then (in 1913) the chief cause of our losing
Macedonia. . . . The European War is drawing to a close. The
victorious armies of the Central Empires are in Serbia and are
rapidly advancing." Mobilization, as eye-witnesses have stated,
was not effected with the willingness which marked the mobiliza-
tion of 1912 there were even attempts at mutiny in some
centres though the presence in Sofia of the Macedonian divi-
sions to whom Serbian acts of oppression in Macedonia were a
burning personal wrong and not merely a pretext for war, served
to stimulate public enthusiasm. When once the country was
actually at war, the Opposition became silent, partly from force
majeure and partly from patriotic motives; all Bulgars realized
that the fate of their country was at stake. Malinov, to whom
the King made overtures, declined to take office in the Rados-
lavov Cabinet, and Stamboliiski, who was perhaps the only man
in the country who could have led a revolution, was already
in prison. Public meetings were forbidden and a strict censor-
ship of the press established. The Bulgarian campaign in Serbia
was, in spite of gallant opposition by the Serbs, completely suc-
cessful. By the end of the year the Serbian army had retreated
through Albania to the Adriatic and the Entente troops had
retired within the Greek frontier, which the Bulgars did not then
attempt to cross, although they themselves were confident that
they could have taken Salonika. But on the one hand the atti-
tude of Greece was still uncertain, and on the other it was to
the interest of Germany that Entente troops should remain at
Salonika and thus reduce the numbers available for the western
front. In June 1916 the Bulgarian army occupied Seres, Drama,
and Kavalla. The Sobranye had met in Dec. 1915, but, in
spite of the apparently complete success of the campaign, the
Radoslavov Government narrowly escaped defeat in the budget
debates in July 1916. Several of the Agrarian deputies who were
deemed compromised by their earlier negotiations with an
agent of the Entente were imprisoned, and the Government
secured the return of their own supporters in their place. On
Aug. 27 1916 Rumania declared war on Austria-Hungary
and, in spite of the efforts of Malinov and others to induce
the Government to remain neutral, Bulgaria declared war
on Rumania on Sept. i. This war was, however, more
popular than the campaign against Serbia, for the resent-
ment caused by the action of Rumania in July 1913 was specially
bitter. The Bulgarian troops were, nevertheless, unwilling to
cross the Danube, as they considered that their work was finished
when once the Dobruja was again in their possession; some
mutinies even took place. Though the Bulgarian forces here
were commanded by Gen. Tochev, F.-M. von Mackensen
actually directed the operations, and, almost immediately,
friction developed between the allies, resulting in Tochev's super-
session. The harvest of 1916 was not a good one; the whole
population was rationed for meat, bread, sugar, rice, soap and
salt, and considerable discontent arose when it was found that
large quantities of produce, especially of wheat and eggs, were
going to Germany. German officials took over the technical
control of the railways, especially the Macedonian, Dobruja
and Trans-Balkan lines, which were worked with great efficiency;
the railway employes remained Bulgarian. The Germans did not
otherwise interfere with the civil administration of the country,
while, on the military side, they restricted their active inter-
vention to the broader issues in the conduct of the campaign.
In addition to the larger formations which Germany contributed
to the Bulgarian fronts in accordance with the military conven-
tion, many German technical units reinforced the Bulgarian
army and were allotted to the more important sections of the
front: these included machine-gun, artillery, air force, wireless
and railway construction units, and hospital staffs. These units
were highly efficient, and, on the whole, the two personnels
worked amicably together. In Nov., Monastir was taken by
the allies.
1917. In March news of the revolution in Russia roused
once more the instinctive sympathy of the Bulgars for Russia.
No stenographic reports of the debates in the Sobranye have
been published, but it is known that the Opposition pressed
their view that Bulgaria, having gained Macedonia and the
Dobruja, should now retire from the war. A war credit of 350
million levas was, however, voted in March. It was by no means
certain that Bulgaria's allies would allow her to retain all her
gains: neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary was willing that
Bulgaria should remain in northern Dobruja, and Turkey opened
negotiations for the return of that portion of the Maritsa valley
which had been ceded to Bulgaria by the Turco-Bulgarian
agreement of 1915. During the summer secret negotiations were
carried on in Switzerland between agents of the Entente and
Bulgarian agents, but though Ferdinand may have been aware
of the negotiations, the Bulgarian representatives lacked the
authority and personality necessary for bringing matters to a
definite issue. In Oct. the Kaiser visited Sofia and attempted,
by the bestowal of decorations, to restore cordial relations with
Bulgaria, but it was a matter of common knowledge that the
personal relations between the Kaiser and the King were any-
thing but friendly.
igiB. The winter of 1917-8 brought a further shortage
of supplies and increased discontent and suffering. The Bulgarian
soldier had been accustomed to campaigns which, though they
entailed severe fighting and hardships, had only lasted a short
time: in the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885 fighting had lasted a
fortnight; in the first Balkan War, some six months; and in the
second Balkan War, a nominal 40 days. The Bulgarian women
had as a matter of course replaced the men in all agricultural
work, but the Bulgarian soldiers, most of them peasant pro-
prietors, were anxious to be at home for the harvest, and their
restlessness showed itself in an increased number of desertions.
Trench warfare was, moreover, peculiarly uncongenial to troops
who were accustomed to open warfare. In Jan., Germany
ceased to pay the annual subsidy of 50 million francs, which she
had given Bulgaria since she entered the war, and after March
she sent her no further supplies of munitions and equipment.
The publication of President Wilson's Fourteen Points (Jan.)
had great influence on feeling in Bulgaria. Relations had
never been broken off with the United States, and attempts were
made to induce the President to promise Macedonia to Bulgaria.
Articles in praise of the United States were allowed to appear in
the press, and the Bulgars, on their part, professed to be ready
to desist from the offensive which was then projected, and to
make a separate peace. In May, Rumania signed the Treaty of
Bucharest, by which the Dobruja was ceded to the Central
Powers in condominium, Bulgaria regaining what Rumania had
taken from her in 1913. In June the Radoslavov Cabinet, which
was despised and detested throughout the country, fell and the
King selected Malinov to form a new ministry. The change of
Government did not mean a definite change of policy, and Mali-
nov was reproached later for not insisting at once on a separate
BULGARIA
521
peace, as he fully realized that all was not going well. At home,
the new Cabinet endeavoured to improve the food condi-
tions and to put an end to the corruption and inefficiency
in the public service which had prevailed under Radosla-
vov. After the Austro-Hungarian defeat in Albania in July,
when it became necessary to extend the Bulgarian front still
further, the Bulgars pressed Germany to send the help which
from the first had been promised to them. Of the six German
divisions guaranteed by the military convention, only three had
actually materialized and when at last German troops, in re-
sponse to further urgent appeals, began to arrive in Bulgaria,
the Bulgarian line had already been broken, Serbs were at the
frontier and Allied troops were actually invading Bulgaria.
On Sept. 25 Malinov asked for an armistice and delegates
left at once for Salonika accompanied by the diplomatic
representative of the United States. On Sept. 30 the Armi-
stice was signed, the Bulgars accepting the Allied terms
unconditionally. Stamboliiski, who with other Agrarian depu-
ties had been in prison since 1915, was released on Sept. 25
and went immediately to the front where there was great
unrest among the troops. At one moment it seemed prob-
able that a revolution would take place and a republic
be proclaimed, and there was serious fighting outside Sofia
in which many lives were lost, the German troops being
employed to restore order. On Oct. 4 the King was informed
by his ministers that he had better abdicate; that same
night he left Sofia by train, having nominated his son Boris as
his successor. His departure was received with absolute indif-
ference by the people; there were no demonstrations either of
regret or joy. Radoslavov fled the country immediately after-
wards. On Nov. 28 Malinov resigned, as a protest against
the installation of Rumanian officials in the southern Dobruja
contrary to the terms of the Armistice. Todorov, who had
been Gueshov's second in command, succeeded in forming a
coalition Cabinet.
Treaty of Neuilly. On Nov. 27 1919 the Treaty of Peace
between the Allied and Associated Powers and Bulgaria was
signed at Neuilly-sur-Seine, Stamboliiski signing on behalf of
his country. The territorial provisions (Arts. 27-35) included
the cession to Rumania of the southern Dobruja; the cession to
Serbia of the Bulgarian towns of Tsaribrod and Strumitsa and
the renunciation (Art. 48) " in favour of the Principal Allied
and Associated Powers of all rights and title over the territories
in Thrace which belonged to the Bulgarian Monarchy, and which
being situated outside the new frontiers of Bulgaria . . . have
not at present been assigned to any State." The Powers under-
took " to ensure the economic outlets of Bulgaria to the Aegean
Sea."
At the conference of San Remo in April 1920, a small portion
of Eastern Thrace was assigned to Turkey and the remainder of
Thrace to Greece. Bulgaria was not represented at the confer-
ence, though some 400,000 Bulgarians were concerned in the
decisions as to Thrace; the Bulgarian delegate who had been sent
from Sofia in the hope that the Allies would allow him to put
the Bulgarian case before them was prevented by the French
authorities from crossing the Italian frontier until the session had
practically concluded.
The reparation (Arts. 121-146) payable to the Allies was
fixed at two and a quarter milliards of francs (gold) or 90,000,000
sterling, to be paid in half-yearly instalments within 37 years;
the cost of the armies of occupation and of various commissions
was also to be borne by Bulgaria. The Reparation Commission,
which began work in March 1921, could at their discretion reduce
or postpone particular payments and could assume full control
and management of the taxes and sources of revenue.
The military clauses (Arts. 64-104) provided for the disar-
mament of Bulgaria. The total numbers armed with rifles, includ-
ing military forces, gendarmes, frontier and forest guards and
police, were limited to a maximum of 33,000 men. The troops
were to be recruited on a voluntary basis and to be exclusively
employed for maintenance of order and frontier guard duties.
All officers were to be regulars, serving for 20 consecutive years;
other ranks were to serve for 12 years. Only one military train-
ing school and one State controlled munition factory were allowed.
The manufacture of tanks, armoured cars, poison gas and aero-
planes, the export and import of arms, instruction in the use of
arms in schools, clubs or organizations, arrangements for mobili-
zation, new fortifications were all prohibited. Only four torpedo
boats and six motor boats were permitted, all without torpedoes
and all manned by civilian crews. No artillery of calibre greater
than 4-1 inches was authorized. All surplus war material had
to be destroyed or surrendered within three months of the signing
of peace.
Recruiting for the forces as constituted by the treaty proved
very unsatisfactory, as but few Bulgars of a good stamp could
be induced to leave their homes for a long period of service.
In Aug. 1919, elections were held which resulted in the
following distribution of seats: Agrarians, 86; Communists, 47;
Social Democrats, 28; Nationalists, 19; Danevists, 8; Radicals, 8;
Radoslavists, 3. The Agrarians had been weakened by the
secession of Draghiev and his followers in 1915, and even with
the support of Gueshov and the Nationalists, were in a minority
in the Sobranye. Stamboliiski became prime minister. In
Feb. 1920, the Sobranye was dissolved; new elections gave
the Agrarians a majority of two, and in April, Stamboliiski
became premier of a Cabinet composed of his own supporters.
In the course of the year 1920 Bulgaria was admitted into the
League of Nations.
Finance and Trade. The following table shows the effect of the
wars on finance and trade ' :
Imports Exports
7,571,921 3,733.190
9,659,612 6,177,000
Year Revenue Expenditure
1913 5,765,344 4,73 2 - 8 32 2
1914 10,279,800 10,270,504
1921 84!628|8oo 3 95,759i232 3
The budget estimates for 1921-2 the financial year begins in
April thus showed a deficit of over 11,000,000. The consolidated
and non-consolidated debts, including the war indemnity, amounted
to 909,434,547, and, further, there was liability for military pen-
sions, which would, for the next few years, amount to 7 or 8 million
pounds annually. The outlook, according to the Finance Minister,
was not very satisfactory. The debt per head of the population
was 240 (as against 6 in 1912), and taxation had, in his opinion,
reached the highest possible limit, viz. 500-540 levas per head. The
townspeople had suffered much more than the peasants both
during and after the war; according to the director of statistics, the
annual bread budget for a family of five was 17 times higher in
1920 than in 1900; the meat budget was 28 times higher; and
clothing showed a very large increase in price. During the World
War, the savings banks had, owing to high prices for agricultural
produce, shown a steady increase of deposits, but in 1919, with-
drawals exceeded deposits by 800,000; and in 1920, by about 300,-
ooo. In 1920, although Bulgaria comprised 25 % more land fit for
cultivation than in 1911, cultivation had decreased by 20% as com-
pared with 1911, and her production of cereals was smaller than in
1911. On the other hand, owing to the greatly increased selling
price of tobacco it had risen from I to 2-50 francs per kilo before
the World War to 36 francs per kilo in 1919 the area cultivated in
tobacco was more than double in 1920 what it had been in 1911 ;
also the 1920 potato crop was double what it was in 1911. The
attar of rose industry, which in Europe is almost peculiar to Bul-
garia, naturally suffered during the wars, and only 15,000 ac. are
now under rose cultivation; it is estimated that, although the de-
mand for rose essence is now increasing, several years must pass be-
fore the industry is fully reestablished and equipped with modern
machinery.
Bulgaria's international trade had always been primarily with
Austria-Hungary and Germany owing partly to the fact that the
Danube has hitherto constituted her chief means of communication
and partly to the fact that these countries made a more careful
study of Bulgarian markets than seemed worth the while of more
distant countries. For the first six months of 1920-1, imports,
which reached 68,000,000, nearly doubled exports in value. After
the treaty, Bulgaria's unfavourable rate of exchange tended to direct
her commerce yet more towards Central Europe.
Communications. Better means of communication and capital
are needed to develop the natural resources of the country forests,
mines and water power. Railway construction practically ceased
with the outbreak of the first Balkan War in 1912, but the Trans-
Balkan Trnovo-Stara Zagora line was completed since that date,
"All conversions are made at the pre-war rate of 25 levas to the
; in 1915. 32-35 levas went to the ; in April 1921, about 345-350.
2 Excluding war expenditure. 'Budget estimates.
522
BULLARD BULOW, PRINCE VON
and proved of great importance during the World War for the
transport of war material from the Central Powers to Turkey.
In 1912, Bulgaria owned about 1,200 m. of normal gauge railway;
in 1920 about 1, 600 m.. including some 250 m. of 2 ft. gauge which
had been laid for military purposes. The following are among the
railways projected and partly constructed :
1. Rakovska-Mastanli, part of the line planned in 1913 to
connect central Bulgaria with Porto Lagos on the Aegean. Length,
about 60 m. ; gauge 30 in.
2. Sarambe-Lyana-Nevrokop, passing through the pine forests
of the Upper Myesta. Length, about 1 10 m. ; gauge, 30 in.
3. Mezdra-Vratsa-Vidin, begun in 1906 and now in operation
as far as Alexandrovo, 25 m. from Vidin.
Some 500 m. of link lines and some short lengths of railway for
the exploitation of forests are also projected, but work is held up for
lack of funds. A law of 1921 sanctioned the construction of railways
not only by local bodies but by individuals, and special privileges
were offered in the hope of attracting private enterprise. In 1921,
Bulgaria owned some 9,900 m. of telegraph line, and some 2 700 m.
of telephone line. There were four fixed radio telegraphic stations:
Sofia (Telefunken 10 kilowatts) Varna (Marconi). Shumen and
Kyustendil, Kyustendil being not yet completed: according to the
terms of the treaty, these stations may only be used for commercial
purposes.
Social Conditions. The programme of the Agrarian Government
under the leadership of Stamboliiski was framed primarily in the
interests of the peasants in contradistinction to those of the bour-
geoisie. Some of the measures already in operation or contemplated
in 1921 evoked much hostile criticism on the part of the Opposition,
but though they involved some radical changes there seemed no
probability of an outbreak of Bolshevism in Bulgaria. Stamboliiski
had no wish to change the constitution, and King Boris had won
the respect and affection of the people. The peasants were too much
attached to their own homes and to their own way of life to desire
great changes, provided they were spared further wars and were
given a fair chance of peace and prosperity.
The Bulgars have always put a high value on education, and
statistics show a steady increase in the number of those able to
read and write; in 1910, Bulgaria ranked first in this respect among
Balkan peoples, having 33-7% of literates, and in 191920, only
17% of the children of school age had failed to attend school:
but the type of education so far provided had led to the overstocking
of the clerical professions and to the neglect of technical occupations.
The educational programme of the Agrarian Government aimed at
giving a more practical bent to instruction generally and at affording
equal opportunities to all classes of the community. The total period
of compulsory education was to be extended from four to seven years ;
a large number of additional primary schools had already been
opened and many pro-gymnasia were to be established, as well as
professional schools, where a training could be obtained in agricul-
ture, industries and practical science. Great results, both material
and moral, were expected from the law of May 1920 which imposed
a period of forced labour on all members of the community. This
law, as originally drafted, provided for one year's service for all
males on completion of their 2Oth year and six months for females on
completion of their l6th year, the time being devoted half to the-
oretical training and half to manual labour on works of public utility.
Bulgaria's neighbours, however, suspected that a military organiza-
tion of the country might be effected by means of this compulsory
service and, in deference to the Council of Ambassadors, the law
had not been fully put in force in the spring of 1921. All classes of
the community now give ten days' service annually to the State,
and the results of the reconstruction work undertaken bridge
building, road making, repairs to buildings, forestry, etc. seem
satisfactory. Much, of course, depends on the technical supervision
provided and on the practical organization of the work. School
children, numbering 600,000, and students devoted in March-April
1921 a week to manual labour cleansing buildings and streets,
preparing gardens, planting trees, etc.
Other legislative measures taken include up to May 1921 ex-
propriation of Crown and Church lands as well as of private prop-
erties of over 300 decares (say 75 ac.), the expropriated land being
allotted to landless peasants; the commandeering of private houses
for public purposes or for the accommodation of necessitous families ;
and proceedings by court-martial under Article 4 of the Law for
Prosecution of War Criminals, against persons accused of being
parties to the entry of Bulgaria into the World War and of con-
travention of laws during the war. The prosecutions resulted in
long terms of imprisonment and heavy fines, and were naturally
regarded by those affected who belonged to the bourgeois class, as
vindictive and arbitrary acts of oppression. The Sobranye assented
in March 1921 to the prosecution of Radoslavov and his Cabinet
for violation of the constitution, notably by raising a loan in Germany
with the object of directing the policy of Bulgaria towards the Cen-
tral Powers and by declaring war on Serbia in 1916 without the con-
sent of the Sobranye.
Bibliography. H. N. Brailsford, Macedonia, its Races and their
Future (1905); Victor Benard, La Macedoine, Pro Macedonia (1897,
1904); Sir E. Pears, Turkey and its People (1911); P. Howell, Cam-
paign in Thrace (1913) ; W. Miller, The Ottoman Empire 1801-1913
(1913) ; Noel Buxton, With the Bulgarian Staff (1913) ; Sir R. Rankin,
Inner History of the Balkan War (1914) ; J. G. Schurman, Balkan
Wars 1912-1913 (1914) ; Lt.-Col. Immanuel, La Guerre des Balkans
de 1912-13 (1913); Anonymous, "Questions militaires," " Bul-
gares contre Serbes," Revue Bleue (1913-4); A. de Penennrun,
La Guerre des Balkans, la campagne en Thrace en 1912 (1913), 40
Jours de Guerre (1914); H. Barby, Bregalnitsa (1913); Boucabcille,
La Guerre Turco-Balkanique (1913) : Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, Report of the International Commission to
enquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan War (Washington,
1914); R. W. Seton- Watson, Rise of Nationality in the Balkans
(1917); A Diplomatist. Nationalism and War in the Near East
(1915): L. Gueshov. The Balkan League (1915); Nekludov, Diplo-
matic Reminiscences. 1911-1917 (1920); Balkanicus, Aspirations
of Bulgaria (1915), Diplomaticheski Dokumenti po namecata na
Bulgaria v evropeiskata voina, vol. i, 1913-1915 (1920); M. Dunan,
L'ete bulgare, 1915 (1917); Noel Buxton and C. L. Leese, Balkan
Problems and European Peace (1919); Leland Buxton. Black Sheep
of the Balkans (1920): G. Clenton Logio. Bulgaria. Problems and
Politics (1919): Bulgaria. "Nations of To-day" Series (1921);
Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and
Bulgaria and Protocol (London 1920) : Leon Lamouche. La Ques-
tion Macedonienne et la paix; le traite de paix avec la Bulgarie (1919) :
J. Cvijich. Remarks on the Ethnography of the Macedonian Slavs
(1906); M. Bogichevich, Causes of the War, with special reference
to Serbia and Russia (1920) ; Publications Plumon, La Bulgarie, la
vie technique et industrielle (1921); M. Turlakov, Expose sur la
situation financiere de la Bulgarie (1921); J. D. Bourchier, The
Final Settlement in the Balkans (1917) ; The Four Treaties of Bucharest
(1918); Echo de Bulgarie (Sofia, 1920-1). (E. F. B. G.)
BULLARD, ROBERT LEE (1861- ), American soldier,
was born at Youngsboro, Ala., Jan. 15 1861. He graduated from
West Point in 1885 and was appointed first lieutenant in 1892.
He served in various capacities in the Spanish-American War,
and in the Philippines from 1902 to 1904. He was made
lieutenant-colonel in 1906. In 1907 he was special investigator
for the U.S. provisional Government in Cuba, and the following
year was superintendent of public instruction there. In 1911
he was promoted colonel, and in 1917 brigadier-general. He
commanded the Second Brigade of the ist Division of the A.E.F.
in France in 1917 and was made major-general N.A. From the
middle of Dec. 1917 to the middle of July following he com-
manded the ist Division and from Oct. 1918 to the follow-
ing July the Second Army. In Nov. 1918 he was appointed
major-general in the regular army.
BULLEN, ARTHUR HENRY (1857-1920), British man of
letters, was born in London Feb. 9 1857 and educated at the City
of London school and Balliol College, Oxford. He was the
son of George Bullen, sometime keeper of the Printed Books at
the British Museum. In earlier life he was a schoolmaster, but
subsequently devoted himself to literary work. He became known
as an authority on Elizabethan literature, and particularly for
his discoveries of long-lost lyrics in the Bodleian and Christ
Church libraries at Oxford, and his rediscovery of Campion in
1889 after nearly 300 years of neglect (see 5.138). For several
years he was a partner in the publishing house of Lawrence &
Bullen, and after its dissolution founded the Shakespeare
Head press at Stratford-on-Avon in 1904, which he conducted
until his death, but which was afterwards sold to B. H. Black-
well of Oxford. He died at Stratford-on-Avon Feb. 29 1920.
BULLEN, FRANK THOMAS (1857-1915), British novelist,
was born in London April 5 1857 and was educated for a
few years only at a dame school and Westbourne school,
Paddington. When he was nine years old his school life came to
an end, and he was employed as an errand boy for a time. In
1869 he went to sea, serving before the mast, and travelled to all
parts of the world in various capacities including that of chief
mate. In 1883 he gave up this seafaring life and became a clerk
in the Meteorological Office until 1889. His reputation was made
over the publication of The Cruise of the "Cachelot" (1906);
and he also wrote, amongst other books, Idylls of the Sea (1899);
Sea Wrack (1903); The Call of the Deep (1907) and A Compleat
Sea Cook (1912), besides many articles and essays. He died
at Madeira March i 1915.
BULOW, BERNHARD HEINRICH KARL MARTIN, PRINCE
VON (see 4.793). Prince Biilow, after his resignation of the
German chancellorship in 1909, lived principally at the villa in
Rome which he had purchased with a view to his retirement.
BULOW, KARL VON BURBIDGE
523
Part of the summer he usually spent at Flottbeck near Hamburg
or on the island of Norderney. A large fortune left him by a
cousin, a Hamburg merchant, enabled him to live in elegant
leisure and to make his house in Rome a centre of literary and
political society. He employed his leisure in writing for the
centenary celebrations of the Wars of Liberation, a remarkable
book on Imperial Germany, extolling its achievements and de-
fending the main lines of his own foreign policy (Engl. trans-
lation, M. Lavenz, 1914). In a revised edition (Engl. trans-
lation 1916) he omitted or altered many passages which seemed
compromising in the light of the World War, e.g. his exposition
of his policy of lulling Great Britain into a sense of security,
while the great German navy was being constructed. He was
understood to be in deep disfavour with William II., who never
forgave him his attitude and action with regard to the Daily
Telegraph interview in 1908.
On the outbreak of war Bttlow found opportunity to identify
himself publicly with the German cause, and, from his own
point of view, he doubtless felt what, after Germany's collapse,
was made a ground of bitter reproach to him, that no one had
been more actively identified than he with the main lines of the
German policy which led up to the war.
He was once more to be employed in the service of his country,
this time on a desperate enterprise. Italy, which had declared
her neutrality at the outbreak of the war, did not eventually
confine herself to the declaration that the casus focderis had not
arisen for her as a member of the Triple Alliance. She had already
intimated (July 5 1914) through diplomatic channels that she
considered the action of Austria-Hungary against Serbia to be
aggressive and provocative. On Dec. 9 1914 Baron Sonnino
addressed a note to the Austro-Hungarian Minister for For-
eign Affairs, Count Berchtold, calling attention to Art. VII.
of the treaty by which Italy participated in the Triple
Alliance, with particular reference to the words in that clause
according to which the Austro-Hungarian Government was
bound, in the event of its disturbing the status quo in the
Balkans even by a temporary occupation of Serbian ter-
ritory, to come to an agreement with Italy and to arrange
for compensations. By this note the questions of the Tren-
tino and Trieste were formally opened. Austria-Hungary mani-
fested .great reluctance to enter upon the question of com-
pensations, but Berlin was more alert and more anxiously
concerned. Prince Biilow was, therefore, entrusted with the
temporary charge of the German embassy in Rome, the actual
ambassador, Herr von Flotow, going on sick-leave (Dec. 19
1914). He at once plunged into active negotiations, and be-
gan by expressing his entire sympathy on principle with
the Italian demand for compensations. He had, however, to
fight the intransigeance of the Hungarian prime minister, Tisza,
and Tisza's nominee, who was Berchtold's successor, Baron
Burian. Biilow was from the first for the complete cession of the
Trentino to Italy, but Austria-Hungary was willing to cede only
part of it. Sonnino, for his part, pointed out that Italian feeling
would not be satisfied even with the whole of the Trentino, but
would also, in accordance with the irredentist programme,
demand Trieste. Biilow continued to urge that all he could
mediate for was the Trentino but that Austria would fight to
keep Trieste. Early in April 1915 Italy put forward in the course
of the negotiations, which were secret, her demands for the
Trentino, Trieste, the Cuzolari Is., off the Dalmatian coast,
the recognition by Austria-Hungary of Italian sovereignty
over Vallona, etc. The negotiations dragged on till the middle
of May, when Biilow made a grave but characteristic tactical
mistake. He is understood to have induced the Italian ex-
premier Giolitti to come' to Rome from Turin in the hope that
Giolitti's following in the Chamber would be powerful enough
to prevent a rupture and to bring about the acceptance of the
Austro-Hungarian terms. An equally characteristic propaganda
was believed to have been instituted by Biilow, in conjunction
with the Austro-Hungarian ambassador Macchio, among the
partisans of Giolitti behind the back of the Italian Government.
The prime minister, Salandra, suddenly resigned. There was a
great outburst of popular indignation, fanned by the impassioned
eloquence of d'Annunzio and finding expression in demonstra-
tions in front of the Quirinal (the royal palace) and on the Capi-
tol, the municipal centre of Rome. After a great majority in the
Italian Parliament had on May 20 expressed confidence in
Salandra, general mobilization was ordered on May 22, and the
formal declaration of war against Austria-Hungary followed
on May 23 1915. On May 24 Biilow left Rome.
During the war he lived in Berlin, and although since the
peace he has again resided in Rome for part of every year, he
spends many months in Germany. His name was mentioned in a
ministerial crisis of 1921 as a possible chancellor, but he was
entirely inacceptable to the vast majority of the German people
and of the Reichstag. (G. S.)
BULOW, KARL VON (1846-1921), German field-marshal,
was born in Berlin March 24 1846 and joined the 2nd Guards
regiment of infantry in 1864. He gained distinction at Konig-
gratz in the war of 1866, served through the Franco-Prussian
War of 1870, winning the Iron Cross (2nd class), and, after holding
various staff appointments, became colonel of the 4th Guards
regiment in 1894. Three years later he was promoted major-
general and was transferred to the War Office. In 1900 he was
promoted lieutenant-general and in 1901 was general command-
ing the Guards division. In 1912 he attained the rank of general-
oberst and was entrusted with 'the III. Army Inspection. He
was thus marked out for high command, and on the outbreak
of the World War he was placed in charge of the II. Army, which
invaded Belgium. He occupied Liege (Aug. 7) and advanced to
the Marne. He commanded the I. and VII. Armies during the
retreat and at the battles of the Aisne, thus incurring responsi-
bility in the eyes of the public for the failure to take Paris. In
Jan. 1915 he was promoted field-marshal and in June 1916 was,
by his own wish, placed on the retired list. He died in Berlin
Aug. 31 1921.
BUNTING, SIR PERCY WILLIAM (1836-1911), British
journalist, was born at Manchester Feb. i 1836 and was
educated at Owen's College, Manchester, and Pembroke Col-
lege, Cambridge. In 1859 he was classed as 2ist wrangler,
and three years later was called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn. In 1882 he became editor of the Contemporary Review,
and henceforth devoted himself to journalism, becoming also
editor of the Methodist Times from 1902 to 1907 in succession
to Hugh Price Hughes In 1908 he was knighted. Throughout
his life he was an active supporter of Wesleyan Methodism, being
the grandson of Jabez Bunting, a distinguished Wesleyan
divine (see 4.802). He died in London July 22 1911.
BURBIDGE, SIR RICHARD, isx BART. (1847-1917), English
merchant, was born in Wiltshire March 2 1847. He was
educated at Devizes and Melksham and at the age of 13 was
apprenticed to a provision merchant in Oxford St., London,
afterwards starting in business as a provision merchant at the
age of 19. Fourteen years later he became general superintendent
of the Army and Navy Auxiliary Stores. In i882he wasappointed
general manager of Whiteley's, Westbourne Grove, and in
1891 entered the service of Harrods, Brompton Road, of which
he was afterwards managing director. By 1916 he had increased
its profits from 16,000 to over 200,000, and it had become one
of the largest of the London stores. He had also done a good
deal to ensure shorter working hours for shop assistants. Mr.
Burbidge was the " private citizen " who anonymously pre-
sented about 30,000 to the fund for acquiring the Crystal
Palace for the public in 1913. During the World War he was
responsible for the building and fitting up of two hospitals in
Belgium and was a member of many Government committees,
including the advisory committee of the Ministry of Munitions
and the committee of inquiry into the Royal Aircraft workings, of
which he was chairman. He was created a baronet in 1916. He
died in London May 31 1917, being succeeded as second
baronet by his son R. Woodman Burbidge (b. 1872), who in
1921 became chairman of Harrods.
See Mrs. Stuart Menzies, Modern Men of Mark (1920).
524
BURDETT BURLESON
BURDETT, SIR HENRY (1847-1920), English economist and
philanthropist, was born at Gilmorton, Leics., March 18 1847.
He began life in a bank at Birmingham, but was elected in
1874 secretary to the Queen's hospital in that city. In 1880
he became secretary to the share and loan department of
the Stock Exchange and also a member of the committee of
management of the Seamen's Hospital Society. Finance and
hospitals, especially in connexion with nursing, were the two
main interests of his life. He published Burdett's Official Intel-
ligence of Securities, and also Burdett's Hospitals and Charities,
as well as works on the National Debt, local taxation, The Hos-
pitals and Asylums of the World (4 vols. with plates), and
many other works on economic and hospital problems. It was
largely due to him that King Edward VII. established his Hos-
pital Fund for London. He also founded and edited The Hos-
pital newspaper. He was created K.C.B. in 1897 and K.C.V.O.
in 1908. He died in London April 29 1920.
BURIAN VON RAJECZ, STEPHEN [ISTVAN], BAKON (1851-
), Austro-Hungarian statesman, a scion of an ancient
Hungarian noble family, was born Jan. 16 1851, and early
in life entered the consular service, being stationed suc-
cessively at Alexandria, Bucharest and Belgrade. Then his
rapid diplomatic career began. From 1882-6 he was consul-
general at Moscow, and his reports describing the then little
understood danger of Panslavism attracted attention in in-
fluential circles in Vienna. He was sent as envoy extraordinary
to Sofia, where he remained for several years, and successfully
represented the interests of the Vienna Government during the
disturbed period following the election of Ferdinand of Coburg
as Prince of Bulgaria. In the second half of the 'nineties he was
minister at Stuttgart and at Athens, and in March 1903 he
succeeded Benjamin Kallay (1839-1903) as common Finance
Minister and supreme head of the administration of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. In this latter capacity he rendered important
services. Burian strongly advocated annexation of the provinces,
which he regarded as the essential condition precedent to the
introduction of constitutional arrangements. After the annexa-
tion he did in fact set to work with the greatest zeal on the
elaboration of the provincial constitution, which was proclaimed
in Feb. 1910. The extremely important Kmet question
(Kmet, Slav for peasant) was settled under his ministry on
general lines in the sense of the optional emancipation of the
Kmets. In Feb. 1912 he was relieved of his office as common
Finance Minister, and in June 1913 he was appointed Hun-
garian minister attached to the court of Vienna. On Jan. 13
1915 he succeeded Count Berchtold at the Foreign Office. His
friendly relations with Count Stephen Tisza, whose influence
may well have determined Burian's selection as Foreign Minister,
facilitated his intercourse with those Hungarian politicians
whose opinion carried weight.
The monarchy was at that time in the midst of negotiations
with Italy. Burian took part in them, but at first with reserve,
since he would not hear of any cession of territory long forming
part of Austria. It was not till March 1915 that, under pressure
of the military situation and the influence of the German Govern-
ment, he expressed his willingness in principle to negotiate on
this basis. The negotiations, however, in spite of further con-
cessions made by Burian in April and May, had no success, and
served only to postpone, but not to prevent, the secession of
Italy into the ranks of the Entente. Burian did great service
to Austria-Hungary in the matter of the alliance with Bulgaria,
and also in arranging the Austro-Turkish alliance. To the
Rumanian demands he opposed a negative attitude, especially
to those which involved a cession of Hungarian territory and
a fundamental change in the political and social position of the
Rumanians in Hungary. In this question, as in others, Burian
represented the particular interests of Austria-Hungary, as
opposed to Germany, and for this reason became involved in
severe conflicts with the leading statesmen and army commanders
of the German Empire.
In the Polish question he aimed at the Austro-Polish solution,
though he realized the difficulties in its way. For he thought
that the elastic structure of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy,
and the prove/1 stability, in the case of Galicia, of a Polish prov-
ince provided with wide powers of national self-government,
made this appear relatively the best solution. He absolutely
refused to consent to the far-reaching demands made by Ger-
many in return for her acquiescence in this solution. In general,
he maintained the view that in military, political and economic
matters Austria-Hungary must be treated as an equal partner,
and opposed a determined refusal to every German demand in
which he saw danger to the independence, or a limitation of the
territorial power, of Austria-Hungary. He thought, incidentally,
that German policy was permeated with realism, and that
Germany had a very high estimate of her own achievements,
and of the rewards due to them, without feeling any obligation
to measure the achievements of their ally by the same standard
and give full satisfaction to her partner.
On the question of peace, too, there was a sharp antithesis
between the views of Burian and those of German statesmen.
With Burian, regard for the special interests of Austria-Hungary
stood in the foreground. He refused to contemplate the loss of
Austro-Hungarian territory in the south. On the other hand,
he proposed as early as Nov. 1915 that Germany should
smooth the way to peace by a public declaration of her willing-
ness to guarantee the national independence of Belgium, and
in the course of the year 1916 repeatedly urged that the way
should be paved for negotiation with the enemy on the basis of
the renouncing of conquests in the west. The decisive refusal
of German statesmen to declare such a renunciation and to
define precisely the demands and concessions to be made by the
Quadruple Alliance in the peace proposals, as proposed by
Burian, led to severe conflict between the two Cabinets. The
peace note of Dec. 12 1916, which put an end to this quarrel,
was the last important official act of Burian as Foreign Minister.
A few days later he laid down his office, but was recalled by
the Emperor Charles after the resignation of his successor, Count
Czernin, on April 14 1918. Burian now worked energetically
for the conclusion of an agreed peace, and on that account
came into conflict, as he had done two years before, with the
German higher command. It was only in Aug. 1918, after the
breakdown of the German offensive, that the German Govern-
ment declared itself ready in principle to prepare the way, for an
agreed peace. But in the course of the negotiations insuperable
differences appeared as to the time and the form of the peace
offer. Bitter exasperation was aroused in the most influential
German circles when Burian, holding to his design, ignored the
German veto, and on Sept. 14 1918 addressed to all the bel-
ligerent nations an invitation to end the war by diplomatic
negotiations. Burian's invitation had no success; it merely
heightened the confidence in victory of the enemy Powers, who,
by an offensive, definitely broke the resistance of their enfeebled
opponents, compelled them to accept a humiliating armistice,
and forced them to prepare the way for negotiations which were
intended to lead to the conclusion of separate treaties of peace.
When the Vienna Government decided to follow this path Burian
was no longer Foreign Minister. He had resigned in the midst
of a confusion which gave reason to fear the approaching end
of the state and the dynasty. (A. F. PR.)
BURLESON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1863- ), American law-
yer and politician, was born at San Marcos, Tex., June 7
1863. He graduated from the university of Texas in 1884 and
was admitted to the bar in 1885. For five years he was
assistant city attorney in Austin, and from 1891 to 1898
was attorney of the 26th judicial district of Texas. From 1899
to 1913 he was a member of Congress and was Postmaster-
General in President Wilson's Cabinet from 1913 to 1921. Soon
after taking office in 1913 he aroused a storm of protest, especially
on the part of the large daily newspapers, by declaring that he
would enforce the law (requiring publications to print, among
other things, a sworn statement of paid circulation), which had
been held in abeyance by his predecessor until its constitution-
ality might be confirmed. The Supreme Court enjoined him
from carrying out his purpose. During the World War he issued,
BURNAND BURNS, JOHN
525
in 1915, an order barring unneutral envelopes and cards from
the mails, and after America became a belligerent he instituted a
censorship designed to suppress treasonable and seditious news-
papers. The purpose was reasonable, but it was impossible to
draw an ideal line and the result was a general alienation of the
press. Later he introduced the " zone system," whereby postage
on second-class mail was charged according to distance. In
Aug. 1918 the telephone and telegraph systems were taken
over temporarily by the Government and their control vested
in the postmaster-general. He was an avowed advocate of
permanent Government ownership of the telegraph and tele-
phone, and in Dec. 1918 urged legislation to that end. In
Nov. 1918, five days after the Armistice was signed, he took
over the cables. He aroused the hostility of labour by his
opposition to organization and strikes among postal employees.
As early as 1913 he had urged repeal of the law allowing them to
organize. He was interested in extending the parcel post, and
worked for the promotion of aerial mail service.
BURNAND, SIR FRANCIS COWLEY (1836-1917), English
humorist (see 4.848), died at Ramsgate April 21 1917.
BURNET, SIR JOHN JAMES (1859- ), Scottish archi-
tect, whose father was an architect in Glasgow, was born in that
city in 1859, and was educated at the Western Academy, enter-
ing the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, in 1874. He passed three
years in the studio of Pascal, whose direction and guidance had
a strong influence on his future design. After his return to
Glasgow Burnet's first important commission was the Royal
Institute of Fine Arts, the beginning of a series of important
public buildings in various places in Scotland. Amongst these
are the offices for the Clyde Navigation Trust, the Glasgow
Athenaeum, the Pathological Institute an extension of the
Glasgow Infirmary and the lay-out and building for the
International Exhibition at Edinburgh, in 1886. He carried out
also much ecclesiastical work, notably the Barony church at
Glasgow and churches at Arbroath, Brechin and Larbert.
Amongst the larger business buildings designed by Burnet are
the head office of the Union Bank of Scotland, and in London
the important completion of the Selfridge premises, in collabora-
tion with J. E. Graham, of Chicago. Entrusted with the addition
of the new galleries at the back of the British Museum, a work
which eventually took him upwards of nine years, Burnet, with
a view of informing himself as to the conditions of museum design
elsewhere, visited in 1895 various European galleries Paris,
Berlin, Vienna and others. In the following year he visited
the United States, in order to obtain information for his designs
for new laboratories for Glasgow University. He was knighted
in 1914, and among his other honours were the LL.D. degree
at Glasgow, and membership of the Institut de France, the
Societe Central des Architectes Francais, and the American
Institute of Architects.
BURNETT, FRANCES ELIZA HODGSON (1849- ), Amer-
ican writer (see 4.853), published in 1911 The Little Princess,
a Play for Children and Grown-Up Children, in Three Acts.
Her other later writings include My Robin (1912); T. Tembarom
(1913); A Lady of Quality (1913); The Lost Prince (1915);
The One I Know the Best of All (1915); The Little Hunchback
Zia (1916); The Way to the House of Santa Claus (1916), and
The White People (1917).
BURNHAM, EDWARD LEVY LAWSON, IST BARON (1833-
1916), English newspaper proprietor, was born in London
Dec. 28 1833. His father, Joseph Moses Levy (d. 1888) who
married Esther Cohen, was managing proprietor of a paper
manufacturing and printing company and proprietor of the
Sunday Times. Edward Levy, who took the added surname
of Lawson in 1875 in accordance with the will of an uncle,
Lionel Lawson, was educated at University College school,
London. On leaving school he entered his father's business,
and there received a thorough training in the printing and paper
trades. In June 1855, immediately after the stamp duty on
newspapers had been removed, the Daily Telegraph and Courier
(see 19.559) was started by Colonel Sleigh. In September it was
acquired by Mr. J. M. Levy, in liquidation of the debt due to
him for paper and printing. Edward Levy, who was already
dramatic critic of the Sunday Times, now became editor of the
Daily Telegraph, and 30 years later its managing proprietor and
sole director. It was not until 1903 that he relinquished this
position to his eldest son. He took a leading place in English
journalism, and was largely instrumental in getting the paper
duty abolished in 1861. He was more than once president of the
Institute of Journalists, and was active in his support of press
charities, especially as trustee and treasurer to the Newspaper
Press Fund. In 1909 he presided over the first Imperial Press
conference, held in London; in 1920 his son similarly presided
at the conference held in Canada. On Lord Burnham's Both
birthday he was the recipient of an address signed by the leading
journalists of the British Empire, the United States and many
European countries, expressing their sense of his great services to
journalism. He was created a baronet in 1892 and was raised
to the peerage as Baron Burnham in 1903. He married Harriette
Georgiana (d. 1897), daughter of the actor Benjamin Webster
(see 28.459). He died in London Jan. 9 1916.
His eldest son, HARRY LAWSON WEBSTER LAWSON, ist Vis-
count Burnham (1862- ), was born in London Dec. 18
1862, and was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He
represented W. St. Pancras in the House of Commons from
1885 to 1892, E. Gloucestershire from 1893-5, ar >d Tower
Hamlets from 1905-6, and again from 1910-6. He was also a
member of the London County Council from 1889-92 and
from 1897 to 1904, as well as mayor of Stepney 1908-9. He
succeeded to his father's barony in 1916, and was created
a viscount in 1919. In his position as editor and managing
proprietor of the Daily Telegraph he did valuable work during
the World War. In 1917 he was included in the first gazette
of the new Order of Companions of Honour. He was hon.
colonel of the Royal Bucks Hussars. He married in 1884 Olive,
daughter of Gen. Sir Henry de Bathe, Bart., but had no son.
The heir to the barony in 1921 was, therefore, his brother, Col.
William Arnold Webster Lawson (b. 1864).
BURNHAM, DANIEL HUDSON (1846-1912), American archi-
tect, was born at Henderson, N.Y., Sept. 4 1846. At the age of
ten he moved to Chicago, and was educated there and at
Waltham, Mass. He worked as an architect in various offices
in Chicago, and in 1871 formed a partnership with John W.
Root. To them was entrusted the planning of the Chicago
World's Fair (1893). On the death of Root this work fell
wholly upon Burnham, who in 1891 formed with C. B. Atwood
a partnership known as D. H. Burnham & Co. In 1894 he
was elected president of the American Institute of Architects.
His success with the Chicago World's Fair buildings soon led to
his being called upon to design structures in many cities. Of
these may be mentioned " The Rookery," the Great Northern
hotel, the Masonic Temple, and the Railway Exchange, in
Chicago; the " Flatiron Building," and new Wanamaker's store,
in New York; the Pennsylvania railway station in Pittsburgh;
Filene's store in Boston; the Union station in Washington and
Selfridge's in London. He also was asked to propose plans for
improving several cities, including Cleveland (1903), San Fran-
cisco (1905, after the earthquake), Chicago (1909), and Balti-
more. In 1905 he was asked by the U.S. Government to design
plans for cities in the Philippines, including Manila. He was
made chairman of the national committee appointed for beautify-
ing Washington, D.C. He died in Heidelberg, Germany, June
i 1912.
BURNS, JOHN (1858- ), English politician (see 4.855),
held the office of President of the Local Government Board for
more than eight years, during which he underwent comparatively
little hostile criticism save from his old friends of the Labour
party. While resisting a policy of doles, he was zealous in for-
warding substantial measures of social reform; but he did not
take a prominent part in the great party disputes over the bud-
get of 1909 and the Parliament bill. His activity and success in
the administration of his department were recognized much
against his own wish by the raising of the President's salary
in 1910 from 2,000 to 5,000 a year; but his policy was thought
526
BURNS AND SCALDS BUTCHER
to be too conservative even by some members of the Unionist
party, and early in 1914 he was promoted to the Presidency of
the Board of Trade. He held this office only six months, as in the
following Aug. he could not bring himself to accept the necessity
of war. He resigned without making any public statement of his
reasons, and took no further active part in Parliament. At
the general election of 1918 he desired to stand again for Bat-
tersea; but the local labour men required him, as a condition
of their support, to become a member of the Labour party, sign
its constitution, and accept its programme and whips. He re-
fused to comply. " I do not believe," he wrote, " in political
indentured labour. A war against militarism must not end
in conscript members of Parliament." Accordingly he with-
drew his candidature, and continued in private life.
BURNS AND SCALDS (see 4.860). During the World War
a large number of burns were encountered in British medical
practice, in the army and the navy and in munition works.
The ordinary methods of treatment were adopted, but in addition
the use of hot paraffin applications was tried with very marked
success. This treatment indeed is stated by its supporters to
give better results than any other hitherto employed. The burn
is first of all washed with normal saline or with an antiseptic such
as flavine or proflavine (1-1,000): it is then dried with gauze
or an electric dryer. A layer of paraffin is applied at temperature
55-6oC. A thin layer of wool is placed over the first layer of
paraffin and then a second layer of hot paraffin painted over the
wool. A dressing of wool and bandage is then applied and this is
changed every 24 hours. The layer of paraffin must be of suf-
ficient thickness. It may be sprayed on instead of painted.
The temperature is thus important, for if it is too high the paraf-
fin will run.
The effect of the paraffin is largely to act as a protection, and
it is claimed by some that the addition of antiseptics to the
paraffin is very advantageous. Lieut.-Col. A. J. Hull of the
R.A.M.C. emphasized this in a communication to the jour-
nal of the Corps and recommended that the aniline antisep-
tics, brilliant green or flavine, should be employed. These
antiseptics owe their wide use to the work of Professor C. H.
Browning, who first introduced them.
The preparation of the paraffin is thus described by Colonel
Hull:
" Take J gramme of brilliant green or 2 grammes of scarlet red
or flavine and 40 grammes of lanoline, rub up the coloured material
with the adeps lanae hydrosus until a. highly coloured smooth paste
is obtained which contains no undisintegrated particles of the dye;
using about j oz. of water assists the solution of the dyes. Melt the
paraffin durum (678 grammes) and add 210 grammes of paraffin
molle and 50 c.c. of olive oil. Let the temperature of the resulting
mixture sink to at least 65 C. ; then stir in the previously prepared
lanoline paste, stirring until thoroughly mixed. At about 55 C,
add 20 c.c. of eucalyptus oil ; stir and allow to solidify."
The scarlet is said to form the least satisfactory suspension, but
its therapeutic value has caused it to be continued in use. It acts
as a stimulus to healing after the burns are clean. The flavine paraffin
seems to answer best for recent burns. (R. M. Wl.)
BURROUGHS, JOHN (1837-1921), American naturalist and
writer (see 4.863), continued to instruct and entertain a
wide public with frequent essays on out-of-door life, some of
which were assembled in the following volumes: Time and
Change (1912); The Summit of the Years (1913); The Breath of
Life (1915); Under the Apple Trees (1916), and Field and Study
(1919). Yale conferred upon him the degree of Litt.D. (1910),
and Colgate the degree of L.H.D. (1911). He died on a train
near Kingsville, O., March 29 1921, while returning from Cali-
fornia to his country home in New York state.
BURROWS, RONALD MONTAGU (1867-1920), English classi-
cal scholar and archaeologist, was born at Rugby Aug. 16
1867 and educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford.
From 1891 to 1898 he was assistant to Mr. Gilbert Mur-
ray, then professor of Greek at Glasgow, and from 1898 to
1908 he was professor of Greek at University College, Cardiff.
In 1908 he was transferred to the corresponding chair at the
Victoria University of Manchester. He conducted excavations
at Pylos and Sphacteria in 1895-6, and at Rhitsona in
Boeotia in 1907. In 1913 he became principal of King's College,
London, and held that post till his death in London May 14
1920. He published Recent Discoveries in Crete (1907) and
various papers on archaeological subjects. All his life he was
a fervent Philhellene. During the World War he was in active
cooperation with the efforts of M. Venizelos to protect the in-
terests of Greece and to secure Greek adherence to the Allies,
and he took a leading part, by lectures and articles, in making
the problems of the Near East familiar to the public.
BURT, THOMAS (1837- ), British Labour politician, was
born at Murton Row, near North Shields, Northumberland,
Nov. 12 1837. He was the son of a miner, and himself
started working in the pits when ten years of age, his edu-
cation being scanty. In 1865 he was elected secretary of the
Northumberland Miners' Mutual Provident Association, a post
which he held until 1913, and in 1874 successfully contested
Morpeth in the Labour interest, being thus (along with Alexan-
der Macdonald) the first of the Labour members in the House of
Commons. He took part in many industrial conferences, and in
1890 was one of the British representatives at the Berlin Labour
congress of that year. In 1891 he was president of the trade
union congress at Newcastle, and in 1892 entered the Liberal
ministry as parliamentary secretary of the Board of Trade,
holding this post until 1895. In 1906 he was created a privy
councillor, and in 1918 resigned his seat in Parliament.
See A. Watson, A Great Labour Leader (1908). >
BUTCHER, SAMUEL HENRY (1850-1910), English classical
scholar, was the eldest son of Samuel Butcher, classical tutor
and lecturer at Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently Bishop
of Meath. Born in Dublin April 16 1850, he went to Marl-
borough in 1864 and won an open scholarship for classics
at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1869. In 1870 he won the Bell
scholarship at Cambridge, in 1871 the Waddington scholarship,
and in 1871 and 1872 the Powis medal. In 1873 he graduated as
senior classic and won a Chancellor's medal. He took an assistant
mastership at Eton for a year, but returned to Trinity, Cambridge,
as fellow and lecturer in classics. On his marriage in 1876 to Rose,
daughter of Archbishop Trench of Dublin, he had to resign his
Trinity fellowship, and was then elected tutor and " married
fellow " at University College, Oxford. In 1882 he succeeded
Professor Blackie as professor of Greek in the university of
Edinburgh. During his tenure of this chair he became widely
known, not only as a scholar, but as a judicious administrator
and educational reformer. He was a member of the royal com-
mission which was appointed after the passing of the Scottish
Universities bill in 1889 to reform the whole academical system
in Scotland, and which reported in April 1900. In 1902 Mrs.
Butcher died, and two years later he resigned his professorship
and went to reside in London. He had been a member of the
royal commission of 1901 on University Education in Ireland,
which produced an abortive report with eight reservations in
1903; and he was also included on the royal commission of 1906.
In the latter year, on the death of Sir Richard Jebb, he was
chosen as a Unionist to represent the university of Cambridge
in Parliament, -where his brother J. G. Butcher (b. 1853; created
a baronet in 1918), a well-known barrister, had sat for many
years as Unionist member for York ; he made an effective maiden
speech on the Irish University bill and frequently took a valu-
able part in debate. His grave and thoughtful style and gift
of natural eloquence were combined with a charm and sincerity
which won him universal respect and affection, no less in public
than in private life. He was however, above all, a fine Greek
scholar, full of the true spirit of classical learning, with a remark-
able power of literary expression, shown especially in such pub-
lications as some Aspects of the Greek Genius (1891); Aristotle's
Theory of Poetry and Fine Art (1895); Greek Idealism in the
Common Things of Life (1901); Harvard Lectures on Greek Sub-
jects (1904) and his prose translation (with Andrew Lang) of the
Odyssey (1879). In 1907 he was president of the English Classical
Association, of which he had been one of the principal founders
in 1903. He was also the first president of the Irish Classical
BUTLER, H. M. BYWATER
527
Association, and an original member of the British Academy;
becoming its president in 1909. In 1908 he was appointed a
trustee of the British Museum. Two years later his health began
to fail, and he delivered his last speech on Oct. 21 1910, at the
dinner given to celebrate the publication of the i ith edition of
the E.B. by the Cambridge University Press. He died in Lon-
don Dec. 2 1910.
BUTLER, HENRY MONTAGU (1833-1918), English educa-
tionist (see 4.882), as master of Trinity, Cambridge, displayed
to the full the scholastic and administrative gifts which had
distinguished his period as headmaster of Harrow. His best-
known work is a volume entitled Sermons Historical and Bio-
graphical (1899), but in 1914 he published Some Leisure Hours
of a Long Life, which contained excellent classical verse. He
died at Cambridge Jan. 14 1918.
See Edward Graham, The Harrow Life of H. M. Butler (1920).
BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862- ), American edu-
cator (see 4.885), was elected a member of the American Acad-
emy of Arts and Letters in 1911. In 1912 he was chairman
of the New York State Republican Convention and also a dele-
gate to the Republican National Convention. Vice-President
Sherman was renominated but died shortly before the general
election, and the Republican electoral votes were cast for Dr.
Butler for vice-president, who was overwhelmingly defeated on
the ticket with President Taft. On the outbreak of the World
War he supported the administration's peace policy as respond-
ing " to the best wishes and hopes of the whole people." He
criticised the formation of the National Security League on the
ground that, in some cases at least, it had business interests
back of it; and he disapproved of the organization of the Ameri-
can Legion. In 1916, however, he urged America's entrance into
the war. The same year he was again a delegate to the Republican
National Convention, serving as chairman of the Committee on
Resolutions. He favoured woman suffrage and was an advocate
of the short ballot. At the Republican National Convention in
1920 he received 69 votes for the presidential nomination on the
first ballot, the number gradually falling to two on the tenth and
last ballot. As an educator President Butler was a bold critic
of many contemporary tendencies in American education. He
upheld the old theory of mental discipline, and in the face of the
wide-spread vocational movement in schools and colleges re-
mained a steadfast and eloquent defender of liberal education.
Under his guidance Columbia University became a cosmopolitan
institution, its total registration in 1920 approximating 30,000
(see COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY). He was chairman of the National
Committee of the United States for the Restoration of the
university of Louvain, destroyed by the Germans in 1914.
In 1920 he resigned the editorship of The Educational Review,
becoming advisory editor. He was the author of Questions of
American Freedom (1911); Why Should We Change Our Form
of Government? (1912); Progress in Politics (1913); The Meaning
of Education (1915, enlargement of the work published in 1898);
A World in Ferment (1917, interpretations of the war for a new
world); Is The World Worth Sailing? (1920); Scholarship and
Service (1921).
BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838-1910), English
soldier and author (see 4.888), died in Tipperary June 7 1910.
BUTT, CLARA (1873- ), English contralto singer, was
born at Southwick, Sussex, Feb. i 1873. She received her
musical training at the Royal College of Music, and made
her debut in a students' performance of Gluck's Orfeo at
the Lyceum theatre, London, in 1892. She possessed a con-
tralto voice of exceptional power and wide range, and from the
first became a public favourite as a ballad and oratorio singer.
In 1900 she married the singer Kennerley Rumford (b. 1870),
and with him sang constantly at concerts in all parts of Great
Britain, also undertaking various long tours in the colonies.
During the World War she devoted the proceeds of many of her
concerts to war charities, and was in 1917 created D.B.E.
BUXTON, SYDNEY CHARLES BUXTON, IST VISCOUNT
( J 8S3- ), British politician and administrator, was born in
London Oct. 25 1853, the grandson of Sir Thomas Powell
Buxton, ist Bart. He was educated at Clifton and Trinity
College, Cambridge, and afterwards entered public life, becom-
ing a member of the London School Board in 1876. He was
Liberal M.P. for Peterborough from 1883 to 1885, and for
Poplar from 1886 till 1914. From 1892 to 1895 he was Under-
secretary for the Colonies. From 1905 to 1910 he was Postmas-
ter-General, and from 1910 to 1914 President of the Board of
Trade. In 1914 he was appointed High Commissioner and
Governor-General of South Africa, being raised to the peerage
as Viscount Buxton. He retired from this office in 1920.
Lord Buxton published Handbook to Political Questions (1880);
Finance and Politics: An Historical Study (1783-188$) (1888);
Handbook to the Death Duties (with G. S. Barnes, 1890); Political
Manual (4th ed. 1891) ; Mr. Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer
(1901); The Fiscal Question (1904).
BYNG, JULIAN HEDWORTH GEORGE BYNG, IST BARON
(1862- ), British general, was born Sept. n 1862, son of
the 2nd Earl of Strafford, and joined the loth Hussars in
India in 1883. He saw his first active service on the Red Sea
littoral a year later, when his regiment disembarked there on
their way home. He passed through the Staff College, and was
a major when the South African War broke out ; he was then sent
on special service to the Cape. He raised and commanded the
South African Light Horse, which formed part of the Natal army
and was at the relief of Ladysmith. Subsequently he commanded
a column with marked success and was rewarded with promotion
to the ranks of brevet lieutenant-colonel and colonel. After the
war he commanded his regiment for two years, was then for a
year in charge of the cavalry school, and was at the head of a
cavalry brigade from 1907-9, when he was promoted major-gen-
eral. He spent two years in charge of a Territorial division and
then, in 1912, he was sent to Egypt to take command of the
army of occupation.
In Oct. 1914 he was summoned home to take the 3rd Cav-
alry Div. to France, and he succeeded to the command of
the Cavalry Corps in June 1915. But two months later he
was despatched to the Dardanelles to take charge of the IX.
Army Corps there and he became responsible for the Suvla
area, from which he withdrew his troops most skilfully in the
following December. For this valuable service he received the
K.C.M.G., his corps proceeding to Egypt; but he was almost
immediately called back to the western front to take over
the XVII. Army Corps, and in May 1916 he was transferred
from this to the Canadian Army Corps, then formed, which he
commanded for a year. The Dominion troops under his orders
distinguished themselves on several occasions, especially in their
capture of Vimy Ridge on April 9 1917. He had been pro-
moted lieutenant-general for distinguished service in 1916 and
was given the K.C.B.
In June 1917 he succeeded to the leadership of the III. Army,
which he retained till the close of hostilities. Towards the
end of Nov. he carried out the brilliantly successful surprise at-
tack on the Cambrai front for which he was promoted full
general, though the German counterstroke in Dec. largely re-
gained the lost ground. Remaining on this front in the winter
of 1917-8, his forces were on the left of the V. Army in the
battles of March 1918 and were to some extent involved in its
defeat, but they remained unbroken and eventually it was on their
front that the enemy's attack first came to a definite standstill.
Five months later they bore their full share in breaking the
Hindenburg line and in the general advance. For his services
Byng was raised to the peerage as Baron Byng of Vimy and
Stoke-le-Thorpe, and he received a grant of 30,000. He retired
from the army in 1919, and in June 1921 was appointed to suc-
ceed the Duke of Devonshire as governor-general of Canada.
BYWATER, INGRAM (1840-1914), English classical scholar
(5664.906), died in London Dec. 17 1914. He was a great
collector of books, especially early printed Greek books, and
he left a bequest to provide for the study of Byzantine Greek
at Oxford.
See W. W. Jackson, Memoir of Ingram Bywater (1919).
528
CABLE CAILLAUX
CABLE, SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH: see SUBMARINE CABLE
TELEGRAPHY.
CADBURY, GEORGE (1839- ), British manufacturer
and philanthropist, was born Sept. 19 1839 at Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham, the son of Quaker parents, and was brought
up a member of that Society. In 1861 when he succeeded to the
cocoa business known later as Cadbury Brothers Ltd., it gave
employment to 12 workers only, but under the management of
himself and his brother Richard it developed rapidly, and in 1879
he founded for the employees the garden village of Bournville,
which served as a model for other social ventures of the kind.
In 1919 when Cadbury Brothers Ltd. amalgamated with the
firm J. S. Fry & Son of Bristol, they employed in all 4,000 people.
Mr. Cadbury became chief proprietor of the Daily News in
1901, and his family also acquired an interest in the Star in
1909. The connexion of the Cadburys and other Quaker families
with these Liberal and Free Trade organs caused them to be
dubbed by opponents the "cocoa press."
His second wife, ELIZABETH CADBURY (m. 1888), associated
herself with her husband's philanthropic undertakings at Bourn-
ville and elsewhere, besides holding many responsible positions
on her own account. She was president of the N.U.W.W.
and also of the midland division of the Y.W.C.A., and was the
author of several papers on housing and other social questions.
She was made O.B.E. in Jan. 1918.
CADOGAN, GEORGE HENRY CADOGAN, STH EARL (1840-
1915), British politician (see 4.932), died in London March 6
CADORNA, COUNT LUIGI (1850- ), Italian general,
chief of the Italian general staff from July 1914 to Nov. 1917,
commander-in-chief of the Italian armies in the field from May
1915 to Nov. 1917, and senator, was born at Pallanza, on Lago
Maggiore, Sept. 4 1850. His father was Count Raffaele Cadorna,
a distinguished soldier of the wars of the Risorgimento and the
Crimea; and his uncle, Count Carlo Cadorna, was one of the
outstanding political figures of the same period. Luigi Cadorna
entered the army in 1866, and served in the infantry, in the ar-
tillery and on the staff, becoming colonel in 1892. His career
followed the usual course and his reputation steadily increased.
Lieutenant-general in 1905, he was appointed to command the
Genoa army corps in 1910, and a year later he was chosen as an
army commander in the event of war. He commanded one side
in the manoeuvres of 1911, his opponent being Caneva. The
victory was adjudged to Caneva, and though military opinion
was divided upon the verdict it is probable that the result of the
manoeuvres led to the preference being given to Caneva for the
command of the Tripoli expedition. But on the death of Gen.
Pollio, chief of the general staff, there was little or no question as
to his successor, and on July 10 1914 Cadorna received the
appointment. He found the army in a deplorable condition,
both as to personnel and as to material. And within three weeks
the outbreak of general war forced the problems of army reform,
consistently shirked by successive Cabinets, to the front. One
of Cadorna 's first acts on becoming chief -of-staff was to adopt the
Deport field-gun, though the artillery had already begun to re-
arm with a Krupp quick-firer, and this prompt decision, which
did not pass without criticism, was of the greatest value to Italy.
Much was accomplished during the neutrality period, and though
all efforts were handicapped by lack of money and by Italy's
low industrial capacity, still, in the interval between Aug. 1914
and Italy's entry into the war, Cadorna fashioned a weapon with
which it was possible to strike, and strike hard.
For 29 months Cadorna, handicapped always by lack of
means, directed the operations against Austria-Hungary with
insight, vigour and determination. Facile critics have found
fault with his plan of campaign, but the more carefully and ob-
jectively Cadorna's plan is studied, the more it justifies itself
against alternative policies. For a year Cadorna had the full
confidence of his country, and his name, indeed, began to take
on a legendary colour. The first check came with the initial
success of the Austrian offensive in May 1916, though he had
already incurred many enmities by the ruthless dismissal of
those who appeared unequal to the duties of command a
process which in a great measure attained the desired end,
though the dismissals were probably too numerous and certainly
cost the army some good officers, besides handicapping others
by the fear of supersession. As time went on, and signs of war-
weariness became visible among some of the troops, Cadorna
entered the strongest protest against the policy of the Govern-
ment, which, he said, permitted an anti-war propaganda which
lowered the moral of the army. Cadorna's protests were largely
justified. Too little was done to meet anti-war propaganda, and
the soldier who went on leave often returned to the front em-
bittered by having found his family in want, while others who
had escaped military service were not only safe but were making
money. On the other hand, it must be admitted that a part
of the responsibility for declining moral lay at Cadorna's own
door. For he did not seem to have realized fully the strain of
modern war upon the troops, or understood the necessity of
lightening that strain by every possible expedient. The disaster
of Caporetto, a disaster due to a complex of causes, led to Ca-
dorna being transferred from the command of the Italian armies
to the newly formed Allied military council at Versailles. But
before he left his command he had organized the resistance on
the Piave-Monte Grappa front.
Cadorna came to Versailles under the shadow of defeat, but
his personality and military insight speedily impressed his
colleagues and removed the initial handicap. It was a misfortune
for Italy when, in Feb. 1918, consequent upon the appointment
of the Caporetto inquiry commission, it was thought necessary
to remove him from Versailles. As a result of the inquiry he was
placed on half-pay on Aug. 29 1918, and four days later his
definite retirement was gazetted.
In March 1921 Cadorna published a book dealing with his
tenure of the post of chief-of-staff (La Guerra alia Fronte Italiana),
which effectively answered much of the criticism that had been
directed against his leadership. But with the passage of time
this criticism had already begun to lose force. It was no longer
necessary to find a scapegoat. More and more it was seen that
Cadorna had made the Italian army fit for war, and that he had
conducted the .campaign under grave handicaps. Perhaps the
most serious defect in Cadorna's leadership was that he failed
to secure the loyal cooperation of many of his subordinates.
The fact that he was not always well served was to some extent
due to his methods. A certain friction also characterized Ca-
dorna's relations with two successive Governments on his
side soldierly impatience with political methods and exigencies,
and on theirs resentment at his criticisms of policy. Moreover,
his belief in the necessity and duty of sacrifice made him slow
to realize the limits of ordinary human endurance. But his
achievement was great, and he remains, in spite of the disaster
that closed his career, the foremost Italian military figure of the
war. (W. K. McC.)
CAILLAUX, JOSEPH-MARIE-AUGUSTE (1863- ), French
politician and financier, was born March 30 1863. After study-
ing law and following lectures at the Ecole des Sciences Politiques
he entered the civil service in 1888 as an inspector of finance,
and spent most of his official career in Algiers. Standing as a
Republican candidate in the elections of 1898 for the department
of the Sarthe, in opposition to the Due de la Rochefoucault-
Bisaccia, he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by 12,929
votes to 11,737. He became Minister of Finance in the Waldeck-
Rousseau Cabinet, and after its fall it was not until the Clemen-
ceau Ministry of 1906 that he returned to office again, once more
with the portfolio of Finance. In 1911 he became prime minister.
Unfortunately it was his ambition to bring France and Germany
CAILLETET CALIFORNIA
529
together on the common ground of finance, and he failed. He
endeavoured, while he was prime minister, to meet the arrogant
demands of Germany in Morocco, in the course of protracted and
secret negotiations carried out mainly through Baron von Lan-
cken, who was then Chancellor of the German embassy in Paris.
These negotiations became known, notably to Clemenceau, and
they directly led to the dispatch by Germany to Agadir of the
gunboat " Panther " in 1911. The convention which put an end
to the ensuing crisis involved the surrender by France of large
tracts of the French Congo to Germany. The whole negotiations
formed the subject of an inquiry by a special committee of the
Senate, whose report was very unfavourable to Caillaux. Never-
theless, thanks to his undoubted qualities as a financier, he re-
mained a great power in French politics. He fought the Three
Years' Service bill with the utmost tenacity; and although that
measure became law, it was he who finally, on the financial
aspect of that bill, brought about the downfall of the Barthou
Ministry in the autumn of 1913. His past history was of a
character which made it impossible, if the Entente Cordiale was
to continue, that he should return to the position of prime minis-
ter, but he joined the new Cabinet as Minister of Finance. As a
financial expert he had for long identified himself with a great
and necessary reform in the fiscal policy of France the introduc-
tion of the principle of an income tax. For this principle he strove
in public, at any rate throughout the winter of 1913. His advo-
cacy of an income tax and his uncertain and erratic championship
of proletarian ideas, alarmed all the conservative elements in the
country, and throughout the winter he was attacked with increas-
ing violence from the platform and through the p_ress. Those
attacks reached their highest point of bitterness in a series of dis-
closures in the Figaro, of a more or less personal nature. This
newspaper started the publication of letters addressed by him to
the second Mme. Caillaux while he was still married to the first.
A tragic end was made to the Figaro's campaign when the second
Mme. Caillaux called upon the editor, M. Gaston Calmette, and
fired five shots at him on March 16, mortally wounding him.
Caillaux's resignation followed at once. The elections which
took place shortly afterwards resulted in a crisis of unusual bit-
terness, which was solved eventually by Viviani becoming
prime minister. The trial of Mme. Caillaux for murder began on
July 20 1914 and ended by her acquittal on the very eve of war.
During the first part of the World War, Caillaux, who was by
no means a popular figure, filled the duties of an army paymaster.
After one or two scenes in Paris he was sent on a mission to South
America. He returned in 1915, and at once attracted every
effort of the German secret service. Although taking no overt
part in politics he carried on a lobby campaign; he financed
newspapers, and did everything he possibly could behind the
scenes to consolidate his position. He became acquainted with
the Bolos and the Malvys of political and journalistic life, and
his activities aroused the alarm of all French patriots. By the
spring of 1917 he had become in the eyes of the public " I'homme
de la defaite " i.e. the man who was willing to effect a compro-
mise peace with Germany at the expense of Great Britain. The
long political intrigue (see FRANCE: History) which led to the
advent of Clemenceau to power killed all his hopes. Caillaux was
arrested, and, after long delay, tried on a charge of high treason
by the High Court of the Senate, and sentenced to three years'
imprisonment, the term he had already served, and to the pro-
hibition of residence in French territory for five years and depri-
vation of civil rights for ten years.
CAILLETET, LOUIS PAUL (1832-1913), French chemist,
was born at Chatillon-sur-Seine Sept. 21 1832. He was a pioneer
in experimental work with the liquefaction of gases (see 16.745
and 757). He died in Paris Jan. 4 1913.
CAINE, SIR THOMAS HENRY HALL (1853- ), English
novelist (see 4.949), was created K.B.E. in 1918, in recognition
of his war services, especially in propaganda work. In 1914-5
he edited King Albert's Book, a cooperative contribution in
honour of Belgium. In 1916 he wrote a play The Iron Hand;
another play, The Prime Minister, was produced at the Royalty
theatre, London, in 1918.
CAIRO, Egypt (see 4.953). At the census of 1917 Cairo had
a pop. of 790,939, being the largest city in Africa. The Moslem
pop. numbered 631,163, Christian 128,991 (including 5,589
Protestants), Jewish 29,207 and others 1,578. Classified by
nationality the numbers were: Egyptian subjects 721,972,
Italians 15,655, Greeks 15,254, Ottomans 12,081, French 8,252,
British 7,524 (including Maltese 1,663 ar >d other naturalized
British subjects 2,659), Russians 1,242, Austrians 1,004, Spanish
627, Rumanians 528, Swiss 280, Belgians 266.
The work of improving communications, providing the city with
a new sanitary system and the preservation of ancient sites and
buildings was carried on with vigour up to the time of the outbreak
of the World War. A new bridge across the Nile at Bulaq was com-
pleted in 1912, after four years labour. A carriage road to Helwan
was opened for traffic in 1913. The principal works of the main
drainage system were finished in 1914. The Heliopolis oasis scheme
(launched in 1906) had by 1914 resulted in the building of a hand-
some residential suburb, and here was erected a wireless station
and a large aerodrome. This aerodrome became the chief airsta-
tion in North Africa, being the starting point for air travel to the
Cape, Palestine and Mesopotamia and to Europe. During the World
War the removal of the huge and ancient rubbish mounds E. of the
city was undertaken; their removal offered a large and healthy site
for a new suburb. In 1919 the building of various new government
offices was begun.
A law passed in 1918 enlarged the scope of the department charged
with the preservation of Arab monuments to include all buildings
dating from the Arab conquest to the reign of Mehemet AH, specially
citing Coptic ecclesiastic buildings and the Roman fortress of Qasr
esh Sham at Old Cairo. Important excavations were made in that
fortress. The restoration of the mosque of Ibn Tulun (A.D. 879)
was the chief archaeological work vigorously prosecuted during the
World War. The mosque of Bibars (A.D. 1269) was in 1918-9
rescued from being a slaughterhouse and its great court turned into
a public garden. Large public gardens were constructed at Bulaq
and around the Daher mosque. The Sultania library was reor-
ganized and in 1920 contained 92,000 volumes; 40,000 in the Orien-
tal section.
All larger town-planning schemes had to be abandoned during
the World War, and building activity was greatly restricted, while
over 800 houses had to be demolished in 1916, having been rendered
insecure by infiltration during the high Nile flood of that year.
The housing difficulty remained acute in 1920.
The presence during 1914-8 of large numbers of white soldiers,
unaccustomed' to Oriental ways, did not, however, give rise to the
trouble anticipated. The political history of Cairo is indistinguish-
able from that of Egypt, but mention may be made of serious riot-
ing in March 1919, following the deportation of Zaghlul Pasha and
three of his associates. (F. R. C.)
CALGARY, Alberta, Canada (see 4.1004), had in 1920 a pop.
of 75,000. It is the centre of the ranching and grain-producing
region of central and southern Alberta, the western general head-
quarters of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and an important
station of the Royal Canadian Mounted (formerly Royal North-
West Mounted) Police. Large water-power stations, lumber-
mills, lighting-plants, banks, wholesale houses, first-class hotels,
churches, private and public schools, and a Government cream-
ery all go to constitute a flourishing city. Four miles south of
Calgary is situated the Agricultural Experimental Station under
irrigation maintained by the Provincial Government one of the
largest of its kind in the world. In addition to its prominence as
a pure-bred stock centre, Calgary is fast growing as a manufac-
turing city, and year by year extends the range of its industries,
which at present include beet sugar, soap, furniture, boilers, farm
implements, and miscellaneous machinery. The city council is
composed of a mayor and 12 aldermen.
CALIFORNIA (see 5.7). In 1920 the pop. was 3,426,861,
as against 2,377,549 in 1910, an increase of 1,049,3 12, or 44-1%,
as compared with 60- 1% for the preceding decade. During
1910-20 the Japanese increased from 41,356 to 71,952; the
Chinese decreased from 36,248 to 28,812. The density of
pop. in 1920 was 22 to the sq. m.; in 1910 15-3. The urban
pop. (in places of 2,500 or more) increased from 61-8% of the
whole in 1910 to 68% in 1920, the urban pop. in the latter year
being 2,331,729. Of the 185 cities in the state, only three, Los
Angeles, San Francisco, and Oakland, had in 1920 more than
100,000 inhabitants. The table on the next page shows the
growth during the decade 1910-20 of the 12 cities which in 1920
had a pop. of 25,000 or more.
530
CALIFORNIA
Increase
1920
1910
%
Los Angeles
576,673
319,198
80-7
San Francisco ....
506,676
416,912
21-5
Oakland
216,261
150-174
44-o
San Diego
74,683
39,578
88-7
Sacramento
65,908
44,696
47-5
Berkeley
56,036
40,434
38-6
Long Beach
55,593
17,809
212-2
Pasadena
45.354
30,291
49-7
Fresno
45,086
24,892
81-1
Stockton
40,296
23,253
73'3
San Jose ' .
39,642
28,946
37-o
Alameda
28,806
23,383
Agriculture. During the decade 191020 the number of farms in-
creased from 88,197 to 117,670, or 33-4%; all land in farms increased
from 27,931,444 ac. to 29,365,667 ac. ; improved land increased from
11,389,894 ac. to 11,878,339 ac. The value of all farm property rose
from $1,614,694,584 in 1910 to $3,431,021,861 in 1920. The average
acreage per farm decreased from 316-7 ac. in 1910 to 249-6 ac. in
1920; the average value per acre increased from $47.16 to $94.77.
In 1920 over 4,000,000 ac. were under irrigation. Of domestic
animals on farms in 1920, there were 402,407 horses, valued at
$35,416,507; 63,419 mules, valued at $7,221,930; 1,229,086 beef
cattle, valued at $61,280,293; 778,951 dairy cattle, valued at $59,-
401,153; 2,400,151 sheep, valued at $25,906,445; 909,272 swine,
valued at $13,850,907. Poultry was valued at $15,293,570, and hives
of bees at $1,469,447. The total wool production for 1919 was 15,-
216,957 lb. valued at $6,695,461.
The following table shows comparative acreage, production and
value of the chief crops for 1909 and 1919 :
Acreage
Production
Value
Corn .
1919
116,740
3,448,459 bus.
$ 5,862,383
.
1909
51,935
1,273,901
1,077,411
Oats .
1919
146,889
2,966,776
2,966,776
"...
1909
192,158
4,143-688
2,637,047
Wheat .
1919
1,086,428
16,866,882
36,938,477
"
1909
478,217
6,203,206
6,323,983
Barley .
1919
987,068
21,897,283
35,035,654
.
1909
1,195,158
26,441,954
17,184,508
Beans . .
1919
471,674
6,552,951
30,798,869
"
1909
157,987
3,328,218
6,295,457
Potatoes
1919
63,305
8,217,937
18,901,258
.
1909
67,688
9,824,005
4,879,449
Hay and forage .
1919
2,202,853
4,494,940 tons
96,121,846
tl tf it
1909
2,534-235
4,331,885 "
42,206,252
Hops .
1919
8,118
12,610,055 lb.
6,557,229
1909
8,391
",994-953 "
1,731,110
Cotton
1919
87,308
46,4 1 8 bales
9,237,182
"...
1909
324
183 "
",744
Cotton during the decade showed a remarkable increase in produc-
tion and obtained the rank of a staple crop. The production of rice
passed beyond the experimental stage and in 1919, from 130,367 ac.
were produced 6,926,313 bus., valued at $20,432,627. The production
of sugar beets, 843,269 tons, valued at $4,313,981 in 1909, fell to
666,866 tons in 1919, valued, however, at $8,669,258. In 1919 the
total production of orchard fruits was 47,557,570 bus., valued
at $91,687,814. The most important were peaches ($29,542,787),
plums and prunes ($28,381,734), apples ($12,155,128) and apricots
($11,815,290). The production of oranges in 1919 was 21,628,444
boxes, valued at $67,048,178. Among the more recent commercial
fruits are alligator pears (avocados), of which 7,919 crates were pro-
duced in 1919, valued at $63,352.
Minerals. The total value of mineral products for 1910 was
$86,688,347. California was the second state in gold production
with 988,853 fine oz., valued at $20,441,400. Gold production for
1919 was 841,638 fine oz., valued at $17,398,200; silver 1,153,614
fine oz., valued at $1,293,051. Copper production fell to 22,299,656
lb., valued at $4,236,934, as compared with 47,674,660 lb. in 1918,
valued at $11,775,641. Lead production fell in 1919 to 4,455,161 lb.,
valued at $253,944, as compared with 13,372,049 lb. in 1918, valued
at $506,087; quicksilver to 14,941 flasks, as compared with 22,621
in 1918. The oil output for 1918 was 97, 531, 997 barrels.
Manufactures. The following preliminary figures show the
growth in manufactures between 1914 and 1919:
1919
1914
Establishments
11,943
JO O^7
Persons engaged .
Proprietors and firm members
Wage-earners (average)
296,999
12,460
243,794
J76.547
10,429
I39,48i
Capital .
$1,333,382,000
$736,105,455
Wages
Cust of materials .
Value of product .
Value added by manufacture
304,523,000
1,218,890,000
1,981,443,000
762,553,000
105,612,681
447,474,531
712,800,764
265,326,2-5-5
The principal industries in 1914 were canning and preserving,
$61,162,849; petroleum refining, $55,527,651; lumber and timber
products, $52,860,272; slaughtering and meat packing, $50,011,820;
printing and publishing, $34,774,879; foundry and machine-shop
products, $31 ,732,384 ; flour-mill and grist-mill products, $24,078,735 ;
bread and other bakery products, $21,855,181 ; butter, cheese, and
condensed milk, $20,466,428; cars and general shop construction,
and repairs by steam-railway companies, $17,199,717; and beet
sugar, $15,528,666. California ranked ninth state in the total value
of manufactured products; first in the canning industry and in the
production of crude petroleum ; second in petroleum refining, ex-
ceeded only by New Jersey ; and third in lumber and timber products.
Communications. In June 1910 the total railway mileage was
7,545 m. of main track. The total mileage, Jan. I 1919, was 8,268,
or 5-31 m. per 100 sq. m. of territory. The chief railways were
the Southern Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa F<5 (both
trans-continental lines), and the San Pedro, Los Angeles and
Salt Lake. Since 1910 there has been rapid improvement of high-
ways. In that year for the first time bonds, amounting to $18,000,-
ooo, were issued for developing an excellent system of roads. In
1916 a second issue of $15,000,000 was made, and in 1919 the vo-
ters adopted a constitutional amendment providing for the issue of
$40,000,000 to complete the projected system. By the close of 1920
about $36,000,000 had been expended. From June 1916 to June
1920 the improved roads had been increased from about 1,127 m -
to about 2,493 m -, and about 3,067 m. of the project yet remained
to be improved. The larger part of the system consisted of cement
concrete base with thin bituminous top. Steamship communication in-
creased rapidly during the period 1909-20. About $12,000,000 was ex-
pended on improving San Pedro Bay and the harbour of Los Angeles.
Banking and Finance. On June ^o 1920 of 723 banks reporting
the capital stock paid in was $151,585,000, and aggregate resources
$2,499,597,000. Between 1912 and 1920 the number of national
banks in the state increased from 231 to 310, and their total re-
sources from $561,214,000 to $1,092,956,000. During the same period
the number of savings banks decreased from 132 to 106; depositors
increased from 597,159 to 853,530, and deposits from $407,006,665
to $875,951,000. The average for each depositor increased from
$681.16 in 1912 to $1,026.27 in 1920. The cash in the state treasury
July I 1910 was $7,201,220. The receipts for the fiscal year ending
June 1911 were $18,843,854; expenditures $18,591,471. Total
receipts for the fiscal year ending June 1919 were $50,132,900; ex-
penditures $50,691,433. Cash on hand July I 1919 was $14,140,661.
On the same date the assessed valuation on taxable property was
$4,023,000,588. The net bonded debt was $44,138,500.
Education. From 1910 to 1917 the number of pupils enrolled in
the public schools increased from 349,145 to 569,284, and teachers
from 10,769 to 19,074. The value of school property in 1910 was
$38,661,761; in 1917 it was $92,800,821. Expenditures for public
schools in 1910 were $6,000,000; in 1917 $34,133,122. In 1917 the
average salary in the elementary schools was $81.74 P r month;
in the high schools $1,473 per year.
History. Many amendments to the constitution were ratified
during the decade 1010-20. Among the more important were
those for the initiative and referendum, the recall (including
the recall of judges), woman suffrage, the granting of larger
powers to the state railway commission, adoption of the short
ballot, all these in 1911 ; in 1912 the provision of a uniform series
of text-books for use in elementary schools together with their
free distribution. In 1914 a proposed prohibition amendment
to the constitution was defeated. In 1914 and again in 1920
the proposal of the Legislature that a convention be called to re-
vise the constitution was overwhelmingly defeated. Important
legislation included a workmen's compensation Act and the
limiting of the hours of women's labour to 8 hours a day or 48
hours a week (1911); an Act providing for the confinement and
care of drug addicts (1912): mothers' pensions; a blue sky law,
designed to protect investors against unscrupulous promoters;
and the sterilization of persons twice imprisoned for sexual
crime (1913); provision for absent voting by those engaged in
national service, for creating a state council of national defense
to cooperate with the Federal Council of National Defense,
and for the regulation of stages and automobiles, operating as
common carriers over definite routes (1917); a compulsory
part-time education law; vocational reeducation of workmen
disabled in industry; raising of compulsory school age limit
from 15 to 16; creation of a department of agriculture; pro-
vision of an industrial farm for the rehabilitation of fallen
women; and ratification of Federal prohibition (1919).
In Nov. 1910 Hiram W. Johnson was elected governor. He
had travelled through the state, attacking the "special inter-
ests," particularly the Southern Pacific railway, which he accused
CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF CALMETTE
of improper influence in state legislation. His remarkable success
in carrying through a comprehensive programme of legislation
is shown by the passage of the measures referred to. When,
following the break in the Republican party in 1912, the National
Progressive party was organized, Johnson was nominated for
vice-president on the ticket with Theodore Roosevelt. In the
succeeding election the results were extraordinarily close and
long in doubt; Roosevelt secured a plurality of 174 over Wood-
row Wilson, the Democratic candidate, the popular vote being
283,610 for Roosevelt and 283.4.36 for Wilson. In 1916 the
popular presidential vote was almost equally close but reversed,
466.289 for Wilson and 462,516 for Hughes, the former receiving
a plurality of 3,773. At this election women voted in the pres-
idential campaign for the first time. In 1920 the popular vote
for president was 624.992 for Harding and 229,191 for Cox. In
1916 Gov. Johnson was elected to the U.S. Senate, taking his
seat on March 4 following. Beginning Oct. 9 1911 attention
was centred in the trial in Los Angeles of John J. and James B.
McNamara, accused of dynamiting the Los Angeles Times
building (Oct. 9 1910), resulting in the death of 21 persons. The
crime was one of a nation-wide series intended to prevent the use
of non-union materials and non-union labour. The defendants
were strongly supported by the American Federation of Labor.
Later the accused pleaded guilty, and James B. McNamara
was sentenced to life imprisonment and John J. McNamara to
imprisonment for 15 years.
In 1913 the anti-Japanese feeling throughout the state cul-
minated in the passage of the Webb Alien Land-Holding Act.
In 1909 measures had been proposed in the Legislature aimed
at preventing the ownership of land by Japanese, but at the
request of President Roosevelt these were dropped. Similar
measures were introduced in 1913, and on April 13 a measure
to that effect passed the Assembly, containing language dis-
pleasing to the Japanese Government. President Wilson at once
communicated with Gov. Johnson, urging delay, and with the
approval of the Legislature and of the governor, Secretary of
State Bryan went to California to counsel moderation or delay
in action. But another bill drawn up by Attorney-General Webb
for the same purpose passed both Houses of the Legislature on
May 3 1913 and was signed by the governor May 19, to be
effective Aug. 17. The first tvo sections of the Webb bill were
as follows: (i) " All aliens eligible to citizenship under the laws
of the United States may acquire, possess, enjoy, transfer, and
inherit real property, or any interest therein, in this state in the
same manner and to the same extent as citizens of the United
States, except as otherwise provided by the laws of this state.
(2) All aliens other than those mentioned in section i may acquire,
possess, enjoy, and transfer real property, or any interest
therein, in the manner and to the extent and for the purpose
prescribed by any treaty now existing between the Government
of the United States and the nation and country of which such
alien is a citizen or subject, and not otherwise." While this bill
prevented the Japanese from acquiring land in the state, its
supporters held that no treaty rights were infringed, arid that
Japan could not justly take offence at the language used.
For several years San Francisco had been trying to secure
part of the Hetch-Hetchy valley as a reservoir for furnishing
water to the city. In 1913 a bill passed Congress, granting this.
The question evoked much public discussion on both sides.
Gifford Pinchot, the well-known conservationist, supported the
project, while the naturalist, John Muir, strongly opposed it. The
Panama- Pacific International Exposition, celebrating the open-
ing of the Panama Canal, was held Feb.-Dec. 1915, at San
Francisco. At the same time an exposition was held in San
Diego, devoted chiefly to the display of California products.
The state supplied to the army during the World War 112,514
men (excluding officers). The subscriptions to the four Liberty
Loans in order were $100.190,900, $159,362,100, $174,506,200,
$291,126,700; to the Victory Loan, $186,702,950.
Recent governors were James N. Gillett (Rep.), 1907-11;
Hiram W. Johnson (Progressive Rep.), 1911-7; William D.
Stephens (Rep.), 1917-.
CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF (see 5.22). During the decade
1910-20 the university of California grew to such an extent that
in the latter year it stood foremost in number of students among
American universities. In the degree-giving departments on
Nov. i 1920 the enrolment was as follows: at Berkeley, in the
schools of Letters and Science, Engineering, Agriculture, Chemis-
try, Commerce, Jurisprudence, Medicine (part), Education and
Architecture, 8,726 undergraduates, of whom 4,757 were men
and 3, 969 women; and 943 graduates, of whom 484 were men and
459 women; at San Francisco, in the Hastings School of Law,
schools of Medicine (part), Dentistry, Pharmacy, Hooper Foun-
dation for Medical Research, 656 students; at Los Angeles,
in the southern branch (instruction in lower division), 872
students, and in the teachers' curricula, 1,108 students; making
a total, 'less duplicates, of 11,197. There were in the university
extension division courses 13,792; in the agricultural extension
courses 5,625; in the summer session and intersession courses
6,436, and on the University of California Farm 530, making a
grand total, less duplicates, of 37,480.
Between 1910 and 1920 many new buildings were erected, the
most important being the Boalt Hall of Law (191 1), costing $190,000,
partly the gift of Mrs. Elizabeth Josselyn Boalt as a memorial to
Judge Boalt and partly subscribed to by the lawyers of California;
Agriculture Hall (1912), costing $267,000; Benjamin Ide Wheeler
Hall (1917), costing $700.000, and Hilgard Hall (1917) costing $350,-
ooo, both buildings the gift of the people of California; Gilman Hall
for the Chemistry department (1917), costing $197,000; Sathcr
Tower (1914), costing $200,000 besides $25,000 for bells; and the
University Library, completed in 1917 at a cost of $1,442,339.41,
of which $730,000 was bequeathed by Charles Franklin Doe. The
number of volumes in the library was 427,930 in 1920.
After twenty years of service Dr. Benjamin Ide Wheeler resigned
the office of president July 15 1919, and on Dec. 2 1919 Dr. David
P. Barrows, head of the department of Political Science, took his
place as 9th president. Mrs. Phoebe Apperson Hearst, for 22 years a
regent of the university, died April 13 1919. Among her many
gifts were the Hearst Mining Building. Hearst Hall, scholarships
amounting to more than $30,000 ; contributions to the Anthropologi-
cal museum, $130,000 ; and the swimming pool for women. The death
of Henry Morse Stephens, for 17 years a professor in the university,
occurred in 1919. In his memory his friends planned to erect a
$300,000 Student Union building to be known by his name, and also
to raise a sum of money to support one or more travelling fellow-
ships in Europe for university graduates in history.
The endowment of the university in 1920 was $7,253,926.57,
yielding a gross income of $368,821.04. The total assets, including
real estate and improvements, were $23,117,236.62. From July I
1919 to June 30 1920 the income of the university, from the U.S.
Government, was $159,338.90; from state appropriations, $2,722,-
904.37; from students' fees and deposits $594,210.96; from hospi-
tals, infirmary and the professional colleges $501 ,706.83 ; from depart-
mental sales and miscellaneous receipts $546,432.09; from gifts
for current use $110,718.75; from gifts for buildings and equip-
ment $302,263.82; and from gifts for endowment $530,343.86;
making, with the income from endowment mentioned above, a
total from all sources of $5,844,464.13.
In the World War 4,158 men and 36 women connected with the
university served with the colours. This number is exclusive of the
S.A.T.C. unit at the university with 1,926 men and 56 officers, and
the Naval Unit with 498 men and nine officers. Fifty-four per cent
of the enlisted personnel received commissions. Of the 121 faculty
members in the service, 103 were commissioned. (D. P. B.)
CALMETTE, GASTON (1858-1914), French journalist and
writer, was born at Montpellier July 30 1858. He was educated
at Nice, Bordeaux, Clermont-Ferrand and Macon, and after-
wards entered journalism. In 1884 he joined the staff of the
Figaro, and in 1894 became its editor. Calmette came much into
public notice in 1913 and 1914 as the leader and inspirer of the
bitter attacks on the policy of M. Caillaux. Almost every day
the Figaro produced evidence of a damaging sort against the
minister with the object of proving that he used his official
position to facilitate speculation on the Bourse. The attitude of
M. Caillaux in the Rochette case of 1911, in which it was alleged
by the Figaro that the director of public prosecutions had been
influenced by the ministry to delay the course of justice, was
brought forward, and a newspaper campaign of extraordinary
violence was the result. M. Caillaux was urged by some of his
colleagues to take legal proceedings against his accusers, but
declined. Some days later (March 17 1914) Mme. Caillaux
called at the office of the Figaro and shot M. Calmette dead
532
CAMBRAI-ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF
with a revolver. The unfortunate journalist was well known for
his interest in art, and possessed a fine collection of caricatures
and engravings of the First Empire.
CAMBON, PAUL PIERRE (1843- ), French diplomatist
(see 5.85), was appointed French ambassador in London in 1898.
His career at the London embassy was brilliant in the extreme.
He was one of the leading artisans of the Entente Cordiale,
and played a very important part in frustrating the efforts made
by Germany to separate France and Great Britain in 1914 on the
eve of the World War and in maintaining good Franco-British
relations during the peace negotiations. He resigned his post in
Nov. 1920.
His brother, JULES MARTIN CAMBON (1845- ), had
become French ambassador at Berlin in 1907, and was there
when the World War opened. He reached France from his post
in Berlin after a journey in the course of which he was subjected
by the Germans to many indignities. He had been a close ob-
server of Germany's year-long preparations for war. He became
General Secretary of the Foreign Office during M. Briand's war
term of office, a post which he occupied with distinction. He
was also elected a member of the French Academy.
CAMBRAI, BATTLE OF (1917): see ARTOIS, BATTLES IN; also
TANKS.
CAMBRAI-ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF (Aug. 2 6-Oct. 5
1918). The first stage of the British offensive in Aug. 1918, the
battle of Amiens, had been successfully accomplished, and the
second stage, the battle of Bapaume-Peronne, was making
good progress (see SOMME, BATTLES OF THE) when it was consid-
ered by British G.H.Q. that on Aug. 25 (to use the words of
Lord Haig) " the proper moment had come for the third stage
of the operations, in which the First Army should extend the
flank of our attack to the north. By driving eastward from Arras,
covered on the left by the rivers Scarpe and Sensee, the First
Army would endeavour to turn the enemy's positions on the
Somme battlefield and cut his system of railway communications
which ran south-westward across their front." See map, Plate I.
i. Operations of the First Army (Aug. 26-Sept. 26). The
forces at the disposal of Gen. Home's First Army for these opera-
tions consisted of the I. and VIII. Corps, to which the Canadian
Corps was now added. This last-named formation began to ar-
rive in the army area on Aug. 22, and was put into line on the
right or southern wing of the army. Thus the front on Aug. 25,
the eve of the offensive, was held as follows, from right to left:
Canadian Corps (Currie) (2nd Canadian, 3rd Canadian and sist
Div. in line, ist Canadian Div. in reserve); VIII. Corps (Hunter-
Weston) (8th and 2oth Div. in line, 24th Div. in reserve) ; and I.
Corps (Holland) (ssth and i6th Div.in line, i5th Div. in reserve).
Of these forces, however, only those astride the Scarpe, i.e. the
Canadian Corps, were to be engaged, the main axis of the attack
being the line of the Arras-Cambrai road; the two remaining
corps were to stand fast, while making all endeavours to deceive
the enemy and prevent him dispatching reinforcements to other
threatened points. The VIII. and I. Corps therefore will not
come again into this narrative.
Facing the right of the First Army were the German I. Bavarian
Reserve Corps astride the Scarpe and the II. Bavarian Corps as
far south as the Arras-Cambrai railway. These two corps
formed the right of the Seventeenth Army and had divisions in
line. They held the old German trenches of 1916 from W. of
Gavrelle in the N., by Fampoux, Feuchy, and Tilloy to Neuville
Vitasse in the south. Behind them lay a succession of strongly
fortified zones first, the old British and German defences of
1917 covering all the ground W. of the Coieul river; next the
Fresnes-Rouvroy line and the Vis en Artois switches and
finally the Drocourt-Queant line. To the E. of this, the last
artificial position, there lay the strong natural defence line of the
Canal du Nord covering Cambrai. The task upon which the
First Army was about to embark was thus no easy one.
The Canadian attack was timed for 3 A.M. on Aug. 26 that is,
well before dawn. Some 45 tanks were available, and owing
to the absence of some of the corps artillery only 600
guns covered the advance. Two objectives were assigned, the
first running E. of Fampoux and W. of Monchy and Wancourt,
the second including Roeux, Monchy and Guemappe, while
exploitation was to be carried out beyond this latter line
as far as possible.
The operation was carried out exactly as ordered. The Ger-
mans opposite the Canadians appear to have been warned of the
attack and to have thinned out their front h'ne, so that resist-
ance was weak at first. Heavy fighting, however, took place for
the second objective, particularly in the southern sector, where
the 2nd Canadian Div. was operating; here the ridge E. of Wan-
court and Guemappe was not finally secured till late at night.
The 3rd Canadian Div. had pushed its troops beyond Monchy
and up to the edge of Pelves by midday, while N. of the Scarpe
the sist Div., advancing at 9 A.M., occupied Fampoux and
Gavrelle with little opposition. The Germans delivered counter-
attacks S. of the river without success and at the end of the day
the Canadians had penetrated into and maintained themselves
within the enemy defences some two and a half miles to the E.
of their starting points.
The operations were continued during the following two days
by the same divisions in line. The 3rd Canadian Div., moving
off at 4:55 A.M. on the 27th, met with steadily increasing hostile
resistance, chiefly on the left in the Scarpe valley; the 2nd Cana-
dian Div. commenced its advance only at 10 A.M. Both made
progress, and by the evening had reached the line of the Sensee,
between Cherisy and Remy. The Canadians now found them-
selves in front of the Fresnes-Rouvroy h'ne, which in this
sector ran from N. of Hendecourt by Remy and Boiry to
Biache, and the capture of this h'ne was assigned as the objec-
tive for the 28th. The divisions again advanced at different
hours, the 3rd at 9 A.M., the 2nd at 12:30 P.M., and the brigades
and battalions also attacked in succession from the left, thus
enabling all the artillery available to unite in covering the ad-
vance of each unit in turn. This method proved highly successful
on the left, where by the end of the day the 3rd Div. was in
possession of the Fresnes-Rouvroy line along its entire front; the
2nd Div., however, despite valiant efforts, was unable to make
much progress.
That night the divisions in line were relieved, the ist Canadian
Div. coming in on the right, the 4th British Div. on the left.
The next few days were devoted to preparations for the attack
on the Drocourt-Queant h'ne, timed for Sept. i but later post-
poned to the 2nd. Artillery and bridging material were brought
forward and wire-cutting commenced, while a series of partial
infantry attacks took place with the object of securing suitable
jumping-off ground. The XXII. Corps (Godley) was now
brought in on the Canadian left; the nth Div. was put in on the
N. bank of the Scarpe and the sist and 8th taken over from the
Canadians and VIII. Corps respectively; the 49th Div. was
retained in reserve. As a result of the local operations carried
out on both banks of the river, Arleux and Plouvain fell into the
hands of the XXII. Corps, and the Canadians completed the
capture of the remaining German positions W. of the Drocourt-
Queant line. By the evening of Sept. i all was ready for the
morrow's attack.
This was to be carried out by the ist Canadian Div. on the
right, the 4th Canadian Div. in the centre, and the 4th British
Div. on the left on the front from N. of Hendecourt to W. of
Sailly, measuring some 55 m. in width. Five hundred guns and
45 tanks were detailed off to assist. The first objective was to be
the front and support lines of the Drocourt-Queant system; the
second the W. bank of the Canal du Nord between the Arras-
Cambrai road and the Scarpe, and the third a line just to the E.
of that obstacle. The XXII. Corps astride the Scarpe was to
secure the Canadian left. The XVII. Corps (Ferguson), on the
left of the British Third Army, was to advance on the Canadian
right, after the capture of the first objective, and by passing
through the breach made by the Canadians to turn from the N.
all the German defences in the vicinity of Queant, where the
Drocourt-Queant line joined the main Hindenburg line.
The attack began at 5 A.M., rapidly overran all resistance and
by 9:15 A.M. had possessed itself of its first objective on all its
CAMBRAI-ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF
533
front. The Drocourt-Queant front and support lines were thus
in the hands of the Canadians after little more than four hours'
fighting. The operation had been brilliant in the extreme, but
the exploitation proved more difficult, as neither tank nor artillery
support was available in sufficient strength. As a result the ad-
vance on the front of the 4th Canadian and 4th British Div. made
no progress beyond the line south of Etaing-Dury. On the
right, however, the ist Canadian Div. got forward beyond Cagni-
court and Villers and established its front some distance to the
E. of these places. Meanwhile the XVII. Corps pushed the 57th
Div. through the gap opened by the Canadians and swung down
astride the Drocourt-Queant line towards its junction with the
Hindenburg line, which was at the same time assailed in front
by the sand Division. Later in the day the 63rd Div. passed
through to continue the advance; by nightfall the tangle of
trenches and wire at the junction were in British hands and the
villages of Queant and Pronville had also been wrested from the
enemy.
That night the German Seventeenth Army withdrew its two
right corps in haste behind the Canal du Nord, where they again
faced round for a renewed stand. Their losses had been heavy;
ii divisions had been defeated with a loss of close on 11,000
prisoners and many guns; the artificial defences had not held up
or even appreciably checked the British advance, which now
threatened to turn from the N. the whole of the Hindenburg line.
Fortunately for the Germans the Canal du Nord proved a
sufficiently formidable obstacle to give pause to the First Army's
progress. It was decided that that army should halt and recon-
stitute for the present, as any further advance could only be
carried out by a deliberate and carefully planned assault on the
canal line. This attack was not to take place till Sept. 27.
In their operations between Aug. 26 and Sept. 3 the 10 British
divisions of the First Army had defeated 13 hostile divisions, and
taken from them over 16,000 prisoners and 200 guns. The right
wing of the German Seventeenth Army had been forced to fall
back some 12 m., abandoning in succession a series of strong and
well-fortified defensive systems, the loss of which had an instant
effect on the situation to the south.
2. Third Army's Advance to Hindenburg Line (Sept. 3-26}.
As a result of the First Army's success the German Seventeenth
Army on Sept. 2 was ordered to fall back to the Hindenburg
line, and to commence the move that same evening. By Sept. 8
the two corps (III. and XIV. Reserve) which faced the British
Third Army had completed their withdrawal and held the forti-
fied front from Sains on the Canal du Nord by Havrincourt
to just S. of Gouzeaucourt, with detachments to the W. of this
line, established in the old British and German trenches of 1917.
The British Third Army followed up the retreating enemy,
being impeded only by rearguards whose resistance was easily
overcome, and by Sept. 9 were once more in touch with the main
body of the German Seventeenth Army along the whole of its
front. At this period the line was held from right to left by the
V. Corps (Shute) (2ist and i?th Div. in front line, 38th Div. in
reserve); the IV. Corps (Harper) (5th New Zealand and 37th
Div. in line, 42nd Div. in reserve); the VII. Corps (Haldane)
(62nd and 2nd Div. in line, 3rd and Guards Div. in reserve) ; and
the XVII. Corps (Ferguson) (52nd and 63rd Div. in line, 57th
Div. in reserve).
In order to obtain observation and jumping-off ground for the
attack on the main Hindenburg system it was necessary to clear
the enemy from the positions still held by him forward of this
line. This was successfully accomplished in two operations, on
Sept. 12 and Sept. 18. On the former of these dates the IV. and
VI. Corps in the centre of the army advanced on a front of five
miles between the Cambrai-Peronne and Cambrai-Bapaume
roads. The IV. Corps, attacking with the 37th Div. on the right
and the New Zealand Div. on the left, occupied Trescault and
the heights north of it, while the 62nd Div. of the VI. Corps
carried Havrincourt after stubborn fighting and maintained it
in face of a series of counter-attacks, delivered with fresh forces
both on this and the following day. The 2nd Div. also made
some progress to the N., effectively securing the flank of the 62nd
and keeping touch with the XVII. Corps, which had been held
up ever since Sept. 2 on the W. bank of the Canal du Nord.
Sept. 1 8 saw the V. Corps on the right of the Third Army
attacking in its turn, in conjunction with the Fourth Army to
the south. The 38th Div. was brought up into line for this
operation on the left of the I7th, the 2ist Div. being on the right
of the corps front. The attack was fairly successful, though the
2ist Div. was unable to attain all its objectives and the 38th
Div. was held up in front of Gouzeaucourt, and a series of further
minor attacks on the succeeding days proved necessary before
the positions required for the general offensive against the main
Hindenburg line were completely secured along the whole front
of the Third Army.
3. Advance of Fourth Army to Hindenburg Line (Sept. 3-26).
The results of the fighting on the line of the upper Somme and
the Tortille at the end of Aug. and the beginning of Sept. had
been such as to induce the German Second Army to give up all
hope of putting up any further resistance W. of the Hindenburg
line, and to order a withdrawal of its troops to that fortified
position. Accordingly, from the morning of Sept. 4th, the
British Fourth Army was able to make rapid progress along its
whole front. The line at the beginning of this advance was held
as follows: on the right was the Australian Corps (Monash) with
the 32nd, 5th Australian and 3rd Australian Div. in line, and
the ist and 4th Australian Div. in reserve; on the left the III.
Corps (Butler) with the 74th and I2th Div. in line and the s8th
in reserve. Facing them the front of the German Second Army
was held in order from the right by the LIV., XI. and LI. Corps;
in all, eight divisions.
The first few days of the British advance passed with little
resistance from the enemy, who fell back rapidly under cover of
the fire of light machine-guns and isolated field guns. British
cavalry and cyclists found some scope for useful activity and
considerable progress was made. On Sept. 8, however, the Ger-
mans made a stand in the old British battle zone of March 21 on
the general line E. of Vermand to E. of Roisel-Epehy. A series
of partial assaults by the various front-line divisions having had
little result it became evident that a deliberate attack would be
necessary to overcome this obstacle. Accordingly the army
front was reorganized, the IX. Corps coming in on the right,
taking over the 32nd Div., and putting the ist into line on its
left, with the 6th and 46th in support. Gen. Rawlinson then
proposed to undertake an operation on a large scale with the ob-
ject of capturing the outer defences of the Hindenburg line along
the whole front of the Fourth Army. These outer defences con-
sisted of two strongly fortified lines, the first of which had been
the German outpost line in the spring of 1917 and the British
main line of resistance before March 1918, and the second the
British outpost line corresponding to this main line a less
formidable obstacle about a mile farther east. The capture of
these defences, which would afford observation over the greater
part of the main Hindenburg line proper, was of course an essen-
tial preliminary to any operation against the latter.
Accordingly the period from Sept. n to 17 was devoted to
pushing on the preparations for this projected attack. The line
was advanced in several places by means of strong fighting pa-
trols, so as to run on the evening of the i;th from Holnon by
Maissemy and Jeancourt to St. Emilie and W. of Epehy. By
this time everything was ready for the general offensive, which
was timed to commence at 5:20 A.M. on the i8th in conjunction
with the First French Army to the S. and the Third British Army
to the north.
It was intended that the advance should be carried out in
three stages, the final objective (which it was not considered
must necessarily be reached on the first day) being the old British
outpost line from Thorigny by Pontruet, W. of Bellicourt and of
Bony to W. of Vendhuille. This gave a front of attack of some
14 m. in length and involved an average penetration of 3 miles.
Twenty-three tanks joined in the attack, which was preceded by
no bombardment but was covered by the fire of 978 guns.
Generally speaking the operations of the Australian Corps in the
centre were completely successful, those of the IX. and III.
534
CAMBRAI-ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF
Corps in the wings less so. The IX. Corps, attacking with the
6th and ist Div. in line, despite difficulties in assembling its
forces, reached its first objectives by 9 A.M., but the 6th Division
was held up at Holnon, and was unable to maintain itself in
Fresnoy, while the ist Div. got farther forward, but not as far as
Pontruet. The corps lost heavily, though some prisoners and
guns were taken. The Australian Corps (4th Div. on the right,
ist on the left) also had heavy fighting, particularly in Levercuier
village and the woods N. of it, before reaching its first objective,
and was checked in front of the final objective till darkness fell,
when the last hostile defences W. of the main Hindenburg line
were successfully secured under cover of night. The captures of
the corps came to over 4,000 prisoners and 87 guns; the attacking
strength of the Australians was less than 6,000 and the casualties
were just over 1,000 in all. The III. Corps' attack, carried out by
the 74th, i8th, i2th and s8th Div. in line from the right, met
with very stubborn opposition; the enemy were expecting the
attack and fought well. As a result the progress made was less
than had been hoped; only the 74th Div. in fact attained the
first objective. The i8th was checked after capturing Ronssoy
and the i2th and 58th after taking Epehy; 2,300 prisoners were
taken and 10 guns.
It was decided, in view of the incomplete success attained on
this day, that the IX. and III. Corps should continue the attack
on the igth, while the Australians consolidated their gains. A
series of partial offensives were therefore undertaken on the
succeeding days, on both wings of the army, but with little real
result; neither corps could succeed in attaining the final object-
ives of the first day's attack or clear the enemy entirely from the
advanced defences of the Hindenburg line.
Meanwhile it had been definitely decided by British G.H.Q.
on Sept. 22 that that line should be attacked along the whole
front from the Sensee to N. of St. Quentin by the First, Third
and Fourth Armies. To the last named were assigned as reen-
forcements the XIII. Corps and the II. U.S. Corps; the for-
mer was maintained in reserve, but the latter was combined with
the Australian Corps and took over the left of its front and the
right of the III. Corps front, relieving the ist Australian, 74th and
i8th Div. by Sept. 25. The 74th and s8th Div. now left the
Fourth Army, which had thus undergone a net increase from 10
to 14 divisions.
During this redistribution the efforts of the IX. and III. Corps
to gain further ground continued without cessation. Sept. 21
and 22 saw some progress by the latter formation, which was not,
however, successful in completing the capture of the outer German
defences before the right of its line was taken over by the 27th
and 30th U.S. Div., nor were the new arrivals who carried out
their first attack in France on the 26th and 27th able to advance
the line to any real extent. On the other hand, during the period
from Sept. 24 to 26 the IX. Corps, by repeated efforts, pushed
their front to the E. of Gricourt and Pontruet, thus ensuring
favourable conditions for the forthcoming offensive on the right
wing of the army.
In the series of operations, described above, the Third and
Fourth British Armies had engaged 15 divisions against 29 of
the German Second and Seventeenth Armies, and had taken
from them close on 12,000 prisoners and 100 guns.
4. Preparations for Attack against Hindenburg Line (Sept. 22-
26). The Hindenburg line, which now faced the British armies,
has been described in detail elsewhere; it will therefore suffice
to say here that, together with the Masnieres-Beaurevoir line
beyond it, it formed a fortified belt some four to six miles in
depth, and was in all respects one of the most formidable defen-
sive positions known to history. Despite the risks of failure and
the probable consequences of such a failure, from the political
and moral as well as the military point of view, it was considered
essential both by Marshal Foch and Lord Haig that the attack
on it should be carried out and that as soon as possible. In view
of the fact that the First and Third British Armies were faced
with strong positions in the Canal du Nord and the Scheldt canal,
which it was advisable to carry prior to the general attack on the
Hindenburg line behind the latter obstacle, it was decided that
these two armies should open their operations a day earlier than
the Fourth Army, so as to draw off the German reserves from the
front of that army, which had to deliver the main attack and
was faced with the most formidable defences.
Accordingly the following orders were issued on Sept. 22:
" The First Army will attack on Sept. 27 with a view to captur-
ing the heights of Bourlon Wood in the first instance. It will
then push forward and secure its left on the Sensee river and
operate so as to protect the left of the Third Army. The Third
Army will operate in the direction of the general line Le Cateau
Solesmes. It will attack on Sept. 27 in conjunction with the
First Army and will press forward to secure the Canal de 1'Escaut,
so as to be in a position to cooperate closely with the Fourth
Army on Sept. 29. The Third Army will assist the Fourth Army
with counter battery work on the enemy's guns in the region La
Terriere-Villers Outreaux. The Fourth Army, protected on its
right flank by the First French Army, will deliver the main
attack against the enemy's defences from Le Tronquoy to Le
Catelet, both inclusive, operating in the direction of the general
line Bohain-Busigny. The bombardment will commence on
Sept. 27 and the assault will be delivered on Sept. 29."
5. First Army's Advance to Cambrai (Sept. 2?-Oct. 2). At
the close of the operations E. of Arras at the beginning of Sept.,
the right wing of the First Army, consisting of the Canadian and
XXII. Corps, stood S. of the Scarpe, facing the obstacle of the
Canal duNord and the Sensee. Behind this strong line of defence
the German Seventeenth Army had the I. Bavarian Reserve and
the II. Bavarian Corps with five divisions in front line and about
twice that number in support. The positions held by them were
formidable to a degree; the Canal du Nord, although not com-
pleted along all its length, was some too ft. in width and its northern
half full of water; all the bridges were destroyed, and the E. bank,
which commanded the W., had been lined with machine-guns
and strongly wired. To the E. of the canal the Germans had as
successive defensive positions the Marquion trench line, running
from Oisy by Marquion to the main Hindenburg line near Grain-
court; the Marcoing line, covering Cambrai at a distance of some
two miles from its outskirts; and the Scheldt canal, from the
Sensee at Estrun by the western suburbs of the city to Marcoing,
Crevecceur and the south.
The task in front of the First Army was thus an extremely
difficult one; none the less it had to be tackled, and as early as
Sept. 15 the preliminary measures were taken in hand. The
XXII. Corps took over the front from the Sensee southwards to
the Arras-Cambrai road, and the Canadians relieved the left
of the Third Army as far as N. of Moeuvres. By this means the
latter, who were to make the main attack, were brought opposite
a portion of the Canal du Nord, which was dry along a front of i j
miles. The plan was to cross the obstacle here and then to expand
the front of attack to a frontage of some 9 m. by pushing out
divisions fanwise to E., N.E. and N. It was hoped that the
assembly of the attacking troops in the restricted zone opposite
the crossing point, the rapid bridging of the dry canal, and the
pushing forward of guns to cover the farther advance, and of
reinforcements, ammunition and supplies to support it, could all
be carried out with the necessary speed and security, although the
difficulties to be faced were very great and the possible causes of
contretemps numerous.
Zero hour was to be 5:20 A.M. on Sept. 27. The 4th Canadian
Div. was in line on the right, and the ist on the left, and were to
carry out the first phase of the attack, as far as the line Fontaine
Notre Dame-W. of Haynecourt-Sauchy L'Estree. Up to this
line four successive objectives were assigned; from there onwards
the second phase of the advance was to carry the assailants to the
line of the Scheldt canal and the Sensee. During the pause be-
tween these two phases the 3rd Canadian Div. was to come in on
the right of the 4th, and the nth British Div. on the left of the
ist, so that the second phase would be carried out by the 3rd,
4th and ist Canadian and nth British Div. in that order from
the south.
Punctually at the appointed time, at dawn on Sept. 27, the
assault was delivered. The crossing of the narrow defile over the
CAMBRAI-ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF
535
canal between Inchy and Moeuvres was carried out according to
programme, thanks in large measure to the intensity of the
barrage covering the operation. All the field artillery of the
Canadian and XVII. Corps were firing on this area, and as a
frontage of only 9 yd. was allotted to each gun the resistance of
the enemy was speedily stifled. While the infantry pressed for-
ward to carry the Marquion line bridges were swiftly thrown
over the dry canal bed, and batteries went over at a gallop
to take up their positions for supporting the farther advance.
The first objective and part of the second were carried on time
and without great difficulty, but the left of the ist Canadian
Div., swinging to the left against Marquion, was checked
for a time, until reinforcements, including units of the nth
Div., came up to complete the capture of the village and its
defences. The second objective was in Allied hands by midday
everywhere. Further progress was difficult, particularly on the
right, where the 4th Canadian Div., which had outstripped the
advance of the left of the Third Army, was held up by flanking
fire and counter-attacks from the S., and was unable to do more
than establish itself on the fourth objective by the evening, with
its right thrown back along the Bapaume-Cambrai road. On
this line it was relieved during the night by the 3rd Canadian
Div. Farther to the N., the first phase of the attack was suc-
cessfully completed by 2 P.M., and it was found possible to com-
mence the second phase at 3:20 P.M.
At this hour the ist Canadian and nth Div. moved forward.
The former stormed Haynecourt, pressed up to and beyond the
Douai-Cambrai road E. of that village, and maintained its
position despite repeated and violent hostile efforts to regain the
lost ground. The nth Div. also met with great success, and
before nightfall was in possession of Sauchy Cauchy, Sauchy
L'Estree, Oisy and Epinoy.
The line therefore at the end of the day ran from just W. of
Fontaine Notre Dame to the Douai-Cambrai road N.E. of
Haynecourt, thence to Epinoy and Oisy le Verger. Four thou-
sand prisoners and 100 guns had been taken in this day's advance
of some 7,000 yd. in depth on a front of 15,000. The whole
operation, investing as it did a most complicated and yet perfect
combined action, had been a most brilliant success.
It was decided that the attack should be continued on the
28th, the 3rd and 4th Canadian Div. on the right and the nth
Div. on the left advancing at 6 A.M., while the ist Canadian Div.,
which was farther advanced than they, followed suit only at
8 A.M. The Germans resisted stoutly all along the line, but were
unable to stem the drive. On the right the 3rd Div. cleared
Fontaine Notre Dame and the 4th Sailly and were then held up
for the time being in front of the Marcoing line, which, however,
was completely cleared later in the evening by a renewed attack.
The ist Div. made little headway, but the nth Div. got well
forward along its front and established itself from Epinoy to
Aubencheul on the Sensee. Large captures were made besides
the substantial gain of ground.
At the same hour on the 2gth the infantry again went forward,
the objectives being to complete the capture of the Marcoing
line and the seizure of the Scheldt canal bridges W. and N.
of Cambrai. The nth Div. made no progress, but the line on
the rest of the front was advanced to the junction of the roads
from Arras and Bapaume in the suburbs of Cambrai and the
line of the Douai-Cambrai road and railway, including the
village of Sancourt. A certain amount of ground gained beyond
the railway had to be evacuated before the violent counter-blows
of the enemy against the left of the ist and then of the 4th Div.
None the less neither side was prepared to give up the struggle.
At dawn next day the 3rd and 4th Canadian Div. advanced once
more with the object of securing the cqveted bridges over the
Scheldt canal, to be followed later by the ist Canadian and nth
Div., which were to clear the peninsula between that canal and
the Sensee. A certain amount of progress was made, the village
of Tilloy being entered by the 3rd Div. and Blecourt by the 4th
Div., but not all these gains could be maintained in face of re-
peated hostile counter-attacks, and at the end of the day the line
ran much as before on the front of these two divisions. The sec-
ond phase of the offensive as planned could not even be com-
menced. Another effort was made on the morrow to complete
the operation. It met with stubborn resistance from German
divisions in line, now increased to ten. These endeavoured
again and again to check the Canadian advance by blows
against their left front and left from the direction of the con-
fluence of the Sensee and the Scheldt canal. The Canadian
advance began at 5 A.M. and went well despite all obstacles. The
3rd and 4th Div. attained their objectives the line of the canal
south of Ramillies and the road between that place and Cuvil-
lers. The ist Div. had even more desperate fighting before it
succeeded in clearing Blecourt, Cuvillers and Bantigny, and
when it had finally captured them a powerful thrust against its
exposed left from the direction of Paillencourt forced back the
Canadian line to the west of Cuvillers and Bantigny. Mean-
while the i ith Div. on the N., attacking in the afternoon, secured
and held its objectives and thus eased the situation on that flank.
On the evening of Oct. i the Canadian line ran from the western
suburbs of Cambrai by Tilloy to the Douai-Cambrai railway W.
of Blecourt and along that railway to the Sensee.
This was the final day of the Cambrai battle on the First
Army front. After its exertions and achievements during the
previous five days of incessant fighting the Canadian Corps was
in urgent need of rest and refitment. It was therefore decided
to postpone further attacks for a few days, until the effect of the
Third and Fourth Armies' advance in the S. should make itself
felt. The results of the First Army's battle were in any case
satisfactory to a degree.
Though Cambrai itself only fell into Allied hands a week later,
its fate was in fact sealed by the five days' fighting which has
just been narrated. During its course the First Army's line had
been advanced close on eight miles; its four divisions had driven
back the 13 German divisions engaged by the Seventeenth Army
on their front, and taken from them over 7,000 prisoners, 205
guns and 950 machine-guns, besides inflicting losses in killed and
wounded which certainly far outweighed their own casualties.
The last German fortified system had been breached on this
front and the first stage and the most difficult stage com-
pleted of that triumphant advance which was to lead the First
Army, in six weeks' time, back to Mons.
6. Assault of Third Army on Hindenburg Line (Sept. 2?-Oct. 2).
The front of the Third Army on the evening of Sept. 26 ran W.
of Villers Guislain and Gouzeaucourt, E. of Trescault and Hav-
rincourt to the line of the Canal du Nord S. of Moeuvres and
along its W. bank to that village. From right to left along this
front were the V. Corps (33rd, 2 ist and 38th Div. in line), the
IV. Corps (jth and 42nd Div. in line, New Zealand Div. in
support), the VI. Corps (3rd and Guards Div. in front, 62nd in
support) and the XVII. Corps (^and and 63rd Div. in front,
57th in support). Facing them the German Seventeenth Army
held the Hindenburg system with seven divisions in front line.
In view of the great strength of the defences in the southern
section of the Third Army zone it was decided that there should
at first be no attack by the V. Corps, but that the salient held by
the enemy in that area should be left until the progress of the
operations on either flank should endanger the garrison's line of
retreat. Accordingly the offensive of Sept. 27 was carried out
by the Third Army with its three leftmost corps only.
The task of the IV. and VI. Corps was to clear the Hindenburg
front and support lines on either side of the Ribecourt valley- as
far E. as Highland Ridge (running N. from Villers Plouich) and
the spur overlooking Marcoing from the west. Five objectives
were laid down, and exploitation was to be carried out beyond
the final one to Welsh Ridge (N. of La Vacquerie) and the
Scheldt canal. The XVII. Corps was-first to carry the Hinden-
burg system on its front and then to advance to the line Grain-
court-Anneux, with exploitation if possible as far as Cantaing-
Fontaine Notre Dame. Zero hour was at 5 : 20 A.M.
The 5th Div. of the IV. Corps moving off at that hour early
met stubborn resistance and suffered from flanking fire from the
south. Beaucamp was not taken till 11:30 A.M. after hard fight-
ing, and then had to be surrendered again late in the evening to a
536
CAMBRAI-ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF
heavy counter-attack. In consequence the right wing of the
42nd Div. was somewhat checked in its advance, and whereas
the left of that division, starting off at 7:52 A.M., was well beyond
its third objective by midday the right wing had only just com-
pleted the first stage of its advance. By 2:30 P.M. the left of the
42nd in conjunction with the right of the 4th Div. (VI. Corps)
had captured Ribecourt, but the final stages of the advance
had to be postponed till next morning.
The VI. Corps met with more success. The 3rd Div., over-
running the hostile defences with little difficulty, shortly after
midday seized Flesquieres and Ribecourt and established itself
east of these villages, where the 62nd Div. passed through to
continue the advance and carried the line to the outskirts of
Marcoing, thus attaining all the corps' objectives for the day.
On the left the Guards, despite heavy losses from flanking fire
against their left, owing to the fact that the XVII. Corps was
unable to keep up with their rapid progress, pressed forward
between Flesquieres and Graincourt and reached the neighbour-
hood of Premy chapel (N.W. of Marcoing). They were relieved
by the 2nd Div. on that evening.
The XVII. Corps had first to clear the W. bank of the Canal
du Nord W. of Graincourt before it could attempt to pass it and
get forward to its day's objectives. The right division, the 52nd,
successfully carried out this operation with a portion of its forces,
while other units crossed the canal on the right in conjunc-
tion with the 63rd Div., and met with severe resistance. It was
not till late in the afternoon that Anneux and Graincourt fell
into Allied hands and the 57th Div. passed into first line for the
further advance on Cantaing, which proved to be impracticable
before nightfall.
On the night of Sept. 27, then, the Third Army front ran from
W. of Beaucamp by Ribecourt, Premy chapel and Anneux to W.
of Fontaine Notre Dame, where it connected with the right of
the Canadian Corps a maximum penetration of some 35 m.
from the jumping-off line. Operations were resumed next day.
The IV. Corps began its attack at 2:30 A.M. under cover of dark-
ness; Beaucamp was once more secured, Highland Ridge was
carried by storm, and parties pushed forward to Welsh Ridge
which was cleared of the enemy by 6 P.M. The VI. Corps,
attacking with the 62nd and and Div. as soon as it was light
enough to see, cleared the Germans from the W. bank of the
Scheldt canal and established itself on thelineMarcoing-Noyelles;
it was found impossible, however, to get over the canal at the
moment. The line of the canal was also reached on the XVII.
Corps' front, E. of Cantaing, and her parties succeeded in getting
over the obstacle and establishing themselves there despite the
counter-attacks of the enemy.
September 29 saw the V. Corps on the Army right joining in
the attack in conjunction with the Fourth Army to the south.
Little progress was made in this sector, but on all the rest of the
front considerable results were achieved. The IV. Corps, ad-
vancing with the sth Div. on the right and the New Zealanders
on the left, carried Gonnelieu and Banteux in the right section,
securing a bridge-head at Crevecoeur in the left section of its
zone of attack. The VI. Corps to its left had passed the canal in
force before the end of the day and established itself to the E. of
Masnieres; the XVII. Corps also got the 63rd Div. over the
obstacle, while the 57th Div. on the left cleared the Marcoing
line between the canal and the Bapaume-Cambrai road and
pushed on to the outskirts of the city itself.
On Sept. 30 and Oct. i the advance was continued, but more
slowly and with greater difficulty. The Germans, menaced on
either flank, as had been foreseen, withdrew from their salient
on the V. Corps' front, and the latter were able to get forward to
the canal line and commence preparations for forcing it. The IV.
Corps secured its footing on the E. bank about Crevecceur,
while the VI. Corps occupied Rumilly after two attempts, and
the XVII. Corps on the left flank reached the suburbs of Cam-
brai on both banks of the Scheldt canal.
The battle on the Third Army front was now over. The
Hindenburg line had been breached on a front of nine miles, and
an average advance of seven miles effected in the face of the most
formidable obstacles, both natural and artificial. Thirteen Ger-
man divisions had been forced to give ground before 12 British,
and had left behind them many prisoners and guns during the
five days' fighting. The fate of Cambrai was sealed and only
a part of the incompletely constructed Masnieres-Beaurevoir
line, already broken in its northern sector by the Third Army
and in its southern sector by the Fourth Army, was left as a
dyke to stem the further British advance. That line, as the at-
tack of Oct. 8 was to show, was destined to prove quite insuffi-
cient to hold up those troops who had stormed the immensely
powerful defences of the Hindenburg system. .
7. Storming of Hindenburg Line by Fourth Army (Sept. 27-
Oct. 5). -The forces at the disposal of the Fourth Army for the
attack of the formidable defences of the Hindenburg line on the
front of 12 m. from Selency to Vendhuille consisted of the IX.
Corps (Braithwaite) (ist and 46th Div. inline, 3 2nd in support);
the composite American-Australian Corps (Monash) (27th and
3oth U.S. Div. in line, sth and 3rd Australian in support, 2nd
Australian in reserve) ; and the III. Corps (Butler) (i2th and 58th
Div. in line, i8th in support). The IX. Corps' zone of attack
included the Canal du Nord and the defences on either side of
Bellenglise, while that of the composite corps was the canal tun-
nel on either side of Bellicourt. The III. Corps had the subsidi-
ary role of covering and securing the left flank of the composite
corps. The first objective assigned to be captured by the divi-
sions in line included the Hindenburg system on both banks of
the canal and the Hindenburg reserve line a mile to the E.; once
these had been secured the supporting divisions were to pass
through and carry the last line of defence, the Masnieres-
Beaurevoir line, between the latter village and Le Tronquoy.
The German Second Army, facing the Fourth Army, consisted
at this time of the LIV., IV. Reserve and LI. Corps in line, and
the XL Corps in reserve. The III. Corps on the right of the
German Eighteenth Army was also partly on the Allied front.
Ninety-eight divisions were in line and others in support, but
neither physically nor morally were these troops all that could
be desired. Moreover, though they must have been well aware
that an attack was coming, the date and time were unknown
and remained unknown till the moment of the assault.
The preliminary bombardment commenced at 10 P.M. on
Sept. 26 and went on for 56 hours; about 1,600 guns of all
calibres took part in it, yet so formidable were the hostile de-
fences that the task of the infantry still remained one of great
difficulty. This was enhanced by the fact that only in certain
sectors where the canal passed under the Belh'court tunnel was
it possible to employ tanks, of which some 130 were allotted to
the left of the IX. Corps and to the Composite Corps.
Nevertheless, when the infantry broke forward to the attack
at 5:55 A. M. on Sept. 29 under cover of the morning mist their
advance made rapid progress.
On the IX. Corps front, while the 6th Div. on the right se-
cured the army flank about Gricourt, the 46th Div. overran all
obstacles in its front, swam or crossed the canal, stormed Bel-
lenglise village and the defences beyond, and by 3 P.M. was in
possession of its objectives everywhere. At the cost of only 800
casualties it had penetrated some 3! m. deep into the most
formidable part of the hostile fortress, routed the four enemy
divisions in its front and taken 4,200 prisoners and 70 guns. It
was perhaps the most astonishing single feat of arms in the World
War. The 32nd Div. passing through found its task much sim-
plified, and before nightfall had carried the Hindenburg reserve
line on practically the whole of its front, taking a further 800
men and 20 guns in its advance.
Farther to the left, however, matters had gone less well on the
front of the composite Australian-American Corps. Gallantry
and inexperience induced the U.S. Div. in the front line,
handicapped 'from the start owing to confusion in the prelimi-
nary assembly of their units, to push too far forward without
making sure of the ground in their rear. The supporting Austra-
lian divisions therefore found themselves in a difficult situation,
which was only redeemed by hard and skilful infantry fighting.
On the right of the corps sector the 5th Australian Div. finally
CAMBRAI -ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF
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CAMBRIDGE
537
got as far forward as the Hindcnburg reserve line about Nauroy;
but the 3rd Australian Div. on the left could make little headway
from its starting line, and the hostile defences about Bony re-
mained intact.
On the left flank of the army the III. Corps was able to fulfil
satisfactorily the subsidiary role assigned to it.
Despite the comparative failure of the Composite Corps the
attack had on the whole been a brilliant success, seven Allied
divisions having defeated nine enemy divisions ensconced in
immensely powerful works, capturing from them 5,300 prisoners
and loo guns and effecting such a wide breach in the last German
line of defence that its complete capture in a few days was as-
sured.
Gen. Rawlinson decided that the offensive should be continued
, on the 30th, the U.S. Div. being withdrawn from line for the
present. The IX. Corps was to round off its success on the right
by clearing the Thorigny area on the near bank of the canal, and
occupying the ground on its front as far as the Masnieres-Beau-
revoir line; the Australians were to secure the remainder of the
first day's objectives in its sector between Bellicourt and Vend-
huille, while the III. Corps would occupy the latter village to
cover their left. The IX. and III. Corps were able to carry out
this programme without serious difficulty; but the Australians
again met with stubborn resistance, and at the end of the day,
though their right division, the 5th, had cleared the greater part
of the Hindenburg reserve line, the 3rd Div., on the left, working
up the Hindenburg line from the S., had been able to get no
farther than S. of Bony. The completion of the operation there-
fore was deferred till Oct. i, when the 3rd Australian Div., after
fighting all night, succeeded by a combined attack from W. and
S. in clearing the Hindenburg line entirely and pushing forward
to the edge of Le Catelet. The IX. Corps also had a successful
day; the 32nd Div., advancing in conjunction with the sth
Australian Div., cleared Joncourt and Estrees and breached
the Masnieres-Beaurevoir line on a mile front E. of the former
village. This hold was maintained all next day, despite desperate
hostile efforts to recover the lost ground; two British attacks on
Sequehart were, however, repulsed.
During the first two days of Oct. the army front was redistrib-
uted in preparation for the general offensive to be undertaken
on the 3rd against the last defensive position left to the enemy
the Masnieres-Beaurevoir line. On the evening of the 2nd the
line was held by the IX. Corps on the right, with all three divi-
sions, ist, 32nd and 46th, in front line; the Australian Corps
with the 2nd Australian Div. in front line; and the XIII. Corps,
with the soth Div. in line, and the 25th and 66th in support. The
orders were for the IX. Corps to take Sequehart and Ramicourt
and push forward to Montbrehain; for the Australians to occupy
the line from W. of Ramicourt to S.W. of Beaurevoir and then to
seize the latter place and Ponchaux; and for the XIII. Corps to
clear Gouy and Le Catelet.
Zero hour was at 6:5 A.M. on the 3rd. The IX. Corps on the
right had heavy fighting, and after attaining their final objec-
tives about 10:30 A.M. were counter-attacked repeatedly and
forced to relinquish Montbrehain and some of the ground gained
to the south. The Australian Corps also successfully attained
its first objectives, though not till later in the evening, so that
the exploitation of their success on this day proved out of the
question. The main object of the day's attack had, however, been
completely achieved, for along all the front of these two corps
the Masnieres-Beaurevoir line was in Allied hands. The XIII.
Corps on the left established itself in Gouy and Le Catelet by
midday, and though a strong hostile counter-attack recovered
the former village for a time the ground lost was regained before
the nightfall.
After a redistribution of the front the operations were resumed
on the 4th. The main task fell to the XIII. Corps, but little
progress was made in that sector, as the enemy, who was be-
lieved to be preparing for a withdrawal eastwards, resisted
stubbornly around Beaurevoir to cover his retirement. The Aus-
tralian and IX. Corps also had little result to show for their
efforts. Oct. 5th, however, saw the successful completion of the
programme, the XIII. Corps taking possession of Beaurevoir
with the 25th Div. and pushing the 5oth Div. on its left wing
well north of Gouy towards Aubencheul in conjunction with the
right of the Third Army, while the Australians secured Mont-
brehain. It was to be their last feat of arms in the World War,
and they had the satisfaction of knowing, as they left the line on
the 6th, that the last fortifications of the Germans on the Fourth
Army front had fallen, and that the way was clear into the open
country beyond.
During the period between Sept. 29 and Oct. 5 the Fourth
Army's 1 2 divisions had completely defeated 20 enemy divisions,
driving them from a succession of defensive lines of unexampled
strength and taking from them close on 15,000 prisoners and 120
guns, and could claim for themselves with justice a preponderat-
ing share in the decisive victory of the war.
8. Results of the Battle. The results of the battle may be thus
summed up: 35 British divisions had been engaged against 79
German divisions. The latter had been forced to retreat some
20 m. on a front of 30, and had lost 67,000 prisoners, 680 guns
and vast quantities of other material, besides their killed and
wounded. The formidable defensive system on which the German
Higher Command, apparently with good reasons, relied to hold
up the Allied advance until the winter should give pause to active
operations and secure for their hard-driven troops and war-
weary people a little respite from their trials and disillusion-
ments, had been burst into fragments, and there was left for
German arms no further resource for staving off disaster.
CAMBRIDGE, England (see 5.90). The architectural amen-
ities of the town, as distinct from the university, were increased
by the County Hall in Hobson Street (1913), a Wesleyan church
at the corner of King Street and Short Street (1913), and a
handsome gate-house to the Leys school (1914). A national
plant-breeding institute was in course of completion on the
Huntingdon Road in 1921.
The University. In spite of the incidence of the World War,
the period 1910 to 1921, viewed as a whole, must rank as one
of great activity in the history of Cambridge University. On
constitutional proposals of more than ordinary moment, such
as those of conferring greater legislative power on resident
university and college teachers with the partial disfranchise-
ment of the Senate and the electoral roll (1910 and 1920) or
the admission of women to all academic privileges (1920),
the university maintained a conservative attitude, but in
matters secondary only to these in importance it followed a
policy of continuous and thorough-going reform. The courses
of study for honours and, more especially, for pass men under-
went considerable revision. After prolonged deliberations, Greek,
as a compulsory subject, was dropped from, and other note-
worthy changes were effected in, the Previous Examination
(1919); the regulations governing the pass degree were entirely
remodelled (1920); several of the honours examinations, notably
the classical tripos and the oriental languages tripos, were
reconstituted with a division into two parts, the first of which
does not normally carry the B.A. degree with it. New triposes
were established in anthropology (1913) and geography (1919),
while the mediaeval and modern languages tripos, greatly en-
larged in scope, was split into the modern and mediaeval languages
tripos and the English tripos (1917). The university further
recognized the value of graduate studies by establishing the
degrees of Ph.D. (1919), and of M.Litt. and M.Sc. (1920).
A series of enactments (1912-4) made several changes in the
mode of procedure to the degree of D.D. and threw it open to
others than those in Holy Orders of the Church of England.
The increasing diversity of studies resulted also in the establish-
ment of new professorships, readerships and boards of studies;
professorships of English Literature (1910), Genetics (1912),
Biochemistry (1914), Italian (1919), Naval History (1919), French
(1919), Physics (1919), Aeronautical Engineering (1919), and
Physical Chemistry (1920); readerships in Spanish, Modern His-
tory, Geography, Agriculture, Agricultural Physiology, Physiology,
Morphology of Vertebrates, Petrology, Pharmacology, Electrical
Meteorology and Estate Management; Special Boards for Archi-
tectural Studies (1912) and Psychological Studies (1920). Trinity
College offered in 1921 to establish a preelectorship in Geodesy.
538
CAMERON CAMEROON
Aids to learning and research of a more material nature were
provided by the erection and augmentation of numerous institutes.
The engineering laboratory on the north side of Downing Street
was twice enlarged and finally removed to a completely new site
behind Scroope Terrace, Trumpington Road (1920-1). Part of
the buildings thereby vacated, as well as new ones erected close to
them, were taken over by the neighbouring chemical laboratories.
On the south side of Downing Street sites were found for the school
of agriculture (1910), the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology
(1910-5), the psychological laboratory (1913), the physiological
laboratory (1914), the forestry school (1914), the Molteno In-
stitute of Animal Parasitology (1921) and a low temperature sta-
tion for research in biochemistry and biophysics (not completed
in 1921). The Arts school, off Bene't Street, a fine brick building
faced with stone, designed by G. Hubbard, which contains a number
of lecture rooms and also houses several departmental libraries,
was opened in 1911. In that year the university accepted the
Government's proposal to take charge of the solar physics obser-
vatory, then at South Kensington, and the necessary accommodation,
in clo'se proximity to the existing observatory on the Madingley
Road, was completed in 1913. Field laboratories in connexion with
the agricultural department, situated on the Milton Road, came
into use in 1910-1.
Emmanuel College and Queens' College, to the north of their
older buildings in either case, added to their fabric ; Cheshunt College
found permanent quarters at the west end of Bateman Street (1915),
and the chapels of Sidney Sussex and Corpus Christi College were
enlarged and redecorated.
Effects of the War. The immediate effect of the World War on
Cambridge University (16,000 alumni of which were engaged on
active service) was enormously to reduce the numbers of teachers
and students. (There were 3,263 undergraduates in the Michaelmas
term of 1913, 1,658 in Michaelmas term 1914, 398 in Michaelmas
term 1917.) The place of those who had gone was, spatially, taken
by professors and students from the Belgian universities, by Serbian
school-boys and students, by nurses attached to the First Eastern
General hospital (T), first set up in Nevile's Court, Trinity College,
in Aug. 1914, and then (1914-9) on the cricket-field of King's and
Clare, and, most effectively, by cadet battalions and officers
attending staff courses. The absorption of many university teachers
by Government departments and the first-hand acquaintance with
academic training gained by a still larger number of servants of the
Crown greatly advanced the cooperation between university and
State, which had already begun practically with Government grants
to the schools of agriculture and forestry and to the various depart-
ments concerned with the instruction of medical students (191.}).
The cessation of hostilities did not effect any weakening of this tie:
the Admiralty, the Air Ministry and the War Office (on behalf of
the Royal Engineers and Signal Corps) organized temporary and
permanent training schemes in Cambridge for officers, to afford
them immediate acquaintance with the latest developments in the
science of their respective callings. When the university, con-
fronted with a serious decline in the value of money and an abnormal
number of students (4,363 undergraduates in Michaelmas term 1919,
4,883 in Michaelmas term 1920), was left with the unpleasant alter-
natives of a serious financial deficit or an equally serious diminution
of its educational efficacy, the Government accorded it (1919), as
a kind of off-set to the indebtedness it had incurred, a temporary
annual grant of 30,000, pending the report of the Royal Commis-
sion which had been appointed. (B. W. D.)
CAMERON, JAMES DONALD (1833-1918), American poli-
tician (see 5.109), died at his country home, Lancaster co., Pa.,
Aug. 30 1918.
CAMEROON (Fr. Cameroun, Ger. Kamerun; see 5.110). By the
Franco-German agreement of Nov. 4 1911 some 107,200 sq. m.
of French Equatorial Africa were added to the German pro-
tectorate, while 6,450 sq. m. of Cameroon in the Lake Chad
region were ceded to France. An Anglo-German agreement of
March n 1913 settled the frontier of Nigeria and Cameroon
between Yola and the Cross river. By the agreement with
France the area of Cameroon was increased from about 191,000
sq. m. to 292,000 sq. m. and the pop. from some 2,600,000 to
about 3,300,000. In 1913 the white inhabitants numbered 1,871,
of whom 1,643 were German.
The additions to Cameroon were " compensation " to Ger-
many for the assumption by France of a protectorate over
Morocco (see AFRICA, History). They included two tongues of
land running S.E. from the main bulk of the protectorate, one
along the valley of the Sanga to its junction with the Congo, the
other reaching the Ubangi. Cameroon thus obtained contact
with Belgian Congo and full access to the navigable waters of the
Congo basin, while the French colony of Middle Congo was cut
into fragments. The transfer of territory took place in 1912 and
the Germans established military and trading posts both on the
Congo and Ubangi. There had been, however, insufficient time
to develop the newly acquired territories before the World War
put an end to German sovereignty.
Progress was made during 1907-13 in the development of the
economic resources of the country, which consisted principally of
palm kernels and palm oil, rubber, cocoa, ivory, timber and live
stock. Forests coyer some 50,000 sq. m. of the country and over
60 % of the wood is of commercial value. The plantations of cocoa
and rubber largely increased and a beginning was made in coffee-
growing. The value of trade, imports and exports, was about
3,000,000 in 1913, compared with 1,700,000 in 1907. Revenue
continued to be below the cost of administration, the figures for
1913-4 being: revenue 565,000, expenditure 86.^,000. Deficits
were made good by grants from the German treasury. Some prog-
ress was made in railway construction, two main lines being under-
taken. The first started from Duala, in the Cameroon estuary and
the principal port, and went S.E. by Edea towards the central
plateau; the second started from Bonaberi, on the Cameroon
estuary opposite Duala, and, skirting Mt. Cameroon, was designed
to go N.E. towards Lake Chad. In 1913 a direct cable from
Duala to Germany was opened and in 1914 wireless telegraphic
stations were erected.
Under Dr. T. Seitz's governorship (1907-10) the adminis-
tration endeavoured to remedy the worst abuses in native affairs,
and revolts became less frequent. The Moslem Fula chiefs in
the northern region were patronized and comparatively little
interfered with, slavery being continued. Dr. Seitz, on his
transference to South-Wcst Africa, was succeeded by Dr.
Gleim, who in 1912 gave place to Herr Ebermeier, the last
German governor. He was assisted by a council on which sat
three nominated representative merchants. The seat of Govern-
ment was at Buea, on the slope of Mt. Cameroon.
Cameroon was invaded in Sept. 1914 by British and French
(native) troops under the command of Maj.-Gen. Dobell sup-
ported by H.M. SS. " Cumberland," " Challenger " and " Dwarf "
under the command of Capt. Cyril Fuller, R.N. Duala was
shelled and thereupon evacuated, and the last German garrison
surrendered in Feb. 1916.
After' the conquest of the protectorate the country was
provisionally divided into areas administered respectively by
French and British authorities. At first the British administered
the Duala region, but it and the whole estuary of the Cameroon
river was subsequently transferred to French control, the British
retaining charge of the port of Victoria, the hill-station at Buea,
and a strip of territory averaging 70 to 80 m. in width from W.
to E. flanking the E. boundary of Nigeria. The Supreme
Council, sitting in Paris on May 7 1919, gave the mandate for
Cameroon to France and Great Britain. By an agreement be-
tween those Powers concluded on July 4 1919 Britain finally
retained the strip of ex-German territory bordering Nigeria.
This British strip included in the south Mt. Cameroon and in
the north Dikoa and the adjacent parts of "German" Bornu.
The rest of Cameroon, 166,500 sq. m. out of the 191,000 sq. m.
of the protectorate as constituted in 1910, fell to France. Those
districts which the French had been compelled to cede to
Germany in 1911 were reincorporated in French Equatorial
Africa and formed no part of the mandated territory. In the
mandated area no discrimination in respect to trade could be
made in favour of French citizens as against nationals of other
states, members of the League of Nations.
During 1920 a provisional boundary was determined by
British and French officers who met at various points and this
was to remain in force until a commission could be entrusted
with the final work of demarcation.
The southern portion of the British area was constituted a
province of Nigeria under the administration of a senior resident.
The remainder of the territory is incorporated for administrative
purposes in the provinces of Muri, Yola and Bornu, to which
portions of it adjoin; but in every instance the accounts of the
occupied area are kept separate from those of Nigeria in order
that detailed accounts showing the revenue collected and the
expenditure incurred can at any moment be produced.
Politically the most important additions to territory under Brit-
ish rule are the Emirate of Dikoa, which has been reunited to
CAMEROON
539
Bornu (with which it is closely connected) and a number of small
emirates in the neighbourhood of Yola, which are similarly reunited
to the emirate of that name. Farther south, the districts of Ossi-
dinge, Tinto and Bamenda, which form parts of the Cameroon
Province, are very little developed, but traces are being made for
roads designed to connect them more closely with the neighbour-
ing districts of Nigeria. Bue'a, which has an altitude of some 4,000
ft., though it enjoys an almost perfect climate for some four months
of the year, has an excessive rainfall and the humidity resulting
therefrom renders it of little value as a permanent hill-station. It
is connected with Victoria by a light railway which was built to
serve the extensive cocoa and rubber plantations opened and devel-
oped by a number of German companies in its vicinity and in the
country lying between the foot-hills of the Cameroon mountains
and the sea. After the expulsion of the Germans in 1915 these
plantations were kept up and managed by officers employed for
the purpose by the Government of Nigeria; and it was intended
that as soon as a convenient opportunity offered they should be
disposed of by auction, the proceeds being credited to the repara-
tions account. At Victoria the Germans had established a small
but very beautiful and valuable botanical garden which the Gov-
ernment of Nigeria is taking steps to maintain.
With the exception of the area covered by the plantations, the
sphere occupied by the British in the Cameroons is very little
developed. Internal means of communication are of the most
primitive description ; sea communications with Calabar are irregu-
lar; the population is not large; and the administration of the area
imposes an annually recurring charge upon the Government of Ni-
geria. In 1921 this amounted to 67,000. It was believed that
the mandate for this territory would be issued in 1922.
During 1919-20 the French, who retained the name of Cam-
eroon (in its French form), organized a regular administration.
The mandated area was given financial and administrative
autonomy, but to ensure unity of policy in common interests the
commissioner of Cameroon had the right to a seat on the council
of the governor-general of French Equatorial Africa. Cameroon
was divided into 12 circonscriptions with Duala (pop. about
18,000) as capital. In May 1921 the capital was transferred to
Yaunde a town of 30,000 inhabitants, occupying a compara-
tively healthy and central position on the central .plateau, and
1 10 m. S.S.E. of Duala. A route for the extension of the railway
from Duala to Yaunde was surveyed. In 1920 railhead was at
Eseka, some 45 m. short of Yaunde. The revival of trade after
the World War was slow; but in 1920 the combined value of
imports and exports was roughly estimated at over 2,000,000.
See I. von Puttkamer, Gouverneursjahre (1915); E. Zimmermann,
Neukamerun (1913) ; L. Hause, Durchs unbekannte Kamerun (1915) ;
A. F. Calvert, The Cameroons (1917); G. Bruel, L'Afrique Equato-
riale Franfaise (1918). Agood general map on the scale of 1/2,000,-
ooo was issued by the French colonial ministry in 1920. (F. R. C.)
THE CAMPAIGN or 1914-8. On the opening of the World
War, Cameroon was invaded independently by such troops
few in number as the British in Nigeria and the French in
Equatorial Africa had at their disposal. The German protec-
torate was roughly triangular in shape, with its base extending
from the estuary of the Muni E. to the valley of the Sanga and
its apex reaching Lake Chad; with, in the S.E., two tongues of
land running to the Congo and Ubangi rivers respectively. It
enclosed on the S.W. Spanish Guinea, Nigeria lay on its N.W.,
elsewhere it was bordered by French territory. The centre and
S. of the country are mostly covered with forest or dense bush;
in the E. there is much savannah-like land; the northern part is
generally clear of bush, but (save in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Lake Chad), broken and open, mountainous and with
many hill-posts, affording excellent means of defence. The
German forces were scattered, but the greater part were about
Duala, in the Cameroon estuary, and the chief port.
According to German official statistics the military force in
Cameroon in 1913 consisted of 199 Germans and 1,550 natives, and
the police force numbering 40 Germans and 1,255 natives. When
hostilities began some hundreds of German settlers were enlisted,
together with a number of sailors belonging to ships which took
refuge in the Cameroon estuary. Considerable numbers of natives
were also trained as askaris, and in the N. one or two Fula chiefs,
with their levies, aided the Germans. Col. Zimmermann, an able
and resolute soldier, was in command. The Germans endeavoured,
with scant success, to provoke a jihad among the Moslem tribes
in northern Cameroon. In general and especially in the coast dis-
tricts the natives proved hostile to the Germans. As early as Aug. 8
1914 the Germans hanged two members of the principal native
family of Duala for treason.
CAMEROON
Scale IM4..000.000
Nileso 50 100 200
Hostilities opened on Aug. 6 1914, when a small French force
captured Bonga, at the Sanga-Congo confluence. The next day
Zinga, on the Ubangi, was captured. This prompt action anticipated
and prevented an offensive planned by the Germans. The opera-
tions were directed by Gen. Aymerich, commander-in-chief in French
Equatorial Africa. That officer next formed two columns : one under
Col. Hutin advanced N. up the Sanga valley, the other under Col.
Morrison advanced W. along the Lobaye, which joins the Ubangi
near Zinga. Both columns were at first successful ; their objectives
were Lomie and Dume respectively, posts in the centre of Cameroon.
Almost simultaneously with the opening of Gen. Aymerich 's cam-
paign in the S.E., Gen. Largeau l in the far N. unsuccessfully attacked
the post of Kusseri on the Logone river (Lake Chad region). A
second attack, on Sept. 21, was successful. Meantime a British
column from Nigeria under Capt. R. W. Fox had crossed the frontier
(Aug. 25) and had attacked but failed to capture the hill-fort of
Mora which was held by Capt. von Raben. Largeau now sent a
French column under Col. Brisset to cooperate with Capt. Fox. On
Dec. 12 Brisset occupied Marua, a town S. of Mora, and by that date
the whole of the Lake Chad region of Cameroon had been cleared
of the Germans except the fort of Mora, where the situation remained
unchanged to the close of the campaign. For the most part the
British were content to blockade the place, though between Aug.
23 and Sept. 15 1915 unsuccessful attempts were made to storm it.
Mora had the advantage of a good water supply.
On the same day (Aug. 25 1914) on which Capt. Fox invaded
northern Cameroon, two other British columns 2 invaded Cameroon.
One, starting from Yola, attempted to capture Garua (Aug. 30),
failed, suffered heavily and was compelled to fall back on Yola.
Among the killed was the commander, Lt.-Col. P. Maclear. Reor-
fanized and placed under command of Lt.-Col. Webb Bowen, the
'ola column later in the year cooperated with Col. Brisset. The
other column, which entered Cameroon in the Cross river district,
suffered a severe reverse at Nsanakang on Sept. 6, being surprised
by a German force brought from Duala and sustaining 168 casual-
'Gen. Largeau (1869-1916) had been a member of the Marchand
Expedition to Fashoda and later took a leading part in the conquest
and exploration of the central Sudan. It was as commander of the
French forces in the Lake Chad region that he directed the French
operations in northern Cameroon, later giving Gen. Cunliffe loyal
support. In Oct. 1915 he returned to France. He was killed in
command of a brigade at Verdun March 26 1916.
2 The operations on this side were under the direction of Col. Sir
F. D. Lugard, governor of Nigeria.
540
CAMEROON
ties. All the Nigerian forces were native troops (under British offi-
cers), being drawn from the Nigerian Regt. of the West African
Frontier Force. Sir F. D. Lugard had contemplated operations on
a larger scale than those carried out, but was called upon to sup-
ply contingents for an Anglo-French Expeditionary Force, which it
had been decided should be dispatched.
The decision to send an expeditionary force was reached by the
British and French military authorities in the first month of the war,
and Maj.-Gen. Sir Charles M. Dobell, inspector-general of the
W.A.F.F., was chosen for the command. His force, which at the
outset numbered 4,300, was composed, in almost equal proportions,
of British and French negro troops. The French contingent under
Col. Mayer embarked mainly at Dakar, the British at Freetown
(Sierra Leone) and other ports, and the expedition sailed for Duala
about the middle of September. The many creeks along the coast
had already been pHtrolled by light craft and the Nigeria Marine,
while the gunboat " Dwarf " and other boats had anchored off the
estuary of the Cameroon. The Germans had mined the estuary and
had blocked the fairway. On the arrival of Dobell's transports,
escorted by the cruisers " Cumberland," " Challenger " and other
vessels, including the French cruiser" Bruix,"a passage was forced
through the barrier and on Sept. 25 Gen. Dobell summoned the
commandant to surrender. On his refusal Duala was bombarded
on Sept. 26 and surrendered the next day. Over 400 Germans were
found in the port and 30,915 tons of shipping were captured.
Col. Zimmermann had been at Duala from Aug. 4; having decided
to conduct the defence of the protectorate from a central position, on
the day Duala was bombarded he withdrew by train to Edea, 40 m.
to the south-east. The governor, Herr Ebermaier, was already
at Edea; there appears to have been close cooperation throughout
between the governor and the commander of the forces.
From the coast inland for 150 m. stretches the typical monot-
onous and almost impenetrable West African forest, fringed sea-
ward by an area of mangrove swamp containing hundreds of creeks.
An enemy in this forest could be only a few yards away and still be
invisible. Fortunately for the Allies the natives were friendly.
Gen. Dobell at once organized three columns to pursue the enemy
through the forest at Edea. One column ascended the Sanaga (not
to be confused with the Sanga), and others marched overland. Col.
Zimmermann had destroyed the railway in his retreat and at Japoma,
where a bridge had spanned a creek 900 yd. wide, a German de-
tachment had been posted. The bridge had been broken but the
passage was forced by French infantry with the assistance of light-
draught warships and British marines. Opposition to the advance
continued the whole way but Edea was occupied on Oct. 26 (1914).
But by that time Col. Zimmermann and Herr Ebermaier had retired
another 100 m. E. to Yaunde, and the Allied columns were too weak
to continue the pursuit. The force stationed at Edea consisted of
French troops under Col. Mayer. Yaunde, which had become the
German headquarters, was well chosen. It was on high tableland,
beyond the bounds of the dense forest, and so situated that Col.
Zimmermann could from it maintain communication with the Ger-
man posts in the E. and N. of the protectorate.
While for lack of sufficient men Col. Mayer was compelled to
remain inactive at Edea, Gen. Dobell proceeded to clear the region
between the Cameroon estuary and Nigeria. Lt.-Col. A. H. Hay-
wood had charge of the principal operations. By the end of 1914 the
whole of the northern railway had been occupied, together with
Buea, the administrative capital on the slopes of Mt. Cameroon.
Meantime practically no progress had been made by the British
and French columns in northern Cameroon, while of Gen. Aym-
erich's columns advancing from the E. that under Col. Morrison had
been checked and that under Col. Hutin was making headway.
(Hutin, in Oct. 1914, had been joined by a small contingent of Bel-
gian Congo troops, while the Congo administration placed their
river steamers and artillery at the disposal of Gen. Aymerich.)
Thus, at the beginning of 1915 the Allied offensive had almost
come to a standstill. The forces needed reorganization, coordination
and strengthening, and this was now taken in hand. Brig.-Gen.
F. H. Cunliffe was appointed to command the British and French
troops in northern Cameroon, where the Germans were taking the
offensive at various points, and instructed to prosecute the cam-
paign with renewed vigour. Dobell called for reinforcements from
the French and British West African colonies, and these were sent,
the first fresh troops reaching Duala in Feb. (1915). The previous
month (on Jan. 5) Col. Mayer had beaten off an attack made on his
force at Edea, the Germans losing heavily in killed and wounded.
This was the only offensive action taken by the forces under Col.
Zimmermann's direct orders.
All the facts pointed clearly to the main lines of the Allied strat-
egy in the future operations, namely a combined and concentric ad-
vance on Yaunde. Meanwhile, to prevent Col. Zimmermann, if he
broke S. from Yaunde, from reaching the neutral Spanish territory,
a small French column under Col. Miquelard, which had landed at
Coco Beach, on the S. shore of the Muni estuary, was advancing
along the eastern borders of Spanish Guinea, and another was ao>
vancing along the northern border of the Spanish protectorate.
In the result the advance on Yaunde was begun prematurely. It
was undertaken as the result of a visit in March 1915 of M. Foureau,
lieutenant-governor of the Middle Congo colony, to Gen. Dobell
at Duala. M. Foureau asked Dobell to cooperate with Aymerich
in an immediate advance on Yaunde. Dobell demurred (the season
was late, the rains were beginning and supply difficulties were
great) and wished to be assured that Aymerich would be able
to cooperate effectively in the vicinity of Yaunde. But his
scruples were overcome and he consented to act at once. As events
proved Aymerich was far from being able to give effective support.
This Gen. Dobell did not know until May II. In the meanwhile, on
April 7 a column under Col. Haywood had moved E. and this enabled
Col. Mayer to advance from Edea on May I. On May 3 Haywood,
whose line of march was N. of that of the Mayer column, came to
Wum Biagas, a strongly entrenched river position. This Haywood
captured after an 18 hours' engagement. Thereafter Col. Mayer
took over the command of the two columns, British and French, in
the further advance on Yaunde. In all he had about 2,000 men, 300
of whom had been brought from Edea and were fresh.
Gen. Dobell, though he now knew that immediate help from
Aymerich was not likely, decided to continue operations. Col.
Mayer therefore left Wum Biagas on May 25, but from the first he
met with strong opposition. In the dense bush, which sheltered an
active and elusive enemy, the rate of progress was no more than a
mile a day. Yaunde was still 40 m. distant and dysentery had broken
out among the troops. Col. Mayer inforrred Gen. Dobell that any
further advance was impracticable, and received orders to withdraw.
This withdrawal was greatly impeded by the Germans, but at a
critical moment Mayer was reinforced by scrre corr panics w hich had
made a fine march in the tropical rain. Ey June 28 Mayer was back
in the Edea district and the Genrans ceased attacking.
While this first advance on Yaunde failed, Gen. Cunliffe in north-
ern Cameroon achieved several successes. He had taken up his com-
mand in Feb. 1915, and his first important operation was the reduc-
tion of Garua, which was defended by Capt. von Crailsheim (with
some 40 Germans and 400 native troops) a man who won the
admiration of his foes for his great daring and skill. Garua was
invested in the middle of April and surrendered on June 10, after an
unsuccessful sortie. A little later (June 28) Ngaundere (nearly
300 m. N.E. of Yaunde) was occupied and here Gen. Cunliffe paused
until Dobell was ready to renew his advance. Fart of the interval
was occupied in the unsuccessful attempt to take Mora by storm.
The new advance on Yaunde depended on the progress of Gen.
Aymerich's columns. Col. Hutin, having been reinforced, occupied
Lomie 150 m. S.S.E. of Yaunde on June 25 1915, after many
engagements. He was joined by over 300 German native troops, who
had deserted. A month later, July 25, Col. Morrison occupied Dume
140 m. N.N.E. of Yaunde. Morrison had had severe fighting
and a chequered experience since he began his rrarch the previous
Aug., having more than once been compelled to fall back before enemy
counter-attacks. On Aug. 25-6 a conference was held at Duala be-
tween Gen. Dobell.'Gen. Aymerich and M. Merlin (governor-general
of French Equatorial Africa), when arrangements were completed
for the final advance. Gen. Dobell renewed his offensive on Sept.
22 ; Cunliffe moved early in Oct. ; Hutin and Morrison steadily pushed
on from the east. Dobell had now received considerable reinforce-
ments his force had reached its greatest strength, 9,700, in Novem-
ber. Cunliffe had from 3,000 to 4,000 men; Aymerich about the
same number; the French forces on the Spanish Guinea borders were
800 to 1,000; the Belgian column numbered 600 altogether the
maximum Allied strength in the field was about 15,000. Except for a
battalion of the Indian Army (sent to Cameroon nearly at the end of
the campaign and as a disciplinary measure) and a battalion of the
West India Regt. (negroes) the whole of the rank and file employed
were African natives. The German forces, old and newly raised, were
estimated at a total of 10,000, including fully 700 white combatants.
For his final operations Gen. Dobell sent forward British and French
columns separately- Col. Mayer advancing once more from Edea;
the British under Col. Haywood from positions farther north.
Again the dense forest was traversed, but now in the dry season and
with adequate supply arrangements. The Germans, as before,
vigorously opposed both the French and British columns. On Oct. Q
the British retook Wum Biagas, and on Oct. 30 the French took
Eseka, the railhead. The British won through the forest first, and
by Dec. 17 they were at Mangas, in open country and about 50 m.
W. of Yaunde. Four days later the French column, which had had
many casualties, was at Mangelas, 20 m. S.E. of Mangas. The
British column, acting upon Dobell's instructions, had not waited
for Col. Mayer to reach Mangelas, but pushed on straight for Yaunde
which was entered, unopposed, on Jan. I 1916, by Col. E. H. Gorges.
From Dec. 22 German opposition had ceased. Col. Zimmermann,
as soon as he knew that both the British and French columns were
clear of the forest, and aware too of the approach of Cunliffe and Aym-
erich, had determined to give up the contest. Together with the
governor and 823 other Germans (including civilians), his native
troops and thousands of carriers, he evacuated Yaunde, making
S.W. for Spanish Guinea, the nearest point of which was, however,
125 m. distant. He was at once pursued, and in a rear-guard action
fought on Jan. 8 Col. Haywood released 32 British and French who
had been held prisoners by the Germans.
Col. Brisset's column coming from the N.E. was the next to
reach Yaunde; then came Aymerich's columns, and Col. Morrison
was detached to continue the pursuit of the Germans.
PLATE III.
CAMOUFLAGE
Merchant vessel dazzle-painted as seen
through a submarine periscope.
The same vessel on identical course painted grey.
Standard ship. Patrol sloop.
Two ideal types of ships specially designed and dazzle-painted for protection against submarine attack.
i , ' Mttr. -il . .
General appearance of a dazzle-painted convoy at sea.
1 Grey 2 Grey 3 Grey 1 Grey Green 2 Grey Green 1 Blue Green 1 Green 2 Green Blue Grey
1 Blue Grey 2 Blue Grey 1 Blue 2 Blue 3 Blue Grey Pink 1 Olive White Black
Colour chart issued to painting contractors showing the principal colours used in dazzle-painting.
CAMMAERTS CAMOUFLAGE
54i
Cunliffe's troops had had very stubborn fighting during this clos-
ing phase of the campaign, the most difficult operation being the
capture (Nov. 45) of Banyo, a hill-fortress which lay some 200 m.
N. of Yaunde and on the edge of that corner of Cameroon, the region
towards the Cross river, where German resistance was continued to
the last. In this quarter the Germans continued to offer determined
resistance to Cunliffe's forces, and when on Jan. 2 1916 Cunliffe
learned that Yaunde had fallen, his advanced troops were still 40
m. distant from that objective.
The efforts made to cut off Col. Zimmermann before he could
reach neutral territory failed; the first part of his force entered
Spanish Guinea on Feb. 4 and the other detachments quickly fol-
lowed, and when on Feb. 18 1916 Capt. von Raben and his gallant
garrison at Mora surrendered on terms after nearly 1 8 months'
blockade, the conquest of Cameroon was complete.
See the despatches of Sir C. M. Dobell and Gen. Cunliffe in the
London Gazette (4th supplement) of May 31 1916; The Times History
of the War, vol. viii., chap. 131 (1916), and L' Illustration (Paris,
1916) which gives valuable particulars of Gen. Aymerich's opera-
tions. (F. R. C.)
CAMMAERTS, EMILE (1878- ), Belgian poet, was born
at Brussels March 16 1878. In 1908 he settled in England. His
earlier works include four volumes of translations of Ruskin
into French, and Les Bellini, an essay in art criticism; and he has
also written two plays, Les Deux Bossus (1917) and La Veillee
de Noel (1917). It is, however, by the poems written during the
World War that M. Cammaerts attained his widest popularity.
These include Belgian Poems (1915); New Belgian Poems (1917);
and Messines and other Poems (1918). He also produced Through
the Iron Bars (1917), an account of the sufferings of Belgium
during the World War.
M. Cammaerts married Tita Brand, a daughter of the singer
Madame Marie Brema. MADAME BRAND-CAHMAERTS became
well known during the World War for her recitations of her
husband's patriotic poems. Apres Aimers, set to music by Sir
Edward Elgar under the name of Carillon, was one of the great
popular successes during the first two years of the World War.
CAMOUFLAGE (from Fr. camoufler, to blind or veil; It.
camitffare, to make up), a French word which came into use, and
was adopted into English, at the opening of the World War, 1
to express deceptive concealment, with all that it implies. Its
real meaning may be defined as " concealment of the fact that
deception is being practised or something being hidden. " De-
ception is an essential ingredient, but concealment (in the sense
of " hiding from view ") is not. For example, protective coloura-
tion in nature does not render an animal invisible but indistin-
guishable.
Camouflage may be achieved by two distinct methods
(a) imitation (simulation), and (b) adaptation (dissimulation).
The former is exemplified by the replacement of a real tree by a
dummy one of exactly similar external appearance the latter
by so treating an object as to cause it to blend with its surround-
ings. The former is the method most widely employed in land
warfare, whereas the latter is more common in nature.
In sea practice, camouflage was adopted during the World War
in the form known as " dazzle painting " (see below). Bold
and fantastic colour patterns were used for the purpose of mis-
leading an observer as to the exact course being pursued by the
ship; no attempt was made to render the vessel invisible.
I. "NATURAL" CAMOUFLAGE
In the article COLOURS OF ANIMALS (see also 6.731*) the methods
of concealment among animals are described and classified from
many points of view. It will be convenient, for the purpose of
indicating their connexion with artificial camouflage, to separate
them into two main divisions, one the method of direct imitation,
and the other the method of general inconspicuousness.
Concealment by the first method is effected by the animal
imitating some object in its natural surroundings against which
it is commonly seen. It is clear that the better the imitation,
the more effective the concealment. For instance, the leaf
butterfly, Kallima, so closely resembles a dead leaf that when
'The French word camouflet, meaning a small and deep mine which
on explosion does not break the surface of the ground, has been in
use by military engineers for nearly two centuries.
resting among dead leaves it can only be located with the greatest
difficulty. More often the animal can be found by careful search,
but is likely to be overlooked, as, for instance, a tiger crouching
amongst dead rushes. In all such cases a direct imitation, more
or less exact, is made use of. The application of this principle in
land warfare is discussed in section II below. The replacement
of real trees by almost exact copies, internally fitted as observa-
tion posts, is perhaps the best-known example of camouflage
of this class as practised in the World War.
The method of general inconspicuousness may be described
under: (i) colour; (2) tone; (3) outline, and (4) modelling and
cast shadow. These are the qualities by means of which an object
is revealed and thus are those which an animal desiring not to
be seen must conceal.
1. Colour. The sandy-coloured desert animal and the green
caterpillar are examples of the use of colour to produce general in-
conspicuousness. Browns, greens and greys, being common back-
ground colours, are usually used. Bright colours such as yellows and
reds are occasionally made use of, for instance, by insects amongst
autumnal foliage. Even before military camouflage had been sys-
tematically studied, most armies had adopted inconspicuous field
service uniforms.
2. Tone. This is a quality of great importance in camouflage,
for the reason that aerial photography was largely used for its
detection. In the concealment of animals it is also of considerable
importance, though somewhat lost sight of in local colour. An
animal which is either darker or lighter than its surroundings will
be likely to be revealed in spite of being well coloured. In artificial
camouflage it was found that the right tone could be more easily
effected by texture than by, for instance, pigment. Thus, the imi-
tation of grass could not be made with green paint on a smooth sur-
face: from one point of view it might simulate well, but from
another angle it would reflect a high light (see section II below).
Roofs of buildings were concealed by covering them with hay,
heather and brushwood stuck to the roof with an adhesive paint.
The appearance of rough ground so produced could not have been
obtained by any kind of painting. But although texture is of so
much importance, it must not be thought that local colour can be
entirely ignored. The aeroplane photographer used plates sensi-
tive to particular coloured lights or colour filters which had the
same effect, namely the detection of any fault in local colouration.
The Germans used a green sensitive plate which, no doubt, would
have detected a brown camouflage erected on a green field, even if
the tone-match had been good. Moreover, the aeroplane carries a
human observer as well as the camera.
3. Outline. The production of inconspicuousness by pattern is
utilized by animals moving from background to background, which
are now seen against foliage and now against brown earth. An ani-
mal broadly patterned in green and brown will appear inconspicu-
ous against both these backgrounds and is recognized principally
by its characteristic outline or silhouette. Against earth, only the
green of the parti-coloured animal will be seen, and this will not
have the characteristic shape of the animal, neither will the brown
part of the pattern when it is viewed against foliage. The most
efficient pattern is one which greatly disrupts the characteristic
shape; one, for instance, which breaks out at conspicuous angles
or across easily recognized straight lines and curves. Thus, birds
commonly exhibit a pattern which divides the head into two, along
the line joining the base of the bill with the shape of the neck, and
the characteristic straightness of the tail is broken by cross-bars of
pattern. A thin, dark or light, line separating the components of
the pattern greatly aids its disruptive effect. This method of con-
cealment has been used for guns and other objects, on which pat-
terns of dark green and brown, separated by narrow black lines,
were painted in large irregular blotches across the barrel, wheels
and limber (see section II below).
There are other ways by means of which outline may! be con-
cealed. Among birds and insects fringes are sometimes made use
of: viewed at a distance, the fringed edge has a blurred appear-
ance causing the object to fade into its background. This principle
of the fringed edge was freely and successfully employed in mili-
tary camouflage, notably in the case of the flat-topped gun covers
described in section II. Among insects an edge* is often made to
appear indistinct by a small marginal pattern of dark and light
tone. When viewed at such a distance that the pattern is blended,
the edge appears blurred. This is in principle quite different to dis-
ruptive patterns, which are only effective as long as they are visible,
whereas the marginal patterns are only effective beyond their
blending distance.
4. Modelling and Cast Shadow. Modelling is revealed to the eye
by the varying amount of light reflected from different parts of the
object, and also by the shadow cast upon neighbouring objects.
Animals and birds are often toned so as to appear flat by having
those parts which are turned towards the light dark in tone; and
those away from the light, light in tone. It is common to find the
backs of birds dark-brown or black and their breasts white. When
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
542
CAMOUFLAGE
viewed in the open, the high light which is reflected from the back
is subdued by the dark feathers; whilst the darkness of the under
parts is partially neutralized by the white breast feathers. The
whole bird will thus appear evenly toned like a flat object and for
this reason will be inconspicuous.
This method, called counter-shading, was occasionally made use
of in military camouflage.
As regards the concealment of cast shadow, the only method
employed by animals is to avoid them. Insects will turn and face
the sun so that their closed wings will only throw a line shadow on
the ground: others will tilt their wings parallel with the ground,
thereby hiding the shadow which they cast. In military camou-
flage on the other hand the difficulty had to be faced, and an inge-
nious and successful method was evolved in the case of the flat-top
gun cover. The cover consisted of wire or fish netting, on which
strips of canvas were threaded and knotted. These strips were
coloured green or brown in imitation of grass or earth. By gradually
thinning out the knots at the edge, the shadow of the thickly knotted
centre was hidden by the sparsely knotted margins which them-
selves cast little or no shadow.
The above outline will suffice to give a general idea of the rela-
tion between animal colouration and camouflage. But it should
be added that the camoufleur has much greater difficulties to con-
tend with than has the animal on account of the extremely accurate
and systematic observations made by the enemy with the eye from
forward observation posts and kite balloons, and with the camera
from aeroplanes. (J. C. Mo.)
II. MILITARY CAMOUFLAGE
The word " Camouflage, " in the broad sense of military de-
ception, is applicable to all stratagems designed to mislead the
enemy. In the following account it is used in the restricted sense
of " deception practised through the agency of artists."
The application to war of camouflage, as thus defined, is by no
means novel; dummy guns have been successful!}' employed to mis-
lead an opponent on occasion ever since guns became a normal part
of military equipment. Washington Irving in his Conquest of Gra-
nada records an instance in which the ruined wall of a blockaded
town was repaired, without attracting the enemy's attention, under
cover of a cloth screen painted to resemble a battlemented wall
(circa 1484). The Venetians are reputed on one occasion to have
imposed terms of peace on Ragusa by the expedient of building a
threatening fort of cardboard in a position commanding the town.
And when Henry VIII. of England besieged 'Tournai in 1513, the
defenders used lengths of canvas, painted to resemble trenchwork,
to mislead the besiegers as to the extent of the defences. Other
instances could no doubt be brought forward in which camouflage
was practised by individuals as an expedient. But it was not till
the World War that it was practised by armies as a policy.
A transitional stage between the spasmodic use of camouflage
in emergencies and its regular and systematic use as in the present
day is marked by the painting, or other treatment, of coast defence
forts to blend with their surroundings, in order to render them
less conspicuous from the sea, e.g. Cork harbour, Isle of Wight,
Singapore.
The well-known chequered black-and-white of the Spithead forts
was an attempt to mislead the enemy as to the exact location of the
gun embrasures. The same artifice was used in the case of the
loopholes of blockhouses in the South African War of 1899-1902.
A further stage was reached in the adoption of uniforms coloured
to blend with the usual or typical colours of the countryside in a
theatre of war. The first of these was the Indian Khaki (see 15.770),
and after the experience gained in the South African War, when the
importance of concealment came into great prominence, the Brit-
ish and most other armies soon adopted dust-coloured, light-blue,
grey, or grey -green uniforms.
Shortly after the South African War, experiments in the dis-
ruptive painting of guns were undertaken, but the system was
not adopted, and no further development in the practice of
camouflage took place until the war of movement of 1914 gave
place to trench warfare. Hitherto deception in war had been
limited to the comparatively simple task of deceiving the human
eye, at a considerable distance, and for a short time. In the
World War its role was extended to circumventing the camera,
in addition to deceiving for long periods, the eyes of observers
armed with powerful glasses. For the first time in history, a
military unit was organized for the definite purpose of practising
scientific deception.
This policy was initiated by certain French artists serving in a
French battery towards the end of 1914. The interest of a French
army commander was aroused and his sympathy enlisted, with
the result that a " Section de Camouflage " was formed early in
1915, for the purpose of assisting units in the concealment of
battery positions and other military works, and the construction
of concealed posts of observation. The success attained by this
section led to the organization of the British Camouflage Service
as a unit of Royal Engineers, early in 1916.
The need for organized camouflage is directly attributable
to two novel features of the war, firstly the prolonged period of
stationary warfare; and secondly, as an outcome of the first, the
rapid development of aviation generally and of photography
from the air in particular. Stationary warfare entailed the pro-
longed occupation of definite localities by troops, guns, and other
numerous appurtenances of war, whose installation tended to
become semi-permanent instead of temporary. It was therefore
possible for each opponent methodically to examine the other's
battle area in detail, and at comparative leisure, instead of rely-
ing on promiscuous and hurried reconnaissance, as in the past.
It was soon recognized that photography provided the best
means of executing such detailed examination, and presently
the art of interpreting air photographs almost reached the level
of an exact science. The information thus obtained far exceeded
in quantity and accuracy that gleaned by observers, who could
not but be distracted by the expanse of the view beneath them
and the incidents of their adventurous journeys. All the re-
sources of science were therefore devoted to the production of
lenses, plates and colour screens, specially adapted to the needs
of military intelligence. This evolution in the means of obtaining
information necessarily called for a similar evolution in the
means and methods of denying it, and a special service was or-
ganized for the study and practice of the science of camouflage.
The taking, developing and study of photographs demands a
certain amount of time and special appliances, and still more so
does the study, production, and application of camouflage, of
which the progressive stages are performed on foot, in a large
well-equipped factory, and in slow-moving lorries and trains. As
long, therefore, as a condition of stationary warfare obtains, the
maintenance of a special organization to practise camouflage is
both necessary and possible.
But the conditions of a war of movement are quite different.
Installations and constructions of all kinds are few. The occupa-
tion of localities by troops and guns is fleeting, and, in conse-
quence, the camera loses its specialized usefulness. It follows,
therefore, that the elaborate concealment of gun positions or
other works is no longer necessary. Nor is it possible, for the
transport, on which the camouflage service relies, is engaged to
its utmost capacity in conveying the vital necessities of war, i.e.
food and ammunition; and at the same time the factories, on
which the supply of the material of camouflage depends, are
being left farther and farther in the rear or being engulfed by
the advancing enemy, as the case may be.
The case may be summed up thus: when accurate means of
locating positions are employed, expert methods of concealment
become essential; when the converse obtains, extempore methods
suffice, though some form of portable camouflage, designed for use
in moving warfare, and carried as part of their normal equipment
by fighting troops, would be preferable.
There is ample evidence to prove that the Central Powers took
no steps to organize a camouflage service till late in the war, though
extempore methods of concealment were universal. Captured docu-
ments bear few allusions to the subject until after the battle of
Cambrai in Nov. 1917. In the great offensive of March 1918, the
Germans captured many specimens of camouflage together with
pamphlets on the subject which they translated and distributed to
all formations; at the same time arrangements were made for the
quantity production of materials for concealing gun positions. In
the Entente offensive of autumn 1918 many specimens of this mate-
rial were captured for the first time, together with numerous exam-
ples of instructions on the practice of camouflage.
The principles and practice of camouflage may be dealt with
under three heads: (i) the concealment of gun positions and
the like from the enemy's aeroplanes ("air observation");
(2) the concealment of observation posts and machine-gun
emplacements from direct view ("direct observation"); and
(3) miscellaneous applications of camouflage.
(i) Camouflage against " Air Observation." The purpose
of camouflage is to render objects indistinguishable, or un-
CAMOUFLAGE
543
recognisable, by means of imitation or disguise. Concealment
in the limited sense of " hiding from view " is not the primary
aim. The ideal is non-interference with the natural, or normal,
aspect of the locality, as viewed from the air, with which the
enemy has become familiar. This is an ideal which can only
be reached by close attention to detail, and by the exercise of
forethought and imagination. Preliminary study of an aeroplane
photograph of the locality will enable the effects of preparatory
work, and subsequent active occupation, to be foreseen, and
consequently make it easier to plan methods of combating them.
These methods must be put into force before commencing work.
To do so afterwards is futile, unless it is certain that no observa-
tion from the air has been possible during the progress of work.
The processes of successful camouflage are closely analogous to
those of successful crime namely, preliminary reconnaissance,
suppression of clues, provision of false clues, variety of method
and concealment of the crime itself.
In " the following study of the principles ' of camouflage the
subject is dealt with in relation to the concealment of gun posi-
tions. In practice many other works were also concealed, such
as machine-gun emplacements, defences, dumps, mine spoil, gas
projector installations; but similar problems are encountered in
all these cases.
Gun positions can be located by (a) aeroplane photography,
(b) air observation, (c) flash spotting, (d) sound ranging. The
two last furnish certain limited information. Beyond screening
flashes, no method of frustrating them has yet been evolved.
The manifest remedy (failing a silent, flashless propellant) is the
skilful employment of dummy flashes and synchronized reports.
But it is principally by means of photographs taken from the
air that positions are definitely located on a map. The chief
opponent to be overcome, therefore, is the expert, who, with the
advantages of time ami undisturbed concentration, which are
lacking to the aeroplane observer, is able to interpret what is
recorded on photographs. The aeroplane observer cannot, how-
ever, be altogether disregarded, and, although the main efforts
must be directed towards defeating the air photograph expert,
it must be done in such a way as not to draw the attention of the
observer.
The camera is a most accurate witness, and a photograph will
always record something. The art of camouflage lies in con-
veying a misleading impression as to what that something sig-
nifies. The photograph records colours and accidents of ground
(such as bare earth, vegetation, woods, etc.) in terms of light
and shade, and is a patchwork or pattern of black and white
meeting in varying intensities of grey. The pattern may be
large and simple like that on a chess-board, or intricate and
confused like that on a painter's palette. A cultivated district
presents a regular chess-board pattern, with large rectangular
expanses of monotone, the only accidents to break the monotony
being occasional hedges, banks, or houses, with their attendant
shadows. Broken ground, such as demolished villages, shelled
areas, or patchy vegetation, presents a highly complex pattern,
full of merging lights and shades.
Photographically, the effect of colour is not so marked or
important as the effect of light and shade. Earth is towards the
white end of the scale, and grass or vegetation towards the black
not because of their respective colours but on account of the
amount of contained shadow or " texture."
A billiard-table or top-hat illustrates this quality. Brush
them the wrong way, against the nap, and their tone is low-
ered to dark green in the one case, and dead black in the other;
brushed the right way they appear very noticeably lighter in tone.
The reason is that they gain " texture " when brushed the wrong
way, and lose texture when brushed the right way. In other
words, they absorb light in the former case, and reflect light in
the latter. Nap is constituted of countless slender hairs, each one
throwing a shadow when erect, but casting little when flat.
Grass, or vegetation, possesses this same property to a marked
degree. The longer it is the darker it appears on a photograph;
but when it is pressed down, the amount of shadow thrown is
lessened, and consequently it appears lighter. Hence the obvious-
ness, on a photograph, of a slightly worn track in grass which is
scarcely noticeable when viewed from the ground. Earth, on the
contrary, contains little texture, and the longer it has been turned
up and exposed to rain and sun, the less it contains. A beaten
track is, however, conspicuous as it contains no texture at all,
and will therefore reflect more light.
The reason for the mottled effect, in a photograph, of a patchy
mixture of grass and earth, which blend imperceptibly into each
other, is therefore evident. The appearance of snow can be
divined from the foregoing. Contrasts in tone are much ac-
centuated, and the effects of shadows are more marked, partly
owing to the fact that snow usually falls at a time of year when
the sun's path in the sky is low.
It is essential, when judging the colours of a locality, to view
it vertically, and not obliquely as one is accustomed to see a
flower bed. A field of young corn, surveyed from the ground,
appears green, but from above, probably the earth only is seen,
darker in tone than the normal, owing to the shadows cast by
the young blades of corn. Similarly, with a field of ripe corn
the actual light tone of the straw and ear will be somewhat dark-
ened by their shadows.
It is of the first importance to grasp this principle of regarding
any locality purely from the point of view of the pattern it will
present on a photograph. Therefore, the most practical method
of planning the concealment of any work is to plan it with refer-
ence to a recent photograph which records the ground pattern,
and the natural facilities for concealment which exist in the
locality. Such facilities abound in a neighbourhood whose photo-
graphic pattern is complex, and become less frequent as the
pattern becomes less complex. Any slight error in exact repro-
duction may escape notice in the prevailing complexity, because
detection depends on comparison, and comparison is rendered
perplexing by the very intricacy of the pattern; the difficulty is
enhanced by the variations present in successive photographs
of the same place, due to dissimilar conditions of light. A simple
analogy is the comparative visibility of an ink stain on a patch-
work hearthrug and on a table-cloth.
There are certain characteristic clues which will always betray
new work to the reader of aerial photographs. They are: (a)
disturbance of soil; (b) tracks; (c) shadows; (d) regularity; (e)
blast marks of guns. To achieve success, these clues must be
suppressed from the very beginning. Or if deception is to be
achieved by the use of dummies, these clues must be supplied.
The prolonged duration of the period of trench warfare was
responsible for the introduction of many new methods of waging
war scientifically. Among these was the systematic study of the
enemy's normal activities, as gauged by observation over a long
period, to determine such things as average intensity of gunfire,
movements behind the lines, density of traffic, number of hospi-
tals, size of dumps, etc. The chief evidence was obtained from
photographs, taken at regular intervals, of the whole enemy front
to a depth of several miles. Comparative analysis of this photo-
graphic diary revealed departures from the normal from which
deductions could be made. It was therefore of the utmost im-
portance to preserve an appearance of " normality."
Clues (a), (b) and (e) call for no special comment, but some
further explanation may be added in the case of shadows and
regularity.
Shadows. The form of any erection, or excavation, is revealed in
a photograph by the shape of the shadow cast. Two intersecting
planes, e.g. the two sides of the roof of a building, will show differ-
ently on the photograph (except for a very brief period every day)
because they receive light at different angles, and therefore reflect
it differently. It follows that an artificial reproduction of locality
must be erected parallel to the contours of that locality, or in other
words the planes of the imitation and the real must not intersect.
A mound must be imitated by a mound, and a flat surface by a flat
surface. Any departure from this principle is most easily detected
in a photograph taken when the sun is low, the shadows being long
in consequence.
Regularity. No shape in nature is of regular outline; conse-
quently anything of a regular shape in a photograph invites scrutiny
because it must be the work of human hands. In a battery position,
regularity is usually displayed in the geometric shape of the gun-pit,
and the regular spacing and alignment of the guns.
544
CAMOUFLAGE
It is now possible to sum up the theoretical conditions which
govern the concealment of gun positions, and other works, from
the enemy in the air:
(a) The material of which the camouflage is composed must at
all times appear on the photograph like the object or surface it
represents, and likewise appear natural to the observer's eye. QuA
material, it must be light, strong, impervious to weather, fire-proof
and easily manufactured, (b) Disturbances of soil, tracks, shadows,
blast-marks and regularity must never appear to be associated with
an active gun position or occupied work.
Practical A pplication. We come now to the application of these
principles. In the early part of the World War air photography
was not the highly specialized art it subsequently became, and
therefore the difficulties of combating it were not so great. At
first, freshly cut branches and grass were used, being the mate-
rials nearest to hand. These withered in the course of a few days
and ceased to be efficacious. The next stage was the employment
of sheets of canvas painted to represent the ground. The design
was bold, and consisted of large masses of green, or brown and
green as the case might be, with heavy black shadings,* to give
the effect of texture. These covers were draped over the guns
and came down to the ground on every side, being removed
when the gun was in action and replaced immediately afterwards.
This system also proved unsatisfactory. It is nearly impossible
to reproduce on a smooth sheet of canvas the changing tones
of the ground as recorded by the camera. Under certain con-
ditions i.e. when the angle of light incidence is small, or after
rain painted canvas, having no texture, reflects so much light
that all trace of pattern or colour is lost.
Then came the introduction of fish netting. At first these nets
were garnished sparsely with bunches of painted raffia (garden-
ers' bast). The effect was excellent; the nets were light and
portable; but the inflammability of the painted raffia was a grave
disadvantage. Efforts made to dye the raffia and to render it
fire-proof proved fruitless. The dyes, especially green, were too
fugitive, and no method of rendering the raffia permanently fire-
proof could be discovered. Strips of painted canvas, instead
of raffia, proved more satisfactory from the manufacturing point
of view, but these also suffered from the defect of inflammability, 1
though in a lesser degree. The final evolution of the gun cover
was a net having an opaque centre of painted scrim, 2 the shape
of which was boldly irregular, with a border of painted canvas
strips decreasing in density towards the edges, erected horizon-
tally, like a carpet, over the work and much larger in area than
the work itself (see fig. 3). Thus, the excavation was concealed
by the opaque centre, the shadow of which was blurred or masked
by the bolder of strips which, in themselves, were not sufficiently
dense to cast a shadow. If skilfully erected and maintained such
covers were satisfactory. Installed before any work of excava-
tion was started, subsequent construction and occupation re-
mained concealed. Guns could be treated individually or col-
lectively by increasing the area covered. Figs, i and 2 show
the treatment of a battery position placed under the edge of a
bank. The false edge of the " bank " should be noted.
The use of netting was practically confined to works whose
nature demanded covers erected at a considerable height above
ground level. Scrim was used, by itself, to conceal objects near, or
on, the ground, such as short lengths of trench, ammunition,
gas-projectors; it should always be reenforced by natural ma-
terial to increase its texture effect. Further, this material must
always be cut or assembled in large fantastic shapes, in order to
appear natural, and to allow its edges to merge gradually into
its surroundings.
Many gun positions, which had defied all attempts at location,
were betrayed by snow, particularly in respect of blast marks,
because the flash of discharge melts the snow over a large area
immediately in front of the gun. Further, shadows were accentu-
ated, and the normal method of combating shadows, by the
adoption of thinned edges, proved fatal in snow, as such nets
*A solution of this problem of fire-proofing canvas was in sight
when the Armistice put an end to its urgency.
2 A kind of loosely woven canvas whose meshes give the effect of
texture by absorbing light.
did not hold the snow and consequently appeared as black holes
in a sheet of white. White calico proved a palliative, especially in
the case of blast marks, if boldly irregular in shape.
Evidence afforded by tracks is perhaps the most difficult of all
to eliminate. Frequently positions, which are admirably con-
cealed in every other way, are betrayed by the tracks leading
up to them, so much so, that it is often possible to count the
number of guns in a battery by the paths leading to each gun-pit
and to distinguish between gun positions and other works. It is
comparatively easy to plan the approach so that it may be con-
cealed naturally or artificially; the difficulty is to ensure that
this and no other route is used human nature being so strongly
addicted to taking short cuts, barbed wire and discipline seem
to be the only means of preventing it.
The following afford good illustrations of methods of concealing
approaches that have been adopted with success: (a) Leading the
track close past the gun position and on to join an existing track.
The connexion to each pit being treated with camouflage material
or cut grass, etc.. etc. (b) Similarly, but close in front of the gun-
pits in order to use the track to hide blast marks. This method has
the disadvantage of restricting traffic while the guns are in action.
(c) Siting a battery in the midst of an existing network of tracks,
taking precautions to reproduce on the camouflage any path inter-
rupted by a gun-pit.
It is not practicable to conceal long trenches. If a covering
sags or differs materially in tone from its surroundings the mere
length and regularity will betray it. A covering, originally
perfect, will require continual attention to keep it perfect, in-
volving labour out of all proportion to its value. Short lengths
of trench can be concealed, provided care is taken to support the
camouflage adequately to prevent sag, and to conceal the spoil.
This applies equally to trench systems prepared far behind the
lines for use in the event of a retirement. It is probable that the
enemy, foreseeing the construction of such a defensive line, will be
able to guess the approximate positions of such systems, and he is
certain to have periodically photographed the suspected area. It is
quite impossible to prevent some traces of work being evident in a
long and deep system of defences. Camouflage must obviously be
restricted to vital spots, and extreme care must be exercised
(2) Camouflage against Direct Observation. The concealment
of observation posts was comparatively simple, being merely an
adaptation of the craft of theatrical property-making. Natural
features were selected, in places from which good observation
could be obtained, and these were copied exactly. At night, the
real was removed and replaced by the imitation. A large vari-
ety of objects were so copied among which may be mentioned:
trees, sand-bags, milestones, mounds of earth, chimney-
stacks, walls. In all cases the copy was a thin outer shell con-
taining a bullet-proof lining in order to give confidence to the
occupier. The loopholes, when subject to scrutiny at short range,
could be made quite invisible by the use of gauze, which, though
painted to resemble the exterior of the O.P., remained trans-
parent from the inside. This method was only adopted when
absolutely necessary, because gauze interferes with vision
especially through glasses; in other cases care was taken to give
the loophole an irregular shape.
Certain conditions were found to govern the successful employ-
ment of these observation posts, particularly in the case of the
more elaborate examples such as trees.
a. Concealed access is essential.
b. The work connected with installation must, like other work,
be concealed from the air.
c. They should not be erected in places that are normally sub-
ject to heavy shelling, for the reason that careful observation will
be prejudiced and accidental damage will probably reveal the obser-
vation post to the enemy.
d. Provision must always be made to prevent daylight showing
behind the loophole, so rendering it transparent to the enemy.
e. The comfort and security of the observer must always be
studied, otherwise the full value of the observation will never be
obtained.
Imitation trees (see fig. 6) were designed either to accommo-
date an observer at a commanding height above the ground, or to
conceal a long periscope, the user of which was protected in a
strong dug-out. In the former case the observer had a better
view, but was uncomfortably cramped. The periscope is limited
CAMOUFLAGE
545
in respect of magnification, field of view, and clearness of vision,
in proportion to its length. On the other hand advantage may
be taken of its length to obtain high command with comparative
security, or increased security with low command. Further,
with suitable mountings, it can be used as an instrument of
precision in conjunction with map and compass. Provision
should always be made to give bullet-proof protection to the
periscope when in use, and to allow of its being lowered for clean-
ing and safety when not in use.
It was sometimes necessary to construct machine-gun em-
placements for defence in positions that either were, or might be,
exposed to direct view. In certain cases the emplacement was
incorporated in some existing ruin, parapet, or such-like pro-
tection, where it was only necessary to conceal the embrasure.
This was effected by the use of gauze painted to resemble the
exterior, either in a hinged frame which could be removed for
action, or fixed and fired through when need arose.
In other cases the emplacement was in the open. In such
circumstances full precautions had to be taken to guard against
detection by the camera also. An additional danger lay in the
risk of detection from low-flying aeroplanes. To meet this a
movable cover was evolved, in the nature of a lid, suitably
disguised to resemble the surroundings (see figs. 4 and 5). Nor-
mally this lid reposed on the top of the emplacement, overlapping
it considerably; in action the lid could be raised vertically a foot
or two, still affording protection against view from overhead,
and also, to a partial extent, against long-distance direct view.
As a general rule, the screening of roads from observation by the
enemy is not in the province of camouflage, in that no deception is
attempted, the main object being to conceal traffic from direct view.
In a few instances true camouflage was practised when a screen
painted to represent the enemy's accustomed view of the locality
was erected between the road and the enemy, so that the road would
always appear unused even while traffic was passing behind the
screen. Such an expedient was restricted to a few favourable
places, such as occasional gaps in a road otherwise entirely hidden
from view, or open spaces in a village where the ruins for the most
part obstructed the enemy's vision. These screens were impracti-
cable in cases where the portions to be concealed exceeded a few
yards in length, as they were exposed to the weather and casual
shelling, and therefore had to be very strongly constructed. This,
combined with the necessity of complete erection at night and the
fact that they could be used only where the locality was not subject
to marked seasonal changes, considerably limited their use.
(3) Miscellaneous Applications of Camouflage. It was only
natural that, after a camouflage unit had been organized, with
skilled personnel and well-equipped workshops, there was a wide
field for the display of ingenuity. For the most part the field has
been covered in the fowgoing sections dealing with the methods
of combating air and ground observation, but it will be of in-
terest to give a short description of devices that fall outside these
two categories.
Dummy Attacks. In 1917 the practice of raiding the enemy
trenches increased in frequency and scale, and in order to secure
the best results with the least expenditure of life, dummy attacks
were frequently staged on the flanks of the real front of attack,
and set in motion a few moments before it. The dummy (or
" Chinese " as it was called) attack consisted of numbers of life-
sized silhouette figures, made of stout millboard and painted to
resemble the various postures of advancing troops. These figures
were placed in scattered groups of ten, and suitable arrange-
ments made to raise and lower them at will from some place of
safety, so that they simulated waves of advancing troops (see
fig. 7). In the early light of dawn, or partially obscured by
smoke, they were very realistic, but success depends on skilful
operation of the figures rather than on the painting. Directly
the enemy's fire was drawn the real attack was launched with
the comforting knowledge that many precious moments must
elapse before the enemy could switch his fire off the dummy at-
tack on to the real attack.
Similarly, the location of enemy snipers was facilitated by the
use of dummy heads made of papier-mache. These were exposed
over the parapet, in a life-like manner, in order to draw the fire
of an enemy sniper. If the head was hit, it was possible to locate
the exact position of the sniper by producing the alignment of the
holes of entry and exit of the bullet. It was necessary to paint
these heads with a matt surface, darker in tone than the natural,
in order to imitate the texture of the human face.
Sniper Suits. The concealment of snipers and scouts was
facilitated by the wearing of costumes painted to match the
surroundings. When garnished with local vegetation, and used
skilfully, it was extremely difficult to discover the wearer. Fig. 8
shows an exceptionally tall man lying quite in the open, but
wearing a sniper's robe. Fig. 9 shows, in contrast, two men firing
from behind a turnip heap, the one wearing the ordinary uniform
cap and the other a sniper's robe suitably garnished. In each
case the photographs were taken at a distance of only 8 yds.
Disruptive painting, as a method of reducing visibility, has
been alluded to in an earlier section of this article. Its simplicity
makes a strong appeal to the imagination, and a large number of
objects, including guns, were so treated. The colours employed
were green, cream and brown, isolated from each other by thick
black lines. The principle is that one or more of these colours is
capable of merging into any surroundings, leaving the visible
remainder as a number of detached patches of colour, thus
breaking up the form of the object into a number of dissociated
pieces. The contrasts in colour must be marked, and the patches
large enough to be distinct when viewed from the appropriate
distance; otherwise the colours will blend and, in consequence,
the disruptive effect will be lost. An effect of texture is also
essential to prevent reflection. In the case of guns, it was soon
found that the wear and tear of active service caused the colours
to lose their contrast and, consequently, their disruptive effect.
The system was therefore abandoned.
In the case of large buildings and camps, the disruptive effect
is nullified by their mass, heavy shadows and quite inevitable
regularity of lay-out.
Camouflage Material and Its Production. By no means the least
difficult part of the whole problem of camouflage was that of pro-
ducing the material in sufficient quantities to meet the enormous
demands. At first each position was treated individually as a separ-
ate problem, but it was very soon obvious that although this princi-
ple was desirable it was quite impossible, in view of the number of
positions to be dealt with. It was evident that a system of standard-
ization was imperative, in conjunction with some method of adapt-
ing the general to the particular. Standardized manufacture was
therefore adopted. It was recognized that in certain cases stand-
ardization could not be applied; but experience showed that the
proportion of such cases was small. In all cases the material was
capable of some degree of adaptation to local conditions.
For gun positions, etc., three distinct media were furnished fish
nets, wire netting and scrim.
Fish Nets. -The nets themselves were supplied from England.
The size, 30 ft. by 30 ft., was fixed as being the minimum suitable
for universal application; one or more nets could be easily joined if
necessary. The nets were woven "square" in contradistinction to
"diagonal," because the diagonal net closes when extended, cf. the
principle of " lazy tongs." The meshes were 2j in. square. The
outside was bound with strong cord to take the tension, and the
whole was treated with a non-inflammable preservative. The gar-
nishing of these nets has already been described. The nets were
commonly used for all types of guns and were in demand because
of their comparative portability.
Wire Netting was used in large quantities also, being stronger
than fish netting, though less portable. For convenience in handling
it was made up in rolls 30 ft. long, averaging 6 ft. wide, and was
garnished in a fashion similar to fish netting, except that the thin-
ning process could only be applied to the ends. In the field these
rolls were joined up to suit the work they were intended to cover,
and the thinning-out process was completed on the site.
Scrim, as already mentioned, by itself was mainly used on or
near the ground and was issued in 30 ft. by 6 ft. rolls for a variety
of purposes. Towards the end of the war, when night bombing
became very persistent, scrim was used to cover aeroplane hangars
(whose light-coloured roofs were very conspicuous at night), until
cfoloured covers became the normal equipment of a hangar.
Colouration. In these three types four standard colourations
were adopted, suited respectively to areas where the predominant
conditions were: all vegetation, all earth, partly earth and mostly
vegetation, partly vegetation and mostly earth. Both the scrim
centres and the borders of strips were coloured in this way.
Observation Posts, etc. Standardization of the exteriors of observa-
tion posts was not possible for obvious reasons, but the principle
was applied to the bullet-proof interiors and other component parts.
They were classified as: observer trees, periscope trees, parapets
(sandbag or earth), portable O.P.'s. In addition there were many
546
CAMOUFLAGE
special situations provided for. Other standardized articles were:
dummy attack figures, dummy heads, snipers' suits and portable
covers for machine-guns these last-named reversible squares of
scrim 8 ft. by 8 ft., green on one side, brown on the other; made very
light and portable for use in the field.
Manufacture. Although a description of the methods of pro-
duction is beyond the scope of this article, discussion of the
principles and practice of camouflage would not be complete
without some reference to the important part played by mate-
rials, particularly canvas and paint.
Canvas is not an ideal material, being very susceptible to damage
by weather, but it is easy to manipulate and is cheap. From the
point of view of appearance, it is inferior to raffia, which, however,
suffers from the hitherto insuperable disadvantage of inflamma-
bility. " Water" paints were generally employed for canvas for the
reason that oil paints, which are more durable, are too inflammable,
even to the extent of spontaneous combustion. This latter dis-
ability was the cause of disastrous fires where rolls of painted can-
vas were stored. Green dye proved too fugitive, but brown dyes
proved satisfactory. Generally speaking, canvas and paint do not
adequately fulfil the conditions of lightness and durability.
(F. J. C. W.)
III. NAVAL CAMOUFLAGE
The painting of vessels of war with a view to reducing their
visibility and so adding to their fighting value is by no means a
modern development. The Romans are known to have painted
their galleys; " seven kinds of paint were used, viz. purple,
violet, yellow, two kinds of white, and green for pirates in order
that their resemblance to the colour of the waves might make
them less conspicuous."
Camouflage on various lines but with the invariable idea of
reducing visibility had been attempted in the British navy for
many years before the World War. None of these schemes had
met with any success, and each in turn had been abandoned after
furtive trials. The two factors which led to this abandonment
were first the failure to realize that anything in the nature of
invisibility at sea is possible of attainment, and secondly the
inability of the proposers of these schemes to provide definite
instructions of a practical nature by which vessels could be
painted with some degree of consistency.
The Board of Admiralty eventually adopted a partial form of
camouflage by painting aU vessels a light grey as opposed to the
black hulls and light upper works previously in force. But even
this simplest form of all protective measures was somewhat hap-
hazard in application, since the individual vessels of a squadron
varied considerably in colour, ranging from a light bluish grey
to a dark slate according to the ideas of the commander.
It was not until 1917, during the height of the submarine peril,
that a practical scheme having a definite end in view and for-
mulated on scientific lines was put forward and officially adopted
by the British authorities. This scheme embodied entirely
new ideas on sea camouflage, and was rescued from the early
disease which had attended all its predecessors by the fact that
the proposer was able to supply designs to scale in large numbers,
all bearing out a central idea. It was called for distinction's sake
in official documents " Dazzle Painting." The sole object of
dazzle painting was so to distort the normal appearance of a vessel
that her actual course became a matter of doubt in the mind of
a submarine officer, the estimation of a vessel's true course
being the prime factor required to ensure successful attack.
Dazzle painting was intended primarily for application to
merchant ships. These vessels were in far greater need of pro-
tection than warships owing to their slow speed and vulner-
ability and also from the fact that the enemy were making a
concerted attack on England's supplies of food and materials
essential to the conduct of the World War.
Warships as a rule possessed high speed and were moreover
protected by destroyers, a type of vessel which while being
the most deadly opponent of the submarine was comparatively
immune from attack. A certain number of war-vessels were
however dazzle-painted. These were chiefly ships engaged on
convoy work, although a certain number detailed for special
duties such as mine-laying and patrol service found this special
form of protection of valuable assistance.
At first sight it would appear impossible to treat a vessel with
paint in such a way that an experienced seaman could be deceived
as to her actual course, but dazzle-painted ships proved that this
could be done. Juxtaposition of violently contrasting colours,
black and white predominating, combined in accordance with
the laws of perspective, could make it extremely difficult to
judge the accurate inclination of a vessel even at a short distance.
In the early stages of dazzle painting a large range of colours
was employed to achieve the end in view. Experience showed
that this could be attained by a much smaller number, and to-
wards the end of the war the principal colours in use were black,
white, and blue, these being employed in varying intensity.
Another factor which led to the simplification of the colours
used was the knowledge that the German naval authorities had
introduced the use of colour screens in their submarine peri-
scopes with a view to reducing the camouflaged ship to a sil-
houette, and so neutralizing the effect of the colours used. These
screens however had no effect whatever on a design depending
solely on black, white, and blue for its contrast. Shortly after
its adoption by the Admiralty dazzle painting was incorporated
under the Defence of the Realm Act and the whole merchant
service was ordered to be painted. Numbers of war -vessels operat-
ing with merchant ships were also painted : these comprised chief-
ly convoy cruisers, sloops and destroyers. The xoth Cruiser Squad-
ron, engaged in blockade duties and composed entirely of large
merchant ships, was also painted. These vessels were specially
liable to attack, being at sea for long periods in submarine-
infested zones and constantly under slow speed or altogether
stopped for boarding purposes.
On the introduction of the scheme a considerable volume of
maritime opinion was directed against it from lack of a proper
grasp of its objects and because it appeared to render a vessel
more conspicuous than was the case when painted grey. In
point of fact at the date of the submission of the scheme the
proposer, who was on patrol duty in the channel, had noted that
all transports were painted a dead black from water-line to truck.
The opposition, however, rapidly disappeared as soon as the ob-
jects of the scheme were thoroughly grasped and the rapidly
increasing numbers enabled seamen to judge for themselves the
difficulties of accurately estimating the accurate courses of
dazzle-painted ships met with at sea.
The organization for producing designs in great variety and
arranging for the rapid application of the designs to large num-
bers of vessels of great diversity of types was as follows:
The mercantile marine was divided into 37 classes of characteristic
types. For each type a small wooden modijl was made to scale and
on this model a design was painted in wash colours. It was then
carefully studied in a prepared theatre through a submarine peri-
scope with a view to obtaining the maximum distortion. Behind
the model were placed various sky backgrounds, the conditions of
an average day at sea being obtained as nearly as possible. The
model was slowly revolved on a turntable and observed from every
point of view, any necessary alterations and additions being made
until the distortion became such that an independent observer found
it a matter of considerable difficulty to judge its orientation.
The model was then handed to a trained plan-maker who trans-
ferred the design in colour to a 1-16 in. scale plan on white paper
showing port and starboard side (see Plate I.). Each colour on the
plan was numbered to conform to the official colour charts, which
gave a complete range of all colours used in dazzle painting (see
Plate II.). It was one of the important factors essential to the suc-
cess of the scheme that these colours should be rigidly adhered to by
painting contractors.
The Dazzle Department was represented at all the principal ship-
ping ports by one or more officers specially trained for the work.
These officers were responsible for the issue of plans and the super-
vision of all ships painting in their districts. This work entailed a
great deal of highly skilled supervision, as the actual painting fell
upon the local painting contractors, whose men were entirely new to
this kind of work. With the rapid expansion of the scheme how-
ever, upwards of 100 vessels were sometimes in hand at one port,
difficulties were overcome and the work proceeded smoothly.
Soon after the establishment of the Dazzle Department,
inquiries were made by the Allied maritime governments as to
the efficacy of this new form of defence against the submarine.
The French Ministry of Marine attached three officers for
training under the new scheme and shortly afterwards set up a
CAMPBELL CANADA
547
similar department in Paris. The U.S. Navy Department asked
that an officer might be sent to Washington; shortly after
his arrival a dazzle department was formed to deal with U.S.
shipping. The Belgian Government arranged for all their mer-
chant vessels to be dealt with directly in the British department.
Complete sets of plans were forwarded to Italy and Japan.
All U.S. destroyers and other patrol vessels in European waters
were painted from plans supplied from the British department.
The number of vessels saved by this device can never be
definitely ascertained as it cannot be known how many attacks
were broken off by enemy submarines owing to a wrong position
having been taken up as a result of inaccurate estimation of the
vessel's course due to the dazzle painting. But the rapid ex-
pansion to all Allied merchant shipping showed that the au-
thorities were satisfied that it played a great part.
Approximately 4,000 merchant ships were painted and up-
wards of 400 war-vessels engaged principally in convoy and
patrol duties were also painted. The total cost of painting
amounted to some 2,500,000. (N. W.)
CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA [MRS. PATRICK CAMPBELL]
(1865- ), English actress (see 5.127), appeared at the Hay-
market theatre, London, in Lady Patricia in 1911, and later in
the same year at the St. James's theatre in Bella Donna. She
also played Eliza Doolittle in Mr. Shaw's Pygmalion at His
Majesty's theatre in 1914, and Leonora in Barrie's The Adored
One at the Duke of York's theatre in 1913. In 1914 she married
Mr. George Cornwallis-West. In 1917 she appeared in B. Veiller's
American melodrama, The Thirteenth Chair, at the Duke of York's
theatre, London, and in Nov. 1920 she played Lady Macbeth
in Mr. James K. Hackett's production of Macbeth at the Ald-
wych. Her daughter, Stella Campbell, also became an actress.
CAMPBELL, SIR FRANCIS J. (1832-1914), British educator,
was born near Winchester, Tenn., U.S.A., Oct. 9 1832. Having
been blind from the age of three, he was educated at the school
for the blind at Nashville, Tenn., and later at the university of
Tennessee. He also set himself to learn music, and went to the
conservatoires of Leipzig and Berlin. In 1872 he became prin-
cipal of the Royal Normal College and Academy for the Blind
at Norwood near London, which he, with the ist Duke of West-
minster and other philanthropists, had helped to establish.
He retired in 1912. Amongst his recreations was Alpine climbing,
and in 1885 he ascended Mont Blanc. He died at Norwood
June 30 1914.
CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN (1867- ), British divine
(see 5.130), retired in 1915 from his ministry at the City Temple
and in 1916 was ordained a clergyman of the Church of England.
He became an hon. chaplain to the Bishop of Birmingham, and
in 1917 was appointed vicar of Christ Church, Westminster.
CAMP FIRE GIRLS: see BOY SCOUTS.
CAMPS AND CANTONMENTS: see BARRACKS AND HUTMENTS.
CANADA -(see 5.142). Important measures, extending the
boundaries of the provinces of Quebec, Manitoba and Ontario,
were passed by the Canadian Parliament during the session 1911-2.
The areas of the provinces and territories (for which see the
separate articles under each heading) are given in Table I.
TABLE I. Area and Population.
Area (sq. m.)
Pop. per
Provinces
Land
Water
Total
land area
(1911)
Prince Edward Island
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
2,184
21,068
27,911
360
74
2,184
21,428
27,985
42-9
23-3
12-6
8uebec
690,865
15-969
706,834
2-9
ntario
Manitoba .
British Columbia
365,880
231,926
353-4 16
41,382
19,906
2,439
407,262
251,832
355,855
6-9
1-9
i-i
Alberta
Saskatchewan .
252,925
243,382
2,360
8,318
255,285
251,700
i'5
2-O
Yukon
North-west
206,427
649
207,076
Territories
1,207,926
34,298
1,242,224
Totals .
3,603,910
125,755
3,729,665
2-O
From
U.K.
From
U.S.A.
From other
countries
Total
1911
123,013
121,451
66,620
311,084
1912
138,121
133,710
82,406
354,237
1913
150,542
139,009
112,881
402,432
1914
142,622
107,530
134,726
384,878
1915
43,276
59,779
41-734
144,789
1916
8,664
36,937
2,936
4 8 ,537
1917
8,282
61,389
5,703
75,374
1918
3-178
71,314
4-582
79,074
1919
9,9H
40,715
7,073
57,702
1920
59-603
49,656
8,077
117,336
1921
74,262
48,059
26,156
148,477
The water area given is exclusive of Hudson Bay, Ungava Bay,
the Bay of Fundy, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and all other tidal
waters except the part of the St. Lawrence between Pointe-des-
Monts and the foot of Lake St. Peter in Quebec.
There was in 1921 a fairly strong movement to unite Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island under a single govern-
ment as a province to be known under the old name of Acadia.
Population. The growth of pop. is shown by the following
figures: 1871, 3,485,761; 1881, 4,324,810; 1891, 4,833,239; 1901,
5.371,315; 1911, 7*206,643. The pop. in 1921 was estimated at
between 8 and 9 millions. The rate of increase of pop. greatly
increased after 1896 on account of immigration from Great Britain,
the United States and parts of central Europe. There are German
settlements in Ontario and Nova Scotia, while Russians, Galicians,
Polish and Russian Jews and Scandinavians have emigrated in
large numbers to the western provinces and territories.
Immigration. Table II. shows the immigrants entering the coun-
try for the fiscal years 1911 to 1921 inclusive.
TABLE II. Immigration.
During 1911-21 18% British, 26% American and 29% of immi-
grants from other countries made entry for homesteads in western
Canada. These figures do not account for the large number of
farmers and farm labourers of the immigrant class who settled in all
parts of the Dominion without homesteading. The number of
Chinese immigrants during these years was 31,913 and of Japanese
7,195-
Municipal Statistics. Table III. gives the statistics of cities and
towns of 10,000 and over, showing population, total assessed value
of the taxable property, and liabilities, for the year 1919.
Agriculture. The value of agricultural production in the Domin-
ion, including live stock in hand, was in 1918 about $2,360,000,000,
or nearly twice the value of the production of manufactures and over
12 times the value of mineral production in the same year. It was
estimated by the Department of the Interior that in 1921 there were
still 200,000,000 ac. of vacant land in the Middle West available
for, or at least susceptible to, some form of agriculture.
The only item of agricultural production in which in 46 years up
to 1918 there was shown a decrease was the number of sheep (2,369,-
358 in 1917; 3,155,509 in 1871). It is difficult to account for this,
except for the fact that the price of wool was for many years very
low, and sheep have always been in Canada what a commercial man
would call a side-line. _ Canada, however, is especially well adapted
for sheep and goat raising and breeding. There are millions of acres,
not only in the West but in the older provinces, that could be used
for the purpose without impinging on the other more fertile lands.
In portions of Ontario, Nova. Scotia and New Brunswick there is
much cleared and partly cleared land apparently going to waste that
might be devoted to sheep culture. In the Middle West and in
British Columbia there are approximately 50,000,000 ac. suitable for
sheep and goat culture. There are no long droughts, as in Australia,
and there is comparative immunity from disease; in the past the
great enemies of sheep in Canada have been dogs and wild animals.
Factory cheese (194,904,336 Ib. in 1917; 220,833,269 Ib. in 1900)
also suffered a decline in production, on account of the greater
demand for creamery butter and the more profitable outlet for milk
and cream in the urban centres. So great is this latter demand that
the whole of N. America is affected by it. In live stock particularly
dairy and beef cattle (7,920,940 head in 1917; 2,624,290 in 1871) and
swine (3,619,382 in 1917; 1,366,083 in 1871) lies Canada's greatest
agricultural prospect, because cattle give to the soil the greatest
return in fertility. They are the necessary link in the rotation of
crops; and Canada, with her vast area, her abundant water, her
adaptability for growing fodder crops, and her advantageous posi-
tion in respect of foreign markets for dairy products and meats, is
in a position of great advantage. Despite the use of motors, the
number of horses in Canada has increased (3,412,749 in 1917), and
there is still a good future for selected breeds of draught, riding
and race horses.
On account of the labour situation, in which farmers are practically
deprived of outside help, agriculture in Canada, as elsewhere in
America, resolves itself into self-help, and therefore has become a
question of small mixed-farming, limited to special lines in which
machinery may be utilized and only a minimum of labour required. In
the Maritime Provinces and Ontario farms are practically denuded
548
CANADA
TABLE III. Principal Cities.
City
Popula-
tion
Total
assessed
value
taxable
property
Total
liabilities
Montreal ....
706,600
$623,820,959
$124,802,327
Toronto . . . .
499,278
642,816,690
109,849,002
Winnipeg ....
200,000
236,023,520
46,122,938
Vancouver ....
123,050
205,044,673
29,054,524
Huebec ....
"4,550
73,038,256
15,702,542
amilton ....
108,143
87,157,890
15,088,922
Ottawa ....
107,732
120,463,606
I9,4 2 3,756
Calgary ....
75,000
77,943,oio
27,850,087
Edmonton ....
66,000
79,306,320
37,585,ioo
Halifax ....
60,000
37,330,810
St. John ....
60,000
46,013,550
5,"4,562
London ....
59,ioo
40,783,044
8,263,283
Victoria ....
50,000
71,897,065
22,823,558
Regina ....
40,000
40,982,515
11,675,961
Brantford ....
33,000
15,718,805
5,202,831
Windsor ....
31,629
32,953,994
3,881,288
Verdun ....
28,432
15,085,400
3,488,372
Hull .....
28,392
9,465,860
2,428,844
Saskatoon ....
28,000
28,433,044
10,234,119
Sydney ....
Three Rivers
25,000
25,000
9.245,854
16,356,575
2,075,500
4,835,783
Kingston
23,737
13,016,727
2,023,698
Moose Jaw ....
23,155
20,612,578
8,339,034
Sherbrooke ....
22,583
12,923,261
4,539,104
Peterborough
22,000
13,112,605
2,862,290
Sault St. Marie .
21,500
17.650,175
2,977,878
Kitchener ....
21,052
u,957,859
2,090,486
Fort William
20,000
21,973.480
9.146,431
St. Thomas ....
20,000
10,248,310
270,972
Westmount ....
19,500
44,583,350
6,867,517
St. Catharines .
19,196
15,465,385
5,246,489
Moncton ....
I9,OOO
19,000,000
f
Stratford ....
18,106
8,858,350
2,424,209
Guelph ....
17,032
8,832,030
2,073,730
Lachine . . .
16,500
13,661,338
2,609,049
New Westminster
16,000
16,645,212
6,234,496
Port Arthur
15,000
22,574,399
4,600,107
Sarnia
14,649
11,092,243
1,540,394
Brandon
' 14,421
15,447,978
3,759,070
Niagara Falls
H,307
10,759,286
1,218,709
Charlottetown .
14,000
5,704,308
838,600
Outremont ....
12,650
17,750,251
3,321,446
Gait
12,500
7,580,914
2,008,969
Belleville ....
12,345
6,240,165
1,465,531
St. Boniface
12,225
12,547,265
5,271.528
Lethbridge ....
12,000
11,723,655
4.573.400
New Glasgow
12,000
5,331,530
972,808
Owen Sound
1 1 ,768
7,022,883
1,501,985
Amherst ....
11,000
4,844,430
1,030,163
Medicine Hat
11,000
14,292,838
4,483,238
St. Hyacinthe .
10,541
4,233,8i8
1,313,318
Woodstock ....
10,150
5,428,345
980,468
Levis
10,000
3,556,695
949,7"
of domestic labour. It was felt that the success of the Soldier Settle-
ment scheme, which was greater even than had been anticipated,
and the wide attention which Canada's agricultural capabilities
were attracting in Great Britain and other countries, might do
much to relieve the situation. Each province presents its peculiar
problems of settlement. In British Columbia, for instance, the
opportunities are mainly limited to fruit-growers and those who wish
to engage in vegetable and poultry raising and small mixed farming,
having live stock always in view. In the Middle West, although the
live-stock idea was taking strong root, the prevailing cultivation was
in 1921 still wheat, though much attention was being paid by the
larger and more progressive farmers to live stock and, so far as
possible, to diversified farming. Western Ontario, one of the
richest sections of Canada, is devoted to live stock, grain growing,
maize, beans, sugar beet, tobacco and fruit. It has the greatest
diversity of products, and in addition to a rich soil it has plenty of
summer heat, growing tomatoes, peaches and grapes to perfection.
Eastern Ontario is less favoured in its climate but rich throughout.
Quebec contains much fertile land in the valley of the St. Lawrence,
and on account of the habits and instincts of the habitant population
is very closely cultivated. The farmers of Quebec are the most
contented in Canada. The Maritime Provinces have suffered
greatly from emigration to other provinces and to the United States,
and a good deal of their useful and once cultivated land is not pro-
ducing to anything like its capacity. Repopulation and repatriation
are among the needs of parts of Ontario and the Maritime Provinces
and are among the greatest problems of Government.
The values (in dollars) of various Canadian agricultural products
are given in Tables IV. and V.
TABLE IV. Field Crops.
1918
1919
Wheat (fall)
(spring) ....
Oats
Barley
Rye
Peas
Beans
Buckwheat
Flax
Corn
Potatoes
Turnips, etc
16,516,000
365,151,700
331,357,400
77,378,670
12,728,600
12,899,100
19,283,900
18,018,100
18,951,000
24,902,800
102,235,300
52,252,000
31,521,000
333,336,000
317,097,000
77,462,700
14,240,000
9,739,300
6,214,800
15,831,000
22,609,500
22,080,000
118,894,700
54,958,700
Hay and Clover ....
Grain Hay (B.C.) ....
Fodder Corn
Sugar Beets
Alfalfa
Mixed Grains
241,277,300
29,439,100
1,845,000
7,963,500
40,726,500
338,713,200
4,379,000
34,179,500
2,606,000
10,800,200
37,775,400
1,372,935,97"
1,452,437,500
TABLE V. Agricultural Products, etc.
Dairy Products:
Factory Butter ....
Factory Cheese ....
Miscellaneous
Total Dairy Products
1917
1918
34,274,218
41,180,623
41,859,156
38,456,532
32,995,241
113,310,929
Live Stock:
Horses
Milch Cows
Other Cattle
Sheep
Swine
Total Live Stock
1918
1919
459,155,000
307,244,000
398,814,000
48,802,000
112,751,000
435,070,000
327,814,000
381,007,000
50,402,000
102,309,000
1,326,766,000
1,296,602,000
Other Products:
Eggs and Poultry (estimated)
Fruits ......
40,000,000
1,975,841,000
Forests. Canada's annual forest growth is several times in
excess of the annual cut. The production of timber was valued at
$190,000,000 in 1917. The Federal Government has jurisdiction
over the timber of the three Middle West provinces, and of the
Territories and of the Railway Belt in British Columbia, and has
created Federal reserves to the extent of over 28,000,000 acres. It
carries on, in addition, an extensive system of seeding and free dis-
tribution of trees in the three prairie provinces. In 1917 it allotted
nearly 8,000,000 trees to about 10,000 applicants and the Govern-
ment farms had 9,000,000 seedlings and cuttings available for dis-
tribution. The provinces have adopted a similar policy of timber
reserves, and the total areas reserved increased from 714,000 ac. in
1901 to nearly 153,000,000 ac. in 1917. These timber reserves are
also for the maintenance of water supply and for the protection of
wild animals and birds. Canada has always had a large export trade
in timber and lumber. The total value of unmanufactured products
rose from nearly $19,000,000 in 1888 to about $56,000,000 in 1917,
and of manufactured products $71,500,000 to $146,330,192 in 1918,
one factor in the increase being increased value of wood products.
British Columbia stands first in respect of forest organization and
scientific administration. It has a well-organized forest service and
has initiated special scientific investigations. This work, however,
was hindered by the drafts on skilled man-power during the World
War. Ontario has undertaken a reorganization of its protective and
administrative work. Quebec, following somewhat in the footsteps of
France, recognized the necessity for technical training from the first
and has a forest school in connexion with Laval University. In New
Brunswick similar steps were being taken in 1921.
Table VI. gives an estimate of Canada's stand of timber, mainly
coniferous. In the Prairie Provinces the figures may be taken as
representing practically all spruce, which in Ontario comprises
100,000,000,000 ft. of the total; in Quebec 150,000,000,000 ft.; in
New Brunswick 16,500,000,000 ft., and in Nova Scotia 15,000,000,-
ooofeet. In British Columbia Douglas fir is the dominant timber tree,
the rest of the cut being made up of cedar, spruce and one or two
minor varieties.
TABLE VI. Timber, in feet.
British Columbia ' 366,000,000,000
Prairie Provinces 60,000,000,000
Ontario 160,000,000,000
Quebec 275,000,000,000
New Brunswick 22,000,000,000
Nova Scotia 20,000,000,000
903,000,000,000
1 British Columbia is credited with 366,000,000,000 ft. of com-
mercial timber, but her own forestry experts have estimated it at
400,000,000,000 ft. and even as high as 450,000,000,000 ft.
CANADA
549
According to official figures in 1921, the capital invested in the
Canadian lumber industry was $231,203,247; the value of products
$222,648,790, including sawn lumber $129,041,688. The capital
invested in the Canadian pulp and paper industry in 1919 was
$264,58 1 ,300 ; the production of paper having a value of $9 1 ,362 ,9 1 3
and of pulp $48,562,088.
Wild Animal Life. The establishment by the Government of
parks and game and forest reserves or " sanctuaries " is of much
importance in connexion with the conservation of the furry animals,
the value of which may be gauged by the fact that the exports of
Canadian furs of all kinds rose from $5,569,476 in 1914 to $13,737,621
in 1919. The constant expansion of the settled area has caused some
kinds of fur-bearers to retreat farther into the woods; the clearing of
the forests and the grazing of the natural coverts by domestic animals
have destroyed their haunts and exposed them to their enemies ; and
the draining of swampy areas has destroyed the homes of the musk-
rat or musquash, the mink, the otter and the beaver. The fisher and
the marten never seem to survive long near man's habitation. Even
the fox, which appears to increase near human settlements, will
decrease if the forests are wholly removed or burned. The official
policy is to inject new social life, so to speak, into the communities of
wild animals, protecting what were left by the fur-hunters, the ruth-
less sportsmen and the Indians, and preserving and multiplying
them under more favourable conditions for future generations. The
park reserves for wild animals aggregate 10,000 sq. m. in extent.
Other undertakings on a more expansive scale will probably result
from Government investigation and action. The wood buffalo or
wild bison may be incorporated with the buffalo herds, and would
probably improve the latter. The millions of caribou in the Yukon
and adjacent territory and the musk-ox of the barren lands are
likely to be nationalized and dealt with like other concessions for the
benefit of the nation's meat larder. Domestic reindeer will be im-
ported, as has been done in Alaska, and a cross with the caribou
would probably produce a better variety than either. The mountain
sheep is as capable of being domesticated as the reindeer, and the
several thousand in existence in isolated flocks in British Columbia
and Alberta may become herds. Animals of certain genera become
tame when not hunted ; this is also true of wild geese, ducks, swans
and quail, of which Canada was a wonderful breeding ground.
There are further possibilities of dealing with bear, beaver, mink,
marten and other animals according to their habits and habitat.
Fur-farming, one of the new industries of Canada, is only a new
form of the old and once termed " honourable " business of fur-
taking and fur-trading. The difference is that wild animals are now
bred and reared in captivity for furs and for breeding stock. In
Prince Edward I. fox-farming has made some fortunes, and the sales
are included in the agricultural returns of the province ; the industry
has been extended to New Brunswick, Quebec and British Columbia.
Fisheries. Commenting on Canadian fisheries, an official report
points out that: " The fertility of Canadian waters is indicated by
the fact that the entire catch of salmon, lobster, herring, mackerel
and sardines, nearly all the haddock, and many of the cod, hake, and
pollock landed are taken within 10 or 12 m. from shore." The
coast-line of the Atlantic provinces from Grand Manan to Labrador,
not including lesser bays and indentations, measures over 5,000 m.,
whilst the sea areas to which this forms the natural basin embrace:
the Bay of Fundy 8,000 sq. m. in extent; the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
fully ten times that size ; and other ocean waters aggregating not less
than 200,000 sq. m. ; a total of over four-fifths of the fishing grounds of
the N. Atlantic. In addition there are 15,000 sq. m. of inshore waters
owned by the Dominion. Large as are these areas, they represent
only a part of the fishing grounds of Canada. Hudson Bay, with
a shore 6,000 m. in length, is larger than the Mediterranean; the
Pacific coast of the Dominion measures over 7,000 m. long, and
is exceptionally well sheltered for fishermen; and throughout the
interior is a series of lakes which together cover 220,000 sq. m., or
more than one-half the fresh water of the globe, Canada's share of
the Great Lakes of the St. Lawrence basin covering 72,700 sq. miles.
The fisheries of the Atlantic are divided into deep-sea and inshore
or coastal fisheries. Deep-sea fishing is pursued in vessels of from
40 to 100 tons, carrying crews of from 12 to 20 men. The method is
" trawling " by hook and line. The fish taken are principally cod,
haddock, hake, pollock and halibut. The inshore fishery is carried on
in small boats, usually motor-driven, and in a class of small vessels
with crews of from four to seven men.
All the provinces have fisheries departments, and these, along with
the department of Ottawa, are endeavouring to conserve and develop
the fisheries' resources to their utmost extent by means of hatcheries,
cultural methods, investigation and restrictive regulations. It is
estimated that between 1,000,000,000 and 1,500,000,000 of fish fry
of one kind and another are annually planted in various waters from
a large number of hatcheries. Long efforts have succeeded in bring-
ing about a treaty to secure international regulations. The Scientific
and Research Council has taken up the question of utilizing fish
waste. There are over 300,000 tons of fish waste in Canada each
year, of which perhaps half could be converted into nitrogenous and
phosphate fertilizers and protein foods for cattle, hogs and poultry.
The salmon (product valued at $15,595,970 in 1920) is obtained
almost exclusively on the Pacific coast. Those taken in Quebec,
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia resemble those of Great Bri-
tain and are regarded as superior for table use. Only one salmon
in British Columbia, the steelhead, may be said to be closely allied
to the eastern salmon, and it does not run in large numbers. Cod
fishing ($6,270,171 in 1920) is largely prosecuted on the Atlantic
coast and is one of the most useful and valuable of eastern fisheries.
The lobster fishing ($7,152,455 in 1920) has been confined to Nova
Scotia, Prince Edward I., New Brunswick and Quebec waters. It is
the most extensive in the world, but shows signs of depletion. Her-
ring fishing ($3,337,738 in 1920) is carried on quite extensively on
both coasts. There is in the Great Lakes a fresh-water herring which
is becoming popular throughout central Canada. Haddock, hake
and pollock are extensively taken in the Atlantic deep-sea fishing.
Halibut fishing ($4,535,188 in 1920) was once a most important in-
dustry on the Atlantic seaboard, but its principal headquarters are
now at Prince Rupert. Over-fishing is having its effect on the north-
west coast and deep-sea fishermen are turning to kinds hitherto neg-
lected. Sardines are abundant in British Columbia and New
Brunswick waters, and in the latter province an extensive industry
has been established, as in Norway and France, in tinning them.
Mackerel are obtained in the Atlantic coast waters. Smelts are very
plentiful on both coasts, but particularly in British Columbia waters,
where another fish belonging to the salmonidae group, and much
resembling it is the oulachon, or candle-fish. The Alaska black cod,
when it can be obtained quite fresh or properly cured, is perhaps the
most-prized fish on the Pacific coast.
Trout, which are included under a number of names, are taken in
all the lakes and rivers from coast to coast, and, while they are not
fished for commercially in the same way as other fish, find their way
into the market in fair quantities during the season. The whitefish
of the Great Lakes and other lakes of the northern interior is among
the most valuable of the fresh-water varieties. Pickerel, pike and
tullibee are other valuable fish very common in Canadian waters;
pickerel is mainly confined to Ontario and Quebec. Other kinds
of fish important in the aggregate are perch, bass, alewives, carp,
maskinonge, sturgeon, shad and soles.
Oysters were formerly very abundant on the Atlantic coast,
especially in Prince Edward I. waters, whose malpeques were
famous, but over-fishing and disease have almost depleted the beds.
Whaling is carried on extensively on the Pacific coast, where the
Industry is concentrated on the west coast of Vancouver Island.
In addition to whale oil, fertilizer and whale meat are sold as by-
products. Edible clams are distributed widely over both coasts, but
especially on the Pacific. According to the official figures, the total
output of Canadian fisheries in 1920 was valued at $49,321,217, as
against $33,103,748 in 1913. The increase was largely due to the
increased food-demand caused by the war. Capital to the extent of
$30,334,129 is represented in fish canning and preserving establish-
ments, and $29,887,734 in vessels, boats, nets, etc., while about
87,070 people in all are employed.
Minerals. In 1906 the value of the total mineral production was
$79,286,202 ; in 1917 it had risen to $89,646,821 and in 1920 to $217,-
775,080. The Canadian deposits of nickel and asbestos are among
the most important in the world, yielding sufficient to control the
market in these commodities. The chief mineral productions in 1920
were coal, nickel, gold, cement, copper, asbestos and silver.
The coal reserves of Canada are second in the Empire, amounting
to 1,234,000,000,000 tons, of which over 1,000,000,000,000 tons are
in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Owing to the long stretch between
Saskatchewan and Nova Scotia which is coalless, Canada imports
from the United States 50 % more coal than she produces. This will
be remedied, in part at least, if experiments inaugurated and being
carried out by the Dominion Government in 1921 are successful.
There are vast deposits of lignite in Saskatchewan, too low in grade to
be used as fuel in its present form, but which it has been proposed,
at the instance of the Industrial Research Council, to carbonize and
briquette for commercial use, laboratory tests having demonstrated
its high fuel value. There are, too, enormous deposits of peat in the
central and other areas of Canada, estimated, if convertible into
compressed fuel, as equivalent to 5,000,000,000 tons of coal, and
likely to afford many valuable by-products in addition. Experiments
on a commercial scale were being carried on by the Government to
this end also. Coal represented the largest mineral output in
Canada in 1921, the total being valued at $77,000,000.
Iron occurs in large deposits in British Columbia, northern and
central Ontario (especially in the Lake Superior region), in Quebec,
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and probably also west of Hudson
Bay about Great Bear and Slave Lakes, the tonnage already pro-
duced being stated- in 1920 at over 365,000,000 tons. The fact that
96% of the iron ore smelted in Canadian blast furnaces in 1918 was
imported was due to the ore of all accessible large deposits requiring
special treatment (" beneficiation ") before being charged to the
furnace ; there were two large beneficiary plants for this purpose in
Ontario, but more such plants were needed before the iron-ore mining
could attain its proper importance. Canada had nine blast furnaces
with an aggregate daily capacity of 3,782 tons, and yet she imported
in 1919 over 2,000.000 tons of ore. The Nova Scotia blast furnaces
are fed from Newfoundland, and Ontario furnaces mainly from the
iron-mines of the United States Lake Superior region.
The placer deposits of British Columbia were formerly the
principal supply of gold in Canada, but had seriously declined in
550
CANADA
production when the Yukon came suddenly into prominence in 1897
as a new source of supply. Then Porcupine loomed on the horizon as
a rich producer, and Ontario as a consequence in 1920 yielded half the
total production, viz. 811,665,735. Manitoba has become a small
producer, the gold being derived from the newly opened region north
of the Pas. Nova Scotia and Quebec have been small but steady
producers for years. There are inviting prospects for gold over large
areas of northern Ontario, northern Quebec, northern Manitoba and
Saskatchewan, and throughout British Columbia.
In 1890 and 1891 rich discoyeries in silver were made in the
Slocan district of British Columbia, the silver being found associated
with lead in galena ores. The province has since been a large pro-
ducer both of silver and lead, and now also of zinc, which is usually a
concomitant of lead and silver in the Kootenay silver-lead ores. In
1903, however, deposits were discovered in northern Ontario about
loo m. north-east of Sudbury, in what is now known as Cobalt, which
proved to be marvellously rich in silver, so much so that in 1911 the
production there was over $30,500,000. The Thunder Bay region
west of Port Arthur yielded silver as far back as 1846, and attention
is again being directed to the old mines.
Despite the fact that for a number of years Government bounties
were paid on lead and zinc mined and smelted in Canada, the output
of these metals did not increase, except during the war, when the
demand for lead eliminated the bounties automatically, and new
processes made the extraction of zinc practicable. Nearly all the
production in both metals is in British Columbia, although Quebec
and Ontario contribute small amounts. There are notable deposits
in several parts of Ontario, in the Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec, and in
northern New Brunswick.
Copper is widely distributed throughout Canada and where found
is usually in large bodies. Of nearly 110,000,000 Ib. produced in
Canada in 1917, British Columbia contributed well over one-half,
Ontario came next with about 43,000,000 Ib., drawn mainly from the
Sudbury district, and Quebec third with over 5,000,000 Ib. The new
district of the Pas gave over 2,000,000 Ib. and the Yukon about
300,000 Ib. Depending upon the future demands for copper, the
possibilities of Canada in British Columbia, in the Yukon, in the
extreme north of Canada, in northern Ontario and in Quebec,
including Ungava, are without doubt very great.
Sudbury district in Ontario, which is characterized by the richness
and diversity of its minerals, is the chief source of nickel. Two very
large companies are in operation and have constructed refineries,
their investments representing between $15,000,000 and $20,000,000.
New Caledonia, lying about 1,000 m. east of Australia, is the only
serious competitor to Canada in nickel production. Among the
other metals whose ores are mined in Canada are molybdenum and
antimony, very widely distributed, but of which very few payable
deposits are known. Platinum occurs in the placer deposits of
Quebec and British Columbia, and prospecting is active.
The total mineral production (metallic and non-metallic) of
Canada iti 1920 was valued at $102,353,862, including the following
items: coal, $77,326,853; nickel, $24,854,597; gold, $15,853,478;
copper, $14,166,479; asbestos, $13,677,841; silver, $12,908,683;
zinc, $3,081,149; lead, $3,038,346; pig-iron, $2,066,997. The output
of structural materials and clay products was valued at $38,184,848.
Water-Power. The officials of the Dominion Water-power
Branch, Department of the Interior, have made a careful re-analysis
of the water-power resources, which are one of the Dominion's
greatest natural assets. The figures in Table VII. are based upon
rapids, falls and power sites, of which the actual existent drop or the
head possible of concentration is definitely known or at least well
established. Innumerable rapids and falls of greater or lesser power
capacity not as yet recorded are scattered on rivers and streams from
coast to coast, particularly in the great northern country, much of
which is still practically unexplored. The power estimates have been
calculated for 24-hour power at 80% efficiency on the basis of
" ordinary minimum flow " and " estimated flow for maximum
development." The former is derived from the averages of the
minimum flow for the lowest two consecutive seven-day periods in
each year, over the period for which records are available, and the
latter from the continuous power indicated by the flow of the stream
for six months in the year. As will be seen from the table, the
recorded power available throughout the Dominion is 18,255,000
H.P. The water-power available under estimated flow for maximum
development, that is, dependable for at least six months in the year,
is 32,076,000 H.P.
There are installed throughout the Dominion water-wheels and
turbines to the extent of 2,471,000 H.P. An analysis of the water-
power plants scattered from coast to coast gives an average machine
installation 50% greater than the six-month flow maximum power.
Applying this, the figures indicate that the water-power resources
recorded in 1920 permit of a turbine installation of 41,700,000 H.P.
In other words, turbine installations represented in 1920 only 5-9%
of the recorded water-power resources. Though industrial and com-
mercial conditions were still far from normal, in 1920 there was
installed, or under construction, plant of 500,000 H.P. capacity.
This figure, however, includes only initial installation, not ultimate
designed capacity. Should the rate of water-wheel installation during
the previous 15 years be continued, it was estimated that in 1940
Canada would have 5,600,000 H.P. developed water-power.
TABLE VII. Water-Power .
Province
Available 24-hour power
at 80 % efficiency.
Turbine
Installation
H.P.
At ordinary
min. flow
H.P.
At est. flow
for max. dev.
(dependable
for 6 mos.)
H.P.
British Columbia
Alberta
Saskatchewan
Manitoba .
Ontario
Quebec
New Brunswick .
Nova Scotia
Prince Edward I.
Yukon & North-west
Territories
1,931,142
475,281
5I348I
3,270,491
4,950,300
6,915,244
50,406
20,751
3,000
125,220
5,103,460
1,137,505
1,087,756
5,769,444
6,808,190
11,640,052
120,807
128,264
5,270
275,250
304,535
32,492
83,447
1,052,048
925,972
21,180
35,774
1,933
13,199
18,255,316
32,075,998
2,470,580
Canada exports annually about 200,000 H.P. to the United States.
The export takes place from New Brunswick to Maine, from Quebec
to New York state, from Ontario to New York and Minnesota,
and from British Columbia to the state of Washington.
Manufactures. The increase in the industries of Canada during
the period 1910-21 was very remarkable. War activities and
increased prices accounted to a considerable extent for increased
volume of production and value of output. In 1921 industry in all
branches showed the decline in output which was almost universal
on account of lack of foreign demand and industrial disputes. The
capital employed was $1,247,583,699 in 1910, and $3,034,301,915 in
1918; and the value of product $1,165,975,639 in 1910 and $3,458,-
036,975 i? 1918.
The principal industries, with the value of products in 1918, were
officially as follow: Flour and grist-mill products, $262,537,122;
slaughtering and meat-packing, $229,231,666; rolling-mills and steel
furnaces, $209,706,319; munitions, $186,034,920; lumber, lath and
shingles, $146,333,192; pulp and paper, $119,309,434; butter and
cheese, $94,927,032; foundry and machine-shop products, $82,493,-
897; shipbuilding and repairs, $74,799,411; cottons, $66,399,228;
cars and car works, $66,068,705; smelting, $62,482,256; house-
building, $60,522,151; sugar-refining, $58,812,219; electric light and
power, $53,449,133; boots and shoes, $46,387,665; hosiery and knit
goods, $45,755,129; plumbing and tin-smithing, $41,870,529; car
repairs, $40,972,617; drugs and chemicals, $38,252,587; tobacco,
$37,883,974; agricultural implements, $34,853,673; fish-preserving,
$34,007,628; men's clothing, $33,835,793; leather, $33,273,925:
women's clothing, $32,346,340; printing and publishing, $30,325,123;
electrical apparatus and supplies, $30,045,399; boilers and engines,
$29,470,457; lumber products, $29,125,925. _ .
Trade. The great expansion of trade during 1910-21 is shown in
Table VIII., which gives the value of imports and exports.
TABLE VIII. Imports and Exports.
Imports
Exports
1911 .
$ 452,724,603
$ 290,000,210
1912 .
522,404,675
307,716,151
1913 . . .
671,207,234
377,068,355
1914 . . .
619,193,998
455,437,224
1915 . . .
455,955,908
461,442,509
1916 .
508,201,134
779,300,070
1917 . . ' .
846,450,878
1,179,211,100
1918 . . .
963,532,578
1,586,169,792
1919 . . .
919,711,705
1,268,765,285
1920 .
1,064,528,123
1,286,658,709
The principal customers were the United Kingdom and the United
States. Table IX. gives the values of Canada's imports from, and
exports to, the United States; and Table X. Canada's imports from,
and exports to, the United Kingdom.
TABLE IX. Trade with United States.
Imports
Exports
1911 .
$275,824,265
$112,208,676
1912 .
331,384,657
112,956,295
1913 . . .
436,887,315
150,961,675
1914 . . .
396,302,138
176,948,299
1915 . . .
297,142,059
186,342,856
1916 .
370,880,549
216,669,262
1917 . . .
665,312,759
290,578,773
1918 . . .
792,894,957
440,811,400
1919 . . .
750,203,024
477,695,659
1920 .
801,097,318
501,130,117
CANADA
55i
TABLE X. Trade with United Kingdom.
Imports
Exports
1911 .
$109,934,753
$136,962,971
1912 .
116,906,360
151,833,379
1913 . . .
138,742,644
177,982,002
1914 . . .
132,070,406
222,322,292
1915 . . .
90,157,204
2U,757,7i8
1916 .
77,404,361
463,081,241
1917 . . .
107,096,735
756,071,059
1918 . . .
81,324,283
861,073,399
1919 . . .
73,035,118
560,839,116
1920 .
126,362,631
495,960,118
Railways. The Canadian railways in 1921 had become con-
solidated into two great systems, the Canadian Pacific and the
National railways. In 1918 there were 38,875 m. in operation, over
20,000 of which were under Government control. The capitalization
of railways in operation at the end of 1918 was $1,998,880,494, and
the aggregate earnings for the year were $330,220,150. There are six
canal systems under the control of the Dominion Government.
As a result of the war the railway situation had changed very
materially from one of optimism in 19123 to one of almost painful
anxiety in 1919. This arose from the inability of the Canadian
Northern on the one hand to sell its bonds to complete its trans-
continental system, and of the Grand Trunk, on the other, to meet
its interest and other obligations in connexion with the Grand Trunk
Pacific, and to cope with the increased working-costs arising out of
war conditions. Repeated appeals were made to Parliament for
further financial aid. A Royal Commission, consisting of three
eminent railway experts, was appointed to inquire into the entire
railway situation of Canada, and after an exhaustive investigation
there was issued what was known as the Acworth-Drayton (major-
ity) report, practically recommending that the Canadian Northern
should be taken over by the nation, amalgamated with the national
railway system and operated under a council of a board of directors.
A system which would apply if and when the Grand Trunk and
Grand Trunk Pacific were taken over was also recommended. The
nationalization of the Canadian Pacific was not recommended. The
recommendations of the majority report of this commission became
the policy of the Government, and on June 30 1918 the Canadian
National ceased to be an independent entity. In the legislation of
1917 authorizing acquisition provisipn was made for acquiring the
balance of capital stock, amounting to $60,000,000, not in the hands
of the Government, its value to be determined by arbitration. This
was fixed at $10,800,000, and the transfer was made. The system is
now operated by a board of directors, of which in 1921 Mr. D. B.
Hanna was president. The Grand Trunk, meanwhile, desired to be
relieved of its obligations in connexion with the Grand Trunk Pacific
and National Transcontinental. In the spring of 1918 the Grand
Trunk Pacific notified the Government that it would not be possible
for the company to continue its operations when the balance of
money in hand had been exhausted (about March 10), and authority
was immediately taken by Order in Council under the provisions of
the War Measures Act to appoint a receiver for the company,
Parliament having confirmed this action. In the fall session of
Parliament a bill was introduced and passed authorizing the acquisi-
tion of all the capital stock of the Grand Trunk system, the Govern-
ment, however, guaranteeing 4 % dividends as well as interest upon
present debenture stock outstanding. The value of the preference
and common stocks (up to a maximum of $2,500,000) was to
be determined by a board of three arbitrators, and a committee of
management was to be formed two members to be appointed by the
Government, two by the Grand Trunk and a fifth by the four so
appointed to ensure as far as possible the operation of the railway in
harmony with the Canadian National system. This went into
effect. Not without some difficulty the consent of the Grand Trunk
shareholders was obtained and arbitrators agreed to. Sir Thomas
White, late Minister of Finance, acted for the Government; Mr.
Wm. H. Taft, ex- President, and later, Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court, of the United States, acted for the Grand Trunk; Mr. Justice
Walter Cassels, Ottawa, was chairman of the board. In September
192 1 their awards were published. The two Canadian arbitrators held
that " no value " attached to the common and preference stocks,
though it would be for the Government to decide whether it should
go outside the sphere of the arbitrators in granting ex gratia com-
pensation. In a dissenting judgment, Mr. Taft held that their
' value " was higher than the maximum provided in the Act.
It was further contemplated that all the railways built or acquired
by the Government would eventually be amalgamated into one large
system, operated by a National Board of Directorate. During the
several sessions in which the legislation referred to was brought
about very keen and protracted discussion, involving largely the
principle of Government ownership, took place. The opposition was
greatly emphasized by announcements of increasing deficits in the
operation of the National system in 1920-1, the amount being,
it was stated, $68,000,000. Five steam railways paid dividends
during 1919: the Canadian Pacific $29,227,277, and four others in
the aggregate $761,000. The average number of miles operated in
March 1921 was 38,076-30. The Canadian Pacific and the National
railways (including the Grand Trunk) operated over 85 % of the total
single-track mileage, as follows: Canadian Pacific 13,785 m. ;
Government railways (under jurisdiction Department of Railways)
4,564 m.; Canadian National (under board of directors) 9,757 m.;
Grand Trunk Pacific (under receiver) 2,807 m. ; Grand Trunk 3,571.
The total mileage of Government roads in Canada was in 1921
20,699. The mileage of independent railways -was: Algoma Central
347 ; Algoma Eastern 89; Quebec Central 277 ; Victoria, Vancouver &
Eastern (Great Northern) 269; Kettle Valley (Canadian Pacific)
355i P ere Marquette 199; Canada Southern (Michigan Central)
380; Dominion Atlantic (Canadian Pacific) 274; Great Waterways
(Province of Alberta) 113; Edmonton, Dunvegan & British Co-
lumbia (Alberta Government, operated by C.P.) 406 miles.
The total capitalization of steam railways on Jan. I 1921 was
$2,036,165,606, of which $568,606,803 belonged to the Canadian
Pacific, $451,685,996 to the Grand Trunk, $417,924,087 to the
Canadian National, $413,590,078 (capital expenditure) to the
Canadian Government railways (including National Transcon-
tinental & Hudson Bay railway), and $216,512,540 to Grand Trunk
Pacific and branch lines. Salaries and wages amounted to $233,323,-
074 and the number of employees to 173,728. There was a total
corporate loss on operation for the year of $15,097,747. The track
mileage of electric railways amounted to 2,400 miles. Capital stocks
outstanding and funded debt of these amounted to $173,041,340, and
$20,211,576 wages were paid to 16,940 employees.
Canals. The river St. Lawrence, with the canals established on
its course above Montreal, and the lakes Ontario, Erie, St. Clair,
Huron and Superior, with connecting canals, afford a course of
water communication extending from Montreal to Port Arthur, at
the head of Lake Superior, a distance of 1,214 miles. The distance to
Duluth is 1,336 m. and to Chicago 1,242 m. This through system
comprises 74 m. of canal with 48 locks, the remainder of the distance
consisting of river and lake waters. The minimum depth of water on
this route is l<j. feet. The canal approaches and the channels of the
intermediate river reaches are well defined, and are lighted with gas
buoys, admitting of navigation by night as well as by day. The
Lachine, Soulange, Cornwall, Welland and Sault Ste. Marie canals
are lighted throughout by electricity, and are electrically operated.
In view of the agreement signed by the members of the Inter-
national Waterways Commission, it may be noted that the St.
Lawrence river is the greatest waterway in the world and the oldest
in use in the New World. There are no floods in the St. Lawrence
as in the Mississippi, the Columbia or other large rivers of the
continent. The difference between maximum and minimum volume
is 1-19 ft., as compared with the Ohio, 28-22 ft.; the Missouri, 29 ft.;
and the Mississippi, 10-29 ft. The lakes act as settling basins and
no silt is carried down to be deposited in the river. Hence when a
channel is dredged, the dredging process does not require to be
continuous as in most other rivers. Between Montreal and Quebec
the river was deepened some years ago to 30 ft. and work is in
progress to increase it to 35 ft., so that the largest ocean vessels may
dock at Montreal. Canals have been built at various times to over-
come the rapids between Lake Ontario and Montreal, and six of
these, varying in length from 0-75 to 14 m., in width from 144 to
146 ft., and in depth from 14 to 15 ft., are in existence. To make the
waterways scheme feasible, this section of the river would have to be
so improved as to admit the passage of ocean vessels. The Welland
Canal, which was being rebuilt between Port Colborne on Lake Erie
and Port Waler on Lake Ontario in 1921, will be 80 ft. wide and 30
ft. deep. It will be able to accommodate ocean vessels and will form
the key of the entire scheme of oceanizing the international waters
of Canada, if that should be decided upon. Locks on the "Soo"
Canal have opened Lake Superior to the world, and improvements
from Lake Superior to Detroit have been made to render navigation
on the proposed scale practicable. Incidentally, the scheme involves
the development of water-power estimated at 2,000,000 H.P.
Of the minor systems, the Murray, Trent, Rideau and Ottawa
river canals may be considered as branches of the through east-to-
west route. In operation, however, these canals serve a distinct
traffic of a more local nature. Isolated from the system of through
navigation, the navigation of the Richelieu river, from its junction
at Sorel to Lake Champlain, is effected by means of the St. Ours lock
and the Chambly Canal, while to the extreme east the St. Peter's
Canal provides communication between St. Peter's Bay, in Cape
Breton, Nova Scotia, with the Bras d'Or lakes. It crosses an
isthmus half a mile in width, and gives access to the Atlantic. A
ship canal was in course of construction from Port Dalhousie to
Port Colborne, connecting Lake Ontario and Lake Erie; work was
suspended on account of war conditions. Among projected works
may be mentioned what is known as the Georgian Bay Canal, to
connect the Ottawa river with Georgian Bay. Some years ago the
Government engineers surveyed the route, and reported that a
waterway with a depth of 20 ft. could be provided at a cost of about
$100,000,000. By this route the distance from Fort William to
Montreal would be 934 m., as against 1,217 by the present route, and
Montreal and Chicago would be brought within 972 m. of each other,
as compared with 1 ,242 by the present route.
Roads. At the end of 1920 about 250,000 m. of public highways in
Canada were open and serviceable for ordinary travel during the
552
CANADA
summer season. The roads are graded and crowned, with suitable
drainage, culverts and bridges. The mileage in the nine provinces is
fairly evenly distributed, in accordance with area and population.
In five of them the roads have been made and maintained at the
expense of the Provincial Governments; in the other four the cost
has been borne by the municipalities and Provincial Governments
in cooperation. During recent years there has been a very large in-
crease in the number of automobiles using the roads, and for this rea-
son a harder and smoother road surfacing has been necessary. All
road work on main roads is done on approved high standards, with
hard finished surfaces consisting of gravel and stone macadam, ce-
ment concrete, asphaltic surfacing in every instance asphaltic or
some bituminous surfacing or oil treatment. To assist the provinces
and municipalities in this respect, the Dominion has passed legisla-
tion by which it is empowered to furnish aid to the extent of 40 %
of the cost of high-class improvement upon main highways. The
amount devoted to this purpose is $20,000,000, to be spread over a
period of five years, the aid to be given, in any case, being 40% of
the amount which is the actual, necessary and reasonable cost of the
construction or improvement of such highway. The conditions
attached to the grant are that any construction or improvement
shall be in accordance with the terms of an agreement to be made
by the Minister of Railways and Canals of Canada with the Pro-
vincial Government, and that the agreement shall contain such pro-
visions as to location, cost, description, specifications, etc., as are
necessary to protect the public interest, all expenditure being by
tender and contract.
Finance. The Canadian Bank Act contains no specific provisions
as to the amount of gold to be held either against note circulation or
the general business of the bank. It requires, however, that 40 % of
whatever reserve the bank finds expedient to carry shall be in Domin-
ion notes. A second provision instructs the Minister of Finance to
arrange for the delivery of Dominion notes to any banks in exchange
for specie. Thus the gold reserve against Dominion notes, to the
extent that the notes are held by the banks, is a reserve against
banking operations, the Dominion Government being the custodian
of the gold for the banks. The other gold element in bank reserves
is specie in hand. The sum of the two represents the gold basis of the
Canadian banking system. In addition to the reserves above men-
tioned the Canadian banks carry three other kinds of assets which
are regarded as reserves, being funds more or less immediately avail-
able for the liquidation of liabilities. In 1906 there were 34 chartered
banks with branches numbering 1,565. Since that time there has
been very considerable consolidation. In 1921 the number of banks
was 18, but the number of branches had more than doubled, being
now in various provinces 3,44^- The banks are required by law to
furnish to the Minister of Finance detailed monthly statements
which are published in the official gazette. Clearing-houses have
been established in the chief commercial centres and cover the opera-
tions of Canada as a whole. On Dec. 31 1919 the paid-up capital of
the banks was $119,199,441, with a note circulation of $232,486,734
and total deposits amounting to $1,841,478,895. The total liabilities
at that time amounted to $2,495,582,568 and total assets $2,754,-
568,118. At the end of 1919 the total amount to the credit of
depositors in the Post Office and Dominion Government savings
banks was $53,057,018. The amount on deposit in the savings
departments of the chartered banks was $1,125,202,403.
The Dominion revenue and expenditure in 191420 are shown in
Table XI. Up to March 31 1920 the total outlay for the war was
approximately $1,670,406,342. This amount includes all expendi-
tures in Canada, Great Britain and France, and is also inclusive
of the upkeep of the troops overseas.
TABLE XI. Revenue and Expenditure: March 31 1914-
March 31 1920.
The net debt of Canada, which before the war stood at about
$363,000,000, on March 31 1920 was $2,248,868,623. The increase
was almost entirely attributable to war expenditure. Details of the
domestic loans issued by the Canadian Government since the com-
mencement of the war are given in Table XII. In addition
War Savings Certificates to the amount of approximately $12,500,-
ooo, as well as a considerable amount of debenture stock, were
Allotment
No. of
Subscribers
1915-25 5% - - -
1916-31 5% .
1917-37 5%
I 9 I 7~37 (Victory Loan)
51%
1918 (2nd Victory Loan)
5l%
!9 r 9 (3 r d Victory Loan)
5l%
$100,000,000
106,705,000
172,926,800
546,148,750
682,256,500
594,725,200
24,862
34-526
41,263
809,000
1,100,000
800,000
Revenue
Expenditure
Consolidated Fund
I9H-5
1915-6 .
1916-7 . . :
1917-8 .
1918-9 .
1919-20
$133,073481
172,147,838
232,701,294
260,778,952
312,946,747
349,746,334
$135,523,206
130,350,726
148,599,343
178,284,313
232,731,282
303,843,929
Expenditure
Capital Account
Expenditure
War Accounts
1914-5 .
1915-6 .
1916-7 .
1917-8 .
1918-9 .
1919-20
$41,447,320
38,566,950
26,880,031
43,i",904
25,031,266
69,301,877
$ 60,750,476
166,197,755
306,488,814
343.836,802
446,519,439
346,616,954
sold. Loans were also floated in New York for: (1915) $874,000,
(1916) 575,000,000, (1919) $15,000,000, (1919) $60,000,000. From
the outbreak of war to Nov. 30 1918 Canada established huge credits
on behalf of the Imperial Government. Through these advances
Great Britain and her Allies were able to finance the purchase of
food-stuffs, hay and other commodities and to carry on the opera-
tions of the Imperial Munitions Board in Canada. In addition to
the above, Canadian chartered banks advanced to the Imperial
Government through the medium of the Minister of Finance the
sum of $200,000,000 for the purchase of munitions and wheat. This
was made possible by the large savings deposits in Canadian banks,
which from Aug. 1914 to Oct. 31 1918, despite the withdrawals for
subscription to war loans, increased by $417,115,476.
TABLE XII. Internal Loans.
Soon after the outbreak of war taxes were placed on luxuries and
gradually increased. Higher customs duties and rates of excise on
certain commodities, including liquors and tobacco, imposed soon
after the commencement of the war, were followed in 1915 by a war
tax on transportation tickets, telegrams, money orders, cheques,
letters, patent medicine, etc. In 1915 an increase of 7i% ad valorem
to the general tariff and 5% ad valorem to the British preferential
tariff was made on all commodities with the exception of certain
food-stuffs, coal, harvesting machinery, fisheries, equipment, etc.
In 1918 a special customs duty was imposed on tea and coffee and
the excise on tobacco was increased. In addition, various other taxes
were imposed or increased, and a special war excise tax was imposed
on various articles, including automobiles, jewelry, etc. Under the
Business Profits War-Tax Act the Government at one time, in the
case of all businesses having a capital of $50,000 and over, took 25 %
of the net profits over 7% and not exceeding 15%, 50% of the
profits over 15% and not exceeding 20%, and 75% of the profits
beyond 20%. In the case of businesses having a capital of $25,000
and under $50,000 the Government took 25 % of all profits in excess
of 10% on the capital employed. Companies employing capital of
less than $25,000 were exempted, with the exception of those dealing
in munitions or war supplies.
The Canadian income-tax, which came into effect in the year
1918-9, is in some respects higher than that in force in the United
States. The scale provides for the exemption of incomes in the case
of unmarried persons with an income of $1,000 and under, and in
the case of married persons with an income of $2,000 and under.
There is also provision for the exemption of $200 for each child.
Defence. Under the Militia Act of 1904 the command in chief
of the militia is vested in the king, by whom, or by the governor-
general as his representative, it is exercised and administered. The
Act further provides for the appointment of a Minister of Militia
and Defence, charged with the administration of militia affairs, and
of a deputy minister; also for the appointment of a militia council.
This includes, besides the minister and deputy minister, four military
members the chief of the general staff, the adjutant-general, the
quartermaster-general, and the master-general of the ordnance.
There is also an inspector-general, whose duty it is to inspect the
forces and report to the minister on their readiness for war, but he
has no seat in council. The Canadian land forces are divided into
the active militia and the reserve militia. The active militia consists
of a permanent and a non-permanent force, the latter divided into
city and rural corps. Service in the active militia is voluntary and
for three years, but the Government has the power to apply com-
pulsion should the necessity arise. The permanent force comprises
all arms of the service and is composed of a number of permanently
embodied units. It provides personnel for the various schools of
military instruction and garrisons for the fortresses, where a perma-
nent element is necessary for defence, for the maintenance of works
and for the preservation of armaments. The non-permanent active
militia undergoes an annual period of training, which varies from 12
to 1 6 days according to the arms of the service and the location of
the corps, i.e. whether they are city or rural. The reserve militia
has not been organized. The authorized Limited Establishment for
the permanent force was approximately 4,000 in 1921. The non-
permanent active militia is comprised of such corps as from time to
time are authorized by the governor-general in council. In pre-war
days its strength was approximately 68,000.
The above organizations are supplemented by numerous cadet
corps and rifle associations. The Royal Military College at Kingston
provides both a military and a general education. It trains officers
both for the permanent force and for the remainder of the active
CANADA
553
militia, and a certain number of commissions in the British regular
army are granted annually to its cadets.
Naval Service. The department of the Naval Service of Canada
embraces, in addition to the naval service proper, fishery protection,
hydrographic surveys, tidal and current survey, radiotelegraph or
wireless service and the Canadian Arctic Expedition. The naval
service proper embraces one light cruiser, two torpedo destroyers
and two submarines, a gift from the Admiralty of Great Britain. It
also embraces the Royal Naval College of Canada and the dockyard
at Esquimalt and the dockyard at Halifax. The dockyards at
Esquimalt and Halifax are maintained as bases of supply and for
the purpose of repair and overhaul of the ships of the fleet, as well
as for the other services of the department. The principal functions
of the department are thus: (a) to assist in the maritime defence of
the Empire; (b) the maritime defence of Canada from attack from
overseas; (c) the protection of Canadian fisheries; (d) the surveying
of ocean beds, coast-lines, bays, rivers and lakes, and the preparation
and distribution of charts, plans and sailing directions of the navi-
gable waters; (e) the scientific investigation of tides and currents, and
the prediction and determination of tide levels; (/) the administration
of wireless telegraphy and telephony throughout the Dominion;
(g) the completion of the Canadian Arctic Expedition.
HISTORY. The political history of Canada in 1910-13
centred round the two great questions of Reciprocity with the
United States and Canadian naval policy in relation to the
Empire. On July 18 1911 Parliament reassembled after the
Coronation adjournment, and' on July 29 the Government of
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, who had been Premier since 1896, decided
to recommend the dissolution of Parliament and to submit their
proposals for commercial reciprocity with the United States to the
judgment of the Canadian people at a general election, which was
fixed for Sept. 21. While the chief question before the electors
was the Reciprocity Agreement, the question of Canada's naval
policy received much attention, especially in the province of
Quebec. The result was a complete defeat for the Government
and the Reciprocity party. What had been a Liberal majority of
43 was converted into a Conservative-Liberal and anti-Reciproci-
ty majority of 49. Mr. Fielding and Mr. Paterson, who were
responsible for the negotiations with the United States, were both
defeated, together with Sir F. Borden and four other ministers.
On Oct. 6 Sir Wilfrid Laurier and his administration resigned
office. Sir Wilfrid Laurier retained his seat, however, and
decided to remain at the head of his party, now in Opposition.
Mr. (later Sir) R. L. Borden (b. 1854), leader of the Conserva-
tive party, being called upon to form an administration, accom-
plished this task on Oct. 10 1911, and the new Ministry was
constituted as follows: R. L. Borden, Premier and President of
the Privy Council; George Eulas Foster (b. 1847), Trade and
Commerce; Robert Rogers (b. 1864), Interior; F. D. Monk
(b. 1856), Public Works; Francis Cochrane (b. 1852), Railways
and Canals; William T. White (b. 1866), Finance; Louis P.
Pelletier (b. 1857), Postmaster-General; John D. Hazen (b. 1860),
Marine and Fisheries and Naval Service; Charles J. Doherty
(b. 1855), Justice; Samuel Hughes (b. 1853), Militia and Defence;
William J. Roche (b. 1859), Secretary of State; Thomas W. Croth-
ers (b. 1850), Labour; Wilfrid B. Nantel (b. 1857), Inland Rev-
enue and Mines; John D. Reid (b. 1859), Customs; Martin
Burrell (b. 1858), Agriculture; George H. Perley (b. 1857), Albert
E. Kemp (b. 1858), and James A. Lougheed (b. 1854), members
without portfolios. On Oct. 22 1912 Mr. Monk resigned on the
question of Mr. Borden's naval policy and his portfolio was taken
over by Mr. Rogers, Mr. W. J. Roche becoming Minister of the
Interior in his place. The office of Secretary of State was filled by
Mr. Louis Coderre (b. 1865), the member for the Hochelaga
division of Montreal. On Oct. 23 1911 the Hon. Auguste Landry
was appointed Speaker of the Senate, and on Nov. 15 Dr. T. S.
Sproule was elected Speaker of the House of Commons.
The twelfth Parliament of the Dominion of Canada was opened
on Nov. 15 1911 by the new governor-general, the Duke of
Connaught, in person. The address in reply to the speech from
the throne was voted on Nov. 29, and on Dec. ^7 Parliament
adjourned over the Christmas recess until Jan. 10 1912. On re-
suming, the main business was financial. On April i 1912
Parliament was prorogued.
When the new session opened on Nov. 21 1912, it was known
that the announcement of Mr. Borden's naval programme would
be the business of outstanding importance. The governor-general,
in the speech from the throne, stated that his advisers having
consulted with the Imperial Government, it had been concluded
that it would be the duty of Canada at this juncture to afford aid
in strengthening the effective naval forces of the Empire; and
on Dec. 5 the Premier announced an Emergency Contribution
bill, leaving permanent policy for future consideration.
The Reciprocity Question. Sir W. Laurier's Government
had begun their official negotiations for Reciprocity with the
United States in Jan. 1911, as the result of private discussions in
the previous year. The terms of the proposed agreement were
announced in the Canadian Parliament by Mr. W. S. Fielding,
the Finance Minister in Sir W. Laurier's Cabinet, on Jan. 26
1911. It aimed at more free interchange of products by removing
duties on certain articles and reducing them in others.
Among those which were to enter free in each country, if of the
growth, product or manufactures of the other, were live animals,
poultry, wheat and other grain, vegetables, fruit, dairy products,
honey, cottonseed oil and certain oil seeds, grass, garden, field and
other seed, fish except those preserved in oil, certain fish oils, timber
(not sawn), brass (not polished), rolled iron or steel sheets 14-gauge
or thinner, galvanized, coated with zinc or tin, crucible cast steel,
galvanized iron, steel or wire, typewriting and typesetting machines,
barbed wire fencing, coke (round), wire rods, wood pulp, and cream
separators. Among the articles to be admitted into Canada from
the United States and into the United States from Canada at iden-
tical rates were the following: Fresh meats I J cents per Ib. ; bacon
and hams, not in tins or jars, I J cents per Ib. ; meats dried and pre-
served I j cents per Ib. ; canned meats and poultry 20 % ; lards, etc., I j
cents per Ib. ; barley, malt, per icolb. 45 cents; cereal foods I2j cents
per 100 Ib. ; biscuits, wafers, cakes 25%; confectionery 32j%; farm
wagons 22 j%; farming implements of various kinds 15%; portable
engines with boilers and traction engines for farm purposes 20%;
roofing slates 55 cents per I oo ft. ; cutlery, plated or not 27}%; clocks,
watches, etc., 275 %; automobiles 30%. Arrangements were made for
special rates of duty on a moderate scale to cover a large number of
other commodities.
The case presented for the adoption of this agreement was that
reciprocal trade relations had been the policy of all parties in
Canada for generations, that many efforts had been made to
secure a treaty without success, and that Sir John Macdonald's
National Tariff policy (1879) contained a standing offer of
reciprocity with the United States covering a large portion of the
products included in the present agreement. The United States
having approached Canada with fair offers, it was claimed that
they should be fairly met, and that in making the arrangement
the Government were realizing the desires which the Canadian
people had expressed for half a century, and also that in promot-
ing friendly relations with the neighbouring republic the best
possible service to the Empire was being done. As Canada was
seeking markets everywhere for her surplus products, subsidizing
steamship lines, and sending out commercial agents, it would be
absurd to refuse increased facilities at her very doors if they
could be obtained by negotiation.
A denial was given to the expressed fear that the imports from
Great Britain would be seriously affected. It was pointed out
that the greater part of the agreement dealt with natural products
which did not come from Great Britain, and that the range of
manufactures affected was small. It was further denied that there
was any foundation for the assumption that the tariff rates
agreed upon discriminated in favour of the United States and
against Great Britain. The promoters of the agreement promised
that in every case Great Britain would have the same rate or a
lower one, and held that Canada's right to deal with the British
preference as she pleased remained untouched.
The opposition to the agreement took the ground that the
arrangement had been entered into hastily without its effects
being fully appreciated, and that the question should be referred
to the people. Attention was drawn to the success which had
attended the efforts to build up a nation and bind the country
together from east to west, and it was contended that, as the
arrangements proposed would primarily affect the question of
transportation by promoting a tendency to make trade move
north and south, the immense efforts which had been made would
be sacrificed, and the markets which had been secured in Great
554
CANADA
Britain abandoned. The action of the United States in approach-
ing Canada with a desire to make such an agreement, after de-
clining on so many occasions to consider the question when asked
to do so by Canada, was looked upon with suspicion, and it was
suggested that the balance of advantage would remain with the
United States, the speeches of some of her most prominent
public men being freely quoted in support of this view notably
one by Mr. Champ Clark in Congress, and another by President
Taft himself. It was held that the impelling cause was the desire
of the United States to have access to the abundant natural
resources of Canada, her own reserves of wood, coal and other
minerals, and much of her farm land, having shown signs of
exhaustion. It was thought the better plan was to conserve
Canadian resources for Canadian use. A further objection to the
proposals was that, while they would change the whole current of
Canadian industries, and be likely to dislocate the national
development, the new markets proposed would be so entirely
unstable and insecure that, after having had the benefit of them
for a few years, they might be withdrawn, causing a reversion to
the position of 25 years earlier, and necessitating the rebuilding of
home industries and re-making their reputation in markets which
in the meantime had been entirely occupied by old competitors.
Great importance was attached to the restriction on legislation
which it was alleged this agreement would cause, as no trade
aggrieved under it could obtain redress without the arrangement
as a whole being upset. It was also urged that under it con-
cessions in the tariff would have to be made, in accordance with
existing treaties, to countries from which no equivalent advan-
tages could be obtained; and it was declared that if this Rec-
iprocity policy was pursued the ties of Empire would eventually
be cut, for it would lead to complete commercial union and in the
end the political domination of the United States, to which
Canada would simply be an annexe.
The debates in connexion with the matter lasted for almost
the remainder of the session; but on Feb. 22 1911, on the motion
of Mr. F. D. Monk, the House adopted unanimously the follow-
ing as an amendment to the motion for going into Committee
of Ways and Means: " But, before resuming the discussion of
the terms of the agreement concluded between the Government
of Canada and the President of the United States, and with a
view to dispel the feeling of unrest created in Canada by com-
ments made in both countries as to the political consequence of
the agreement, the House wishes to affirm emphatically its
determination to preserve intact the bonds which unite Canada
to the British Empire and the full liberty of Canada to control
her fiscal policy and internal autonomy."
A bill to give effect to this Reciprocity Agreement on the part
of the United States was introduced in the American Congress on
Jan. 29, and in due course passed the Senate on July 22, it being
enacted that its provisions should become operative as soon as the
necessary counterpart legislation had been passed by the Cana-
dian Parliament. Discussion continued in the Canadian House of
Commons, but no progress was made towards the adoption of the
proposals, and on July 29 1911 the Government decided to recom-
mend the dissolution of Parliament and to submit the matter to
the judgment of the people at a general election. The defeat of
the Government followed, the result being greatly influenced by
the strong opposition to Reciprocity which was shown by such
well-known Liberals as Mr. Clifford Sifton (b. 1861; formerly
Minister of the Interior in the Laurier Cabinet), Mr. Lloyd
Harris and Mr. Wm. German, and by the steps taken by a body
of prominent Liberals of Toronto, assisted by Sir Edmund
Walker, president of the Canadian Bank of Commerce.
Sir W. Laurier' s Naval Policy. An outcome of the Imperial
Conference of 1909 had been the determination of the Canadian
Government to establish a naval service; and on Jan. 12 1910 a
bill for this purpose was introduced into the House of Commons,
and became law on May 4 1910. It provided for the creation of a
Naval Department, and transferred to it from the department of
Marine and Fisheries the wireless telegraph, fisheries' protection,
hydrographic and tidal survey branches. It empowered the
Government to appoint a Naval Board to advise the minister,
and to organize and maintain permanent, reserve and volunteer
forces, and to place at the disposal of His Majesty, for general
service in the Royal Navy, ships or men of the Canadian naval
service. Provision was also made for a naval college. During the
debate on the bill Sir Wilfrid Laurier announced that it was the
intention of the Government to construct, in Canada if possible,
four cruisers of the improved " Bristol " class, and six destroyers
of the improved " River " class. At conferences with the British
Admiralty it was agreed that the naval stations for Canada
should be two one on the Atlantic, to include the waters of 3oN.
lat. and west of the meridian of 40 W. ; and one on the Pacific, to
include the waters north of 30 N. lat. and east of the meridian
of 180. Halifax dockyard was taken over from the Imperial
authorities on Jan. i 1906, and the dockyard at Esquimalt on
Nov. 9 1910. On Aug. 28 1911 it was announced that the King
had approved of the naval forces of Canada receiving the style of
" The Royal Canadian Navy," and of the ships-of-war of that
navy being designated as " His Majesty's Canadian Ships-."
On Dec. 16 the following regulations were published with regard
to the flag and pennants to be flown by the Royal Canadian Navy :
" All ships and vessels of the Royal Canadian Navy shall fly at
the stern the white ensign as the symbol of the authority of the
Crown, and at the jack-staff the distinctive flag of the Dominion
of Canada, such distinctive flag being the blue ensign with the
Arms of the Dominion inset in the fly. The white pennant will
be flown at the masthead."
In pursuance of Sir Wilfrid Laurier's naval policy, H.M. cruis-
ers " Niobe " and " Rainbow" were purchased and taken over
in the autumn of 1910. On July 29 1911, however, H.M.C.S.
" Niobe " sustained damage by grounding on the coast off Cape
Sable; her repairs were undertaken at Halifax and took 15 months
to complete. The building of the proposed new cruisers and
destroyers had, however, not been commenced at the time of the
resignation of Sir Wilfrid Laurier's Government.
Mr. Borden's Naval Policy. The naval policy of Sir Wilfrid
Laurier's Government was that of a Canadian-built and Canadian-
controlled navy, but this was criticised by the Opposition as
involving a large expenditure, a disunited Imperial navy, and the
construction of obsolete types of ships. Upon Mr. Borden's
acceptance of office, the naval question became one of renewed
interest. Mr. Borden stated that in his view the question of
permanent cooperation between the Dominion and the rest of the
Empire ought to be fully debated and that the Canadian people
should be given an opportunity of pronouncing upon it; pains
would be taken to ascertain in the meantime what were the real
conditions confronting the Empire. In pursuance of this object,
Mr. Borden, with several of his colleagues, visited London in July
1912, and were cordially welcomed by Mr. Asquith's Government,
who enabled them, at meetings of the Imperial Defence Com-
mittee and otherwise, to obtain all the information available as to
the problems of British foreign policy and the naval situation
as it presented itself to the British Admiralty. The proposals
which the Canadian Government founded on the understanding
thus arrived at were left, however, to be made public first in the
Dominion Parliament after it met in November.
Mr. Borden's speech on Dec. 51912 must always be historic in
the relationship between Canada and the mother-country. It
was notable for announcing two steps forward in a common
Imperial policy. In the first place his " Bill to authorize Measures
for increasing the effective Naval Forces of the Empire " pro-
posed to contribute 7,000,000 ($35,000,000) for the construction
and equipment of three first-class battleships, to be under the
control of the British Admiralty as part of the Royal Navy, sub-
ject to arrangements for their being at the disposal of the Cana-
dian Government if ever a separate Canadian navy were estab-
lished. And in the second place, by the agreement of the Im-
perial Government to include a Canadian minister as one of the
permanent members of the Committee of Imperial Defence, the
principle was recognized that, if the dominions took their share
in Imperial defence, they must also have a share in determining
Imperial policy. The proposal for an " emergency contribution "
of three battleships to the British navy was founded on a memo-
CANADA
555
randum (published in England on Dec. 5 as a parliamentary
paper) drawn up by the Admiralty for the information of the
Canadian Government as to the existing international situa-
tion from a naval point of view; and Mr. Bordenread this out.
As regards the three Canadian battleships now to be added to
the navy, Mr. Borden pointed out that, under the Admiralty, the
Empire now had what he had convinced himself was the most
thorough and effective naval organization in the world, of which
it was the best Canadian policy to make use. The hazardous and
costly experiment of building up a separate naval organization
for Canada was quite unnecessary, and in any case could only
provide a poor and weak substitute. In the present emergency
the Canadian ships were best employed as part of the Imperial
navy under the Admiralty of the mother-country:
" Those ships will be at the disposal of His Majesty the King for
the common defence of the Empire. They will be maintained and
controlled as part of the Royal Navy, and we have the assurance
that, if at any time in the future it will be the will of the Canadian
people to establish a Canadian unit of the British Navy, these
vessels can be called by the Canadian Government to form part of
their Navy, in which case, of course, they will be maintained by
Canada and not by Great Britain. In that event, there will, neces-
sarily, be reasonable notice, and indeed, Canada would not desire or
suggest the sudden withdrawal of so powerful a contingent from any
important theatre in which the naval forces of the Empire might be
exposed to severe and sudden attack. In the meantime I am assured
that special arrangements will be made to give Canadians an
opportunity of serving as officers in these ships. . . .
" The ships will be built under Admiralty supervision in the
United Kingdom for the reason that, at present, there are no ade-
quate facilities for constructing them in Canada. The plant required
for the construction of dreadnought battleships is enormous, and it
would be impossible at present to have shipbuilding in this country
on such a scale. In any case, only half could be built in Canada,
because the machinery for armour and guns would, necessarily, be
constructed or manufactured in the United Kingdom. The addi-
tional cost of construction in Canada would be about $12,000,000 for
three, and it would be impossible to estimate the delay. No one is
more eager than myself for the development of the shipbuilding
industries in Canada, but we cannot, upon any business or economic
considerations, begin with the construction of dreadnoughts, and
especially we could not do so when these ships are urgently required
within two or three years at the Outside for rendering aid upon which
may depend the Empire's future existence. According to my con-
ception, the effective development of the shipbuilding industries in
Canada must commence with small beginnings and in a businesslike
way. I have discussed the subject with the Admiralty, and they
thoroughly realize that it is not to the Empire's advantage that all
shipbuilding facilities should be concentrated in the United Kingdom.
I am assured, therefore, that the Admiralty are prepared in the
early future to give orders for the construction in Canada of small
cruisers, oil-tank vessels, and auxiliary craft of various kinds. The
plant required is relatively small as compared with that which is
necessary for dreadnought battleships, and such an undertaking will
have a much more secure and permanent basis from the business
standpoint. For the purpose of stimulating so important and
necessary an industry we have expressed our willingness to bear a
portion of the increased cost for a time at least. I see no reason why
all the vessels required in future for our Government service should
not be built in Canada, even at some additional cost. In connexion
with the development of shipbuilding I would not be surprised to see
the establishment of a high class of engineering works which will
produce articles now imported and not at present manufactured in
Canada. Therefore, although the sum which we propose to devote
for necessary naval aid at this critical juncture is to be expended in
Great Britain, yet we believe that this step will result, under the
conditions which I have described, in the very marked development
of more than one industry in Canada, and that, even from a purely
material standpoint, the step has much to commend it."
The Canadian expenditure now proposed was, in Mr. Borden's
view, a moderate one, regarded not as the beginning of a system
of periodical contributions, but as an emergency aid at a moment
of crisis:
" If we should neglect the duty which I conceive we owe to our-
selves, and if irreparable disaster should ensue, what will be our
future destiny? Obviously as an independent nation or as an impor-
tant part of the great neighbouring republic. What then would be
our responsibilities, and what would be the burden upon us for a
protection on the high seas much less powerful and less effective than
that which we enjoy to-day? Take the case of one nation whose
territory, resources, population and wealth may fairly be compared
with those in Canada. The naval estimates of Argentina for the four
years from 1909 to 1912 inclusive amounted to $35,000,000 (7,000,-
ooo). No information is available as to the exact proportion of the
last-mentioned sum which has been appropriated for naval pur-
poses, but it is understood that the far greater portion is for naval
construction. It is safe, therefore, to estimate that during the past
four years Argentina has expended for naval purposes not less than
from $65,000,000 to $70,000,000 (13,000,000 to 14,000,000). The
Federal and State expenditure of the United States comprises a
total outlay for armaments of between $250,000,000 and $300,000,000
(50,000,000 and 60,000,000), or at the rate of $2.75 per head.
Similar expenditure by Canada would mean an annual outlay of some
$20,000,000 to $25,000,000, or between $80,000,000 and $100,000,000
during the same period.
" It is apparent, therefore, that the aid which we propose to bring
at this juncture is of a moderate and reasonable character. For 45
years as a Confederation we have enjoyed the protection of the
British Navy without the cost of a dollar. ... So far as official
estimates are available, the expenditure of Great Britain on naval
and military defence for the provinces which now constitute Canada
during the igth century was not less than $400,000,000 (80,000,-
ooo). Even since the inception of our Confederation, and since
Canada attained the status of a great Dominion, the amount so
expended by Great Britain for the naval and military defence of
Canada vastly exceeds the sum which we are now asking Parliament
to appropriate. From 1870 to 1890 the proportionate cost of the
North Atlantic Squadrons which guarded our coasts was from
$125,000,000 to $150,000,000 (25,000,000 to 30,000,000). From
1853 to 1903 Great Britain's expenditure on military defence in
Canada runs closely to $100,000,000."
As regards the voice which it had been arranged that Canada
should have on the Committee of Imperial Defence, Mr. Borden
said :
" With increasing power and influence there has necessarily come,
by sure and gradual steps, a certain development in our relations
with the United Kingdom and the other dominions. ... In this
constitutional development we are necessarily confronted with the
problem of combining cooperation with autonomy. It seems most
essential that there should be such cooperation in defence and in
trade as will give to the whole Empire an effective organization in
these matters of vital concern. On the other hand, each dominion
must preserve in all important respects the autonomous Government
which it now possesses.
" The responsibility for the Empire's defence upon the high seas,
in which is to be found the only effective guarantee of its existence,
and which hitherto has been assumed by the United Kingdom, has
necessarily carried with it the responsibility for and the control of
foreign policy. . . . When Great Britain no longer assumes sole
responsibility for defence upon the high seas she can no longer under-
take to assume responsibility for and sole control of foreign policy,
which is closely, vitally, and constantly associated with that defence
in which the dominions participate. . . . The great dominions,
sharing in the defence of the Empire upon the high seas, must neces-
sarily be entitled to share also in the responsibility for and in the
control of foreign policy. Not only His Majesty's ministers, but also
the leaders of the opposite political party in Great Britain, have
explicitly accepted this principle. . . .
" I have alluded to the difficulty of finding an acceptable basis
upon which the great dominions cooperating with the mother-
country in defence can receive and assert an adequate voice in the
control and moulding of foreign policy. We were brought closely in
touch with both subjects when we met the British ministers in the
Committee of Imperial Defence. That committee is peculiarly con-
stituted, but in my judgment is very effective. It consists of the
Prime Minister of Great Britain and such persons as he may summon
to attend it. Practicaljy all the members of the Cabinet from time
to time attend its deliberations, and usually the more important
members of the Cabinet are present. In addition, naval and military
experts and the technical officers of the various departments con-
cerned are in attendance. A very large portion of the work of the
Committee is carried on by sub-committees, which often are com-
posed in part of persons who are not members of the general com-
mittee itself, and who are selected for their special knowledge of the
subjects to be considered and reported upon. The amount of work
which thus has been performed during the past five or six years in
particular is astonishing, and I have no doubt that it has contributed
largely to the safety of the whole Empire in time of peril.
" The Committee is not technically or constitutionally responsible
to the House of Commons and thus it is not supposed to concern
itself with policy. As so many important members of the Cabinet are
summoned to attend the Committee, its conclusions are usually
accepted by the Cabinet and thus command the support of the
majority of the House of Commons. While the Committee does not
control policy in any way and could not undertake to do so as it is not
responsible to Parliament, it is necessarily and constantly obliged to
consider foreign policy-and- foreign relations for the obvious reason
that defence, and especially naval defence, is inseparably connected
with such considerations.
" I am assured by His Majesty's Government that, pending a
final solution of the question of voice and influence, they would
welcome the presence in London of a Canadian minister during the
556
CANADA
whole or a portion of each year. Such minister would be regularly
summoned to all meetings of the Committee of Imperial Defence and
be regarded as one of its permanent members. No important step in
foreign policy would be undertaken without consultation with such
representative of Canada. This means a very marked advance both
from our standpoint and from that of the United Kingdom. It
would give us the opportunity of consultation and therefore influ-
ence which hitherto we have not possessed."
In opposition to the Government proposals, Sir Wilfrid Laurier
on Dec. 12 moved an amendment which, while not negativing the
first clause of the Government resolution providing for a vote for
increasing the effective naval forces of the Empire, would have
substituted for the remaining clauses a resolution declaring it
necessary that Canada without further delay should enter active-
ly upon a permanent policy of naval defence, and that any
measure of aid to Imperial naval defence which did not embody a
permanent policy of participation by ships owned, manned and
maintained by Canada, was not an adequate expression of the
aspirations of the Canadian people. Mr. Borden, said Sir Wilfrid,
had asserted that before she enacted a permanent policy Canada
must have a voice in all questions affecting war or peace. But
that was a large contract, and the question before them was that
of emergency and immediate defence. If Canada was represented
in the councils of war and peace, the other dominions and depend-
encies must be also. That question might take years to solve.
It must be discussed by itself, and in the meantime Canada
should continue in her preparations for defence. Sir Wilfrid
Laurier condemned the Government's policy of direct contribu-
tion as un-Canadian and un-British, and as unsuited to the real
needs. But his influence was no longer in the ascendant.
Owing to the outbreak of the World War in 1914, all these
pre-war plans were eventually upset, and the war created an
entirely new situation.
Canada in the World War. In the early months of 1914
Canada, for practical purposes, had no army. There was a per-
manent force of about 3,000 men, with no reserve; its purpose was
partly to provide garrisons for a few fortresses, and partly to
train the militia. The latter was a lightly trained force, rather
well organized for a defensive war on its own soil. The number
trained in 1913 was about 60,000. In the late summer and early
autumn of 1914 the ist Canadian Div. of 33,000 men was raised
and sent across the Atlantic. It left Gaspe Bay on Oct. 3, and,
after nearly three months of additional training in England,
landed in France, at St. Nazaire, on Feb. n 1915. The 2nd Div.
was formed immediately and landed in France on Sept. 14, when
the Canadian Army Corps was formed. The formation of the
3rd Div. was authorized just before Christmas 1915, and the
division was in France early in 1916. The 4th Div. joined the
Canadian Corps in the middle of Aug. 1916. The Canadian
Cavalry Brigade appeared in France in 1915. After the com-
pletion of the Canadian Army Corps the policy of the Dominion
was to maintain a comparatively small number of divisions, but
always to keep these at full strength, in order that the troops
might have the encouragement of full ranks. Until the winter of
1917-8 the Canadian Expeditionary Force was recruited by
voluntary enlistment. During the winter the Military Service Act
came into operation, and after that time 83,355 recruits were
obtained. These were partly men who were drafted and partly
men, in the classes called out, who reported voluntarily.
The total number of men enlisted in Canada from the begin-
ning of the war to Nov. 15 1918 was 595,441. The details are:
Obtained by voluntary enlistment
Drafted or reporting voluntarily after the Military Service
Act came into force
Granted leave or discharged
Overseas Service other than C E.F :
Royal Air Force
Imperial Motor Transport
Inland Water Transport
Naval Service
Jewish Palestine Draft
465,984
E.F
:
12
4
2
,902
710
,701
814
42
83,355
24,933
21,169
595
,441
The distribution of these men was as follows:
C.E.F. proceeded overseas 418,052
Enlisted for Royal Air Force, etc 21,169
On the strength of C.E.F. in Canada and St. Lucia,
including those under training as overseas reenforce-
ments, Siberian Expeditionary Force, Canadian Garrison
Regiment, Military Police Corps, Medical and Adminis-
trative Services, etc 36,533
On harvest leave without pay . . . . _ . . 15,405
Granted leave of absence without pay as compassionate
and hardship cases 7, 216
Number discharged in Canada who had not proceeded over-
seas for the following among other reasons : as below medi-
cal standard, absentees, aliens, to accept commissions,
deaths, on transfer to British army and Royal Air Force 95,306
Included in enlistment returns for whom discharge docu-
ments have not been received, or in some cases duplicate
enlistments. This number is being adjusted as further
records are received 1 ,760
595,441
In addition to the above, 14,590 British and Allied reservists
went from Canada to rejoin the colours in their own countries.
The movement overseas by years was as follows:
Before Dec. 31 1914 30,999
Calendar year 1915 84,334
1916 165,553
" 1917 63,536
Jan. I to Nov. 15 1918 . . . . . . . . 73,630
On Sept. 30 1918 about 160,000 men were in France and
about 116,000 men in England.
The total Canadian casualties up to and including Feb. 28 1921
were 210,096:
Other
Officers ranks Total
Killed in action and died of wounds 2,595 49,079 51,674
Died of other causes .... 297 4,663 4,960
Wounded 6,347 143,3*5 149,732
Prisoners of war .... 236 3,493 3,7 2 9
Still missing I I
Died in Canada
Died in Siberia
Wounded in Siberia ....
Deaths in Canada on the strength of
the Soldiers' Reestablishment
9,475 200,621 210,096
3,569
i 18 19
i i
2,005
The honours gained by the Canadian forces included 62 V. C.'s,
710 D.S.O.'s and 2,885 M.C.'s.
The following summary gives only the more notable engage-
ments in which the Canadian troops fought. The Canadian
Army Corps in four divisions, forming part of the I. British Army
under Sir Julian (later Lord) Byng, was commanded by Lt.-
Gen. Sir Arthur Currie. In 1915 the ist Division greatly dis-
tinguished itself in the second battle of Ypres on April 22, and
again at Festubert and Givenchy in May and June. In 1916 the
Canadians, now forming three divisions, were very heavily en-
gaged at St. Eloi in April, and at Sanctuary Wood and Hooge in
June. In Sept., Oct., and Nov. the four Canadian divisions
fought in the battle of the Somme, especially distinguishing them-
selves at Courcelette, Mouquet Farm, and the Kenora, Regina
and Desire trenches. In 1917 the Canadian troops bore the
largest part in the taking of Vimy Ridge (April 9) and of Arleux
and Fresnoy (April 28 and May 3), and fought with great success
in the advance on Lens and the taking of Hill 70 in August. They
were again heavily engaged in the fighting round Passchendaele
in Oct. and Nov., capturing all their objectives in spite of severe
losses. In 1918 the Canadian cavalry, motor machine-guns, and
railway troops were active in the resistance to the German
advance in March. The Canadian Corps was in the centre of the
British front in the second battle of Amiens, Aug. 8-17, advancing
14,000 yd. on the first day, the deepest advance made in one day
during the war. In the battle of Arras, at the beginning of Sept.,
the Canadians played an important part in the breaking of the
Quean t-Drocourt line, a part of the Hindenburg system. The
Canadian casualties in these two actions were serious, but less
than the number of prisoners taken. In the battle of Cambrai,
which began on Sept. 27, the Canadians on Oct. 9, after heavy
CANADA
557
losses, took Cambrai and made large captures of men and mate-
rial. In the final stage of the fighting Denain was taken by the
Canadians on Oct. 20, Valenciennes on Nov. 2, and Mons at
4 A.M. on Nov. n, the day on which the Armistice came into
force at ii A.M. The Canadian troops captured 45,000 prisoners,
850 artillery guns, and 4,200 machine-guns, retook 130 towns
and villages, liberated 310,000 French and Belgian civilians.
Canadian units also served in Palestine, Macedonia and Russia.
The Canadian cavalry fought, for the most part, separately
from the Canadian Army Corps. They distinguished themselves
in March 1917 by the capture of six villages in two days, and in
Dec. gave valuable help in the attack on Villers-Guislains. In
the German offensive of March and April 1918 the Canadian
Cavalry Brigade was actively engaged and suffered heavy casual-
ties at Bois Moreuil, Rifle Wood and elsewhere. The brigade
fought as part of the Canadian Corps in the second battle of
Amiens, and, in the great advance at the end of the fighting,
captured the town of Le Cateau on Oct. 9. Canadian railway
units were attached to all the British armies; these troops
were responsible for the whole of the construction of light
railways and 60% of the standard-gauge railways in the area
occupied by the British forces. In addition to the units of the
Canadian Forestry Corps in France, a number of Canadians were
engaged in Great Britain in cutting and milling timber.
During the war 1,617 medical officers, 2,002 nursing sisters and
12,382 other ranks of the Canadian Army Medical Corps went
overseas from Canada. There were in Canada at the end of the
war 913 medical officers, 527 nursing sisters, 182 V.A.D. nurses,
and 4,oi 2 other ranks. The Medical Corps had in France 6 general
hospitals, 6 stationary hospitals, 6 casualty clearing stations, and
13 field ambulances, and in England 9 active treatment hospitals,
5 special hospitals, 5 convalescent hospitals, and a special
sanatorium. In Canada there were 65 military hospitals, with
11,786 beds. Some 22,300 patients were brought back to Canada
in 1917 and 1918 on 35 passages of hospital ships. On 27 of these
passages the C.A.M.C. provided the staffs of the ships. The
" Llandovery Castle " was sunk by a submarine while returning
from Canada to England.
About 12,000 troops were required in Canada for home defence
as garrisons for fortresses and guards for internment camps,
canals, etc. Canada also furnished a garrison for the important
post of St. Luciainthe Westlndies. There were 12,902 Canadians
in the Royal Air Force, and its predecessors the Royal Naval
Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps. In addition, a number of
Americans were trained in Canada by the instructional staff of
the Royal Air Force. Some 4,701 men were furnished from
Canada for the Imperial Service known as the Inland Waterways
and Docks. About 710 Canadians joined the Imperial Motor
Transport Service, and several hundred Canadians, mostly from
the universities, received commissions in the British army.
Canada also furnished several hundred doctors and veterinarians
and about 200 nurses to the British army. Some 200 Canadian
officers were lent, as instructors, to the United States.
As regards the naval service, at the outbreak of the war in 1914
the Canadian Government possessed only two naval vessels the
" Niobe," a cruiser of n,ooo-tons displacement, with a main
armament of 16 6-in. guns, stationed at Halifax, and the " Rain-
bow," a small cruiser of 3,6oo-tons displacement, armed with 2
6-in., 6 4-7-in. and 4 i2-pounder guns, stationed at Esquimalt,
on the Pacific. The " Rainbow," which was ready for sea, pa-
trolled, with other ships on the Pacific stations, as far south as
Panama, and captured several ships carrying contraband of war.
After the entry of the United States into the war she became dep6t-
ship on the Pacific coast. The " Niobe " was made ready for sea
in Sept. 1914 and remained in commission one year, during which
she steamed over 30,000 m. on patrol duty. She afterwards
became depot-ship at Halifax.
At the beginning of hostilities various small craft were taken
over by the Naval Department from the Departments of Marine
and of Customs, and were armed and manned by the R.C.N.V.R.
for the performance of patrol duties off the Atlantic coast. Two
submarines, which were bought just before the declaration of war
patrolled the approaches to Victoria and Vancouver and helped
in keeping Adml. von Spec's squadron away from the Pacific
ports. H.M. sloop " Shearwater " was taken into the Canadian
service as mother-ship to these submarines and, in the summer
of 1917, these three vessels went, by way of the Panama Canal,
to Halifax. A patrol and mine-sweeping service was carried on
after the outbreak of war. The vessels used at first were Govern-
ment and privately owned vessels which were taken over and
equipped for the purpose. Some of these were placed at the
disposal of the Government free of charge. Early in 1917 the
Department of Naval Service undertook to have 60 trawlers and
100 drifters built in Canada for the Imperial Government. These
vessels were built at various places on the St. Lawrence and the
Great Lakes, many of them were in service in Canadian and
European waters in the year 1917 and all were in service in 1918.
The area patrolled under the Department stretched from the
Straits of Belle Isle to the Bay of Fundy, and from Quebec to east
of the Virgin Rocks. Within this area the Department had con-
trol of patrols, convoys, mine-sweeping, the protection of fishing
fleets, etc. Only one large vessel was lost by enemy attack.
At the date of the Armistice the vessels in the Canadian naval
service were as follows. In the Pacific: H.M.C.S. " Rainbow,"
depot and training ship; H.M.S. " Algerine," sloop; auxiliary-
patrol ship " Malaspina "; several motor-launches for harbour
defence. In the Atlantic: H.M.C.S. "Niobe, " depot and training
ship; H.M.C.S. " Shearwater," submarine depot ship, and 2 sub-
marines; H.M.C.S. " Grilse," torpedo-boat destroyer; 9 auxiliary
patrol ships, 47 armed trawlers, 58 armed drifters, 1 1 armed mine-
sweepers and tugs, and a large flotilla of motor-launches. The
crews of these vessels consisted of men from all parts of Canada,
principally members of the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer
Reserve. At the date of the Armistice the personnel of the service
was: officers and men of the Royal Canadian Navy, 749; officers
and men of the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer Reserve, 4,374.
In addition to the men serving in Canadian vessels, over 1,700
men were recruited in Canada for the Imperial navy, 73 surgeon
probationers and a number of hydrographic survey officers were
sent from Canada and 580 Canadians enrolled as probationary
flight lieutenants in the Royal Naval Air Service, before recruit-
ing for the Royal Air Force began in Canada. More than 500
Canadians holding commissions in the Royal Naval Volunteer
Reserve were in the British Auxiliary Patrol and similar services.
The Royal Canadian Naval Air Service was established in the
summer of 1918, with stations at Halifax and North Sydney.
It cooperated with the U.S. Naval Aviation Corps in patrolling
the coast and escorting convoys through the danger zone.
The Canadian Radiotelegraph Service controlled about 200
stations ashore and afloat. Several new stations were erected or
taken over by the Department of Naval Service, and there was
an unbroken chain of radio communication from St. John's,
Newfoundland, to Demerara. The Department opened a training
school for wireless operators, from which about 200 men were
sent out for service in all parts of the world.
Important refitting, repairing and supply work was done by the
Canadian dockyards. Large refits of Imperial and other ships
were made at Esquimalt, including H.M.S. " Kent " after the
battle of the Falklandls., and the Japanese battleship " Asama,"
after grounding on the coast of Lower California. Several large
cruisers were refitted at Halifax and Montreal. Other work in-
cluded the defensive armament of merchant ships, the refitting
of transports for troops, horses and special cargo, and the loading
and securing on ships' decks of 600 large launches, tugs, etc.
The Canadian Naval Service provided supplies for the ships
of the Royal Canadian Navy and for a number of Imperial and
Allied ships in Canadian waters, as well as many of the require-
ments of H.M. dockyards at Bermuda and Hong-Kong. Large
supplies were shipped from Halifax dockyard for provisioning the
fleets in European waters. A large coaling depot was established
at Sydney for the use of patrolling vessels and of all convoys
leaving the St. Lawrence.
In shipbuilding Canada had a splendid war record. Nearly
1,000 vessels of one kind or another were turned out for the van-
558
CANADA
ous Allied Governments, these including steel and wooden freight-
ers, submarines, coastal patrol boats, lighters, drifters, etc. Dur-
ing the war period not only was wooden shipbuilding revived but
the steel shipbuilding industry was placed firmly on its feet; for
whereas in 1914 Canada had only two thoroughly up-to-date
steel shipbuilding plants, in 1918 she had seventeen. In 1919
25,000 men were employed in the industry. The Department of
Naval Service secured many of the first of these orders.
The Imperial Munitions Board, acting as the agent for the
Imperial and Allied Governments, placed contracts with Cana-
dian yards for $70,000,000 worth of shipping. In 1918 the
Dominion Government, through the Department of Marine and
Fisheries, launched its shipbuilding programme, which in its en-
tirety called for 63 steel vessels having a deadweight tonnage of
375,000, constituting its own mercantile marine. The approxi-
mate value of these orders was $75,000,000. The first contract
was signed on March 4 1918. All these vessels were built in
Canadian yards and of Canadian material.
Canada became thoroughly and quickly organized for carrying
on the war in all its phases. There were a number of committees,
commissions, boards, etc., formed for various purposes, the
members of which worked voluntarily. These were the Shell
Committee, the Imperial Munitions Board (which had a wide
scope of usefulness and responsibility), War Trade Board, Board
of Grain Supervisors, War Mission to Washington, the Food
Board (under the direction of a food controller), Fuel Control
(under the direction of a fuel controller), and the Canadian
Railway War Board.
Canadians gave liberally to all the organizations engaged in
relief and help of any kind. The following is a summary of gifts
for various war purposes from the Dominion and Provincial Gov-
ernments, from municipalities, societies, universities, business
houses and other corporations, and from private individuals:
Canadian Patriotic Fund (to Feb. 28 1921) .
Manitoba Patriotic Fund (to March 31 1918)
Canadian Red Cross Society (to Dec. 31 1920) :
Contributions in cash
Gjfts in supplies (estimated)
British Red Cross Society (to Dec. 31 1919)
Belgian Relief Fund (to Dec. 19 1918):
Contributions in cash
Gifts in supplies (estimated) ...
Contributions from Canada to Y.M.C.A. for military
work
Gifts from Dominion and Provincial Governments to
Government of United Kingdom
Miscellaneous gifts
Total $104,184,954
Of the various war organizations working in Canada, or among
Canadian troops overseas, the most extensive in their operations
were the Canadian Patriotic Fund, the Canadian Red Cross
Society, and the military branch of the Y.M.C.A. The Canadian
St. John Ambulance Association and Brigade, which were branch-
es of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in England, coordinated
their war work with the Canadian Red Cross Society. The Asso-
ciation during the five years of the war instructed 61,612 Cana-
dians in first aid and home nursing, for volunteer work either in
Canada or overseas. In addition courses in first aid were given
to 200,000 troops while in training in Canada.
Statistics, however complete, can give only an imperfect im-
pression of the services which Canadian women rendered during
the war. Women to the number of 2,400 went overseas in the
C.E.F. and served in England, France, Belgium, Egypt, Greece
and Russia. They were posted for duty in base hospitals, clearing
stations, ambulance trains and hospital ships. There were also
527 on duty in Canada.
The casualties suffered by nurses were:
Killed in action 2
Died at sea 13
Died of wounds 5
Died of disease (out of Canada) 17
Died in Canada 17
The number of V.A.D.s who went overseas was 342; these
served in hospitals in England and France. Many hundreds of
Canadian women served in Canada as volunteer hospital
$48,704,663
3,957,042
9,074,208
15,000,000
6,250,000
1,642,104
1,512,800
4,574,821
5,469,316
8,000,000
probationers in military hospitals and in England, under the
Joint War Committee's Women's V.A.D. Department.
Returned Soldiers. Some time before the close of the war
provision was made by the Government by repeated Acts for the
care of the returned soldiers. The Military Hospitals Commission
was appointed in June 1915. It provided 16 hospital cars and
had hospital accommodation at the commencement of 1917 for
1,500 patients. It provided during 1917 10,000 beds in 40
centres. Vocational training for disabled men was organized in
1916. The number who commenced courses was 50,521, those
who completed 36,826, and those who discontinued 8,981. In
Feb. 1918 a Department of Soldiers' Civil Reestablishment was
organized to take over the work of the Hospitals Commission.
An arrangement was made for the treatment of all invalided
soldiers returned except those suffering from tuberculosis,
epilepsy, paralysis, insanity and mental deficiency, which came
directly under the D.S.C.R. The total of clinical treatments
was 586,185. The information and service branch in connexion
with the Department placed in employment 101,000 men. The
number of situations found was 174,789. The pension branch
rendered a most important service in connexion with permanently
maimed soldiers, widows, mothers and children of soldiers who
were killed. The total number to whom pensions were awarded
was 110,702, and the aggregate of pensions paid to Dec. 1920
amounted to $81 ,659,636. The number of pensions in force at the
end of 1920 was 73,620, and the amount in force on that date was
$31,169,520. At various times from 1914 to 1920 the rate of pen-
sions was substantially increased. For instance in 1914 the rate
per annum for disability was $264, and in 1920 it was $900, with
$300 for the wife, $180 for one child and a lesser amount for sub-
sequent children. The annual rate for dependents of deceased
soldiers increased practically in the same proportion. In addition
to pensions, war service gratuities were paid to the amount of
$164,000,000. Added to the pension system was a provision made
for Government insurance of returned soldiers, including naval
and air forces. The amount of insurance in force in 1921 was
$5,225,000. Applications received amounted to 1,705.
The Soldier Settlement Act made provision for the settlement
of returned soldiers on the land. It empowered a board consisting
of three members to make a soldier grant of 160 ac. of Dominion
land in the Western Provinces, and returned men were also
eligible for a civilian homestead of another 1 60 acres. The Act also
empowered the board to make loans to enable returned men
to settle in any province. Loans might be granted up to $7,500 to
qualified settlers purchasing land through the board, the settler to
pay down 10% of the cash value of the land; up to $3,000 for
equipment and improvements, and up to $5,000 lo settlers who
already owned land to enable them to pay off old mortgages and
to purchase live stock and implements and to erect buildings.
Up to March 31 1921 the board received 59,331 applications:
43,063 were granted certificates; 25,443 had gone on the land,
19,771 of whom received financial assistance amounting to
$80,371,750.48. The total area of land occupied by soldier settlers
under the Act was 4,854,799 ac. purchased land 2,153,184 ac.,
encumbered land 360,227 ac., soldier grants (with loans) 980,108
ac., soldier grants (without loans) 1,361,280 acres. The value of
the main crops produced by soldier settlers in 1920 was
$13,953,178.
The following figures show
the amounts by provinces :
the number of loans approved and
Province
Number
of Loans
Appr'ed
Total Amount
of Loans
Approved
Prince Edward Island
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
34
399
522
456
$ 819,507
1,310,049
1.487,680
1 ,903 .340
1,423
6,163,808
Manitoba
Saskatchewan . . .' .
Alberta . .' ' 1
British Columbia ....
3.3"
4,963
5-79
2,954
13,420,640
20,319,360
23,233,342
12,697,222
20,122
$81,354,948
CANADA
559
These loans were for the following purposes:
To purchase land $44,463,951
To remove encumbrances 2,213,897
For permanent improvements 9,408,394
For stock and equipment 25,268,706
$81,354,948
The Dominion Government also appropriated the sum of $25,000,-
ooo for housing in. Canada. The object of the Government was to
provide houses for working-men, particularly returned soldiers, at
the actual cost of building and land acquired at a fair value, thus
eliminating the profits of the speculator.
After the War. One result of the war was that Canada, along
with other dominions, acquired a substantially new status in the
Empire. Sir Robert Borden, as Canadian Prime Minister, was a
member of the Imperial War Cabinet. Members of the Canadian
Government attended the Peace Conferences, signed the Peace
Treaties, and were members and participated in the deliberations
of the League of Nations. Finally it was decided that Canada
should be represented at Washington by a Canadian ambassador,
distinct from, and with responsibilities quite apart from those
of, the British ambassador.
During the war a general election had taken place on Dec. 17
1917, the Unionist Government under Sir R. Borden being op-
posed by the Laurier Liberals, the result being the return of 150
Unionists and 80 Opposition members. After the signing of the
Armistice a certain number of the Liberals elected as Unionists to
support the Government returned to the Liberal side of the House
in Opposition. As the result of by-elections, representatives of
the Farmers' party were also elected and sat upon the cross-
benches, which included several former Liberals from the Middle
West. At the close of the 1920 session of Parliament the Unionist
party by that name ceased to exist, and there was formed the
National Liberal and Conservative party, with a policy strongly
protective in principle. In Aug. 1919, as the result of the death
of Sir W. Laurier (Feb. 17 1919), a huge convention of Liberals
was held at Ottawa to select a leader in succession to him, and to
frame a platform. After an exciting contest of several days the
Hon. William Lyon Mackenzie King was elected, and a fiscal
policy was approved in favour of free imports of all foodstuffs
and implements of production.
On March 21 1921, Sir Robert Borden having resigned the
premiership, Mr. Arthur Meighen (b. 1874), as his successor in
the Conservative leadership, was called upon to form a govern-
ment. It included Sir George E. Foster as Minister for Trade
and Commerce. Mr. Meighen subsequently attended the Im-
perial Conference in London in July 1921. But he and his
party, standing on a high tariff platform, were heavily defeated
at the general elections on Dec. 6. For the first time in Canada,
women exercised the vote. The Liberal party, under Mr. King,
were returned 121 strong, the Conservatives numbering only 51,
the Progressives (under Mr. T. A. Crerar) 60, and Independ-
ents 2. The result was a victory for the Liberal policy of a
tariff for revenue only, with British preference, but with reci-
procity as regards the United States. Mr. Mackenzie King
(b. 1874), who had been Minister for Labour for eight years
under Laurier, thus found himself at the head of a clear majority
over all other parties.
Lord Jellicoe and the Canadian Navy. In pursuance of in-
structions from the Lords of the Admiralty to advise the Domin-
ion in respect of a scheme of naval defence, Lord Jellicoe visited
Canada in 1919 and his report was issued early in 1920. On June
14 1920 the Hon. C. C. Ballantyne made an official statement of
policy in the Canadian House of Commons. He stated that the
Government had not yet decided on a permanent programme, and
would not so decide until after the matter had been discussed by
an Imperial Conference and a decision had been arrived at by
Great Britain on an Imperial naval policy. In the meantime the
Canadian navy would be maintained on pre-war lines. The offer
by the Imperial Government of one light cruiser and two torpedo-
boat destroyers to take the place of the obsolete training ships,
the " Niobe " and the " Rainbow," had been accepted. To
make way for reorganization, it had been decided to demobilize
all officers and naval ratings, discontinue certain civilian help at
headquarters .and at the naval dockyards at Esquimalt and
Halifax, to recall all officers with the Imperial fleet and place
them in the Canadian service, and to continue the Naval
College.
Prince of Wales' Visit, iQig. The year 1919 was made notable
by the visit of the Prince of Wales. King Edward VII., as Prince
of Wales, had visited Canada in 1860, and King George V., in the
same capacity, in 1901. This tour of the Prince of Wales in 1919,
however, was the most extensive ever made by any member of
the royal family. He arrived in St. John's, Newfoundland, on
Aug. 12, and from Aug. 15 to his departure for England from
Halifax on Nov. 25 he visited every part of Canada accessible by
railway communication from the Atlantic to the Pacific, being
welcomed with the greatest enthusiasm everywhere; and in the
course of his visit the Prince laid the corner-stone of the tower
of the new Parliament Buildings at Ottawa.
Prohibition. After the commencement of the World War all
the Canadian provinces took steps toward the prohibition of
intoxicants or the severe restriction of their use, as a war meas-
ure, to be effective during the period of the war. In British
Columbia this was brought about by the submission of a referen-
dum in the form of a statute. In other provinces prohibition
measures were the results of direct action by the Legislatures.
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward I. had been .
largely " dry " before the war under the local option provisions of
the Canada Temperance Act, but these, too, tightened up the
existing law by provincial measures. In nearly every instance
the purchase of liquors, with the exception of very light beer,
where the sale of this was permitted, was possible only through
medical prescription, and liquors were only available at drug-
stores or Government shops. In Quebec a bill introduced in 1918
provided for total prohibition on May i 1919. A subsequent bill
of 1919 retained all the clauses of the Act of 1918, except in re-
spect of the sale and use of beer and light wines, which were
subject to a referendum, the result of which was: in favour,
178,112; against, 48,433. In the four western provinces much
complaint was made by prohibitionists of the laxity of enforce-
ment, which was admitted in official quarters to be a matter of
great difficulty, and a discussion arose in all the provinces as to
the advisability of restrictive measures of the nature then in force.
On the prohibitionist side it was urged that more stringent laws
should be enacted and better machinery provided for enforce-
ment. On the other, the " moderation " side, Government con-
trol was advocated. An appeal was made to the Dominion authori-
ties to prevent manufacture and the export and import as among
provinces. Two provinces, British Columbia and Quebec, de-
clared for Government control, and in both that system became
effective. The Government of Canada endeavoured through the
House of Commons to restrict the manufacture, transportation
and importation of liquors during the war and for 12 monthi.
thereafter, but the measure was defeated _in the Senate and
abandoned. A subsequent law was enacted leaving the matter in
the hands of the various provinces, as the result of referenda.
By statute assented to on Nov. 10 1919 provision was made for
taking, at the request of any provincial legislature by resolution,
a vote in the province upon the question whether the importation
of intoxicating liquor therein should be prohibited, and the
machinery for such votes, previously defective, was improved in
1920 by another statute, assented to on July i 1920. Proclama-
tions were at once issued directing votes to be taken on Oct. 25
following in the provinces of Nova Scotia, Manitoba, Alberta,
Saskatchewan, and Ontario. These votes resulted as follows:
For Against
Nova Scotia . . 83,422 23,874
Manitoba . . . 68,831 55,056
Alberta . . . 63,012 44,321
Saskatchewan . 86,949 55,259
Ontario . . . 54,773 373,93 8
The Yukon territory in June 1921 carried a referendum in
favour of sale of intoxicants under Government control. It had
previously been " dry."
Viceroys. As governor-general of Canada Earl Grey had been
succeeded in 1911 by the Duke of Connaught, who in turn was
560
CANADA
succeeded by the Duke of Devonshire in 1916; and when the
Duke of Devonshire's term expired on July 18 1921, he was
succeeded by Gen. Lord Byng of Vimy. (W. L. G.*)
CANADIAN LITERATURE
English-Canadian, The literary record of Canada in 1910-21
falls more or less definitely into three sections pre-war, war
and post-war. During the war years the heart of the Canadian
people became so completely absorbed in the great conflict, in
which they had so much at stake, that, after the first year or so
at any rate, there remained little room for any intellectual
activity not connected directly or indirectly with the war and
its successful prosecution. The new literature of 1910-14 had
reflected the characteristic of the Dominion in those years
a spirit of optimism, of national self-consciousness, of conserv-
atism in the broader sense, and intellectually of wider and more
stimulating horizons. And the return to peace conditions, dur-
ing 1918-21, was mainly notable in literature for more or less
thoughtful reviews of Canada's part in the war, consideration
of her problems of reconstruction, and the picking up anew of
the somewhat neglected threads of her intellectual life.
Unquestionably the most important achievement of the pre-
war period was the publication of Canada and its Provinces, a
.comprehensive survey of the history of the country in 23 vol-
umes, edited by Dr. A. G. Doughty and Dr. Adam Shortt, and
counting among its contributors most of the recognized author-
ities in Canadian history, biography and economics. Another
notable essay in Canadian history was the series known as the
Chronicles of Canada, in 32 volumes, edited by George M.
Wrong and H. H. Langton, a series designed to present in
attractive and at the same time authoritative form the outstand-
ing events of Canadian history. The authors of the individual
volumes included such well-known writers as Charles W. Colby,
of McGill University, Col. William Wood, Stephen Leacock,
Dr. Doughty, Oscar D. Skelton, of Queen's University, and
Sir Joseph Pope. The publication in 1911 of an Index and Dic-
tionary of Canadian History completed the series of biographies
known as The Makers of Canada.
The celebration of the tercentenary of the founding of Quebec
brought in its train, with a flood of purely ephemeral literature,
several books of permanent value, such as The King's Book of
Quebec (1911), edited by Dr. Doughty and Col. Wood, James
Douglas' New England and New France (1913), Wood's In the
Heart of Old Canada (1913), and Prof. Wrong's The Fall of
Canada (1914). In 1920 the Hudson's Bay Company cele-
brated its 25oth birthday with elaborate pageants in Win-
nipeg and elsewhere throughout the West. The occasion was
also marked by the publication of a very completely illustrated
history of the Company. In 1921 McGill University celebrated
the icoth anniversary of its charter.
This period also witnessed a succession of biographies
and autobiographies of famous Canadians, including Beckles
Willson's Lord Strathcona (1914) and W. T. R. Preston's pun-
gent life of the same many-sided character, Sir Richard Cart-
wright's Reminiscences (1912), Sir George W. Ross' Getting into
Parliament and After (1913), L. J. Burpee's Sir Sandford Fleming
(1915), John Boyd's Sir George Etienne Cartier (1914), Sir
Charles Tupper's Recollections of Sixty Years in Canada (1914),
and Goldwin Smith's posthumous Reminiscences (1910), Life
and Opinions (1913) and Correspondence (1913), all three edited
by his literary executor, Arnold Haultain.
Other noteworthy books of this period are W. H. Atherton's
Montreal 1535-1914 (1914), John Ross Robertson's Landmarks
of Toronto (1914), E. H. Oliver's The Canadian North-West
(1914), and Doughty and McArthur's Documents relating to the
Constitutional History of Canada, 1791-1818 (1914) ; and in books
of description and travel, A. P. Coleman's The Canadian Rockies
(1911), Ernest Thompson Seton's Arctic Prairies (1911), Dr.
Campbell's Canadian Lake Region (1910), and Charles Sheldon's
Wilderness of the Upper Yukon (1911). Among a host of polit-
ical and economic essays may be mentioned John S. Ewart's
The Kingdom Papers (1914), Sir William Peterson's Canadian
Essays and Addresses (1915), Sir George Foster's Canadian
Addresses (1914), Sir Andrew Macphail's Essays in Politics
(1910), Maj.-Gen. C. W. Robinson's Canada and Canadian
Defence (1910), and Edward Porritt's Revolt in Canada against
the New Feudalism (1911). In 1913 a new edition also appeared
of Col. George T. Denison's History of Cavalry, written as early
as 1876, and awarded in the following year the prize offered by
the Tsar of Russia for the best essay on the subject.
In imaginative literature, the only books of verse that need
be noted here are Bliss Carman's Echoes from Vagabondia (1912),
William Wilfrid Campbell's Sagas of Vaster Britain (1914),
William Henry Drummond's Poetical Works (1912), Marjorie
Pickthall's Drift of Pinions (1913), Frederick George Scott's
Poems (1912), and Arthur J. Stringer's Open Water (1914). In
1913 Dr. Campbell brought out his excellent anthology, the
Oxford Book of Canadian Verse. In fiction, the most noteworthy
names are those of Miss L. M. Montgomery, Charles G. D.
Roberts, Norman Duncan, C. W. Gordon (" Ralph Connor "),
Theodore Roberts, Alan Sullivan and Arthur Stringer.
With regard to the literature of the war, or of Canada's part
in it, many volumes of personal experiences had already been
published by 1921. A really notable book is Winged Warfare
(1918) by Col. William A. Bishop, V.C. Others that may
be named here are Col. George G. Naismith's On the Fringe of
the Great Fight (1917), F. C. Curry's From the St. Lawrence to
the Yser (1917), F. McKelvey Bell's First Canadians in France
(1917), and Captured by Lieut. J. Harvey Douglas (1918). In
1917 appeared the first of six volumes of Canada in the Great
World War (completed in 1921), an authoritative account of
Canada's part in the conflict, by a number of competent writers.
An official history of the war, from a Canadian viewpoint, under
the title of Canada in Flanders, the first two volumes of which
were prepared by Lord Beaverbrook and the third by Maj.
Charles G. D. Roberts, appeared in 1916-8. Other war books
of interest are Col. J. G. Adami's Official War Story of the C.A.
M.C. (1919), Dr. Herbert A. Bruce's Politics and the C.A.M.C.
(1919), J. F. B. Livesay's Canada's Hundred Days (1910), Hon.
Henri S. Beland's Three Years in a German Prison (1919),
Alan Sullivan's Aviation in Canada (1919), Capt. Harwood
Steele's Canadians in France (1920), John W. Dafoe's Over the
Canadian Battlefields (1919), and Sir Robert Borden's The War
and the Future (1917). Through the foresight of Lord Beaver-
brook and Dr. Doughty, Canada acquired an exceptionally com-
plete collection of war records, paintings, and trophies.
Among the more significant of the post-war books are Sir
Robert Falconer's Idealism in National Character (1920), J. L.
Morison's British Supremacy and Canadian Self -Government
(1919), Hon. W. L. Mackenzie King's Industry and Humanity
(1918), R. M. Maclver's Labour in-the Changing World (1919),
W. C. Good's Production and Taxation in Canada (1919), A. H.
Reginald Buller's Essays on Wheat (1919), Prof. Wrong's The
United States and Canada (1921), W. G. Smith's Study in
Canadian Immigration (1920), and two books discussing the
relations between English- speaking and French -speaking Can-
ada O. W. H. Moore's The Clash (1918) and P. F. Morley's
Bridging the Chasm (1919).
In history and biography there were such important works
as J. S. McLennan's Louisbourg (1918), Chester Martin's Lord
Selkirk's Work in Canada (1916), G. C. Davidson's North West
Company (1919), William Smith's History of the Post Office
1639-1870 (1920), W. R. Riddell's Old Province Tales (1920),
Prof. Skelton's The Canadian Dominion (1919), Sir John Willison's
Reminiscences (1919), W. T. Grenfell's A Labrador Doctor
(1919), E. M. Saunder's Life of Sir Charles Tupper (1916),.
Skelton's Sir Alexander Gait (1920), and Sir Wilfrid Laurier
(1921), Sir Joseph Pope's Correspondence of Sir John MacDonald
(1921) and Walter Vaughan's Sir William Van Home (1920).
The Historical Section of the Canadian General Staff issued the
first three volumes of an official History of the Military and
Naval Forces of Canada from 1763 (1920-21).
Of agencies which, each in its own way, were making in these
later years for the development of intellectual life and scholar-
CANALEJAS MENDEZ
ship in Canada, none was more important than the Dominion
Archives, the Royal Society of Canada, the Champlain Society,
and two important Canadian periodicals, the University Maga-
zine and the Canadian Historical Review. The Archives per-
form a triple service, in collecting and safeguarding the manu-
script treasures of Canada, in affording facilities for research
to students, and in publishing selected documents from its col-
lections. The Champlain Society, with headquarters in Toronto,
devotes itself to the publication of important works bearing upon
Canadian history, and the reprinting of old works in the same
field. J. B. Tyrell's editions of Hearne's Journey (ion) and
David Thompson's Journals (1916), Dr. Doughty's edition of
Knox's Historical Journal (1914-16), Grant and Bigger's edi-
tion of Lescarbot's New France (1911) and Col. Wood's Select
British Documents of the Canadian War of 1812 (1920), are
admirable examples of Canadian scholarship. The establish-
ment of the University Magazine under the control of three of
the principal Canadian universities, and the transformation of
the annual Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada
into a quarterly Canadian Historical Review widened the oppor-
tunities for the intellectual discussion of Canadian questions by
Canadian writers in a Canadian periodical.
In imaginative literature during this later period, there are
found several arresting books, such as Clive Phillipps-Wolley's
Songs from a Young Man's Land (1917), John McCrae's In
Flanders Fields (1918), Lloyd Roberts' Poems (1919), Norah
Holland's Spun Yarn and Spindrift (1918), Marjorie Pickthall's
The Lamp of Poor Souls (1916), Bliss Carman's April Airs
(1916), Duncan Campbell Scott's Lundy's Lane and. Other Poems
(1916) and Beauty of Life (1921), Arthur S. Bourinot's Poems
(1921), and Bernard F. Trotter's Canadian Twilight (1917).
In fiction, the principal names were Sir Gilbert Parker, C. G. D.
Roberts, Arthur Stringer, Theodore Roberts, W. A. Fraser,
L. M. Montgomery, C. W. Gordon, Basil King and Norman
Duncan. Among Canadian humorists Stephen Leacock (b. 1869
in England; on the staff of Upper Canada College, 1891-9; and
later head of the department of political economy at McGill
University) during 1911-21 had gradually established a wide-
spread popularity, and his volumes of humorous essays and
sketches gave him an international reputation as a writer, some-
what eclipsing his professional position as an economist. In this
connexion also may be mentioned the Goblin, a really excellent
comic monthly published by undergraduates of Toronto Univer-
sity. Two delightful books for children are Isabel Ecclestone
MacKay's The Shining Ship (1918) and Cyrus MacMillan's
Canadian Wonder Tales (1918). R. P. Baker has written a
History of English Canadian Literature to Confederation (1920).
(L. J. B.)
French-Canadian. During 1910-21 there was a very natural
desire among French-Canadian writers to do all that could be
done toward keeping their compatriots true to type in race,
religion, speech, thought, aspiration, letters and whatever else
might encourage a distinctive form of life to persist unchanged
by contact with the English-speaking world. Among the
extreme Nationalists this unfortunately led to a self-conscious
particularism, tending rather to weaken both ideas and expres-
sion by confining them within a narrow pale than to win an
assured position in the intellectual world at large. The best
written, however, of all the French-Canadian papers was Le
Devoir, edited by Henri Bourassa, the Nationalist chief, who
had kept it easily first in literary excellence, with the able as-
sistance of Omer Heroux, Georges Pelletier, Ernest Bilodeau,
Madame E. P. Benoit (" Monique "), and Madame H.
St. Jacques (" Fadette "). Another Ultra, the Abbe Lionel
Groulx, edited L' Action Frangaise, a monthly numbering among
its contributors that excellent stylist, Pere Beaude, whose
nom de plume is Henri d' Aries. A wider outlook was taken by
Le Canada Fran$ais, successor to La Nouvelle-France, once led
by the scholarly pen of the Rev. Camille Roy. The widest
and most diverse views were to be found in La Revue Moderne,
edited by Madame Huguenin. La Revue Trimestrielle also
took broad views, and had done good service to literature.
Three types of French-Canadian history were represented by
(i) the Histoire du Canada, a big school-book written by the
Christian Brothers from their own point of view, and without
any reference to archives; (2) the five volumes of the Cours
d' Histoire, ardently written by the Abbe Groulx in admirable
French, and based on original sources, but carefully dividing
the sheep of his own party from the goats of all others; and (3)
the Cours d'Histoire du Canada by Thomas Chapais, whose
scholarly taste, deep reverence for original research, and wide
experience of public life preeminently fitted him for his distin-
guished role as professor of the Universite Laval. Montreal
was highly favoured in possessing that indefatigable archivist,
E. Z. Massicotte. But Quebec was the headquarters of the new
Provincial Archives, established in 1920 under the direction
of Pierre Georges Roy, whose name had become famous for all
that concerns the discovery, study, classification, and enlight-
ened cataloguing of original documents, as well as for archival
work at large.
Folklore was more and more studied by C. Marius Barbeau
(Dominion Anthropologist), E. Z. Massicotte, C. Tremblay,
Dr. Cloutier, Gustave Lanctot, and others. The Journal of
American Folklore devotes one number a year to the work
of French-Canadians.
Pure literature made a very real advance in the decade.
The great French-Canadian drama was still to seek; but in
poetry Jean Nolin's Les Cailloux showed good achievement and
still greater promise, while power was the predominant note of
Charles Gill's Le Cap Eternite. Two women who emerged as
poets had already done well and seemed likely to do bet-
ter: Marie Le Franc's Les Voix au Cozur et I'Ame is both psy-
chology and art; while Blanche Lamontagne's Visions Gas-
pesiennes, Par Nos Champs et Nos Rives, and La Vieille Maison
showed a continual advance from merely tuneful and rather
diffuse description to something like creation. Jules Fournier
and Olivar Asselin, both most competent critics, had edited the
Anthologie des Poetes Canadiens (1920). Fiction was well repre-
sented by Damase Potvin's L'Appel de la Terre. The late
Louis Hemon, a Frenchman who lived and worked with the
French-Canadian habitants, had, in "hisMaria Chapdelaine (1916),
written a novel which was a true work of art and racy of the soil.
In other literature Laure Conan produced the best of intro-
spective sketches in L'Obscure Souffrance, which is a kind of
journal imaginaire. Her terse and finely chosen style greatly
helped her penetrating vision to reach the very heart of her
subject in everything she wrote, as, for instance, in her Sil-
houettes Canadiennes. Edouard Montpetit was both reminiscent
and " previsionist " in his Au Service de la Tradition Franqaise.
And Adjutor Rivard, whose Chez nos Gens gives moving glimpses
of habitant life, has placed all students of French under a deep
debt of gratitude in his magnificent Etudes sur les Parlers de
France au Canada. (W. Wo.)
CANALEJAS Y MENDEZ, JOSE (1854-1912), Spanish poli-
tician, was born in Ferrol July 31 1854. Coming of a middle-class
family with university connexions, he graduated (1871) at the
university of Madrid and took his doctor's degree (1872), be-
coming lecturer on Literature (1873). For a time he entered his
father's engineering works as general secretary and studied rail-
way problems, but continued his literary work, publishing a his-
tory of Latin literature in two volumes. He was early attracted
to politics, sympathizing first with the Republican and then
with the Liberal party. He was elected deputy for Soria in 1881
and his parliamentary ability asserted itself from the first. He
became under-secretary for the prime minister's department
under Posada Herrera in 1883, then Minister of Justice (1888)
and of Finance (1894-5). He was president of the Chamber in
the Moret administration, and became prime minister and chief
of the Liberal party in 1910. It was while in office that he was
murdered in Madrid Nov. 12 1912. Canalejas was a remarkably
consistent statesman. He believed in the possibility of a mon-
archy open to a thoroughgoing democratic policy both in eco-
nomic and in strictly civil and political matters. A sincere Cath-
olic, he was nevertheless a strong anti-clerical, and a champion of
562
CANCERS-CANTEEN
the rights of the State against the encroachments of the Church.
By his death the Spanish Liberal party lost the only statesman
capable of uniting it under one definite programme.
CANCER (see 5.175). No striking change was witnessed in
the years from 1910 to 1921 in the general attitude of medical
men to the problem of cancer. Some new considerations have
been submitted, however, and some new aspects of the subject
disclosed. Industrial cancers occurring in tar workers and work-
ers in paraffin shale have been the subject of observation by the
Home Office in England, while the association between certain
of the aniline products and malignant disease of the bladder has
been pointed out in connexion with the health of German dye
workers. Sir George Lenthal Cheatle has published, too, some
observations on the manner of invasion of breast cancers which
tend to show a passage up the milk ducts.
Generally speaking, the view is still held that while cancer
tends to make its appearance on areas which have been subjected
to irritation of one kind or another, there remains an unknown
factor which determines its actual onset. Only a small per-
centage of cases which are subject to chronic irritation ever
become malignant. This fact alone rules out the explanation of
new growth in terms of local or even general irritation a con-
sideration which applies even to cancers in radiological practice.
In these circumstances a special interest attaches to the recent
experiments initiated by Prof. Fibiger of Copenhagen. In 1913 this
worker obtained for experimental purposes a number of rats. On
examination he found that several of these had carcinomata of the
stomach and further purchases from the same dealer produced more
cancers. After most painstaking investigations Fibiger found that
all these rats came from a certain sugar refinery which was infested
with cockroaches. He obtained some of the cockroaches and had
them examined. It was then found that they were carriers of an
unknown nematode worm. This worm was consequently named
spiroptera neoplastica. The female is 4 to 5 cm. long by about O-2
mm. in diameter: the male less than half this size. The eggs are oval
and clear and measure about 0-06 mm. and contain curled- up embryos.
They can be seen in the body of the female or in the upper layers of
the gastric epithelium, but occur only in that part of the stomach
which is lined by squamous epithelium.
By feeding rats on the cockroaches or by giving them ova of the
nematode to eat Fibiger was able to produce warty growths in their
stomachs and occasionally cancers. He published a further paper in
1920 in which it was pointed out that the embryos of the worm
having been hatched in the cockroach pass to the muscles of that
insect and there encyst themselves. When the rat eats the cock-
roach the embryos are set free. Fibiger took rats and fed them on
various forms of this worm and then examined 116 of them which
had survived for periods of 30 to 298 days. The stomach of each
was examined in serial section. None of the rats which died within
44 days of the eating of the worm showed any signs of cancer, but
of 102 rats which survived from 44 days up to 298 days no fewer than
54 showed quite typical carcinoma of the squamous-cell type in the
gastric cul-de-sac. In the remaining 48 only benign proliferations
and inflammations were found. These are almost invariably pro-
duced by the spiroptera.
Of the rats which died with gastric cancer in from one and a half
to three months after injection of the infected material 20 had very
small tumours, but 5 had multiple carcinomata; of 26 which lived
for from three to ten months 1 8 had tumours of fairly large size and
8 had minute nodules while 15 had multiple cancers. Finally 8 rats
which lived for prolonged periods had large tumours. The tumours,
too, set up metastases which as a rule tended to be localized in the
animals' lungs.
Cancer of the stomach had up till 1920 been produced in 89 rats.
There had also been produced in some rats cancer of the tongue.
In this latter case 217 rats were experimented on, care being taken
to obtain mixed breeds. A relatively small number of rats devel-
oped inflammation of the tongue and a still smaller number got
cancer. The inflammation began a few days after the injection of
the spiroptera and in the great majority of cases was spontaneously
cured in from two and a half to six months. It attacked all parts
of the tongue; there was thickening of the epithelium of the organ.
The cancer produced was found to be exactly similar to the cancer of
the tongue found in human beings. The cancer persisted after the
inflammation and all signs of the spiroptera had vanished.
The importance of this work lies in the fact that there would now
appear to be a method of starting cancer de novo and so of studying
it from its origin. Another parasite, cysticercus, has for many
years been associated with the appearance of sarcomata in mice.
Only one rat, of 2,500 examined at Copenhagen, was found to show
a cysticercus sarcoma, and this curiously enough was one of Fibi-
ger s animals. It was also infected with spiroptera and had, in addi-
tion to a sarcoma, a carcinoma of the stomach. Thus two different
worms were able in the same animal to cause two different and well-
recognized types of tumour. At least 90 % of sarcomata in the liver
of rats are said to contain cysticercus, and in these animals sar-
comata far outnumber carcinomata. In mice, on the other hand,
though the cysticercus is frequently found in the liver, sarcomata
are never found. This fact must be emphasized as showing how
dangerous conclusions on the subject may be. On the other hand
there can be no doubt that Fibiger's experiments do throw a new
light on a very baffling problem.
See Comptes Rendus de la Societe de Biologie, vol. Ixxxiii., no. 16;
British Medical Journal, May 15 1920 and June 5 1920.
(R. M. Wi.)
CANEVA, CARLO (1845- ), Italian general, was born
at Tarcento (Friuli) in 1845. His birthplace being under Aus-
trian rule until 1866, Caneva was educated at the Military
Academy at Wiener Neustadt, but he entered the Italian army
on May i 1866. In 1892 he attained the rank of colonel on the
general staff, and he was promoted to major-general two years
later. He served in the African campaign of 1897, and in 1902
was promoted lieutenant-general. After commanding a division
and an army corps, he became sub-chief of the general staff and
in 1910 he was chosen to command an army in the event of war.
The event came a year later, with the outbreak of war between
Italy and Turkey; Caneva commanded one side in the much-
discussed manucevres of 1911, his opponent being Cadorna, and
the former was declared victor, though military opinion was
divided. In any event, it was probably owing to the result of the
manceuvres that the selection to command the Tripoli Expedi-
tionary Force fell upon Caneva rather than Cadorna. Caneva
was given a thankless task. He was sent to occupy the coast
towns, in the belief that the Arabs and Berbers would welcome
the Italian occupation, and that the Turkish garrison unsupported
by the tribesmen could be brought to surrender with little or
no difficulty. He was speedily undeceived, and the initial over-
confidence was succeeded by a period of excessive caution. For
a time Caneva could do nothing, as he had no transport, and
later on he was hampered by orders from home which forbade
risks or heavy casualty lists. But even allowing for his handi-
caps Caneva was generally considered to have carried the waiting
policy too far and clung to it too long. Although the late spring
and summer of 191 2 saw a change, and several important successes
were gained, Caneva was recalled to Italy on Sept. 2, and
shortly afterwards retired. He presided over the commission
of inquiry into the Caporetto disaster in 1917. (W. K. McC.)
CANTEEN, a generic term for the building and organization
which provides for the soldier's recreation and extra-regulation
comforts. The use of this term has naturally been extended to
cover similar buildings and organizations which provide the
same services for factory workers and others who live and work
together inconsiderable numbers; but here it is sufficient to deal
with canteen organization and its results in the British and
American armies during the World War.
The effort which was made in most of the armies in the field
to mitigate campaign hardships by canteen organization reached
its highest point in the American and the British armies. The
American organization was chiefly in the hands of the American
Y.M.C.A. (which was also entrusted with the educational work
in the American army). The British organization was, as re-
gards the home camps, chiefly in the hands of the army and navy
canteens, the Y.M.C.A., the Church Army and the Salvation
Army; as regards the armies abroad in the hands of the Expedi-
tionary Force canteens and the private agencies mentioned,
whose personnel in the field were given the right to wear uni-
form and to use military transport and billets.
As regards the British army, the Expeditionary Force canteen
in 1918 was a vast organization operating in every theatre of war.
It provided for officers and men cheap shops, good rest and recrea-
tion centres, and for officers excellent hotels. From the Expedition-
ary Force canteens the soldier could buy cigars, cigarettes, chocolate,
sweets and all kinds of canned goods, duty free, and at prices far
lower than those of the London shops. Whisky, wine and beer could
be bought duty free, under some restrictions.
The Expeditionary Force canteens organization was formed first
in 1915. Its operations commenced in France, but were subsequently
extended to all theatres of war. The undertaking was from its
commencement conducted by Sir Alexander W. Prince and Colonel
F. Benson. In due course the organization took on various other
CAPELLO CAPE PROVINCE
563
functions, but its canteen business alone made it by far the biggest
shopping concern in the world. The " supplies and shipping "
department of the Expeditionary Force canteens had for canteens
alone an average annual turnover of approximately 20,000,000.
From three to four thousand different articles appeared on the stock
sheets. The tonnage handled was enormous, and during the month of
Nov. 1918 it reached nearly 12,000 tons, representing 320,000 cases,
in France alone. The record week was that ending March 16 1918,
just prior to the great German offensive, when 3,643 tons of canteen
supplies were landed, and a turnover amounting to 400,000 was
reached. The tonnage off-loaded for the year 1918 was 121,000 tons,
and comprised over three million packages. The growth of the total
sales at canteens and depdts in France is shown by the following
figures (by half-years ending at the dates mentioned) :
June 1915 ... 120,000 June 1917 . . 6,000,000
Dec. 1915 . . . 700,000 Dec. 1917 . . 8,000,000
June 1916 . . . 2,000,000 June 1918 . . 9,500,000
Dec. 1916 . . . 4,000,000 Dec. 1918 . . 9,500,000
Profits were kept to a strict minimum, and by a happy decision
prices for the same goods were the same on every front.
Another feature of the Expeditionary Force canteen work was that
it served the man in the fighting line first and the man in the rear
zone second. When in 1917-8, owing to the shipping position, Ex-
peditionary Force canteen supplies had to be restricted, and the
complaint came that what supplies did come over were largely ab-
sorbed at base and on lines of communication, and the men in the
front line got very little, the quartermaster-general ordered that
(i) certain luxuries which were in very short supply should go only
to the front area canteens and not at all to the base; (2) other goods
should go in the proportion of four to front areas and one to the base.
Beer was a special problem, as its bulk made demands on tonnage
which could no longer be admitted. G. H.Q. did not like the prospect
of stopping the soldiers' beer, and accordingly the Q.M.G.'s de-
partment took over, in part or in whole, breweries in the army areas
and arranged to brew beer locally, importing only the malt and the
hops from England. American canteens were, of course, " dry."
The work of the British Expeditionary Force canteens in France
was the most important as regards figures, but probably on the re-
mote fronts it was of greater value in showing the troops that they
were still in touch with home. In Egypt and Palestine the organiza-
tion pushed forward its comforts far into the desert on camel-back,
and on these fronts about 5,000,000 a year passed over its counters.
On the Mesopotamia front there were 37 canteens, the most remote
being at Khaniqin (in Persia) ; and one flourishing branch was at
Qurna, the legendary site of the Garden of Eden, where soldiers
could buy most of the fruits of the earth in canned form. A canteen
boat was kept plying on the Tigris. The Salonika front and the
British front in Italy were also well supplied with canteens.
The work of the British Expeditionary Force canteens was some-
times carried on under conditions of some danger, as forward
canteens were never withdrawn on account of hostile shell- fire unless
it became very intense. During the German advance in the spring
of 1918 the Expeditionary Force canteens lost very heavily in goods.
As the enemy came forward and the canteens had to be evacuated
the stocks of spirits were destroyed, other goods given away to the
troops as they passed, and the residue destroyed by fire.
The British Y.M.C.A. during the war spent a gross of 21,900,000
on canteen work for British troops and war workers. Of this
sum 17,300,000 represented refreshments sold. The Y.M.C.A.
provided " dry " canteens, amusements and stationery, and in rear
areas was in charge of lecture and other educational work. Its
free gifts to the troops were valued at nearly 1,000,000, and all
profits made at canteens were put back into war work. After the
Armistice, when public subscriptions to the Y.M.C.A. fell off,
the British War Office, recognizing the importance of its work, ad-
vanced to it 700,000 to enable it to continue operations during the
period of demobilization. Subsequently 590,000 of this was made
a free gift. Y.M.C.A. work was carried on in every theatre of war.
The Church Army provided nearly 2,000 canteen centres for the
British army, of which about one-half were in France and others in
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Malta, Salonika, Gallipoli, India and at naval
bases. (F. F.)
When the American army arrived in France, the U.S. Red Cross
had already established and was operating a canteen system for the
French army. This system was extended, the existing organization
naturally forming a base, since the American Expeditionary Force
was superposed on the forces already in the French zone, and at
first used the same lines of communication. Military canteens were
also established by the troops themselves. But by far the greater
part of the canteen work in touch with troops was carried out by the
American Y.M.C.A., which, by an army order of Sept. 6 1917, took
over responsibility for canteen work generally. The order forbade the
establishment of a military canteen where a " Y " was available, and
finally over 1,200 canteens or recreation halls were in operation.
Affiliated to the Y.M.C.A. and working in connexion with its
canteen system were library, educational, athletic and entertain-
ment organizations in profusion. The Y.M.C.A. also cooperated
in the work of the French " Foyer du Soldat." On a smaller scale,
similar work was done by the " Knights of Columbus."
CAPELLO, LUIGI (1859- ), Italian general, was born
April 14 1859. He entered the infantry, and his career till he
became a general officer was passed in this branch of the service.
During the Italo-Turkish War he served in Cyrenaica, and as a
major-general he took part in the operations round Derna,
commanding a column in the final action of the war in Oct. 1912.
In 1913 he was promoted to lieutenant-general. He commanded
the 25th Sardinian Div. during the early attacks upon the Carso
in the summer of 1915, and the VI. Corps opposite the southern
part of the Sabotino-Podgora bridgehead in Sept. 1915. In Aug.
1916, Capello, whose command ,had been increased to the
strength of six divisions, conducted the attack which stormed
the bridgehead and led to the capture of Gorizia. A difference of
opinion between Cadorna and Capello led to the latter's trans-
ference to the Trentino front, where he commanded successively
the XXII. and V. Corps in the Asiago uplands. In March 1917 he
returned to the Julian front as commander of the " Gorizia
Zone " (VIII., VI. and II. Corps), in which capacity he conducted
the first phase of the Italian offensive in the following May.
In June Capello was given command of the II. Army, which
extended from the Plezzo valley to the Vippacco, and in Aug.
he directed the attack on the Bainsizza plateau. There was a
difference of opinion between Cadorna and Capello regarding the
development of the action after the initial success, and this
difference became more serious when Cadorna decided to stand
on the defensive in view of the forthcoming enemy attack. Capel-
lo wished to go on attacking, and it is difficult to avoid the con-
viction that his belief in his own method of meeting the coming
threat prevented him from cooperating whole-heartedly in the
plan of his chief. Capello fell ill shortly before the enemy attack
was launched and only returned to his post on the very eve of the
battle. He was quite unfit for the strain of command, and had to
resign after two days. When sufficiently recovered in health he
was given the task of creating the new V. Army out of units
broken and disbanded by the retreat. To this task he gave all
his energy, and in it he achieved remarkable results, but in the
spring of 1918, on the constitution of the Caporetto Inquiry
Commission, he was put on half-pay, and in July he was retired.
After his retirement Capello wrote two books, a reply to the
criticisms of the Inquiry Commission, entitled Per la Verita, and
Note di Guerra, a work which deals with the Italian campaign
as a whole but especially with those operations in which he played
an active part. He also took some part in politics, presiding
at various important Nationalist and Fascisti meetings.
CAPE PROVINCE (see under CAPE COLONY, 5.225), the larg-
est of the provinces of the Union of South Africa. At the 1911
census the inhabitants numbered 2,564,965, of whom 582,377
were whites and 1,982,588 coloured, an increase since 1904 of
8-33 % in the coloured pop. but of only 0-45 % in the white.
Among whites, females exceeded males by 43,623; among the
coloured people by 63,782. In 1918 a census of whites only was
taken. They then numbered 618,825, an increase of 6-41 % over
1911, affording an example of the abnormal fluctuation to which
the white pop. of S. Africa is subject. Of the 1911 pop. 96-47% of
the white and 44-20% of the coloured inhabitants returned them-
selves as Christians. The coloured inhabitants were divided into
Bantu 1,519,939, Asiatic 7,690, and " mixed " and other coloured
454,959. This last category included a few thousand Hottentots
and Bushmen, but the majority were the mixed white and black
" Cape Boy " class commonly called " coloured " in distinction from
" natives." In 191 1 of the whole coloured pop. 24,000 were engaged
in professions or commerce and 93,000 in industries. Many dis-
tricts of the province are arid or semi-arid, and over most of its
area there are not more than seven persons per sq. mile. The pop.
is mainly found in the fertile S. and S.E. coast regions, and of
the Bantu in 1911 no fewer than 871,062 lived in the Transkeian
territories, where there were 54 persons to the sq. mile. These
Bantu are still heathen and nearly all are agriculturists. There were
in 1911 only five towns with over 12,000 inhabitants, namely Cape
Town (161,759), Kimberley (44,433), Port Elizabeth (37,063), East
London (24,606) and Grahamstown (13,830).
Administration. The affairs of the province are in the hands
of a provincial council, elected for three years and not subject
to dissolution save by effluxion of time. The qualifications for
electors and members of the council are the same as for the
members elected by the province to the House of Assembly
5^4
CAPES CAPE TOWN
(save that a provincial councillor must live in the province in
which his constituency is situated). Under this provision in the
Cape province natives and other non-white races possess the
provincial franchise. At the 1917 registration there were 150,000
white and 30,000 coloured electors. The number of constituen-
cies are also the same as for Parliament. 1 The provincial council
has powers of legislation on subjects specifically assigned to it
by the Act of Union and on subjects delegated to it by the Union
Parliament. These powers include direct taxation within the
province in order to raise revenue for provincial purposes and
the control of municipalities and other local bodies, and of
" elementary education " which embraces all education other
than university. Its enactments are called ordinances, and no
ordinance is valid so far as it may be repugnant to an act of the
Union Parliament. In short, though a legislative body, the
provincial council exercises no authority which Parliament cannot
revoke. There is no separate judiciary, or police force, or civil
service, nor any separate departments of general government.
Moreover, harbours and railways are under the control of the
Union Parliament.
The provincial council is presided over by a chairman, elected
from its members; and the council also chooses an executive com-
mittee of four, who need not be members of the council. The
chief executive officer is styled administrator and is chosen by
the Union ministry; the administrator is appointed for five years
and is irremovable. A provincial auditor is also appointed by the
Union ministry and is removable only for reasons which must
be submitted to the Union Parliament. The Union ministry
likewise appoints an attorney-general as legal adviser.
Revenue. Under provisions of the Financial Relations Acts of
1913 and 1917 the Union Government pays to the provinces an
annual subsidy amounting to one-half of the estimated normal
provincial expenditure for the year. This financial dependence of
the provinces on the Union Government emphasizes their subor-
dinate position and is a guarantee against any tendency in the
provinces to go beyond the scope of local affairs.
The subsidies paid to the Cape provincial council varied from
862,000 in 1913-4 to 999,000 in 1917-8; the revenue raised by the
province was 405,000 and 426,000 respectively in the years
named, but had been as low as 316,000 in 1914-5. Transfer duties
and licences (trade, liquor, motor, etc.) were the chief sources of
revenue. The chief item of expenditure is on education; thus in
19134, out of a total expenditure by the provincial council of
1,142,000, the sum of 853,000 was spent on education. In 1917-8
the figures were: total expenditure 1,477,000; on education
1,150,000. In 1920-1 the cost of education had risen to 2,163,000,
the number of children on the school rolls being 284,000, an increase
of about 50,000 since 1913. In primary schools education is free.
History. Politically the Cape province has had no separate
history since the establishment of the Union in 1910. Parties
in South Africa are not divided on provincial lines; it may,
however, be recorded that the majority of the Cape members of
Parliament have favoured the maintenance of the British con-
nexion and the fusion of Dutch and British interests. In the
rebellion of 1914 De Wet in his effort to reach German S.W.
Africa entered the province and was captured at a place no m.
W. of Mafeking. In domestic concerns the province showed a
progressive attitude, notably in its care for education. Bilingual
requirements gave rise to no great difficulty, the provincial
council having passed an ordinance in 1921 providing that the
medium of instruction up to standard IV. should be the " home
language " of the child. Provincial spirit remained keen, but the
white inhabitants of the eastern district, who are largely (if not
mainly) of British descent, look to the Transvaal and Free State
for trade, while with the people of the western part of the prov-
ince (who, Cape Town apart, are predominantly of Dutch ori-
gin) they have practically no commercial intercourse.
Sir N. F. de Waal, who had been colonial secretary in the last
ministry of Cape Colony, was the first administrator, and he
guided the province through the period of change caused by the
'The particulars here given of provincial administration are the
same in all four provinces (the Cape, Natal, Orange Free State and
Transvaal) save that the minimum number of members of a provin-
cial council is 25, whereas Natal and the Free State return fewer
members to Parliament.
establishment of the Union. He served for two successive periods
and was reappointed for a third time in 1920. There was no
introduction of party politics in the provincial council (as
happened in the Transvaal province).
The period 1910-20 witnessed considerable industrial and
agricultural development and a significant growth of Ethiopian-
ism and trade unionism among the native and coloured people.
These were not features peculiar to the Cape province, though,
as the Cape contained a larger proportion of educated natives
and there was no colour bar to the exercise of the franchise, the
province was the chief centre of native agitation for social and in-
dustrial rights. An indication of the activity of the Anglican
Church was the creation of two new dioceses, George (1911), and
Kimberley and Kuruman (1912).
An event which caused a deep impression on the public mind was
the epidemic of influenza in the autumn of 1918. It was estimated
that a quarter of the inhabitants suffered and for three or four
weeks business in the cities was dislocated, so numerous were the
victims. (F. R. C.)
CAPES, BERNARD EDWARD JOSEPH (1854-1918), British
novelist, was born in London Aug. 30 1854 and educated at
Beaumont College. He was a nephew of John Moore Capes, a
prominent figure in the Oxford Movement, and was brought up a
Roman Catholic. Originally intended for the army, he was pre-
vented from taking a commission by a mistake as to the age
at which he should have presented himself for examination.
He was then put into a tea-broker's office and for some years
struggled with uncongenial work, finally abandoning it to study
art at the Slade School, London. In 1888 he joined the publishing
firm of Eglington & Co. and succeeded Clement Scott as editor
of The Theatre. In 1892 the firm came to an end, and he made an
unsuccessful experiment in rabbit farming. But in 1896 he won a
prize offered by the Chicago Record for a novel of mystery and
henceforth devoted his energies to fiction. His novels, 36 in
number, were mostly tales of adventure, some of them historical.
They include The Lake of Wine (1898); From Door to Door
(1900); A Jay of Italy (1905); A Rogue's Tragedy (1906); The
Story of Fifine (1914) and Moll Davis (1916). He published also
a volume of verse. He died at Winchester Nov. 21918.
CAPE TOWN (see 5.252), capital of the Cape province, and
seat of the legislature of the Union of South Africa. In 1913 Cape
Town municipality was greatly enlarged by the absorption of the
suburban municipalities of Green Point and Sea Point, Wood-
stock, Maitland, Mowbray, Rondebosch, Claremont, Kalk Bay
and Muizenberg, with Camps Bay and other adjacent areas.
Cape Town thus extends across the Cape Peninsula from Table
Bay to False Bay a distance of 17 m. and covers an area of
over 59 sq. miles. Wynberg (between Rondebosch and Muizen-
berg), though retaining a separate municipality, is a suburb of
Cape Town. The pop., including suburbs, 170,083 in 1904
(44,203 whites), was 161,579 in 1911 (85,442 whites and 76,137
coloured). In 1918 the white pop. was 99,693; the coloured
(estimate) 82,000.
Business, professional and official life is concentrated in Cape
Town and at the docks. The chief feature of the decade 1910-20
was, however, the development of the suburbs, an enterprise in
which the municipality took the lead. Cape Town in the season
(Oct.-March) is the principal pleasure resort of South Africa.
On the sea front at Table Bay a promenade pier (1,500 ft. long)
and esplanade (1,000 yd.) were completed in 1914. The pier replaces
the old central jetty and is in a line with Adderley Street and Gov-
ernment Avenue, the principal thoroughfares. To the Houses of
Parliament, in Government Avenue, a new wing was added (1910).
At the foot of the Avenue is the site of the National Art Gallery.
The Max Michaelis collection of Flemish and Dutch masters
including examples of Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Jan Steen and
Vandyck presented to the Union Government in 1912, is in "the
Old Town House," in Greenmarket Square. The building, a fine
example of colonial Dutch 18th-century architecture, was trans-
ferred to the Government in 1916.
Rondebosch, 5 m. from the centre of the city, is the chief residen-
tial suburb. It contains Groote Schuur, formerly the property of
Cecil Rhodes; since 1910 the official residence of the Prime Minister
of the Union. In 1918 on the incorporation of the South African
College (founded at Cape Town 1829) as the university of Cape
Town, a site for new buildings to replace those in the centre of the
CAPITALISM
565
city was granted in the grounds of Groote Schuur ; 500,000 towards
buildings and endowment being provided mainly from bequests by
Sir Julius Wernher and Mr. Alfred Beit. In 1912 a Rhodes memo-
rial was unveiled at Groote Schuur by Earl Grey (a former director
of the Chartered Company). In front of the memorial, a granite
temple in the Doric style approached by a flight of steps, is the
equestrian statue of " Physical Energy " by G. F. Watts. In the
temple is a bust of Rhodes. Not far from Rondebosch, at Kirsten-
bosch, are the National Botanical Gardens, established 1913. In
Oct. 1918 Cape Town suffered from a great epidemic of influenza,
7,000 dqaths occurring in three weeks. In the autumn of 1919
influenza, but in a milder form, again ravaged the city.
Cape Town has since 1913 ranked second in importance to
Durban among South African seaports, but it is first for passenger
traffic. The shortage of shipping did not greatly affect Cape Town
until 1918. In that year the total tonnage of cargo landed, shipped
and transhipped at Table Bay was 1,070,000, the average for the
three previous years being over 1,440,000 tons. In 1918 the net
tonnage of shipping entering Cape Town was 2,347,000 British,
1,662,224; foreign, 684,776. In 1919 British shipping had increased
to 2,253,000 net tons, while foreign shipping fell to 424,000 net tons.
In 1918 the ratable valuation of Cape Town was 21,258,000,
municipal revenue 778,000 and indebtedness 4,893,000. In 1919
the ratable valuation was 23,343,000.
Direct communication with the railways of the S.W. Protec-
torate (ex-German S.W. Africa) was opened in 1915 and in 1918
the railway going north had reached Lualaba (Upper Congo) at
Bukama, a distance of 2,598 m. from Cape Town without break of
gauge. An aerodrome on the trans-Africa air route was laid out at
Young Field, Wynberg, in 1919, and the first airmen to cross the
length of Africa, Lieut. -Col. Sir H. A. Van Ryneveld and Flight-
Lieut. Sir C. J.Q. Brand, arrived at Wynberg on March 20 1920.
A wireless station at Slang Kop, 18 m. S. of Table Bay, was opened
in 1911. It has a normal range of 450 m. by day and 1,500 by night.
CAPITALISM. The meaning of " capital, " in economics, is
analyzed in the earlier article under that heading (5.278). But
the working of " capitalism " or the " capitalistic system,"
as such, had by 1921 become so highly controversial a question
as to require here more detailed examination.
The term " capitalism " is generally applied to the system
under which the instruments of production are the property of
private owners, who usually employ managers and manual work-
ers to carry out production by their means. By production we
must include, if this definition is to be correct, the whole of the
process by which raw materials are brought to the place of
manufacture and worked up into manufactured goods, and the
manufactured goods are then distributed to the places where
they are wanted and sold to the final consumer through the
hands of retailers. The instruments of production thus include
not only the land, factories, tools and machinery, and other
equipment used in actual manufacture, but the railways, ships
and other means of transport, and the warehouses and shops
through which the goods finally pass to the consumer.
Private Ownership. Private ownership of the instruments of
production has not been universal in man's economic history,
but it has been generally adopted by progressive communities.
When " Adam delved and Eve span," they were " capitalists "
in the sense of owning a spade and spinning-wheel and using
them for purposes of production; but they used these tools them-
selves and for the purposes of supplying their own needs. And
at a very primitive stage of society, this simply individualistic
system by which the capitalist used his own tools and worked
for his own needs may be presumed to have been common.
When, however, by the development of a wider society the
division of labour and the exchange of goods between one mem-
ber and another of the community began to be practised, the
new feature arose by which the producer made and grew goods
not only for his own use, but to be exchanged for goods grown
or produced by others; and consequently he had to produce
something which somebody else wanted if he wished to provide
for his own needs to his own satisfaction. Thus we find in the
Middle Ages artificers and craftsmen owning their own tools,
that is to say, their own capital equipment, and working to pro-
duce articles such as armour, farming implements and clothes
which they exchanged in return for the food produced by the
farmers who would only take the goods produced by the arti-
ficers if they were of a kind which pleased their fancy. It is
important to note at the outset that the capitalist, whether he
works with his capital or sets others to work with it, must in-
variably direct the work done so as to suit the wishes of a buyer
which may or may not be expressed before the making of the
article is begun. Capitalism, in the sense of a private ownership of
tools and equipment, thus dates from the earliest organization
of human economic activity. As soon as a savage had given
time and labour to fashioning a weapon with which he could
more easily kill or catch animals that he hunted for food or
clothing, he had become a capitalist; he had made something
which would help him to provide for his own needs and those of
his dependents more easily, or by which he could more easily
acquire commodities which he could exchange against those
owned by other members of his tribe. But capitalism in the
modern sense, and as defined above, is usually said to date from
the last quarter of the i8th century, when what is called the
" Industrial Revolution " began, and by the inventions of machin-
ery and the use of steam industry was reorganized on a new basis.
Capitalist and Worker. Owing to these developments it was
no longer possible for the workman using his own tools and
working in his own home to compete with workmen who were
assembled in a great factory and worked with machinery which
it would not have been possible for their collective resources to
buy. Thus arose the distinction between the worker and the
capitalist, which had in effect already made considerable prog-
ress before the introduction of machinery, but was so rapidly
developed after it that modern capitalism is usually so dated.
By this system the worker, by which is generally meant the
manual worker, is said to have been divorced from the owner-
ship of his tools. The scale of industrial organization became so
great that it was only possible for men of great means, or for a
collection of people of considerable means, to provide the neces-
sary land, factories and equipment for its working, and also to
buy the large quantities of raw material required, to pay the
wages of the multitude of workers and managers, and to finance
the other expenses -during the process of production and up till
the time of payment by the final purchaser.
Originally it was usual for the owners of these factories, whether
individuals or small bodies working in partnership, to act as
managers of the whole concern. The capitalist was at once owner
of the factory and machinery, provided the money needed for
the financing of the industrial process, and managed and organ-
ized the whole enterprise. He was responsible for buying raw
materials, paying wages and selling the product to the greatest
possible advantage to the other capitalists, merchants and middle-
men, who passed it on until it reached the final consumer; he,
singly or in partnership, took all the risk of loss involved if the
product failed to suit the caprices of the buying public, and took
all the profit, if any, that was earned from the enterprise. This
profit thus included interest on his money invested, the pay-
ment of his salary as organizer and manager, and any extra
bonus which his skill might enable him to earn as compensation
for the risks run.
Joint Stock System. As industry developed on a still greater
scale it was not possible for this comparatively simple organiza-
tion to be maintained. When it became a question of building
railways, requiring hundreds of millions to finance them, no
individual or partnership could supply the necessary funds,
and so the joint stock system, which had already been developed
on a small scale in mediaeval times, was extended so successfully
to industry that the greater part of our industrial activity is now
carried on by means of joint stock companies, the extension of
which was enormously facilitated by the introduction of the
principle of limited liability. Thus the position of the capitalist
has become still further defined and differentiated. It is cer-
tainly probable that the managers of most of our great industrial
concerns hold a certain number of shares in the business which
they conduct, and to that extent may be described as capitalists,
but the two functions are now quite distinct. The capitalist pure
and simple lends money to industry or invests it in industry,
using industry in the widest sense of the word to include trans-
port and commerce. The actual management is carried on by
officials appointed specially for this purpose under the supervision
5 66
CAPITALISM
of a committee of the shareholders who are called directors, who
are paid comparatively small fees for the usually rather nominal
supervision which they exercise over the more highly paid work
of the managers and staff, and for guiding the financial policy
of the company with regard to dividend distributions and so on.
The capitalist is either a creditor or a shareholder in the com-
pany which is formed by public subscription to carry on the in-
dustry in question; all that he does is to lend to industry the
money which is essential in order that the industry may acquire
all the tools, machinery, buildings, raw materials and other
equipment necessary for carrying on the work, and to pay the
wages of the wage-earners and managers during the initial
period before the company's operations have produced some-
thing that can be sold to supply money for wages, the purchase
of further raw materials, and the upkeep of the plant. The bus-
iness of management is carried on by highly paid experts, and
the capitalist's sole claim to a share in the earnings of the com-
pany is based on the fact that he has provided the money which
was essential for its beginning and for its further growth. He
earns his reward first by placing this money at the disposal of
industry instead of spending it on his own immediate enjoyment;
and secondly by risking the loss of part or the whole of his money
if the industry should fail.
Capital Financing. A highly ingenious machinery has been
developed for the provision of money for industry and commerce
by the process of investment in the securities of public companies,
and for the turning of these securities back into money by their
sale in markets known as stock exchanges. Joint stock companies
are formed either to carry out some new enterprise, or work some
new process, or to take over an existing business which has
hitherto been carried on by private partners. An appeal is there-
fore made to the public to subscribe to the securities into which
what is called the company's capital is divided. As so often
happens in these matters of business, great confusion arises
owing to the use of the same word in different senses: the capital
of industry has hitherto been referred to in the course of this
article as the tools, buildings, and other equipment by which
industry works; but the capital of a company generally means
the money that it receives from those who subscribe to the se-
curities that it offers. If we take the case of a company formed
to work a coal mine, and suppose that the original promoters
consider that 2,000,000 will be necessary for them to make a
proper start on the enterprise, then these two millions will be the
original capital of the company, subscribed to it by investors
who receive, in return for their money, securities which give
them claims upon it for interest, dividends and repayment either
at a fixed date or in the event of the company's liquidation.
These claims take the form of securities issued by the company.
They would probably be divided into several categories; there
will be a debenture stock, perhaps carrying mortgage rights and
entitling the holders to a fixed rate of interest, and most prob-
ably to repayment in full or at a premium at some future date.
In case of default in payment of their interest or repayment of
the sums promised at the due date, the debenture-holders would
be entitled to take over the property and put it in the hands of a
receiver. They are thus not shareholders in the company but
its creditors, and, strictly, securities issued in this form of a mort-
gage or debenture are not part of a company's capital but its
debt. Ordinary business parlance, however, usually includes
mortgages and debentures as part of capital. The share capital
is usually divided into preference and ordinary, the preference
shareholder being entitled to a fixed rate of interest which has
to be paid to him before the ordinary shareholders receive any-
thing. This preference right among English companies is usually
what is called cumulative, that is to say, if the preference dividend
is not paid in any year all arrears have to be paid before the
ordinary shareholders receive any return on their investment.
In America, however, where the term " preferred " rather than
" preference " is more usual, this cumulative right is not so
common as it is in England; in some cases also preference share-
holders are entitled to a further participation in profits after
a certain rate of dividend has been paid to the ordinary share-
holders. The ordinary shareholders as a rule take what is left
of the profits after the claims of debenture-holders and preference
shareholders have been satisfied. If the company is successful
they thus earn higher rates on their investments than go to the
holders of other forms of securities. If the company fails they
receive little or no profit, and the claims of the mortgage and
preference shareholders have to be satisfied in full before the
ordinary shareholders get any of their capital back in case of
liquidation. Almost infinite variations, however, are performed
on the theme of capital arrangements, with income debentures,
cumulative ordinary shares with a fixed rate of dividend, de-
ferred shares, founders' shares and so on. And some companies
issue no securities except ordinary shares or stock.
By this ingenious system the amount of risk involved by
industrial investments can be varied to suit the taste of the
individual investor, but generally with the result that the less
risk he takes the less return he is entitled to on his investment.
The holder of a debt which is a first charge on a long-standing
and well-managed industrial or transport concern comes as near
as he can to eliminating risk altogether from an industrial in-
vestment. It consequently follows that this kind of security is
originally issued and is dealt in on the markets of the world on
terms which give their subscribers or purchasers a comparatively
low rate of interest. The preference shareholder, who is not as
well secured as the debenture-holder, but ranks before the ordi-
nary holder, also stands midway between them in the matter of
risk and the matter of return. Before the World War, for ex-
ample, if a well-known English brewery company were appealing
to the public for subscriptions it would probably have been able
to issue its debenture stock in return for a promise of 4% to
45 %, its preference shares on the basis of 5 % to 6 %, while its
ordinary shares, if they were to expect a ready response from the
public, would have had to show a probable return of 7 % or 8 %.
When the prospectus has been issued and the public sub-
scription has been carried out, the securities offered are then
quoted on the Stock Exchange at prices which will vary with
the opinion held concerning the present and prospective prosper-
ity of the company, and also in accordance with the general rate
ruling for the use of money, which varies like the price of every-
thing else in accordance with supply and demand. At a time
when there is a great demand for capital for the development of
new and old enterprises all over the world the rates that have
to be offered in order to tempt subscribers will be forced up
by competition, and consequently the price of existing securities
will tend to fall owing to sales by their holders, who are tempted
by the more alluring rates offered by new ventures. If, on the
other hand, enterprise is slack and new creations of capital are
comparatively rare, then the pressure of accumulating savings
for investment in existing securities will force their prices up
and so lower the rate of return which an investor may expect.
By this means capitalism has devised a highly efficient machin-
ery through the mechanism of the Stock Exchange by which any-
one who has lent money to industry, as conducted by an ordinary
joint stock company, is able in normal times to realize his holdings
and turn them into cash by sale on the stock markets. If the
company in which he has invested has been successful and is
fulfilling, or more than fulfilling, the anticipations held out in its
prospectus, he will be able to sell his holdings at a comfortable
profit, especially if he is an ordinary shareholder. The prices of
securities with a fixed rate of interest or dividend naturally
fluctuate less than those of the ordinary shares, but even in their
case the success or failure of the company has a very considerable
influence upon the price for which they would be sold. Many
popular securities have a world-wide market and can be dealt in
in all the financially civilized countries; and this development
of securities readily marketable at publicly quoted prices has
been a great assistance to the growth of international banking.
Freedom of Enterprise. By the development of this machinery
it is possible for the association of small contributions by a large
number of people with comparatively small means to carry out
enterprises on a colossal scale, and to pour the stream of invest-
ment into all the countries of the earth, .fertilizing its backward
CAPITALISM
567
places and bringing forth a vigorous crop of goods and services
and making the world into one great market united by the bonds
of industry and finance. In many large industrial companies
nowadays, shares of i each or less are now issued, and in this
way capitalism has been democratized to an extent which a
hundred years ago would have been thought quite incredible.
Enormous enterprises, the most obvious example of which are
the Egyptian pyramids, have been carried out in the past by
means of slave labour employed by tyrants; and the Roman
roads and aqueducts are another example of what could be done
by the application of state management to a highly disciplined
people. But the most notable achievement of modern capitalism
is that it has vastly increased the productive power of mankind
by making use of the resources of thousands of individuals volun-
tarily subscribing their money in the hope of profit which can
only be earned if the consuming public will voluntarily buy the
goods and services produced. Thus capitalism is essentially based
on freedom the freedom of the subscriber in risking his money,
and the freedom of the consumer in giving or withholding his
custom and the profit that it makes possible. It opens its pocket
freely sometimes too freely to anyone who can persuade it
that an enterprise is likely to be profitable. Under it the way
is open from the bottom of the ladder to the top for those who
have the diligence, determination, capacity, and luck to climb;
and they can climb only by producing something that will fetch
a good price in the market of their fellow-creatures' needs and
desires. The freedom of capitalism is thus limited by the con-
sumers' veto. It can only succeed by pleasing the ultimate buyer
and cooperating with the consumer by satisfying his needs.
Prejudice against Capitalism. Nevertheless, capitalism is per-
haps now more virulently criticized than any other human in-
stitution, largely owing to the belief that it involves robbery of
the wage-earning classes by those who place the means of pro-
duction at their disposal and pay them wages for working upon
them. The prejudice against capitalism could not be as wide as
it is unless there were some foundation for it; and in the first
half century in which modern capitalism was active the exploita-
tion of the wage-earners through low wages, long hours, dis-
graceful working conditions and ruthless dismissal at any time
when it seemed more profitable to the employers to reduce out-
put, was carried on to an extent which is now seen to have been
criminal. This seems to be the reason for the astonishing hold
which the works of Karl Marx have exercised upon those of the
wage-earners who are attracted by his revolutionary doctrines.
It is admitted by Marx's most fervent admirers that most of his
theories were wrong, that many of his assertions were incorrect,
and that most of his forecasts have been proved to be baseless.
But the fact remains that he was able to describe a state of
things in English industry on the authority of official documents
which was entirely disgraceful; and the wage-earners, who prob-
ably seldom study his works but usually rely upon a summary
of their contents, find that with regard to the exploitation of the
worker he has a solid basis of facts which are known to them by
the tradition they have received from their forbears who worked
under the miserable conditions that he describes.
It need not be said that since the middle of the igth century
there has been a very great change in this respect, thanks to
Factory Acts, the growing strength of the trade unions and a
more humane and sensible spirit among the employers; and it is
interesting to consider why it should be that the employers of
the first half of the igth century, most of whom were probably
quite human and kindly people who thought that they were
doing their best according to their lights, should have treated
those who worked for them in a manner which now seems to us
so inhuman. In the first place, we must remember that a very
large number of them in those days were men who had risen
from the ranks and had themselves had to suffer the hardships
which they imposed on others, and, since they had come through
them successfully, did not see any reason why anything better
should be done for those who worked under them. But a further
excuse has to be found for the men of noble lineage and high
intellectual attainment, who also suffered barbarities to be perpe-
trated in the mines and factories which they owned; and this ex-
cuse is provided by the pessimistic utterances of economists such
as Adam Smith, Malthus and Ricardo, who stated or implied
that the pay of the wage-earners could not rise above the level
required to maintain them as efficient workers; and that any
attempt to improve their condition would simply lead to an
increase in their number by procreation which would inevitably
defeat the efforts of those who tried to improve their lot. With
doctrines such as this in the air, and expounded by high author-
ity, there is some reason to excuse wickedness or mistakes which
have cost the industrial world dear by the legacy of bitterness
and suspicion which they have left behind.
Capitalism and Wages. It is also true that too many modern
capitalists are still apt to resent any attempt on the part of the
wage-earners to improve their lot by demanding better wages
and shorter hours of work, and do not seem able to perceive
how entirely short-sighted such resentment is. When the wage-
earners are confronted, every time they ask for an improvement,
by demonstrations on the part of capitalists that its granting
would immediately ruin the industry in which they are concerned,
and when nevertheless they insist upon the improvement and
then find that the industry is by no means ruined but goes ahead
to fresh prosperity, it is natural and inevitable that the wage-
earners should be filled with a deep distrust of any statement
made by their employers concerning what is and what is not
possible to be granted by industry. And it is not only owing to
this distrust and bitterness that this policy on the part of em-
ployers has been short-sighted. They might have recognized
that for all the great staple commodities the wage-earning classes
are already, and will be to an increasing degree, the most im-
portant consumers; and therefore that those who are engaged in
making any product of general use will find it to their own inter-
est that the general level of wages should be high so that there
should be a good and steady demand for the product which they
have to sell. It may be true from the point of view of the next
balance sheet that it will pay any individual employer to pay as
low wages as possible to his workmen, but he ought to recognize
that what he needs is that all the workers in all other industries
should be paid as well as possible and that he, by paying his own
workers low, is doing what he can to depress the general level and
so defeat his own objects in securing a market. This is quite
apart from the wider question how far low wages involve cheap
production. Up to a point, and as long as the wage-earners can
be induced to give a fair day's work in return for their wage,
experience has shown especially in America that high wages
are an important item in cheapening production. Lately, and
especially since the war, experience has shown that increases of
wages have been followed by absenteeism on the part of the
workers, and slack work while they are at work. Up to this
point it should be the ambition of enlightened employers to pay
the highest wages that the industry can stand. Capitalism in-
creases its own efficiency and those of its wage-earners up to the
point at which it enables them to improve their health and
efficiency by paying higher wages; but when, as sometimes
happens, the wage-earner simply has no use for any increase in
his money receipts, then higher wages merely mean that he
works fewer days in the week. The only remedy for this dead-
lock seems to be the education of the worker in the habit of
accumulating for himself out of any surplus that he earns. If the
wage-earners could thus be induced by accumulation to become
capitalists themselves, it is possible that an improvement, the
extent of which it is quite impossible to measure, might be
secured in the relations between labour and capital.
Charges Examined. If then we admit, as we must, that the
early days of modern capitalism were marked by serious injustice
inflicted on the manual workers, and that even to-day employers
are much too ready to resist demands on the part of labour for
improvements in its conditions, it must at the same time be
remembered that these faults in the working of capitalism do not
necessarily imply any essential injustice in the system or any
blots upon it which cannot be improved out of existence. If
the early employers, taking advantage of the unorganized state
568
CAPITALISM
of their workers, paid them too low for too long working days
under working conditions which were a disgrace, it is also true
that these conditions are in most industries, especially the best
organized and most prosperous industries, a thing of the past.
Moreover, the charge against capitalism, brought against it by
the most extreme of its critics, is not merely that it has been in
the past or is now unjust to those who work for it in the matter
of hours and wages, but that the whole system is essentially
based upon robbery, that the whole product of industry is really
due to the exertions of labour, and that any interest or profit
taken by the capitalist is necessarily a form of robbery. It is not
a question of degree that the capitalist has taken more than he
is entitled to but that the capitalist is not entitled to take any-
thing at all, and that anything he takes is essentially a theft.
Labour's Capacity. For this contention it is very difficult to
find any real ground either in fact or in theory. Labour, in the
sense of manual labour, by itself can effect nothing. Put down
the most skilful hand-worker on a bare piece of ground and he
cannot produce anything out of it until he has made himself
tools and so become a capitalist ; and, in the meantime, he would
somehow have to feed himself on any roots that he could dig up,
or any wild animals that he might be able to kill. Even if we
include under labour the brain-workers and organizers, it re-
mains true that any body of skilled workers, organized as well
as possible under the most skilful management, would be equally
ineffective without the assistance of the factory, tools, and other
equipment which have to be supplied out of capital, that is to say
out of the accumulation of past savings, before they can produce
effectively. Labour by itself can effect nothing industrially or
commercially; labour plus management is equally powerless.
Capital by itself is, of course, in exactly the same position. Any-
one who through the possession of capital owns a large supply
of raw materials, and the necessary land, factory and equipment,
can make nothing out of them without efficient management
and efficient manual labour. These truisms are usually acknowl-
edged by the extremist advocates of labour's claim to what is
called the whole of its product. They admit that labour must
have machinery and tools to work with ; but Mr. Philip Snowden,
for instance, the English Labour M.P., has contended that " the
existence of a rich class who do no labour is the conclusive proof
of the claim that labour does not receive all that labour creates,
but that a surplus over and above the wages of labour is ap-
propriated in some way and some form by those who do no work."
But this argument begs the whole question by assuming that
" labour creates " all that labour produces with the help of
machinery. It seems to be based on a confusion of mind which
imagines that because the machinery and equipment by them-
selves can produce nothing, therefore, those who work them
and make them efficient are entitled to everything that is pro-
duced by their own efforts assisted by the machinery. In fact the
existence of the machinery, which has been provided by the
poss.ibly idle capitalist, enables the manual workers to produce
goods of an immeasurably greater volume and value than they
could turn out without it. If labour is entitled to the whole of its
product, as it surely is, it is also true that labour gets the whole
of its product and a very great deal more, because, owing to the
assistance given it by the machinery and equipment provided
by capital, it is able to produce a very much greater volume of
goods, and the bargain between it and capital results in its being
better off than it could have been without capitalism's assistance.
To take an obvious example, let us suppose a man in a prim-
itive stage of society to have hit on the idea of making a spade,
and so greatly increasing his own production of food. If he then
makes a second spade and lends it to a friend, enabling the latter
to multiply his production and charging him a portion of the in-
creased food for the use of the spade, then we see a rough analogy
of the bargain which under capitalism is struck between cap-
ital and labour. In this case the friend who borrows the spade
works for the capitalist who lent it, but he also works for himself.
By the use of the spade his production is multiplied manifold;
and to argue that he is entitled to take the whole amount of
what he produces with the assistance of the spade, and that the
man who invented and lent him the spade robs him by taking
part of the increased production which it brings into being, is
surely an example of astonishingly distorted logic. At the same
time it has to be remembered that those who claim the whole
product of industry for the manual workers can say that all the
factories, means of transport, tools and machinery have actually
been erected or produced by manual labour. But this manual
labour, and the skill which organized it, were paid to produce
these instruments by owners of wealth who were prepared to
risk it on these objects. All these forms of the equipment of
industry only came into being and increased the numbers and
welfare of the whole community because some of those who con-
trolled wealth when they were first invented used it to secure their
manufacture and production instead of upon their own immediate
enjoyment. At any time the future development of any country
or community depends upon the extent to which its members
are prepared to postpone immediate enjoyment to the provision of
equipment for its further progress. If some of our ancestors had
not made investments in industry in the past, and so equipped
the world with all the machinery of industry and commerce,
probably not half of us would now have been alive. Interest and
profit are thus the reward paid for successful investment in the
means of life in the results of which we all share.
Means of Production. Critics of the capitalistic system are,
at first sight, on firmer ground when they argue that it is wrong
that anybody should possess, by the ownership of private wealth,
this responsibility for the future development of the country
or community; that injustice arises because private ownership
makes it difficult and sometimes impossible for those who want to
work to secure access to the means of production, and that a
more equitable basis would be arrived at if all the means of
production were owned by the state, or by some other public
body, or, as is now contended by the syndicalists and guild
socialists, by the industries which employ them organized into
an all-embracing trade union or guild.
There can be no question that the existence of private property
in the means of production does involve hardships and difficulties
for those members of the community who do not happen to be
born into the possession of property, or of the kind of qualities
which enable them to acquire it rapidly. To such people, the
ordinary unskilled workers, it must naturally seem unjust that
if the kind and quantity of work that they offer to any private
employer is not needed, some of them find great difficulty in
earning a livelihood for themselves and their dependents. And
the question that we have to consider is whether the hardships
involved to a comparatively small number of the less fortunate
members of the community are balanced by the advantages to
the community as a whole involved by the working of the capi-
talistic system. Under that system anybody who by ingenuity
and energy can earn more than his fellows is enabled and encour-
aged to do so and to devote his accumulations to the furtherance
of industry by putting them out at interest, or engaging them in
enterprises from which he hopes for profit. There is consequently
a continued stimulus for activity and exertion, and it must always
be remembered that this activity and exertion can only be suc-
cessful if it produces something with which the community, as a
whole, or a sufficient number of its members who are in a position
to buy goods and services, are satisfied.
Thus, by this stimulus, the wants of the community have been
continually considered and cared for by its most enterprising
members, who are urged to do so by the hope of gaining profit.
If this stimulus were taken away.it is at least possible that prog-
ress would be very greatly retarded and that the interests of the
community, as a whole, especially those of its poorest members,
would be seriously affected. It has to be admitted that the
wants of the community are not always wholly sensible and are
very often marked by highly questionable taste. These draw-
backs are surely to be best amended by the education of the
community to a more sensible and tasteful use of the power that
it has by its decision, through the manner in which it spends its
money, concerning the goods and services which are turned out
by industry. If the decision as to what is to be produced is to be
CAPITALISM
569
in the hands of a bureaucratic committee, as under state social-
ism, or of a guild or trade union committee, as it would apparent-
ly be under guild socialism or syndicalism, then it is perhaps
possible, though highly doubtful, that the objects on which the
productive enterprise of the community would be exercised
might be more sensible and tasteful; but the general members of
the community, having no power of choice, would not be exercis-
ing sense or good taste, but would merely be taking, whether they
liked them or no, goods and services provided by the decision of
an outside body.
Advances under Capitalism. A more serious doubt arises
whether under any alternative system that has yet been suggested
the actual needs and necessities of the community would be suc-
cessfully met. We have to admit that under capitalism there has
existed and still exists a great deal of destitution and poverty
which are serious blots on the success of the system. On the
other hand, anybody who takes even a superficial and cursory
view of the productive progress of the last century and a half
under modern capitalism must admit that an enormous advance
has been secured. There is no need here to enumerate all the
miraculous inventions by which man's power over nature has
been increased, and his productive capacity has been enormously
multiplied. The extent of these powers was only fully realized
when the World War came, and, in spite of the view expressed
by some economists that a modern continental war could not
last more than a few months because the economic strain would
be too great, it was nevertheless possible to carry the war on for
more than four years, to develop the production of lethal weap-
ons during its course on a scale which has never heretofore been
dreamt of, to feed and clothe the armies in the field much better
than armies in the field had been fed and clothed before, and,
at the same time, at least in England, to increase the standard
of comfort of the greater part of the population. These achieve-
ments were in fact only carried out by making drafts to some
extent upon the capital resources of the countries engaged, as,
for example, when England sold back to the United States her
investments in American railway bonds in exchange for food
and munitions of war, which she was importing from America.
But, when full allowance has been made on this score, the fact
remains that the World War demonstrated a growth of pro-
ductive capacity which had not been suspected until the supreme
test aroused the energies of all the chief nations of the world.
But, apart from this astonishing effort at a time of crisis, we
may take the prosaic facts of the last half of the igth century as
quoted by acknowledged champions of socialism. Mr. Sidney
Webb, in his Industrial Democracy, speaks of " the past fifty
years' rise in the condition of the English wage-earning class."
Mr. Snowden, in his Socialism and Syndicalism, says that accord-
ing to official figures between 1850 and 1900 the wages of the
working classes in England had risen by 78 %, and at the same time
there had been a fall in the prices of wholesale commodities of
11%. This is surely a wonderful achievement which has to be
granted as practical evidence of the efficiency of the capitalistic
system, and of the extent to which its benefits were being shared
with those who did its manual labour.
Mr. Snowden objected that the prices of wholesale commodities
are not the best possible test of the buying power of the wage-
earners, and that certain articles which they use had in fact
risen. This may be so, but nevertheless the very great advance
in actual money wages, accompanied by a quite appreciable
reduction in the prices of many articles of general consumption,
is a stubborn fact. This, indeed, Mr. Snowden to some extent
admits, but he goes on to argue that this progress had stopped
at the beginning of the 2oth century, and that the tendency had
then become permanent by which the share of the wage-earners
in the product of industry was actually going backwards. This
was certainly true in the first few years of the century, since the
rise in wages, which still continued, did not quite keep pace with
the rise in general prices. But Mr. Snowden's contention that
this tendency was permanent was merely an assumption which
might easily have been proved false even if the war had not hap-
pened. As we all remember, the World War came at a time when
the manual workers of England were preparing a great attempt
to improve their position, and there is every reason to assume that
this attempt would have been successful. In any case, the war
came and the general position of labour was certainly improved
during its course. Since the war, the struggle between wages and
prices to keep up with one another has been somewhat difficult,
but it may at least be contended that this has been due not to
an essential fault in capitalism, but because the wage-earners
thought fit to restrict output in a mistaken belief that they would
thereby resist any attempt to force them back to the pre-war
standard, which they were rightly determined to avoid.
We have also to remember that under the sway of capitalism
this very considerable improvement in the wage-earners' lot has
been carried out in spite of an enormous increase in population.
If it be admitted that the general standard of life before the
World War was not all that it should be, it must also be admitted
that the gift of life and all that life involves had been showered
upon millions of people in all the economically civilized countries
of the world, who could not have come into being if it had not
been for the great increase of wealth under capitalism.
Weakness of the Alternatives. One of the strongest arguments
in favour of the present capitalistic system is the weakness shown
by any system with which its critics would propose to replace it.
State socialism has long been before the public as an alternative
to the private ownership of capital. If it could be worked its
economic advantages would be considerable, because it would
mean that the state would own all the means of production and
so would be the sole purchaser and the sole organizer and the
sole distributor. The state would, therefore, decide what the
needs of the community were, and how much work had to be done
to provide them, and would set the members of the community
to work to provide these things. All the waste involved by com-
petition and advertisement would be saved, and all the mistakes
in production would be avoided, which now arise because those
who organize production have to try to foresee and forestall
the needs of the public. The state would say what work each one
of us was to do and what goods each one of us was to consume.
If it were really possible that under this system we should work
as well as we work now, there can be no doubt that the business
of supplying the community's needs, as interpreted by the state,
would be free from many of the joltings and jarrings which now
often put the industrial machinery to some extent out of gear.
But, in the first place, there is the enormously important question
whether such a system could work at all whether in fact the
ordinary human being, as he is to-day, would be prepared to
work at the bidding of the state, on conditions laid down by
the state, with anything like the enthusiasm and readiness
with which people work nowadays with the prospect of securing
profit and advantage to themselves. Even if it be true that the
great majority of commonplace people, who do not at present
work with much enthusiasm or energy because they know that
their own chance of achieving striking success is remote, would
work for the state as well (or as indifferently) as they work now
for private employers, there is very considerable doubt whether
the more stirring spirits who think they can see their way to
fortune in present circumstances if they work for it with deter-
mination, would put anything like the same vigour into work
that they did for the state; it is upon the energy and readiness
to take risks of this comparatively small body of stirring spirits
in the community that economic progress really depends. If
we stifle the incentives which now spur them to take risks and
try experiments in the hope of fresh opportunities of profit,
there is grave danger not only that the economic progress of the
community might be checked, but that its whole economic
organization might fall into decay and slothfulness, and that any
attempt to improve or expand might be met with the same cold
and unreceptive stare that now usually greets any new suggestion
that comes up before officials of government departments. It
might be possible in time to produce a set of officials who would
be as ready and eager to promote the economic efficiency of the
community as are the present captains of industry stirred by the
incentive of profit. But past experience does not show that there
570
CAPITALISM
is much hope of this happening, at any rate for many years,
and in the meantime any community which subjected itself to
state socialism might find itself very much worse off. It is true
that during the World War great feats were achieved by govern-
ment departments in organizing the supply of food and of war
munitions, but they were achieved because the spirit of the na-
tion was stirred to meet the most momentous crisis in its history;
and because government departments were able to rely upon
the assistance and experience of a large number of men who
came to work in them, who had been trained in the school of
practical business based on the incentive of private profit. And
even so, these official achievements during the war were only
carried out at a cost which the country could not possibly have
stood except for a comparatively short time; they also involved
continual friction between government departments and the
wage-earners whom they employed, and their general results
were so unsatisfactory that it is now a commonplace, even among
labour leaders who are most anxious to nationalize industry, that
whatever happens " bureaucratic control " must not be allowed
to take charge. " Government departments are in the worst of
bad odours just now, and nothing which seemed to involve an
extension of bureaucracy would have a chance at the polls "
so writes Mr. Gerald Gould, one of the latest exponents of
socialist ambitions, in The Coming Revolution in Great Britain,
published in 1920. How it is possible to organize nationalized
industry without bureaucratic control has not yet been shown.
Nationalization. The nearest attempt at solving this problem
is made by the syndicalists and guild socialists, who do so by
giving the nation remarkably little to say in the conduct of
industry. Syndicalism in fact seems, as far as one can make out
from the shadowy sketches that are obtainable of the desires of
its champions, to ignore the state altogether. It proposes that
the workers in any industry should seize the industry's capital
equipment for themselves and work it for themselves. It is
difficult to see how such a scheme could possibly be worked in
practice. With each industry its own master there does not seem
to be any means of arriving at any common denominator for the
exchange of their products, that is to say, of arriving at a price,
and the question of the provision of further capital seems to have
been left out altogether. Guild socialism seems to be an attempt
to reconcile syndicalism and state socialism and to arrive at a
working compromise by a compound of the two. Unfortunately,
its schemes as at present expounded seem rather more likely to
suffer from a mixture of the drawbacks of both systems. The
guild socialists consider that the capital equipment of industry
should be owned by the state, but that the whole organization
of industry, the decision as to what is to be produced, and the
control of the product, are to be in the hands of those who work
in it with brain or with hand. Here again we have the difficulty
as to how we are to arrive at a means of exchange between one
guild and another. If the shirt-making guild thinks that its
members ought to get a pair of boots in exchange for two shirts,
while the boot-making industry thinks that a pair of boots ought
to be exchanged for three shirts, who is to decide between them
and what power is to enforce decision? In the exceedingly vague
sketches of the guild systems that have been produced by their
champions, some attempts have been made to answer these
questions. It is suggested that there would have to be a guild
parliament representing all the guilds, a state parliament repre-
senting the consumers, and apparently yet another parliament
which is to settle matters when these two parliaments cannot
agree. Obviously there are materials here for economic chaos.
It is true that if everybody worked with a perfectly angelic spirit
such a system might possibly be able to carry on the work of
production, but if everybody had an angelic spirit any system,
even capitalism, would also be highly successful. But the guild
socialists have to admit that, if any particular guild which was
strong enough chose to hold a pistol at the head of the rest of the
community by refusing to work except on its own terms, serious
difficulty would arise. In fact, some of its more candid advocates
have stated frankly that the wage-earners might conceivably be
a good deal worse off under guild socialism; but they seem to
think that a diminution in their actual control of goods and
comforts would be more than compensated by the greater free-
dom they would enjoy, and by the feeling that they were no
longer working to profit a private capitalist.
Economic Tyranny. How much truth is there in this claim
for the greater freedom to be enjoyed by the wage-earners under
guild socialism? One of the principles on which its champions
most strongly insist is that production and the control of the
product are to be in the hands of the guildsmen themselves, and
that, consequently, they will be able to insist on producing goods
which they think should be produced, rather than goods which
consumers would prefer to consume. One of their champions,
Mr. G. D. H. Cole, even goes so far as to mention the right to
" choose whether they will make well or ill " as one of the things
which must be secured for the workers under guild socialism.
Certainly the right to work well or ill is a very large extension
of freedom of a kind, but is it likely to react in favour of freedom
in the fullest sense of the word? As industry is now organized
under the principle of the division of labour, every one of us
produces or helps to produce one article or fraction of one article,
but we consume hundreds of articles. Economic freedom, that is
to say, freedom to provide ourselves with such goods as we should
like to consume, thus seems to be much more real under capitalism,
which gives us the right to spend our wages and salaries as we
please, than it would be under state socialism or guild socialism.
State socialism would tell us what work to do and what goods
to consume; and guild socialism, though apparently leaving to
us, when once members of a guild, the right to decide along with
our fellows concerning the goods that we will produce, and also
as to whether we will work well or ill, would nevertheless leave
us dependent upon the decisions of the other guilds as to what
kind of goods they chose to produce, and upon the inclination
to work well or to meet our demands with shoddy and ill-made
commodities. Since this is the kind of freedom which is held out
to the wage-earners under these rival systems, there certainly
seems to be good reason why they should think many times
before taking a leap in the dark by adopting them.
Capitalism and Progress. Such are the doubts and difficulties
that face us when we contemplate the practical working of any
alternative so far suggested to capitalism. For it, on the other
hand, we can at least claim that, with all its faults, it has achieved
a marvellous improvement in the command of man over natural
forces; and has produced an enormously greater amount of wealth,
which has been distributed, though in a manner which leaves a
good deal to be desired, over a greatly increased population.
Along with this purely material improvement there has proceeded
a great expansion in education, sanitation and social reform.
Capitalism can certainly lay no direct claim to the whole of this
expansion, a great deal of which has been brought about, in
spite of the opposition of the propertied classes, by a few en-
thusiasts, educational and scientific; but capitalism can fairly
claim that these enthusiasts could not have done their work if
there had not been available the surplus supply of wealth which
was called into being by the efforts of private enterprise working
with the incentive of profit. A noted labour leader has recently
said that capitalism has made England a " C.3 " nation. But
this description is more rhetorical than accurate. England's
achievements by land and sea, during the World War, and like-
wise those of her Allies and enemies, who had also developed
their resources under a capitalistic system, were such as to
astonish those who had anticipated that the drift of the popula-
tions into great towns, and their occupation under sedentary
conditions, would make it difficult to find armies who could fight
with the spirit in which armies fought in former days. In fact,
armies were produced in proportion to the population on a scale
previously undreamt of, and fought an almost continuous battle
for four years, showing unprecedented courage under conditions
that no armies had hitherto been asked to face. The spirit and
physical power of the countries which have grown into material
greatness under the capitalistic system certainly show no sign
of demoralization. At the same time it is true, as has already been
admitted, that the blot of destitution is one which has to be
CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF
57i
erased from the record of capitalism before it can claim to have
produced a system which is really worthy of what is called civili-
zation. If capitalism is to continue it will clearly have to remedy
this evil and others which have already been mentioned. The
leading spirits among those who are interested in its maintenance
are fully aware that these things have to be remedied. In fact
the change of attitude on this point among employers in recent
years almost amounts to a revolution, though there are still too
many obstructive exceptions. Associations formed, for the face-
to-face discussion of these points by employers and employed are
already common, and, on the side of the employers, it is certainly
true that (perhaps under the spur of self-interest) they are earn-
estly trying to repair the weaknesses in the system which they
have to work. Their difficulty is to know what it is that labour
really wants; what concessions can be made which will induce
labour to work the capitalistic system with hearty cooperation.
Improved conditions, higher wages, and greater influence on
problems of management, the best of them are more than ready
to grant if only they can secure in return for them active work
during the time when the manual labourers are engaged on their
job, and the renunciation of the policy of the restriction of out-
put. It would appear from the utterances of those who consider
themselves entitled to speak for labour, such as Mr. Sidney
Webb and Mr. Cole in England, that labour has made up its
mind that it is not going to work in future to put profits into
the pockets of private employers; in other words, it is determined
to end the capitalistic system. Whether the rank and file of
manual workers have really adopted this extreme view may
very well be doubted, but they are extremely likely to adopt it
unless they can be granted greater security. This is certainly
a demand on the part of the manual worker which will have to
be met by capitalism if it is to survive. The anxieties of the
ordinary manual worker, who does not know how soon he may
be told that he is no longer wanted at his job, should always be
present in the minds of the employers, and if the schemes now
being mooted by which every industry should make itself re-
sponsible for its own unemployed can be brought into practical
effect, there can be no doubt that one of the worst evils of
capitalism will have been abolished.
Another reform on which the manual workers seem likely
to insist is a clearer statement of the costs and profits of in-
dustry. At present the accounts published by joint stock com-
panies usually only succeed in making darkness visible. Labour
has so often been misled as to the capacity of industry to stand
concessions to it, that employers will be well advised to produce
a more scientific system of accounting, by which they can be
able to prove to demonstration what the true costs of industry
really are, how much is required for depreciation and upkeep,
how much goes to labour and management and how much is
taken by capital.
As to the sordid ugliness with which capitalism is usually
charged, everyone who has visited an English north-country in-
dustrial town must admit that the system in its craving for
cheap production has ignored many things which make life
tolerable for those who work for it, and has therein shown only
another example of short-sightedness for which it now has to pay.
Even on this point, however, one feels a certain doubt whether
any alternative scheme of state socialism or guild socialism
would provide the community with the necessary leisure and
surplus wealth that could be devoted to the beautification of the
country which adopted it, as is too usually assumed. If every-
body is to have a nice house and live in pleasant surroundings,
production has to be organized so as to be not only comfortable
for those who are engaged in it, but efficient in the matter of out-
put. And, on this subject, as has already been shown, there is
good reason to doubt the efficiency of alternative schemes.
Inherited Wealth. Another of the weaknesses of the capitalistic
system is the power that it gives to owners of wealth to continue
to accumulate it and pass it on to their heirs and assigns, with
the result that a class is created which is able to live in great
luxury on the past efforts of their ancestors, relatives, or friends,
without making any effort to justify their own existence. There
can be no doubt that the existence of these huge fortunes,
accumulating and being passed on, are a source of great bitter-
ness among the classes which do not possess them. Much might
be done to alleviate this bitterness if all the owners of this wealth,
and not only a certain number of them, were careful to make a
more public-spirited use of it. It is true that they owe it to the
work and exertions of others who have passed on this wealth to
them, but this is only partially so. A large part of it they really
owe to the existence of an ordered society providing a market and
outlet for the efforts of those who accumulate the wealth and a
machinery for investing it and reinvesting it, and so increasing
it from generation to generation. From this point of view a
large part of their great wealth they owe to the community in
which they live, and the assumption that it is their own to do
what they like with is a dangerous one which will cost them dear
if put into practice too logically. It is possible, however, that
this evil may be cured, at least to a great extent, by the develop-
ment of death duties and inheritance taxes, which seems likely
to be an increasingly important part of the fiscal arrangements
of civilized nations in time to come. Here again, however, there
is danger that if this remedy is exercised too freely the process
of accumulation which is required to provide the community
with capital for fresh enterprise may be dangerously checked.
For the evil of huge fortunes is balanced by the fact that it is
largely from them that accumulations of new capital on a great
scale are effected; and it is highly dangerous to diminish them
by the use of the fiscal weapon, before the duty of saving and
accumulating has been effectually brought home to those classes
of the community which are now accustomed to spend all that
they earn or receive.
Need of Extended Capitalism by Sailings. The efforts made in
England and America and elsewhere, during the war, to try to
induce everybody to save for victory have had effects which
astonished those who were most closely acquainted with the thrift -
lessness of ordinary human nature (see SAVINGS MOVEMENT).
Long before then the cooperative movement had already devel-
oped a new and very interesting form of capitalism among the
wage-earning classes. Cooperation is sometimes described by its
own champions as an effort directed to the overthrow of private
capitalism, but it is in fact merely a variation of it. Cooperation
assembles the shillings and pounds of the wage-earners and puts
them into productive and distributive industry, especially the
latter, with marked success. The division of the profits is effected
on different lines, those of the retail shops being divided among
the purchasers in accordance with the amount of their purchases.
So far its successes have been won on a somewhat narrow field,
but there is no reason why they should not go ahead at a greatly
accelerated pace as the higher earnings of the workers give them
a larger margin available for saving. If this tendency could be
continued, if good work, rapid production, and high wages could
be accompanied by individually small accumulations of capital
by the great mass of the wage-earners, and if they could thus be
induced to become not only wage-earners but themselves also
capitalists, and if, at the same time, the large capitalists could
be induced to see that the use they make of their incomes and of
their leisure is a matter which concerns the community as well as
themselves, -then it might be possible to arrive at a state of affairs
in which every worker was a capitalist and every capitalist a
worker, and capitalism, shorn of many of its worst evils, might
work miracles of industrial production.
Authorities. Gustav Cassel, The Nature and Necessity of Interest
(1906); Prof. Shield Nicholson, The Revival of Marxism (1920);
Philip Snowden, Socialism and Syndicalism (1913) ; J. Ramsay
Macdonald, The Socialist Movement (1911); G. D. H. Cole, Self-
Government in Industry (1917) ; Reckitt and Bechhofer, The Meaning
of National Guilds (1918, 2nd ed. 1920); Harold Cox, Economic
Liberty (1920) ; H. Withers, The Case for Capitalism (1920) ; Gerald
Gould, The Coming Revolution in Great Britain (1920) ; Hugh Dalton,
The Inequality of Incomes (1920) ; J. G. Brooks, Labor's Challenge to
the Social Order (1920). (H. W.)
CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF. The Italian offensive 1 of Aug-
Sept. 1917 had reduced Boroevic's armies to the limit of resist-
'See generally under ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS.
572
CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF
ance, so much so that, as Ludendorff records, " the responsible
military and political authorities of the Dual Monarchy were
convinced that they would not be able to stand a continuation
of the battle and a twelfth attack on the Isonzo. ... In the
middle of Sept. it became necessary to decide for the attack
on Italy in order to prevent the collapse of Austria-Hungary."
Though the Italian advance on the Bainsizza plateau had
come so near to a definite break through, it had left the Italian
II. Army badly placed for defence. South of Tolmino the Aug.
fighting had bitten out a wide salient on the Bainsizza plateau.
North of Tolmino the Italians were still in the positions they
had occupied early in the campaign, among the mountains on
the left bank of the Isonzo, with comparatively little room
between the trenches and the river. Neither sector of the line
was satisfactory for defence, and on the Bainsizza there had been
little time to make adequate preparations, because of the rocky
nature of the ground. But the real weakness of the situation
was due to the enemy's possession of the Tolmino bridgehead.
The bridgehead itself was strong, as it did not form a salient, the
Austrian line running nearly due N. and S. from the great
ridge of Rudeci Rob (6,250 ft.) by Mrzli and Vodil Vrh to the
high hills of the Lom plateau, N. of the Bainsizza. The bridge-
head was well protected by these flanking bastions, and for this
reason it made an excellent point of departure for an attack.
The ridges in front of it rose steeply, and were strongly held by
the Italians, whose position, however, suffered from two grave
drawbacks. In the first place it was impossible to support the
defence by direct flanking fire against attacking troops; in the
second place, there was little depth in the lines traced on
the Zagradan-Jeza ridge, which fell rapidly to the head of the
Judrio valley and the glens which carry the minor streams
between the Judrio and the Natisone.
There was a clear difference of opinion on the Italian side as
to the best way of meeting the forthcoming attack. Cadorna
was convinced that he had to stand on the defensive, the more
so as he was uncertain in which sector of the Julian front the
chief blow would fall, but his instructions naturally included and
recommended vigorous local counter-attacks. Capello, who
commanded the II. Army, did not like the idea of the defensive.
His army was in the main aligned for attack. Preparations
had been made for a continuation of the offensive which had
been broken off in Sept., and it was not possible, given the
difficulty of communications and the risk of imminent attack,
to take up those positions best adapted for defence. He felt,
in addition, that opposite the Tolmino bridgehead he had little
room for defence, and he was anxious to anticipate the enemy's
move by an attack N.E. from his positions on the Bainsizza
plateau. In this idea he had the support of more than one of
his corps commanders, but Cadorna thought, and it is difficult
to meet his reasoning, that he could not throw in the forces
necessary for such an attack when he was uncertain as to the
direction of the forthcoming blow. His first news from the
enemy side spoke of an attack against his new lines on the
Bainsizza. Later came the report of a more general attack,
" from Plezzo to the sea." The enemy believed that Cadorna
had been deceived by demonstrations made in the Trentino, and
their belief was fortified by news that he was sending guns
westward. But these were the French and British heavy guns
(nearly 200 in number), which had been withdrawn when he
stated that he could not renew his offensive, and a number of
batteries now restored to the Trentino front, which had been
stripped for the earlier fighting.
Cadorna was still preoccupied about the moral of his troops,
and he made careful inquiries on this point, which received very
satisfactory replies. He was especially anxious as the units
which had suffered heavily during the last offensive were but
newly filled with fresh drafts, and he had found reason before
to fear the influence of some of the men fresh from the depots.
But the answers of his corps commanders were thoroughly
reassuring. He had enough men, though a number of his units
were below strength, while others were battle-worn and others
again had suffered much from an intestinal disease that had
been prevalent in the valleys of the Natisone and the Judrio;
and he had enough guns, in spite of the withdrawal of the
Allied artillery, though he would doubtless have been glad of a
larger reserve. Between Monte Rombon and Monte San Gabriele,
Capello had some 2,200 guns and nearly 800 trench mortars.
North of Tolmino the line on the left bank of the Isonzo was
held by Cavaciocchi's IV. Corps, whose left wing held the
Plezzo basin and was in contact with the Carnia Force on
Monte Rombon. Next came Badoglio's XXVII. Corps, whose
left wing, the igth Div., raised to the strength of an army corps,
held the lines opposite Tolmino. The other three divisions
which completed the XXVII. Corps were across the river S. of
the Lom plateau. Behind the 46th and igth Divs., on the
mountains W. of the Isonzo, lay the VII. Corps, newly recon-
stituted with units from other corps, and commanded by Gen.
Buongiovanni. On the right of the XXVII. , holding the line
as far as the Sella di Dol between Monte Santo and Monte San
Gabriele, were Caviglia's XXIV. Corps and Albricci's II. Corps,
each' of three divisions, with the XIV. Corps in immediate
reserve. The Gorizia sector, from Monte Santo to the Vippacco,
was occupied by the VI. Corps (Gatti) and the VIII. (Grazioli).
South of the Vippacco the Duke of Aosta's III. Army had three
corps (seven divisions) in line XL, XIII., and XXIII.
The weak point of the Italian line was the Tolmino sector,
the weakest part of this sector was at the junction of the XXVII.
Corps (igth Div.) with the IV. (46th Div.), and the weakest
position of all was that held by the right of the 46th Div., who
were clinging to the slopes of Mrzli Vrh, completely dominated
by the enemy, and badly off for communications with their
neighbours. The Tolmino sector was chosen for the main enemy
attack, and here, owing to a complex of circumstances, the
Austro-German forces won a success that led to a great Italian
disaster. In anticipation of the main drive in this direction, the
II. Army reserves (XXVIII. Corps and various other units)
were lying N. of Cormons, while three divisions under the
direct control of Cadorna waited between Cormons and Cividale,
at the foot of the valleys that run down S.W. from the threatened
point. A further general reserve consisting of the XXV. (four
divisions) and XXX. Corps (two divisions) lay about Palmanova,
ready to be sent N. or E., according as the fighting developed.
The Italian preparations were much handicapped by the
illness of Capello. From the beginning of Oct. the commander
of the II. Army was seriously unwell, and though he had the
assistance of Gen. Montuori, who was brought to Army Head-
quarters from the II. Corps, the II. Army undoubtedly suffered
much from Capello's physical unfitness. Montuori had only
taken command of the II. Corps a few weeks before; he had
come from the Asiago uplands and knew little or nothing of
the II. Army front. On Oct. 20 Capello left for Padua, in the
hope of securing a short rest, leaving Montuori in command.
His rest lasted less than two days; for when the imminence
of the enemy attack was confirmed by two deserting enemy of-
ficers, of Rumanian nationality, he returned to resume his
command, reaching Cormons late on the night of Oct. 22.
The main attack came in the direction anticipated, between
Monte Rombon and S. of Tolmino, and was conducted by a
mixed German and Austrian army under Gen. Otto von Below.
The army, which was known as the XIV. Army, consisted of
nine Austrian divisions and seven German, divided into four
" groups." The northern group of four divisions (three Austrian
and one German Jager) was commanded by Krauss, who had
been called back from the Bukovina. Next came a group of
three divisions (one Austrian and two German) under the
German von Stein, and a group of two German divisions under
the German von Berrer. South of these two central groups
was a mixed group under the Austrian von Scotti (commander
of the Austrian XV. Corps). This group consisted of one
German and two Austrian divisions. Behind these, E. of
Tolmino, lay four divisions in reserve, at Below's immediate
disposal. Boroevi6 had 20 divisions in his two " Isonzo "
Armies between Auzza and the sea. Below and Henriquez (II.
Isonzo Army) had some 2,500 guns and 500 trench mortars.
CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF
573
The bombardment began at two o'clock on the morning of
Oct. 24, in wild autumn weather. There was a drizzle of snow
on the high ridges, rain below, and mist everywhere. The
bombardment opened with a shower of gas shells, mainly
directed against the artillery positions. It was only later that
a very heavy fire was opened on the trench lines and upon all
the zone to the rear of them. Towards dawn the fire died down,
and it was thought on some parts of the defending front that
the bad weather had counselled a delay in the attack. The
wind had risen, the rain was blown in sheets, and the snow was
whirling thickly on the mountains. But the attackers were to
make skilful use of the weather conditions. Only on Monte
Rombon, on Krauss's extreme right, an attack in conjunction
with the left wing of Krobatin's X. Army had to be given up
owing to the snow.
Krauss's main attack was a straight drive through the Italian
lines in the Plezzo basin, his first objective the Saga defile. But
he calculated that this position, too, must be carried in the
first rush, so that he could reach without delay the great ridge
of the Stol (6,467 ft.), which stood athwart a further direct
advance. For this attack he detailed the 22nd Schiitzen
Div., followed immediately by a Kaiserjager and a Kaiser-
schutzen batt., which were to go straight for the Stol, and by
six battalions of the 3rd (Edelweiss) Div., which were to make
for the Val Fella by way of the Val d'Ucosa. Krauss's left-hand
division, the 55th (Bosnian), attacked the Vrsich-Vrata ridge,
with the object of breaking through to the Isonzo and Caporetto.
Krauss's main drive, after hard fighting, broke through the
three lines held by the soth Italian Div. in the Plezzo basin,
but the attacking troops were checked at the Saga defile, where
the Isonzo turns at right angles round the end of the Polounik
ridge. When evening fell the position was still in the hands of
the Italians, but the battle had gone badly for the defenders
further south, and a retreat to the Stol became necessary.
Krauss's Bosnians had met with no success against the left
wing of the Italian 43rd Div., being driven back by counter-
attacks after capturing the front lines, but Stein's group had car-
ried all before it. Stein opened his attack with his right wing,
the Austrian 5oth Div., at 7:30 A.M., attacking the Italian 46th
between Monte Nero and Vodil Vrh. A little later the Bavarian
Alpenkorps, advancing from Tolmino, attacked the ridges
below the Passo di Zagradan, while Berrer and Scotti attacked
farther south. When both Stein's initial attacks were under way,
the 1 2th Silesian Div., under the command of Gen. von Lequis,
was sent in between them. Lequis attacked in two columns,
one on each side of the river, with instructions to drive straight
for Caporetto, where, it was hoped, he would join with Krauss's
Bosnians. Both columns were completely successful. The right-
hand column, aided by the strong attacks of the Austrian 5oth
Div., pierced the extreme right of the Italian 46th on the
E. bank of the river and pushed N.W. with all speed. On the
opposite bank the attack was equally successful. The Alpenkorps
were making good headway on the slopes above the road, where
the Taro brigade, surprised in the mist, made a feeble resistance,
and Lequis's left-hand column quickly reached the Italian
second line, where the valley narrows below the hamlet of Foni.
This line, running up to Monte Plezia, had been held, until the
eve of the battle, by a Bersaglieri brigade which formed the
extreme right wing of the IV. Corps, but at the last moment
this sector was transferred to the command of the XXVII.
Corps, the Bersaglieri were given to Cavaciocchi as an additional
reserve, and Badoglio received the Napoli brigade for the purpose
of holding this important point. Only one battalion, however,
was placed on Monte Plezia ; the rest of this regiment (the 76th)
lay at Passo di Zagradan, high upon the ridge to the west, and
the other regiment of the brigade (the 75th), together with the
brigade command, was nearly three m. away, on the western
slopes below Zagradan. The single battalion, of which only a
platoon was down by the river, seems to have been taken com-
pletely by surprise. It was run over by the German attack, and
the Silesians proceeded on their way up the valley practically
unnoticed. The rest of the regiment had seen and heard nothing
in the mist (they were being heavily shelled), and the VII. Corps,
of which the 3rd Div. was waiting on the Kolovrat ridge, appears
to have been equally unconscious of the course of the battle.
Meanwhile the Alpenkorps, Berrer's two divisions, and
Scotti's right wing were breaking up Badoglio's left, while the
latter's right, across the river, and Caviglia's XXIV. Corps
were being strongly attacked by Scotti's left and the right wing
of Henriquez's II. Isonzo Army. The attack from Tolmino was
carried out with skill, speed and resolution, and by a capital
error which has never been satisfactorily explained the Italian
guns remained silent until too late. Definite orders had been
given both by Cadorna and by Capello that immediately upon
the opening of the enemy's bombardment the Italian artillery
should reply with a fire of " counter-preparation " upon the
enemy's trenches and zones of concentration, and that they
should lay down a violent barrage as soon as there were signs of
movement. This order was not carried out as intended. The
guns of the IV. and XXVII. Corps, and particularly those
backing the ipth Div., were apparently ordered to hold their
fire till the word of command came from Corps headquarters.
The word did not come to the batteries until too late, some
never received it at all. The heavy mist, and the fact that the
weight of the enemy bombardment had worked great destruction
among the telephone wires, combined to prevent any effective
reply on the part of the Italian guns. When the guns began,
their fire was fitful, uncertain, blind, and they were too late.
The enemy's attack had already developed when the Italian
guns opened on his trenches. Taken by surprise, puzzled by
the comparative silence of their own guns and blinded by the
mist, the troops of the ipth Div. opposed only a weak resistance
to the Austro-German attack. They were heavily outnumbered,
but they held strong positions which should have enabled them to
delay the enemy advance until the reserves could come into
play. Some of the troops fought with all their old stubbornness,
but others gave themselves up or abandoned the trenches when
the enemy columns came out of the mist.
Henriquez's attack on the Bainsizza plateau, although it met
with some initial success, was readily repulsed, and Badoglio's
troops captured several hundred prisoners in a strong counter-
attack. Badoglio had hoped to hold the enemy attack from
Tolmino, and turn the scale by a counter-attack on the Lorn
plateau with his three divisions on the left bank of the river.
He seems to have had the idea of doing on a smaller scale what
Capello had wished to do in large, and it certainly appears as
though he had kept his left unduly weak in the hope of being
able to deal a heavy counter-blow. If he had obeyed in the
letter Cadorna's order that the greater part of the forces belong-
ing to the XXVII. Corps should be brought back to the right
bank of the Isonzo (the igth Div. and its reserves counted five
battalions more than the three divisions across the river), it
can hardly be said that the spirit of the order was carried out.
In any case, Badoglio was not afforded the chance of attempting
any such manceuvre as he may have had in mind. It was long
before he received any news of how the day was going on the front
of the i^th Div., and from the beginning of the action he was
unable to communicate with his divisions on the left bank of
the river. Telephones had broken down; the mist prevented
signalling, and despatch riders do not seem to have been em-
ployed. It was not until the afternoon that Badoglio heard
that his front lines were gone and his main positions threatened.
He knew nothing of the break through in the valley and had no
news from the IV. Corps. In a message sent to Army Head-
quarters at 4 P.M., he reported the enemy success south of
Jeza, but said that he had no news from the commands of the
i gth Div. and the troops farther N., and that he was unable
to communicate with anyone.
By 4 P.M. Lequis's Silesians were approaching Caporetto.
The left-hand column was unmolested by the troops of
Buongiovanni's VII. Corps, which were lying too far back and
were very slow in coming on the scene. The right-hand column,
which had cut in behind the Italian 43rd Div., was making the
task of the Austrian 5oth comparatively easy, and brushing
574
CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF
aside the spasmodic opposition of such small detachments as
came in its way. The Austro-German advance was facilitated
by the fact that Cavaciocchi had filled his front lines too full,
and sent all his reserves across the river, in immediate support
of the 43rd and 46th Divisions. When Lequis was approaching
Caporetto Cavaciocchi had nothing in hand but a squadron of
cavalry and one battalion of infantry which had not yet reached
its destination E. of the river. For some hours previously
Cavaciocchi had been calling on the VII. Corps, but
Buongiovanni was very slow, not without excuse. His Corps
was a scratch formation; his original left-hand division had
been broken up two days before to strengthen the IV. and
XXVII. Corps, and the 62nd, which had been assigned to him
in its stead, was only moving up to take its place N. of the 3rd,
already aligned, but too far back, on the ridge running N.W.
from the Passo di Zagradan. A further difficulty was that no
definite plan of action had been agreed on between Cavaciocchi,
Buongiovanni and Badoglio, whose close cooperation was clearly
necessary. Or, if a plan had been made, it was one which had
been completely upset by the rapid successes of the enemy.
In fact, as has been shown already, Badoglio had little idea of
how the fight was going on his front; Buongiovanni was in the
dark regarding the general situation except for the calls which
came from Cavaciocchi; and Cavaciocchi, who saw his own
danger, had played his cards too soon, and had nothing left.
Krauss records the satisfaction he felt when he observed that
the additional troops given to the IV. Corps on the eve of the
battle were sent forward instead of being held in reserve.
By the evening the situation was very favourable to the
attacking forces. Stein was pouring troops through the breach
made by the Silesians, and was making good headway with the
5oth Austrian division on their right, while the Alpenkorps,
Berrer and Scotti had broken through the lines opposite Tolmino,
and in several places had gained the high ridge dominating the
head of the Judrio valley. Krauss was still held up at Saga and
on Polounik, and the Bosnians had gained no more ground.
But the break-through between Tolmino and Caporetto had
made these positions untenable.
At Cividale, where Capello had his headquarters, and at the
Comando Supremo in Udine, the first news that came from the
IV. Corps and the absence of news from the XXVII. made a
grave impression. Capello sent up the army reserves by the
valley roads, and dispatched Montuori to direct the " left
wing " (the IV. and VII. Corps). This was a step which might
with advantage have been taken earlier; indeed, the II. Army
might well have been further divided and, if necessary, made
into an army group. It was too large, and covered too wide a
front, for a single army command.
By evening the magnitude of the initial enemy success was
clear, though it was not yet clear to what extent the whole
Italian left wing was crumbling. There seemed good reason to
hope that the advance might be blocked in the narrow valleys
west of the Isonzo. But by nightfall both the IV. Corps and the
igth Div. were practically broken in pieces. Saga had to be
abandoned owing to the break farther S., and t'he 5oth
Div., or what was left of it, retired into the Val d'Uccea and
on to the ridge of the Stol, which was reached later by the
remnants of the 43rd, who had held their own bravely, but were
in great part cut off when they attempted to come back across
the Isonzo. A gallant detachment (Alpini and details of the
Etna brigade), finding retreat impossible, held out for days on
Monte Nero till the battle had gone far to the W., and all their
food and ammunition were gone. The 46th Div. was practically
destroyed, many having surrendered when they found the
enemy at their backs, and others having joined the masses of
supply service troops which were now filling the roads. The
6znd Div. (VII. Corps) was beginning to be attacked at Luico,
while its left was extending to occupy Monte Matajur and
join hands with the 53rd, which had been dispatched by Capello
to block the Natisone valley. The 3rd Div. was still in* its old
position, but it was now being attacked in front and its right was
uncovered by the defeat and practical destruction of the
The right wing of the igth was still holding on Globocak and had
been reenforced by the ist Bersaglieri Brigade; Alpine troops
still held a line down to the river, though they had been driven
off their original positions on Krad Vrh, and troops of the 64th
were being brought back from the left bank to strengthen this
line. It was obvious that the positions on the Bainsizza could
not be maintained. Capello had already transferred Badoglio's
division beyond the river to the command of the XXIV. Corps
(Caviglia), and the order had been given to Caviglia and Albricci
to withdraw their troops to their main h'nes of defence and to
the former to prepare for a retreat across the Isonzo.
At this moment the most dangerous point appeared to be the
extreme left wing, where the 5oth Div. had lost touch with the
Carnia force, and only the Potenza brigade, of three regiments,
but much weakened by disease, was available as a reserve. And
the Potenza brigade was wanted farther south. Two Alpine groups
were already on the way to this critical point, having been
dispatched the day before, but it was clear that Krauss would
try to push through by this route, the shortest way to the
Tagliamento. The occupation of Caporetto threatened to open
another route nearly as short, but the possession of Monte
Maggiore and the Stol, together with Monte Matajur, gave good
hope that the advance of the enemy might be quickly brought to
a halt when it had outrun the protecting fire of its own guns.
Cadorna ordered the Carnia force to occupy Monte Maggiore
and block the Val d'Uccea " at all costs," and sent up a division
to support the troops on the Stol. He gave orders for resistance
to be made on three successive lines, but all of these radiated
from Monte Maggiore, which was the key position. He gave
orders for resistance on these lines, but at the same time he
directed that plans and orders should be drawn up for a general
retreat to the Tagliamento. This was a precaution only; at the
moment, though the situation looked grave, there seemed little
reason to doubt the capacity of the II. Army, and the reserves
already under way, to stem the enemy's offensive.
Next morning Cadorna warned the Duke of Aosta of the
danger of the situation, and directed him to send his less mobile
heavy artillery W. of the Piave and prepare for a retreat beyond
the Tagliamento. Tassonj, who commanded the Carnia force,
was also directed to prepare for a withdrawal of his troops.
The news on the morning of Oct. 25 was increasingly grave.
Krauss was pressing upon the Stol, and finding a weak resist-
ance; the Potenza brigade was falling back from Creda; Monte
Matajur had fallen, practically undefended. Other positions
were seriously threatened, and there was no confidence that they
would be held. For it was now known in Cividale and Udine
that the behaviour of some of the troops had been very un-
satisfactory, that men of some units had been quick to surrender,
while others had retreated before they were heavily attacked.
And this unexpected lack of spirit was communicating itself
to some of the reserves. These had a difficult task in getting to
the scene of action, for as they marched up the narrow mountain
roads they were met by ever-increasing masses of fugitives, the
bulk of these belonging to the non-combatant services. The
confusion and congestion on the roads may be estimated from
the fact that in the area of the IV. Corps alone the number of
non-combatant troops exceeded 30,000. Somehow the word went
round, among combatants and non-combatants alike, that the
war was over and that there was nothing to do but " go home."
Perhaps the cry was raised by enemy troops disguised in Italian
uniforms, for some of these were found; more probably it was
started by some who had drunk in the Socialist catchwords,
pronounced by the deputy, Signor Treves: " This winter no
one must be in the trenches"; who had believed the promise
that if they laid down their arms the enemy would do like-
wise. It was an extraordinary case of collective deception,
which hastened the break-up of Capello's whole left wing.
A gallant resistance was still being made at various points,
notably at Luico and Globocak, but the enemy had broken
through at several positions of vital importance, and, as has
been said, the reserves were becoming entangled in the crowds
of fugitives, and some of them were becoming infected. On the
CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF
575
afternoon of Oct. 25 Capello, who could fight no more against an
illness to which he ought perhaps to have given in sooner, and
had been told by the chief medical officer of the army that he
must resign his command, proposed to Cadorna an immediate
retreat to the Tagliamento. His argument was that it was
useless to send in more reserves to the chaos among the hills
west of the Isonzo; that the only way to remedy the situation
was to withdraw the bulk of the armies " from close contact with
the enemy under the protection of vigorous rearguard actions,"
and so make possible the organization of a solid defence and
eventual counter-attack. Cadorna agreed as to the probable
necessity of retreat, but he was doubtful as to whether it should
be immediate. He felt that unless he could delay the enemy
advance down the Natisone and Judrio valleys by more than a
mere rearguard action he ran the risk of having his centre and
right, and all the mass of troops in the Udine plain, cut off from
his bases. Montuori, who now succeeded Capello in command
of the II. Army, was of opinion that he could hold on a line
from Monte Maggiore to Monte Carnizza and thence across the
valleys to Monte Korada. Cadorna decided to attempt the
further stand, and, as the II. Army was obviously too large for
movement, the left wing was given to Gen. Etna, late of the
XXX. Corps, and the right to Gen. Ferrero, late of the XVI.,
while Gen. Sagramoso, who commanded the XIV. Corps, in
reserve on the Isonzo, was charged with the duty of organizing
a reserve line of defence on the river Torre. Tassoni, Di Robilant
(IV. Army) and the Duke of Aosta were all warned to hold
themselves in readiness for retreat, Di Robilant being told to
send his big guns at once W. of the Piave to between Pederobba
and Montebelluna. The VIIl. Corps was detached from the II.
Army and given to the Duke of Aosta, who was already forming
a reserve line on the western rim of the Carso, preparatory to
the withdrawal of his main body. Gen. Di Giorgio was sent
northward, with two divisions from the general reserve, to
occupy both banks of the Tagliamento in the region of Pinzano.
Cadorna hoped to hold, for a time at least, but at midnight
on Oct. 26 he was wakened to hear the news that Monte
Maggiore had fallen. He at once drew up the orders for a
general retreat beyond the Tagliamento, and his plans were
already matured for the longer retreat, across the Piave, which
he foresaw would probably be necessary. Next day the weak
resistance of the II. Army rearguards and the increasing number
of disbanded soldiers confirmed his impressions. He saw, too,
that there was, literally, no room to bring the II. Army back in
good order. He was determined to keep the southern roads clear
for the III. Army, and this meant that the retiring units of the
II. Army would be so hampered by disbanded soldiers and
fugitive civilians that most of them could scarcely hope to get
back as units. In the circumstances he had to count out the
greater part of the II. Army and fall back on a line that could
be held by a smaller number of troops. It was only to gain
time that he attempted a stand on the Tagliamento. Provisional
orders and plans for a retirement to the Piave were issued
on Oct. 29. The mournful retreat began on Oct. 27, and the
prospects were rendered still more serious by the fact that
the Tagliamento came down in sudden and violent flood. The
fords could not be used; several existing bridges were carried
away, and attempts to throw new bridges were unsuccessful.
The danger of losing more men and guns on the retreat became
still greater.
Fortunately for Italy, and for the cause of the Entente, the
Germans and Austrians were, in part at least, outrunning their
transport. Krauss complains that only he and Krafft von
Delmensingen, Below's chief-of-staff, had been inspired by
adequate ambitions for the attack. The objective had been
Cividale, or, at best, the Tagliamento. Krafft thought they
should have had the Adige in view. Krauss expressed the
opinion that the real objective should have been Lyons. Without
taking Krauss's aspirations too seriously, it may well be believed
that if the German and Austrian Commands had worked out a
bigger plan they would have done even more than they did do.
But the transport difficulties were very great; Germany could
not spare troops or material to make an unlimited effort on the
Italian front, and the unexpectedly weak resistance of the
Italian II. Army could hardly have entered into the calcula-
tions of those who were bound not to take too many risks.
Krauss himself admits that if the Italians had held the Stol
in strength his own move would have been frustrated.
Krauss, Stein, Berrer and Scotti were very quick in their
pursuit, and Berrer paid for his haste with his life. He was shot
by an Italian carabiniere at the gates of Udine on Oct. 28, the
day on which his advance guard entered the town, less than 20
hours after Cadorna and his staff left for Treviso. His place was
taken by Hofacher. The Italian covering troops were delaying
the enemy advance, and giving time for the III. Army, fighting
a strong rearguard action, to come back across the Tagliamento.
Henriquez had difficult mountainous country to cross before he
reached the plain, and both he and Wurm were held up on the
Isonzo, where the bridges had been destroyed by the retreating
Italians. The critical days for the Italians were Oct. 30 and 31,
when the pressure from the N. and E. threatened the flank and
rear of the III. Army, whose task had been rendered more
difficult by the fact that the permanent bridges at Casarsa had
been blown up prematurely, owing to a false alarm. Many
guns had to be left on the eastern bank, including 46 heavy
batteries, which had been brought all the way from the Bainsizza.
The Tagliamento was falling, however, and a number of troops
succeeded in fording the river. It had been impossible to keep
the Casarsa bridges for the III. Army, as several units of the
II. and a large number of disbanded men had been forced down
by the pressure from the north. But on the afternoon of Oct.
31 the Duke of Aosta was able to inform Cadorna that all of
his rearguard, with the exception of four brigades, who were
holding a defensive bridgehead covering Madrisio, had passed
the Tagliamento. The bulk of this rearguard crossed the same
evening, and only a small bridgehead was held at Latisana.
A considerable number of II. Army troops, having failed to
cross the river at Casarsa, were coming down towards Latisana
pursued by Scotti's vanguard and threatened on the flank by
Henriquez. Some of these succeeded in crossing at the Latisana
bridges, but the enemy attacked in considerable force the
following day, and a large number of Italians were cut off and
taken prisoners. By the evening of Nov. i, the left bank was
entirely in the possession of the Austro-German armies.
Krauss tells a remarkable story according to which both
Below, with Scotti's group, and later, Goiginger, with the
right wing of Henriquez's army, wished on reaching the
Tagliamento to swing S., and cut off the Duke of Aosta's army,
which, Krauss maintains, was still some distance to the east.
According to Krauss,, Boroevic refused to allow Scotti to encroach
upon his line of march, and forbade Gen. Ludwig von Goiginger
to come S. of the line marked out for the II. Isonzo Army. But
before Scotti was in a position to carry out the manceuvre which
Below is reported to have proposed, the bulk of the Duke's
army was already across the Tagliamento, and his last four
brigades were more than capable of dealing with anything
Scotti could then bring against them. Before Goiginger was on
the spot the whole of the III. Army had passed the river and
there were on the eastern bank only the broken troops who had
come down from the N. in a last attempt to find a way across.
Krauss's remark, that " Boroevic had saved the Italian III.
Army," has no foundation. Boroevic knew more about the
III. Army than the " German staff officers or Goiginger, who
were Krauss's authorities." Krauss also asserts that the man-
oeuvre would have led to the capture of the King of Italy and
of Cadorna and his staff, a statement for which, though furnished
by " a neutral crowned head," there are no grounds whatever.
Cadorna did not expect to stay long on the Tagliamento, but
he did hope to hold up the enemy long enough to give adequate
time for the retreat of the Carnia force and the IV. Army, and
to organize a strong defensive line on the Piave. His weak
point was the stretch of the river W. of Tarcento, for which
Krauss and Stein were making with all speed. Two divisions
under Di Giorgio had been dispatched to hold this line, but
576
CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF
their march, at right angles to the line of the retreat and athwart
the long streams of retiring troops and civilians, had been very
difficult. Stein's troops, however, failed to cross the Tagliamento,
their attempts being repulsed with heavy loss. It was left
to Krauss's Bosnians, after vain attempts to ford the river, to
cross by the half-broken railway bridge at Cornino, on the
evening of Nov. 2. The Bosnians had crossed by nine o'clock,
surprising and driving back the small detachment watching the
bridge. The following morning Di Giorgio was strongly attacked
at Pinzano and Krauss established a sufficient bridgehead.
On Nov. 4 Di Giorgio's left was pushed back still farther,
endangering the line of retreat for the Carnia force divisions,
and once more threatening the whole Italian line with envelop-
ment from the north. For Stein was sending troops across to
reenforce Krauss, and incidentally, according to Krauss, to
claim the credit which was due to the Bosnians alone.
On the morning of Nov. 4 Cadorna ordered the retreat to the
line of the Piave, and that night the troops holding the line of
the Tagliamento resumed their march westward. Cadorna's
main preoccupation was now for the IV. Army, which had been
slow in getting under way, and for the Carnia force. Di Robilant
wished to hold on in Cadore. It was natural, perhaps, that he
should not have realized fully and at once the urgent necessities
of the situation, but his hesitation to act promptly in accordance
with Cadorna's instructions exposed him to the danger of having
the retreat of his right wing cut off. For the safety of his route
to the new positions assigned to his army depended now on the
ability of the left wing of the worn-out II. Army to hold back
the pressure of Stein's troops. Krauss's group had been sent
N.W. through the mountains to the Upper Piave, to establish
contact with Krobatin's X. Army and try once more to envelop
the Italian left wing. This move cut off the greater part of
Tassoni's Carnia force, caught between Krauss and Krobatin.
Di Giorgio's force and the rest of the covering troops of the
II. Army slowed down the enemy advance, holding for some
time on the Livenza and the Monticano. The III. Army, to
which the VI. Corps had now been attached, was coming back
steadily, though Boroevic's advance guards were giving little
peace to its covering troops. Cadorna had intended to put the
battered units of the II. Army in reserve at once, to be reorgan-
ized and refitted; but the delay in the retreat of the IV. Army
made it necessary to keep the II. and XXIV. Corps as part of
the river defence force, the II. Corps in line from the Vidor
bridge to Norvesa, the XXIV. in reserve, both under the com-
mand of Di Robilant, to whom was to be entrusted the sector
from the Montello to the Brenta. The converging retreat of
the IV. Army was being carried out with much skill, and Di
Robilant's troops succeeded in bringing away with them a
great amount of material, but several detachments were cut
off, including remnants of the Carnia force, which had been
attached to the IV. Army for the latter part of the retreat.
By Nov. 8 the bulk of the IV. Army had succeeded in coming
into line between the I. and the III., though part of the I. Corps
was still on the road between Ponte delle Alpi and Feltre. On
Nov. 9 and 10 the last covering troops of the II. and III. Armies
crossed the Piave, from Pederobba to the sea.
The line chosen to defend the fortunes of Italy implied a
withdrawal of the right wing of the I. Army. This contingency
had been studied, and preparations for a new line had begun,
during the Austrian offensive in 1916, and Cadorna had ordered
the work to be continued during the interval. Pecori-Giraldi
retired from Asiago and Gallio, and based his right on the
fortified lines of the Meletta group. This formed a salient, for
the line marked out for the IV. Army E. of the Brenta ran
considerably farther south. Di Robilant had taken over the
XVIII. Corps from Pecori-Giraldi, and it had been gradually
withdrawn from its old positions to hold a line that ran from
near San Marino in the Brenta gorge nearly due E. towards the
Piave, keeping always in touch with the IX. Corps as the latter
came down from Cadore. The IV. Army now held the line from
the Brenta to the Piave, and the short stretch of the river as far
as the Montello. The rest of the river line was held by the
Duke of Aosta, with the VIII. Corps on the Montello, the II.,
which had been in line between Pederobba and the Montello,
occupied in preparing defensive positions, going back to be
rested and re-fitted with the rest of the II. Army.
Reserves were coming in fast from the depots, including the
young class of 1899. French and British divisions were already
in Italy, and others were on the way. Many units of the II.
Army were being rapidly reorganized and were soon to come into
line again. But for the moment the Italians had only the I.,
III. and IV. Armies to hold the new line; and the III. and IV.
Armies had been sorely tried by the retreat. There had been a
serious breakdown in the moral of a part of the II. Army, which
had been largely responsible for the extent of the enemy's
initial success, and the tremendous strain of the retreat had
naturally been responsible for further breakdowns. The behav-
iour of the majority of the troops had been beyond all praise,
but all were now worn-out, physically fatigued by the long
trial of the retreat and suffering from the great moral depression
caused by unexpected defeat and retirement from the lines they
had held so long. Diaz, who took over the command from
Cadorna on the morning of Nov. 9, had to face a situation that
seemed almost desperate. The Italian armies had lost some
320,000 men in killed, wounded and missing, the number of
prisoners being estimated at 265,000. The bulk of the II. Army
had to be counted out altogether, and the total number of
troops to be reorganized and re-fitted was over 300,000. More
than 3,000 guns had been lost, and over 1,700 trench mortars.
There was shortage in equipment of every kind. It seemed
scarcely possible that these greatly weakened forces could
resist the renewed attacks of the victorious armies which had
followed so closely upon their heels. Fortunately, the plans for
defence had been well and truly laid by Cadorna in the limited
time that was available, and, still more fortunately, his foresight
had caused elaborate preparations to be made on Monte Grappa.
Roads had been built and gun positions prepared, and reservoirs
made for water; trenches had been dug and strong redoubts
constructed at various important points, though the defensive
system was not completely finished when the enemy attacked
at Caporetto. These works had been ordered with the double
object of strengthening the defences of the Val Brenta against
an attack from the N., and of providing against the possibility
of a retreat to the Piave, which Cadorna had been compelled
to consider once before, in May 1916. It was due to this fore-
thought that resistance on the line now chosen was possible.
Diaz had little breathing-space, though some days were
required before the enemy could prepare for an attack in force
upon the new line. For Conrad saw a chance, and, though he
was short of troops, he struck at once, while calling for reen-
forcements to be sent to him for the eastern armies. He attacked
Pecori's troops on Nov. 10, as they were preparing to come
back to the line already indicated. When they had taken up
their positions in the Meletta-Badenecche salient, Conrad's
attacks were renewed, and for 10 days the fight continued, but
brought no success to the Austrians, who lost heavily. Conrad
had brought to this sector of the front all the troops who had
been in the Fassa Alps, but he still felt himself too weak for the
end he had in view a break-through to the plain, and he urged
continually the dispatch of further reenforcements. Meanwhile
Boroevic had tested the river defences at various points. On
Nov. 12 a crossing was effected at Zenson, some 17 m. from
the mouth of the river, and a small bridgehead was established
in the loop formed by the curving stream. Various other attacks
at San Dona, Intestadura, and the Grave di Papadopoli were
unsuccessful, and the troops at Zenson could make no headway.
Down by the mouth of the river Hungarian troops succeeded
in establishing themselves between the Old Piave and the main
stream, but they were unable to gain any more ground. As the
days went on, other attempts to cross the river were defeated
by the III. Army, and on Nov. 16 an attack in force failed
completely. The Austrians crossed at various points N. of
Ponte di Piave, but were repulsed with heavy casualties, losing
some 1,500 killed and nearly as many prisoners. After this
CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF
577
failure Boroevid abandoned his attacks. The river was a serious
obstacle; the Italian defence was sound; it was clear that
prolonged and careful preparation was necessary.
Conrad and Boroevic were making no headway, but a more
dangerous attack was being conducted by Krauss, between the
Brenta and the Piave. Krauss, who now had Krobatin's troops
under his orders, and subsequently drew reinforcements from
Stein's group, wished to organize a double drive through the
Brenta and Piave gorges, and reach the plain by the tactics he
had successfully employed in the Plezzo basin. Attempts to
break through by the valley roads were quickly frustrated.
Krauss blames his divisional commanders, who, he says, were
opposed to these tactics, and could not make up their minds to
a resolute attempt. An effort was finally made in the Quero
gorge on Nov. 17 and failed badly. Nor were the numerous
gallant attempts to capture the all-important ridge of Monte
Tomba-Monfenera, which ran down from the Grappa massif
to the Piave, more successful in breaking through the thin
Italian lines. The struggle at this point lasted for five days,
from Nov. 18 to 22, and the Italian IX. Corps, under Ruggcri
Laderchi, fought a great fight. The critical day was Nov. 22.
In the morning Krauss's troops, the Bosnians and the German
Jager, who had both been heavily punished already, made a
great effort to break through. The attacking columns reached
the crest of Monte Tomba, but their bolt was shot; and Mon-
fenera still held firm and raked their left flank. The Italian
position, however, was critical in the extreme, for the line had
become very thin, and there were no reserves to speak of. At
dusk a message came from Di Robilant that he was sending
up a brigade of the VI. Corps, which had been drawn from the
reserve of the III. Army. A later message promised another
brigade. Ruggeri Laderchi took his courage in both hands, and,
without waiting, counter-attacked with his own battle-worn
troops. He drove the enemy off the ridge, except at one point
where a gallant handful of men still clung to a knob of hill that
had been made into a machine-gun redoubt. Next day the
reserves arrived, and the line was firmly established. Only
one more attack was made in this sector and both Jager and
Bosnian divisions had to be withdrawn and re-made.
When he failed in his first attempt to go through in the
valleys, Krauss resigned himself to a frontal attack upon the
mountain lines between the Brenta and the Piave. He claims
justly that the conditions were very difficult, but he made a
big effort. The attack with his centre and right began on Nov.
21, while he was still hammering against Monte Tomba with his
left, and he gained ground to begin with, driving back the
Italian outpost lines in the Grappa sector. For a week the attack
lasted, but little progress was made. The 22nd Schiitzen and
Edelweiss Divs. who had broken through at Plezzo, and the
94th, from Krobatin's army, gained a little ground on the right,
the Alpine troops of the 22nd capturing the summit of Monte
Pertica, but the German Alpenkorps and the Austrian 5oth,
which had passed to Krauss from Stein's group, to replace the
battered Bosnian and Jager divisions, made no headway against
the salient of Solarolo and Spinoncia, or against the Tomba-
Monfenera line. They succeeded in taking various positions,
among them Spinoncia, but they could not hold them against
the Italian counter-attacks, and further attempts to extend the
success gained on the right were equally unsuccessful. On Nov.
26 the Edelweiss made a great attempt to capture Col della
Berretta, but were repulsed, and a pause followed.
The breathing-space was needed by Di Robilant's troops,
for the XVIII. and IX. Corps had been very highly tried,
especially the latter. On Nov. 22 the situation in the Grappa
sector had been improved by the arrival in line of the XXVII.
Corps, already re-made, under the command of Di Giorgio; and
the Corps distinguished itself greatly in the fighting which
followed. But a new attack was preparing, when the situation
was eased by the arrival in line of the British and French divi-
sions which .had hitherto been waiting in reserve. On Dec. 2
three British divisions under Lord Cavan took over the Mon-
tello sector, and a similar French force under Gen. Duchesne
relieved Ruggeri Laderchi's IX. Corps in the Monte Tomba
region. It was expected that both these points would be the
object of early attack, but as it turned out they were both left
unmolested. Conrad and Krauss continued their attempts to
break through on the mountain front, but Krauss confined his
efforts to the positions west of Monte Grappa and the worrying
Solarolo salient. Boroevic remained quiet on the Piave front,
and the rest of Below's army was now practically a reservoir for
Krauss, who drew divisions both from Scotti and from Hofacher,
as well as from Stein. Krauss was finding the question of com-
munications very difficult, especially for his artillery ammunition,
and could not open his new attack till Dec. 10. On Dec. 3 Conrad,
reenforced by fresh troops but still complaining that he was
starved for means of attack, opened a heavy bombardment on
the curve of the Italian front from Monte Sisemol to E. of Monte
Badenecche. Next day, by a skilfully conducted attack following
a liberal use of gas shells, he pinched up the Meletta-Badenecche
salient, occupying both Tondarecar and Badenecche and taking
Monte Fior and Castelgomberto in the rear. Next day Conrad's
eastern columns pushed down quickly towards Foza, but were
held by a rearguard of Bersaglieri and Alpini who fought off the
attack until a new line was established farther S., covering
Valstagna and the mouth of the Frenzela valley. But more
than 11,000 prisoners were taken as a result of the gas bombard-
ment and the breaking of the line at the base of the salient. It
should be said that on this occasion as at Caporetto the Italian
gas mask proved very unsatisfactory. The army was shortly
afterwards equipped with the British mask.
The loss of the Meletta-Badenecche positions left another
salient exposed to Austrian attack. The hills S. of the Valle dei
Bonchi were now open to artillery fire and infantry attack on
three sides, and, after a fortnight's preparation, on Dec. 23
Conrad launched a new attack on the Italian lines between
Monte Sisemol and the Frenzela valley. The salient was quickly
wiped out, several thousand prisoners were taken, and both Col
del Rosso and Monte Melago were captured. Next day the
Italians counter-attacked, and re-took Col del Rosso and Monte
Melago. They established themselves firmly in their reserve
lines, and repulsed another attack, the last, on Christmas Day.
Between Conrad's two efforts Krauss had made a determined
attempt to drive the Italians off the Grappa line. His command
was now increased to the strength of 10 divisions, six Austro-
Hungarian and four German, and he did not spare his troops.
He opened his attack on Dec. 1 1 by a push on each wing of his
front, from the Brenta valley and Monte Pertica against Col
della Berretta, and against both sides of the Solarolo salient. The
attack from the N.E. was carried out by German troops, while
W. of Solarolo and Col dell' Orso were picked Austro-Hungarian
divisions. After the first day, when the Brandenburgers of the
5th Div. took Monte Spinoncia, the N.E. outwork of the salient,
the Germans could make no more headway, in spite of repeated
attacks, in which they were supported by the 94th Austrian
Div. on the other side of the salient. Besides the sth, the 2ooth
and the Jager also took part in the attack, which was renewed
again and again during 10 days, but no further progress was made.
Krauss, who reports that he was not allowed to have the German
troops on the spot more than 48 hours before they were to attack,
claims that this " excessive sparing " of the troops worked out
badly, for they suffered from insufficient acquaintance with
the terrain. However that may be, the German divisions, in
spite of a great expenditure of shells, could gain no ground.
Sometimes a position was gained for a few minutes, only to be
lost again. The fighting was very stubborn.
Krauss had better success with his right wing. At the end of
four days' hard fighting the Austrian 4th Div. had taken Col
della Berretta and Col Caprile, though their occupation was not
firmly established, and the Italians were continually counter-
attacking. Four days more, and Krauss's men had captured
Monte Asolone, which looks down the Valle di Santa Felicita to
the longed-for haven of the plain. This was the term of the Aus-
trian advance. On Dec. 20 the Italians counter-attacked, and
won back a good deal of th,e lost ground, the last move in the
578
CAPPS, EDWARD
long struggle. Krauss accepted failure for the moment, hoping
for an early spring offensive farther west. Five days later the
snow came, the heavy winter fall that was at least a month late.
The Austrians and Germans were much favoured by the late
coming of winter, which greatly prolonged the strain on the
hard-tried armies of Italy. But it gave also to the defending
troops the chance to re-make at once a shaken reputation.
The recovery of the Italian army on Monte Grappa and the
Piave, after the initial failures and the heart-breaking experiences
of the long retreat, was a remarkable feat of courage and will.
It will be clear from the narrative here given that the Caporetto
disaster was not due solely to the cause which was at first gen-
erally accepted as the explanation of a defeat so sudden and so
overwhelming. Cadorna's communique of Oct. 28, which con-
demned in the strongest terms the behaviour of " detachments
of the II. Army " and gave this as the cause of the enemy success,
was too simple an explanation, and was, moreover, unwise.
Inevitably, the impression was left that the failure in moral had
been more widespread than was actually the case. For in the
whole course of the war no such candid announcement had ever
been made by any commander on either side; it was assumed,
especially abroad, that if Cadorna confessed this much there was
far more that he did not tell. Cadorna wished to arouse both
army and country to a sense of the situation, and to indicate
clearly the results of the peace propaganda against which he had
protested. In Italy the result was good on the whole, for the
country was stung to a great effort. But Cadorna's open con-
demnation of his soldiers was strongly resented in many quarters.
There is no question about the weak resistance of certain units
in line, nor can it be denied that other troops, .among the re-
serves, became temporarily infected with a spirit that led to what
many observers likened to a strike. Extreme war-weariness and
socialist propaganda had their offspring in these failures. But
the failures were sporadic only. The stories current at the time
and long after, of a preconcerted agreement for surrender to the
enemy, have no foundation whatever. The defending troops
were subjected to a very severe trial and some of them failed.
Their failure led to disaster. How far might disaster have been
lessened or averted if the preparations for the Austro-German
attack, and the actual conduct of the defence, had been different?
The narrative has drawn attention to certain errors and mis-
understandings which contributed to the enemy success. First
among these, in order of time, was the difference of opinion be-
tween Cadorna and Capello as to the right course to pursue in
face of the coming attack. It is difficult to avoid the impression
that Capello was only half-hearted in adopting, and in directing
his corps commanders to adopt, the line of action indicated by
his chief. Whether Cadorna or Capello was right in idea is a
question which will remain a subject of contention, though
Cadorna's arguments seem almost unanswerable. The point
is that Capello would seem to have interpreted Cadorna's
instructions as to counter-offensive action in too liberal a fashion,
influenced, perhaps unconsciously, by his own wish to attempt a
big counter-stroke. The fact remains that the bulk of the II.
Army was still aligned for an offensive, and though a complete
modification was impossible, certain changes might have been
made. The situation of the IV. Corps was especially unfavour-
able for defence, the front-line positions of the 46th Div. being
practically untenable. The Sleme-Mrzli position ought to have
been abandoned for the Pleca-Selisce line, which was as strong
naturally as the other was weak. Despite the weakness of the
Sleme-Mrzli line, both dominated and enfiladed, despite the
practical certainty that it could not be maintained against a
resolute offensive in force, the enemy attack found a large num-
ber of Italian guns, including many of medium calibre, stationed
well in advance of the Pleca-Selisce line. Although various
commanders had reported the Sleme-Mrzli line indefensible,
steps which should have followed logically had not been taken.
It is obvious also after the event that if the reserves for the
IV. Corps had been close at hand, on the Stol and higher up the
Natisone valley, the inrush of the enemy might have been
stemmed. Such dispositions were cjearly desirable, even before
the event. There was, in fact, a tendency to underestimate the
amount of time necessary for the transference of troops from one
position to another. On the other hand, Cavaciocchi did not
make the best use of the reserves which he had. Cadorna's
efforts had not succeeded in making all of his subordinates grasp
the principles of defence in depth, or of " elastic " defence. It
was only later that the theories upon which he had for long in-
sisted were understood and applied. And it may be admitted
that the tendency to push the infantry too far forward was a
necessary consequence of the policy which had left the guns
aligned as for an offensive. The failure to hold in strength the
roads on both sides of the Isonzo has never been satisfactorily
explained. All that can be said is that an attack along these
roads was apparently unexpected; that it came; and that it had
much to do with the disaster that followed. It is clear that there
was insufficient collaboration between the commanders of the
three corps occupying the front attacked. This was doubtless
due to the extreme pressure of the days which preceded the
offensive, and to the many modifications which had to be made
during these days. But it remains a grave omission.
The failure of the Italian artillery to carry out the general
order of counter-preparation expressly given by Cadorna, and
repeated in no less categorical terms by Capello, had an undoubted
effect upon the course of the battle. The attacking troops,
both gunners and infantry, found their task unexpectedly
lightened by the absence of a heavy return fire upon their bat-
teries, trenches, and zones of concentration. The Italian infantry,
waiting under a crushing bombardment, were puzzled and dis-
heartened by the silence of their own guns. This holding of the
Italian fire, like the failure to appreciate the necessity for de-
fence in depth, is explained by the fact that as regards the prac-
tice of defensive tactics the Italians were some two years in
arrears. Cadorna and a few others had realized the progress
made in attack methods and the necessity of meeting them with
new methods of defence. The realization had not spread down-
ward. The Italian armies on the Julian front had been so busily
occupied in attack that they had not worked out the application
of new defensive methods. They had had no recent practice in
meeting an attack on the grand scale. It was this lack of practice,
no doubt, and a false confidence based on obsolete experience,
which led to the belief that even if the opening phases of the
battle were unfavourable to the defence, there would be ample
time to restore the situation. This spirit was widely evident in
the disposition of troops and guns.
When retreat became inevitable, the prospects might well
have seemed desperate to those who had to organize it. For the
army, long used to the war of positions that had been the rule for
28 months, was in no condition to move. The retreat, with all
its confusion, its mistakes and its tragedies, remains an astonish-
ing achievement. The resistance which followed it, when the
retiring armies turned and stood at bay on the mountains and on
the Piave, was the greatest of Italian victories. (W. K. McC.)
CAPPS, EDWARD (1866- ), American classical scholar,
was born at Jacksonville, 111., Dec. 21 1866. He was educated at
Illinois College (A.B. 1887) and Yale (Ph.D. 1891). In 1890 he
was appointed tutor at Yale. In 1892 he joined the faculty of
the newly-founded university of Chicago as professor of Greek
language and literature, remaining such until 1907. In 1903
he was special lecturer at Harvard, and during the next two
years studied at Athens and Halle. During 1906-7 he was manag-
ing editor of Classical Philology, in 1907 was elected president
of the Classical Association of the Middle West and South,
and the same year was called to Princeton as professor of classics.
In 1914 he was elected president of the American Philological
Association, and in 1917 was Turnbull lecturer on poetry at
Johns Hopkins. In 1918 he was appointed head of the American
Red Cross commission to Greece with the rank of colonel. In
1920 he was appointed minister to Greece, resigning in March
1921 and returning to Princeton. A leading authority on the
Greek theatre, he contributed much to philological journals.
His works include The Stage in the Greek Theatre (1891); From
Homer to Theocritus (1901); The Introduction of Comedy into the
CARINTHIA CARNOCK
579
City Dionysia: a Chronological Study in Greek Literary History (1903)
and Four Plays of Menander (1910). He was editor-in-chief of the
University of Chicago Decennial Publications, 29 volumes.
CARINTHIA (see 5.336), a territory of the Austrian Republic,
is bounded N. by Styria and Salzburg, E. by Yugoslavia and
Styria, S. by Italy and Yugoslavia and W. by Tirol.
Area and Population. The total area of Carinthia before the
World War was 4,005 sq. m., and the pop. (in 1910) 396,200 (99
per sq. mile). The terms of peace deprived Carinthia of Kanal-Thal
together with Tarvis and the lead-mines of Raibl, which were given
to Italy; the district of Seeland, S. of the Karawanken, abandoned
by Austria; the valley of the Mies with the lead-mines of Mies and
Schwarzenbach and the district surrounding the mouth of the
Lavant, which was given to the Southern Slavs. The district of
Tarvis had (1910) some 7,700 inhabitants, of whom 5,700 were
Germans. The districts given to the Southern Slav state then had
17,500 inhabitants, of whom 3,200 were Germans.
It was arranged that the basin of Klagenfurt should decide its
future allegiance by plebiscite. This plebiscite was taken in two
distinct zones, the outer (Zone I. or A) of which reached nearly to
Klagenfurt, the capital of the district, and comprised an area of 667
sq. m., with (1910) 72,138 inhabitants, of whom 31-5 % were German;
the inner (Zone II. or B) included a smaller portion of the district
of Klagenfurt, and comprised an area of 132 sq. m., with (1910)
58,600 inhabitants, of whom 89^7 % were German. The voting in
Zone I. resulted, on Oct. 10 1920, in a choice of allegiance to Austria
by 59-1 % of the total votes; Zone II., therefore, went Austrian also.
In the Carinthia of to-day (apart from the two above-mentioned
Zones) 94-8 % were German in 1910. Most of the Slovene population
is in Gail-Thai. As Zone I. was occupied by the Southern Slavs at
the time of the Austrian census of 1920, the total number of the
inhabitants of the Carinthia of to-day is unascertained. The portion
under Austrian rule in 1920 (inclusive, therefore, of Zone II.) had
297,257 inhabitants (99 per sq. mile). In 1910 the pop. was 299,091 ;
in Zone I. 72,138. Altogether, therefore, the present-day Carinthia
had, on Dec. 31 1910, 371,229 inhabitants (101 per sq. mile). The
population of the district which exercised the plebiscite was in 1910
93-3% Roman Catholic and 6-5 % Evangelical. The proportion of
males to females was as 1,000 to 992; in 1920, however, the propor-
tion was as 1,000 to 1,067.
For administrative purposes Carinthia has been divided into
seven districts and an autonomous city the capital, Klagenfurt
(pop. 26,111 in 1920). Other important places are Villach (pop.
21,896); St. Veit, until 1518 the capital of Carinthia (pop. 5,927);
Wolfsberg (pop. 5,808) ; Spittal (pop. 4,406) and Bleiberg (pop.
2,861). In the Electoral Zone I. are Volkermarkt (pop. in 1910
2,631) and Oberferlach (pop. in 1910 3,194).
Agriculture. Of the Carinthia of to-day (with the exception of the
Electoral Zone I.) 8^69 % of the soil was unproductive in 1900. Of
the productive areas 15-6 % consisted of arable, 0-4% gardens, 11%
meadowland, 25-1 % grazing land (mostly high-lying), 47-7 % wood-
lands (mostly coniferous). Stock-raising is well developed, but
suffered severely during the World War. In 1918 there were 164^,309
head of cattle (of which 66,501 were milch cows) and 97,766 swine.
The Carinthian breeds of cattle (Lavanttaler and Mplltaler) and
of horses are greatly prized. Bee culture, in conjunction with the
cultivation of buckwheat, is actively pursued.
Minerals. The mineral wealth is still noteworthy, notwithstand-
ing the loss of important mining districts. The gold-mines of Tauern
are not worked. Copper and antimony ores are being mined, but
are not smelted locally. On the other hand, the output of lead
(12,000 tons in 1915, or over 92% of the whole present output of
Austria) and zinc (400 tons, or 54% of the whole output) ores is
important in the Gail-Thaler Alps, especially in Bleiberg and
Kreuth. Since the Raibl mines fell to Italy and those of Mies and
Schwarzenbach to Yugoslavia, Bleiberg has regained its importance
as the chief lead-mining centre in Austria. Consequently its prod-
ucts of lead and lead colours (white and red lead) are considerable.
The iron-mining industry, which was once widespread, is now
active only at Hiittenberg, at the foot of the Saualpe. The ore
raised (in 1915 98,000 tons, or 5% of the whole output of Austria) is
carried away from Carinthia to be smelted elsewhere. Lignite
(Braunkohle) is found in many parts of Carinthia, especially in
Lavant-Thal ; the output of this, however, was in 1915 only 84,000
tons, or 3 % of the whole Austrian output.
Manufactures. Carinthia is richly endowed with water-power;
but, in spite of that, its industries are inconsiderable. The most
important are the manufacture of scythes (Himmelberg), the
ironworks of Ferlach and Feistritz, the small-arms factory at
Ferlach, all kinds of lead-w-are, some paper and some woollen fac-
tories (Viktring) and machinery (Briickl). Klagenfurt and Wolfs-
berg are busy centres of the weaving industries and also of the
manufacture of and trade in articles in products of wood notably
cellulose, lignine and pasteboard.
Communications. Since the opening of the Tauern and Kara-
wanken lines, Villach has become an important railway centre, being
at the intersection of the Salzburg-Trieste-Vienna-Venice and Mar-
burg-Franzensfeste (Hungary-Tirol) railways.
See Norbert Krebs, Ldnderkunde der osterreichischen Alpen
(1913), " Das Klagenfurter Becken," Geographische Zeitschrift
(1909); Martin Wutte, Germans and Slovenes in Carinthia (1918),
Das Kdrntner Abstimmungsgebiel (1920); Franz Heritsch, "Die
osterreichischen und deutschen Alpen," Handbuch der regionalen
Geologic (vol. ii., part 5, 1915); Victor Conrad, Klimatographie von
Kdrnten (1913).
CARLISLE, GEORGE JAMES HOWARD, gTH EARL OF (1843-
1911) (see 5.341), died in London April 161911. He was succeeded
by his son, Charles James Stanley Howard (b. 1867), well known
as a Unionist politician under the name of Visct. Morpeth.
The roth earl died Jan. 20 1912, and was succeeded by his son,
George Josslyn L'Estrange Howard (b. 1895).
CARNEGIE, ANDREW (1837-1919), American " captain of in-
dustry " and philanthropist (see 5.364), died at Lenox, Mass.,
Aug. ii 1919. His ideals are shown by his benefactions and are
best described by describing them. In 1910 he gave $10,000,000
for establishing an Endowment for International Peace, " to
hasten the abolition of international war, the foulest blot upon
our civilization." This Endowment was planned to encourage
studies in economics, history and international law so that mis-
understandings of peoples be averted by increasing their knowl-
edge of one another. After America entered the World War
(1917) the Endowment gathered much international information
and furnished it for use at the Peace Conference. In 1910, the
Pan-American Union building erected in Washington by Carne-
gie at a cost of $850,000 was dedicated. In 1911 he established
his last and largest endowment, the Carnegie Corp. of New
York, and before his death placed in its charge $125,000,000
to be used for promoting civilization in whatever way seems best
to the trustees. The variety of its activities is illustrated by the
following: American Red Cross ($1,500,000); Knights of Col-
umbus War Work Fund ($250,000); Y.M.C.A. War Work Fund
($250,000); Y.W.C.A. War Work Fund ($100,000); Library
Buildings in Army Cantonments ($3 20,000) ; Study of Methods of
Americanization ($204,000); National Research Council ($5,420,-
ooo); Church Pension Fund (nearly $325,000), and Simplified
Spelling Board ($110,000). In 1913 the Hague Peace Palace,
given by Carnegie and costing $1,500,000, was dedicated. Some
of the best known gifts in addition to the above mentioned are:
The Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, nearly $29,000,000; the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, $22,300,000; the Carnegie
Hero Fund Commission, $10,500,000; the Carnegie Foundation
for the Advancement of Teaching, $29,250,000; the Carnegie
U.K. Trust, $10,000,000; the Scottish Universities Trust, $10,-
000,000; the Dunfermline Trust, $3,750,000; the Simplified
Spelling Board, $250,000; the Church Peace Union, $2,025,000.
By the close of 1918 he had erected 2,811 library buildings
(1,946 U.S.A.; 660 Great Britain and Ireland; 156 Canada;
49 elsewhere) at a cost of more than $60,000,000. He had
provided 7,689 church organs throughout the world, costing
more than $6,000,000. To the Carnegie U.K. Trust, founded in
1913, he transferred the charge of all his existing and future
benefactions other, than university benefactions in the United
Kingdom. He gave the trustees a wide discretion, and they have
inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather
than erecting library buildings, and of assisting the musical
education of the people rather than granting organs to churches.
In his will he provided that after certain enumerated bequests
the residue of his estate (his family having already been provided
for) should pass to the Carnegie Corporation. Appraisal of the
estate, smaller than had been estimated, was made in 1921 and
showed a net value of $22,880,000. Since according to the law
of New York only half of an estate can be assigned as public
bequests in case husband, wife, parent, or child survive, the
residue passing to the Carnegie Corp. was less than $11,000,000.
Before his death Carnegie had made public gifts, including those
mentioned above, amounting to $350,000,000. If he did not die
poor, as he claimed every man should, he at least had given away
all but a relatively small portion of his wealth.
His Autobiography appeared in 1920.
CARNOCK, ARTHUR NICOLSON, IST BARON (1849- ),
British diplomatist, was born in London Sept. 19 1849, the SOD
58o
CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE
of Admiral Sir Frederick William Erskine Hamilton Nicolson,
loth Bart. (1815-99). He was educated at Rugby and Brasenose
College, Oxford, and in 1870 entered the Foreign Office, where he
was for some time assistant private secretary to Lord Granville.
In 1874 he was attached to the British Embassy in Berlin, and
after occupying a succession of minor diplomatic posts became
in 1885 charge d'affaires at Teheran. From 1888 to 1893 he was
consul-general at Budapest, in 1894 secretary of embassy at
Constantinople, from 1894 to 1895 agent in Bulgaria, and from
1895 to 1904 minister in Morocco. In 1899 he succeeded his
father as nth baronet. In 1905 Sir Arthur Nicolson was sent as
ambassador to Russia, where he remained until 1910, and in the
latter year returned to the Foreign Office, being until 1916,
when he retired, permanent Under-secretary for Foreign Affairs.
He received the K.C.I.E. in 1888, the K.C.B. in 1901, the G.C.-
V.O. in 1905, and the G.C.M.G. in 1906. He was raised to the
peerage on his retirement, and took the title of Baron Carnock.
He published in 1873 a History of the German Constitution.
CAROLUS-DURAN [CHARLES AUGUSTE EMILE DURAND]
(1837-1917), French painter (see 5.381*), died in Paris Feb. 18
1917.
CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE, 1915. In Jan. 1915 the
E. flank of the continuous battle-front in the Carpathians lay
around Baligrod. Farther to the E. as far as the Rumanian
frontier, the Austro-Hungarian High Command had so far
succeeded in preventing any Russian penetration into Hun-
gary by means of measures improvised to meet the immediate
perils such as the use of Landsturm and volunteers. All these
means, however, no longer sufficed.
although the concealment of the concentration, which had to be
carried out by means of a railway system of low efficiency, needed
the utmost care and precaution. General Brussilov, at all events,
spoke of the " whole position " being in jeopardy, in an order
issued after the Austro-German offensive opened on Jan. 23.
West of the Czeremcha road 4 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions
of the III. Austrian Army were to pin to their ground 5 Russian
infantry and i cavalry divisions. On the E. flank Gen. von
Borocvic had n infantry and 2\ cavalry divisions 1 against 9
Russian infantry and 4 cavalry divisions; Gen. von Linsingen 6
infantry and 2 cavalry divisions 2 against one Russian infantry
and 2 Cossack divisions, and Gen. von Pflanzer-Baltin 6 infantry
and one cavalry divisions against 2 to 3 Russian infantry divi-
sions Reichswehr and 2 Cossack divisions. The Russian effective
strengths were certainly the greater, but the Central Powers
hoped despite all difficulties to keep the attack going. They were
undeceived; and the battle in the Carpathians actually dragged
on for some three and a half months.
After the Austro-Germans had opened their operations with
brilliant initial successes, the winter became, as it were, an ally
of their adversaries, and so confined the scope of operations that
the Russians succeeded in taking timely counter-measures. The
temperature fell 13 F. below zero, and as the troops were operat-
ing alnjost entirely in the open, exposed to all the severity of the
weather and that without relief sickness and frost-bite soon
took a heavier toll even than battle casualties, and the divisions
had too few men to fill their battle sectors, which in any case
were very wide. In view of the extent of the area of attack, the
divisions had, almost without exception, to attack in a single
:.,,..
CARPATHIAN FRONT
MID JANUARY
Russian Force!
Austrian
Austrian Rainforctment*
Single L.r.. R.llwsy
OouUi
Y *
The security of Hungary and the relief of Przemysl were to be
effected by an attack on a broad front across the Carpathians,
which, if successful, would develop into a flank attack on a large
scale against the whole Russian battle-line. In this operation
there were to take part: the army group of Gen. Freiherr von
Pflanzer-Baltin, from the Rumanian frontier to E. of Wyszkow;
the German Southern Army, under Gen. von Linsingen (Aus-
trian and German troops); thence to E. of the Uzsok pass; the
reenforced right wing of the III. Army, under Gen. von Boroevic,
thence to the Czeremcha road.
Success depended largely on the vehemence of the blow and on
line. After the melting away of their offensive energy no reserves
were left for the continuance of the advance; after every action
the strength of the troops, tried as they were by adverse circum-
stances, grew weaker; by Jan. 27 the III. Army was no longer
in a position to continue the offensive, and between Feb. 5 and 8
the Southern Army was in the same case. According to the
unanimous conviction of both leaders and men the attack had
literally " stuck fast in the snow," and thenceforward the battle
became a defensive one. The Russians on the 26th had replied
1 Ten infantry divisions, 2 infantry brigades, 2 cavalry divisions
and one Landsturm Hussar brigade.
1 Five infantry divisions, 2 infantry brigades, 2 cavalry divisions.
the Russians being surprised. This surprise was in fact secured,
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE
58i
CARPATHIAN BATTLES 1915
LJ^UAustpian Front begnng of Feb
Russian
- middle
.. end . ,
Russian retreat. and attacks before 2(Tfeb.
attacks after 20' K Feb
KIHibeb:
l-r- -.
LILIENMOF"
FIG. B.
by a counter-offensive W. of the Mezolaborcz railway, and from
the 28th onwards this spread eastwards.
The Southern Army managed to hold its hard-won gains; the
III. Army E. of Wola-Michowa still contrived to defend Hun-
gary in Galicia behind the Upper San and on the hills N. and W.
of Cisna; but the pressure of hostile masses (some 100,000 strong)
astride the Mezolaborcz railway and in the Dukla valley forced
it back towards the Hungarian plains to the line Wola-Michowa,
Stropko, upper course of the Ondava.
The arrival on the 8th of the XVII. Corps from the IV. Army
and the VIII. from the Serbian theatre brought some relief. The
XVII. Corps came into line W. of the VII.; of the VIII., the one
division (the 2ist Landwehr) was sent to the X. Corps, the other
(the gth) to the XIX. and XVIII. Corps which were most in
need of assistance. After the arrival of these fresh forces, Gen.
von Boroevic commenced on Feb. 10 an attempt to recover the
lost ground at Mezolaborcz. This did not prosper, as the Russians
here and in the Dukla valley, strongly reenforced, poured ever-
fresh masses into the attack. The position of the III. Army grew
daily more serious.
Meanwhile Gen. von Pflanzer-Baltin's army group suc-
ceeded, in a series of continuous actions from Jan. 31 to Feb. 20, in
bearing its standards victoriously through the Bukovina and
S.E. Galicia as far as Stanislau. Its Eastern group (three
divisions) had liberated the Bukovina and then moved by way
of Kolomea to the N.W. in order to join the Western group
(three divisions) which had advanced along the Marmarossziget-
Kolomea railway and north-westwards to Nadworna. The
Russians, despite their violent counter-attacks, had by the i7th
been defeated at Kolomea and their group, fighting stubbornly
at Nadworna, was compelled by the increasing pressure on its
flank to fall back towards Stanislau on the igth. This town was
occupied on the 2oth by the main body of Pflanzer-Baltin's com-
mand, which had been reenforced on the I7th by two cavalry
divisions; meanwhile the left wing on the Lomnica wheeled in
towards Dolina in order from the rear to open up for the Southern
Army the issue from the mountains. Already, however, the
concentration N. and W. of Stanislau of powerful Russian forces
the leading troops of Lechitski's IX. Army made it evident
that the Russians were here preparing a counter-offensive. The
well-developed railway system in Galicia facilitated the rapid
reenforcement of the Russian eastern wing. With this the Aus-
trian higher command was unable to compete successfully, for
on the mountain railway by Marmarossziget only three divisions
(5th from the I. Army, XI. Corps from the III. Army) could be
brought up by the early days of March.
It was this circumstance, and the limited time during which
the fortress of Przemysl could hold out, which had meanwhile
determined the Austrian higher command, in spite of the experi-
ences of winter in the Carpathians, to assemble behind the right
wing of the III. Army the forces made available by the weakening
of the Russian forces in Poland and the fortifying of positions
there, although here none but a frontal attack was possible, and
although to the Austrian higher command the offensive of the
Pflanzer-Baltin army group seemed to promise the most decisive
result. Since, however, a direct support of this group was
impossible within the necessary time limit, the plan was to divert
by a new attack over the Carpathians, such strong Russian forces
as to enable the eastern wing to continue the offensive.
The Southern Army was reenforced by the German 4th Infan-
try Division. In order to build up the II. Army behind the right
wing of the III., from Feb. 6 onward three divisions (a7th Inf.
Div. and IV. Corps 3ist and 32d Inf. Div.) were withdrawn from
Poland and the 4ist and half the 38th Honved Divisions from
West Galicia. On Feb. 15 Gen. von Bohm-Ermolli took over the
command of these forces, together with the eastern half of the
III. Army (Szurmay's group, consisting of the V., XVIII. and
XIX. Corps) which numbered 60,700 rifles.
The left wing of the II. Army as now constituted was fighting
with its last reserves of strength. The troops were exhausted
almost to the point of collapse by continuous fighting and the
severities of the weather. The Russian divisions, on the other
hand, were in a better position in that they could usually allow
two regiments to rest while two others attacked. It was only
owing to the most strenuous exertions that the Austro-Hungarian
troops succeeded, without reliefs, in holding the crests and pre-
venting the successive waves of the Russian assault from sweep-
ing away the thin line of defence. Again and again reserves
drawn from the front itself came to the support of the points
most in danger, a process which exhausted the strength of the
CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE
troops, who never had any rest, and led to a lamentable inter-
mixture of the various units.
The commander of the II. Army, whose first care was the
.consolidation of his line by means of reserves, proposed to assem-
ble his reenforcements secretly around Cisna, thence, in con-
FIG. C.
junction with the III. Army's right wing to strike in the direction
of Wola-Michowa, and immediately afterwards to deliver with
his concentrated forces a crushing blow northwards from both
sides of Baligrod. The attack on Wola-Michowa was intended to
recapture Lupkow station, the junction of a narrow-gauge railway
running behind the front of the II. Army. 1 The recovery of this
line would considerably facilitate the supplying of that army, the
bulk of which was dependent on a single practicable road, of
which the condition had alarmingly deteriorated owing to the
unusually early thaw. Meanwhile it was no longer possible to
ignore the urgent need of support for the W. wing of the army.
On Feb. 16 the 16,000 men of the XIX. Corps on this flank
were faced by 28,000 Russians, and a division had to be
brought into line on the 2oth, and another on the 23rd. 2 Not
only was the opportunity of surprising the enemy lost, but they
were allowed still further time to take counter-measures by the
postponement of the Austrian attack on account of the condi-
tion of the roads.
The critical position of Przemysl and the continuing concen 1 -
tration of the IX. Russian Army facing the Austrian E. flank
induced the Austrian high command to press for an immediate
offensive. The Russians had also detached troops from the IX.
Army (II. Cav. Corps and nth Div.) to strengthen Lechitski's
army, and the transference thither of other forces from the
Nida front (XVII. Corps, 3rd and 35th Divs.) was also probable.
In view of the disposition of the railways the only possible
method of assisting Pflanzer-Baltin's army group was for the II.
Army to attract to its own sector, by means of an early attack,
as many hostile troops as possible. This course would consider-
ably increase the difficulties of the II. Army, the special task
of which was the relief of Przemysl; but its considerable numer-
ical superiority over its enemies seemed to the Central Powers
to afford a prospect of success. South of the Vistula there stood
3oi Russian divisions (exclusive of those investing Przemysl) as
against 49 Austrian and German divisions; though many of the
Austrian divisions had, it is true, been reduced to little more
than the strength of infantry regiments. Every attempt was
made to assemble superior forces in the decisive sector, from
the Dukla pass to E. of Cisna. In the first few days of March,
17 divisions could be opposed to 7 or 8 Russian divisions, if
the reenforcements sent to the II. Army were utilized on the
W. wing. In addition, one division from the IV. and one from
the I. Army 3 were used here, bringing up the total of fresh divi-
1 From E. to W., V., XVIIT and XIX. Corps and later IV. Corps.
S 4ist Honved Div. on Feb. 20; 27th Diy. on the 23rd.
* I3th Landwehr and I4th Divs. respectively.
sions to six and a half. The remainder were in many cases dead
tired. Under these conditions the offensive of the III. Army
which was ordered at the same time could hardly be very effec-
tive, and the main burden of the fighting fell to the II. Army.
Misfortune pursued it, however, from the first. The peril of
Przemysl necessitated working to a time limit and in other ways
exercised a powerful influence on decisions taken. The increasing
difficulty in the matter of supplies led to the opening of the attack
on Feb. 27, before the concentration was complete, and to the
choice of the direction of Baligrod for the line of attack as being
" the shortest road to Przemysl " ; while the action planned against
Lupkow was in the end abandoned owing to the loss of time in-
volved. The Russians, entrenched in their strong snow fortresses,
were able continually to bring up reenforcements strong enough
to deny to the group under Gen. von Terszstyansky, advancing
astride the Baligrod road, that decisive initial success which later
experience in war has shown to be so important in attempts to
break through the enemy's line.
Immediately after the opening of the offensive, the tempera-
ture sank once more to 13 F. below zero. The troops lost heavily
from this cause and also from the methods of combat adopted;
these latter were conditioned mainly by the necessity of bringing
speedy help to the garrison of Przemysl, and the universal idea
that this must be achieved at all costs led too often to massed
infantry attacks against barbed wire without sufficient artillery
preparation. A week had elapsed and no ground had been gained
beyond the initial advance of 10 m. in depth astride the Baligrod
road. On March 5 the High Command therefore ordered a gen-
eral attack along the whole Carpathian front. The S. wing of the
IV. Army 4 was to advance on the 6th by Gorlice in the direction
Jaslo-Zmigrod. This had already been recognized by the Aus-
trian higher command as the weakest spot in the Russian line,
but even now it had not sufficient forces available to enable it to
make full use of this knowledge. The attack was delayed till the
8th, and succeeded in pinning the Russian forces to their ground;
parts of von Woyrsch's army detachment and the IX. German
Army attacked N. of the Vistula with the same object between
March 6 and 9.
During the next few days the III. and Southern Armies carried
out no important operations. The II. Army attacked with all
its forces along the whole of its front, between March 5 and 10.
In spite of this the Russians, by the loth, had succeeded in
bringing into action forces equal to those of their assailants;
they were able with the advantage of strong mountain posi-
tions to oppose to the 112,000 rifles of the II. Army about
the same number. On the decisive W. wing they had from 21,000
to 28,000 fresh rifles in reserve as against 13,000 fresh Aus-
trian rifles. 6 This was decisive, for the II. Army was by now
RUSSIAN COUNTER OFFENSIVE IN EAST GALICIA
J
FIG. D.
completely exhausted. Its losses between March i and 15
amounted to 51,000 men (over a third of its total strength on
March i). 6 Two-thirds of these casualties 855 officers and
4 Lt. -Field-Marshal von Arz's group.
6 1 4th Div.
Total strength on March i, inclusive of divisions still en route:
148,850.
CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE
583
APRIL. 1915
FIG. E.
37, 205 other ranks 1 had been suffered by Terzstyansky's group,
only some 70,000 strong.
The offensive of the II. Army culminated on March 10. The
Russian counter-offensive, 2 commencing on the nth with a
flank attack by Wola-Michowa, checked the attack astride the
Baligrod road, and on the I4th it had to be abandoned as hopeless.
The offensive wedge of the II. Army had acted as a magnet to
some 51 Russian divisions. Among these were the 35th and 3rd
Divs. so that the object of relieving the pressure on Pflanzer-
Baltin's front had been achieved.
General Lechitski had commenced his offensive against this
group with four corps on Feb. 28, and the Austrian right wing,
outnumbered, had fallen back, fighting stubbornly, to N. of
Obertyn. Thanks to the timely arrival on March 4 of the XI.
Corps from the IV. Army, Pflanzer-Baltin's troops succeeded in
holding their new front, although the Russians had by the icth
advanced in N. Bukovina as far as the Pruth. On March 18
their offensive against the Austrian E. wing came to a standstill.
The relief of Przemysl had thus proved impossible. However,
in order to assist the garrison in its attempt to cut its way out, by
holding fast as many Russian troops as possible, a striking force
was assembled, despite all obstacles, on the E. wing of the II.
Army. There could be however no question of cooperating with
the garrison, as the sortie attempted on the ipth broke down
while still within the fortress area, all stocks of food being ex-
hausted; a capitulation was signed on the 22nd after all war
material had been as far as possible destroyed.
The failure of the attempts to relieve Przemysl much dis-
couraged the Austrian troops, particularly those of the II. Army.
Their endurance and self-sacrifice, however, were not entirely in
vain. The attention of the Grand Duke Nicholas had been so
riveted on the danger threatening him to the S. of Przemysl that
he lost sight of the duty of cooperating with the Western Allies
of Russia, and decided to attempt a break-through into Hungary
with the forces now assembled to the S. of Przemysl. This was
quite in accordance with the wishes of the Austrian and German
high commands, which up to that time had sought to defend
Germany by continuous attacks in the Carpathians. The strong
Russian forces now directed against Hungary were being enticed
1 Killed and wounded . .
Sick
Prisoners
Missing
Total
i.e. 54% of the total strength.
340 officers
415
31
33 "
855 officers
17,210 other ranks
1 1 .098
i,i94 "
7.703
37,205 other ranks
2 25,000 Russians against 17,400 rifles of the XIX. Corps.
into a region where in winter, as had recently been proved, full
advantage could not be taken of superiority of numbers, a superi-
ority easier in the circumstances to destroy than to maintain.
The last great attempt of the Russians to break through
began on March 20 with an onslaught of unexampled violence
against the whole front of the III. Army, which, despite all it
could do, was gradually forced farther back in the direction of
Hungary. Units of the IV. Army 3 arriving on the 28th toree'n-
force the left wing brought the attackers to a stand; but against
the centre and right of the army the Russians continued their
attacks with ever-fresh forces, and it was obvious that their
object was to break through towards Varanno and Homonna,
the most northerly points of the Hungarian plain. This caused
the utmost anxiety to the II. Army command. As early as the
23rd a gap existed between the left flank of that army and the
retreating right of the III., and although, itself heavily pressed,
the II. Army had no option but to put in some march battalions 4
to fill it. Again on the 26th, at a time when its own front was
weakening rapidly, the army dispatched a combined brigade 6
from its W. wing, and one infantry 6 and one cavalry brigade 7
from its E. wing to the III. Army. (The infantry were sent back
later.) Any further successes against the right of the III.
Army must have seriously menaced the position of the II. Army
stationed N. of the frontier ridge. On the 27th, accordingly, the
army command proposed a voluntary withdrawal; but the high
command, which throughout these days of dire peril still held
firmly to its offensive projects, refused its assent, as the blocking
of the Laborcz valley by the German Beskiden Corps 8 (4th Ger-
man Div. of the Southern Army, 2$th Res. Div. of the IX.
Army, 35th Res. Div. of Woyrsch's group) had been begun.
Meantime, however, the Russians at the end of March had
driven the II. Army to retreat. The system of constantly patch-
ing the front with troops withdrawn from other sectors was no
longer possible, in view of the fact that the enemy's attacks were
now simultaneous all along the army line. The lack of good roads
prevented these reserves arriving in time or in sufficient num-
bers to gain isolated successes. The Russians, being superior in
numbers, were able to seize the opportunity afforded by the
withdrawal of reserves from the centre of the II. Army at Cisna
to drive in its front in that sector. Here they seriously menaced
3 Parts of the 26th Landwehr and 8th Div.
4 Col. Biffl s combined brigade.
5 Lt. -Field-Marshal Martiny's combined brigade.
6 1 28th Honved Brigade.
7 ist Landsturm Hussar Brigade.
8 Beskiden, i.e. the range of the Carpathians separating East
Galicia from Hungary.
584
CARPENTER CARRANZA
the single practicable road, by which alone a deliberate with-
drawal could be carried out by the Austrians. The situation
being now critical, the II Army command on April i gave the
order for a retreat. The sorely tried II Army had to fall back
in one bound between April 2 and 4 to the line Patakofalu-
Nagypolany-N. of Virava, to the S. of the Carpathian ridge; only
Szurmay's group, detached to the Southern Army, was to hold
the Uzsok pass on the crest itself.
The effect of this surrender of the main ridge was not only to
shorten the Austrian front, but also to utilize the mountains,
hitherto an impediment to their operations, as an obstacle
against the Russians and improve the internal situation of the II.
Army (practicable roads and billeting facilities right up close
behind the front). The Russians did not molest the with-
drawal; indeed when it began they were endeavouring with the
forces set free by the fall of Przemysl to break through in the
Laborcza valley. The attack fell on the battered X. Corps,
which was slowly pressed back; the gate of Hungary seemed on
the point of being forced. Fortunately for the Central Powers,
the German Beskiden Corps arrived just at the right moment to
close it again in concert with the X. Corps, in the " Easter battle "
(March 2 to 5). While the II. Army was falling back over the
frontier ridge on the 3rd, the pressure in the Laborcza valley
was checked; on the 4th the Russians lost ground, and by the
5th the situation had been restored.
The Grand Duke now extended his attack on both flanks, but
in vain. The III. Army repulsed all the mass attacks of the
enemy, and by April 9 the great battle on its front, which had
continued without interruption since March 20, came to an end.
On the II. Army front the Russians suffered considerably from
cold and hardship in the inhospitable mountain country and were
compelled to halt to reorganize their lines of communication, so
that they could only follow up the II. Army slowly, and had to
leave much of their artillery behind. The II. Army was therefore
allowed time to dig itself in and bring up enough troops to hold
its chosen line of resistance. Better weather (sunny days, and
night temperatures of only 23 F.) did much to improve the
condition of the troops.
As the roads became better, the main weight of the Russian
attack was transferred to the left wing (astride the Telepocz
road near that place). This, the last serious offensive against the
II. Army front, was finally repulsed on the i3th after a fresh
division 1 from the IV. Army had been put into line. Despite the
most desperate efforts, the Russians failed during the following
days to secure any further success. Their last gain of ground was
the capture of the hotly contested height of Kozialata on the i ;th ;
a series of unsuccessful Austrian counter-strokes prolonged the
fighting till the 2oth, when the consolidation of the opposing
fronts and the mutual exhaustion of the combatants ended it.
Only on the E. wing of the army, which had cooperated with
Szurmay's hard-pressed troops of the Southern Army at the
beginning of April in the defence of the Uzsok pass, was there
still considerable activity. The Russians repeatedly assailed the
pass and the Upper Ung valley from N.W., N. and N.E., between
April 21 and 26, but were held off by the united efforts of Szur-
may's group and the E. wing of the II. Army. The railway,
which had only been repaired after great difficulty, remained
available for use during the spring offensive.
Elsewhere the Southern Army front remained on the whole
unchanged. After some weeks of sapping the hotly contested
Zwinin ridge was stormed on the gth, and the Ostry on the 25th
by the Stryj detachment (detached E. wing of Brussilov's army,
4th Div.). Pflanzer-Baltin's group, reenforced in March by
three cavalry divisions, also held its old positions in Galicia;
it had once more driven the Russians from the northern Bukovina
although the IX. Army in its front had been increased to 8
infantry and 9^ cavalry divisions, and 7 reserve brigades.
The character of the battle in the Carpathians, which
stemmed the Russian advance southwards, is shown by the
figures given in tabular form in the following statement, which
was issued by the Austrian high command on April 20.
1 The 5 1st Honved Div.
Army.
Front-
age
Rifle Strength (inch cavalry).
German X. Army
85 miles
79,000 against 180,000 Russians*
VIII.
56
45,000 124.000
Gallwitz' Army.
GermanlX.Army
92
72
139,000
104,000
304,000
196,000.
1 Woyrsch's Army
58
84.000
90,000
Austrian I. Army.
44
57,000
50,000
" IV. "
72
108,000
100,000
" III. "
48
110,000
106,000
II. "
38
90,000
115,000
Southern Army
Pflanzer-Baltin's
63
85,000
' 120,000
Group .
92
100,000 .
" 155,000 "
Total .
720 miles
1,001,000 against 1,540,000 Russians
The positive objective twice attempted by the Central Powers,
the relief of Przemysl, was not achieved. Their negative aims
were, however, successfully accomplished; the Russians were
prevented from attacking Germany, and their attempted inva-
sion of Hungary was also frustrated. Finally the gradual melting
away of the best elements of the old Imperial Russian Army was
one prominent cause of the great successes of the Central Powers
during the spring offensive. (K. M.)
CARPENTER, WILLIAM BOYD (1841-1918), English divine,
was born at Liverpool March 26 1841, the son of the Rev. Henry
Carpenter, incumbent of St. Michael's, Liverpool. He was
educated at the Royal Institution school, Liverpool, and at
St. Catherine's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1864,
being ordained the same year. He earned a great reputation as
an eloquent preacher, and in 1882 became a canon residentiary
of Windsor, two years later being made bishop of Ripon. He
resigned his see in 1911, and was made canon and later sub-dean
of Westminster. He died in London Oct. 26 1918.
CARR, JOSEPH WILLIAM COMYNS (1849-1916), English
art critic and dramatist, was born in London March i 1849, his
father being a member of an old Cumberland yeoman family.
Educated at the university of London, he was called to the bar
in 1869, but soon became a writer of art criticism for the Pall
Mall Gazelle and, after 1875, editor of L' Art. He also founded
and edited the English Illustrated Magazine, and was associated
with Charles Halle in the founding of the New Gallery, an off-
shoot from the Grosvenor Gallery, in 1888. In his later years
he engaged in theatrical enterprises, and he was the adapter,
alone or in collaboration, of a good many plays, notably Hardy's
Far from the Madding Crowd (1882) and the version of King
Arthur produced by Sir Henry Irving at the Lyceum theatre in
1895. He published Some Eminent Victorians (1908) and Coast-
ing Bohemia (1914), both containing reminiscences of his own
early life and the people he had known. He died in London
Dec. 12 1916.
See /. Comyns Can: Stray Memories, by his wife (1920).
CARRANZA, VENUSTIANO (1859-1920), Mexican revolu-
tionary and president, was born Dec. 29 1859, at Cuatro Ciene-
gas, Coahuila. He was educated in the Ateneo Fuentes at Saltillo
and in the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria at Mexico City. De-
fective eyesight prevented a legal career for which he had studied.
Entering politics, he became presidenle municipal of Cuatro
Cienegas in 1887. In 1893 he and his brother Emilio led a revolt
against the repeated candidacy of Garcia Galan for the state
governorship, and they succeeded in inducing President Diaz
to name General Muzquiz as governor. Carranza was first elected
senator suplenle (alternate) for Coahuila for 1900-2. On the
death of the proprietary Ortiz de Montellanos, he took his seat
April 5 1901. He was elected proprietary senator for 1904-8,
and again for 1908-12, but served only until Dec. 15 1910. In
;he position of senator he was amenable to the control of Diaz.
tn 1909 he became candidate for the state governorship in op-
)osition to the wishes of the central Government. In the follow-
ng year he joined the Madero revolution, serving as a member of
:he Junta Revolucionaria at San Antonio, Texas. Madero made
2 Infantry divisions reckoned as being 14,000 rifles, cavalry divi-
sions as 2,000 sabres.
'Including Austrian reenforcements arrived since April 15.
CARREL CARSON
585
him chief of the military division of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon,
and Tamaulipas and later Minister of War in his provisional
Cabinet. In this position he organized Madero's army. After
the triumph of the revolution he returned to Coahuila and as-
sumed the governorship, to which he was regularly elected in
May IQII. After the coup of General Huerta, Feb. 18 1913, and
the murder of Madero, to whom he was attached, Carranza
issued the Plan de Guadalupe in March, disavowing Huerta as
president. He then became First Chief of the Constitutionalist
army and personally visited all northern Mexico to organize the
opposition, establishing his government at Hermosillo, Sonora,
whence he moved southward until he entered Mexico City Aug.
20 1914, after Huerta had fled. He was opposed by Francisco
Villa and Emiliano Zapata after the split of the Constitutional-
ists, and withdrew to Vera Cruz, which he occupied when the
American occupation terminated. On Oct. 9 1915, he was recog-
nized as head of the de facto Government by the United States
and seven Pan-American powers. On Sept. 30 1916 he decreed
the abolition of the vice-presidency and the limitation of the
presidential term to four years instead of six. He was elected
to the presidency March n 1917, under the constitution pro-
mulgated under his sanction on Feb. 5. Under this radical body
of fundamental law he issued a series of decrees for the nationali-
zation of petroleum lands, which kept his Government contin-
ually in strained relations with England, France and the United
States. As the time approached in 1920 for the election of his
successor, he attempted to force the election of Ignacio Bonillas,
a civilian candidate. This led to an attempt to control the state
government of Sonora, a stronghold of Alvaro Obregon, who
was the strongest and most popular aspirant for the presidency,
but who was inimical to Carranza's politics. The state revolted
in March 1920, being immediately followed by the country at
large. Carranza attempted to move his Government to Vera
Cruz on May 7. His flight was interrupted and he himself was
killed as he was fleeing the country, on the night of May 18, at
Tlaxcalantongo, Puebla.
CARREL, ALEXIS (1873- ), Franco-American surgeon, was
born at Sainte-Foy-les-Lyon, France, June 28 1873. He grad-
uated at the university of Lyons (L.B., 1890; Sc.B., 1891; M.D.,
1900), and for two years was prosecteur A la faculte de medecine
at that university. In 1909 he became a member of the Rocke-
feller Institute for Medical Research in New York. There he won
world-wide fame by his experiments in transplanting human
organs. In 1912 he read before the American Medical Associa-
tion a paper on Preservation of Tissues and its Application to
Surgery. The possibility of keeping alive tissues removed from
the organism led to his seeking practical means of preserving
them for surgical use. He was awarded a Nobel prize in 1912 for
his contributions to surgical knowledge. On the outbreak of
the World War he returned to France and devised the Carrel-
Dakin treatment of wounds. Using H. D. Dakin's preparation, a
neutral solution of hypochlorite of sodium, Carrel's apparatus
keeps the wound continually moist. Countless amputations
were avoided, healing was rapid, and scars supple. In 1919 he
resumed his work at the Rockefeller Institute.
CARSON, EDWARD HENRY CARSON, BARON (1854- ),
British statesman and lawyer, son of Edward Henry Carson,
C.E., Dublin, was born Feb. 9 1854 and educated at Portarling-
ton school and afterwards at Trinity College, Dublin. He was
called to the Irish bar, and made his reputation as Crown Prose-
cutor in Dublin in the difficult years when Mr. Balfour was
Chief Secretary for Ireland. His pluck, readiness, wit, and skill
in cross-examination soon brought him to the front both in legal
and in political circles. He became a Q.C. at the Irish bar in
1889; but his ambitions could not be satisfied with legal eminence
in Dublin. He was called to the English bar, and took silk there
in 1894. Meanwhile he had been returned to Parliament in 1892
in the Unionist interest as member for his own university of
Dublin and was for a few months Solicitor-General for Ireland.
He entered Parliament just when Gladstone was about to make
a second effort to pass a Home Rule bill, and he helped the Union-
ist leaders to defeat the measure. But during the next 20 years he
was mainly occupied with his professional work. Having risen
to a leading place at the bar in Ireland, he achieved an even more
striking success at the English bar; and in 1900 he was appointed
Solicitor-General, a post which he held until the change of govern-
ment in 1905-6. In the early years of the new century he grad-
ually came to be regarded as the spokesman in the House of
Commons of the Irish Unionists, and in that capacity welcomed
Mr. BirrelPs University bill of 1908.
It was not until 1911, when another Home Rule bill was im-
minent, that Sir Edward Carson emerged as a political figure of
first-class importance. He bitterly resisted the Parliament bill,
which was to curtail the power of the Lords and enable a measure
of Home Rule to be passed over their heads and without a direct
appeal to the people. He was one of the " Die-hards " who urged
the peers to take the responsibility of throwing out the bill in
spite of the ministerial threat to swamp their House with sufficient
new creations to make its passage secure. He told the House of
Commons that the passing of Home Rule by force would be
resisted by force and that the resisters would be constitutionally
right. Feeling against the bill was most bitter in Ulster, which,
Protestant and loyal, would be placed by it at the mercy of the
Roman Catholic and largely disloyal majority of the other three
provinces. He went to Ulster in the autumn, and at an enormous
Unionist demonstration at Graigavon, near Belfast, endorsed the
threats of rebellion against Home Rule which previous speakers
made. Belfast, he said, was the key of the situation ; Ulster would
never submit to a Parliament in Dublin. They must be prepared,
if necessary, to take over the administration of those districts
which they were entitled to control. Practical measures were
immediately undertaken in this direction, though Liberals and
Nationalists scoffed. His position was that he and his Ulster
friends were loyal to the constitution as it existed; they were
only rebels, he said, in the sense that they desired to remain under
the King and the imperial Parliament. In anticipation of the
introduction of the Home Rule bill in the spring of 1912, he
presided over a gigantic gathering in Belfast in Easter week,
which Mr. Bonar Law, the newly appointed Unionist leader,
came to address; and he made those present repeat after him,
" We will never, in any circumstances, submit to Home Rule."
He himself, in a speech instinct with passion, moved the rejection
of the bill on its introduction, and took a leading part in opposi-
tion during its subsequent stages. But his activity was mainly
outside. He made frequent speeches in the next couple of years
in different parts of England and Scotland, particularly at a
great demonstration at Blenheim in July 1912, at which Mr.
Bonar Law pledged the support of the Unionist party to Ulster.
But his principal work was in the organization of resistance in
Ulster itself, including the formation of a local volunteer force,
which speedily assumed large proportions. In Sept. 1912 he was
the chief figure at a series of demonstrations in all parts of the
province, culminating in an enormous assemblage at Belfast on
Sept. 28. There he took the lead in signing a solemn covenant
by which the men of Ulster bound themselves to stand by one
another in defending their position of equal citizenship in the
United Kingdom, and in using all necessary means to defeat the
conspiracy to set up Home Rule, and further pledged themselves
to refuse to recognize a Home Rule parliament. He followed
this up by moving unsuccessfully in Parliament on New Year's
day 1913, to exclude Ulster from the operation of the bill. In
the autumn of 1913 the Ulster Unionist Council organized itself,
under his supervision, into a provisional Government, of which
he was the leading member, and a guarantee fund of 1,000,000
was initiated to which he himself contributed 10,000. He
reviewed the volunteers, who were rapidly becoming a formid-
able military force approaching in number 100,000 men. But
when ministers, who had refused to prosecute him or interfere
with his activities, began to realize the determination of the six
north-eastern Protestant counties, he did not repulse their over-
tures for a settlement by consent, but said that it must not
establish a basis for separation. His advice during the following
winter to his Ulster friends was " peace but preparation."
He entirely declined to accept Mr. Asquith's offer, in the spring
5 86
CARTWRIGHT CASEMENT
of 1914, of a county option of exclusion for six years. That was
" sentence of death with a stay of execution." If that was the
Prime Minister's last word, his place was in Belfast; and he and
several of his fellow Unionist members from north-east Ireland
made a dramatic exit from the House on March 19 to go to
Ulster. When he returned for the debates on the Curragh
incident he told the House that there was only one policy pos-
sible, " Leave Ulster out until you have won her consent to come
in." He became a member of the abortive Buckingham Palace
Conference convened by the King in the hope of compromise;
and when that broke down in the end of July it looked as if he
and his Ulster friends would have to make good in action their
policy of force.
The World War supervened, and switched off his activity
into another direction. Though he resented, as a breach of the
political truce between parties, Mr. Asquith's determination to
pass the Home Rule bill into law while suspending its operation
and promising some form of special treatment for Ulster, he
went to Belfast in order to stimulate Ulstermen and especially
Ulster volunteers to join the British army, and had a considerable
success. He was eager for a thorough prosecution of the war,
and accordingly joined Mr. Asquith's Coalition Ministry of June
1915 as Attorney-General, resigning however in Oct. because he
thought that the policy of the Cabinet, after the defection of
Greece, involved the desertion of Serbia, a small country in whose
fate he took a profound interest. He was strongly in favour of the
Compulsory Service bill in 1916, and regretted that Mr. Red-
mond should insist on excepting Ireland from its provisions. He
looked favourably upok Mr. Lloyd George's efforts that summer
to arrange an agreed settlement of the Irish question, and when
that statesman formed a new government in Dec. for the more
efficient conduct of the war, joined his Cabinet as First Lord
of the Admiralty. The great anxiety of the Board of Admiralty
at this period was how to counter the German submarine attack
which was steadily increasing in intensity. He placed his reliance
mainly on an Anti-Submarine Department which had been
established in Whitehall, consisting of the most experienced men
serving at sea, and on the Board of Inventions, under Lord
Fisher, with whom were associated some of the greatest men of
science in the country. His shipbuilding programme was largely
one for making good losses in the mercantile marine. The losses
however continued to increase, and led to a reorganization of the
Admiralty, with a view to strengthening the navy war staff
as well as to put the supply on a sounder basis by revising the
office of Admiralty Controller. Outside his departmental duties
Sir E. Carson warmly promoted the Irish Convention which the
Government assembled this year. In July he quitted the Ad-
miralty to become a member of the War Cabinet without port-
folio, a position which he resigned at the beginning of 1918. But,
in or out of the office, his activity was directed wholeheartedly
to the vigorous prosecution of hostilities.
After the war was over, Ulster and Ireland regained the first
place in his thoughts. At the general election of 1918 he left
. Dublin University, in order to represent one of the divisions of
Ulster's capital, Belfast. On the anniversary in July 1919 of the
battle of the Boyne, he restated, speaking near Belfast, Ulster's
position and claims, demanded the repeal of the Home Rule
Act, threatened to call out the volunteers if any attempt were
made to change Ulster's status, declared Dominion Home Rule
to be merely a blind for an Irish Republic, and criticized Sir
Horace Plunkett as one who was distrusted by both sides. When,
however, Mr. Lloyd George proposed in the winter his bill for
the reform of the government of Ireland, establishing parliaments
and executives both in Dublin and in Belfast, and a Federal
Council for all Ireland, he moderated his attitude. Though he
would have preferred that Ulster should remain in the United
Kingdom, yet, as this bill gave her a parliament of her own, he
would not oppose it. When the bill left the Commons in Nov.
1920, he said that, though Ulster did not ask for a parliament,
she would do her best to make the arrangement a success. He
exerted himself to that end in Ireland, with the result that the
Unionists succeeded even beyond their hopes in the elections
in May 1921 for the first Ulster Parliament, and so started with
an overwhelming majority. But he declined to sit in the new
parliament himself; and he also resisted the suggestions that he,
as the most outstanding fighter in the Unionist party, should be
put forward to succeed Mr. Bonar Law as leader in the British
House of Commons. He had done his best to save Protes-
tant Ulster from domination by the Roman Catholic majority
of the south and west. He was 67 and had felt the strain of the
last 10 years; so he quitted active politics, and accepted a lord-
ship of Appeal and a life peerage as Baron Carson of Duncairn.
He was twice married in 1879 to Sarah A. F. Kirwan, who
died in 1913, leaving two sons and a daughter; and in 1914 to
Ruby Frewen, by whom he had one son. (G. E. B.)
CARTWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1835-1912), Canadian
statesman (see 5.435), died at Kingston, Ont., Sept. 23 1912.
CARUSO, ENRICO (1873-1921), operatic tenor, was born
in Naples, Feb. 25 1873. He was early apprenticed to a mechani-
cal engineer. He began to sing in the choirs at Naples when he
was n, and later studied for three years under Guglielmo Vergine.
He made his debut in 1894 in L' Arnica Francesco at the Teatro
Nuovo, Naples. He first won marked success as Marcello in
La Boheme, at Milan, in 1898; and at La Scala theatre in that
city, he sang for the next four years. From 1899 to 1903 he was
at St. Petersburg in the winter, and in the summer at Buenos
Aires. But meanwhile he appeared also in many cities, including
Moscow, Warsaw, Rome, Paris and London (Covent Garden 1902),
everywhere being warmly greeted. In America he first ap-
peared in 1903 at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York,
where for 18 years he was the leading tenor. He made an exten-
sive concert tour through the United States in 1917. He had a
very extensive Italian and French repertory, but never essayed
Wagnerian roles. He won special success in A'ida, Carmen,
Huguenots, L'Elisir d'Amore, Pagliacci, Rigoletto and Samson.
He died Aug. 2 1921 at Naples.
CARY, ANNIE LOUISE (1842-1921), American singer (see
5.438), died April 3 1921 at Norwalk, Conn.
CASEMENT, ROGER DAVID (1864-1916), British consular
official and Irish traitor, was born near Dublin Sept. i 1864.
His family were Protestants who migrated to Ulster from the
Isle of Man early in the i8th century, and he was brought up in
the Protestant faith. Early in his career he was in the service
of the Niger Coast Protectorate, afterwards entering the British
consular service, and being appointed to Lorenzo Marques (1895),
Loanda (1898) and to the Congo Free State (1898). After seven
years on the Congo he was transferred to South America, going
to Santos (1906), to Para (1907) and to Rio de Janeiro as consul-
general (1908). In 1910, charges of cruelty having been
brought against the agents of the Anglo-Peruvian Amazon Co.,
operating in the region of the Putumayo, a tributary of the Upper
Amazon, Casement was commissioned by the British Govern-
ment to inquire into these charges on the spot. The result of his
investigations was published as a Blue Book in 1912, and pub-
lic opinion was deeply shocked by the' evidence it contained of
the appalling atrocities committed on the natives employed
in collecting rubber (see PUTUMAYO). For this service he -was
knighted. His mind, however, seems to have become affected as
the result of his experiences in the tropics, and on his return to
Ireland from South America he developed a fanatical hatred of
England, throwing himself with ardour into the movement for
Irish independence.
As early as Jan. 1 913 Irish Freedom, a Sinn Fein monthly review,
had foretold the coming war with Germany and proclaimed
this as " Ireland's opportunity," and to the July number of
this review Casement, under the pseudonym of San Van Vocht,
contributed an article on "Germany, Ireland, and the next
War," in which he elaborated this theme. From the first he
took an active part in the Volunteer movement in the south,
and when, in the spring of 1914, the bulk of the Volunteers ranged
themselves under Mr. Redmond's leadership (National Volun-
teers) he attached himself to the Sinn Fein section, which refused
all compromise (Irish Volunteers). He had in the previous year
made efforts, in concert with Mrs. J. R. Green and Capt. White,
CASHIN CASTELNAU
587
to organize in the north counter-demonstrations of Protestants
against the Ulster movement which culminated in the swearing
of the Covenant; but these efforts were a complete failure.
After the outbreak of the World War Casement went to the
United States, whence he wrote in Oct. urging Irishmen to stop
in Ireland, "as they have no quarrel with Germany." In
Nov. he went to Berlin and a communique from the German
Foreign Office, published in the official North-German Gazette,
stated that he had been given assurances there with regard to
Ireland in the event of a successful German invasion of Great
Britain. A pamphlet by him, entitled The Crime against Ireland
and how the War may right it, appealing for a German-American-
Irish alliance, was disseminated in the United States as part
of the German propaganda. In Feb. 1915 he wrote an " open
letter " to Sir Edward Grey accusing the British Government of
conspiring against his life. During that year he visited the
prison camps in Germany and tried, with very poor success, to
undermine the loyalty of Irish soldiers who were prisoners of
war, making them alluring promises if they would join an Irish
brigade to fight for Ireland against Great Britain. He succeeded
in keeping in touch with the extreme elements in Ireland and in
arranging with them the rebellion planned for Easter week 1916,
of which he himself proposed to take the lead. On April 12 he
sailed for Ireland in a German submarine, which was accompa-
nied by a vessel, laden with arms and ammunition, and purporting
to be the Norwegian s.s. " Auk." They reached the coast of
Kerry on the 2ist; but the Government was forewarned. The
" Auk " was captured by a British patrol boat and sunk by her
own crew while being taken to Queenstown. Casement, who
with two companions had landed in a collapsible boat at Banna,
was arrested on the 24th in a ruined fort which afterwards became
a place of pilgrimage for Sinn Fein Irishmen. He had meanwhile
succeeded in sending a message to Dublin, announcing the cap-
ture of the " Auk " and advising the postponement of the enter-
prise. This action, which really broke the back of the rebellion,
was bitterly denounced by some of his fellow conspirators, who
even ascribed their misfortunes to his insane belief in his own
superhuman powers.
Immediately after his arrest Casement was taken to London,
and on May 1 5 was charged at Bow Street police court with high
treason, and committed for trial. The trial began on June 26
before the Lord Chief Justice and two other judges. On June 29
he was convicted and sentenced to death, and on the following
day was degraded from his knighthood. The Court of Criminal
Appeal dismissed his appeal against conviction on July 18, and
he was executed in Pentonville prison on Aug. 3, having been
received into the Roman Catholic Church just before his death.
See L. G. Redmond Howard, Sir Roger Casement: a Character
Sketch without Prejudice (1916). Also a sketch by McQuilland in
Sunday Herald (April 30 1916), and the White Paper issued by the
British Government, Documents relating to the Sinn Fein Movement
(Cmd. 1108).
CASHIN, SIR MICHAEL PATRICK (1864- ), Newfound-
land politician, was born at Cape Broyle, Newfoundland, Sept.
29 1864. He was educated at St. Bonaventure 's College, St.
John's, and afterwards adopted a business career, becoming a
fishery merchant at Cape Broyle in 1885. In 1893 he entered
politics as Liberal member for Ferryland, becoming a prominent
member of the party. In 1905, however, he broke away from the
Liberals, joining first the Independent Liberal party, and later
(1908) the People's party led by Sir Edward (afterwards Lord)
Morris. He was chosen to represent Newfoundland on the
Commission on West Indian Trade held at Jamaica in 1901, and
after the outbreak of the World War occupied various important
political posts. In 1917 he became Minister of Finance, and as
such was largely instrumental in raising the Victory loan, and in
1918 he was successively acting Prime Minister during the ab-
sence of Lord Morris, acting Minister of Militia and acting
Minister of Shipping. He was in the same year created K.B.E.
CASSEL, SIR ERNEST JOSEPH (1852-1921), Anglo-German
financier, was born at Cologne March 3 1852. His father, Jacob
Cassel, was a small banker in that city, and the son at the age of
16 became a clerk in the banking firm of Elspacher, but in 1870
came to London and entered the foreign banking house of
Bischoffscheim and Goldsmid. There, before he was 20, he
attracted notice by his skilful disentanglement of the accounts
of the Khedivial loans. In 1884 he set up for himself and became
largely interested in South-American finance. He reorganized
the finances of Uruguay, and issued three Mexican loans, as well
as acquiring the Royal Swedish railway and financing enter-
prises such as Vickers' absorption of the Maxim-Nordenfelt Co.
and the building of the Central London railway. He also raised a
Chinese loan after the war with Japan. His principal achieve-
ment was, however, the financing of the Nile irrigation work, and
in connexion with that, the founding of the National Bank of
Egypt. In these schemes he worked hand in hand with Lord
Cromer. For these services he received a Privy Councillorship
in 1902 and was created K.C.V.O. He had previously been
created K.C.M.G. (1890) and he subsequently received the
G.C.M.G. (1905), the G.C.V.O. (1906) and the G.C.B. (1909).
He was also the recipient of decorations from the Governments
of France, Sweden, Turkey and Japan. During the World War,
though he had long been a naturalized British subject, an attempt
was made to have his name removed from the list at the Privy
Council. It did not succeed. He had retired from active finan-
cial operations in 1910. His benefactions were extensive, and
included 500,000 for educational purposes, 225,000 for a hospi-
tal for nervous diseases, 50,000 to King Edward's Hospital Fund
in memory of his only child, Mrs. Wilfrid Ashley, who died in
1911, besides large gifts during the war to the British Red Cross.
He also built and endowed an Anglo-German Institute in 1911 in
memory of King Edward VII., with -whom he had been upon
terms of close friendship. He was a considerable breeder and
owner of race-horses; and he acquired a collection of Early Eng-
lish pictures, including a celebrated Raeburn. He married in 1878
Annette, daughter of R. T. Maxwell. She died in 1881. Sir
Ernest died in London Sept. 21 1921.
CASSEL, GUSTAV (1866- ), Swedish economist, was born
in 1866. After taking his degree in mathematics at the university,
he became a lecturer, and was appointed professor of national
economy at the High School of Stockholm in 1904. He studied
and travelled widely abroad. In addition to a number of books
in Swedish, he published the following works in other languages:
Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag (1900); The Nature and
Necessity of Interest (1903); Theoretische Sozialdkonomie (1919).
His Memorandum on the World's Monetary Problems, published
by the League of Nations for the International Financial Con-
ference in Brussels in 1920, attracted widespread attention.
He was a member of many committees dealing with matters of
State in Sweden and devoting much labour to the creation of a
better system of budget exposition and control (1905-21). He
was one of the Swedish representatives at the International
Chamber of Commerce meeting in London in 1921. He became
a member of Svenska Vetenskapsakademien and correspondent
for Sweden to the Royal Economic Society.
CASTELNAU, EDOUAREf DE CURIERES DE (1851- ),
French general, third son of the Marquis Michel de Curieres de
Castelnau, was born at Rouergue on Christmas Eve 1851. He
was educated first at the Jesuit college there, and later in Paris,
and entered St. Cyr in 1869. When war broke out with Prussia
the young cadet was posted to an infantry regiment, and he rose
to the rank of temporary captain, being given a permanent com-
mission as lieutenant when peace was made. He was promoted
captain in 1876 and commandant in 1889. By 1893 his genius
for organization had become apparent, and he was called to
Paris by Gen. de Miribel. He remained at the Ministry of War
for some six or seven years, during which time he perfected the
French system of mobilization. That system remained in 1914
fundamentally the same as it had been conceived by him in 1900.
On leaving Paris de Castelnau was promoted colonel. He was
later given command of a brigade, and, in 1910, of a division.
When Gen. Michel left the post of generalissimo and Joffre was
appointed in his stead, Castelnau was designated as his chief-of-
staff in case of war. But his religious and political views he
5 88
CAVALRY CECIL
was nicknamed le capucin botte caused him to be regarded with
suspicion, and in consequence he was designated for the command,
in case of war, of the II. Army in Lorraine, which command, on the
outbreak of hostilities in 1914, he assumed. With Gen. Dubail
(I. Army) he was responsible for the operations of Aug. and Sept.
1914 in Lorraine. The first .offensive towards the Saar was
unsuccessful, but his repulse of Prince Rupprecht's VI. Army
on the heights of the Grand Couronne, in Aug. and Sept. 1914,
not only saved Nancy but paved the way for the Marne victory.
He was 'made grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In the be-
ginning of the "Race to the Sea" (Sept.-Oct.) the II. Army
staff and its leader took command of the forces that were pushed
into the region between the Oise and the Somme, and fought a
series of encounter battles which ended in the stabilization of the
front. In 1915 he took command of the group of four armies
which constituted the French Centre, and he was in charge of
the French offensive in Champagne in the latter months of the
same year. On Dec. 10 1915 he was appointed " major-general
of all the armies," with the intention that he should be ad latus,
and eventual successor of Joffre. But in practice, and partly as
the result of political intrigue against him, Castelnau's role was
reduced to that of occasionally representing the commander-in-
chief. It was in this capacity that he went to Salonika in the
winter of 1915-6 to inspect the condition of affairs there, and it
was in this capacity also that he performed his greatest service to
France when, summoned at a moment's notice to Verdun, he
found the defence overpowered and disorganized by the sudden-
ness of the German attack. The splendid part he played in
steadying and inspiring the historic French resistance cannot
easily be exaggerated. After a few days' work he was able to hand
over the defence, systematized, reenforced and confident, to
Petain. In Jan. 1917 after the appointment of Nivelle, many
years his junior, to the chief command, he was sent on a mission
to Russia. Returning in March of the same year he was given
command of the eastern group of armies, and in this appointment
he remained till the end of the war. In Sept. 1917 hewas awarded
the medaille militaire. Political animosities alone prevented his
being promoted to the dignity of Marshal of France, along with
D'Esperey, Lyautey and Fayolle, in 1921.
CAVALRY: see MOUNTED TROOPS.
CAVE, GEORGE CAVE, IST VISCOUNT (1856- ), British
politician and lawyer, was born in London Feb. 23 1856. He was
educated at Merchant Taylors' school and St. John's College,
Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1880. He practised at the
Chancery bar, and in 1904 became a K.C. In 1906 he was elected
Unionist M.P. for Kingston, and on the formation of the Coali-
tion Government in 1915 was made Solicitor-General and
knighted. He became Home Secretary in 1916 on the accession
of Mr. Lloyd George to power, and in this capacity was very
prominent in the debates in the House of Commons on the
police strike of Aug. 1918. In Nov. 1918 he resigned office, and
was created a viscount, becoming in Jan. 1919 a lord of appeal.
CAVELL, EDITH (1865-1915), British nurse, was born Dec. 4
1865 at Swardeston, Norfolk, the daughter of the Rev. Frederick
Cavell, vicar of that parish. She was educated at various schools
in England and in Brussels, and entered the London hospital as a
probationer in 1895. After five years at the hospital she was
successively night superintendent at the St. Pancras infirmary,
assistant superintendent at Shoreditch infirmary and matron at
the Ashton New Road district home, Manchester. In 1907 she
was appointed the first matron of the Berkendael medical in-
stitute, Brussels, a surgical and medical home founded by Dr.
de Page as a pioneer training school for Belgian secular nurses.
The institute became a Red Cross hospital on the outbreak of the
World War, in which Belgian, German, French and English
soldiers were nursed. From Nov. 1914 to July 1915 wounded
and derelict English and French soldiers and Belgians and French
of military age were hidden from the Germans and provided with
false papers by Prince Reginald de Croy at his chateau of Bellig-
nie near Mons; thence conducted by various guides to the houses
of Edith Cavell, Louis Severin and others in Brussels, and fur-
nished by them with money to reach the Dutch frontier and with
guides obtained through Philh'pe Baucq. On Aug. 6 Edith Cavell
was arrested at the Berkendael institute and sent to the prison
of St. Gilles. She made three depositions to the German police,
Aug. 8, 18, and 22, admitting that she had been instrumental in
conveying about 60 English and 15 French derelict soldiers and
about 100 French and Belgians of military age to the frontier
and had sheltered the greater number in her house. Thirty-five
persons were arrested. The court-martial was held, Oct. 7 and 8,
before Dr. Stoeber and five judges, and a Belgian lawyer, M.
Sadi Kirschen, defended Edith Cavell. On Oct. 9 Edith Cavell,
Louise Thuliez, Phillipe Baucq, Louis Severin and Countess
Jeanne de Belleville were secretly sentenced to death; and of the
remaining 30, 22 were sentenced to imprisonment and 8 acquitted.
On the loth the sentence was announced in secret to the prison-
ers. Gen. von Sauberzweig, the military governor of Brussels,
ordered that " in the interests of the State " the execution of the
death penalty against Baucq and Edith Cavell should be carried
out immediately. At 7 A.M. on Oct. 1 1 they were shot at the Tir
National, Brussels, in spite of the energetic attempts to secure
delay made by the American minister, the secretary of the Am-
erican legation and the Spanish minister, who first became aware
of the sentence during the night of the toth. The other three
were reprieved. These were the first death sentences imposed by
the Germans in Belgium for recruiting as opposed to espionage.
On May 15 1919 the body was removed to Norwich cathedral,
after a memorial service in Westminster Abbey. A memorial
statue, by Sir G. Frampton, is erected opposite the National
Portrait Gallery, London.
See The Case of Miss Cavell from the Unpublished Documents of
the Trial, interpreted by Ambroise Got; Sadi Kirschen, Devant les
Conseils de Guerre Allemands (1919); Correspondence with the United
States Ambassador respecting the Execution of Miss Cavell at Brussels,
Cd. 8013, Stationery Office (1915).
CAVIGLIA, ENRICO (1862- ), Italian general, was born at
Finalmarina (Genoa) May 4 1862. He entered the artillery, and
his early years in the army were spent between this branch of
the service and the general staff, but on attaining his majority
he passed to the infantry arm. He served in Eritrea and in the
Italo-Turkish War and, as a captain of the general staff, was
attached to the Japanese army during the Russo-Japanese War.
In Feb. 1914 he was nominated vice-director of the Military
Geographical Institute in Florence. On Italy's entry into the
World War he served as a colonel on the general staff, and in
Aug. 1915 he was promoted to major-general and given com-
mand of the Bari Brigade. In June 1916 he took over the 29th
Div. and two months later was promoted lieutenant-general
" for war merit." In July 1917 he was given command of the
XXIV. Corps, which under his direction broke through the
Austrian lines on the Bainsizza plateau. After Caporetto he
took command of the VIII. Corps and subsequently of the X.,
and in June 1918, after the Austrian offensive on the Piave, he
was chosen to command the VIII. Army. Under his leadership
the VIII. Army played an important part in the final victory of
Vittorio Veneto. From Jan. to June 1919 Caviglia was Minister
of War, and as such became a senator, and in Nov. of the same
year he was promoted army general. In Jan. 1920 he took over
the command of the troops in Venezia Giulia, with headquarters
at Trieste. He had a very difficult task to perform, since the
discipline of the troops had been severely shaken by the example
of D'Annunzio's Fiume raid, and there was danger of trouble on
the frontier with the Yugoslavs. Caviglia restored discipline,
and showed both firmness and tact in dealing with these delicate
problems. When it became evident that only force would drive
D'Annunzio from Fiume he did not hesitate to carry out his task.
CECIL, LORD HUGH RICHARD HEATHCOTE (1869- ),
English politician (see 24.76), youngest son of the 3rd Marquess
of Salisbury, was born Oct. 14 1869, and was educated at Eton
and University College, Oxford. He obtained a first class in
history in 1891 and was elected a fellow of Hertford College.
He gained his first insight into politics as one of his father's
private secretaries, and was returned to Parliament as a Con-
servative for Greenwich in 1895. Ecclesiastical questions were
CECIL CELLULOSE
589
those in which he took the keenest interest, and he became an
active member of the Church party in the House, resisting the
attempts that were made by Nonconformists and Secularists to
take the discipline of the Church out of the hands of the arch-
bishops and bishops, and to remove the bishops from their seats
in the House of Lords. In these debates he showed remarkable
oratorical power and loftiness of tone, and established a reputa-
tion which was confirmed and heightened during the progress
through Parliament of Mr. Balfour's Education bill of 1902. In
an earnest speech on the second reading he maintained that for
the final settlement of the religious difficulty there must be
cooperation between the Church of England and nonconformity,
which was the Church's natural ally; and that the only possible
basis of agreement was that every child should be brought up in
the belief of its parents. The ideal to be aimed at in education
was the improvement of the national character. In the latter
stages of the bill's progress he warmly resented an amendment
approved by the House and taken over by the Ministry giving
the managers, instead of the incumbent of the parish, the control
of religious education in non-provided schools. Thib was not the
only point on which he showed considerable independence of the
Government of which his cousin Mr. Balfour was the head.
He and Mr. Winston Churchill gathered round them a small
group of young and able Conservative members, whose in-
dependent proceedings attracted some attention in Parliament,
and who formed a sort of pale reflection of Lord Randolph
Churchill's Fourth party. He dissented from the beginning
from Mr. Joseph Chamberlain's policy of tariff reform, pleading
in Parliament against any lowering of our idea of empire into
that of a " gigantic profit-sharing business." He took a promi-
nent position among the " Free Food Unionists," and conse-
quently was attacked by the tariff reformers and lost his seat at
Greenwich in 1906. He did not return to Parliament until 1010
when his high character and his academic outlook recommended
him, in spite of his hostility to tariff reform, as a fitting member
for Oxford, his own university. He threw himself immediately
with passion into the struggle against the Ministerial Veto
Resolutions, comparing the Asquith Government to " thimble-
riggers." In the next year he was active in the resistance to the
Parliament bill, treating Mr. Asquith as a " traitor " for his
advice to the Crown to create peers, and taking a prominent
part in the disturbance which prevented the Prime Minister
from being heard on July 24 1911. But he never quite regained
the authority which he had possessed in the House in the early
years of the century. He strongly opposed the Welsh Church
bill; and he denounced the Home Rule bill, in a picturesque
phrase, as reducing Ireland from the status of a wife to that of
a mistress she was to be kept by John Bull, not united to him.
During the World War Lord Hugh joined the Flying Corps,
becoming a lieutenant R.F.C. in 1915, and in that capacity he
severely censured, in debate in 1918, the treatment of Gen.
Trenchard by the Government. He also served in 1917 as a
member of the commission to enquire into the Mesopotamian
expedition. In Parliament he pleaded for lenient treatment of
conscientious objectors to the Military Service bills; and en-
deavoured unsuccessfully to relieve them of disability under the
new Reform Act. After the war he took a less active part in
politics, but generally found himself in agreement with his
brother Lord Robert, whom he followed into Opposition in 1921.
(G. E. B.)
CECIL, LORD (EDGAR ALGERNON) ROBERT (1864- ),
English lawyer and statesman (see 24.76), third son of the 3rd
Marquess of Salisbury, was born Sept. 14 1864. Educated at
Eton and University College, Oxford, he obtained a second class
in law in 1886. He was a prominent speaker at the Oxford Union,
and obtained political experience as one of his father's private
secretaries from 1886 to 1888; but he determined to approach
an active political career by way of the bar, and was called by
the Inner Temple in 1887. He made such progress in his pro-
fession that he could take silk in 1899; and he established his
position as a sound lawyer and capable advocate. It was not till
1906 that he entered Parliament as Conservative member for
E. Marylebone, and he was one of the principal critics of Mr.
Birrell's abortive Education bill of that year, contending
throughout that facilities should be afforded for the training of
children in the religion of their parents. In this he carried on
the work of his younger brother, Lord Hugh Cecil, now out of
Parliament. But, though a vigilant champion of Church interests,
as for instance in opposition to the Deceased Wife's Sister's bill,
he also took up, in conjunction with Mr. Harold Cox on the
Liberal side, an attitude of individualist opposition to Socialist
measures, such as Miners' Eight Hours, Old Age Pensions, and
Increment Taxation bills. He also dissociated himself from the
tariff reform policy of his party. He had won a leading place
among the private members of the House, when Parliament was
dissolved in 1910. He then retired from Marylebone, owing to
the strong opposition of the tariff reformers, and failed to secure
election as a Unionist free trader at Blackburn. In the second
General Election of 1910 he stood for N. Cambridgeshire but
was beaten by Mr. Neil Primrose. However, he returned to
Parliament at a by-election in 1912 as member for the Hitchin
division of Herts., the tariff reform issue being now in abeyance.
He immediately resumed his prominent position in the House,
and was active in his opposition to schemes of socialism and dis-
establishment. He was a leading advocate of woman suffrage;
and, though not palliating militancy, was a strong critic of
forcible feeding. Ultimately, after women had been granted the
suffrage under the Reform Act of 1918, he had the satisfaction of
carrying a resolution permitting them to sit in Parliament.
By the time of the outbreak of the World War his claims to
recognition among the Unionist leaders were so considerable that
he was appointed Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs in the first
Coalition Ministry. His functions mainly concerned the vitally
important question of blockade; and when there was a consider-
able outcry against the comparative ineffectiveness of our block-
ade, a new Ministry of Blockade was constituted, in Feb. 1916,
with Lord Robert as minister. In that capacity he announced
in June I9'i6, to the general satisfaction, that the Allies had de-
cided to abandon altogether the Declaration of London. His work
was so much appreciated that he was retained both as Minister of
Blockade and as Foreign Under-Secretary in Mr. Lloyd George's
Ministry of Dec. 1916. In July 1918 the labours of the Foreign
Office became so considerable that he was relieved of the Ministry
of Blockade, and became Assistant Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, retaining that important post through the negotiations
which resulted eventually in the Armistice; but he resigned on the
eve of the General Election, on the ground that he could not
support the decision of the Coalition Ministry to treat Welsh
disestablishment as a fait accompli. Though out of office, he
nevertheless went over to Paris in 1919 to help to fashion the
League of Nations, of which from the first he was an enthusiastic
advocate. He was subsequently indefatigable in pressing its
claims upon Parliament and people, urging that the sooner
enemy nations, including Germany, could be included in it with
safety, the better. In 1920 he attended the first assembly of the
League at Geneva as the representative of South Africa at the
request of Gen. Smuts, himself a convinced believer in this new
international organ. He also took a large share in Parliamentary
debate, appearing, for instance, as a strong supporter of the
Church Enabling bill, and criticizing the policy of the War Graves
Commission and the regulation headstone which it recommended.
In spite of his protestation, when he left the Government, that
except on the one point of the Welsh bill, he was a convinced
supporter, he steadily drifted into opposition, being especially
alienated by their gigantic budgets, and by the policy of re-
prisals in Ireland. At one time both extreme Tory and visionary
Radical thought they saw in him the leader of the future; but
when he ultimately took his seat on the Opposition front bench
in 1921, he did not appear to carry anyone across the House with
him, except his brother, Lord Hugh.
Lord Robert Cecil married, in 1889, Lady Eleanor Lambton,
daughter of the and Earl of Durham. (G. E. B.)
CELLULOSE (see 5.606). The decade following the year 1910,
including the experiences of the World War, fully confirmed
590
CELLULOSE
the scientific estimate of the importance of cellulose as an in-
dustrial product. The production of cellulose nitrate, the basis
of modern military explosives, attained in 1918 to 5,000 tons per
week in America alone. Another ester derivative of cellulose,
the acetate, took a prominent and perhaps unique position in
regard to war material, as the basis of the dope-dressing applied
to the textile coverings of the wings of aeroplanes. The intensive
production of these synthetic derivatives necessarily involved
extensions of research with resulting additions to our knowledge
of cellulose as a chemical individual, and in evidence of the
magnitude of these industries and the wide scope of their tech-
nology we may refer to E. C. Worden's elaborate treatise on the
" Nitro Cellulose Industries." In evidence of the rapid growth of
the subject in its wider aspects we may refer to the same author's
treatise (projected in 1921), to be issued in ten volumes over a
period of years.
Progress of investigation and knowledge of cellulose as a
chemical individual was in 1921 more definitely marked as
following three independent lines, obviously converging towards
a constitutional formula or expression: (i) The study of cellulose
as it is; a colloidal substance, perhaps the prototype of colloids,
and of its immediately related derivatives, having closely similar
physical properties. (2) The study of its resolutions by reaction
to compounds of Ci-C 6 dimensions, also carbo-hydrates, which
are presumed to be actual components, and, being compounds
of known constitution, to be the foundation of an integral for-
mula of constitution of the parent substance. With this primary
or fundamental method is associated the study of the whole
range of reactions and interactions of cellulose as diagnostic of
its component groups. (3) The study of resolutions (a) to highly
complex mixtures of products, by destructive distillation, or by
natural processes of which the ultimate residual products are
humus-lignite coal; (b) to ultimate products of C 3 -C dimensions
by symbiotic bacterial process of decomposition.
Of the above, No. 2 is the line or method of systematic chem-
istry, and its exponents detach themselves in the main from all
considerations of the natural history and physiology of the
celluloses: their organized structure and colloidal characteristics
are treated as of subordinate moment, and the technology of the
cellulose industries is for the most part ignored. Nevertheless,
the contributions of this school of workers are of first importance.
The following are to be noted:
Resolution to Dextrose by ester formation, solution in water, and
progressive hydrolysis of esters: (a) Reaction with H 2 SO4 Ost &
Wilkening (1910-3) confirm Flechsig (1882) in the general con-
clusion that cellulose is quantitatively converted to dextrose;
(b) reaction with HC1. Aq. Willstatter and Zechmeister (1913).
rediscovering the solvent action of the acid at maximum concentra-
tion (W. A. Miller, Organic Chemistry, p. 130, ed. 1869), apply the
reaction to an analogous process of resolution and further confirm
the generally accepted relationship.
Resolution to Biose (cellobiose) and Monose (dextrose) following con-
version into (a) acetic ester and (6) methyl and ethyl ethers or
ethoxides (c) mixed (acetic) ester Aether derivatives. By the former,
Ost has demonstrated the production of the biose as octacetate with
the monose as pentacetate, the joint yield calculated to the monose
representing 90% of the cellulose. By resolution of the methoxide
derivatives Denham and Woodhouse obtain 1,2,5, trimethyl
glucose and establish a critical constitutional point in regard to
current discussion of the several alternative formulae based on the
general acceptance of the quantitative cellulose dextrose relation-
ship. The " acetolysis " of the ethoxides has been specially in-
vestigated by Hess and Wittelsbach.
Resolution by Heat to Laevo-glucosan. A direction of research of
critical importance is opened up by A. Pictet and co-workers, and
subjecting cellulose (starch and glucose) to distillation in vacua
(12.14 mra - at 210) with production of laevo-glucosan
CH-CHOH-CHz
\o
in large yield (40 %).
CHOH.CHOH.CH
Helvetica Chem. Acta, 1918-20; also P. Karrer, ibid. 1920.
These notes are sufficient as evidence of the rapid advance of
knowledge due to the active work and discussions of the chemists
whose ultima thule is expressed by a recent contributor " the
time would now seem to be opportune when the question of direct
synthesis should be undertaken." This project issues from a
comprehensive critical discussion of the research work of the
last decade (H. Hibbert, "The Constitution of Cellulose,"
Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem. 13 (1921), 256 et seq.), of which the
following is characteristic " Cellulose is thus nothing more
than a polymerised dextrose glucoside of dextrose."
As indicated above, the perspective of this school of workers is
that of systematic chemistry, self-contained, and perhaps ar-
bitrarily delimited from the objective relationships of cellulose
as a dominant factor of the organic world and a main subject
of natural history of which the complementary chapters are
those of human industries.
Investigations from this point of view have also established
points of critical importance:
1. The primary importance of specific volumes of cellulose and
derivatives, for the adequate interpretation of reaction in this field.
2. The reactive continuity of cellulose: it reacts as a system,
whereas systematic chemistry interprets its reactions in terms of a
" molecular " individual.
_ 3. Cellulose is profoundly modified, structurally and constitu-
tionally by mechanical shock and strain : as it is in degree propor-
tionate to the active influence by all forms of energy (light, elec-
trical current, heat).
4. Cellulose, is resolved by bacteria to ultimate products of
C 3 -Ci dimensions: and recent research has brought these reactions
under such control that the massive treatment of the " normal "
celluloses is an industrial operation of the order of starch fermenta-
tions. It is noteworthy that these transformations are in the main
direct, and do not involve the transitional phases of the familiar
operations of the brewer and distiller.
5. Lastly, as a negative point and a general criticism of the con-
clusions of the school of systematic chemists, the cellulose-dextrose
relationship postulating a conversion of 100 of cellulose to in
dextrose is not established. Research in this field is limited to cotton
cellulose. If extended to esparto cellulose (a type sharply and
characteristically differentiated), to the wood celluloses, or even to
cotton cellulose modified by mercerization and other treatments
yielding products which maintain the structural characteristics,
it would be recognized in the results that the " constitution of
cellulose " is a problem of the dimensions of a continent rather than
of a village: or possibly, that the " synthesis of cellulose " is an
ideal, illusory, however useful. (The reader is referred to C. F.
Cross, Canter Lectures " Cellulose " /. R. Soc. Arts 1920; and to
papers by same author in /. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1918-20.)
Cellulose Products in War Service (1914-8). The following
note on the development of the technology of the cellulose
nitrates to meet the exacting requirements of the fighting services
is contributed by Sir R. Robertson, who, as director of research
at Woolwich, was responsible for the chemical technical control
of the manufacture.
In England cellulose nitrates were. used during the war in the
Land Service for the manufacture of cordite R.D.B., and for
Admiralty cordite; towards the end of the war a small proportion
was used for making nitro-cellulose powder. By far the largest
use was for cordite R.D.B., as this propellant was ultimately
manufactured at the rate of about 2,000 tons a week, involving
the nitration of about 700 tons of purified cellulose. For Admi-
ralty cordite over too tons a week of sliver cotton was prepared,
this material being specially selected and purified. The cotton for
the nitro-cellulose powders was a high grade of " linters."
The preparation of cellulose for the Land Service assumed the
proportion of a great industry. The raw materials were drawn
from wastes from the spinning-mills not only of England, but
also of Egypt, India, and of other countries. It was soon found
that the variations in treatment of the crude wastes produced
a product which gave variable results after it had been nitrated,
especially when it reached the stage of its incorporation with
nitro-glycerine and gelatinization by means of ether-alcohol.
All the materials for producing cellulose for nitration were there-
fore coordinated under the Department of Explosives Supply,
which instituted a system of chemical control of the product,
with the objects of obtaining uniformity of production, reducing
the quantity of impurities, and obtaining a suitable low viscosity.
A uniform process of " kiering " (boiling under pressure with a
lye of caustic soda) was introduced, and under strict supervision a
CENSORSHIP
59i
product was obtained of remarkable purity, considering its origin,
and suitable for the manufacture of cordite R.D.B.
The result is an example of the successful application of
chemical technical control to secure a product of standard
uniform quality, and by reason of the quality of low viscosity
of the nitrated product a very considerable economy in the
ether-alcohol, for gelatinizing the nitro-cellulose. The methods
for determining the viscosity of the cellulose, and a method for
determining ligneous impurities in the cellulose (Trans. Chem.
Soc. 1920, 117, 473 and 479, and Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry, 1920,
39, 81 T) were worked out at the Research Department, Wool-
wich. The application of this work on cellulose by the Depart-
ment of Explosives Supply is described in Jour. Soc. Chem.
Industry, vol. 39, 333 T.
The United States supplied large quantities of nitro-ccllulose
propellant for the Allies and for its own army, and used as raw
material a considerable proportion of the shorter fibre " waste "
from the delinted cotton seed. During the last three months
of the war the total production of cellulose nitrate material in
the United States was at the rate of 5,000 tons a week. This
propellant consisted of gelatinized nitro-cellulose with the addi-
tion of a stabilizer, but it contained no nitro-glycerine.
In the enemy countries the shortage of cotton supplies was
met by the extensive employment of wood cellulose, paper-
makers' cellulose pulp, purified by alkaline hydrolytic treat-
ments, which modify the cellulose to a nearer approximation to
the standard cotton cellulose.
Cellulose Acetate. The cellulose acetates are the chemical
analogues of the nitrates, and a specially prepared acetone soluble
acetate was extensively used in dressing the textile coverings of
aeroplane wings, the treatment having an ensemble of effects,
producing shrinkage of the fabric in situ, thus a taut finish, a
smooth surface and the water-resistant quality obviously in-
dispensable.
In England the manufacture of the product was developed by
The British Cellulose Co. on the basis of the Dreyfus patents who,
since 1918, have been engaged in perfecting the " Artificial Silk "
based upon the acetate. This product has the external features of
the cellulose-" Silks," with certain points of superiority of the
ester-derivative as a chemical substance, notably the water-resistant
quality and lower specific gravity. On the other hand, certain
defects as a textile thread, with high costs of manufacture, keep
the present production to a definitely limited scale.
Other lines of development followed more particularly under the
stress of war conditions and the resulting contributions to progress
are treated in the article Fibres. One section requires further men-
tion here in introducing the comprehensive subject of cellulose as a
dominant factor of the organic world. Recent research work has
established on a basis of direct proof that cellulose is assimilated by
the Herbivora and has therefore a positive value as food-stuff:
a conclusion which rested previously on inferential evidence from
physiological-chemical statistics. The positive flesh-forming func-
tion postulates conversion of the cellulose into water-soluble de-
rivative, carbo-hydrates probably, as a digestive process in which
the animal secretions are operative; at the same time there are the
distinctive fermentations, previously mentioned, of the celluloses to
ultimate products, under bacterial action, which are known to
occur in the digestive tract of the animal and of which the physi-
ological value or function remains undetermined.
Such fermentations, characterized by the researches of Omeliansky
and Macfadyen, in regard to " Thermophilic " bacteria, and hitherto
pure " cultures of these have however been observed as processes
of long duration. The current developments of an industrial re-
search syndicate, Power Spirit, Ltd. (Stockton-on-Tees and Epsom),
and H. Langwell are establishing such fermentations as industrial
methods for the production of acetic acid and alcohol.
Symbiotic bacterial growths at 3O-4O C. are now controlled,
by the associated chemical conditions of reaction, to produce ether
as main product, and to break down the celluloses in massive quan-
tities in the relatively short periods which are required for starch
fermentations.
In another field, which is also comprised in the vast domain of
the natural history of " cellulose," researches are being actively
prosecuted in elucidation of the constitution of the peat-lignite coal
groups of natural products, obviously derived from, and trans-
formation products of, " cellulose " in the inclusive sense of the
term.
The Hemi-Gelluloses have a typical representative in the paren-
chyma of the " locust " bean, the seeds of cevatonia siliqua. On
digestion with water the cellular tissue is transformed into a series
of hydrated gel-products which mix with the water to pseudo-solu-
tions of extreme specific viscosity. The products (Tragasol) find
extensive application as a dressing or " finish " of textile goods and
leathers. These hydrated hemi-celluloses combine with tannic acid
to form characteristic precipitates which are reversible gels. The
reactions and properties of these compounds are the basis of new
processes of hide tanning. An expose of these methods with the
rationale of principles will be found in an article " Colloidal Tannin
Compounds ' (C. F. Cross and others) /. Soc. Dyers and Colourists
35 (1919). 62-8.
The Compound-Celluloses. The ligno-celluloses, represented by
the typical fibre-substance of jute (bast-fibre), are the subject of a
paper " Lignum Reactions and Constitution," Cross and Bevan,
/. Soc. Dyers and Col. 32 (1916), giving an account of researches
which establish a statistical constitutional formula for the lignine
complex of which a diketohydrobenzenc and a hydro-pyrone group
are characteristic ; in addition, as secondary components are ketene
and methoxy groups.
The ligneous components of perennial ligno-celluloses the wood
of forest trees have been further investigated by: Klason, Berl.
Ber. 53 (1920), 706, 1864; Heuser and Skioldebrand, Z. Angew.
Chem. 32 (1919), 41; Hagglund, Chem. Zentr. 90 (iii) (1919), 186;
Honig and Fuchs, Monatsh. 40 (1919), 341.
The Cuto-Celluloses, the protective epidermal covering of plant
organs, especially of the organs or parts functioning in active assimi-
lation, are relatively inaccessible by reason of their minute propor-
tion by weight or mass, and from the fact that they require chemical
treatment more or less severe for their isolation as a separated tissue,
which treatments produce considerable modifications of the parent
substances. The epidermal tissue " raffia " on the other hand is
separated by merely stripping from a palm leaf; being thus ob-
tainable in massive quantity and investigated as a " parent " sub-
stance, it is an attractive subject for developing this field of research.
It is however a mixed tissue of which the actual epidermis constitutes
about 40 % : therefore, the quantitative data resulting from investiga-
tion require inferential interpretation in regard to the latter. Recent
researches establish the general character of the tissue complex as an
(oxidized) cellulose ligno-cellulose ether ester with acid functions.
The characteristic acid component of the ester is an unsaturated
acid Ci2 H 3 2 O 3 containing I COOH and I OH group " Raffia and
Cuto-cellulose " Cross and Bevan, J. Soc. Dyers and Col. 35
(1919), 70-5- (C.F. C.) '
CENSORSHIP. The World War brought about various forms
of restriction of publicity in the shape of a censorship, which
provides a new chapter in the history of the Press Laws (see
22.299).
(i) UNITED KINGDOM. The following note to newspaper
editors, dated July 27 1914, was the first official intimation to
the British press of the approach of war:
"At a meeting of the Admiralty War Office and Press Committee,
held this afternoon, it was resolved that as, in view of the present
situation, the authorities may have to take exceptional measures,,
the Press should be asked to refrain from publishing any information
relative to movements of British warships, troops, and aircraft, or
to war material, fortifications, and naval and military defences,
without first communicating with the Admiralty and War Office
respectively in accordance with the arrangement which was noti-
fied to you by me in January of last year.
" Having regard to the nature of the case it is found impossible
further to indicate the character of the information the publication
of which is undesirable in the national interests. The request does
not affect the dissemination of news concerning ordinary routine
movements or training on the part of the Navy or the Army; its
object is to prevent the appearance of anything concerning steps of
an exceptional kind which may be rendered necessary by the
existing state of affairs.
"I may add that the authorities from time to time will continue to
issue such information as may be made public."
The " Admiralty War Office and Press Committee " had beert
formed in 1911, mainly through the efforts of Mr. (afterwards
Sir) Reginald Brade, to establish a permanent liaison in peace
and war between the Admiralty and the War Office on the one
hand and the Press on the other. The Committee consisted of
representatives of the two departments and the London and
provincial newspapers. Apart from the Official Secrets Act,
no legislation existed which enabled the authorities or the Com-
mittee to suppress the publication of naval and military in-
formation. Notwithstanding this, the whole of the newspapers
loyally observed the Committee's request, followed by others of
a more detailed character, dated July 29 and 30 respectively.
The result was that the British preparations were made with
such secrecy that the Germans subsequently admitted that on
Aug. 20 they knew neither when nor where the British troops
were landed, nor their strength.
592
CENSORSHIP
On Aug. 7 the Press Bureau (the outward and visible sign of
the censorship) was established by Lord Kitchener, acting in
conjunction with Mr. Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty.
The first Director of the Bureau was Mr. F. E. Smith, M.P.,
afterwards Lord Birkenhead. He was followed by Sir Stanley
(afterwards Lord) Buckmaster, who was succeeded by Sir Frank
Swettenham jointly with the late Sir Edward Cook. In the first
instance the Bureau was located in a tumble-down building in
Whitehall, backing on to the Admiralty. Later it was removed to
the United Service Institution.
The objects of the Press Bureau were:
(1) The censoring of incoming and outgoing press cablegrams
and certain inland press messages, chiefly those passing through
the General Post Office. By order of the Government the former
were diverted to the Bureau by the Post Office and cable com-
panies.
(2) To issue to the newspapers official information received from
other Government departments.
(3) To censor matter voluntarily submitted by the Press.
It should be mentioned here that the censoring of news by the
Bureau was, for the most part, carried out in accordance with
the wishes of the various Government departments concerned
the Admiralty, the War Office, the Foreign Office, the Home
Office, etc., with the result that the whole of the criticism was
directed against the Bureau, which served as a sort of buffer state.
In short, the Directors of the Bureau had to do as they were told.
It was an open secret that in some instances they disagreed with
the policy they were called upon to enforce. On the whole they
performed a thankless duty with considerable ability. Upon
Lord Birkenhead fell the difficult task of organizing the depart-
ment and establishing regulations to deal with conditions al-
together unprecedented. The work of his successors was hardly
less onerous as fresh problems constantly presented themselves
throughout the war. About fifty censors were employed, com-
prising naval officers (appointed by the Admiralty), military
censors (appointed by the War Office), and civilians, including
ex-civil servants, barristers and journalists.
The Bureau was kept open day and night. On Aug. 8 1914
the Defence of the Realm Act was passed, followed a few days
later by a series of censorship regulations as authorized by its
provisions. These regulations were of a far-reaching character.
They were amended from time to time and in their final form
stood as follows:
Reg. 18. No person shall, without lawful authority, collect,
record, publish or communicate, or attempt to elicit, any informa-
tion with respect to the movement, numbers, description, condi-
tion or disposition of any of the forces, ships, or aircraft of His
Majesty or any of His Majesty's allies, or with respect to the plans
or conduct, or supposed plans or conduct, of any operations by any
such forces, ships, or aircraft, or with respect to the supply, descrip-
tion, condition, transport or manufacture, or storage, or place or
intended place of manufacture or storage of war material, or with
respect to any works or measures undertaken for or connected with,
or intended for the fortification or defence of any place, or any
information of such nature as is calculated to be or might be directly
or indirectly useful to the enemy, and if any person contravenes the
provisions of this regulation, or without lawful authority or excuse
has in his possession any document containing any such informa-
tion as aforesaid, he shall be guilty of an offence against these regu-
lations. . . .
No person shall, without lawful authority, publish or communi-
cate any information relating to the passage of any ship along any
part of the coast of the United Kingdom. . . .
Reg. 27. No person shall by word of mouth or in writing or in
any newspaper, periodical, book, circular, or other printed publi-
cation
(a) Spread false reports or make false statements; or
(b) spread reports or make statements intended or likely to cause
disaffection to His Majesty, or to interfere with the success of His
Majesty's forces or of the forces of any of His Majesty's allies by
land or sea, or to prejudice His Majesty's relations with foreign
powers; or
(c) spread reports or make statements intended or likely to preju-
dice the recruiting of persons to serve in any of His Majesty's forces,
or in any body of persons enrolled for employment under the Army
Council or Air Council or entered for service under the direction of
the Admiralty, or in any police force or fire brigade, or to preju-
dice the training, discipline or administration of any such force
body, or brigade; or
(d) spread reports or make statements intended or likely to
undermine public confidence in any bank or currency notes which
are legal tender in the United Kingdom or any part thereof, or to
prejudice the success of any financial measures taken or arrange-
ments made by His Majesty's Government with a view to the prose-
cution of the war ; . . .
The maximum penalty was imprisonment with or without
hard labour for six months or a fine not exceeding 100, or both.
Prosecutions had to be instituted by the Director of Public
Prosecutions in England, the Lord Advocate in Scotland, or the
Attorney- General in Ireland. The Regulations (Regulation 51)
gave the Government power in certain cases to seize the plant
of a newspaper which had offended, or in others to seize the type
on suspicion that an offence was about to be committed (Reg. 51 a).
These regulations placed heavy shackles upon the Press, but
in the main they were accepted with patriotic equanimity.
Prosecutions were few in number, which is surprising considering
the length and magnitude of the war. It will be seen that the
Press Bureau had no power to insist upon the submission of matter
for censorship. The responsibility rested with the editor, who
could publish what he thought fit, subject to complying with
the Defence of the Realm Regulations. If he erred he was liable
to prosecution, and even if the matter were passed by the Bureau
he would not be relieved of the responsibility for infringement of
the regulations, although the fact might be pleaded in mitigation.
From time to time secret instructions were issued by the Bureau
for the information and guidance of editors. At the end of the
war these numbered several hundred. At intervals they were
collected and issued in pamphlet form. For the most part they
consisted of hints and elucidations concerning matters which in
general terms were covered by the regulations quoted above.
Cable atvL Postal Censorship. In addition to the Press Bureau,
censorships of incoming and outgoing cables, letters and parcels,
were established by the War Office at the commencement of the
war with the three-fold object of preventing information of
military value from reaching the enemy, of acquiring similar
information for British purposes and of checking the dissemina-
tion of information likely to be useful to the enemy or prejudicial
to the Allies. Chief Censors of both departments were appointed
by the Army Council.
The cable censorship extended throughout the Empire, and
the number of persons employed in the United Kingdom, ex-
clusive of those in the Press Bureau, was about 200. In other
parts of the Empire they numbered about 400. The size of the
task may be judged from the fact that 30,000 to 50,000 telegrams
passed through the hands of the censors in the United Kingdom
every twenty-four hours.
In the postal censorship, exclusive of clerical and post-office
employees, a staff of 5,500 was employed comprising 3,451
women and persons with a knowledge of almost every foreign
language. The department was divided into three branches
(i) the section which censored the correspondence of prisoners
of war in the United Kingdom and British prisoners in enemy
countries; (2) the private correspondence section which dealt
with letters from members of the British Expeditionary Force,
letters and parcels to and from certain foreign countries, press
messages sent abroad by other means than cable, and newspapers.
In this branch more than a ton of mail matter was censored
every week, exclusive of parcels; (3) the trade branch, which cen-
sored commercial correspondence with certain foreign countries,
amounting to nearly four tons per week.
At the commencement, the system caused serious irritation
amongst the commercial classes, to which point was given by
foolish and, in some cases, amusing errors made by the censors.
It must, however, be recognized that on the whole the work was
well and efficiently done. The officers chiefly responsible were
Gen. (afterwards Sir George) Macdonogh, Gen. Cockerill, Col.
A. E. Churchill followed by Lord Arthur Browne, Chief Cable
Censor, and Col. G. S. H. Pearson followed by Col. A. S. L.
Farquharson, Chief Postal Censor.
In the early part of the war a great outcry was made by the
British (and also the American) newspapers concerning the
working of the Press cable censorship in London. In numerous
instances, Press cables received in England were entirely sup-
pressed without notice to the sender or addressee, and in others
CENSORSHIP
593
messages were so mutilated as to be indecipherable. These
complaints led to a declaration by the Foreign Office on Dec. 20
1915, that in future incoming press cablegrams would not be
censored from a political point of view; the responsibility of pub-
lishing would be with the editors who knew that a prosecution
against them, under the Defence of the Realm Act, might result
from the publication of anything endangering the good relations
between Great Britain and the Allies or the Neutrals. This
change, however, only applied to censorship by the Foreign
Office, and messages were still liable to censorship from the point
of view of other departments (Admiralty, War Office, Home
Office or Treasury, for instance) consulted by the Press Bureau
a system which continued until 1919.
Censorship at the Front. It remains to deal with the censor-
ship of messages from authorized British correspondents on the
several fronts. These were primarily (and compulsorily) censored
by military censors on the field, but they all came through the
Press Bureau, which occasionally exercised a super-censorship.
The methods adopted caused constant grumbling and discontent.
The casualty lists were rigidly and, no doubt, properly sup-
pressed, but owing to the representations of the Newspaper
Proprietors' Association they were supplied periodically for the
confidential information of editors.
In France, at the outset, no correspondents were allowed.
In Sept. 1914, owing to demands by the Newspaper Proprietors'
Association for more information, an official eye-witness, Gen.
Swinton, was appointed. He wrote according to order, and no
question of censorship arose. The news supplied was meagre
and inappropriate, and it did not take long for mischievous results
to accrue, and the official mind was at first disposed to blame
the Press for what was wrong in the " publicity " of the moment.
On March 12 1915, the following notice was issued by the Press
Bureau, warning the newspapers that they were too optimistic
in the pictures they gave of what was happening:
" The magnitude of the British task in this great war runs serious
risk of being overlooked by reason of exaggerated accounts of suc-
cesses printed daily in the Press and especially by exhibiting posters
framed to catch the eye and magnify comparatively unimportant
actions into great victories. Reported reverses to the enemy are
proclaimed as crushing defeats, Germany is represented as within
measurable distance of starvation, bankruptcy and revolution, and
only yesterday a poster was issued in London, declaring that half
the Hungarian army had been annihilated.
" All sense of just proportion is thus lost, and, with these daily,
and often hourly, statements of great Allied gains and immense
enemy losses, the public can have no true appreciation of the facts
or of the gigantic task and heavy sacrifices before them.
" The Director appeals to all those who are responsible for the
Press to use their influence to bring about a better knowledge of the
real situation, and rather to emphasize the efforts that will be
necessary before the country can afford to regard the end for which
we are striving as anything like assured. The posters, more espe-
cially those of the evening papers, are very often preposterous as
well as misleading, and, at such a time, those responsible may
fairly be asked to exercise a reasonable restraint and help the
nation to a just appreciation of the task it has undertaken and
the necessity for unremitting effort to secure the only end that
can be accepted."
The newspapers did not take this notice " lying down."
On March 26 the Newspaper Proprietors' Association, through
its chairman Sir George (afterwards Lord) Riddell, sent the
following letter to the Press Bureau, and copies to the Prime
Minister, Mr. Winston Churchill, Lord Kitchener and other
members of the Cabinet :
"My Council have had under consideration your Memorandum
of I2th March, 1915, Serial No. D. 183, for which, in their opinion,
there is no adequate justification. The Press has dealt faithfully
with the news furnished by the naval and military authorities, but
it may well be that the public misunderstand the situation and that
this misconception is producing serious results. If, however, the
people are being unduly soothed and elated the responsibility lies
with the Government and not with the Press. In this connection
my Council desire to direct your attention to the optimistic state-
ments of the Prime Minister, Sir John French, ' Eye- Witness,' and
other persons possessing official information. The Press acts upon
the news supplied. If this is inaccurate or incomplete, the Govern-
ment cannot blame the newspapers. My Council desire to repre-
sent that the methods now being adopted are fraught with grave
public danger. Ministers are continually referring to the importance
of energy and self-sacrifice on the part of the industrial population,
who cannot be expected to display these qualities unless, generally
speaking, they are acquainted with the facts. In dealing with the
news, the Naval and Military authorities should consider not only
our enemies and the army in the field, but the commercial and
industrial classes at home, upon whom so much depends. It is
futile to endeavour to disregard the long-established habits and
customs of the people.
"As you know, I am writing on behalf of the London Press only,
but my Council are confident that their views are shared by the
provincial newspapers."
The result of this letter was that Mr. Asquith invited the
Association to lay their views before him at a deputation. A
free exchange of views took place, with the result that Mr. As-
quith invited the Press to appoint a representative who would
interview Lord Kitchener and Mr. Churchill each week with the
object of putting questions to them and receiving private in-
formation for circulation to editors. Lord Riddell was detailed
for the duty, and had frequent interviews with Lord Kitchener.
As a result of further urgent representations by the Association,
represented by Lord Burnham, Lord Northcliffe and Sir George
Riddell, the following correspondents were authorized in May
1915 Mr. John Buchan (Times and Daily News), Mr. Percival
Landon (Daily Telegraph and Daily Chronicle), Mr. (after-
wards Sir) Percival Phillips (Morning Post and Daily Express),
Mr. Valentine Williams (Daily Mail and Standard), Mr. Douglas
Williams (Reuters). Mr. John Buchan was succeeded by Mr.
(afterwards Sir) Perry Robinson, Mr. Percival Landon by Mr.
(afterwards Sir) Philip Gibbs, and Mr. Valentine Williams by
Mr. (afterwards Sir) Beach Thomas. Mr. Douglas Williams was
succeeded by Mr. Lester Lawrence and Mr. (afterwards Sir)
Herbert Rundell.
At the beginning, the regulations for the guidance of corre-
spondents were as follows, but for the most part they were allowed
to write as they wished.
"Unless officially communicated for publication," the under-
mentioned matters were not to be referred to :
Strength, composition and location of forces.
Movement of troops and operations.
State of supply and transport.
Casualties.
Important orders.
Criticisms and eulogies of a personal nature.
Moral of troops.
Before long, however, the regulations were rigidly enforced,
and an attempt was subsequently made to strengthen them. A
fresh set of rules was promulgated at G.H.Q. in Nov. 1915.
They took this form:
(1) Current events must not be mentioned in detail until the
events have been made public in the commander-in-chief's des-
patches.
(2) Only general mention of the fighting can be made. Nothing
outside the official communiques is to be touched upon.
(3) Matters of controversial or political interest must be excluded.
(4) Praise or censure is to be left to the commander-in-chief.
(5) Mention of any information by name is prohibited, including
such items as the New Army, Territorials, etc., also names of units
or individuals.
(6) The articles of war correspondents must be confined to
topographical descriptions and generalities.
(7) Detailed information obtained by war correspondents can
be used only when permission is given, and the time of publication
will vary according to circumstances.
These regulations called forth an angry protest from the
Newspaper Proprietors' Association. The War Office denied all
knowledge of them and they were withdrawn. The severe re-
strictions on the liberty of the correspondents led to continual
complaints by the Association. Notwithstanding these, no
marked improvement took place until July 1917. From that
date onwards the stringency of the censorship was gradually
relaxed, and the army eventually set up an organization to
supply correspondents with information, so that in dealing
with the German advance in the spring of 1918 they were able
to write with freedom. By the exercise of tact, discretion and
inviolable good faith, the correspondents gradually won the
confidence of the army, so that towards the end of the war
officers of all ranks were keen to have them with their troops and
to give them every facility permitted by official regulations. A
594
CENSORSHIP
great victory was thus achieved and a great service rendered by
the correspondents to the country and the Press.
Until Nov. 1917 the censorship was controlled by the In-
telligence Department at G.H.Q. At that date it was transferred
to a department known as Staff Duties. The difficulties were
accentuated by the lack of association between the correspon-
dents and the real head of the censorship at G.H.Q. The man
who gave the orders did not censor the " copy," and was not in
continuous and direct touch with those who did. The censors
worked under great pressure, and the complaints were due chief-
ly not to their decisions, but to the principles laid down by those
in command at G.H.Q. A minor difficulty was due to the neces-
sity for making the despatches correspond with the daily offi-
cial communique the official account of the day's fighting.
Nothing could be said by the correspondents that differed from
the communiques, which usually came out after the despatches
had been written. The head of the Intelligence Department until
Nov. 1917 was Gen. Charteris. During the whole of the war the
chief cause of complaint was the refusal of the authorities to
permit the correspondents to identify the units taking part in
particular operations, or, in other words, to name the troops
engaged. Where the unit was mentioned, neither the date of the
event nor the locality in which it occurred was to be specified.
The regulations in this respect were meticulous. Even obituary
notices were censored. In the later phases of the war the rule
was occasionally relaxed, but generally speaking it held until
the Armistice.
At other military fronts than France the system adopted was
similar, but special difficulties occurred in regard to the des-
patches from Mesopotamia, which were censored at the Front,
in India and at home.
The Naval Censorship. The navy had its own censorship
department at the Admiralty, under the superintendence of
Sir Douglas Brownrigg. This department worked partly through
the Press Bureau and partly by direct relations with the Press.
Generally speaking, the policy adopted was to suppress all in-
formation concerning the doings of the navy and allied forces
and in particular events of an unfavourable character. Very
little information was published concerning the mercantile
tonnage sunk by the enemy. There was, however, much to be
said for the suppression of these figures, the publication of which
would have put fresh heart into the enemy and given them
valuable information as to the effect of the submarine campaign.
In many instances the German submarine crews were unaware
of the effect of their operations.
The Home Front. A rigid censorship was exercised concerning
the publication of information as to the production of munitions,
measures of defence, bombardments, air raids, arrests, trials and
executions of spies, etc.
Books, Magazines, etc. These were subject to censorship on
the same principles as newspapers. In many cases the authorities
refused permission to reproduce matter which had already ap-
peared in American and other publications, whether true or not,
the contention being that publication in England would tend to
confirm and increase belief in the statements made.
General Comments. As a method of suppression the censor-
ship during the war may be regarded as having been a complete
success. The vast task was well and efficiently done, but the
authorities displayed little imagination, and during the first
two and a half years failed to realize that the war was a conflict
between nations, not armies. They did not fully appreciate that
the united effort of all classes was essential to victory, and that
such effort could be secured only by telling the people the facts
and letting them know that the war was a matter of life or death
to the nation (see PROPAGANDA). Experience showed that in dark
days the country always rose to the occasion. The authorities
also failed to appreciate the necessity for telling other peoples,
and in particular the Overseas Dominions and America, what
Great Britain was doing. When the war commenced the War
Office and the army were full of explosive and inaccurate ideas
regarding the Press. Lord Wolseley had said that the special
correspondent was the curse of the modern army. This spirit
pervaded the services during the earlier stages of the war, not-
withstanding the voluntary action of the newspapers in suppress-
ing naval and military information in July and Aug. 1914.
Maj.-Gen. Sir C. E. Callwell, who was the head of the In-
telligence Department at the War Office when the war started,
says in his Experiences of a Dug-Out (1920): "It speedily
became apparent that the ' Powers-that-Be ' did not mean to be
expansive in connexion with incidents where our side was getting
the worst of it." He also acknowledges that the Press was badly
treated by the War Office and G.H.Q. at the outset and that he
was placed in the uncomfortable position of administering a
policy which he disliked and which he believed to be entirely
mistaken. In short, the Press was regarded with distrust and
suspicion. These feelings were gradually removed after constant
protests, but not until the war had been in progress for nearly
three years was a system evolved which by degrees gave the
correspondents a reasonable amount of freedom. The rule pro-
hibiting them, except in rare cases, from describing the achieve-
ments of the different units, who were thus robbed of the glory
to which they were entitled, had most unfortunate results.
The public yearned to know what the soldiers and sailors were
doing, and the information was withheld from them. The Austra-
lian, Canadian and New Zealand censorships adopted a different
system, so that the exploits of these troops were and are well
known throughout the world. This led to the circulation of
malicious stories to the effect that Great Britain was not doing
her share, and that she was preserving her soldiers at the expense
of those furnished from overseas. A reference to the terrible
weekly casualty lists would at once prove the falsity of this
statement. The truth is that so far as the British effort is con-
cerned, the main burden was borne by troops furnished from
Great Britain. Owing to the action of the British censorship,
this fact is still imperfectly understood in other countries.
The effects of the policy of silence were not confined to the war.
Great Britain suffers from them permanently. In America and
elsewhere the stupendous character of the British performances
and sacrifices has been inadequately appreciated because they
were not made known at the time. It is doubtful whether the
people in Great Britain have fully realized themselves what they
accomplished. During the war the Press was engaged in a con-
tinuous battle with the departments for more information. It
was rarely possible to ascertain who was responsible for the
policy of silence. The motives were laudable. What the author-
ities lacked was vision. The Press fully understood the necessity
for secrecy in regard to forthcoming naval and military move-
ments and also in reference to many naval and military opera-
tions. But there were other matters which might have been
described had the authorities recognized the necessity for giving
due publicity to what the nation was d6ing in the war. As
already explained, the policy of secrecy was not confined to
naval and military operations. It was only after continued pro-
tests by the Newspaper Proprietors' Association that publicity
was given to the gigantic achievements of the Ministry of Muni-
tions, and the manufacturers and millions of workers associated
with it. Nothing was published about the marvellous working
of the railways, one of the most remarkable feats in history.
The Admiralty was a great offender. It was stated officially that
" the Navy did not wish for publicity." The result was that the
wonderful British seamen, including the mercantile marine,
mine-sweepers and fishermen, did not receive adequate recogni-
tion of their services to the Allies. After continued representa-
tions by the newspapers, more publicity was given to their doings
in the later stages of the war.
It must, however, be recognized that the censorship bristled
with difficulties. It was necessary to prevent the enemy from
receiving information; it was necessary to avoid publishing
information that would unnecessarily alarm British people or
their Allies, or mislead neutrals as to the progress of the war;
and it was also necessary for British censors to pay due regard
to the censorship policies of other countries with whom Great
Britain was rssociated. The authorities may be excused for their
inability in the early days of the war to grasp the essential facts
CENSORSHIP
595
of the situation, but they laid themselves open to severe criticism
for the delay in realizing that a change of policy was necessary.
See Government Papers Cd. 7679 and Cd. 7680 (1915); Sir
Edward Cook, The Press in Wartime (1920) ; Sir Philip Gibbs,
Realities of War (1920) ; Neville Lytton, The Press and the General
Staff (1921); Maj.-Gen. Callwell, The Experiences of a Dug-Out
(1920); Sir Douglas Brownrigg, The Indiscretions of a Naval Censor
(1919). (Ri.)
(2) UNITED STATES. American Federal legislation in the
matter of censorship shows nothing comparable to the British
and French Government censorship of newspapers. The Federal
Government had no traditions of censorship except the disas-
trous ones in connexion with the Alien and Sedition laws of 1798'.
The First Amendment to the Constitution stated that " Congress
shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech or
of the press. . . ." There had been no sufficient number of
cases before 1917 to afford a clear interpretation of this, except
that it had been held to be as binding in war as in peace (Milligan
case, 71. U.S. 2). In the first weeks after the United States had
declared war, Congress rejected an amendment to the Espionage
Act that would have established a censor's bureau. Recognizing
that a war involving the whole nation necessitated full informa-
tion, the President established a Committee on Public Informa-
tion on April 14 1917. This agency for publicity concerning war
efforts and purposes developed into a great news agency and a
means of distribution of patriotic propaganda. Its only direct
relation to the control of the press was a request made by it in
the name of the Secretaries of State, War and the Navy that news-
papers censor themselves in the matter of news that might help
the enemy or embarrass the Government. There was no legal
force behind this. It was generally observed but with much
grumbling and denunciation of the chairman of the Committee,
Mr. George Creel, as a " censor."
The adherence of Congress and the President to the traditions
of a free press and free speech in simply requesting a voluntary cen-
sorship was striking, but it was more in appearance than in reality.
It seemed exceptional, for in addition to the usual reasons which
justified the other belligerents in instituting official press bureaus
and censors to control seditious utterances, the United States
faced conditions unknown to them. It was the domicile of about
4,000,000 unnaturalized citizens of the Central Powers " enemy
aliens," to use an old and misleading phrase that was revived.
In addition there were millions more born in those lands and
using their languages, who had become citizens legally. During
two and a half years of neutrality, the free and acrimonious dis-
cussion of the war and its issues had filled the Press, and been
incessant in every home and community and school as well as
in Congressional debates. The propaganda agencies of all the
nations, and especially of the Central Powers, had flooded the
mails, used the lecture platforms and organized their semi-
official press. The country had heard much of the German
espionage system, spies were suspected everywhere, and many
acts of sabotage, arson, and violence in factories engaged in
munition production were ascribed to them. The activities of
German agents, some real and many imagined, seemed to call
for vigorous action. In other respects, too, the United States
departed from its old individualistic tendencies, as in instituting
the draft, regulating food, raising huge loans, observing meatless
days and sending an army of 2,000,000 to fight in Europe.
That wise and necessary restraint did not more often give way to
oppression and violence is amazing in a country where the fron-
tier had but recently disappeared.
The fact that no new agency was established to control the
Press did not mean that communication, the Press and public
speech were to continue to be unrestricted. On April 6 1917,
the day war was declared, the radio stations were taken over by
the Department of the Navy under the law of 1912. On April 28
the President placed the cables in charge of the same depart-
ment and the dispatch of messages and use of codes was strictly
regulated. On the latter date the telegraph lines were placed
in charge of the War Department but transferred later to the
Post Office Department when the Government took over the
telegraph and express companies. Under the old Internment
Statute of 1789, the Attorney-General was authorized by the
President to intern dangerous enemy aliens and by an Act of
Congress the Alien Property Custodian assumed charge of enemy
aliens' property.
So far Federal officials were acting under pre-war legislation
including the old Treason law. The earliest war measures aimed
at sedition and disloyalty had as a background the passage of the
conscription or Selective Service law. It was a great venture in
legislation for the United States. The possibility of interference
with its enforcement was clearly in mind in the Espionage Act
(June 15 1917), which provided that (Section 3, title i): " Who-
ever when the United States is at war, shall wilfully make or con-
vey false reports or false statements with intent to interfere with
the operation or success of the military or naval forces of the
United States or to promote the success of its enemies, and who-
ever when the United States is at war, shall wilfully cause or
attempt to cause insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal
of duty in the military or naval forces of the United States, or
shall wilfully obstruct the recruiting or enlistment service of the
United States shall be punished by a fine of not more than
$10,000 or imprisonment for not more than 20 years, or both."
The last of these clauses was the one oftenest invoked by Federal
legal officers. Another section declared non-mailable all written
or printed matter which violated any provision of the Espionage
Act. This Act was not amended until May 1918 by the Passport
and Sabotage Acts and the so-called " Sedition Law." The
latter, a loosely drawn statute based on an Act of the state of
Montana, sought to suppress all utterances of a disloyal charac-
ter. It provided punishments up to 20 years' imprisonment for
anyone who published " any language intended to bring the
form of Government of the United States or the Constitution
into contempt, scorn, contumely and disrepute." It opened the
possibility for all kinds of complaints and prosecutions by those
whose judgment was affected by war hysteria. The Federal
Attorney-General, his assistant and the 88 U.S. district attorneys
were flooded with silly complaints and beset by unofficial dis-
loyalty hunters and amateur detectives, but kept their heads in
most cases remarkably well, as did most of the judges. In the
end no prosecutions were permitted until the Attorney-General
reviewed the facts and gave authorization. The meaning of this
statute was not interpreted by the Supreme Court until 1919,
after the fighting was over. Not till then did the courts of first
instance have a uniform and controlling indication that the re-
lation between words alleged to be criminal and the armed forces
of the nation must be direct enough to constitute " a clear and
present danger." Before this, state and Federal courts had taken
wide latitude in considering the " general tendency " of utter-
ances. Men had been convicted for criticizing the Red Cross,
doubting the utility of knitting socks for soldiers, using abusive
and intemperate language in arguments about the war or pro-
ducing such a motion picture as The Spirit of '76 which in one
part represented British soldiers using bayonets at the Wyoming
valley massacre. The obsession that the country was full of
German spies persisted until 1918, although Federal officers had
broken up German espionage early in the war.
The prosecutions and deportations, especially those instituted
by Mr. A. Mitchell Palmer, the new Attorney-General, were
subjects of most bitter complaint as the war ended. Federal
legislation was supplemented by Acts of even a more drastic
character, in most of the states. Many of the state Acts on
sedition beardateof 1919, i.e. afterthe close of the war and there-
fore subject to application and interpretation in fields quite un-
related to the nation's safety during war. In 25 states the display
of a red flag was a specified offence. The other source of com-
plaint against Federal activity was the judicially unreviewable
power exercised by the Postmaster-General, Mr. Burleson, in
closing the mails to journals of which he disapproved. This
control was most often exercised by cancelling their classification
as second-class matter entitled to low mailing rates. This virtual
exclusion from the mails was continued to the financial ruin of
some newspapers even though the objection was based on the
material in only one issue. Much bitter comment (some of it
596
CEREBRO-SPINAL FEVER
partisan) and discontent were aroused by the action of the
Postmaster-General.
So far as the foreign language press was concerned there were
about 750 newspapers in the 14 chief language groups with whose
attitude the Government was chiefly concerned. Most of these
regularly published the official news from Washington concerning
war activities and purposes. The President was empowered
under the Trading with the Enemy Act (Oct. 6 1917), to require
that translations of political views and comment touching the
United States or any other nation engaged in the war should be
filed with the post-office officials at the mailing point in the case
of all foreign language publications. Exemption from this rule
by special permit was allowed and freely granted. The Post
Office Department was designated by executive order as re-
sponsible for the enforcement of these measures. In the same
Act a very inclusive section gave the President complete power
to control any form of communication to be delivered directly
or indirectly to any .enemy or ally of enemy, or communications
of any sort between the United States and any foreign country.
By executive order of Oct. 12 the enforcement of this was put
in the hands of a Censorship Board composed of the Secretaries
of War and the Navy, the Postmaster-General, the chairman of
the War Trade Board and the chairman of the Committee on
Public Information. This body made the necessary regulations
and by Dec. n 1917 had gathered a large staff at the necessary
ports to enforce them. The regulations in no way modified the
voluntary censorship exercised by the Press over itself.
About 6,000 out of 4,000,000 " alien enemies " were in-
terned or put under restraint. In all, 1,532 persons were arrested
under the Espionage Act.; about 75 more for threats against
the President or for sabotage. There were 908 indictments for
conspiracy. Acquittals and cases pending reduced the number
of those actually convicted under the Espionage Act to about
600. The best-known case was that of Eugene V. Debs, former
Socialist candidate for president, who was sentenced to 10 years
in a Federal prison for a speech opposing the war and denouncing
war as the work of capital. Others were the suppression of
The Masses, a radical monthly, the cases of Abrams, Goldstein,
Kate O'Hare, Berger, Rose Pastor Stokes, and the I.W.W.
cases (Hay wood and 92 others).
Beyond the realm of Federal action were the state laws,
drastic in some cases, and the executive orders of some zealous
governors and state defence councils who saw danger in speaking
foreign languages in public or over the telephone, or teaching
German in the schools, or using certain text-books. There was
sometimes a lack of discrimination between the parties essentially
loyal, representing agrarian or labour discontent, and those of
their leaders whose purposes and sentiments were doubtful.
There was also the sort of unofficial censorship, undefined by
law but real, which communities exercised against those who had
been pro-German or who were now less rea ly than their neigh-
bours thought fitting to subscribe for loans and the Red Cross,
and to observe food regulations.
On the whole, however, it is doubtful if all these legal and
extra-legal activities in a nation of 100,000,000 were serious
enough to justify any general condemnation of war legislation,
the courts, and the nation. The quick reaction and sharp criti-
cism of unfortunate acts and decisions indicated that free speech
and free press were still basic ideals in the United States.
REFERENCES : Official Bulletin (for executive orders) ; annual
reports of the Attorney-General, Postmaster-General, etc.; Wil-
loughby, Government Organization in War Time and After (1919);
Creel, How We Advertised America (1920). Chafee's Freedom of
Speech (1920) is a full and critical account with extensive bibliog-
raphy. See especially J. L. O'Brian, " Civil Liberty in War Time "
in Proceedings of New York State Bar Association, Jan. 1919.
(G. S. F.)
CEREBRO-SPINAL FEVER (see 18.130). Although serious
outbreaks of cerebro-spinal fever had occurred in Belfast in 1907,
and in Glasgow and Edinburgh in 1906 and 1907, and although
the deaths from cerebro-spinal fever in Scotland in 1907 reached
1,087, yet no considerable outbreak of the disease occurred in
England or Wales until the first winter of the World War.
Cerebro-spinal fever had been made compulsorily notifiable in
England in 1912, and in that year, in 1913, and in 1914, approxi-
mately 300 cases were notified in England and Wales each year.
In 1915 the disease increased more than elevenfold, there being
2,343 civilian and 1,136 military cases. In Feb. 1915 the out-
break indeed assumed very menacing proportions, and in a
single week 228 cases were notified. Considerable alarm was
aroused as the mortality was exceedingly high, and the serum
treatment which had been so successful in the New York and
Belfast epidemics appeared at this time to have little effect
upon the mortality rate. Special investigations were therefore
commenced by the responsible authorities (especially by the
army with the assistance of the Medical Research Committee),
which were continued during the war, and added greatly to the
knowledge of the bacteriology and epidemiology of the disease.
Diminishing somewhat in 1916 the disease broke out with
fresh vigour in 1917, military and civil cases being now about
equal in numbers.
Aetiologically, there can be little doubt that the outbreak in
England which followed the birth of the new armies was prin-
cipally due to the overcrowding of young recruits in depots,
camps, and billets. It is also probable, although this has been
warmly controverted, that fresh and highly virulent strains of the
meningococcus were brought to England by the Canadian con-
tingents arriving in the late autumn of 1914 after having had
several cases of cerebro-spinal fever in their home camps before
embarkation and during the voyage east on their crowded trans-
ports, and a sharp outbreak on arrival on Salisbury Plain several
weeks before British troops were affected. These virulent Can-
adian strains u.ay have aggravated the outbreak.
At Portsmouth, for example, the disease began on Jan. 15
1915, at Eastney barracks among men who came in contact with
a Canadian football team which visited there on Jan. 9, and
the first case of the disease at Caterham depot occurred in a man
who travelled up from Scotland by night with three Canadian
soldiers in the same compartment.
The aetiology of cerebro-spinal fever is peculiarly instructive from
the fact that, in at least 95 % of all cases, the disease results not from
infection derived from another patient suffering from the disease but
from infection derived from an apparently healthy carrier, that is a
person who harbours the meningococcus in his nasopharyngeal secre-
tion without contracting the disease, and who is usually unaware of
having ever been in contact with a patient suffering from the disease.
Infection is most often transmitted in sleeping quarters.
Carriers are of two kinds: temporary carriers who harbour the
meningococcus for only two or three weeks and who then become
free spontaneously; and chronic carriers who harbour the germ
for many months and even years.
Cleminson has shown that almost all chronic carriers have marked
nasopharyngeal defects, the commonest type being that in which
there is an obstinate mucous contact between a deflected and thick-
ened nasal septum and the middle turbinate.
Chronic carriers are responsible for carrying on the disease from
epidemic to epidemic and also for the sporadic cases which occur
between epidemic times. Recovered patients are often chronic
carriers, the meningococcus haying been recovered after two years
from the nasopharyngeal secretion in several instances.
In ordinary times the population probably contains some 2 % of
carriers, but at the height of an epidemic in a crowded community,
such as that on a ship or in a crowded depot, the carrier-rate may
rise to 75 %, the vast majority of the carriers being temporary.
At the outbreak of war the necessity for rapidly raising enormous
forces at once led to very serious overcrowding of the available bar-
racks and depots, and the hastily erected camps and hutments were
overcrowded as soon as they were erected. Military necessity was
urgent and imperative.
In Jan. 1915, all the known requisite factors for an outbreak of
cerebro-spinal fever were present : severe overcrowding, cold weather,
and a population rendered susceptible by youth, by the fatigue of
rapid training, by nostalgia, and by entry into a new method of life.
Recruits have always shared with infants a peculiar susceptibility
to cerebro-spinal fever. The armies in the field despite far greater
hardship suffered much less than the recruits training at home.
The incidence of cerebro-spinal fever in the U. S. training camps fol-
lowing their entry into the war was ^5 times as great as that in cor-
responding male age groups in civil life.
Overcrowding has at least a threefold importance as a factor in
the production of cerebro-spinal fever epidemics:
First, the atmosphere of an overcrowded and ill-ventilated room
or hut, by lowering the individual resistance, tends to favour the
CEREBRO-SPINAL FEVER
597
chances of the meningococcus attacking the meninges with success.
Secondly, by shortening the' distance between man and man, over-
crowding facilitates the transmission of infections of the upper
respiratory passages, since these arc present in droplets of secre-
tion which are liable to be sprayed out into the surrounding air, in
the acts of coughing, sneezing and loud speaking. For this reason,
overcrowding favours the occurrence of catarrhal diseases, which so
frequently precede and accompany an outbreak of cerebro-spinal
fever. Thirdly, for a similar reason, overcrowding tends to produce
a high carrier-rate of the meningococcus in a community; thus
ensuring to any susceptible individual, freshly introduced, a massive
dosage of the organism.
In addition, the rapid transmission from one temporary carrier
to another which a high carrier-rate implies may very probably tend
to increase the virulence of a strain of meningococcus previously of
Jow virulence.
Glover's work on carrier-rates demonstrated that the meningococ-
cus carrier-rate is a direct index of the degree of overcrowding, and
that, when this overcrowding is remedied by increasing the distance
between the beds, a high carrier-rate rapidly falls to a normal rate.
There is a sharp rise in the carrier-rate of a community before an
epidemic, that is to say, a " carrier epidemic " precedes and accom-
panies the " case epidemic." For practical purposes, a carrier-rate
of 20 % has been regarded as the danger line.
Cerebro-spinal fever is an acute infectious disease, due to the
meningococcus. It occurs sporadically and in epidemics, and has
usually as its chief manifestation an acute meningitis affecting
both brain and spinal cord. The causal organism is undoubtedly
the diplococcus intracellularis of Weichselbaum, a gram-negative
coccus of characteristic kidney shape, almost invariably seen in
pairs, and having no well-defined capsule. In the body fluids,
and especially in the cerebro-spinal fluid, it is usually seen inside
a polymorphonuclear white corpuscle. Often, however, the
diplococcus is seen to be extracellular. Prognosis in a case is
usually considered to be better when a slide of the cerebro-spinal
fluid shows the majority of the diplococci intracellular rather
than extracellular.
The meningococcus stains well, and is invariably gram-negative.
An excellent culture medium is Gordon's trypagar enriched for
primary culture with a solution of laked rabbit blood or fresh human
blood. The optimum temperature is 37 C. The meningococcus
ferments glucose and maltose, but not levulose or saccharose. Whilst
it can be distinguished from other gram-negative diplococci by cul-
tural tests, the best criterion for identification is serqlogical, that is
by agglutination tests with the sera of animals, immunized by
repeated injections of killed meningococci obtained by culture from
the cerebro-spinal fluid of patients suffering from the disease.
By the use of this method of agglutination and the allied method of
absorption, Gordon divided the meningococci found in military
cases of the disease in 1915 into four types. Dppter had previously
differentiated two types, which he termed meningococcus and para-
meningococcus respectively, and the first two types of Gordon,
which together account for 80 % of the cases, correspond to Dopter's
groups, Gordon's type I being Dopter's meningococcus and his
type 2 Dopter's parameningococcus. Gordon's type 3, which is
more closely allied to type I than to type 2, gave rise to some 15 %
of the cases, whilst Gordon's type 4 was of rare occurrence except in
one outbreak at Chatham.
A patient suffering from cerebro-spinal fever harbours only a
single type of meningococcus in his cerebro-spinal fluid and it
is almost invariably present in his nasopharyngeal secretion.
Determination of the type of the invading meningococcus is of
great practical importance, as the serum of an animal immunized
against one type has little or no therapeutic or protective value in a
patient suffering from an invasion of a different type of meningo-
coccus. A therapeutic serum must therefore either be polyvalent
or if monovalent, be used only for its appropriate type when the
type has been determined. For general use a polyvalent serum has
the merit of simplicity and with potent serum the results are ex-
traordinarily good.
Tullock has shown that type 2 is a complex type divisible into
three sub-groups, and the much greater difficulty in producing a
good anti-type 2 serum is probably owing to this fact.
Criticism of Gordon's types has concentrated mainly on his types
3 and 4, but there can be no doubt that Gordon's types were of the
utmost value for the epidemic of 1915-8. In a series of 526 strains of
meningococci from the cerebro-spinal fluid of patients, 98 % were
identifiable with one or other of the four types, and one-fifth belonged
to types 3 and 4.
Infection of the nasopharynx probably always takes place first.
In most cases a blood infection appears to precede the meningeal
invasion, but the actual channel of infection between the naso-
pharyngeal secretion and the meninges is uncertain; it may be either
through the blood stream, or by the sheaths of the olfactory nerves
passing through the cribriform portion of the ethmoid, or by the
sphenoidal sinuses.
The incubation period is usually three to four days. The onset is
sudden and contrasts with the usually more gradual onset of tuber-
culous meningitis. In no disease is early diagnosis of more urgent
importance. Intense headache, vomiting, a moderate degree of
pyrexia with a comparatively slow pulse, stiffness of the muscles
of the neck and a positive Kernig's sign are the primary symptoms.
The disease is usually well defined; these five symptoms being all
present in 85% of cases, and only some 10% of cases are atypical,
the most common deviation being a long initial pyrexia.
If there be any suspicion of the disease lumbar puncture should
be performed at the earliest possible opportunity for the purposes
of both diagnosis and treatment. Retraction of the head is a later
symptom and should never be waited for.
The characteristic "spotted" rash is present in a percentage of
cases, which varies considerably in different epidemics. Rashes
appear more constant in American experience. In 1917 in London
it was present in about 25 % of patients: it is a macular rash appear-
ing first on the skin and the dorsum of the foot, then upon pressure
points, elbows, buttocks and back. Large purpuric patches are
characteristic of fulminating cases, which form about 5 % of the
cases. Petechial maculae, erythema, rose spots, and blotches often
occur in cases of ordinary severity.
Labial herpes is a later symptom than the rashes, and is of favour-
able import. Inequality of the pupils is less common than in tuber-
culous meningitis. Squint is seen in a smaller proportion of cases
(6%) than in tuberculous meningitis. Hemiplegia, usually tran-
sient, and nerve deafness, usually permanent, each occur in about
5% of cases. Albuminuria is common, but usually transient; hae-
maturia occurs in a small proportion, and, to a less extent, glycosuria.
Constipation is almost invariable and with the incessant vomiting
may lead to the diagnosis of an acute abdominal condition.
In children the disease is often ushered in by convulsions. Retrac-
tion occurs at a_n earlier stage than in adults. Persistent tetany of
hands and feet is common and rapid emaciation occurs.
Three main clinical types of the disease are described, fulminant,
severe and atypical. A fulminant case is one in which the initial
systemic invasion results in so profound a toxaemia that the death
or early collapse of the patient may obscure the meningeal condi-
tion. Death may take place in a few hours after onset. Fulminant
cases amount to some 5 % and are more common at the height of
an epidemic. Typical severe cases form some 85 % of all cases and
in them cerebro-spinal fever forms as clear a clinical feature as does
any disease. Atypical cases form some 10% and the most usual
form is one with a long preliminary pyrexia which may be diagnosed
as enteric or trench fever. Ambulant or slight attacks do not occur.
The essentials of the treatment of cerebro-spinal fever are three :
First, early and repeated relief of pressure by lumbar puncture;
this procedure alone will considerably reduce the case mortality
rate in adults. Secondly, the early and repeated intrathecal admin-
istration of a potent antimeningococcal serum (intravenous admin-
istration may also be beneficial if the systemic invasion be marked).
Thirdly, the relief of pain.
Serum treatment depends for its success upon early administra-
tion, upon sufficient dosage and upon the therapeutic potency of the
serum itself. The serum treatment of cerebro-spinal fever was intro-
duced by Flexner and Jobling in the New York epidemic of 1905
with great success, and reduced the " untreated case" death-rate of
over 70% to a "treated case" death-rate of under 20% in those
patients who received serum in the first week of illness.
Unfortunately, at the beginning of the 1915 epidemic in England
the only serum available proved very disappointing. It had been
made from laboratory strains from previous epidemics, and had
very little therapeutic effect. Subsequently it was found to fail to
agglutinate types I and 2 at a dilution of I in 50. Following the
collection of fresh strains from the current epidemic by Arkwright,
Gordon, and others, however, a very potent serum was produced
from them by McConkey at the Lister Institute in 1916, which
again fully vindicated the value of serum treatment, reducing the
mortality rate in cases where it was used in the first week to 14%.
Gordon has shown that the therapeutic value of serum appears to
depend chiefly upon its capacity of neutralizing the toxin of the
meningococcus. There is great variation in therapeutic value even
in batches produced by the same laboratory, although Gordon's
modification of Besredka's method for determining anti-endptoxic
content promises well as a method whereby a standardization of
anti-meningococcal serum could be reached.
Owing to the complex character of type 2, it is harder to produce
a serum satisfactory for all cases infected with this type than to pro-
duce potent serum for the other types. The monovalent type I
serum produced by Griffith for the Medical Research Committee
was extraordinarily effective for type I cases, but his type 2 serum
was much less efficacious for type 2 cases.
Lumbar puncture, preferably under an anaesthetic, should be
done at the earliest possible occasion. As much cerebro-spinal fluid,
usually about 60 c.c., as will flow should be allowed to run from the
needle into sterilized test tubes for culture and examination, until
the fluid comes one drop at a time with each respiration. If the
cerebro-spinal fluid be cloudy or purulent, 30 c.c. of serum warmed
to blood-heat is then run in through the needle by gravitation with
a rubber tube. The foot of the bed is raised after administration.
598
CEYLON
This procedure is repeated at intervals of 24 hours until four doses
have been given, which are usually sufficient with a potent serum.
The cerebro-spinal fluid becomes clear and free from meningococci.
Often two or three doses are sufficient. It is often wise to conclude
the series with a lumbar puncture without the use of serum for the
relief of pressure only. Curative vaccines have been used in pro-
longed cases, where serum appears to be losing its effect. An autog-
enous sensitized vaccine should be used.
Another method of treatment used in cases where the patient does
not react well to the curative horse serum, or where no curative
serum is available, is to inject intrathecally 30 to 50 c.c. of the
patient's own serum, separated under strictly aseptic conditions
from blood drawn from his basilic vein.
This procedure, based upon the fact that anti-bodies are devel-
oped in greater extent in the blood than in the cerebro-spinal fluid,
has in some instances appeared to do much good.
Serum sickness on the 8th to the loth day is often observed, but
is not usually serious. Anaphalaxis is very occasionally seen. It is
more liable to occur with intravenous than with intrathecal injec-
tion. The principal complications met with are pneumonia, the
supervention of a pneumococcal meningitis, arthritis, cystitis due
to the meningococcus, hydrocephalus, panophthalmitis.
In patients who recover, complete nerve deafness is the most
common (3 to 5 %) of the serious sequelae. Permanent mental change
is unusual. A prolonged convalescence is essential.
The chief post-mortem findings in the majority of fatal cases are con-
fined to the central and nervous system. Their macroscopic appear-
ance is similar to those found in cases of other forms of meningitis.
Fulminant cases may show little save injection of the dura mater,
a lustreless arachnoid, a soft and swollen appearance of the brain
together with a pink congestion of the pia mater. The cerebro-spinal
fluid may only be slightly turbid in these fulminant cases.
The ordinary acute case shows a thick yellow purulent exudate
mostly at the base of the brain extending along the main fissures,
and down the cord. The bulb and the posterior surface of the cord
are usually covered with marked accumulations of the exudate.
Flaky and turbid fluid is found in the distended ventricles.
In chronic cases there is marked hydrocephalus. The convolu-
tions are pale and flattened ; localized adhesions and thickenings are
marked between the membranes, thus forming pockets in the
cranium and theca. The various foramina, particularly that of
Majendie, may be obliterated, interfering with the circulation of
the cerebro-spinal fluid. Marked emaciation is usual.
The post-mortem appearances in other organs are not usually
striking. Embleton has shown the frequency of empyema of the
sphenoidal sinus. A broncho-pneumonia is almost invariable. Pur-
puric and other haemorrhages are common in many organs, and
have been especially described by some observers in the supra-
renal capsules in fulminant cases. Arthritis, orchitis and pericar-
ditis are described and a meningococcal cystitis may be found.
The chief point in the prophylaxis against cerebro-spinal fever is,
of course, the prevention of overcrowding; this is of paramount
importance. Ventilation and distance between the beds in sleeping
quarters are of much greater importance than mere floor or cubic
space. "Wall space" is essential.
The early isolation of cases of catarrhal disease is of great impor-
tance in preventing the increase in the carrier-rate for the reason that
a carrier with a catarrhal sneeze or a cough will spray the meningococ-
cus in a much more effective manner than the same carrier with-
out a catarrh. As a rule the meningococcus itself does not give rise
to catarrhal symptoms in the carrier.
Where overcrowding is unavoidable and spacing-out impracti-
cable, steam spray treatment, using a. 2% solution of zinc sulphate,
may be given for 10 minutes daily to the overcrowded community.
In several instances this procedure appeared to check the incidence
of cases during an actual outbreak of cerebro-spinal fever. This
method of treatment should, however, never be used as a substi-
tute for spacing-out and improved ventilation.
Prophylactic vaccination cannot be regarded as having been
proved to afford protection, though at Salisbury and at Camp
Funston it appeared to give promising results. (J. A. G.)
CEYLON (see 5.778). The pop. had increased from 3,578,333
in 1901 to 4,110,637 in 1911 and was estimated at 4,757,598 on
Dec. 31 1919, giving a density of 187 per sq. mile. The proportions
according to race, per 1,000 of the total pop., were: Europeans
1-5, Burghers 6-2, Sinhalese 628-3, Tamils 299-4, Moors 58-2,
Malays 3, others 3-4. European residents numbered 7,349 in
1919. The death-rate was 35-6 per 1,000 in 1919 the highest
yet recorded and was mainly attributable to the influenza
epidemic and an outbreak of cholera. The urban pop. represented
about 13% of the total, the chief towns being: Colombo, pop.
(1911) 211,274, Jaffna 40,441, Galle 39,960 and Kandy 29,451.
Both immigration and emigration figures showed a general de-
crease from 120,354 and 90,374 respectively in 1911 to 47,296
1917.
It is estimated that 2,182 Ceylon men (Europeans 1,573, a "d
Sinhalese 609) joined the army during the World War and a
further 1,204 were recruited for service as clerks and mechanics.
The " Ceylon Sanitary Company," raised in 1917, rendered
conspicuously valuable service in Mesopotamia.
The Constitution. Under the constitution embodied in the
Letters Patent of 1910, Ceylon was administered by a governor
aided by an executive council of seven members, including the
officer commanding, the colonial secretary, attorney-general,
controller of revenue, colonial treasurer, Government agent of the
western province, and one member nominated by the governor j
and a Legislative Council of 21, including the 7 members of the
executive, 4 other official, and 10 unofficial members, of whom 6
were nominees of the governor and 4 elected to represent separ-
ate communities.
On Oct. i 1920, with a view to giving a larger measure of
popular control over administration, changes in the constitution
which had been for some time under consideration received the
approval of the King. The provisions were as follows:
As regards the executive council, the governor is instructed to
appoint an additional three unofficial members; and, as to the Legis-
lative Council, the modification's will (i) involve a considerable exten-
sion of the principle of popular election and (2) give the unofficial
members a substantial majority over the official vote.
The reformed Legislative Council will number 37 members (exclu-
sive of the governor who will preside), viz., 14 official and 23 unoffi-
cial members. Of the unofficial members, 16 in the first place and,
as soon as arrangements can be made 19, will be elected by various
constituencies II on a territorial basis (the franchise and qualifi-
cations for candidates following the proposals of the Ceylon National
Congress), two to represent the European community, one the
Burgher community, one the Chamber of Commerce, one the Low
Country Products Association, and (until the registers for the Kan-
dyan and Indian communities can be undertaken) two members
will be nominated to represent these communities. Of the remain-
ing four members, one member will be nominated (as before) to
represent the Mohammedan community it being thought impos-
sible owing to the wide distribution of Mohammedans in the island
to introduce any system of election for this community and the
governor will have power to appoint not more than three unofficial
members to represent interests inadequately provided for.
By this arrangement, the unofficial members of the Legislative
Council will be in a majority of nine over the official, but the
governor will have both an original and a casting vote if he
should choose to exercise it, and, in order to prevent a deadlock,
it is provided that he may declare the passing of any measure
to be of paramount importance to the public interest and, in
such case, the measure may be carried by the votes of the official
members. Somewhat similar reserve powers are contained in the
Government of India Act.
The reforms have been opposed by certain sections and, in Oct.
1920, the Ceylon National Congress unanimously resolved to boy-
cott the scheme as " utterly inadequate and reactionary."
For purposes of general administration, Ceylon is divided into
nine provinces, presided over by Government agents. There are 3
municipalities and 21 local government boards. A Local Govern-
ment bill, providing for a wide extension of the principle of local
government was under consideration in 1921.
Education. A new ordinance, constituting a Board of Education,
which came into force in 1919, enacts that new regulations must be
laid before the Legislative Council for disallowance or amendment
before being confirmed by the governor in executive council. The
board consists of not less than 16, or more than 20, members nomin-
ated by the governor, of whom the director and assistant director
are ex officio members while the others hold office for three years.
In 1919 there were 884 Government vernacular schools, with an
attendance of 97,819 boys and 32,570 girls; 1 ,855 Government aided
schools, with 129,027 boys and 78,649 girls; 256 aided estate schools,
with 9,061 boys and 1,247 girls; and 265 English and Anglo-vernacu-
lar schools attended by 36,526 boys and 10,462 girls a total of
just under 400,000. The total sum expended by Government on
vernacular education in 1919 was Rs. 1,434,264 of which approxi-
mately two-fifths were spent on Government and three-fifths on
aided schools. The total number of pupils attending secondary
schools was 8,065 i n !9'9- The Government training college (1919)
had 39 men and 41 women in training in the English side, 8 men in
the Anglo-vernacular, and 40 men and 40 women in the Sinhalese.
A scheme was on foot in 1919 for affiliating Ceylon University
College to Oxford University. The building of a new Royal College
was begun in 1920.
CHAFFEE CHAMBERLAIN
599
Police. -The strength of the force on Dec. 31 1919 was 2,884 of
all ranks. Statistics show an apparent increase of crime: there were
7.581 convictions in 1917, 8,328 in 1918, and 8,577 in I9 r 9. the
largest number of convictions in each year being for burglary.
Revenue and Expenditure during the five years 1915-9 the finan-
cial year ending Sept. 30 were as follows:
Revenue Expenditure
1915 Rs 51.545475 Rs. 50,148,000
1916 66,013,005 56,104,515
1917 . . . . . . 66,981,870 64,335,675
1918 63,933,628 64,944,549
1919 70,070,941 70,843,681
The principal sources of revenue in 1918 were: customs, Rs. 19,-
857,255; railways, 16,702,050; spirit licenses, 8,991,795; stamps,
5,732,985; port and harbour dues, 2,218,155; the salt monopoly; and
sales of crown lands. Items of expenditure: railways, Rs. 12,746,895;
public works, 8,218,935; interest and sinking fund on loans, 5,391,495;
military, 4 668.060; medical department, 4,061.130; post and tele-
graphs, 2.878,440; education, 2,580,930. The area of crown lands
sold decreased from 32,832 ac. in 1913, to 6,019 ac. in 1918, but
rose to 6,456 ac. in 1919 in which year the system of outright sale,
instead of leasing in perpetuity, was reverted to.
Public Debt. At the close of the financial year 1919, the public
debt stood at 5,142,268, or approximately one and one-tenth times
the annual revenue.
Currency. On Sept. 30 1919 the value of currency notes in cir-
culation was Rs. 40,533,042. The Ceylon Savings Bank had a sum
of Rs. 4,089,722 to the credit of 39,706 depositors on Dec. 31 1919,
as against Rs. 5,152,980 and 37,099 depositors in 1911.
Agriculture. It is estimated that about 3,000,000 ac. are under
cultivation and 1,000,000 ac. under pasture. In 1918, coconut and
other palms occupied approximately 1,226,000 acres, paddy 679,000,
tea 506,000 and rubber 281,000. Livestock, in 1917, comprised
3,986 horses, 1,577,464 cattle, 86,103 sheep and 62,721 pigs. In
1919-20 considerable further areas were brought under paddy and
dry grains in order to meet the serious shortage in the locally grown
food supply then prevailing, while the area under rubber was reduced
on account of the depression in the rubber market. Coffee, once a
leading product, has practically disappeared from the list of exports.
A decision to restrict, in 1920 and onwards, the production of tea
by 20 % was come to owing to the glut in the home market.
Other Industries. Sub-committees were engaged in 1920 in investi-
gating the possibility of establishing paper and glass manufactures
for which the raw materials are available in great quantity; and
the development of the fisheries of Ceylon (at present in a very
primitive state) was still being studied in 1921. The Public Works
Department continued to investigate the question of hydro-electric
production for the supply of electricity to industries and railways.
Communications. The total mileage of railways was 728 in 1919,
as against 712 in the previous year. The extension of the main up-
country line by 21 m. to Badulla, the principal centre of the Uva
province, was undertaken in 1920. The total length of roads was
4,086 m. of which 267 m. were mere bridle-tracks. At the end of
1919, there were 550 post-offices (including 160 telegraph) as com-
pared with 444 in 1911.
Trade. The following table shows the value (in Rs. 1,000) in
1919 as compared with 1911 :
Imports Exports Total
1911 156,986 180,527 337.513
1919 239,324 367,055 606,379
The staple exports (values in lakhs of rupees) in 1919 were:
rubber 1,321, tea 1,165, copra 323, coconut oil 257, desiccated coco-
nut 249, and cinnamon 37. Of exports in 1919 the United King-
dom took 42-1%, United States 33-5, British India 6-8; and of
imports British India sent 30.4%, Burma 23-9 and United King-
dom 14-2.
The following table gives in round numbers the exports of rubber
and tea during the period 1916-9:
Rubber Tea
cwt. Ib.
1916 487,000 203,000,000
1917 646,000 195,000,000
1918 413,000 180,000,000
1919 900,000 208,000,000
Shipping. During 1919, 4,130 vessels (including 1,018 sailing
craft) with a total tonnage of 9,988,176 (tonnage of sailing craft
103,413) entered the several ports of Ceylon. The distribution
according to nationality was: British 6,467,584 tons, Japanese
I.054.33 1 - French 317,776, Dutch 272,573, United States 87,499.
The total tonnage entering Colombo amounted to 8,603,643.
CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA (1842-1914), American soldier
(see 5.800), died in Los Angeles, Cal., Nov. i 1914.
CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH (1836-1914), British statesman,
died at Highbury, Birmingham, July 2 1914. From 1910 on-
wards, as for the three or four years previously, after he had been
struck down by illness in 1906, Mr. Chamberlain remained in the
political background, personally crippled, but intellectually an
abiding source of strength to his old political followers, who
continued to cherish his inspiration and to work for his ideals
in the development of a united British Empire. Since they were
now in opposition, the cause of tariff reform and imperial
preference was no longer one of practical politics, and after the
outbreak of the World War the conditions which had produced
this active movement in 1903 were substantially altered. Never-
theless, it fell to Mr. Chamberlain's son, Austen Chamberlain,
as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1919, after hip father's death,
to include imperial preference in the budget of that year, and
thus to carry this part of his programme to victory.
In 1916 Mr. Chamberlain's widow married Canon W. H.
Carnegie, rector of St. Margaret's, Westminster, and chaplain to
the House of Commons.
CHAMBERLAIN, (JOSEPH) AUSTEN (1863- ), English
statesman, eldest son of Joseph Chamberlain (see 5.817) by his
first wife, Harriet Kenrick, was born at Birmingham on Oct. 10
1863. He proceeded from school at Rugby to Trinity College,
Cambridge, his father having determined to secure for the eldest
son, whom he destined for politics, those academic advantages
which early entrance on a business career had denied to himself
when a young man. After a good degree at Cambridge and a
useful apprenticeship in speaking at the Union, Austen Cham-
berlain completed his studies at the Ecole des Sciences in Paris,
and at the university in Berlin, where he attended the lectures
of Treitschke. But valuable as this training was for the profession
of politics, it was secondary to the advantages of daily contact
with living issues which he enjoyed by growing up beneath the
roof of perhaps the most compelling political personality of the
day. He entered the House of Commons at a by-election in E.
Worcestershire in 1892. He was returned again at the General
Election in July, and in the following year, as junior Liberal
Unionist Whip, he was to witness the slow slaughter of the
Second Home Rule Bill after nearly 90 days' debate, in which
Joseph Chamberlain was the protagonist. When Joseph Cham-
berlain became in 1895 Colonial Secretary under Lord Salisbury,
his son became Civil Lord of the Admiralty. For five years, until
1900, Austen Chamberlain held this office, with Lord Goschen as
First Lord; and although he was not called upon to speak often
in the House, he succeeded in impressing his chief, and the perma-
nent officials, with the integrity of his character and his solid
grasp of mind. Wearing a single eye-glass like his father, and
resembling him otherwise outwardly, critics would look for deeper
resemblances too. But " Joe's " genius was his own; and Austen's
strong gifts came to be recognized as none the less remarkable
because they chanced to differ widely from his father's. The
S. African War was virtually over when in Oct. 1900 the " Khaki"
General Election took place; and upon Lord Salisbury's return
to power Austen Chamberlain became Financial Secretary to
the Treasury, with Hicks-Beach as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
War finance explained the increased burdens of that year, and the
2d. rise in the Income Tax of the budget of 1901. But the most
significant financial change appeared in the budget of 1902, when
the is. a quarter duty upon imported corn was revived.
In the following summer Lord Salisbury resigned, and in the
reconstruction following Mr. Balfour's accession to the post of
Prime Minister, Austen Chamberlain ertered the Cabinet for
the first time as Postmaster-General. Peace in S. Africa had
been declared; a season of reconstruction had now set in; and
Joseph Chamberlain took advantage of the lull to visit the S.
African colonies, so recently won and secured. It was on his re-
turn in 1903, only to find that a majority of the Cabinet had been
converted in his absence to a remission of the tax on corn, which
had been destined by him and his son as a weapon, however
elementary, for forging Imperial unity for by reducing it upon
corn from the Colonies they had hoped to inaugurate a fiscal
preference with the Dominions overseas that the Tariff Re-
form movement was initiated by Joseph Chamberlain, with the
result that in Sept., after launching the Tariff Reform League in
the summer, he resigned from the Government. His son, how-
ever, joined the Cabinet as Chancellor of the Exchequer, tech-
nically a higher office than his father had ever held.
6oo
CHAMBERLAIN CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
Although the Tariff Reform controversy raged throughout
1904, only faint fiscal ripples disturbed the new Chancellor's
budgets of 1904 and 1905, which remained mainly orthodox.
But the split in the Government and the party upon this para-
mount issue, together with other political causes (see 3.254), led
to their crushing defeat in the election of Jan. 1906. Austen
Chamberlain was again returned to Parliament. Subsequently
in this year he married Ivy Dundas, by whom he had a family of
two sons and one daughter. The Unionists had dwindled to 158,
against 512 Ministerialists under Campbell-Bannerman, in the
new Parliament, and the task of this disheartened residue was
formidable. Austen Chamberlain, however, encouraged them,
not only by his industrious activity, especially among the
younger Tariff Reformers, in assisting the propaganda work,
but in the House of Commons by his spirited assault upon the
budget of 1906, as well as by his bold denunciation of Mr.
Asquith's high taxation in the budget of 1907. In the year
following, Mr. Asquith succeeded Campbell-Bannerman as
Prime Minister, and his introduction of old-age pensions some-
what disarmed the critics of his finance. In 1909, however,
Austen Chamberlain led the opposition against Mr. Lloyd
George's " People's Budget." In a brilliant impromptu speech
he moved its rejection, arguing that the Government was
welding a weapon for oppressive taxation; and for 40 days
in committee he fought it clause by clause and line by line,
until the proposed diversion of the old Sinking Fund was dropped,
the duty on ungotten minerals had to be jettisoned, and the land
taxes were whittled down into weapons of such weak revenue-
raising capacity that they finally vanished (with Mr. Lloyd
George's assent) in his own budgets of 1919 and 1920. In the
period of constitutional crisis which followed the Lords' rejection
of the budget, and after the breakdown of his father's health, he
consolidated his own position in the Unionist party as the leader
of the Tariff Reform movement in his father's absence; and when
Mr. Balfour resigned the leadership of the Unionist party in 1911
he had established strong claims to the succession. But another
section favoured Mr. Walter Long, his senior, and it was charac-
teristic of both men that they would not put the party to any
division in the matter. Austen Chamberlain gave his full loyalty
to Mr. Bonar Law when he was unanimously adopted.
In 1913 he became chairman of the Royal Commission on
Indian finance and currency, acting until March 1914. When
the World War broke out, it had not proceeded long before a
Coalition Government became necessary, and he then joined the
Government as Secretary of State for India. In this capacity he
inherited extensive military commitments in India and the con-
duct of a campaign in Mesopotamia, over which distance gave
him spasmodic and scant control. When difficulties overcame
the expedition in its advance upon Bagdad, a commission was
appointed to inquire into the causes in Aug. 1916. It reported
in June 1917, and, since it reflected upon the medical prepara-
tions in India, a debate followed in the House on July n. To
the general astonishment Mr. Chamberlain in his speech an-
nounced his resignation, admitting the truth of the breakdown
of the hospital arrangements, but explaining that he was entirely
ignorant of it until the damage had occurred. Although the
Prime Minister urged him to remain, he insisted upon the consti-
tutional duty of a responsible minister to resign when his office
had been censured, and in doing so he confirmed his reputation
for disinterested and high-minded independence.
In 1918 he returned to office in Mr. Lloyd George's Coalition
Government, as minister without portfolio. At the general
election in Dec. he was returned unopposed for W. Birmingham,
for which, on his father's death in 1914, he had been returned at
a by-election, and he was then appointed, at Mr. Lloyd George's
invitation, once more Chancellor of the Exchequer. The Peace
was being negotiated in the early months of 1919 in Paris, but
Mr. Chamberlain's valuable contribution to the deliberations
there of the Supreme Economic Council, over which he presided,
did not prevent the introduction by him of the budget on the
last day of April, in a speech reflecting the gigantic pecuniary
sacrifices of the nation and the urgent need for economy. Taxa-
tion was increased to meet an expected deficit; but the distinc-
tive departure of the budget was the reduction of existing duties
by one-sixth upon articles of general consumption from the
Colonies. The principle of Imperial Preference thereby became
an integral element of the British financial system; and by a
strange stroke of fate it was thus first introduced by the son of
the statesman who had sacrificed everything to preach this prin-
ciple and convert his countrymen 1 5 years before. A little later
in the year, although private pockets were empty and the spirit
of sacrifice temporarily exhausted, Mr. Chamberlain issued the
Victory Loan. In the budget of 1920 he had the titanic task of
attempting to make revenue and expenditure balance, with a
deadweight debt of 7,835,000,000 and a floating debt of 1,312,-
000,000. But not content with 150,000,000 in hand for debt
reduction, Mr. Chamberlain called upon the nation for further
efforts and increased the excess profits duty to 60%, while
introducing a corporation tax for the first time. When he had
taken office as Chancellor late in 1918 the budget could not be
balanced without borrowing, and currency inflation continued.
But in this, his second year, the budget balanced, over 250,000-
ooo of debt was repaid out of revenue, and inflation took a down-
ward course. This was done when trade prospects were favour-
able, and before it could be realized that wide economic dislocation
on the Continent, aggravated by home labour disputes, was about
to create a profound commercial depression. Criticism was,
however, not wanting in later months that a less drastic policy of
debt reduction would have left citizens better able to finance
business, and as the year went on some concessions had to be
made to this view, with which was combined a growing agitation
for economy so as to reduce expenditure. The withdrawal of the
excess profits duty next year was announced in Nov. in ad-
vance of the budget statement for 1921, and Treasury control
was everywhere tightened.
On March 17 1921 the political world was startled by Mr.
Bonar Law's resignation of the Unionist leadership, owing to
ill-health. Instinctively the party turned for a successor to the
man who might have led them 10 years previously, and whose
accumulated experience and services were now his overwhelming
credentials. There were no competitors to Mr. Chamberlain's
candidature; even the usual lobbying seemed absent; and on
March 21, in a packed party gathering at the Carlton Club, he
was unanimously chosen Leader of the party. As such he became
Leader of the House of Commons, and took office as Lord Privy
Seal, being succeeded as Chancellor of the Exchequer by Sir
Robert Home. (O. L. L.)
CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE (1828-1914), Ameri-
can soldier (see 5.819), died at Brunswick, Me., Feb. 24 1914.
CHAMBERS, CHARLES HADDON (1860-1921), British play-
wright, was born of Irish parents at Stanmore, near Sydney,
N.S.W., April 22 1860. As a boy of 15 he entered the N.S.W.
civil service, but two years later sought a more adventurous life
as a stock-rider in the Australian bush. In 1880 he first visited
England, and two years later established himself there as a
journalist, writer of stories, and finally as a playwright. Amongst
his most successful plays (see 8.534, 536) may be mentioned
Captain Swift (1888); The Idler (1890); John-a- Dreams (1894);
The Tyranny of Tears (1899); The Awakening (1901) and Pass-
ers-By (1911). He died in London March 28 1921.
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN, 1914-8. At the end of the
fighting after the battle of the Marne, the lines became stable
along a front selected by neither of the opposing forces. On the
sector W. of the Chemin des Dames, along the heights of Vailly
Chavonne-Soupir-Moussy, the 6gth French Div. had relieved
British divisions, and its front line was, so to speak, hanging on
to the slopes which dominate the Aisne, with the river in its rear,
and with all its communications under observation of the Ger-
mans, who were holding the fort of Conde.
I. COMBATS OF 1914-5 ON THE SOISSONS-REIMS FRONT
Vailly-Soupir, Oct. jo-Nov. 2 1914. On Oct. 29 the trenches
occupied by the French 6gth Reserve Div. were strongly bom-
barded on the plateau of Rouge-Maison; on Oct. 30 the I37th
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
601
Brigade was attacked with great violence; on account of the ex-
tent of its front it had no reserves and was compelled to retreat
at 9 A.M. on the bridges of Vailly and Chavonne and to consoli-
date S. of the Aisne. On Nov. i the German patrols, which had
pushed forward on the left bank, were driven off. On Nov. 2,
however, at 8 A.M., after a violent bombardment the i38th
Brigade was attacked in its turn and ceded one to two km. of
ground, stopping the enemy advance in front of Soupir and
Moussy. The 6gth Reserve Div. suffered heavy losses: 78 offi-
cers and 3,800 men. This division was relieved by the I. Deligny
Corps, which, during Nov. 6-12, failed to retake the lost ground.
The Engagement of Crouy. On the heights of Soissons-Missy-
sur-Aisne the French position was rushed forward too far to the
N. of the Aisne. The sth group of reserve divisions, which occu-
pied this position, had even been compelled to leave the greater
part of its artillery on the south bank, whence it was unable to
support the infantry effectively. Fearing a repetition of the
defeat suffered at Vailly by the 6gth Reserve Div., Gen. Mau-
noury, commanding the VI. Army, decided to improve his position
a position which only hung on to the edges of the plateau
which overlooked the Aisne. On his instructions Gen. Berthelot,
who had just taken over command of the sth group of reserve
divisions, on Dec. 7, worked out a plan of attack on the Plateau
132, which dominates Crouy, with the object of debouching
later on towards Terny with his left, then towards Pont Rouge
with his right.
The attack on Hill 132 was launched on Jan. 8 1915 at 8:45
A.M., after a bombardment which lasted an hour and a-half. It
was supported by artillery of various calibre, in which slow-firing
guns of old type preponderated: 60 guns of 75 mm., 24 of 95 mm.,
4 of 105 mm., 8 of 120 mm., loof 155 mm. (short), 4 of 155 mm.
(long). This concentration represented a great effort at that
period of the war, but it was insufficient, more especially as the
French attack ended in a German attack, and the battle extended
over a front of 10 km. Out of six breaches which the engi-
neers were to have made in the wire with battens filled with pe-
tards four only were passable, but the others were opened by the '
attackers themselves. The four attacking battalions, drawn up
in ten columns, seized the German trenches in a few minutes
without great loss. All the German counter-attacks, preceded by
violent bombardments, were repulsed during the two days of
Jan. 8 and 9. On the loth the French attack made further prog-
ress, but on the nth the Germans succeeded in regaining a
footing to the N. of Crouy.
On the night of Jan. 11-12 a flood on the Aisne swept away all
the bridges at Villeneuve and at Soissons, except the " bridge
of the English " at Soissons, so named because it had been con-
structed by the British army after the battle of the Marne.
This unforeseen occurrence greatly hindered the sending-up of
reinforcements and rations. The Germans had received con-
siderable reinforcements in infantry and artillery. On Jan. 12,
after a violent cannonade, they attacked Hill 132 and retook all
the ground gained during the preceding days. Gen. Maunoury
put at Gen. Berthelot 's disposal the whole of the i4th Clae's Div.,
one brigade of which was commanded by Gen. Nivelle. He
wished to hold fast on his right with the 55th Div. and the com-
posite Klein brigade whilst the I4th Div. should attack on the
left towards Terny. But on the i3th his right was strongly
attacked in the direction of Montal and Ste. Marguerite; these
troops were very exhausted after six days of hard fighting with-
out rest, day or night. Moreover, the i4th Div. had only made
very small progress. The German artillery with direct observa-
tion could fire at effective range on the bridge at Soissons and
disaster might follow its destruction. In these circumstances to
leave French troops on the right bank of the Aisne was no more
than a useless act of imprudence, and Gen. Maunoury gave them
the order to retreat to the left bank. That retreat was carried
out in good order during the night of Jan. 13-14, without being
disturbed by the enemy. The losses totalled 161 officers and
12,250 men killed, wounded or missing.
On Jan. 25-26, after a very violent bombardment, which
extended over several kilometres of front, the XVIII. French
Corps attempted a local attack, which, in consequence of the
collapse of a dug-out which buried several hundred men, lost the
crest of Hurtebise on the Chemin des Dames. Then the positions
became fixed on this part of the front until the French offensive
of April 16 1917. (C. M. E. M.)
II. THE WINTER BATTLE or 1914-5
The part of Champagne in which the winter fighting of 1914
took place consists of a vast, gently undulating plain between two
ridges of hills and plateaus which form its northern and southern
boundaries. The greater part of its surface is formed of white
chalk covered by a crust of arable soil, often very thin and in
some places non-existent. This chalky plain is in its southern
part known as " dusty " Champagne, and in its northern part as
upper Champagne. To the E. of it lies the hilly upland country
bordering the Argonne, a clayey, broken district, covered with
woods and well watered. Towards the N. the central plain is
broken up by a series of small isolated hills, the principal of
which are the hills of Brimont (170 metres), Berru and Nogent
1'Abbesse to the N. and E. of Reims and that of Moronvilliers
(260 metres) further to the E. To the E. the Champagne plain
rises in like manner to the hilly zone of Remois and Tardenois.
Ever since the beginning of the igth century attempts had been
made to improve this impoverished land by planting pines in
geometrically formed clumps, which form a prominent feature of
the landscape. After some 25 to 30 years at least the pine needles
decompose into a kind of crust, and it is thus possible to cultivate
with some prospect of success. To the N. of the Marne the
Champagne plain is traversed by several streams; the Vesle
running north-westwards from Somme- Vesle to the E. of Cha-
lons; the Suippe practically parallel to it running from Somme-
Suippe to the Aisne near Conde en Suippe; the Tourbe flowing
in the opposite direction and N.E. of Somme-Tourbe towards
the Aisne at Servon; and the Dormois passing by Ripont, Rouv-
roy and Cernay en Dormois in the same direction. The Py and
the Alin flow respectively to the W. and to the N.E. between
Breer, the Aisne and St. Martin 1'Heureuxon the Suippe. Several
old Roman roads cross this region, notably those from Chalons
to Rethel by way of Souain and Somme-Py from St. Menehould
to Vouziers along the valley of the Aisne, all running in a general
direction from S. to N. They are crossed by the road from Reims
to St. Menehould, which runs at the foot of the heights of
Moronvilliers, Nogent 1'Abbesse, and thence by St. Hilaire le
Grand, Jonchery, Suippes and Somme-Tourbe. Villages are
rare and of little importance ; Souain, Perthes les Hurlus, Hurlus,
Le Mesnil les Hurlus, Tahure and Massiges are all poor and ill-
constructed hamlets scattered over the vast plain.
The winter battle began at the end of 1914. After the battle
of the Marne the pursuit initiated by the Allied armies was
checked after a few days, principally owing to a shortage of
artillery ammunition, and the opposing forces took up position
and set to work to construct extensive lines of entrenchments of
a kind that had not been seen since the i8th century. South of
the Aisne the German front swung round to the E. of Reims,
included the hills of Nogent 1'Abbesse and the forts commanding
them, and ran thence along the Roman road S. of the Moron-
villiers heights, crossing the Suippe above Auberive and passing
S. of Souain, Perthes and Massiges and N. of Ville sur Tourbe to
the Aisne. The choice of this line was not dictated by either
strategical or tactical reasons. The two adversaries installed
themselves in face of each other by means of a series of succes-
sive engagements, the German object being to maintain an
unbroken front as close as possible to Verdun and Reims.
The French Higher Command considered that, despite the
munitions crisis, the offensive must be resumed. The moral of
the troops might well suffer from the wearisome hardships in-
separable from trench warfare, for a kind of Siege of Sebastopol
on a large scale appeared ill-suited to the temperament of the
French soldier. Moreover, the " home front " had also to be
considered; and finally it was necessary to do something to di-
vert the enemy's attention from the Russian front. The British
had opened their offensive sooner than the Germans had be-
6O2
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
lieved possible, and had thus contributed in no small degree
to the victory on the Marne. But though this result had been
achieved the first promise of their operations had not been ful-
filled, and their initial success had been followed by a crushing
defeat. It was thus of the first importance to hold fast on the
western front as many as possible of those enemy troops who
might be diverted eastwards if the situation there permitted it.
French G.H.Q. was, however, deceived with regard to the
hostile situation. It was believed that the Germans too were
suffering as acutely as the Allies from shortage of munitions,
while the supposed losses in men and wastage of material were
much in excess of the truth. All these causes contributed to
Gen. Joffre's decision to adopt offensive policy, which was ex-
pressed in a general order issued to his armies on Dec. 17. " The
hour for attack has sounded," it ran. " We have hitherto checked
the enemy's effort; and now it is a question of breaking it and
definitely freeing our violated national territory." It seemed as
if a general offensive was to be undertaken on the whole front
from the Swiss frontier to the North Sea; but as a matter of fact
all that took place was a few isolated operations, notably in
Flanders, Artois and Champagne.
The IV. Army, under Gen. de Langle de Gary, this time held
the line between the V. and III. Armies from Marquirez farm
near Prunay to a point between Boureuilles and Chalad in the
Argonne. From left to right the front was held by the XII.
Corps (to which were provisionally attached the gist and p6th
Territorial Div.), the 6oth Reserve Div., the XVII. Corps, the
Colonial Corps, and the II. Corps.
The operations began on Dec. 20 after a short artillery prep-
aration, and although they were carried out on a wide front
from Prosnes to the Argonne the results were not great. The
offensive continued on the 2ist and met with no better success.
The XII. Corps lost heavily and was compelled to cease its
attacks; the XVII. and Colonial Corps continued their efforts on
Dec. 22, 23 and 24, capturing a part of the first German line
at the price of numerous casualties. On the 25th the operations
were suspended, and the enemy in his turn delivered a series of
counter-blows which were repulsed. Towards the end of the
month the IV. Army was reinforced by the IV. Corps from
Picardy, which for the time being was held in reserve. At this
period portions or the whole of eight enemy army corps (III., V.
Armies) were opposed to the Allies in Champagne; from left to
right these were a fraction of the VI., the XII. Reserve, the
VIII., the VIII. Reserve, the XVIII. Reserve, a fraction of the
VI., the XIII. and the XVI. Corps, besides Landwehr formations.
At the beginning of 1915 the situation was still very delicate
in the Argonne, where the Germans reported every day captures
of men and material, which French communiques were unable
effectively to dispute. This succession of minor checks could not
fail to exercise some effect on the position in Champagne and to
hinder Allied progress there. The enemy's resistance was very
stubborn, and he passed from defence to attack on more than
one occasion. Up to the end of Jan. the Allies continued the
same monotonous series of small attacks in the Perthes-Beause-
jour area, the net result of which was a small gain of ground to
the N. of Beausejour and Massiges. Continual bad weather and
fogs then induced the command to order their cessation. By
Jan. 15 the line had been pushed some 2,000 yd. to the N. of that
held on Dec. 20; this had been effected after some 12 attacks
and about 20 counter-attacks had been beaten off. In comparison
with the terms of the general order for the offensive the smallness
of the results achieved was striking, and the German High Com-
mand did not fail to use its opportunity of pointing this out,
affirming that their opponents' losses on the whole front during
this period were 26,000 dead and 17,860 prisoners, and the total
casualties, including the wounded, 150,000 men at least, while
their own losses were less than a quarter of this figure. It was
stated that the German estimate of Allied casualties was 100%
too large; but it seems certain that even so they were much in
excess of those suffered by the enemy.
From Feb. i to 4 the front in Champagne became even more
active; the French continued to progress slowly in the Perthes
district, but on the 3rd there took place three German counter-
attacks, to the W. of that village, N. of Mesnil and N. of Mas-
siges, and in the last-named alone they met with some success,
breaking the French main position on a 2,ooo-yd. front, and
capturing over 600 prisoners, 9 machine-guns and 9 guns of small
calibre. On Feb. 10, by a misunderstanding, an isolated attack
was delivered near Souain by the 6oth Reserve Div. against
Sabot wood; the enemy reconquered the lost ground in the
afternoon and captured over 500 prisoners.
The general offensive which was to take place on this date
was postponed to the I2th, and then to the i6th. The Russians
had just been defeated in the Masurian winter battle, and their
X. Army had been practically destroyed. French G.H.Q. con-
sidered it essential to assume the offensive on a consider-
able scale in order to hold fast the German troops on the
western front; an easy victory was expected and Vouziers was
given as the ultimate objective of the advance. On Feb. 16 3,000
yd. of trenches were captured between a point N.W. of Perthes
and N. of Beausejour, with over 400 prisoners. The IV. Corps
was held behind the XVII., ready to intervene. During that
night ten German counter-attacks were repulsed; further prog-
ress was made on the I7th N.W. of Perthes, and prisoners were
taken belonging to six different German corps a singular
mixture of units on so narrow a front. Two violent counter-
strokes took place that night and the next morning between
Souain and Beausejour, but met with no success; five further
efforts were equally repulsed during the night of Feb. 18-19.
Fighting continued all next day, the advancing French troops
meeting everywhere with stubborn resistance; they succeeded,
however, in capturing a redoubt N. of Beausejour, and another
work N. of Le Mesnil. These partial attacks naturally proved
unduly expensive in view of the results achieved; by the 27th
the total of German prisoners taken since the i6th amounted
only to 1,000, and the initial hopes with which the operations
had been begun had thus in no sense been fulfilled. Meanwhile a
new corps, the XVI., had been brought up from the Ypres area,
"and it was for the moment intended to use it in a new and power-
ful effort on the left of the battle front.
After the capture of the redoubt N. of Beausejour on the
27th, units of the Prussian Guard which had recently arrived in
Champagne delivered a night attack N. of Le Mesnil, but lost
heavily and were defeated. French progress between Perthes
and Beausejour continued and by March the crest of the ridge
parallel to the front of attack was secured. On the 3rd again the
whole of the German trench system was taken to a depth of
1,000 yd. on a front of 6,000. On the 7th there commenced a
series of attacks against a small copse Sabot wood which con-
tinued till the 1 5th; every day saw the same monotonous repeti-
tion of partial attacks and counter-attacks, every gain of ground
being dearly purchased from the stubborn enemy.
On March 10 the German High Command announced that the
winter battle in Champagne was virtually at an end, and that
it had brought no change whatever as far as concerned the final
result of the war. The main object of the French, to relieve the
pressure on the Russians, had not been realized, any more than
the proposed penetration to Vouziers. The Germans had made
more than 2,450 prisoners; they had certainly lost heavily, more
heavily even than in the Masurian battles, but still hardly
more than one-third of the French casualties, which exceeded
45,000; and the new front in Champagne was more firmly es-
tablished than ever. French G.H.Q. affirmed not less definitely,
in a note issued on March 12, that the operations had attained
all their objectives both local and general; the French had ad-
vanced to a depth of some 2,000 to 3,000 yd. on a front of 7,000
and had obliged the enemy to throw in reinforcements equiva-
lent to a new army corps.
Both these assertions are disputable. The principal French
objective, the relief of the Russian front, had been only imper-
fectly achieved. What were these 20-odd battalions diverted to
Champagne in comparison with the masses engaged on the two
fronts? Vouziers was still far off. The effect of the French
attacks was greater than the enemy were willing to admit, it is
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
603
true, but they were out of all proportion to the sacrifices made.
The truth is that the French methods had been found unsuited
to the gaining of any real success; better artillery preparations,
a larger scale of attack, not as hitherto a series of successive
efforts on a narrow front, but an advance by large attacking
waves along all the front of assault, and closer support of the
infantry by the artillery, which should follow the advance and not
remain tied to its first positions, were necessary.
The winter battle, however, was not yet over. On March 12
the offensive was resumed N.E. of Le Mesnil. By the isth
practically the whole of Sabot Wood was at last occupied. Opera-
tions continued in the next few days between Perthes and Souain,
in the Perthes sector, N. of Beausejour and N. and N.E. of Le
Mesnil. Every foot of ground was bitterly contested, as wit-'
ness the fighting for Jaune Brule wood on March 18; but not till
the 23rd did the French slacken their efforts. A letter of con-
gratulation was addressed to the IV. Army by Gen. Joffre, and
it was ordered to cease its attacks and consolidate its gains.
One corps, the VIII., had alone lost close on 8,000 men, including
160 officers, between Feb. 16 and March 23.
Still the Champagne remained active. On April 8th, a violent
German attack on Beausejour redoubt was repulsed after an
initial success. Thenceforward the enemy had recourse in the
Perthes-Beausejour area to mine warfare, with its alternative of
long delays and sharp assaults. In May the French operations
in Artois, and those of the enemy in Galicia which brought about
the large-scale Russian retreat, threw the course of events in
Champagne into the background. The only action of importance
was the German repulse on May 16 at Ville sur Tourbe, of
which their first communique made so much. In fact an as-
sault delivered by two regiments in close order, following on the
explosion of three large mines, resulted merely in the seizure
of a few trenches, which were speedily recovered by the French
Colonial infantry, with heavy losses for the enemy. (B. E. P.)
III. THE AUTUMN BATTLES OF 1915
After the offensive in Artois in May and June, activity on the
French side was transferred to the Vosges and the Argonne,
where local attacks were delivered throughout the summer, in
the vain hope of confusing the enemy's ideas as to the point of
delivery of the forthcoming offensive. At the same time prepara-
tions were taken in hand for an attempt in Champagne on a
larger scale than ever before, and for a simultaneous and powerful
diversion in Artois. The situation seemed to favour it. The
increase in the British strength had permitted Field-Marshal
French to extend his front; the French defensive system had now
been so perfected as to allow of a reduction in the garrisons of
quiet sectors and a proportionate increase in the reserves availa-
ble. New divisions had been formed, and methodical instruction
of the troops destined for the attack had been taken in hand.
Finally there had been a great increase in the available supply
of guns and shells.
In Champagne the object aimed at was nothing less than the
complete rupture of the German lines on the front Bazancourt-
Challeranges, so as to outflank their left N. of Reims and their
right in the Argonne. It was also hoped, as before, to disengage
the eastern front. The plan was to attack on a front of 25,000
yd. between the Moronvilliers hills and the Aisne.
The German defensive position, both in Artois and Cham-
pagne, consisted of a continuous front system, with several
successive lines of trenches, and further back centres of resist-
ance, themselves immense closed works, with a maze of
trenches, capable each of holding out against assault. As a
general rule these were some 2,000 yd. apart, but their exact
situation was modified in accordance with the ground. This front
system, comprising from two to five separate lines, and some 300
to 500 yd. deep, was followed by a second, traced on the ridge to
the S. of the Py valley. It was carefully organized and pro-
vided with machine-gun positions and thick belts of wire shel-
tered on the reverse slopes.
At the beginning of Sept. the Germans had 70 battalions in
Champagne, belonging to the III. Army (von Einem) and to the
5oth Div., XIV. Corps, and XII. and VIII. Reserve Corps.
During the artillery preparations which preceded the French
attack they brought up 29 more (a division of the III. Corps, the
i83rd Brigade, and half of the 43rd Reserve Div.), making in all
99 battalions on the first day of the battle. Ninety-three further
battalions had to be put into line to fill up the gaps, so that their
forces were practically doubled during the fighting; these were
drawn either from the units at rest, such as the X. Reserve
Corps, brought from Russia, or from the reserves of neighbouring
sectors. In all, then, the Germans engaged 192 battalions. Their
reinforcements came into line, not as large units with a view to
being used for counter-attacks, but by small driblets thrown in
hastily as need arose; no doubt the command, fearing a break
through, parried the danger as best it could by using these
troops in single battalions or even half battalions. There thus
resulted a regular " hotch-potch," to use Col. Feyler's expression,
on Oct. 2, between La Main de Massiges (Hill 199) and Maisons
de Champagne, on a front of 12,000 yd., of 32 battalions belong-
ing to 21 different regiments. The sth Div., for instance, had
one regiment near Massiges, one battalion of another regiment
near Tahure, and one of a third at Trou Bricot.
On the Allied side the arrival of a new British army, the III.,
in the Albert area, and the extension of the VI. French Army's
front to the N., had rendered possible the transfer of Gen.
Petain's II. Army from Artois to Champagne. Under the su-
preme direction of Gen. de Castelnau it was to attack in con-
junction with the right of the IV. Army under Gen. de Langle
de Gary, and the left of the III. under Gen. Humbert, which was
opposed by the German V. Army. On the left of the III. French
Army, the V., under Gen. Franchet d'Esperey, faced the I. and
VII. German Armies. The Allied fighting forces in Champagne
numbered in all 35 divisions, or 420 battalions, at least, more
than double the German forces engaged. So little effort had
been made to keep the forthcoming attack a secret that, as early
as Aug. 15, an order issued by Gen. von Ditfurth announced
that it was expected; and on Sept. 22 Gen. von Fleck foresaw a
" desperate effort " on the part of the French High Command.
Thanks to the efforts put forward to provide the French army
with the heavy artillery and munitions it had lacked hitherto, the
preliminary bombardment began on the morning of Sept. 22 and
continued for three days and three nights without cessation, and
was directed against the whole of the German front as far back
as the second position. At the same time long-range fire was
carried out against the hostile headquarters, billeting areas, and
supply depots, and the Bazancourt to Challeranges railway. The
effect was on the whole considerable, certain enemy units being
left for 48 hours without rations as a result of the bombardment.
On the 22nd and 23rd the -weather conditions favoured ob-
servations of fire, but on the 24th heavy clouds blew up. Next
day, at 9 A.M., broke in rain, which lasted for several days. This
had no little influence on the result of the battle.
At 9:15 A.M. (zero hour) the assault took place along the
whole of the long front, and the first infantry waves, in an irre-
sistible rush, broke into the enemy's trench system. On the
left the attack was directed against a salient between Auberive
and the St. Hilaire-St. Souplet road; the first trench was taken
but the attack was held up by uncut wire in front of the second
line 1,000 yd. in rear. At the same time a counter-attack from
Auberive, supported by the fire of the heavy artillery on the
Moronvilliers ridge, took the French in flank; the left was forced
back but the right held its ground. This first phase was very
short, and thanks to weak resistance the French suffered little.
The enemy had another strongly fortified redoubt E. of the
St. Hilaire-St. Souplet road. Astride this road to the left of it
the French infantry broke into the first hostile trench system,
but were checked by machine-gun fire. To the right the assault-
ing units carried four lines of trenches, covered by belts of wire
and sheltered in the woods, capturing 700 prisoners and 7 guns
and penetrating the hostile lines to a depth of 2,700 yd. In the
Souain valley, which marked the right boundary of the IV. Army
area, the advance was pushed forward rapidly in three different
directions; to the W. it reached the wood of William II., 2,000
604
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
yd. from its starting point, while in the centre in less than an
hour it was seen to be approaching Cabaret de Navarin farm,
over 2, 500 yd. from Souain.
To the E. the Moroccan division (II. Colonial Corps) carried
the first German line in the first rush and penetrated into the
wood near the Souain-Tahure road. Parties of the 28th Div.
(XIV. Corps) took part in this whirlwind attack. In 17 min-
utes they had reached Trou Bricot, more than 1,000 yd. from their
jumping-off trenches; by noon they had passed the Souain-
Tahure road and reached the slopes to the W. of this latter vil-
lage, having advanced some 4,000 yd. and made considerable
captures of material (10 guns were taken by a single regiment).
At this point they reached the hostile second position, which
for the most part was sited on reverse slopes and was thus
invisible save at a short distance. Before an attempt could be
made to carry it a new artillery preparation was necessary.
In the Perthes gap French progress was quite as rapid. Two
thousand yd. to the N. of the village the infantry reached the
camp of Elberfelds, and captured some officers in their beds; they
thus turned the left flank of the stormy redoubt N. of Le Mesnil;
but the Germans held out in a switch trench for several days.
The XX. Corps attacked on the right of the XIV., the nth
Div. to the left, the 39th on the right and the issrd in Corps
reserve. The objectives of the nth Div. were the Cuisines
ravine and Le Mesnil hill, involving an advance to a depth of
3,000 yd. on a front of 3,000. After carrying these defences it
was to push a further 4,000 yd. to the Dormois valley.
The first part of this programme was speedily accomplished
but the right of the XIV. Corps, held up by uncut wire, left the
flank of the nth Div. in the air, and several enemy battalions,
sheltered in two tunnels, running N. and S. under Le Mesnil hill,
came out as soon as the French troops had passed on and fired
into their rear; the left of the nth Div. was thus enveloped and
destroyed in a desperate fight against superior numbers. An
attempt was then made to push forward the right and turn the
hill on the E., but the reinforcements asked for arrived too late.
To the right of the nth Div. the 39th had attacked, with its
left moving on Maisons de Champagne. The crest on which this
farm stood was taken and several enemy batteries surprised and
captured. To the W., towards Bois Allonge, other batteries were
rushed while in the act of limbering up. Further on two squadrons
of mounted hussars intervened in a very unexpected manner;
crossing the first enemy line despite a heavy barrage they de-
bouched rapidly,Uttracting to themselves all the attention of the
enemy, who to the number of 600 were then captured by the
infantry who profited by the diversion caused by the cavalry.
On the extreme right the I. Colonial Corps was to capture La
Main de Massiges, a complicated tangle of ridges, covered with
trenches and dugouts. In the first rush the Colonial troops
reached in 20 minutes the crater on the summit of Hill 101; the
enemy counter-attacked but without success. The mopping-up
of the captured ground was then begun and continued for several
days. In the evening eight enemy trench lines had been taken,
and on the Index, it was said, as many as nineteen.
Generally speaking the day had been highly successful, al-
though at certain points the Germans still maintained their
first positions. Almost everywhere the French had advanced
some 2,000 to 4,000 yd., and Gen. de Castelnau believed that
the road to Vouziers would soon be opened. But the French
line was very sinuous, some units facing E. and some W. and the
rest N. In the region of Perthes and Souain, Sept. 26 and 27
were devoted to straightening the line and in feeling forward up
to the second German position on a I2,ooo-yd. front. The ad-
vance went especially well between Auberive and Souain, N.
of the Roman road, where the VII. Corps did brilliantly. By
the 28th the total area reconquered from Auberive to the west-
ern slopes of the Souain valley measured 16,000 yd. sq., and
3,000 prisoners and 44 guns had been taken.
To the E. the French troops succeeded in linking up, on the
27th, with those operating against Hill 193, W. of Tahure, sur-
rounding and capturing a body of the enemy 2,000 strong; the
camp of Sadowa and Hill 201 facing Tahure hill were taken also.
On the remainder of the front, as far as the Aisne valley, the
pressure of attack continued by means of violent bombardments,
bombing attacks and local offensives. But on the 26th the 3gth
Div. was driven from Maisons de Champagne, and a fresh at-
tack by the iS3rd Div. on the 27th in the same region only
partially succeeded.
On La Main de Massiges the Germans received reinforcements
drawn particularly from the XVI. Corps, and French progress
henceforth became more difficult. None the less the I. Colonial
Corps continued to advance between the 25th and the 3oth.
To the N. it reached Mont Tetu (Hill 199), and pushed down
towards Ville sur Tourbe, capturing prisoners and material.
By Sept. 28 contact was made with the German second posi-
'tion on a front of 13,000 yd. from S. of St. Souplet and Somme-
Py. Westwards the line bent back towards Auberive, which was
still in enemy hands, as was also the hill of Le Mesnil and the
neighbouring woods to the E. But progress towards Tahure
and Ripont and possession of La Main de Massiges secured the
envelopment of this last position on both flanks.
On Sept. 28 and 29 the French succeeded in setting foot in this
second hostile position at certain points such as to the W. of Le
Mesnil hill and Navarin farm. In this last sector they had even
breached this line, but on such a narrow front that the enemy
easily succeeded in preventing any further penetration. All
hope of a break-through had disappeared. The V. Cavalry Corps,
which had been brought forward in view of seizing any chance
of exploitation, returned on the 28th to St. Remy, without even
having gone into action. A general order dated Sept. 30 an-
nounced the close of the operations, the results of which included
the capture of 25,000 prisoners of whom 350 were officers, 150
guns and a large amount of material of war.
On Oct. 6 the second German position was almost intact; the
attack was held up in front of it in extremely difficult conditions;
the French troops were in poor and half-finished trenches,
hastily dug on bare slopes and exposed to flanking and enfilade
fire. The attacks waich continued till Oct. 8 were difficult to
carry out and cost many men. Tahure hill and the two Mamelles
(Hill 187) N. of Le Mesnil were, however, taken, but Le Mesnil
hill remained in enemy hands. Several attacks and counter-
attacks took place at the end of Oct. and the beginning of Nov.
without resulting in any material change in the situation.
According to Gen. Mangin the Sept. offensive in Champagne
cost the French 80,000 killed and missing and 100,000 evacuated
sick or wounded. It was therefore extremely costly, and one
cannot say that the results achieved were in proportion to the
sacrifices and efforts. The Allies had engaged in Champagne and
Artois 52 French and 13 British divisions, more than were put
into line at the battle of the Marne. These masses were sup-
ported by i ,300 French and 300 British heavy guns. The consump-
tion^ munitions by the II., IV., and X. Armies attained enor-
mous proportions 3,980,000 rounds for the 75*8 and 987,000
for the heavy artillery. It was admitted that this last figure
especially was too small for good results to be achieved; the
Allied fire had been insufficient to destroy the enemy's accessory
defences or the trenches of the second and third lines, especially
on the reverse slope. Finally the front of attack, 25,000 yd., was
not wide enough to prevent effective flanking fire.
In short, the offensive had not all the character of sudden-
ness, rapidity and continuity that was desirable, and it went
on too long, involving heavy losses without hope of decisive
results. Thus there arose the conception of offensives with
limited objectives, which when adopted as a general policy be-
came fatal. In some quarters there became observable a ten-
dency to adopt an even simpler method, that of " nibbling " at
the enemy by partial attacks; it was forgotten that by this
means the Allied troops used up their moral and physical
strength at least as rapidly as that of their adversaries.
(B.E.P.)
IV. THE FRENCH OFFENSIVE ON THE AISNE, 1917
Plan of the O/ensive. The Allied plan of campaign for 1917
was drawn up, like the preceding one, at a conference which
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
605
assembled at Chantilly, on Nov. 18 1916, together with the
commanders-in-chief', Joffre and Sir Douglas Haig, and all the
heads of the British, Italian, Russian, Belgian, Serbian and
Rumanian Missions.
The formation of new German divisions led it to be supposed
that there would be a repetition of an attack during the early
days of the spring, probably on the western front. It was there-
fore decided that active operations should be pushed forward on
each front in every possible way compatible with climatic condi-
tions. " In order to deny to the enemy the initiative in resuming
operations, the Allied armies will be ready to make a joint
offensive from the "first half of Feb. 1917, with all the available
forces at their disposal." The beginning of the offensive would
be fixed according to circumstances and by common consent of
the commanders-in-chief, who would maintain between them-
selves the " closest liaison." The Russian High Command
declared its willingness to undertake the task of putting Bulgaria
out of action; the Allied army in Salonika, brought up to a
strength of 23 divisions, should cooperate. The mutual support
that the Allies gave each other during the preceding year should
continue, and the Franco-British and Italian staffs should jointly
study questions of transport and the cooperation of troops.
General Joffre therefore drew up from Nov. 27 a general plan
of attack. From Feb. i the French armies were to be ready to
attack between the Somme and the Oise, at the same time as
British forces between Bapaume and Vimy; from Feb. 20, the
group of armies forming the centre would attack in their turn in
Champagne between Pontavert and Reims.
The method of these attacks is detailed in instructions dated
Dec. 1 6 and based upon experience gained both at Verdun and
on the Somme. They were to take place on as large a front as
possible, to aim at carrying the enemy's artillery positions in or-
der to disorganize the defence by the capture of their guns, and to
follow each other with the shortest possible delay in order to gain
the whole advantage of any results obtained. The break-through
was to be exploited boldly and vigorously; for it is the strength
and rapidity of attack which ensures success. The tactical de-
velopment, which must be indicated in operation orders, is to be
realized by the grouping of forces according to the lie of the
ground, the strongest forces being reserved for those sectors
where progress can be most rapid. The preparation of attacks
with artillery support is moreover studied in detail in these in-
structions; they indicate clearly, however, a change of method
and consider the possibility of being able to break the enemy
front by mass attack rapidly executed, carefully prepared and
studied in its smallest detail.
The question of exploiting a successful attack is not forgotten,
and its rapidity should embarrass the enemy and anticipate the
arrival of his reserves; the attacks have a definite objective, but
they are no longer forced to limit themselves to this objective.
M. Briand's Government strongly urged decisive offensive
for the spring of 1917; political parties supported this. The
effect produced on the public mind by the prolongation of hos-
tilities and by a war of attrition was exaggerated; it was feared
that German submarines would prevent the import into France
of food and raw materials; lastly, the maintenance of combatant
forces was, it was stated, becoming difficult. In the Chamber of
Deputies the War Commission in Dec. handed to the Govern-
ment the report of M. Violette supporting its conclusions: " If
we are wise, we shall recommence active operations from the
end of Feb. . . . the initiative in the great battle is a ques-
tion of life or death for France."
It was in these circumstances that Gen. Nivelle took over the
command of the French armies, in order to carry out the opera-
tions decided upon by the Allied Governments, drawn up by the
Allied general staffs, and in which the plan of attack had been
decided upon in general instructions issued by his predecessor.
He considered that the front of attack might be slightly extended,
and that there would be a great advantage for the progress of
the offensive in Champagne in capturing the Chemin des Dames,
a formidable position which overlooked the whole plain, and
which assured him a bridgehead on the right bank of the Aisne.
Furthermore, the attack on the Somme and that on the Aisne
must be simultaneous, and not successive, as in the original plan.
The Anglo-French offensive in the N. was to begin with a
considerable straightening out of the British front.
Sir Douglas Haig was to attack Vimy with his I. Army, at the
same time the III. and V. Armies should reduce the pocket left
between Arras and Bapaume after the success of 1916. Follow-
ing this, a concerted action should be undertaken in conjunction
with the northern group of French armies, which was to operate
between the Somme and the Oise. General d'Esperey had re-
lieved Gen. Foch of his command, the latter having been un-
justifiably placed in disgrace after the battle of the Somme, the
results of which were misunderstood.
On the Aisne the French offensive was to stretch from Vailly
to Reims; Gen. Petain, having been consulted by the new com-
mander-iri-chief regarding the offensive that had been planned,
had very frankly expressed his criticism, which made it difficult
to employ him in carrying out the operations. General Nivelle
therefore entrusted their preparation to Gen. Micheler, who at
this moment was strongly in favour of a lightning mass attack.
The V. Army under Masel, which had occupied the front of the
attack since 1914, closed up on its right in order to make way for
the VI. Army, of which Gen. Mangin had just assumed command;
the X. Army under Duchesne was held in reserve in order to
exploit any success after the line had been broken.
The operation plans were drawn up for the various branches of
the command according to the usual procedure. The general
officer commanding, Gen. Nivelle, gave directions and indicated
the form of attack; the commander of the group of armies, Gen.
Micheler, fixed the objectives; the commanders of the armies,
Masel and Mangin, shared the task amongst their army corps,
and the instructions which were given to them were strictly
limited to the role of their armies in the battle. It could not be
otherwise, the commander-in-chief alone is in a position to con-
ceive and draw up the plan of an offensive on a grand scale, as
this presupposes a thorough knowledge of the general situation,
of the possible cooperation of Allied armies, of the strength and
resources of the national armies and of the enemy armies, as well
as the instructions issued by the various war commissions and
finally of the intentions of the Government.
General Nivelle had decided on a smashing attack, aiming
with the first assault to capture the enemy positions and the
entire zone occupied by the artillery; this idea was in accord
with the orders issued on Dec. 16 and signed by his predecessor,
carried out on two occasions under his orders at Verdun. Such
an operation appeared quite feasible, and no one raised any ob-
jection to it. He foresaw also, immediately after the break-
through, the possibility of rapidly exploiting his success; the
breach made would be immediately enlarged on both sides and
the " arme de manoeuvre " brought into action: " the later
development of the operations having as its object to bring the
main forces as rapidly as passible in a northerly direction: the
main pivot Craonne-Gmse."
General Micheler, in transmitting these directions, added that,
in his opinion, the whole of the operations could be accomplished
either on the day of attack or at the latest on the morning of the
following day. As the objective to be reached he sketched a
line passing to the farther side of the hills which overlook the
north bank of the Ailette, reaching the plain of Laon to the N.
and pushing in an easterly direction beyond the fort of Brimont.
The first schemes of the operations called forth exchanges of
opinion, as is always the case under similar Circumstances.
The only reservations were made by Gen. Mangin, who asked
that preparations for attack, followed by this actual carrying
out, should take place on several other sectors of the front, in
order to obtain at the very least a relative surprise; he asked for
exceptionally powerful artillery in order to shorten the period of
preparation without endangering the actual task of destruction;
and he added: "Seasonable weather is of great importance; march
rapidity demands good going of the roads; the development of
the operation would be assisted when the days are long and the
nights clear. It is to be hoped that operations carried out prior
6o6
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
to the main attack will have denied to the enemy freedom of
movement and initiative in attack, and that we shall be able to
hope for the splendid day when we shall be able to bring into
action our colonial forces." He pointed out to the commander-
in-chief that, on a front of attack so difficult, without direct
ground observation, it would be very nearly necessary to wait for
fine days, when aerial observation is good and the ground hard.
These requests and observations were submitted to the High
Command as an appreciation to be examined and compared with
all others and to affect the final decision, which was the responsi-
bility of the commander-in-chief alone.
General Nivelle never ceased repeating that it was necessary
" to go on as far as possible " after the day of attack; Gen.
Micheler fixed a first line to be reached in three hours and a second
line three hours after. He went into too minute details which
did not allow any initiative to his subordinate commanders;
some differences arose which Gen. Nivelle had to smooth over.
To go on as far as possible implies that the attack continues
until it encounters an obstacle which it cannot overcome without
the help of new and methodical preparation; it is not by orders
issued that the attack will be stopped, but by the action of the
enemy; the High Command prepares itself to profit by the
confusion brought about so often at various points of the field of
battle, and, with this end in view, prepares its subordinates by
pointing out very distant objectives. This is a principle second to
none, and its application in 1918 brought victory to the French
after giving the Germans their victories in March and May.
The necessity of foreseeing the exploitation of any success
after a break-through is obvious; it was particularly evident in
1917. It was necessary to compel the general staffs and cadres
of all formations to study the requirements demanded in a war
of movement (which for a long time were lost to view), to think
out the equipment of the foot soldier and the lightening of kit,
the formation of columns, their march and supply, to decide
upon the grouping of the heavy artillery which should rejoin in
succession each army corps and army, to study natural obstacles,
the network of roads, etc.
General Micheler obviously went rather far when he contem-
plated a threat on the enemy communications, " who would
then be squeezed up between the Ardennes and the southern
point of Holland," but this anticipation, realized in the following
year, did not go beyond the general staff of the armies.
Military Situation. -The preparations for the offensive were
in full swing when, on March 14, the withdrawal of the German
line on the Hindenburg position commenced; this extended, on
March 19, to the front between the Oise and the Aisne. The
pursuit was immediate and vigorous. The Germans were hustled
on to a prepared line, a line at which they had prepared to limit
their withdrawal and to allow themselves time to organize at
leisure the Hindenburg position. The completion of their field
works, hampered by artillery fire, cost them considerable losses.
The German retreat had long been thought out and prepared.
Only a small quantity of booty fell into the hands of the Allied
armies. The evacuated zone had been systematically destroyed.
It was not to be wondered at that all the roads of communication
had been destroyed that was war; to destroy inhabited places
which could be used as a shelter for troops and which were near to
the firing line is admissible, although this practice is straining
severely the demands of war necessity. But to devote a large
quantity of explosive to blow up stately ruins, like those of the
castle of Coucy, and much manual labour to cut down the
fruit trees that is savagery.
It is essential to point out that important means of destruction
were thus diverted from military use; by blowing up larger
stretches of road, by felling a larger number of trees planted
along their line of retreat, the Germans could have hindered
to a great extent the advance and supply of the French troops.
But not only against the Allied armies did the Germans wage war,
but against the people of France, struck at in their past as in
their future, in their artistic, industrial and agricultural wealth.
The plan of operations drawn up by Gen. Nivelle was necessa-
rily modified by the withdrawal of the German line; the prepara-
tions in full course of execution of the army group under Franchet
d'Esperey fell through, and on this front it- was necessary to be
satisfied with pushing the enemy in the direction of St. Quentin.
But the British attack took up the greater part of its strength.
On the Aisne, between Vailly and Neuvilette, the French attack
retained all its power to operate; Gen. Mangin pointed out that
during the withdrawal the German line had formed a right-
angled salient in the direction of Laffaux mill and that an attack
to the N. of this salient, directed vigorously, would take the
Chemin des Dames in rear. General Micheler, commanding the
group of armies of reserve, after some difficulty transmitted this
suggestion to Gen. Nivelle, who accepted it and sanctioned the
employment of two divisions. The remainder of his unattached
troops were employed in a new attack to the E. of Reims on the
Moronvilliers massif, which the -IV. Army under Anthoine pre-
pared to attack. General Nivelle calculated that the German
withdrawal, which was a confession of weakness, only confirmed
his desire to attack the German armies as soon as possible with
all his forces. The modifications on the front of attack were
sufficiently important, but on the whole he thought that they
would improve a situation already favourable for an offensive.
Political Complications. -But two new events called into ques-
tion even the principle of an offensive. On the demand of the
German High Command, unrestricted submarine warfare had
been decided upon by the Imperial Government, in spite of the
formal declaration of President Wilson that the United States
would look upon it as a definitely hostile act. All parties, even
the most extreme, had approved of that resolution; the only
reservation, entirely platonic, was made by the Socialists, and
that was to throw the responsibility for it upon the Governments
of the Entente who had rejected the German offers of peace.
The Central Powers faced the entry of the United States into
the war with their eyes wide open; they calculated that their
army would never be of more than very mediocre value and that
its transport to Europe would be very difficult. The declaration
of unrestricted submarine war was made to the United States
on Jan. 30. On Feb. 3 President Wilson declared solemnly to
Congress that relations with Germany were broken off; on April
5 and 6 the Senate and the House of Representatives recognized
the state of war with Germany.
Almost at the same time the Russian revolution broke out.
The Tsar Nicholas II., who had opened the Hague Peace Confer-
ence, and who had granted to his people their first franchise,
suppressed alcohol, and, during the war, had shown himself
to be a faithful ally whose help had often been invaluable, had
fallen under the influence of the Empress, a German by birth;
and she was under the control of the monk Rasputin and of
German influences. The Tsar had become more and more de-
tached from his people. From March 7 to 12, disorders broke out
and grew in intensity; the provisional Government, which had
been formed, collapsed with the imperial throne, and Russia fell
into the hands of a power both erratic and weak, incarnated in
the person of Kerensky. He proclaimed loyalty to the Alliance,
but his military power appeared to diminish with the loss of
discipline in the army. The Allies could no longer count on the
Russian offensive scheduled for the spring.
Whilst this was going on, an incident took place on March 20
at a sitting of the Chamber which led to the resignation of the
Minister of War, Gen. Lyautey, and, in consequence, of the
Briand Cabinet. His successor, M. Ribot, chose as his Minister of
War M. Painleve, who, backed up by an important party in
Parliament, had refused to enter the Briand combination be-
cause he disapproved of the nomination of Gen. Nivelle as com-
mander-in-chief, because he was not in favour of that system of
war which Gen. Nivelle, to his mind, typified.
M. Painleve questioned those army commanders whom he pre-
sumed capable of being able to provide him with arguments
against the intended offensive, but not the others. He increased
their hesitation without even understanding it. These con-
ferences took place without the commander-in-chief, who was
informed by his subordinates but not by the minister. General
Nivelle was also aware that a superior officer had been deputed at
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
607
the ministerial office to draw up a dossier against the offensive
scheme, and he was disturbed about it. Nevertheless, none of
the generals interrogated recommended that the offensive should
be given up; they did not believe that it would lead to all the re-
sults foreseen by their chief, but they did not take the responsi-
bility of advising its abandonment. Their opinion, therefore,
was limited to absolutely sterile criticism.
On March 24, M. Painleve also consulted Sir Douglas Haig
and a number of British officers; without going into details of
method, their unanimous advice was " to strike rapidly, with full
force, a great blow at the enemy "; and he became convinced
at the beginning of April, after the Russian revolution and the
entry of the United States into the war, that the British were
resolutely in favour of the great offensive.
It would have seemed that the Minister of War would be
satisfied with that. But, on April 3, a conference took place at
his instigation at the Ministry of War between M. Ribot, Presi-
dent of the Council, the Minister of War, the Minister of Marine
Adml. Lacaze, the Minister of Munitions M. Albert Thomas,
the Minister for the Colonies M. Maginot, and Gen. Nivelle.
The question for discussion was to examine if the offensive, the
date of which was fixed for April 8, should take place in the new
situation following the German withdrawal, the Russian revolu-
tion, and the entry of the United States into the war.
This conference, which took place five days before the date
fixed for the offensive, was useless; it was unable to decide any-
thing, unless it were the meeting of the War Committee to
examine the same question that is to say, if there was any rea-
son to interfere with the British, in order to modify the plans
drawn up in agreement with them and of which M. Painleve
had just learnt that they were firm supporters. Worried by
questions concerning the way in which the attack would be un-
folded, the commander-in-chief affirmed his unshaken belief in a
rapid break-through, followed immediately by the foreshadowed
exploitation which would, in the course of about three days, bring
the group of armies under Micheler up to the Serre, 30 km. from
his position of attack. In the course of the discussion, the necessi-
ty of destroying the first and second lines was pointed out, as well
as the advantage of attacking when the weather was favourable.
It was decided that " the commander-in-chief should attack on
the front which he had selected, at a time when he judged his
preparations were complete, and on a day to be chosen by him."
He had accordingly a free hand.
Everything appeared to be settled, and Gen. Nivelle free at
last to prepare for the coming offensive, when Gen. Messimy,
Deputy and formerly Minister of War, commanding one of the bri-
gades which was going to take part in the offensive, approached
M. Ribot, president of the Council, and handed him a report
which, he said, expressed accurately " the opinion of officers of
the highest repute in the French army and notably even that of
the general who was to direct the coming offensive, Gen. Miche-
ler." This report called for the immediate despatch of eight
French and British divisions to the Trentino, and affirmed that
only limited results could be obtained from the offensive and
only at the price of important losses. The report said further
that the order should be given immediately to wait for fine
weather before beginning offensive operations in France, and in
conclusion the commanders of groups of armies should be listened
to, either singly or together, commencing with Gen. Micheler.
This report did not bring out anything new, and it was fatal
as in the end the irresolution of the Government communicated
it self to the subordinate staffs. It was sufficient, however, to bring
about the assembly at Compiegne on April 6 of an extraordinary
council of war; the President of the Republic, the president of the
Council, together with the three Ministers of National Defence,
the commander-in-chief and the generals commanding army
groups, Micheler, Petain, d'Esperey, were present. General
Foch, who held the rank of commander of an army group, had
been sent hastily the day before to Italy and was therefore not
present. The Minister of War asked if the new situation did not
modify the circumstances of the offensive. General Nivelle
pointed out the necessity for an immediate offensive, carried
through to the end; the commanders of army groups were all of
his opinion on this point, and Gen. Micheler, in direct contradic-
tion to the memorandum which had brought about the war coun-
cil, got up and said: " It is necessary to attack as quickly as possi-
ble, as soon as we are ready and the weather is favourable." All
expressed however, in different ways, their doubts concerning
an immediate break-through.
General Petain was particularly explicit : there were sufficient
forces to pierce the enemy front but not to develop success.
General Nivelle thereupon said: " Since I am not in agreement
with either the Government or with my subordinates, nothing
remains for me to do except to place my resignation in the hands
of the President of the Republic." Everyone then protested that
it was impossible to change the commander-in-chief on the eve of
an attack of which all had admitted the necessity, and Gen.
Nivelle, after some hesitation, refrained from sending his letter
of resignation. The net result was that the council of war broke
up without deciding anything except the necessity of the offensive.
Before the commission of inquiry into the operations on the
Aisne, which was called together in July 1917, Gen. Foch ex-
pressed himself thus: " Nivelle indeed acted thoughtlessly in
accepting the invitation to be present at the conference at Com-
piegne; but I return to the point that the Government, having
heard the opinions expressed at this conference, invited Gen.
Nivelle to carry through the operations." General Petain,
having recalled the fact that he had pronounced an opinion un-
favourable to the offensive, first to the Minister of War and later
to the president of the Council, concluded by saying: "The
Government, fully informed, took no notice. The chief responsi-
bility therefore rests on their shoulders."
The report of the commission, which comprised Generals Bru-
gere, Foch and Gouraud, is severe on the conference: " The doubt
which had crept into the minds of the chief actors would not have
been dissipated by the meeting on April 6. They did not give
that mutual confidence and that belief in success which give to
the commander-in-chief that energy and incentive that enable
him to overcome events." The report records that there was no
intervention taken to counteract the action of the commander-
in-chief nor to weaken his orders, although the majority of those
who met at Compiegne considered them as unrealizable. General
Nivelle was allowed a free hand, with the reservation which was
not clearly expressed, that if, after 24 hours of fighting, the re-
sults were indecisive and losses too heavy, the operation should
be broken off. General Nivelle, however, reiterating his belief in
a rapid penetration, declared that he did not wish to offer battle
in half-measure, and that he did not know what form the struggle
would take, once it was engaged. However, the two officers that
Gen. Nivelle had taken with him to draw up the report had been
dismissed and no written statement had been made. Everything
remains, therefore, confused concerning this " extraordinary "
council of war, the reason of the meeting, the debates and the
conclusion. The memorandum of Gen. Messimy asked that the
army group commanders might be consulted " either separately
or together," but it did not ask that they should be confronted
with their commander-in-chief before the foremost leaders of the
State; it is necessary to point out, as well, a regrettable difference
between this memorandum, which was based chiefly on the
observations of Gen. Micheler, and "the attitude of that general
before the conference; all the army group commanders had been
consulted by the Minister of War, at the instigation of Gen.
Messimy, who had received satisfaction without being aware of
it. The raisnn d'etre of the conference thus vanished.
All the army group commanders considered that the offensive
was absolutely necessary, and they thought that Gen. Nivelle an-
ticipated from it results which it was not reasonable to hope for.
They had spoken of this at the Ministry of War; they repeated it
at the conference with different variations which, however, did
not affect the essence of their declarations. With what object,
then, to reproduce them? The Government are responsible for the
general conduct of the war, but the commander-in-chief, their
choice, has the command and the responsibility for the operations.
The Government considered that the offensive was necessary and
6o8
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
repeated their view on April 3. If they no longer had confidence
in the commander-in-chief let them remove him. Even if this
confidence continues or if it diminishes after a change of com-
mand on the eve of an attack, why take away so much of its
chance of success by undertaking so hazardous a thing?
Assembled without rhyme or reason, this " extraordinary
council of war " killed the confidence between the commander-
in-chief and his subordinates, a confidence already affected; this
ordeal, which had never before been inflicted upon a military
commander, threw Gen. Nivelle into a state of anxiety, however
impassive he might be before the enemy in battle.
The Offensive. In accordance with the instructions of Gen.
Nivelle, the British offensive commenced on April g before Arras
and was continued until April 14 with great success.
It is true it had not effected a break-through but the advance
was important and the booty taken considerable: 14,000 prison-
ers and 104 guns. The battle continued on this front. On April
14, the army group under d'Esperey had felt the Hindenburg
line at the approaches of St. Quentin and had recognized its
strength without being able to make any impression with the
weak effectives available.
Fixed for April 12, postponed to the i4th and then to the i6th
on account of bad weather, the offensive on the Aisne had been
prepared in minute detail. First of all, it had been necessary to
develop the lines of communication between the Marne and the
Vesle and from there up to the front lines. A hundred and ten
kilometres of ordinary gauge line had been constructed, 20 km.
of metre gauge, 308 km. of 6o-cm. gauge; 25 km. of cart roads
and existing roads had been broadened on a length of 55 km.
Twenty-two thousand men had been employed on this task.
Four thousand five hundred tons of transport with an effective
personnel of 28,000 men represented the automobile sections.
Forty kilometres was the front of attack; the VI. Army under
Mangin, with a front of 15 km., consisted of 17 infantry divisions,
one cavalry division and one territorial division; the V. Army
under Masel, on a 2o-km. front, consisted of 20 infantry divisions
and one cavalry division. The VI. Army had 742 heavy guns,
846 field guns, 81 large-calibre guns, 594 trench mortars. The
V. Army had 1,016 heavy guns, 860 field guns, 1,056 trench mor-
tars, QI large-calibre guns. The plan of artillery employment
allowed quiet registration from April 2 to April 4, counter-
battery work on the 5th and 6th; then the destructive bombard-
ment commenced on the 7th and was to have been complete on
the nth; it was continued until the isth, owing to the postpone-
ment of the attack. More than 3,000,000 rounds were fired.
The shooting, however, was hampered by rainy weather and
by bad organization of the fighting planes, concentrated un-
fortunately with the army groups. During the too rare flying
hours, the range-registering planes were not protected, and Gen.
Mangin's urgent calls for their protection by fighting scouts met
with no response. The VI. Army under Mangin had not been able
to receive the number of short-range guns that had been asked
for to destroy the Hindenburg line on its left, nor the long-
range guns that had been asked for to accompany the attack on its
right. Nevertheless, and in spite of what may have been said,
the preparation was good on the whole and the moral of the
troops had risen to the highest pitch. The Hindenburg with-
drawal was rightly considered an avowal of weakness; the Rus-
sian revolution had removed a Court and a Government bound
to Germany, and it was looked upon as an outburst both patriotic
and liberal which recalled the dawn of the French revolution.
The hesitations of the Government and of certain of the staffs
had not had time to permeate the troops.
On the morning of April 16, the French infantry rushed from
their trenches and captured the first German line on the whole .
front. The right and centre of the V. Army advanced two to
three kilometres. The tanks, used for the first time, were de-
tailed for the capture of the third enemy position; their unex-
pectedly slow progression left intact the observing posts of the
Germans from which they directed the fire of their artillery on
them; and owing to the too long distance which they had to
cover they had loaded themselves up with extra petrol cans
which were set on fire by the shells. The infantry had not been
trained to cooperate with them and profited little from their
advance. They suffered heavy losses; in this first experience the
heroism of their crews bought very dearly slender results.
The left of Masel's army was immediately stopped on the
Craonne plateau. The loth Colonial Div. of the VI. Army
under Marchand captured the position of Urtebize with magnifi-
cent dash and some elements reached as far as the Ailette; but
on the plateau of Craonne and Vauclerc, the enemy machine-
gunners came up out of deep dugouts where they had remained
under the shelter of the artillery. The struggle was very severe,
and the detachments that had penetrated too far were taken in
rear and compelled to retire. In the centre, progression was more
satisfactory although difficult; the attack, stopped after an ad-
vance of between 500 and 2,000 metres, was renewed; on the left
the set-off was good, but the advance was rapidly held and even
thrown back at certain points on to its initial line.
The battle had not assumed the aspect foreseen, but continued.
It was not the rapid and tremendous success anticipated, but it
was success. As in all dispositions for attack, there is a tendency
to block in front; the reserves in closing up to the front lines are
liable to get bunched together and to come under enemy artillery
fire, thus suffering heavy losses; in the VI. Army, precautionary
measures taken in advance enabled them to remain on the left
bank of the Aisne. In addition the counter-battery work had
been most efficacious and had much allayed the effects of the
enemy artillery. Machine-guns had stopped the attack. The
system employed at Verdun under similar circumstances was
immediately remembered, the centres of enemy resistance should
be attacked, after having concentrated on them the fire of the
necessary number of batteries, but the attack should be continued.
This is less wearing for the attacker than for the defence.
On April 16, commencing at 10 o'clock in the morning, Gen.
Micheler took all the heavy artillery of an army corps from the
VI. Army under Mangin, then three sections of i55-mm. guns; in
the evening all his reserves were taken away and his ammunition
supply reduced. On the morning of the i/th, Gen. Nivelle
visited the headquarters of the army group, where he was in-
sufficiently informed of the situation, and then he took the de-
cision of stopping the attacks of the VI. Army towards the N.
and of pushing those of the V. Army towards the north-east.
This order was fortunately somewhat delayed in transmission,
and on the I7th the attack continued actively on the centre of
Mangin's army, with a very noticeable advance on the front
Braye en Laonnois-Ostel.
As the pressure continued on the front Vauxaillon-Laffaux,
the Germans could no longer hold in the pocket into which they
had been squeezed and they gave ground. But the order of
Gen. Nivelle commenced thus: " i. The battle fought yesterday
clearly indicates the intention of the enemy to hold fast on the
front of the VI. Army and to make difficult and costly in conse-
quence the advance of your army to the north. ..."
As the situation had changed, Gen. Mangin gave orders for
a vigorous pursuit, which hustled the enemy and caused him
heavy losses; the commander-in-chief approved of this action the
following day. The fort of Conde was occupied. At the same
time a very slow advance continued on the Chemin des Dames.
Commencing on the i7th, the IV. Army under Anthoine, be-
longing to Petain's army group, had attacked the Moronvilliers
massif and had secured important gains. The enemy counter-
attacks were shattered on the igth. Splendid artillery observa-
tion posts remained in the hands of the French. It was a limited
success, but a very appreciable one.
From the i6th-2oth, 21,000 prisoners and 183 guns had been
captured in the French offensive; little progress had been made,
but the advance of from six to seven kilometres, on the Aisne
front of 12 km., resulted in the capture of a dozen villages, to-
gether with the fort of Conde and all the observation posts which
overlooked the valley of the Aisne.
The railway from Soissons to Reims was fired. At last the
evacuation of Laon began. Moral remained good at the front,
excellent in the VI. Army, and the efforts of defeatist propaganda,
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
609
very harmful among the French public, had not yet begun to
make itself felt in the aririy. In the meanwhile German exhaus-
tion continued very fast. Of 52 divisions in reserve on April i, 16
only remained unengaged. The anxieties of the German High
Command could be seen after April 16 in the unusual nature of
their communiques which appeared to prepare public opinion for
the worst eventualities. From that moment their moral declined
rapidly. The results were not such as had been anticipated, but
they were better than those resulting from previous offensives
and had been gained with fewer losses.
The number, however, of these losses were greatly exaggerated
by rumours which were circulated among certain classes in
France and even in certain districts where no information could
have come from the front. Enemy agents worked freely and with
the connivance of the highest authorities, as certain trials before
the High Court and Council of War subsequently showed. In
addition to this numerous French deputies had followed the at-
tack on April 16, either from Gen. Micheler's battle headquarters
or from the lookout at Roncq. Their accounts spread amongst
their friends who shared all their sincere feelings. It is necessary to
have a great experience of war not to allow oneself to be unduly
influenced by the flock of wounded who pour back to the rear
at every big attack after the first day. Having raised alarm in
the French Chamber, these accounts, mutilated and exaggerated,
spread amongst the public, strengthening the effects of enemy
propaganda. The enemy cleverly exploited this.
It was a regular Austro-German counter-offensive, perfectly
organized, which turned theiFrench success into failure. During
the course of an operation both sides always exaggerate the num-
ber of their losses, which later information diminishes as soon as
the situation becomes more clear; but exceptional reasons for
mistake vitiated all calculations. Precise numbers of the losses
were given, very different but all enormous. The first official
estimate had been obtained through wrong calculation based on
an average of men killed; this calculation was arbitrarily aug-
mented by adding thereto the number of missing. In the second
estimate the wounded were counted several times over owing
to their passing through the hands of various medical units, to
which were added the enemy wounded who had been treated in
the French ambulances. When eventually the casualty lists from
the armies did arrive the wounded amongst the colonial troops
and the Russian brigade had been counted twice over, and that
mistake (although proved by documentary evidence) was long
maintained before parliamentary commissions by the French
Minister of War, who made no attempt to calm the agitation.
The rumour spread that the terrible losses were due to insuffi-
cient artillery preparation, that whole battalions had been
thrown into the assault against uncut wire, that no precautions
were taken for the evacuation of the wounded, and that numbers
of wounded had succumbed through lack of medical attention.
Scapegoats were looked for and guarantees demanded.
Continuation of the Offensive in the Middle of New Complica-
tions. The commander-in-chief continued his operations in an
atmosphere that became more and more hostile to him. However,
the continuation of the offensive had raised no objections either
at Compiegne on the iQth, when the French Minister of War
came down to inform himself of his intentions, nor on the zoth at
Paris, when Gen. Nivelle had been instructed to discuss matters
at the Elysee. The X. Army under Duchesne had come into
action between the V. and VI. Armies on the Craonne plateau.
General Micheler wrote on the 2ist that the offensive under-
taken to the N. appeared to him to require forces superior to
those which he had available, and pronounced the opinion that
it would suit him if he could limit himself to local attacks which
he set out in detail. Gen. Nivelle ordered then that he should
limit himself to the relief of Reims by carrying Brimont and
giving more freedom on the heights of Moronvilliers, already
captured, and at the same time to complete the seizure of the
Chemin des Dames. Preparations for these two attacks began,
out each one of them gave rise to characteristic incidents.
The operation on the Chemin des Dames towards Craonne led
to an overture on the part of a young French deputy, who was
serving as an officer on the staff of one of the army corps detailed
for the attack, to the President of the Republic, in which he
pointed out to him the anxiety experienced by the generals en-
trusted with this operation. An exchange of notes between the
Chief of the State and the commander-in-chief was the result
and a consultation of generals summoned, an example of the re-
grettable discussion which was going through the Government
and the High Command.
The intended attack on Brimont gave rise to direct interven-
tion on the part of the minister regarding the detail of the opera-
tion. General Petain, who was selected to carry out the newly
created functions of chief of the general staff attached to the
Ministry, received in his department the scheme of all the opera-
tion plans. M. Painleve, whilst conferring with Gen. Masel,
commanding the V. Army, explained the detail of the operation
against Brimont, and it seems that a misunderstanding arose
between the two speakers regarding the probable number of
losses. The scheme gave rise to conversations which lasted from
April 22 to 29, and the minister instructed the commander-in-
chief to suspend the attack on Brimont which the artillery had
begun to prepare for. Generals Nivelle and Petain were invited
to discuss this question on the 3oth, and the mutilated plan
which appeared as a result of these conversations ended in the
small attack of May 4 against two commanding positions. The
French seized them, but they were driven off after losses which
were really fruitless. Decisions taken affecting the direction
of the French armies were the result of indifferent compromise
between divergent wills; they were no longer commanded.
The British Government meanwhile, anxious regarding the
results of the submarine war, were alarmed at the same time at
the intentions which the French Government expressed.
Before the attack on April 16 they had learnt that the French
War Cabinet intended to suspend the offensive at the end of a
few days if the anticipated results were not attained, or at any
rate nearly so. Also, as early as the i8th, Mr. Lloyd George
asked Sir Douglas Haig " what would be, in his opinion, the
effect produced if the French War Cabinet instructed Gen.
Nivelle to cease offensive operations at a not-far-off date."
The noteworthy reply that Sir Douglas Haig made to this
question on April 19 must be mentioned:
" In my opinion the decision to suspend immediately the
offensive operations, until such a time when Russia and America
should be in a position to join us (probably not before next spring) ,
would be most unwise. The struggle is following a normal course.
Great results are never obtained in war so long as the enemy
power has not been broken; and against an enemy both powerful
and determined, operating with large effectives on a broad front,
it is a matter of time and hard fighting." Sir Douglas Haig
asserted afterwards " that the chances of success, this year, are
remarkably good, if we do not relax our efforts," and he stated
that " the future would confirm that forecast that the suspen-
sion of the offensive would be more costly than the offensive
itself." On the 26th Haig was called to Paris to confer with
M. Ribot and M. Painleve, who pointed out to him the enormous
losses of the French army: 25,000 killed and 95,000 wounded,
they said, when the real numbers, confirmed at this time by the
casualty lists of the armies, were 15,000 and 60,000; they con-
sidered the necessity of stopping the offensive.
Before the members of the French Government Sir Douglas
Haig maintained the view that he had expressed to his own
Government; the results were not those that had been hoped
for, but were such that he found them satisfactory. The German
reserves were at this moment inferior to the Franco-British re-
serves; it was therefore necessary " to continue the battle to the
end." On being asked a definite question by Sir Douglas Haig
the members of the French Government replied that " the battle
should be continued without modification of the general idea of
the plan of operations drawn up conjointly."
The British Government became more and more anxious owing
to the hesitation displayed by the French Government, and
instigated two conferences which were held at Paris. At the
first Gens. Petain and Nivelle, Field-Marshal Sir Douglas Haig
6io
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
and Sir William Robertson, Chief of the Imperial General Staff,
met together. In reviewing the general situation they were
forced to admit unanimously the absolute necessity of continuing
offensive operations on the western front. A large part of the
German reserves were exhausted, but if the enemy was given
time to recover himself he would be free to attack either Russia
or Italy with the greatest chance of success, and he would thus be
able to hold on until the submarine war had obtained its full
effect. In the new situation it was not a question of breaking the
enemy front and of reaching at one blow distant objectives, but of
exhausting the enemy's resistance. Once this object was gained
" it was necessary to develop the results to the utmost possible."
The members of this conference were of the same opinion when
they affirmed the necessity of fighting with all forces available,
with the object of destroying the enemy divisions. " We are
unanimous in thinking that there is no half -measure between that
method and a defensive, which at this moment would be equiva-
lent to a confession of weakness. We are unanimously of the
opinion that our aim cannot be arrived at except through un-
ceasing attack, with a limited objective." Allied staffs would
determine methods and dates.
In the afternoon of the 4th the ministers of the two countries
met at the Quai d'Orsay together with the members of the mili-
tary commission. Mr. Lloyd George explained that he felt the
need of persuading himself that all were quite agreed on the
principle of the continuous offensive, the details of which were
settled by the responsible authorities: " We prefer that the
generals keep to themselves everything which concerns their
plans of operation. When they are put on paper for communica-
tion to ministers it is seldom that the ministers alone see them.
What we do not need to know is the precise locality of the attack,
nor the date, nor the number of guns and divisions engaged. It
is essential that these details remain secret. In England we do
not ask these questions." He changed the preamble of the mili-
tary commission into a formal pledge of the British Government,
specifying always that the expression " limited offensive " was
not to be understood as an attack by two or three divisions, but
as an operation analogous to that which the British armies had
just carried out before Arras. Mr. Lloyd George further insisted
that, considering the situation with which both parties were
faced, a serious and continued effort was absolutely necessary.
He endeavoured to show the French Government all that had
been done since the month of April: " We must not allow our-
selves to underestimate the results of our offensive. Doubtless
great hopes had been held that had not been realized. But if we
did not hope for more than was possible perhaps we would not
find that enthusiasm which was so indispensable in war."
He enumerated the captures: 45,000 prisoners, 450 guns, 800
machine-guns and 200 sq. km. reconquered. " Suppose that it
had been the enemy who had obtained this success . . . and
imagine the wave of pessimism that would have swept over
the public. That is sufficient to show the reality of the success
which we have gained. . . . The losses which we suffer are
very painful, but it is impossible to avoid them if we wage
war. ... If it is a question of saving human life we say that
feeble and repeated attacks cost as much as, and more than,
wholehearted attacks. ... I hope that these considerations
will lead you both," addressing personally M. Ribot and M.
Painleve, " to admit that we must exert all our efforts at once."
The Prime Minister of England spoke in the forcible and
virile language of a true statesman. Well informed of the situa-
tion in his own country, he sensed the value of time when it came
to men and money. He understood war and all its exigencies,
even the hardest; he was capable of the high direction of war
because he knew how to govern the expert without entering into
the detail of his technique. Mr. Lloyd George took with him to
England a written promise, but it was wrapped round with such
reticence that he could not have had many illusions concerning
the duration of the attack " sans repit " to which the French
Government had just pledged themselves.
Whilst the British offensive was in full swing on the Scarpe
the struggle continued in Champagne on the Moronvilliers
massif; a violent German counter-offensive had been repulsed on
April 23 and the IV. Army under Anthoine seized Mount Cornil-
let. The Craonne massif was seized on May 4, and the mill at
Laffaux on the sth, together with a whole series of positions
which the German counter-attacks failed to retake; it was a good
success, but it should have been completed by advancing to the
Ailette, for the X. Army held on to the crest with difficulty,
where it suffered for many weeks heavy losses, which were due to
the suspension of the offensive and not to the offensive itself.
The results of the Franco-British offensive were 62,000 prison-
ers, 446 guns and 1,000 machine-guns taken; the French armies
had lost, April 16-25, JS.ooo dead, 60,000 wounded and 20,500
missing. On the whole front of attack the advance was carried
far enough to force the enemy to reconstruct his battle-line on an
8o-km. front; important positions remained in the hands of the
Allies: the Vimy crest, the Laffaux mill, the fort of Conde, the
Chemin des Dames, and the Moronvilliers massif. Railways of
great strategic value were fired. If to these gains be added those
resulting from the withdrawal in March, obtained by the mere
threat of attack, the first months of 1917 represented for the
Entente a total of very valuable successes.
The total of German losses had not been made known, but it
can be estimated approximately by basing it on the number of
divisions which were engaged on the attacking front. On April i
43 divisions were in reserve in rear; nine were en route for the
French front, two coming from the eastern front and seven being
newly constituted. The German armies had therefore 52 divi-
sions available. On April 22 this figure was reduced to 16; on
April 25 to 12; on May 4 all their divisions had been engaged. It
was necessary to draw on the quiet sectors in order to maintain
the battle. At first, divisions withdrawn from the front could,
before returning to the line, take a few days' rest and refit. This
soon became impossible. This wear and tear increased to an un-
believable extent ; the remnants of troops withdrawn were thrown,
without transition, on the Argonne front or on the heights of the
Mouse. The nth Guards Div., for example, cut to pieces from
May 5-10 on the Californian plateau, was identified on May 18
in the Argonne; and the 28th Div., relieved on the i8th, was
identified in front of Verdun on the 28th. These divisions' only
rest was during the time of their displacement. The same state-
ments are made as concerns the English front; all goes to con-
firm the extreme wear and tear of the German army.
On May 25, 99 divisions had already appeared on the front,
amongst which n had appeared twice; there had been as well no
divisional movements. But now the number of German divi-
sions which took part in the battle of Verdun in 1916 was 43 in 10
months; in 3^ months 137 divisions had fought on the Somme.
In 1917 the wear and tear was thus treble.
It is quite true that Gen. Nivelle had not obtained that break-
through which he had hoped for, but thanks to the length and
vigour of the attack the exhaustion of the enemy was very near to
attainment. The Allies were in a position to profit by this, be-
cause, at the moment when the. German reserves were entirely
used up, 30 divisions remained intact on the side of the Entente:
16 French and 14 British. As the Germans had a total of 150
divisions on the Anglo-French front, as against 178 Anglo-French
divisions, the system of reliefs was much more favourable for the
Allies. One can understand then why the British Government
and High Command insisted on the continuation of the attack.
But were the French troops in a state to repair their losses and
to continue the offensive?
On April i 1917 the French armies on the front consisted of
2,905,000 men, a figure which had never been reached before. In
order to keep up this'figure the 1918 class was available, and those
that had not been called up from the preceding classes, which
might be put down at a total of over 300,000 men for the coming
year. Besides, during that very year, after the release began from
all the war factories, more than 700,000 men were taken from
the front for work in the interior in spite of the protests of Gen.
Nivelle, and later of his successor Gen. Petain, who, in order to
arrest this excursion to demobilization, had to threaten his resig-
nation. The suspension of the offensive was inexcusable.
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
611
Ludendorff confesses now his qualms: " Our consumption of
troops and of munition Had been extraordinarily high. We were
not able to foresee what would result from the fighting or what
efforts we should be called upon to make." He attributes his
safety in the spring to Russian inaction during the Franco-Brit-
ish attack, and in the summer to French inaction. " As I reflect,
and imagine that the Russian success had been gained in April
to May instead of in July, I do not see how the High Command
could have been able to remain master of the situation. . . .
The Russian offensive came too late, in July, two or three months
after the beginning of the Franco-British offensive; there was no
concerted Allied action, as in autumn 1916; each went his own
way and we were able, acting as we were on interior lines, to
repulse and defeat separately our adversaries who were not work-
ing in conjunction." And, in fact, six German divisions were
taken from the French front in June 1917, which contributed to a
large extent in stopping Brussilov's offensive. It is true that the
French Government was not in a position to cause the Russian
army to act; however, the continuation of the French offensive
would have produced the same effect in using up the German
forces, and it is, moreover, quite certain that it was possible to
attack again in July the German front, 'weakened as it was by
these previous deductions, and, in consequence, to arrive at the
final result foreseen by Ludendorff. In May 1917 the German
army was in a*condition which only occurred again in Aug. 1918;
but then the Entente knew how to profit by it.
The French Government had in their service at Rechezy, near
Belfort, a most perspicacious intelligence agency, under the direc-
tion of Dr. Buchert, which being as it was on the borders of
Switzerland and Alsace-Lorraine made use of the most varied
sources of information. This information, now published, testi-
fies to the great anxiety of public opinion in Germany. M. Andre
Hallays, who was stationed there, thus expresses himself: " On
reading the German newspapers of the latter half of April it is
impossible to make any mistake; behind the line everyone had
then the feeling that the armies had just suffered a series of heavy
set-backs before Arras and on the Aisne. Whilst at home a wave
of pessimism swept over the country and the madness of certain
politicians pervaded the Government, the press and the public;
whilst false-rumour mongers, exaggerating the importance of our
losses and the seriousness of certain mutinies, exerted themselves
to give to France the impression of defeat whilst this was going
on the German staff found itself obliged to multiply reports and
comments in order to reassure the dismayed Germans." These
attacks had come as a terrible surprise to them. When the stra-
tegic withdrawal took place had it not been promised that " tre-
mendous events " would result from that " stroke of genius "?
Had it not been inferred that the areas so carefully devastated
would become the theatre of a new offensive? And now it is the
armies of the Entente who assault the German positions, capture
thousands of prisoners and threaten new positions! In vain the
communiques sang of victory; in vain the military critics an-
nounced that, thanks to " an elastic withdrawal," the High
Command had saved the blood of the soldier, that the attempt
to break through had failed, that the communiques of the Entente
were a tissue of lies, and finally that Hindenburg and Ludendorff
knew how to husband reserves and to retain the initiative.
Public opinion, preoccupied by strikes, remained insensible
to these consolations, and was only struck with the enormity
of the losses. From May i, after the threat of revolution was
definitely dispelled, news coming from France was read with more
attention. Extracts from Paris papers were telegraphed by
agencies, the accounts of debates in the French Parliament were
noted; the enemy himself was proclaiming his defeat. The
press bureau hastened to take advantage of the innumerable
signs that the adversary showed of his discouragement. They
persuaded Germany that she had just gained " a great defensive
victory." Thus they succeeded in wiping out the disastrous
impression which prevailed after the battles of the Aisne and in
Champagne; nevertheless a " defensive victory " was not what
the people expected; success of this nature did not bring the date
of peace any nearer.
The French Government, however, shut its eyes to information
which contradicted its preconceived opinion, whether it came
from the French or British staffs, from the British Government,
from French agents abroad or from the German newspapers.
French public opinion, left without information or guidance, was
more and more worked upon by enemy agents. " Treason stalks
freely abroad," said M. Galli in a report to the military commis-
sion in the Chamber; " from the lobbies of the Chamber, from
the anterooms of ministers, the most foreboding rumours of dis-
couragement ooze forth." Scapegoats were sought for; on the
27th, on this same commission, the French Minister of War was
called upon to censure Gen. Mangin, around whose name had
been conjured a very tissue of lies which a few months later had
to be refuted by those of his colleagues who had arrived at un-
justifiable conclusions. Yielding to pressure, which he believed
at the time to be irresistible, the French commander-in-chief
asked the Minister of War verbally that Gen. Mangin might be
relieved of his command. The French council of ministers, taken
unawares by the Minister of War before any report or written
request had been made, agreed to this on the 2gth, and it was
quite useless that M. Painleve became convinced that very eve-
ning that none of the charges brought against the general com-
manding the VI. Army could be justified. A later correspondence
conducted between the commander-in-chief and the Minister of
War cleared the position of Gen. Mangin.
The authority of the commander-in-chief had not ceased to be
diminished after the arrival of M. Painleve at the Ministry of
War. This authority, impaired by the conferences of ministers
with the army group commanders, further shaken by the con-
ference at Compiegne on April 6, the echoes of which still re-
sounded, had been killed by the way in which the functions of
the chief of the general staff were exercised, functions delegated
to Gen. Petain, who, moreover, had been selected with his assent.
The commander-in-chief was unable to order an attack, however
small it might be, without being compelled to submit all the de-
tails to a general who had openly found fault with all his opera-
tions and who appeared to be his successor designate. The crise
concerning the command had been no secret for a long time, but
it was on May 9 that the President of the Council announced it to
the military commission of the Senate; the following day, at the
French War Cabinet, the Minister of War asked Gen. Nivelle to
offer his resignation under any protest which he liked to choose.
Considering that a change in the French High Command would
be regarded by the enemy as a confession of defeat Gen. Nivelle
refused to hand in his resignation, and hesitation on the part of
the Government lasted several days. The threat, however, of
resignation by the Minister of War and the attitude of the Presi-
dent of the Council determined the council of ministers to re-
lieve him on May 1 5 by appointing Gen. Petain. General Foch
succeeded as chief of the general staff.
The Battle of Malmaison, Oct. 23-26 1917. Evacuation of the
Chemin des Dames by the Germans, Nov. 2 1917. The hesitations
which had succeeded the offensive of April 16 on the Chemin des
Dames had cost the French much more dearly than the offensive
itself. The German line formed a right-angled salient at the
Laffaux mill and the safety of the position to the S. of the Ailette
depended on its possession for which the two combatants had
so hotly contested in May. The battle had slackened in intensity
in June and gradually died away in July. Called upon to prepare
an offensive with limited objectives at this front, Gen. Maistre,
commanding the VI. French Army, had fully realized, since
June, that his advance to the Ailette would render the whole
position on the Chemin des Dames untenable to the Germans,
and he had proved the advantages which the enveloping line
continued to offer to the attack on this sector of the front.
Ludendorff tells us in his War Recollections that the same thought
had occurred to him and he had thought of withdrawal, but Gen.
von Bochen, commanding the VII. Army, was certain that he
would be able to repulse any attack; when, towards the middle
of April, indications of attack were evident, he asked for two
reenforcing divisions and additional artillery; after having re-
ceived this help he believed himself to be absolutely certain of
612
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
success. His effectives had now been brought up to eight divisions
on this sector of the front, where the deep caves and concreted
shelters and the undulation of the ground offered enormous
strength to the defence. General Maistre, on the 12 km. of the
attack front, between Moisy farm and La Raque, had in position
three army corps in the formation of a square, two divisions in
the first line and two in the second: from left to right, the XIV.
Corps under Marjoulat; the XXI. under Degoutte and the
XI. under Maud'huy; elements of the XXXIX. Corps under
Deligny had to support the attack on the right. One thousand
eight hundred guns were at his disposal: 900 of 75 mm., 850
heavy guns and 50 long-range or large-calibre guns, besides 460
trench guns. Never before had such a mass of artillery thun-
dered on such a narrow front. The long-range guns were placed
on the flanks where they could take a large portion of the German
line in rear; the field artillery had been pushed up close to the
parallel lines of assault in order to be able to support the attack
as long as possible. The artillery preparation lasted for six days
and completely disorganized the German position. The heavy
shells reduced to shambles a number of prepared underground
caves. On Oct. 23 at 5:15 A.M., in darkness and in foggy and cold
weather, the attack began.
The XIV. Corps under Marjoulat, attacking from W. to E.
towards Allemant, seized at one bound the two lines of trenches
which constituted the first position, and then captured the village
of Allemant, after having surrounded it; the tanks assisted them
to reach the second position and a turning movement brought
the corps in position facing north. On its right, the XXI. Corps
under Degoutte, by an unimpeded advance, captured the two
German positions together with the village of Vaudesson and
even that of Chavignon, where it found itself in position in line.
The XI. Corps under Maud'huy supported its right; the 38th
Div. under Guyot de Salins (which had captured Fort Douau-
mont on Oct. 24 1916) had the honour of seizing Fort Malmaison
and from thence advanced up to Voyeu-Chavignon. The 66th
Chasseur Div. was less fortunate, and overlooked Pargny-
Fillain, which still remained in the hands of the enemy.
During Oct. 24 and 25 the advance continued and reached
the Ailette as far as Chavignon. But it was only on Oct. 26
that victory was complete on the right, thanks to the inter-
vention of the XXXIX. Corps under Deligny.
The Chemin des Dames was taken in flank and in rear; a
relief division, caught by the French artillery, had not been
able to come up, and supply had become impossible. During
the night Nov. 1-2 the Germans were compelled to evacuate
it. " Our losses had been very severe," said Ludendorff, " some
divisions had been cut to pieces." For himself, he was in-
different whether he was on the N. or the S. bank of the Ailette;
but " after our fights during the whole summer for the Chemin
des Dames I suffered a pang in giving the order to abandon it,
but we would have suffered losses incessantly if we had wished
to stay on there."
This great victory, obtained with relatively small losses,
was emphasized by the capture of 11,157 prisoners, 200 heavy
guns, 222 trench mortars, and 720 machine-guns. For its
careful preparation, clever handling and happy consequence,
it will remain as a model of an offensive with limited objectives.
(C. M. E. M.)
V. BATTLE OF SOISSONS-REIMS, MAY-JUNE 1918
From the outset the aim of the main German offensive in
1918 had been to break the spirit of the opponents of Germany
by numerous blows in the quickest possible succession and to
dispose them towards peace. If, therefore, the German Supreme
Command wished to retain the initiative, the first great blow
must be followed, as rapidly as the transport of the powerful
weapons of attack permitted, by a second blow. In itself the
most favourable course would have been to continue the attack
against the English front at Ypres and Bailleul. But here
such strong English and French reserves had been posted ready
in the meantime that the attack would have to reckon with
strong Allied resistance. Similar conditions obtained on the
neighbouring German attacking front farther to the south.
Before the front of the VII. and I. Armies, on the other hand,
the Allies, relying on the difficulties presented to the attack by
the strong positions on the heights of the Chemin des Dames,
accessible only with difficulty, had weakened their forces,
having sent to Flanders a large proportion of the fit and rested
French divisions stationed here in exchange for French and
English divisions worn out with fighting there and in need of
rest. The disposition of the Allied forces suggested that they
expected a continuation of the German offensive on the front
between the North Sea and the Oise, since by far the greater
part of their reserves were held in readiness there, to the
considerable weakening of other fronts, notably before the
German VII. and I. Armies, facing whose inner wings were
stationed three war-worn English divisions. So the choice of
the front of attack and the battle-ground fell on the oft-con-
tested chain of heights between the Ailette and the Aisne,
the Chemin des Dames.
The Battlefield. The tract of land between Reims and the
great wooded districts of Compiegne and Villers-Cotterets is
divided by the different tributaries of the Seine and the Oise,
running from E. to W. into several parallel strips. The most
northerly of these strips is a pronounced ridge with steep de-
clivities northwards to the Ailette and southward to the Aisne;
along its summit runs the Chemin des Damef leading from
Craonne to the Laon-Soissons road. These heights afford an
uninterrupted view far over the country lying to the north. In
its superior height lies the tactical significance of the Chemin
des Dames, for the sake of which so many heavy engagements
had already been fought. Since the Chemin des Dames had
been in French occupation, Laon with its important railway
centre lay under their fire. South of the Aisne lies a second
ridge, bounded on the S. by the Vesle. On the left bank of the
Vesle rises the third strip consisting of the wide hill country
which descends on the S. to the spacious valley of the Marne.
The Allied Position. The French position ran along the
Chemin des Dames, and farther eastward into the valley. In
front of the position was the Ailette, in whose valley the listen-
ing posts of both sides were close to one another. The French
positions were not only of great natural strength by reason of
their favourable situation, but were also just here particularly
strongly fortified by every technical device. The French also
had at their disposal a numerous artillery of all calibres.
The German attack on these positions was therefore to be
regarded as a bold attempt, whose only prospect of success was
in effecting a surprise on the French and English and in keep-
ing secret from them the preparations for attack, especially
the advance of the artillery.
Dispositions for the German Attack. The German Supreme
Command had decided, on the basis of a plan of attack proposed
by the army group under the Crown Prince as early as the
end of April, to attack with the VII. and I. Armies from the
district south-westward of Laon southwards of Berry-au-Bac
in the direction Soissons-Fismes-Reims. If this attack pro-
ceeded favourably it was to be prolonged on the right over the
Ailette to the Oise and on the left as far as Reims. Simul-
taneously an attack by the XVIII. Army was to be prepared
westwards of the Oise with its centre of gravity in the direction
of Compiegne. The German Supreme Command hoped that the
push southward would succeed in reaching the neighbourhood
of Soissons and Fismes, and by this means attract strong forces
from Flanders, so that it might be possible to continue the
attack there according to plan. The army group under the
Crown Prince Rupprecht was to remain purely on the defensive.
On this front, as on other sections of the western front where at-
tack was not intended, feigned preparations for attack were to
be made.
Preparations began about the middle of May. The VII.
Army under Gen. von Bohm was charged with the main Ger-
man attack across the Chemin des Dames, the I. Army under
Gen. Fritz von Below with the neighbouring attack on the
left, and the XVIII. Army under Gen. von Hutier with the at-
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
613
tack in the direction of Compiegne. The right wing of the main
attack, LIV. Corps and VIII. Reserve Corps, had the task of
pushing forward in a south-westerly direction on both sides of
Soissons, after taking possession of the plateaux W. of Neuville-
sur-Margival and the heights of Jouy and Ostel. The XXV.
Reserve Corps was to make its way on both sides of Cerny-en-
Laonnais direct towards Braisne, and on the E. to take as
much country as possible towards the S.; the IV. Reserve Corps
was to attack the " Winterburg " (i.e. the height at the extreme
western end of the Chemin des Dames, immediately N. of
Craonne) with the main force and advance farther in the general
direction of Fismes; in concert with this on the left the LXV.
Corps, especially charged with the attack on the hills N. of
Pontavert, was to occupy with its left wing the river bend N.
of Berry-au-Bac.
Of the I. Army at first only the XV. Army Corps, advancing
simultaneously with the VII. Army, was to throw the opposing
forces over the Aisne-Marne canal. The corps was to provide
itself with bridgeheads in order to take the heights of Cormicy
if the attack of the VII. Army proceeded favourably.
A further attack to the right of the main attack was prepared
by the VII. Corps of the VII. Army, which with its centre of
gravity on both sides of Guny was to push forward over the
Ailette, making its way in a south-westerly direction towards
the Oise. This enterprise was not, however, possible until a
few days after the beginning of the main attack, since its execu-
tion demanded that a section of the artillery used in the centre
of the VII. Army should be moved to that position. The total
number of divisions taking part in the attack was 41. The whole
attack between the Oise and Reims was indeed planned on a
wide front, but its aims were localized.
Measures for Securing Secrecy. The whole success of the
undertaking depended on the element of surprise. It was all
the more necessary to pay the most careful attention to the
measures for the disguising and concealment of the attack as
good flying weather and dominating observation posts favoured
the enemy's intelligence service. It was necessary to overrun
the Chemin des Dames at the first onset, before the local re-
serves could come into action. The fundamental principle laid
down was that the preparation for attack should involve no
change of any kind in the landscape. The reconstruction of
battery positions, roads, camps or shelters must be reduced to
the minimum, or be so camouflaged as not to be visible on the
airmen's photographs. The German fighting aircraft continually
watched the ground of the front of attack, rail and road traffic,
telephone, wireless and postal services receiving the closest at-
tention. All assemblage of troops behind the new front of
attack had to be effected with the utmost caution and generally
only at night. Every troop, every column, entering the region
under the command of the attacking armies received a sheet of
instructions in which aE the measures necessary for secrecy were
again expressly pointed out. There was to be no visible sign of
the increase of the number of men bivouacked in any particular
place. All transport was to be concealed under trees and ir-
regularly placed. On the appearance of enemy airmen the roads
must be empty of troops. No smoke from new positions was to
be permitted by day, and at night bright firelight was to be
avoided. Guides familiar with the locality were allotted to re-
connoitring staffs, so that they might not make mistakes through
ignorance of the country. In day-time road traffic was not to
exceed its ordinary quantity. All movements for the advance,
especially of battery reenforcements and munitions, were to take
place only under cover of darkness. The greatest stress was laid
on deadening the noise of transport in moving up batteries and
munitions to forward positions. All orders and marked maps
were kept under lock and key in quarters the farthest to the
rear, and might not be taken either on reconnaissances in the
foremost lines or into forward positions. Published orders
repeatedly warned the troops of the probability of a hostile
offensive, in order to maintain the belief that all the prepara-
tions made were merely defensive. All the dispositions for
secrecy were regularly tested by special officer patrols.
Artillery Preparations. The great difficulties of an infantry
attack against the immensely strong positions on the heights of
the Chemin des Dames were clearly realized. The ascent of the
steep slopes was only possible if the German artillery had suc-
ceeded in silencing the greater part of the opposing artillery.
Therefore, the greatest attention must be given to the artillery
preparation. Col. Bruchmuller, whose capacity had been already
proved in the earlier offensive, was entrusted with this.
The ground over which the artillery was to advance con-
sisted of the depressions N. of the heights N. of the Ailette and
the valleys running up to the enemy position and partly over-
looked by him. The preparations for the artillery advance
were carried out by the divisions in line, the corps staffs en-
trusted with the attack moving up early enough to be able to
direct these preparations. The orders given for the artillery
advance were so complete in every detail that a perfect co-
ordination of the whole body of artillery was thoroughly ensured.
The infantry had to be firmly convinced that their business in
the attack would be substantially eased by the annihilating ef-
fect of their own artillery. The numbers of the artillery provided
by the Supreme Army Command proved on the whole sufficient.
The employment of the artillery was based on a calculation
of the number of batteries, and the kind and calibre of gun re-
quired. The reenforcing batteries and columns were brought
up this time for the most part by rail, contrary to the practice
in the March offensive. Transport arrived from the whole front;
the batteries were in most instances placed, to begin with, be-
hind the ground on which the advance was to take place and
beyond the zone of the enemy fire. Extraordinary caution was
ordered during the advance of batteries pushed up far to the
front. The unnoticed advance of the foremost batteries was
most effectually assisted by the deafening noise of the frogs of
the Ailette valley as it effectually drowned the noise of trans-
port. In the placing of artillery care had especially to be taken
that the shelter of the barrage was assured to the infantry, not
only over the summit of the ridge of the Chemin des Dames
but over its southern spurs during the descent to the Aisne.
For this purpose an exceptionally bold disposition of the batter-
ies was necessary. The mass of the artillery had to be pushed
un-usually far forward. Hundreds of batteries were brought
into position, thickly massed in some parts, almost directly
behind the foremost line of infantry. The unexpectedly great
success was undoubtedly partly due to this exceedingly bold
disposition of artillery. Single pieces of the heaviest guns
with flat trajectory were also pushed far forward, almost into
the line of the other batteries, so as to be able to bring under
fire the detraining railway stations lying far behind the enemy
line and the quarters of the higher staffs.
In contrast to the procedure in the former attack all registra-
tion was to be abandoned, in order to surprise the enemy as
completely as possible. Effective bombardment was to begin
immediately; and the first object was to be a thorough gassing
of the hostile positions right down into the Aisne valley. The
bombardment was divided into three phases. The first consisted
in a general surprise artillery attack against infantry positions,
batteries, mine-throwers, command posts, central telephone
stations, camps, and headquarters, with all batteries and as
far as practicable with gas munitions. The second phase was
directed to an intensified action against artillery, for which
purpose the field batteries attached to the infantry were also
drawn in, in order to put the opposing batteries out of action at
as early a stage as possible. The third phase was directed
especially against infantry and artillery positions and targets
in the distant rear of the front.
The beginning of the attack, in contrast to former procedure,
was timed before day-break in the earliest morning twilight.
This was done with the less hesitation, as the preliminary
registration had been abandoned and there was no need to
wait for daylight. The beginning of the attack before dawn,
moreover, offered substantial advantages for the success of the
infantry attack and its exploitation, for which the whole light day
was thus made available.
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
During the infantry attack the principal task of the artillery
was to protect the storming infantry while keeping down the
opposing artillery fire, to protect the assaulting infantry by
barrage advancing in front of them, as well as by the fire of
the guns accompanying them. After the infantry attack, owing
to the experience gained in former offensives, only so many
batteries were to be brought forward as could certainly be
sufficiently supplied with enough munitions. Provision was also
made to meet the great difficulties which the steep ascent on the
S. bank of the Aisne presented to the artillery, by preparing
men and material for the building of roads.
All these measures demanded the most meticulous care for'
every detail, and it was vital that nothing should be forgotten.
The placing in position of the attacking divisions and the
artillery groups, with all the other preparations, was completed
by the evening of the 26th. The beginning of the attack was
fixed for May 27.
The Artillery Battle. In the night of May 26-27 punctually
at 2 A.M. the German artillery bombardment suddenly began,
completely surprising the French and English. This went
successfully from the start. The whole valley of the Ailette,
the steep slopes of the Chemin des Dames, the Chemin des
Dames itself, and the country lying far behind down to the
Aisne, were in a short time thoroughly gassed, so that, as was
later ascertained, a great part of the gunners left their batteries
in panic at the beginning of the bombardment, and many
pieces were destroyed at the very beginning by direct hits.
In the first ten minutes observers announced numerous munition
fires in the battery positions and ammunition dumps of the
opposing armies. The fire against infantry and artillery positions
was also well directed. Thanks to the powerful effect of the
superior strength of the German artillery it was already clear,
after an hour and a half's bombardment, that the opposing
infantry and artillery were sufficiently subdued to enable the
German infantry to venture the assault.
The Infantry Attack. Punctually at 4:40 A.M., while it was
still quite dark, the German infantry advanced to the attack.
Without difficulty or delay they crossed the Ailette valley which
was covered with bushes in some places and marshy in others;
during the ascent to the Chemin des Dames serious infantry
fights only developed at Chavignon, Pargny and Fillain; on the
other sections of the front the German infantry pushed forward
almost without resistance on to the heights of the Chemin des
Dames. Here the remarkable effect of the artillery preparations
was already apparent: the steep slopes had been surmounted,
and the first lines were taken almost without firing a shot. The
rising sun saw the first files of prisoners descending into the
Ailette valley. The procedure adopted in previous attacks by
the infantry had also stood the test on this occasion. There
were no innovations in infantry tactics.
By 7 A.M. the I. Army had already reached the canal, the
objective of their attack, and part had crossed it. Since they
were to await the left wing of the VII. Army before further
advance, a halt had to be made there according to orders. Thus
the opposing army gained time to reform their units and to
rally, while those in front of the VII. Army were overrun by the
advance of the attacking divisions so long as they felt the effect
of overwhelming German artillery fire. This was an essential
difference between the attack of the I. and VII. Army, and was
to be -of decisive importance.
By 9 A.M. the German infantry, after breaking through the
whole enemy system, had reached the line Vauxaillon-Jouy-
Pontavert-Berry-au-Bac; on rapidly built roads, accompanying
batteries and mine-throwers had also reached the heights of
the Chemin des Dames and followed close on the heels of the
infantry. Numerous aeroplanes attached to the infantry and
artillery accompanied their advance over and before their fronts,
while the battleplanes in repeated flights helped to break
recurring resistance.
The Passage of the Aisne. The farther advance from the
heights of the Chemin des Dames against the Aisne became a
regular race between the divisions of the VIII., XXV., and IV.
Reserve Corps and the LXV. Corps. Without waiting for fresh
orders each division, taking advantage of the successful surprise
over their opponents, had on its own initiative pressed forward
without halting. Soon after n A.M. the first German companies
crossed over to the southern bank of the Aisne on bridges mostly
intact. A vast and unexpected success had been gained. A wide
and apparently impassable stretch of country, which had been
for years the scene of the heaviest fighting, had been captured
within a few hours after a short artillery preparation. Of the
divisions of the defenders two English and three French had
almost ceased to exist. The survivors streamed into the pris-
oners' collecting stations, while countless guns stood abandoned
in their positions, some of them undamaged.
In the afternoon and evening the attack on the principal
fighting front of the VII. Army went forward without a pause
farther in the direction of the Vesle valley. Engineering and
road-making troops worked with the utmost effort to level a
path for the columns following through the enemy positions and
over the steep way up to and down from the Chemin des Dames.
On the two wings the advance was considerably slower; on the
right, before the front of the LIV. Corps S. of Vauxaillon, and
at Laffaux, the Command had not recognized so quickly the
favourable nature of the situation, and had not attacked with
such unsparing vigour as in the centre; otherwise Soissons would
probably have fallen on May 27 and at latest on the 28th, and
the French, before they could have organized themselves for
resistance, would have been compelled to evacuate all of the
ground lying between the Oise and the Aisne. Here, just as
before the front of the I. Army on the heights of Cormicy and
farther E., the French had time to take up a position and to
rally for fresh resistance, so that the infantry engagements
became gradually more and more severe. The machine-guns
had to be taken one by one, and here and there the enemy
artillery again became active. The VIII. Reserve Corps also
could only take Vailly after heavy fighting. Here again rich
booty in guns fell into German hands, among which were the
railway guns, famous for their bombardment of Laon, which
had been injured by the German long-distance guns and their
withdrawal thus delayed.
The Vesle was reached by the XXV. and IV. Reserve Corps,
and in the darkness sections of the XXV. Reserve Corps passed
southwards of Courcelles and Paars, while sections of the IV.
Reserve Corps occupied the steep slopes at Fismes and Magneux.
On this very first day of fighting the Germans had penetrated
the enemy positions over a front of about 60 km. to a depth of about
20 km. Over 15,000 prisoners and immeasurable army supplies
had been taken. The German losses were proportionately small.
The second day of the battle, May 28, saw the first violent
counter-attack of the opposing army against the right flank
of the German attacking troops. The attempt was made in
this to prevent a further widening of the breach on either side,
and the first available reserves were flung against the German
wings, divisions being hurried up by rail, motor and boat, in
order to arrest and throw off the German thrust. Nevertheless
the speed of the German advance was not lessened on this day.
On the right wing the LIV. Corps, after repulsing French counter-
attacks, captured the heights N. and N.E. of Soissons. On
the left the German divisions pressed forward until midday,
over the whole sector of the Vesle, from Missy on the Aisne by
way of Lhuys-Courville on the Ardre as far as the northwestern
fort of the fortress of Reims. The objective was thus reached
after a day and a half's fighting. But in the ardour of the
pursuit the troops stormed on without orders, though in agree-
ment with the intentions of the higher command, in order to
improve their success by determined pursuit. The order given
by the Supreme Army Command at noon of the 28th to continue
the attack as far as the line of heights S.W. of Soissons-Fere-
en-Tardenois-the heights S. of Coulonge, reached the troops
when they were already storming forwards. On the right wing
of the VII. Army, the VII. Corps had already joined the attack
on May 28 without waiting for the completion of the preparations
begun at this point. Here, however, the resistance was so
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
615
obstinate that it was only in the course of May 29 that the
dominating heights at Crecy-au-Mont were captured.
On the following days the VII. Army pushed forward with
its centre in a southern direction as far as the Marne. The
right wing of the I. Army, which had extended the attack
towards Reims on the left, pressed forward between the Marne
and the Vesle against the wooded hills of Reims, but soon met
here with unconquerable resistance, as strong French reserves
had been placed on this front. The right wing of the VII.
Army took Soissons, and between the Aisne and the Marne
gained ground towards the heights S.W. of Soissons, and up to
the eastern edge of the wood in Villers-Cotterets.
On the 2gth the occupation of the important road and rail
centre of Soissons as well as of Fere-en-Tardenois was of tactical
importance. In both places immense masses of material fell
into the hands of the Germans, especially in the wooded country
at Fere-en-Tardenois, where they captured a vast dump of
French and American munitions, pioneer and transport material,
which the French had not succeeded in removing in time in
spite of a violent counter-attack. On the left wing on this day
Reims, against the N.E. front of which the VII. Reserve Corps
of the I. Army had advanced to the attack, was so surrounded
with the German troops that all the roads and railways leading
from Reims to the Marne lay under German fire.
On May 30 violent counter-thrusts by the French had held
up the advance of the German right wing, while the German
centre in a rapid advance had by midday reached the heights
of the northern bank of the Marne between Chateau-Thierry
and Dormans, on the possession of which the use of the important
stretch of rail Paris-Epernay-Chalons depended. On both days
the pursuing German troops had passed beyond the objectives
fixed by the Supreme Army Command, so that they reached the
Marne earlier than it had been thought possible. A further
advance of the centre, pushed out southward like a wedge,
beyond the Marne seemed to involve great risk so long as the
German wings on the E. and W. had not won further ground and
so broadened the base of attack.
On May 31 instructions went out from the Supreme Army
Command not to penetrate farther S. over the Marne, but to
extend the successes against the wooded heights of Reims and
up the Marne towards the W. in the direction of Villers-
Cotterets, so as to ensure above all the secure use of the
railway line leading E. of Soissons from the Aisne to the Vesle
valley, and to be able to give effective tactical support to the
later attack by the XVIII. Army over the Montdidier-Noyon
line, for which plans had been made.
On May 30 and 31, and particularly in the first days of June,
strong counter-attacks were made by the French, with the
strong reserves assembled in the district S.W. of Reims and S.W.
of Soissons, plainly with the intention of pressing in the flanks
of the German advance. All these attacks were nevertheless
bloodily repulsed, as were the American attacks a few days later
against Chateau-Thierry, which had fallen into the hands of the
Germans on the 3ist.
In the first days of June the fighting became steadily more
severe, as the Allied resistance, reenforced by an uninterrupted
flow of fresh divisions, grew more obstinate and the counter-
attacks progressively more violent and extended. The Germans
therefore succeeded in gaining only little ground. The pow-
erful impetus of the German attack had come to an end.
According to orders sent on June 7 from the Supreme Army
Command, the VII. Army was, indeed, to continue to press
forward slowly on both sides of the Aisne, but was otherwise to
stand on the defensive; the I. Army was only to carry the attack
farther where a gain of ground seemed necessary to reach a
tactically more favourable position. The following days saw a
series of local engagements extremely costly for the French, in
which individual places, heights and tracts of ground changed
hands many times without yielding definite success. On June 17
the German armies stood with their right wing and centre
roughly on the line Noyon-Fontenoy, the eastern edge of the
forest of Villers-Cotterets, Chateau-Thierry, and up the Marne
to Verneuil, the left wing had penetrated to the outlying woods
W. of the wooded heights of Reims, and close to the W., N. and
E. front of Reims, which was closely encircled. In view of the
unexpectedly rapid advance of the centre of the VII. Army
the strategical situation was unfavourably affected by the fact
that the capture of Reims had not been effected; this made
difficult the bringing up of drafts for the sections of the VII.
Army pushed forward to the Marne, because of the lack of
sufficient railways.
The tactical result of the battle of Soissons-Reims for the
Germans was great beyond all expectation. Over 65 ,000 prisoners
fell into their hands. The booty included about 700 guns and
2,500 machine-guns; in addition the French and English losses
in materiel were enormous. The success was due primarily
to the spirited attack of the infantry, the equally brilliant prep-
aration and execution of the artillery attack and the complete
surprise of the French and English. By the very clever mainte-
nance of secrecy the French command was so successfully misled
that they kept their reserves assembled at the wrong place.
Thus it was possible by an attack with narrowly limited aims,
carried out by relatively weak forces, to develop an operative
success which ended in a substantial weakening of the fighting
force of the Allies. Gen. Foch had been compelled to bring up
gradually against inferior German forces more than 50 divisions.
The German losses on the other hand were small, so that the
exhaustion of force on the French and English side was far
greater than on the German. (H. v. H.)
VI. THE GERMAN OFFENSIVE OF JULY 15 1918
The preceding German offensives of 1918, the Somme, the
Lys and the Aisne-Marne, had left the German army with three
salients projected from its main line on the western front,
salients costly to hold and dangerous because the means were
lacking properly to entrench them and the communications were
deficient, both in roads and railways. Particularly was this
true of the Marne salient. To push the attack on Amiens was
obviously the desirable strategic course, but owing to the diffi-
culty of organizing an attack there, and to the massing of Allied
reserves behind that part of the front, it offered little chance
of success. Ludendorff consequently turned his attention to
pushing forward the Lys attack. But the nature of the terrain
and the activity of the British artillery and aviation made the
accumulation of the necessary materiel a difficult, slow and
costly undertaking. Early in July it had become apparent that
Crown Prince Rupprecht could not be ready before August.
Something had to be done in the meantime to preserve the in-
itiative. The attack in the Champagne was Ludendorff's solution
of the problem. The Allied front in that sector was known to
be weakly held. A successful attack there would not only ease
the difficulties of communication in the Marne salient but
might lead to the evacuation of Verdun, giving the Germans
an additional and much-needed railway line for the supply of
their armies in France. An additional result hoped for was the
withdrawal of Allied reserves from N. to S., facilitating the
German attack in Flanders planned for August.
The date set for the attack was July 12, but delays in the
preparations deferred it to the i5th. The plan called for the
VII. German Army to force the crossing of the Marne between
Jaulgonne and Verneuil (20 km.), gain the heights S. of the Marne
and advance eastward by both banks of the river on Epernay.
Fifteen divisions were disposed for the attack on a front of 36
kilometres. The I. and III. German Armies, E. of Reims, were
to advance southward on Chalons-sur-Marne, connecting with
the VII. Army near Epernay. Their front of attack was 44 km.,
for which they employed 15 divisions in the front line and 10
in reserve. No attack was to be made about Reims itself since
that city was bound to fall if the other attacks succeeded. On
the French side the I. and III. German Armies were opposed
by the IV. French Army of Gouraud; the VII., in the sector of
attack, by the V. Army of Berthelot and the VI. of Degoutte.
These French armies consisted in the main of worn or second-
class troops but were fairly compactly disposed and were reen-
6i6
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
forced, that of Berthelot by one British and two Italian divi-
sions, and those of Gouraud and Degoutte (in the sector attacked)
each by an American division. As a factor of strength on the
French side it should be noted that Gen. Gouraud had excep-
tional prestige and influence with his men. In the matter of
intelligence service the French staff had learned iis lesson from the
bitter experience seven weeks before in the surprise attack on
the Chemin des Dames. In spite of the utmost endeavour of
the Germans to maintain secrecy regarding their preparations
for attack, every phase of them was sought out, chiefly through
air observation, plotted on maps and carefully studied to de-
termine the time, place, extent and method of the next German
effort. The information thus gained was supplemented by
statements of prisoners so completely that not only were the
approximate time and place of attack known to the French more
than a week in advance, but on the eve of attack even the time
of artillery preparation and of infantry assault were learned.
The French plan to meet the attack was to abandon their
front lines, leaving in them only small detached posts backed
by occasional wired strong points, and to take up a position
far enough in rear to be beyond the ready interference of the
German artillery, thus causing the superior German artillery
to waste its preparatory fire on virtually abandoned trenches
and neutralizing its influence on the infantry combat. The
execution of this plan in the sector of the IV. Army was greatly
favoured by the existence, several kilometres in rear of their
front lines, of a complete system of trenches which had been
carefully constructed and occupied during preceding years.
It was from these rearward trenches that the French had ad-
vanced in 1917 to gain their present lines. Thus not only could
the army change its position back to them swiftly and secretly,
but the Germans could have no means of learning, by direct
observation, that such a shift had been made.
The battle began on the i sth shortly after midnight, accord-
ing to the German plan, with an intensive artillery and trench-
mortar fire on the French trenches believed to be occupied.
In the IV. Army sector of Gouraud, thanks to his dispositions,
little damage was done to the personnel, though the abandoned
trenches were mostly wiped out by the gruelling fire. In the
other sectors under attack, while the same policy prevailed in
theory, there does not appear to have been the same consistency
in its execution and some of the Allied troops suffered severe
losses. The French counter artillery preparation had begun
an hour before midnight, but, owing to the relative weakness
of their artillery arm, and the rearward positions taken up by
the IV. Army, does not seem to have made its influence felt.
The infantry advance began at 4:15 A.M. In the sector E. of
Reims the assaulting troops, preceded by a barrage, walked
almost unopposed through the abandoned French position ex-
cept that the French artillery constantly increased the intensity
of its fire. After the German protective barrage had been lifted,
to enable the infantry to pass beyond its limits, the real battle
began fresh French infantry in a prepared position well
supported by guns, against unsupported German infantry in
the open. The Germans tried to bring up some accompanying
guns, mostly by hand, but without success.
As to position it was a drawn battle, but the heavy losses
completely discouraged the Germans. During the night they
attempted to reorganize their attacking line and arrange artillery
support and thereby to renew the assault on the i6th, but the
attempt proved abortive, and by noon Ludendorff had ordered
its abandonment and directed the troops of the I. and III.
Armies to be redisposed for the defensive.
In the VII. Army sector of attack the Marne was successfully
forced, and, except in the sector occupied by the American
division, the heights on the S. bank were occupied to a depth of 5
kilometres. The direction of attack was then shifted eastward
on Epernay, but being beyond the range of effective artillery
support from the N. bank, and not being able to get artillery
across the river to any material extent, the attack soon slowed
down. North of the Marne the attacking troops soon encoun-
tered the deep ravines and rocky, forested heights of the mountain
of Reims. Progress was made in the Marne and Ardre valleys;
but on the wooded heights, where effective artillery support of
advancing troops was impossible, the attack was easily checked.
On both banks of the Marne the attack was renewed on the i6th
in the direction of Epernay, with resulting slight gains of ground,
and again on the I7th without result except increasingly heavy
losses for the attackers. On the afternoon of the i7th, on orders
from German G.H.Q., the VII. Army also passed to the defen-
sive and the battle came to an end.
As an incident of the battle S. of the Marne might be men-
tioned the defence of the sector S. of Jaulgonne, which has been
termed the most brilliant single feat of American arms in the
war. The 3oth U.S. Infantry, under Col. Butts, had prepared
for the attack by building numerous trenches for the German
airmen to photograph and for the artillery to register on, and
more numerous rifle pits and machine-gun nests carefully camou-
flaged or concealed. By day the trenches were occupied, by
night the rifle pits. The German artillery preparation had
wiped out every trench, but the infantry in its pits arid nests,
despite heavy losses, accounted for more than its numbers in
German dead and turned back the attack of a division.
The result of this battle was the beginning of a great moral
reversal which was to find its completion in the ensuing counter-
attack at Soissons. Until the attack of July 15 the Germans
had been confident of success. The attack showed them that
they could no longer command it. The Allied troops, on the
contrary, were buoyed up by the fact that not only had a way
been found to stop the German attacks, but they had been
stopped with far lighter losses to the defenders than to the
attackers. From a tactical point of view it may be said that
the German attack had all the strength and all the weakness of
the German war machine. The general staff had invented a
stereotyped normal attack which was here applied on the western
front for the fourth time, virtually without change of method.
The same artillerist travelled from front to front, to conduct
the artillery battle. Infantry units received identical training.
The system produced a powerful onslaught, but killed inde-
pendent initiative and discarded participation in the planning
by subordinate commanders. Its failure in the Champagne
may be ascribed to its inherent inapplicability to the situation
and to the terrain. German G.H.Q., preoccupied by German
internal questions Russian, Austro-Hungarian and many other
problems, had not the time nor the patience to study out the
special requirements of the Champagne problem, nor did it
permit subordinates to make the plans. The same rigid point
of view speeded the military downfall of Napoleon.
On the Allied side great credit must be given to Gen. Petain
and Gen. Mangin for their skilful measures to foil the German
plan after it had become known. The Germans were superior
in numbers and, at the start, probably had higher moral. The
victory was on the side of superior leadership, both higher and
lower. (A. L. C.)
VII. THE ALLIED OFFENSIVE OF JULY 18 1918
On July 18 1918 the Allies regained the initiative, and the
offensive passed to their hands, thereby assuring them of victory.
It is generally thought that the aim of the attack carried
out on that day by the French X. Army was to clear the front
of the IV.,V. and VI. Armies, which had been attacked since
July 15, and that this had indeed been its first result. Herein
lies a double error. At first, the success gained on July 15 by
the IV. Army under Gouraud had, by checking the I. and XIII.
German Armies, nullified the success of their VII. over the V.
Army under Berthelot and Degoutte's VI. Army, a success which,
being limited, was dearly bought. Ludendorff informs us that
after July 17 he issued orders to those elements which had es-
tablished themselves on the left bank to recross the Marne;
this difficult withdrawal was due to take place on July 20.
He gave up the idea of renewing the attack on Reims, which
would necessitate the immobilization of powerful forces for a
subsidiary venture. Accordingly, he diverted all his strength
towards Flanders, where a new offensive on a large scale was
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
617
developing. He went personally to Avesnes, where head-
quarters were, in order to supervise the preparations. The
French attack of July 18 had not then as its result the stopping
of the German attack. This was, moreover, not the aim of this
Allied offensive. There was no question of a counter-attack,
but of an operation thought out and prepared for its own ends,
independent of the German offensive.
Gen. Mangin had taken over command of the X. Army on
July 16 in place of Gen. Maistre. The latter had twice stopped
the German advance between the Aisne and the Ourcq, and had,
in a small operation on June 15, recovered nearly the whole of
the ground lost on the i2th and i3th. It immediately appeared
evident to Gen. Mangin that he now found himself in command
of the X. Army under conditions similar to those that he had
just left on the Mery-Courcelles plateau. Now, in his opera-
tion orders of June 10, ordering the counter-attack for the follow-
ing day at " noo hours " (n A.M.), Gen. Mangin concluded with
this sentence, which he wished to be communicated to the
troops: " To-morrow's attack should mark the end of the
defensive battle which we have been waging during the last
two months; it should mark the checking of the Germans, the
resumption of the offensive, and lead us to success."
After having saved Compiegne and stopped the German
advance, the counter-attack of Mery-Courcelles had been
stopped by the French High Command, owing to lack of avail-
able forces, but when Mangin found himself on the W. flank
of a pocket of much larger extent, he immediately studied with
his new staff the question of its reduction, to follow up with an
offensive and finally to grasp from the enemy the initiative of
the operations. On June 18 he received instructions to examine
under what conditions the communications to the S. of Soissons
could be disturbed: firstly by aerial bombardment, secondly
by a rapid advance from this front, which would enable him to
place his heavy batteries in a position which would command
the bridges of Soissons and the main exits of the town. On the
2oth he sent his estimate of his requirements in infantry and
artillery to carry through this operation, from which he foresaw
a rapid extension southwards; and he asked the Command to
consider how the success could be turned to advantage.
In order to start under good conditions, he suggested a series
of minor operations which were intended to improve the positions
from which he would attack. Without further delay he started
carrying out his scheme, and vigorously pushed forward his
preparations on the front of attack. Numerous battery em-
placements and ammunition dumps were established.
All the ambulances and clearing stations, which had been
placed so far back with excessive caution, were brought forward
to within a reasonable distance, which would enable the wounded
to be dressed without inflicting on them the miseries of transport.
Minor operations followed rapidly one after the other on the front
of this army, and enabled him to ascertain the degree of exhaus-
tion of the German troops, whose heavy losses had only partially
been made good. On June 28 a slightly more important ad-
vance considerably improved the situation, and i ,000 prisoners
were taken. On the 2gth Gen. Mangin received Gen. Petain's
letter approving of the plan of action, which had already started
to be put into execution, and which was agreed to also by the
High Command, whose approbation had been obtained through
liaison staff officers.
The X. Army's front likewise was improved to the N. of the
Aisne by a minor operation, in which, on July 3, 1,100 prisoners
were taken. It was indeed important not to draw the attention
of the enemy to the position of probable attack, and it was
clear besides that, having attacked eastwards, the X. Army
would be called upon to attack in a northerly direction. Gen.
Mangin was able to write on July 3: " The minor operations
undertaken by the X. Army during the second fortnight of June
have been carried out very easily. Without attaching to them
more importance than they deserve, the proof can be seen that
the enemy experienced the same difficulties as we do in defending
himself against troops making use of methods of actual attack.
There is ample reason for thinking that an attack carried out
on the plateau to the S.W. of Soissons, under conditions which
were outlined in the scheme of June 16, would present not only
the best chance of success, but could also bring about such a
development that would result in the immediate exploitation
of the factor of surprise and would lead to the elimination of the
Chateau-Thierry pocket." The factor of surprise was now
quite possible. On the one side the forests made it possible
to conceal until the last moment the manreuvres by which the
infantry were placed in position; on the other side the incessant
movements of artillery which had taken place during the last
three weeks on the X. Army's front would probably prevent the
enemy from noticing the installation of new batteries in the
Villers-Cotterets region. General Mangin asked for the selec-
tion and putting in position of all forces necessary to enable him
to carry out the intended offensive.
On July 8 a further operation improved the position of the
X. Army to the S. of the forest of Villers-Cotterets. On July 9
Gen. Mangin received a letter from the commander-in-chief
approving of his plans. It made no further mention of the
elimination of the Chateau-Thierry pocket, but it said:
" Undoubtedly this operation not only presents the best chance
of success, but it can be profitably exploited. Further it con-
stitutes a most efficacious demonstration against the German
offensive." From now onwards it was necessary to prepare for
the operation in the greatest detail, in such a way that the con-
centration of forces and the launching of the attack could succeed
one another within a very short time four days as a maximum.
The concentration must be ready to start on July 15.
From July 9-13, the situation continued to improve to the
S. of the Villers-Cotterets forest. The Saviere valley, which
presented a serious obstacle in that area, was taken. On the
I3th, Gen. Mangin, in pointing out these results, declared that
these minor operations, which had been carried out at very small
cost, had been sufficient to exhaust the five German divisions
opposing him. They were replaced by other divisions, which
only a short time before had been withdrawn from the front and
had not had time to rest or reorganize; their strength having
been reduced to 40-50 men per company instead of 150. The
enemy was considerably weaker after these reverses; the in-
structions which were issued to sector commanders, and which
were captured, were quite clear: " Hold on at all costs, without
hoping to be reenforced; the bulk of the German army is being
kept in reserve for the great offensive." Accordingly, the
situation was favourable for an attack.
The X. Army now consisted of 16 divisions, 10 of which were
in the first line, with 780 guns, 530 heavy guns, 132 long-
range guns. Except for the latter the means at disposal were
inferior to those available for previous offensives, but the force
had only hastily gathered formations opposing it, and the factor
of surprise was being counted on. Finally, telegrams dispatched
July 13 fixed the launching of the attack for July 18, and the
beginning of the concentration for July 14.
On July 15, at " 0900 hours " (9 A.M.), important moves of
concentration which had been commenced two days previously
and were to be carried through on the following days were
interrupted by order of the French C.-in-C., owing to the German
offensive which had just started on the front of Gouraud's
IV. Army. Gen. Foch, however, as he was visiting the head-
quarters of the army groups, heard of this counter-order and
annulled it. The preparations, which had been suspended for
some hours, were resumed but so quietly that the enemy, who
had thought up to the nth that an attack was probable, had
meanwhile been completely reassured. " The troops had ceased
thinking that an attack would come," said Ludendorff ; " one
of my friends, a divisional commander, told me that from the
1 7th he had been in all the first lines and had gained the impres-
sion that profound quiet reigned in the lines of the enemy."
The Offensive. On July 18 at " 0435 hours " (4:35 A.M.),
the X. Army hurled itself against the enemy between the Aisne
and the Ourcq on a front of 25 km. without any sort of artillery
preparation. Three hundred and twenty-one tanks accompanied
the infantry over all places where it was possible to go; they
6i8
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
were preceded by a dense barrage, whilst counter-battery work
was vigorously carried out. The Germans were completely
surprised. The first lines were thrown into confusion in the
twinkling of an eye, exposing the batteries, which were captured.
An advance of 8 km. was made with particularly brilliant results
in the centre, where the ist and 2nd American Divs. cooperated
with Dangan's Moroccan Div., some of the best storm troops.
On the river N. of the Aisne a little artillery preparation
lasting three-quarters of an hour had been found necessary
against a strong opposition. The i62nd Div. under Messiny
had on their side attained the objectives which secured the
flank of the main attack.
To the S., after a short artillery preparation, the VI. Army
under Degoutte had likewise gone forward in a brilliant manner.
On the left the rapidity of its advance had assisted the right
wing of the X. Army, whose progress had been held up in the
dense woods. It attacked without reinforcements, with its
divisions in line, and was reenforced gradually by the American
divisions which infused a new spirit into the troops and called
forth a lively emulation. On the first day, 10,000 prisoners and
200 guns were captured by the X. Army, and 2,000 prisoners
and 50 guns by the VI. Army.
Meanwhile Gen. Petain went with Gen. Fayolle to the post
of observation where Gen. Mangin was following the develop-
ment of the battle. General Petain considered that the results
obtained exceeded his best hopes, but that their exploitation
was necessarily limited by the means at his disposal and by
the general situation; he took into consideration that the enemy
was on the S. bank of the Marne. No more rcenforcements
could be sent to the X. Army, and from now onwards it had to
organize itself in depth in such a way as to be able to maintain
itself, relying on its own resources, on the ground conquered.
But Gen. Foch, warned by Gen. Mangin, gave orders for the
advance to be continued. On the following day the X. Army was
informed that four new divisions had arrived, two of which were
British divisions taken from the reserves at the disposal of the
Allied C.-in-C. Gen. Fayolle expressed the same view as
P6tain's to the commander of the VI. Army, but the attack
likewise continued on that part of the front.
The struggle continued. The VII. German Army had brought
into action its three divisions in reserve, which were promptly
reenforced by two more. The Germans recovered, and the
struggle became intense. Having been compelled to give up
his offensive in Flanders, Ludendorff sent to the Aisne all those
divisions given to the Crown Prince of Bavaria. The X. French
Army fought over open country against troops at least equal in
number to their own and sometimes superior. The American
divisions had been withdrawn; some gun crews had asked and
obtained permission to prolong their stay with the French troops;
they made use of the heavy guns captured from the enemy and
they appeared to think it their duty at least to send back the
supply of gas shells, which was considerable.
The British divisions came into the battle at the most dif-
ficult moment. The isth Scotch Div., under Gen. Reed,
covered itself with glory in the attack on the chdteau and park
of Burzancy on July 28. The 34th British Div., partly com-
posed of units which had come back from Palestine and were new
to the fighting in France, surpassed all expectations when they
took part in the attack on Grand Buzoy on July 29. On Aug.
i this ridge, which overlooked all the country between the Ourcq
and the Vesle, was carried by the X. Army.
The importance of this success was lost sight of at headquarters,
and on the night of Aug. 1-2 the commander of the group of
armies, who was anxious to husband his troops, wrote: " The
X. Army will continue to act on the right in the direction of
d'Arcy-Ste. Restitue; on the rest of its front it will maintain a
defensive attitude. The forces which are in front of it are
obviously of equal strength, and the only chance of making any
headway is by dealing a succession of local blows, prepared in
detail and always planned according to the capacities of the
reduced force at its disposal. These forces will be further re-
duced when the expected withdrawal of the British divisions
takes place." But the continued pressure on the enemy led to
quite another result, and the general commanding the army
sent the following telegram which was to be immediately com-
municated to the troops on the whole front: " Forward!
The victory of August ist consummated that of July i8th and
has ended in pursuit. The roads are terrible, but if it is raining
for us it is also raining for the Boche. Press hard on their heels,
hustle them and break through the feeble centres of resistance
when they will try to hold up your victorious advance. This
evening the X. Army must be on the Vesle."
At " 1900 hours " (7 P.M.) the chasseurs of Villemot's division
entered Soissons. The Aisne, as far as its confluence with the
Vesle, and the whole course of the latter river, had been reached
by the X. Army on Aug. 3, and by the VI. Army on the 4th.
The I. American Corps under Gen. Liggett, which had gradually
been brought into action during the battle, had taken an
increasingly important part in the operations of the VI. Army,
which included as many as six American divisions. The V.
Army under Berthelot had attacked under most difficult con-
ditions, as it had reestablished its front after some days' hard
fighting, during which it had been compelled to give way a little;
but always holding on to the Reims mountain. Although the
V. Army had very difficult ground to cover, it arrived at its
objective on the Vesle.
The Results. Gen. Mangin was able to say thus to his
troops: " You have captured 20,000 prisoners, including 527
officers, 518 guns, 300 minenwerfer, 3,300 machine-guns, parks
and ammunition dumps and everything that a large army
compelled to retreat precipitately had to leave behind it. You
have even taken back from the enemy the depots where he
had gathered together the results of his thefts. You have
saved from pollution by these civilized barbarians, Soissons,
Valois, the whole of the isle of France, the cradle of our nation,
with its harvests untouched, and its ancient forests. You
have removed from Paris a most presumptuous menace and
have given to France the consciousness of victory. You are
most worthy of your country."
From the German point of view, this victory as a first result
prevented the proposed offensive in Flanders, the preparations
for which had already been started on the i6th. Reserves
intended for this offensive had been used up between the Marne
and the Vesle, where they had been exhausted to such an extent
that their normal reorganization had become impossible.
" As in every battle," said Ludendorff, " the losses have been
considerable in the engagements fought since July i8th. The
i8th July in particular and the defensive engagements which
followed cost us very dearly, although we had been able to
recover our wounded, and the number of our men who had been
taken prisoner was not great." (He ignored, however, the
number of 30,000 for the X., VI. andV. P'rench Armies.) " The
losses in the struggle were so important that we decided to break
up about 10 divisions, 3 to assign their infantry as reenforce-
ments to the other divisions."
Ludendorff, who with commendable care kept a record of
each operation and generally drew therefrom very wise con-
clusions, had only been moderately well informed on the last
battle. He thought that it had been preceded by a short and
heavy artillery preparation and by clouds of gas, all of which
was pure imagination; he also pretended to discover a new
invention. " Tanks were seen to be used for the transport of
troops. They crossed our lines, and after unloading the occu-
pants, who formed nests of machine-guns in our rear, returned
to find further reenforcements." The passenger tank, however,
still remained to be found.
The presence of the ist and 2nd American Divs., which at-
tacked so brilliantly near Vierzy and Dommiers, themselves cap-
turing 7,200 prisoners and 21 guns, appeared to have escaped
Ludendorff altogether. He had the temerity to write: " The
six American divisions which took part in the battle suffered
heavily without obtaining any results."
Further, the reasons which he gave for giving up the offensive
in Flanders were surprisingly indifferent. " Tha enemy had
CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN
619
every opportunity of being prepared for the offensive. If he
gives us the slip as he did to the east of Reims we would be
unable to obtain a decision. Should he resist, his numerous
reserves were in a position to stop us as on the loth and nth of
June in the direction of Compiegne." Ludendorff appeared to
admit that the mere fact of establishing a protective zone in
front of a defensive position made it impregnable. His moral
was affected as seriously as that of his troops. (C. M. E. M.)
VIII. THE ALLIED OFFENSIVE OF AUG. 17-20 1918
Even before the French X. Army had reached the Vesle
and the Aisne, the continuation of the offensive on the N. bank
of the Aisne had been considered. The preparations for this
scheme were taken in hand during the advance of the IV. British
Army under Rawlinson and Debeney's I. French Army, which
began on Aug. 8. Marshal Foch thought that the progress of
this offensive would cause the Germans in front of the III.
Army under Humbert to retreat, and then those opposing
Mangin's X. Army. Foch then considered that the two armies
could attack in succession in order to cover the right flank of the
Franco-British advance, thus widening the front of this battle.
In the operation plan of the X. Army it was expected that the
attack would bring them into position along the Oise and the
Aisne, and then, all efforts being concentrated on the right, the
attack, facing E., would ensure egress from Soissons and would
thus be developed in such a way as to outflank the position of
the Chemin des Dames.
The British attack, however, met with steady resistance;
the ground cost them more and more dearly, and was no longer
proportionate to the losses in men. In explaining this state
of affairs to Marshal Foch, Sir Douglas Haig pointed out that
he would provisionally suspend his attack, which had been so
brilliantly started on Aug. 8 to the S. of the Somme, but he
would renew the offensive farther to the N. by two successive
operations, the first of which would start on Aug. 20 against
Arras. Marshal Foch informed Gen. Fayolle, commanding the
group formed by the I., III., and X. French Armies, of the de-
cisions, and asked him when his armies would be ready to renew
their attack. On Aug. 16 Gen. Fayolle, in discussing this matter
with Gen. Mangin, informed him that the I. and III. Armies
were not in a fit state to attack, and that consequently the X.
Army, whose effectives were not sufficiently strong to attack
unaided, should content themselves with small local demon-
strations. This was not the opinion of Gen. Mangin, who was
convinced above all of the necessity of continuing the offensive.
He said that the X. Army was ready to attack on the i8th with'
ii divisions in the first line and 3 in the second line (3rd, nth
and i4th Inf. Divs.), but that he proposed to postpone the
operation to the 2oth, as the new British attacks were due to
start on that day. He carried his point, though he had not
sufficient artillery at his disposal for this attack: 1,138 guns,
including 324 75-mm. guns, 540 heavy guns, and 274 long-range
guns. This artillery strength, it is true, appeared weak in view
of the extent of the front which had to be attacked, but the
moment had arrived to set aside calculations based upon past
experience and to consider the shaken condition of the enemy
whose power of resistance had very much diminished.
The Offensive. Before the front of the X. Army the enemy
had his chief line of resistance at a distance of between 2 and 3
km. from the front trenches. This scheme of defence, which
was in accord with the ideas adopted by both sides, had enabled
Gen. Gouraud's army to carry out its magnificent resistance on
July isth, and the numerous prisoners taken had disclosed all
the details of the scheme.
On Aug. 17 and 18, the divisions in line had seized all the
covering zone, and had even gained a footing in a certain part
of the line of resistance, taking over 2,000 prisoners.
From the evening of the i8th to the morning of the 2oth, for
36 hours, all the artillery was pushed forwa'rd in order to be able
to support the advance of the infantry as long as possible with-
out changing position. In the orders for attack it was laid
down that, after the capture of the two enemy positions, the
infantry should be reformed at the foot of the slopes and should
then push on as far as the banks of the Oise and Ailette. Gen.
Fayolle had not wished that positions should be established in
the valleys, where, as he remarked, trenches in marshy ground
would be difficult to occupy during the winter; but the hour
for such anxieties had evidently gone.
From the i7th, artillery preparations against the second
German position had continued without stop. On the 2oth,
at " 0710 hours " (7:10 A.M.), the X. Army attacked, and all the
German positions were captured. On the 2ist, the French
came into position against the support divisions which had
been brought up to attempt to reestablish the situation, and on
the 22nd they reached the Oise and the Ailette.
Gen. Mangin said: " The time has come to shake off the
mud of the trenches." It was so. Ludendorff tells us with
regard to these events that, in spite of all preparations, the battle
had taken an unfavourable turn; the nerves of the German
army were strained; the troops did not everywhere stand against
the heavy artillery fire and the assaults of the tanks. " We
received in this a fresh warning. We had suffered our more
heavy and irreparable losses. The 2oth August was also a
day of mourning. In truth, it encouraged the enemy to continue
his offensive. I calculate that the enemy offensive will continue
between the Oise and the Aisne in the direction of Laon. The
direction of the attack was well chosen, as the position of the
XVIII. Army to the N. of the Oise and that of the VII. Army
to the N. of the Vesle should be made untenable thereby. The
enemy maintained a strong pressure against the Soissons-
Chauny line. Very severe engagements were fought here,
marked by cruel alternatives if unsuccessful. One could not
yet say what would be the issue." It is interesting to com-
pare these remarks of Ludendorff with the considerations that
influenced Gen. Mangin in bringing about his attack. These
were: (i) that the employment of great forces between the
Oise and the Aisne was justified for the reason that this region
would always be the pivot of the manceuvre; (2) that the
enemy sought to reestablish his position in making use of each
of these lines in succession (a) the Aisne, (b) the Hindenburg
line (Chemin des Dames), (c) the Ailette, (d) the Serre; and
(3) that the hinge of enemy movement would always be approx-
imately on the axis Soissons-Laon. Thus it was vital to apply
the maximum force possible in this region in order to smash the
hinge, and to compel successive withdrawals on each wing which
would assume growing importance.
The advance of the X. Army facilitated that of the III. Army
towards the Lassigny massif, and both armies joined up on the
Oise. The X. Army continued to press eastwards between the
Ailette and the Aisne. In spite of a strong resistance the
advance was carried on by successive assaults. On the 3oth,
the 32nd American Div. under Gen. Ham captured Juvigny in
brilliant fashion. During Sept. 4 and 5 the Germans gave up
the Ailette and the Vesle, and retreated to the borders of the
Coucy forest. Between the two it only remained to capture
the Laffaux position which linked them up. The X. Army only
possessed weak effectives in infantry, artillery, and even in
munitions; nevertheless, on Sept. 14 the I. Corps under La-
capelle and the XXX. Corps under Penet broke into the Hinden-
burg line on the Laffaux plateau, taking 2,400 prisoners.
The attack developed during the succeeding days, and the
advance continued towards the Chemin des Dames, in spite
of German counter-attacks; it was only stopped on the 2oth
upon the order to " organize on the ground taken in such a way
as to hold on to the advantages won and to take every step to
cut down losses and prevent fatigue with a view to be in a
position to pursue the enemy should he retreat."
But the general attack had begun. In the centre of the vast
line, the X. Army hustled the enemy, who was beating a retreat;
it reached the Ailette, and then changing front on the right
threatened the Chemin des Dames to the E.; its right seized
this redoubtable position after having crossed the Aisne; the
Italian Corps under Albricci overcame all obstacles with great
dash and reached the Ailette in its turn. On Oct. 12 the enemy
620
CHANT AVOINE CHARLES
was surprised in the middle of his preparations for a retreat,
which he had intended to carry out the following day. He was
hustled without respite along all the front of the X. Army before
he had time to complete the destructions which he had pre-
pared. The St. Gobain massif was taken and Laon at last freed.
The X. Army advanced 18 km. in 36 hours.
On Oct. 15 Gen. Mangin addressed his troops:
" You have won the battle of the Ailette. On the N. bank of
the Aisne the enemy waited for your attack after your victory
at Soissons, and he had withdrawn still farther his line of resis-
tance. On the 1 7th and i8th you defeated his advanced posts;
and then on the 2oth, after your strong artillery had been
brought up, you defeated him on the field of battle which he
had selected himself; you have pursued him beyond the Oise and
the Ailette. After the 29th of August, the struggle became fiercer,
the front facing E., for the conquest of those plateaux which over-
looked Soissons. It was necessary to conquer them step by step
after having crossed the Aisne and the Ailette by means of force.
There you defeated the best divisions of the German army, who
exhausted themselves in defending the approaches to the Hin-
denburg line. On September I4th, the Laff aux mijl was carried by
assault and the Hindenburg line crumbled right up to the Ailette
on an 8-kilometre front. In vain did the enemy, by bloody coun-
ter-attacks, attempt to retake that important position. You
have not ceased to advance and have driven him back, compelling
him to abandon the line of the Vesle. On October ist, after
you reached the Chemin des Dames, he has been forced to retire,
in front of your left, to the Ailette. In the meantime the
victorious advance of the Allied armies on your right and on
your left threatened the communications of the German armies
in position before you and they had to withdraw. You were
waiting for this moment, on October i2th, surprising once more
the enemy in the very act of moving. With your right and
centre you crossed the Ailette, and with your left you seized
the borders of the St. Gobain forest, and with a single bound,
breaking the resistance of the rear-guards and then hustling
them, you have covered 18 kilometres in 36 hours. This was
done fighting and in spite of forests and marshes and a most
thorough destruction of roads and bridges. You have captured
26,000 prisoners, more than 400 guns and an immense quantity
of war material that can never be replaced. Laon, ancient
city of communal freedom, and 10,000 French whose joy is for
you a wonderful reward, have been freed from the most terrible
slavery that has ever weighed upon the human race. The
pressure of the adjoining armies has caused the enemy to retreat
before you; the position which you have just taken forces the
enemy to retire before them. Thus the hour of deliverance and
justice draws near, with the punishment of the perjured, shame-
less thieves, murderers of our wounded, butchers of women and
children, who must expiate their crimes and build up with their
hands the ruins brought about by their insensate ferocity. But
you have done nothing since. There remains more for you to
do, as the sacred soil of our country is still fouled by the unclean
foreigner, as thousands of Frenchmen are still in slavery, and
since the world is awaiting its salvation through your courage.
Soldiers of Freedom! Forward! " (C. M. E. M.)
CHANTAVOINE, HENRI (1850-1918), French man of letters
(see 5.847*), died at Galuire (Rhone) Aug. 15 1918.
CHAPLIN, HENRY CHAPLIN, IST VISCOUNT (1841- ),
English statesman (see 5.852), was generally welcomed on his
return to the House of Commons in 1907 as a type of parliamen
tarian fast disappearing. He intervened with effect on questions
of land and of social and tariff reform, but otherwise was not so
prominent in debate as in past years. As a thoroughgoing
Tariff Reformer, he deplored the change of policy with regard
to food taxes which was forced on the Unionist leaders in the
winter of 1912-3. When the first Coalition Government was
formed in May 1915, he was left the solitary conspicuous Union-
ist on the Opposition front bench; and it was felt to be a fitting
close of a distinguished career in the Commons when at the age
of 75 he was raised on the recommendation of that Govern-
ment to the peerage in April of the following year.
CHARLES (KARL FRANZ JOSEF) (1887- ), Emperor of Aus-
tria and King of Hungary from 1915 to 1918, was born Aug. 17
1887 at Persenbeug in Lower Austria. His father, the Arch-
duke Otto (1865-1906), the younger brother of the Archduke
Francis Ferdinand, was a clever man of easy morals; his
mother, Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony (1867- ), was a
zealous Catholic. Charles spent his early years wherever his
father's regiment happened to be stationed; later on he lived
in Vienna and Reichenau. He was privately educated, but, con-
trary to the custom ruling in the imperial family, he attended a
public gymnasium for the sake of demonstrations in scientific
subjects. On the conclusion of his studies at the gymnasium
lie entered the army, spending the years from 1906-8 as an
officer chiefly in Prague, where he studied law and political
science concurrently with his military duties. In 1907 he was
declared of age and Prince Zdeuko Lobkowitz was appointed his
chamberlain. In the next few years he carried out his military
duties in various Bohemian garrison towns. At that time no
opportunity was given him of gaining a closer insight into affairs
of State, although the death of his father in 1906 and the re-
nunciation by his uncle, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, on
the occasion of his marriage with the Countess Chotek, of any
right of succession for the children of this union, made him heir
presumptive to the Emperor Francis Joseph. In 1911 he repre-
sented the Emperor at the coronation of King George V. in
London. In October of the same year he was married at Pianore
(Italy) to the Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma. Of this marriage,
which is everywhere described as a happy one, there were several
sons and daughters, the eldest of whom, Otto, was born in 1912.
Charles's relations with his great-uncle, the Emperor, were
not intimate; and those with his uncle Francis Ferdinand, the
heir to the throne, not cordial, the differences between their
wives increasing the existing tension between them. For these
reasons Charles up to the time of the murder of Francis Ferdi-
nand, obtained no insight into affairs of State, but led the life
of a prince not destined for a high political position. It was only
after the death of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand that the
old Emperor, moved by an innate sense of duty, took steps to
initiate the heir to his crown in affairs of State. But the out-
break of the World War interfered with this political education.
Charles spent his time during the first phase of the war at head-
quarters at Teschen, but exercised no military influence.
In the spring of 1916, in connexion with the offensive against
Italy, he was entrusted with the command of the XX. Corps,
whose affections the heir to the throne won by his affability
and friendliness. The offensive, after a successful start, soon
came to a standstill. Shortly afterwards Charles went to the
eastern front as commander of an army operating against the
Russians and Rumanians. On Nov. 21, the day of his great-
uncle's death, he succeeded to the throne.
Seldom has a ruler on ascending the throne been faced with
a more difficult situation. The struggle between the nations had
been going on for more than two years; for more than two years
the troops of the monarchy had been fighting heroically against
the superior forces of their enemies. The military and economic
resources of the monarchy were beginning to fail. Behind the
front, especially in the towns of Austria, there was want of the
necessaries of life, and already it was clear that anti-dynastic
feeling was spreading widely especially in the non-Austrian and
non-Magyar territories.
His programme on his accession was to combat this feeling,
to renew the splendor of the dynasty, to give to the peoples under
his rule the longed-for peace, and to bring about a settlement
between the different nations composing the Habsburg Monarchy.
But how was this programme to be carried out?
The Emperor Charles thought that for this purpose he needed
new men; he therefore dismissed many of his predecessor's
most influential advisers, and replaced them by persons from
his own circle of friends and that of the late Archduke Francis
' These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
CHARMES CHEMISTRY
621
Ferdinand. The Obersthoftneister, Prince Montenuovo (1854- ),
was superseded by the former president of the council of minis-
ters, Prince Conrad Hohenlohe (1863-1920); the position of head
of the military chancery, which had been held during the last
years of the Emperor Francis Joseph by Freiherr von Bolfras
(1838- ), was given to Field-Marshal von Marterer (1862-
1919); Count Polzer (1870- ) succeeded Freiherr von Schiessl
(1844- ) as head of the civil chancery. The Archduke
Frederick, the commander-in-chief, was dismissed, the Emperor
himself taking over the supreme command of the army, and
headquarters were transferred from Teschen to Baden, near
Vienna. Shortly afterwards Conrad von Hotzcndorf was re-
placed as chief of the general staff by Arz von Straussenburg.
In the great offices of State there was also a change of personnel.
The position of the Hungarian prime minister, Stephen Tisza,
was indeed much too strong for his removal to be thought of at
that time, and this was not effected till May 1917. But the
Austrian prime minister, Ernst von Korber, was replaced by
Count Clam-Martinitz, and the Austro-Hungarian foreign
minister, Baron Burian, by Count Ottokar Czernin. These
changes, however, were merely disadvantages, because the new
men, with the exception of Czernin, could not free themselves
from the traditional principles of government, while they lacked
the experience of their predecessors.
The Emperor Charles himself had not the energy and strength
of character necessary to carry out his views. Even his adherents
while praising his powerful memory, his gift of rapid comprehen-
sion, his marked sense of the greatness of his House, his devotion
to duty, and his personal charm, admit that he lacked the strong-
er qualities. His efforts for peace, which embroiled him with
Germany, and his attempts to save the Habsburg Monarchy
by concessions to the various nationalities composing it are
described in the article AUSTRIAN EMPIRE (Foreign Policy).
During 1918 his attitude became more and more vacillating.
Immediately after the capitulation of the Bulgarian army he
announced that the various nationalities were free to sever their
connexion with the monarchy, but on Oct. 16, in the hope
of saving the dynasty, he issued a manifesto forecasting the
conversion of Austria into a federal state, but with no mention
of Hungary. This project also failed, the revolutionary elements
having gained complete control in the various territories, and
on Nov. ii the Emperor, in order not to hinder the free
development of his peoples, resigned all share in the govern-
ment of Austria. Two days later he made a similar renunciation
in the case of Hungary. The German Austrian Republic was
proclaimed by the National Assembly on Nov. 12; the Hun-
garian at Budapest on Nov. 16. Yet Charles did not resign
the crown of his dominions. He retired to his castle of Eckarotau
on the Danube; thence he went on March 24 1919 to Switzer-
land, where he stayed first at Schloss Gstaad, and later at
Prangins. His attempt at the end of March 1921 to secure
his restoration as King of Hungary failed owing to the un-
friendly attitude of the Hungarians and the unanimous oppo-
sition of the Succession States and the Entente.
A further and more serious attempt, on Oct. 22-24 1921, was
defeated with fatal results to the ex-Emperor's chances of res-
toration. Having made a surprise air-flight with his wife from
Switzerland to the Burgenland (where for some weeks a revolt
had been organized against its transference to Austria), Charles
was there joined by a small force of armed Royalists, at whose
head he marched on Budapest. But the Allied Powers, as well
as the " Little Entente," at once made it clear that a coup d'etat
would not be tolerated; and there was a strong rally at Budapest
to the side of the Horthy Government. The Royalists, within
12 m. of Budapest, were met and defeated, with heavy losses,
Charles and Zita being themselves arrested at Komorn. On
instructions from the Powers, the definite deposition of Charles
and renunciation of his claims to the throne were insisted upon,
and he and his wife were handed over to the custody of the
Allies for internment. With this dramatic failure was ended the
ihope of a restored Habsburg dynasty in Hungary.
(A. F. PR.)
CHARMES, FRANCIS (1848-1916), French journalist and
politician, was born at Aurillac, Cantal, April 21 1848. He was
educated at Aurillac, and afterwards at the lycees of Clermont-
Ferrand and Poitiers, subsequently entering journalism. He
rapidly made a mark as a brilliant writer, and in 1872 became
editor of the Journal des Debats, where he remained until 1880,
returning to it from 1889 to 1907. His political writings created
much interest, and in 1880 the Government appointed him to
the post of assistant director of the political department of the
Foreign Office. In 1885 he became head of the department, and
remained in the Foreign Office until 1889. From 1881 to 1885
and again from 1889 to 1898 he was deputy for Cantal, and in
1900 became a senator. Charmes is, however, best known for his
connexion with the Revue des Deux Mond.es, In 1893 he began
his famous political writings in the Revue, and in 1907 became
its editor. He takes a high place among the journalists of the
third republic, and his articles and studies, both literary and
political, in the Journal des Dtbats and Revue des Deux Mondes
were one of the features of French literary history during the
last years of the igth century. He died in Paris Jan. 4 1916.
CHARNAY [CLAUDE JOSEPH], DESIRE (1828-1915), French
traveller and archaeologist (see 5.947), died in Paris Oct. 24
CHARPENTIER, GUSTAVE (1860- ), French operatic
composer, was born at Dieuze, Lorraine, June 24 1860. He
received his musical education at the Paris conservatoire under
Massenet, and obtained the Prix de Rome in 1887. His works in-
clude Impressions fausses (1895); Impressions d'ltalie (1891) and
the operas La Vie du Poete (1892); Louise (1900), which, first
produced at Covent Garden in 1909, has attained a wide popu-
larity, and Julien, as well as Chant d'apotheose pour le centenaire
de Victor Hugo. He founded the Conservatoire de Mimi Pinson
(for working girls), and during the World War started the
(Euvre de Mimi Pinson and Cocarde de Mimi Pinson to aid
wounded soldiers.
CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849-1916), American painter
(see 5.956), died in New York, Oct. 25 1916. In 1912 he was
awarded the Proctor prize by the National Academy of Design
for his " Portrait of Mrs. H." At the Panama-Pacific Exposition
(1915) a special room was assigned to his works.
CHEMICAL WARFARE: see POISON GAS.
CHEMISTRY (see 6.33). A retrospect, in 1921, of the further
advances made in chemical science, brings to mind that it was
only in 1876 that the final paragraph of the article on Chemistry
in the gth ed. of the E.B. referred to the then quite recent estab-
lishment of the periodic law as marking a new era. In that article
the elements were dealt with in groups, in accordance with their
periodic relationships. In 1902, in the supplementary article
published in the loth ed., stress was laid on the uncertainties
which still attended the attempt to classify the elements. Sub-
sequent progress has been astounding, so much so that chemistry
appears, during 1905-20, to have entered upon yet another era.
New methods have been introduced and a degree of certainty has
been given to the primary postulates of the science, even within
living memory, which could not have been contemplated as with-
in the bounds of attainment; at the same time, old suspicions
have been justified and conceptions which had long been enter-
tained have been realized. The advance is mainly the outcome of
studies in the borderland region between chemistry and physics
and is due to much overlapping of inquiry.
It is always interesting to trace events to their causes. A name
to be written large on the page of advance is that of the late Sir
William Crookes, whose casual observation (about 1861) of a
peculiar behaviour of his vacuum balance, when determining the
atomic weight of the element thallium, caused him to study heat-
radiation effects in low vacua and led to the invention of his
celebrated radiometer (1874). He thus became interested in the
improvement of the vacuum pump and was led on to pay special
attention to the negative or cathode electric discharge in high
vacua. His results attracted attention owing to the beauty of the
demonstrations he gave; he was himself sufficiently convinced of
their novelty to regard the cathode discharge as consisting of
622
CHEMISTRY
matter in a fourth state previously unrecognized (1879). The
fundamental character of the "discovery was not realized, how-
ever, until it was interpreted by Sir J. J. Thomson (1897), after
Rontgen (1895) had shown that peculiar pulsations (X-rays)
were excited by the impact of the discharge against a solid surface.
From 1852 onwards, the year in which Frankland first made
known the simple theory of atomic valency upon which hitherto
all structural formulae have been based, chemists spent laborious
days in verifying the Daltonian theory of atoms, itself a most
wonderful prediction of genius. They have been engaged in de-
fining atomic properties and in the comparative study of the ele-
ments; also they have been at infinite pains to elucidate molecular
structure, in the hope of explaining the properties of compounds
generally in terms of such structure. The work done is of colossal
proportions. Success was attending their efforts in most direc-
tions; and a finished stable system was almost in prospect, when,
with little notice, although the storm had long been brewing, their
peace of mind was disturbed by the rudest possible intrusion
from the side of physics. It is true that a note of warning came
through the discovery of the radio-active properties of uranium
by Becquerel; but it was not until the high-explosive shell radium
was let loose that all preconceived views of atomic sanctity and
sanity were scattered to the winds.
Although no one regarded the elements as strictly " element-
ary " -the only explanation of Mendeleeff's generalization was
that they were genetically related and therefore of complex struc-
ture it had always been supposed that they were infinitely stable,
only to be decomposed, if at all, by resort to extreme meas-
ures. In radium, however, an " element " was suddenly found
that was ever undergoing disruption and yet it was impossible to
control its decay, either to hasten or diminish the rate. Even
more marvellous was the character of the change particularly
as illustrating the dependence of molecular idiosyncrasies on
structure. Radium is a metallic material, resembling barium; the
first weighty product of its slow spontaneous decomposition, to-
gether with the inert gas helium, was found to be a highly vola-
tile and inert gas emanation now known as radium (or niton)
having none of the properties of a metal; this latter, however,
also underwent change and very rapidly, a helium molecule
being again obtruded. This downward course was progressively
continued, until at last what seemed to be lead was obtained.
Radium has been proved to be but a child of uranium, the most
weighty of the known primary materials (238), though produced
from it at a rate far slower even than that at which radium itself
commits suicide. Thorium, the oxide of which plays so great a
part as chief component of the " mantle " now generally used for
incandescent gas-light, has also been shown to be a member of
the Suicide Club (see RADIO-ACTIVITY).
Faraday, who early made clear the essential unity of chemical
and electrical action, in the researches in which he laid the foun-
dations of electro-chemistry, discovered that, in electrolysis, def-
inite electric charges were carried by the moving atoms of mat-
ter; gradually the view grew up that the charge carried by the
atom was related to the principal valency of the element. After
a considerable interval, Helmholtz, in his Faraday lecture to the
Chemical Society (1871), sought to draw the logical conclusion
from Faraday's facts: he pictured chemical combination as the
consequence of atomic charges of electricity and chemical inter-
action as involving the exchange and neutralization of such
charges. Johnstone Stoney, in 1881, baptized these charges
electrons. The hypothesis did not altogether satisfy chemists,
more particularly on account of the strange variations in the
valency of some elements and because it did not seem to afford
an explanation of so-called residual affinity. The chemist, be it
said parenthetically, ever has the feeling that the physicist and
he are not in full sympathy and that the physicist has a tendency
to treat the phenomena somewhat too broadly, if not superfi-
cially to disregard the fine shades of difference which the chem-
ist learns to evaluate through constant intimate intercourse with
materials and his introspective habit of mind.
The electronic hypothesis only began to take firm hold of the
imagination after Crookes had called attention to the special
properties of the negative electric discharge in high vacua, when
Sir J. J. Thomson formulated the view that the Crookes cathode
discharge was not particulate in the ordinary sense but composed
of moving particles of electricity (electrons) little more than
i/i, 800 of the mass of the hydrogen atom. Physicists tell us
now that not only is matter atomic which many scarcely be-
lieved 50 years earlier and electricity also atomic; but that atomic
matter itself is made up of sub-atoms of electricity, and that, if
the properties peculiar to the elements and peculiar to their com-
pounds are to be explained, attention must now be turned to the
determination of the electronic structure of the atom (see MAT-
TER, CONSTITUTION or).
Mindful of the long struggle he has waged in determining
structure, the chemist foresees that it will not be an easy task for
physicists to penetrate the mysteries of sub-atomic structure by
experimental means and to arrive at a general agreement as to
the validity of their conclusions. The new discoveries are such,
however, as he has long awaited and he is profoundly grateful to
his physicist colleagues for having taken up the quest at a stage
beyond which he could scarcely hope to travel the methods to
be adopted, the kind of logic required, being so different from
those proper to chemistry.
We cannot, in fact, overlook the differences which separate the
practice of the different branches of science, nor can we disregard
the existence of different types of mind suited to one or the other
discipline. The line of demarcation, if not the stumbling block, is
mathematics: the position of the chemist, in this respect, is mid-
way between that of the physicist and the biologist. The popular
saying, " too much learning has made him mad," may be paral-
leled by the statement that too much mathematics may deprive
the chemist of his practical ability, especially of his constructive
power; and mathematics seem to be anathema to the biologist
and naturalist. Just as it takes all sorts to make a world, so it
takes all sorts to solve the infinitely varied problems of science.
The attempt to train all by similar methods is bound to end in
failure ; if it be persevered in, ultimately only the uneducated will
be able to do original work.
The new discoveries are those, we say, that the chemist has
long awaited. He has often speculated on the constitution of
matter and supposed it to be built up of some primordial constitu-
ent. He has long thought that the elements are in some way
genetically connected, on account of the striking "periodic"
relationship they exhibit. He has not been satisfied with the
weights he has been forced to assign to many atoms, feeling in-
tuitively that it was not right that even an atom should be in-
flicted with a weight that had not the dignity of an integer at
least this has been an impression in the minds of those who were
fully alive to the wonderful regularities and relationships mani-
fest among the compounds of carbon. Lastly, he has also been
prepared to believe that in some cases he might be dealing with
mixtures almost impossible to separate: tellurium is a particular
case in point, while nickel and cobalt afford another; probably
something similar occurs in the case of chlorine.
The facts, however, go beyond all dreams. As the study of the
products of radio-active change proceeded, it became necessary
to recognize that although each had peculiar radio-active charac-
teristics, the products in a number of cases were not distinguish-
able chemically; gradually the conception grew up of elements
differing in atomic mass but indistinguishable chemically
termed isotopes by Prof. Soddy.
The constant presence of lead in radio-active minerals of vari-
ous geological ages containing uranium led Boltwood to suggest
that lead was probably the ultimate product of spontaneous
breakdown in the uranium-radium series. Soddy, speculating on
the position of the radio-active elements in the periodic system,
came to a similar conclusion as to the origin of the lead in tho-
rium minerals; but on this assumption it appeared probable,
taking into account the reduction in atomic mass at the several
stages, that the leads from the two sources would be homologous
(isotopic). The atomic weight to be expected was in the one
case 206, in the other 208. Examining thoric-lead, Soddy and
Hyman found the value 207-7, whilst common lead gave 207-2.
CHEMISTRY
623
T. W. Richards and others carried out similar observations with
leads separated from uranium minerals; and from these obtained
the low value of 206-05. I n another case, Sir J. J. Thomson was
led by an entirely special method to conclude that neon was a
mixture of two gases; Mr. Aston then succeeded in separating
the gas, by diffusion, into two portions differing slightly in den-
sity (see GASES, ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF).
Sir Joseph Thomson's method involved the projection at a
photographic plate of molecules carrying a positive charge of
electricity, moving with great velocity. Molecules carrying the
same charge but differing in mass produced tracks on the plate
more or less apart. Mr. Aston developed the method: subjecting
the charged particles to the controlling influence of an electric as
well as of a magnetic field, he was able so to focus the rays upon
the sensitive plate that they produce sharply defined spectra;
from the position of the lines it is possible to deduce the masses
of the exciting particles. His results are more than remarkable.
In the case of chlorine, the chief line is in a position exactly cor-
responding to that of a molecule of mass 35, a line of less intensi-
ty appearing at 37 ; the hitherto received weight of chlorine being
practically 35-5, we have to suppose that the gas is a mixture of
two kinds of molecule in the proportion of about 3:1. Bromine
(79-92), strange to say, appears to be a mixture in about equal
proportions of molecules relatively of mass 79 and 81. Fluorine
and iodine, however, behave as simple species.
Atomic Numbers. Before- discussing the bearing of these as-
tounding developments, it is necessary to consider another ad-
vance, that made by Moseley whose death in the World War
was one of the most irreparable of British losses in the discov-
ery of a method of determining the order of succession of what
must now be spoken of as atomic species.
2. He 4 3. Li 6.94
(7-6)
10. Ne 20-2 11. Na 23
(20, 22) o
18. A 39-88 19. K&-I
(40, 36) (39, 40
The X-rays are regarded as vibrations set up by the impact
of the electrons upon material surfaces, the character of the rays
being determined by the nature of the material which is bom-
barded. Moseley's method involved the study of the X-ray
spectra of the elements; these he found were characterized by
an orderly progression from element to element, so that it was
possible from the spectra to arrange them in true order and even
to foresee gaps. The spectra are simple and the relationship be-
tween successive terms is unmistakable. The numbers indic-
ative of the place of an element in the successional series are
spoken of as atomic numbers. The unfilled gaps seem to be few.
We have to recognize 92 species of elements; of these only five
are missing numbers 43, 61, 75, 85, 87.
These results are a complete vindication of the policy long
followed by chemists of classifying the elements in accordance
with the periodic law of Mendeleeff. Tellurium, it had always
been insisted, must be placed in the oxygen-sulphur series, in ad-
vance of iodine. The " number " assigned to tellurium is 52,
which places it in advance of iodine (53), although the accepted
atomic weights are i27~5and 126-92. Now that iodine is regarded
as whole, it may safely be predicted that tellurium is a mixture
of homologues; an infra-tellurium has yet to be discovered. In
like manner, cobalt has always been ranked before nickel, al-
though the atomic weights were against this order; the atomic
numbers they have received (17 and 18) are in accordance with
this view. Recently Mr. Aston has obtained evidence that nickel
has two constituents, one of mass 68, the other of mass 70; the
intensity of the spectral lines are approximately as 2:1, in accord-
ance with the atomic mass (68-68) hitherto assigned to nickel.
Assuming Moseley's generalization to be correct and that our
knowledge of elementary species is nearly complete, it is possible
4.
Be 9-1
5.
Genetic Table of Elements
1. Hydrogen
1.008
o
B 10-9 6. C 12
(II, 10)
o
12.
Mg 24-32
13.
Al
27-1
14.
Si 28-3
(24, 25, 26)
(28, 29)
20.
Ca 40-07
21.
Sc
44-1
22.
Ti 48-1
7. N 14-01
o
15. P 31-04
o
23. V 51-06
8. Oi6
o
16. 832-06
o
24. Cr 52
9.
29. Cu 63-57 30. Qu 65-37 31. Ga 69-9 32. Ge 72-5
36. Kr 82-92 37. Rb 85-45
(78, 80, 82, 83, (85, 87)
84, 86)
33. As 74-96 34. Se 79-2
o
38. Sr 87-83 39. Yt 88-7 40. Zr 90-6 41. Nb 93-5 42. Mo 96
Fl 9
17. Cl 35-46
(35, 37)
25. Mn 54-93
26. Fe 55-85
27. 0058-97
28. Ni 58-68
(58, 60)
35. Br 79-92
(79. 81)
43.
47. Ag 107-88 48. Cd 1 12-4 49. In 114.8 50. Sn 118-7 51. Sb 120-2 52. Te 127-5
54. Xe 130-2 55. Cs 132-81
(129, 132, 131, o
134, 136)
56. Ba 137-37
57.
La
139
58.
Ce
140-25
59.
Pr
140-6
60.
Nd
144-3
62i
Sa
150-4
63.
Eu
152
64.
Gd
157-3
65.
Tb
159-2
66.
Dy
162-5
67.
Ho
163-6
68.
Er
167-7
69.
Tm 1 68- 5
70.
Yb
173-5
71.
Lu
175
44. Ru 101-7
45. Rh 102-9
46. Pd 106-7
53. I 126-92
o
72. Kt 73. Ta 181-5 74. W 184
79. Au 197-2
80. Hg 200-6 81. Tl 204 82.
(6) 197 to 204
83. Bi 208
75.
76. Os 190-9
77. Ir 193-1
78. Pt 195-2
84. Polonium 85.
86. Nt 222 87.
(Th Em 220
Ac Em 2I8 1 )
88. Ra 226
(Th X 224
Ac X 222)
Pb 207-2
206, 208
(various radio (various radio (various radio (various radio
elements) elements) elements) elements)
89. Ac 226 90. Th 232-15 91. 92. U 238-2
(Ms Th II 228) (various radio UX2 (U II 234)
elements)
624
CHEMISTRY
to discuss the classification of the electro-primary species with a
far greater degree of certainty than heretofore. One fact is clear
that a periodic arrangement was never more justified: formerly
this involved placing them in the order of the magnitude of their
atomic weights and a sub-grouping under families; there was no
means of determining whether or no unassigned numbers were or
were not those of missing elements.
We are now on surer ground, as we may substitute atomic
number the integer indicative of place in the evolutionary
series for atomic weight : it were better perhaps to speak of this
as the species number. In addition, we have to recognize the exis-
tence, within some species at least, of sub-species or varieties dif-
fering in atomic mass but in other respects, as a rule, so similar
as to be indistinguishable except by special methods. These are
the so-called isotopes. In the " isotopic elements," apparently,
we are dealing, with substances which are closely related in
electronic structure, corresponding to the terms in a series of
homologous organic compounds.
No precise distinction can be drawn between the terms " chem-
ical " and " physical " the chemist has availed himself so fully
of physical methods that he has made them his own and has
difficulty in giving any precise meaning to the expression " chem-
ical property ": nevertheless, it has a clear connotation in his
mind. The initial and second terms of the great series of paraffin
hydrocarbons, methane (CH 4 ) and ethane (C 2 H 6 ), are, chem-
ically speaking, identical; indeed this is true of the entire group,
putting structure aside: the differences are mainly physical in
mass, molecular magnitude, density, boiling point, etc.
In the accompanying table the electro-primaries are classified
" periodically," in accordance with their " affinities." It is a
striking fact that when arranged in the order of their " species
numbers " they fall into eight great families: but progression is
not along a continuous spiral. When the 25th place is reached,
there is a precipitate fall through 26, 27 and 28; the series is then
continued on the descending spiral until a similar precipitate fall
takes place at 43 through 44, 45 and 46; again the progression is
orderly until at 56 there is an astounding drop to 70; after a short
interval, at 75 there is another fall similar to the first and second;
during the remaining interval, progress is uniformly on the spiral.
The species numbers, in some cases at least, serve but to indicate
pockets in which homologues may be stored.
The view which was coming into favour in 1021 involves but
an extension of the often discussed century-old hypothesis of
Prout, that the elements are all multiples of hydrogen. It has
long been held that the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 1-008:16,
not i :i6; not only is this confirmed by Aston's observations but
his measurements seem to justify the conclusion that integral
values are to be assigned to all the electro-primaries other
than hydrogen (cf. Aston, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1921). It is also a
striking fact that no evidence of the existence of variants has
been obtained in respect of species the determined atomic weight
of which is not an integral value within the probable limits of
error. Thus no evidence of the existence of variants is forth-
coming in the case of helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine,
sodium, phosphorus and sulphur; but lithium, boron, neon, mag-
nesium, silicon and chlorine are each to be regarded as a mixture
of one or more varieties of a single species. The absolute depart-
ure, however, from a whole number is no greater for lithium
(6-94) than for sulphur (32-06), though in the latter case the
difference is a much smaller proportion of the whole: sulphur is
evidently a material to be further studied from this point of view.
The extent to which the accepted " atomic weight " differs
from a whole number is no indication apparently of the values of
which it is an integration. Thus lithium (6-94) appears to con-
sist mainly of a constituent of mass 7 with only a small proportion
of one of mass 6; but bromide (79-92) is a mixture in nearly equal
proportions of variants of mass 79 and 81; still more remarkable
is the composition of mercury (200-6), which appears to consist of
6 variants differing in mass from 197 to 204: krypton and xenon
are of like complexity. Apparently the weights of separate
species do not overlap. That phosphorus should be without
variants and of mass 31 is remarkable, in view of the difference
of 16 units between many of the superposed terms in the first
and second lines of the table it would have been less surprising
had it proved to be a mixture of units of mass 30 and 32.
The table has other noteworthy features. The members of
each of the three metallic triads, on the short precipice faces at
the right of the table, might be placed in line and the arrange-
ment would have the advantage of bringing out the homology
between their corresponding successive terms Fe, Ru, Os; Co,
Rh, Ir; Ni, Pd, Pt. The arrangement has the advantage of being
parallel with that which must be adopted in the case of the great
group of rare-earth primaries these cannot be entered across the
table if this is, in any way, to be a picture of the homologies.
manifest among the primaries. Maybe when this rare-earth
group is fully studied, rhythmic variations such as are apparent
in the three groups of triads will also be made obvious. It is
noteworthy that, of the five presumed missing links in the record,
two occur above the platinum triads in positions similar to that
manganese has at the head of the iron triad; the third absentee
may presumably also belong to the same great family and may
well be a radio-active halogen. The fourth gap is in the rare-
earth series; the fifth is in the radio-active region.
The classification of Cu, Ag, Au along with the alkali metals,
still more that of the iron and platinum triads along with the
halogens, may well seem peculiar; but in comparison with the as-
tounding difference in properties between radium (a metal) and
the emanation from it (a very volatile inert gas) the differences
are not surprising. We may well be dealing with collaterals.
The arrangement is comparable with that of hydrocarbons in
great families under the empirical symbols CnHja-K, C n H 2n ,
CnHfc, 2, or in a series and in that formed by benzene, naphtha-
lene and anthracene. In the C n H 2n series, for example, the
unsaturated ethenoid, hexene, is included together with the sat-
urated hexamethylene (hexahydrobenzene). Benzene itself is
usually non-valent but may act as a dyad, tetrad or hexad. Hither-
to such variations appeared to be striking when observed among
the " elements "; now that these are proved to be structurally
complex, we may look forward to the explanation of their func-
tional and physical peculiarities as consequences of structure, pre-
cisely as in the case of organic compounds: why some are metals,
others non-metals; why some metals are good and others bad
conductors of electricity; why some species are coloured, others
colourless; why some species, notwithstanding their great mass,
are so remarkably volatile; for example, mercury and, most
strange of all, the " emanation " from radium as in organic
compounds variation in volatility corresponds very nearly with
that of mass. Light may also be thrown upon the special prop-
erties of compounds such as carbonic oxide and nitric oxide.
As the interest attaching to the correlation of function with inter-
nal structure is now so great, attention may be called to a few special
cases in which the structure may be supposed to alter. _
A phenomenon which has attracted great attention, in carbon
compounds, is that of metameric (isodynamic) change, one of the
earliest and most interesting cases observed being that of ethylic
acetoacetate, which, according to circumstances, functions in two
distinct ways, in correspondence with either the one or the other of
the two formulae CHa.CO.COOEt or CH S : C(OH).COOEt. It
has often been supposed that these are but two reciprocal forms and
that the molecule is subject to constant, spontaneous, oscillatory
change; the evidence is convincing, however, that like all other cases
of chemical change, the alteration is the outcome of a more complex,
reversible process conditioned by a conducting impurity. Thus
CH s .CO.COOEt+HX1=;CN3.CX(OH).COOEt ^ CH 2 : C(OH).C-
OOEt+HX. The two forms have been isolated and their stability
shown to be a question of purity.
That alterations take place in internal electronic structure in
simple compounds and even in " elementary " materials is already
clear. Water affords one of the most striking examples.'in the sudden
large increase in volume which it undergoes on conversion into ice.
Assuming that the molecules are close packed in crystals, the increase
cannot well be supposed to be due to their arrangement in any
" open " form in ice. Can it be supposed that the electronic systems
" expand " in some way? What is most striking is the suddenness
with which the change takes place, at a definite temperature or
nearly so for there is evidence that ice is present in water above
the freezing point and also that ice contains water.
Evidence of " internal " structural change in elementary materials
is to be found perhaps in the peculiar manner in which their heat-
CHEMISTRY
625
80
Atomic
Specific Heat "+'
at 50A
60
40
20
U WC HO F
Atomic
NdUttSi
Weight
;A1S,PS d KCa Ti VCrfcF.KCo 0/Zn Ca A. 5* lib Sr Zr bo Kn RhMAg U In SoSb I Tt CiSjI.OD,
Ta W 0> IrftAuNj 71 PbBi
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
ISO
200
220
240
FIG. i.
Diagram showing periodic variations of heat capacity and atomic volume.
absorbing capacity is dependent upon temperature. The amount of
heat absorbed, by atomic proportions of a majority of the primaries,
when their temperature is raised through a given interval, it is well
known, is nearly a constant quantity over a wide range of tempera-
ture; only in the specifically non-metallic elements, silicon, beryllium,
boron and carbon, is the departure from this " rule " at all con-
siderable; and in the case of these, as the temperature is raised, the
heat capacity increases, until towards 1, 000 their behaviour
approximates to that of the metals. It was long supposed, in fact,
that there was a general tendency for the atomic heats to converge
towards a constant value as the temperature was raised and to
diverge as the temperature was lowered. Taking into account
the fact that metals generally appear to be of simple molecular com-
position compared with the non-metals, it was not improbable that
the differences were, in the main, differences due to molecular com-
plexity; recent determinations of specific heat at the very low tem-
perature of liquid hydrogen (50 absolute), by Sir James Dewar,
nave brought to light, however, the surprising fact that heat capacity
is subject to periodic variation, much as the volume occupied by
atomic proportions varies even at ordinary temperatures. The two
properties are contrasted in the accompanying diagram.
The striking fact is brought out in this diagram that whilst
the chemically most active metallic elements (the alkali metals)
are but little affected, the best defined metals diminish in heat-
absorbing power to a very marked extent.
The values deduced with the aid of ordinary materials, especially
in the solid state, cannot be regarded as " atomic " in any proper
sense of the term, as they are of different degrees of molecular com-
plexity and the molecular complexity varies considerably with
temperature. Thus a large number of the metals appear to have
monatomic molecules, whilst there is reason to believe that those of
the non-metallic elements, carbon especially, are of considerable
complexity; but even in the case of the elements having monatomic
molecules, intermolecular affinity is subject to great variation, being
slight for example in mercury but considerable in the case of metals
such as gold, silver and copper. In a complete theory of atomic
structure, all these variations must be taken into account.
The correlation of molecular structure with function, in the
carbon compounds, has been carried so far that the chemist has
entire confidence in his conclusions because of the large number
of instances in which a comparison of fact with hypothesis can be
made. The assumptions involved are few and it is more than re-
markable that it should have been possible to erect so vast and
complex a system upon so simple a foundation. The structural
formulae of organic chemistry are to be regarded, however, main-
ly as condensed symbolic expressions, indicative of the general
arrangement of the constituent radicles and of the functional
behaviour of the compounds represented, not as absolute expres-
sions of structure; indeed, it is becoming clear that the conven-
tions which have hitherto sufficed should be modified in certain
particulars to give fuller symbolic expression to the ascertained
facts and to render the formulae more nearly a representation of
the molecular architecture. In the case of the compounds of
elements other than carbon, valid methods of determining struc-
ture are yet to be devised. It is surprising, to take an example,
that we have no clear conception of the atomic arrangement of
so simple and important a substance as sulphuric acid, H 2 SOi.
New methods of promise are coming into use, and it is to be
expected that much will be learnt, especially by the study of the
internal structure of crystalline solids, by crystallographic (geo-
metric) methods and by means of X-rays a field of inquiry
opened up by Laue and then by the Braggs and others.
Frankland's original conception that the carbon atom has four
affinities still holds the field. In modern times, it has been am-
plified by the introduction of space conceptions and the use of
the tetrahedron as a model of the atom; in this way greater
precision has been arrived at because of the limitations which
are introduced. Perhaps the most important outcome of the hy-
pothesis is, that whenever but in no other case a system is
formed in which a single carbon atom is associated with four dif-
ferent unit systems, the complex may exist in two like asymme-
tric forms (of opposite character), distinguished by their power
of influencing plane polarized light in opposite directions.
This conception of the carbon atom is entirely justified by the
results of the analysis of the internal structure of the diamond by
means of X-rays, carried out by Sir William Bragg and his son
W. L. Bragg. The arrangement of the carbon atoms is such that
every atom is the centre of gravity of four others arranged around
it in tetrahedral fashion. Apparently there are definite sub-cen-
tres of force on the outskirts of an atom; in the carbon atom of
which the diamond is composed, there is evidence of four such
sub-centres arranged symmetrically that is to say tetrahe-
drally. The atoms in the diamond form two sets; in each set the
individual atoms present the same orientation and constitute a
cubic space-lattice, but the orientations of the two sets are oppo-
site. The effect of this difference is mirrored in the X-ray spec-
trum. This conclusion of the physicist is a complete justification
of the views long held by chemists that the carbon atom has di-
rected valencies and may give rise to asymmetric structures.
In the Bragg model of the diamond, although they are united
similarly and symmetrically, in all four directions of trigonal
axes, the carbon atoms can be allotted to similar sets of six, in
each of which the individual atoms are united in the manner pic-
tured by the chemist in the symbol of hexamethylene.
CH,
" C CH
^ H,C^SCH,
CH,
Although, in the diamond, the carbon atom is the physical unit
or molecule, the molecule may equally well be regarded as inde-
terminate, indeed as coterminate with the mass, as the constitu-
ent units are uniformly related. As influencing our views as to
the manner in which solids act in solutions and attract molecules
of their own kind, it should be noted that each carbon atom at
the exposed surface of the diamond mass has an affinity free.
626
CHEMISTRY
Chemists have generally assumed that contiguous carbon
atoms may be united in three ways, either by single affinities or
by two affinities or by three affinities, leaving three, two or a
single affinity free to unite with other radicles, thus
iC-C; :C:C: -CiC-
Paraffinoid. Ethenoid. Acet(yl)enoid.
Accordingly in van't Hoff's spatial formulae, the two tetra-
hedra are shown united either (i) by two apices, or (2) edge
to edge, or (3) face to face. The three forms of union have ajl
been regarded as possible in spite of the fact, that the assump-
tion is made, that the four affinities of the carbon atom are exer-
cised in the direction of four lines drawn from the centre of mass
through the apices. It has been assumed that the affinities be-
come more or less bent or stressed as in von Baeyer's well-
known hypothesis: hence the instability and attractive power of
the so-called unsaturated compounds. In effect the existence
of a difficulty has been recognized but met by a compromise.
The only positive evidence brought forward in disproof of
Frankland's contention that two atoms may be united by more
than single affinities, and that when each has several affinities
not engaged by other radicles they mutually satisfy each other,
is that advanced by Julius Thomsen in the fourth volume of his
celebrated Thermochemische Untersuchungen. Thomsen argued,
from his thermo-chemical data, that in ethenoid and still more in
acetenoid compounds, the bond of union was weaker, not stronger,
than that in the equivalent paraffinoid compound. He also
maintained that the oxygen atom was not held by two affinities
in keto (CO) compounds; and he even threw doubt on the
formulae assigned to ethylene oxide. Of late years, the chemist's
peace of mind has been disturbed, and a suspicion created that
all is not right with the symbolic system in use, by the discovery
of unsaturated compounds in which the existence of single free
affinities must seemingly be granted : Gomberg's triphenylmethyl ,
C(C6H 6 ) 3 , being one of the most striking and compelling cases
which no structural sophist has been able to explain away. On-
paper it is all so easy, and chemists hitherto have been satisfied to
work on paper to draw plans with the aid of certain conventions;
now the time is at hand to attempt the representation of our
ideas in the solid. There is reason to suppose that the study
of solid structure, by geometric and X-ray methods in combi-
nation, may carry us over our difficulty.
Conflict must arise of the difficulty of interpreting the evi-
dence. This is true already in one very simple case that of
common salt. The interpretation put on the results of X-ray
analysis is that the chlorine and sodium units are so placed and
so arranged relatively that there is no reason to believe in the
existence of a molecular unit NaCl, within the mass. The chem-
ist stands unconvinced before such a statement he is not pre-
pared to sacrifice the cherished convictions of a lifetime, not
being satisfied that the new method is one in which implicit faith
may be placed the more as it has been shown, in the parallel
case of potassium chloride, that a but slightly different arrange-
ment of the units is required to give a geometrical structure, in
entire harmony with all that is known of the geometrical and
physical peculiarities of the crystal, involving no sacrifice of the
chemist's view that the molecule KC1 has separate existence
(see Barlow, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1914).
An attempt has been made, in recent years, to correlate out-
ward form or crystalline structure with internal molecular struc-
ture, based upon the conception introduced by Barlow and Pope,
that, in the case at least of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
gen and nitrogen, the volume occupied by the atom, in any given
compound under given conditions, is proportional to its valency,
and that, when changes are effected in a molecule, the ratio
is maintained constant although the actual volume may be
changed. Taking into account the 'extraordinary number and
variety of the compounds of these four elements, their marked
stability and the ease with which interchanges can be effected
within the molecules, this conclusion is all but unavoidable; but
the solid models built up of spheres of volume i, 2, 3 and 4, in
accordance with such a valency-volume conception, have not
answered expectation. A simple modification is possible, how-
ever, which is of promise. If a single unit sphere be taken to rep-
resent an atom of unit valency, such as hydrogen, atoms which
are either di- or tri- or tetra-valent (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon)
may be represented by models composed respectively of two,
three, and four such spheres in close contact (cf. Barlow, Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1914, 9i'i6). Such complexes can be made into
close-packed unlimited assemblages throughout which each
sphere is in contact with 12 surrounding spheres; no such uni-
formity can be attained if the spheres differ in volume.
The adoption of the method indicated has important conse-
quences. In the case of carbon, the atom is represented by four
unit spheres the centres of which lie at the four corners of a regu-
lar tetrahedron. The four hollows on the four faces correspond-
ing to the tetrahedron faces may be regarded each as the seat of
an affinity; the union of two carbon atoms by single affinities,
therefore, is to be represented by closely approximating two tet-
rahedral groups face to face, so that the three spheres of a face
of the one tetrahedron key into the three hollows between three
spheres of the opposed face of the other; the two atoms are there-
by oppositely oriented. The eight sphere centres of the complex
thus formed mark the angles of a regular rhombohedron, the
shorter face-diagonals of which equal the edges. If two spheres
representing an oxygen atom be attached to one of the faces, in
continuation of the two lines of spheres forming a face, the model
may be taken as that of ethylene oxide and it has the peculiarity
that, whilst the twin oxygen spheres face the hollow in one of the
two carbon pyramids, only one of them touches the other carbon
pyramid at one of its apices. The condition is much that sug-
gested by Julius Thomsen certainly one of unsaturation. Such
models can be made into close-packed assemblages of any dimen-
sions, which is not the case when the models used are single
spheres of varying volume. The adoption of such models has
important consequences. In the case of carbon, the atom is
represented by four unit-spheres piled in a pyramid. The four
hollows on the four faces of the pyramid may be regarded each
as the " seat " of an affinity: the union of two carbon atoms by
single affinities, therefore, is to be represented by approximating
two pyramids, face to face, rotating slightly, so that the three
spheres of a face of the one tetrahedron fall into the hollows be-
tween the three spheres of the opposed face of the other; this is
equivalent to setting one of the pyramids on its base and inter-
locking it with the second pyramid placed upside down.
The van't Hoff school has always assumed that the affinities
act from the apices of the tetrahedra and have not taken the
consequences of close-packing into account. One deduction from
their assumption has been that single united carbon atoms are
free to rotate but this is not in accordance with the facts. To
take only the case of the aldhexose sugars, of the form COH.
(CH.OH) 4 . CH 2 .OH. The four OH units in the four (CHQH)
groups can be arranged relatively to the two terminal groups in
eight different positions and each of the forms has its optical
opposite. Fourteen of the sixteen compounds there foreshad-
owed are known and are stable substances. There must be at
least one configuration of principal stability in such a system
and if singly bound carbon atoms were free to rotate, a tendency
to pass into this stable form should be in evidence. Nothing of
the kind is observed: on the contrary, when change takes place
it is confined to the part of the system that is directly attacked.
The tetra-sphere model of the carbon atom does serve to bring
out a certain face-grip between the two united carbon atoms.
By placing tetra-spheres together, in face contact, in the man-
ner described, endless chains may be formed and it is conceivable
that the carbon atoms in the paraffinoid hydrocarbons are ar-
ranged in rectilinear columns presenting similar parallel sections.
It is, however, possible that, under some conditions at least, as
in the hexose sugars, there may be a tendency to form condensed
systems or rings: peculiarities in the optical behaviour of com-
pounds containing paraffinoid side chains have been noticed
which seem to favour such a conclusion, change proceeding
regularly and uniformly, from atom to atom, as the chain is in-
creased in length but a different peculiar value is observed at
the fifth carbon atom and at each subsequent fifth atom. It is
CHEMISTRY
627
to be expected that light will be thrown on problems of this order
by studies, such as those Langmuir has initiated, of the space
occupied by the molecules in liquid films.
The tetra-spheres may be arranged in sheets in any desired
numbers, but from such sheets hexagonal blocks may be dissected
out, consisting of six tetra-spheres arranged as in benzene, three
base downwards and three base upwards, linked in a six-ring
system. If to one such segment, six unit-spheres representing
six hydrogen atoms be so added that they occupy the six hollows
in the six exposed faces of the six tetra-spheres round the pe-
riphery of the model, a model of the benzene molecule is produced.
The structure is only two layers high but the hydrogen atoms
form a separate central chaplet, owing to their position in the
hollows at the waist of the system. To pack benzene units to-
gether, it is necessary to displace the hydrogen spheres slightly
from their central position, so as to bring half of them into the
one and half .into the other outer layer of carbon unit-spheres.
The operation is symbolic of the change involved in the pas-
sage of benzene from the liquid into the crystalline state.
The configuration of the benzene model thus contracted is that
of two superposed triangles, each side having five spheres, the
three corners being occupied each by a hydrogen sphere, the
remaining space by unit carbon spheres. The two superposed
triangles are in reversed positions, the apex of one falling upon
the base of the other, whilst the carbon units of the upper layer
fall into the hollows between those of the lower layer. The model
is therefore hexagonal in outline with sloping sides.
A feature in the model is the presence both at the upper and
lower surface of three unsatisfied " carbon faces." Benzene, in
other words, is to be pictured as possessed of a bundle of three
unsatisfied affinities at each free surface: these correspond to the
six affinities directed inwards in the centric formula.
It is easy to construct models of benzene derivatives, pro-
ceeding on similar lines. A matter of interest to be mentioned,
in this connexion, is the fact that, in close-packing the units, they
cannot generally be arranged side by side but contiguous units
must be made to differ in level by one layer in order to secure a
fit; the mass therefore has a stepped surface; half its constituent
molecular units range higher by the thickness of a layer than
those of the other half, the two sets interpenetrating. In a num-
ber of cases it has been found that the data deduced directly
by geometrical methods from these models, taking into account
the recorded characteristics of the compounds dealt with, are in
practical agreement with the crystallographic data.
Spheres are used in the construction of the models as a con-
venient means of showing the relative situations in space of the
hypothetical constituent sub-centres of force referred to; these will
present homogeneous symmetrical repetition such as is charac-
teristic of crystalline structure. It is not intended, however, to
suggest any difference in properties between the space contained
within the spheres and that occupying the interstices between
them. Indeed, but for the greater mechanical difficulties involved,
a partitioning of space into identical cells of regular dodecahedral
form would with profit take the place of a closest packed assem-
blage of equal spheres of the cubic system of symmetry.
Barlow has succeeded in partitioning space into similar plane-
faced cells, each having 13 faces, according to hemihedral cubic
symmetry; he contends that, if pairs of the cells are symmetri-
cally chosen to represent the molecules of potassium chloride, the
arrangement of the pairs completely matches the crystal form;
he points out that this highly symmetrical arrangement is de-
rived, by a very simple modification, from the interpenetrated
face-centered lattices assigned by the Braggs to the crystal in
question. In a number of cases it has been found that the data
deduced directly by geometrical methods from these models,
taking into account the recorded characteristics of the com-
pounds dealt with, are in agreement with the crystallographic
data to an extent well within the ordinary errors of measurement.
Necessarily, spheres are only suitable for the purpose of hand
demonstrations. In developing the crystallographic forms, the
compression the spheres undergo has to be taken into account.
The simplest form of close-packing would involve their compres-
sion into dodecahedral cells; but both i3-facedand i4-faced solid
units are also possible. The crystallographic peculiarities of po-
tassium chloride may be completely matched on the assumption
that the KC1 unit is formed of two such cells.
If, as argued, carbon- atoms cannot be united by more than
single affinities, ethylene and still more acetylene are truly un-
saturated and the conventional symbols C:C and C-C are to be
read as implying merely certain degrees of unsaturation.
It is a logical consequence of the same conclusion, that only
one form of carbon can exist the diamond. If so, graphite and
charcoal are not composed of allotropes of carbon! The elemen-
tary nature of the prime constituents of these materials may be
questioned on various grounds. Sir Charles Parsons, who has
carried out an extended inquiry with the object of producing
diamond, has thus far been unable to satisfy himself that it can
be obtained by artificial means: he is inclined to think that the
crystals obtained by Sir William Crookes may not have been
diamond but perhaps silicon compounds of the carborundum
type. Diamonds are found in volcanic vents and it is conceivable
that they have been formed under transcendental conditions,
which cannot now be realized. If allotropes, the two forms
should be in equilibrium: as graphite has the higher heat of
combustion, the production of graphite alone, without diamcnd,
at high temperatures is remarkable to say the least, particularly
in view of the behaviour of phosphorus. Graphite, apparently,
however produced, always contains hydrogen. Most striking also
is the whiteness and hardness of diamond and its resistance to all
chemical agents, when contrasted with the blackness and soft-
ness of graphite and the amorphous carbons and the readiness
with which these are oxidized. The conversion of the diamond
into graphite (?), when it is bombarded by the cathode dis-
charge, is very superficial and may well be due to the interven-
tion of the trace of water which is necessarily present in any
vacuum tube through which a discharge passes.
Lastly, the black colour of graphite and the charcoals is an
indication of a complex ethenoid or it were better said ben-
zenoid structure, such as the heaviest hydrocarbons are known
to possess. The production of mellithic or benzenehexacarboxylic
acid, Ce(COOH)6, when charcoal is oxidized, may be regarded
as proof that, in charcoal, there is a nucleus in which a benzenoid
system of carbon atoms is surrounded by several similar systems,
and it is conceivable that, fringing these, there may be others.
The stability of such a system, the maintenance of the benzenoid
structure, might be secured by the addition of a few hydrogen
atoms at the periphery, which would disturb the symmetry suf-
ficiently to modify the electronic orbits and break up the dia-
mond arrangement.
If the carbon atoms in diamond are in paraffinoid arrangement,
the properties would be uniform throughout the mass, and the
hardness of diamond may be supposed to be due to the manner
in which every internally saturated atom is combined with four
others: this explanation may be extended to carborundum, silicon
being the analogue of carbon. In the benzenoid system of
graphite, contiguous benzene units would perhaps be more firmly
united than the superposed layers of the complexes: hence its
softness and the readiness with which it is split into thin layers.
If valid deductions may be drawn from models such as have
been described, it would seem probable that no structural altera-
tion in the ordinary sense of the term is involved in the pro-
duction of unsaturated compounds. In the case of the formation
of quinone, for example, it is customary to suppose that not only
are two atoms of hydrogen withdrawn from quinol but that the
two oxygen atoms from which they are taken away become
doubly united with the benzene system and that this is coinci-
dently changed in structure:
The model suffers no such change : only the molecular units need
to be rearranged to make good the withdrawals. The changes
628
CHEMISTRY
must be in some of the electronic systems within the mole-
cules; obviously, when the oxygen in no way has its attention en-
gaged by hydrogen, its influence must in some way be felt more
in the neighbouring carbon system; these, however, are dynamic
changes, not evident in a model. The limitation is one to which
our structural formulae have always been subject.
Whatever be the distribution of affinity in the carbon atom, in
compounds it appears to be greatly modified, so that structural
models, like structural formulae, must be interpreted with cau-
tion. To take a simple case, the change from benzene to hexa-
methylene seems to involve merely the addition of six more
hydrogen atoms at the periphery, not the direct neutralization
of the two sets of three affinities at the free carbon surfaces.
This pulling down of the affinities into two planes seems to be
a general rule. Mr. Barlow finds, for example, that the model of
tartaric acid constructed on this principle is in absolute accord
with the crystallographic peculiarities of the acid.
Fig. 2 shows front and back views of the arrangement of the
units in glucose, CeH^Gv The carbon units may be distin-
guished without difficulty as the grey spheres, the cross denoting
the position of the pyramidal apices; the white spheres are the
hydrogen units; the twin dark spheres the oxygen atoms. Each
layer consists of a succession of rows of four spheres. The free
carbon area is of considerable extent at both surfaces: it will be
obvious that, if some degree of residual affinity were exercised
over these areas, successive layers of molecules might well be
attracted into position, if once a single layer were deposited, as
in crystallization.
FRONT
BACK
FIG. 2.
Front and Back Views of the Arrangement of Units in Glucose.
(From Journal of the Society of Arts, Sept. 12 1919.)
Chemical Change: Determinant and Catalyst. Although the
subject of chemical change has been much discussed of late years,
the chief advance has been in the attention paid to catalysts,
which have acquired popularity owing to their use in a number
of industrial processes. Although it is recognized that often
some determining agent is required to condition an interaction,
and the feeling is widespread that this is more generally true than
has been supposed, the primary conditions of chemical change
are seldom set forth; seldom is the practice departed from of
using simple equations in which the two agents and the resultants
alone appear, the need of a third substance being left out of ac-
count and unindicated.
The determining process is spoken of with increasing frequency
as catalysis, the supposed agent being termed the catalyst. The
conception was introduced by the great Berzelius in 1835, and
was applied by him to such diverse changes as the hydrolysis of
starch by acids and also by diastase; the oxidation of various sub-
stances in presence of platinum, especially when used in the finely
divided state (platinum black) ; and the formation of ether from
alcohol by means of sulphuric acid. Berzelius drew no distinc-
tion between interactions in solution and those in which solids
such as platinum were involved. It is clear that he took an elec-
tro-chemical view of the process his opinion being that the
office of the catalyst is to awaken slumbering affinities through its
presence and to determine a greater electro-chemical neutraliza-
tion ; probably no one has been nearer to our modern conception.
Whether he had been in any way influenced by Faraday's electro-
chemical researches of 1833-4 is not clear.
Now that it is so generally admitted that Faraday's dictum is
to be accepted, that ordinary chemical affinity is a consequence
of the electrical attractions of the particles of different kinds of
matter and that the forces termed chemical affinity and electri-
city are one and the same, it may be asserted, as a necessary co-
rollary, that the conditions which determine chemical action are
those which determine electrolytic action.
Speaking generally, it may be affirmed that two substances
cannot interact ; a third must be present to determine the neces-
sary slope of potential and flux of current. Thus zinc, whether
highly purified or amalgamated, is all but unattackedbyanacid,
and it is logical to assert that, if pure, it would be unattacked;
when coupled with an electro-negative inert conductor, it is
dissolved, indeed, very rapidly, if the resistance in circuit be
small. Or to condition attack, a depolarizer may be used, as in
the case of copper, for example, which readily dissolves in dilute
sulphuric acid in the presence of oxygen.
The rule appears to be that the three necessary factors must be
conjoined in a conducting circuit ; one of them must be an elec-
trolyte; one of the remaining two and the electrolyte must be
substances that can interact ; the third may or may not take part
in the chemical interchange if it takes part, by acting as a depo-
larizer, it adds to the efficiency of the change, raising the electro-
motive force. Brereton Baker, in the course of his refined
studies on the influence of water as a determinant of chemical
change, has given abundant proof of the accuracy of the above-
given definition, particularly by showing that a mixture of hydro-
gen and oxygen cannot be fired, even in presence of water; and
that interaction takes place only when an impurity is present,
which impurity, together with the water, forms an electrolyte.
A trace of acid suffices.
Years before this result was obtained, it was possible to pre-
dict that water alone would not condition the interaction of hy-
drogen and oxygen because it was not an electrolyte. It is true
that this contention is not generally admitted it is held that
water per se has a slight conductivity; but this conclusion in-
volves the unjustified assumption that Kohlrausch dealt with
pure water and that the minimal conductivity which he observed
was an intrinsic property of water. The course followed by Kohl-
rausch in purifying water, however, involving as it did nothing
more than distillation within closed glass tubes, was by no means
a refined one from our modern point of view; to assume that he
had reached finality is absurd: it is impossible to obtain a vessel
without surface impurity which is not open to attack; access of
atmospheric impurity cannot be entirely prevented ; further, some
form of electrode must be used ; pure water, therefore, will ever
remain an ideal, and whilst it is logical to extend the curve repre-
senting the loss of conducting power, as the impurity is reduced,
to zero origin, on no theoretical grounds are we called on to be-
lieve that it should come to rest short of this point.
Especially is this the case, in view of the conclusion of the dis-
sociationist school, that in aqueous solutions the dissolved sub-
stance is alone resolved into its ions: muriatic acid, for example,
is assumed to be a mixture of undissociated molecules of water
with the separated ions, H and Cl. Unfortunately, the modern
chemist too often lacks feeling for his material, and, without
sympathy, understanding is impossible. It is impossible to put
two so closely related and similar compounds as water (H 2 O)
and hydrogen chloride (HC1) on the different planes they neces-
sarily occupy, if the one be regarded as all but entirely stable
and the other as entirely unstable.
That a profound chemical change takes place on bringing to-
gether the two compounds, hydrogen chloride and water, is be-
yond question. To regard the water as inert is impossible if it
were, the gas would not be so attracted as it is. Equations such
as the following are not merely rational but necessary expressions
in illustration of the changes that may occur:
Cl
H
The part played by water in activating hydrogen chloride may
be compared with that of magnesium in Grignard's well-known
CHEMISTRY
629
agent. No one assumes that in this agent alkyl and halogen are
present in the state of free ions they are dissociated but only
in the sense that they are separately held by the metal. The
forces of residual affinity have been entirely disregarded by the
dissociationist school; and not being practised chemists, knowing
nothing of the organic side, they have left facts out of account.
The implications in Longfellow's lines, with reference to the sea
Only those who brave its dangers
Understand its mystery
will ever be true and generally applicable. It is necessary to
give this warning to the coming generation of workers.
Granted that the interaction, in the case of the formation of
water from hydrogen and oxygen, be determined by the presence
of an electrolyte (an acid impurity), is this to be thought of as
the catalyst? W hat is a catalyst?
The definition of a catalyst which is generally current is that it
is an agent which merely accelerates a change in being: but this
is based upon the gratuitous assumption that two pure sub-
stances can interact. If this definition could be accepted, the acid
impurity determining the rapid interaction of hydrogen and
oxygen when a mixture is fired might be called the catalyst.
The issue is not quite so simple, however, since another class of
activating agent has to be considered namely the solid, such as
platinum and the enzymes of natural occurrence. Hydrogen and
oxygen at once interact when brought into contact with platinum
black or with a " clean " platinum plate. Again, it is customary
to think of the platinum only as the determining agent; there can,
however, be no doubt that, in this case also, the electrolyte must
be present. It does not seem probable that platinum in itself
would form a conducting circuit with hydrogen and oxygen: if
the two gases were condensed at its surface even to the extent
of being liquids, these would be non-conducting liquids.
The probability of this view is enhanced when the nature of
the process is taken into account and it is realized that the pri-
mary interaction is not even that of hydrogen and oxygen atoms
but that, initially, the oxygen is converted into hydrogen perox-
ide, acting as " depolarizer " in an electrolytic circuit, whilst the
hydrogen is " hydroxylated," as shown in the following equation:
HHO HO HOH.. ..HO
HHO .................. HO HOH .................. HO
Hydrogen Electrolyte Oxygen Water Electrolyte Hydrogen Peroxide.
In the next change, the hydrogen peroxide acts as depolarizer,
so that the reduction of the oxygen molecule is affected in two
stages. According to this view, the electrolyte is the determining
agent, the platinum exercising only an accelerating influence
if the definition of a catalyst as an accelerator be retained, the
platinum rather than the acid is to be regarded as the catalyst.
Two other cases may be considered with advantage (i) that
of a ferrous salt in promoting oxidation by means of hydrogen
peroxide; (2) the hydrolytic action of enzymes. Hydrogen
peroxide has little effect as an oxidizing agent and probably, if
it could be used in pure solutions, it would be without action;
oxidation at once sets in on the addition of a trace of ferrous salt.
Familiar cases are the liberation of iodine from iodides (rendered
evident by the presence of starch) and the oxidation of tartaric
acid to dihydroxymaleic acid (rendered evident by the appear-
ance of a violet colour on addition of excess of caustic soda).
What is the function of the ferrous salt is it of such a kind that
it is to be ranked as a catalyst? Its function would seem to be
rather that of carrying the peroxide into action through the
formation of a perhydrol which can act as an electrolyte, thus:
+
Ferrous sulphate.
HO
HO
Hydrogen
peroxide.
= Fe
/O.OH
+ OH 2
Ferrous sulphate
perhydrol.
The case of the enzymes is more complex. These are all of
natural origin and can only be judged by their actions. It is
desirable to confine the term to hydrolytic agents.
Take the case of invertase, the enzyme present in ordinary
yeast, which acts only on cane sugar and certain derivatives of
this sugar. Cane sugar is hydrolysed, more or less readily, by all
acids, being converted into the two hexoses, glucose and fruc-
tose:
CijHaOn +OH 2 . HX = C 6 H 12 O 6 + C 6 H 12 O 6 + HX.
It is similarly affected by invertase acting in a solution which
is only faintly acid. Taking into account the amount of change
effected by a small amount of enzyme compared with that effected
by a relatively large amount of even a strong acid, it is clear
that the enzyme is far more active than is any acid per se; it cer-
tainly, therefore, can be regarded as an accelerator rather than
as a determinant of change. The minute amount of acid which
appears to be necessary may be regarded as active in the same
way that a trace of acid is active in determining the interaction
of hydrogen and oxygen at a platinum surface.
The essential differences between the two classes of agent, the
acid and the enzyme, become obvious when the rates at which
action proceeds are contrasted. In any interaction occurring in
an aqueous solution, such as that in which cane sugar is hydro-
lysed by an acid, so long as the solution be not too concentrated,
the disappearance of water may be disregarded, owing to the
relatively small extent to which it is withdrawn so that only a
single changing substance need be considered. In such a case,
the amount of change, during each successive interval of time, is
proportional to the amount of unchanged substance present. If
say 10% disappear during the first period, 10% of the remainder
will disappear during each successive period, i.e. 10, 9, 8-1, 7-29,
during periods i, 2, 3, 4, etc. The graph representing the rate of
change is a logarithmic or exponential curve.
When cane sugar is hydrolysed by the enzyme invertase, the
rate of change is of an entirely different order; within wide limits
of concentration, well beyond the 50% limit, equal amounts are
hydrolysed in each successive interval; the graph representative
of the rate of change is, therefore, nearly a straight line. This be-
haviour is characteristic of enzymes generally, though in many
the rate is modified fairly soon by the reversal of the change or
otherwise. The same behaviour is met with in solid catalysts, e.g.
the reduction of the fatty oils and of unsaturated compounds
such as ethylic cinnamate (C 6 H 5 .CH : CH.C0 2 Et) and anethol
(CeH^CaHs.OCHs), by hydrogen in presence of finely divided
nickel. Such results cannot well be explained except by the con-
centration of the interacting materials at the solid surface; as
enzymes behave like nickel, they too must be thought of as
acting in a similar way and as merely suspended in the liquid
in which they are brought into action. This explanation is
rendered the more acceptable by the fact that enzymes will act
even when suspended in alcohol, in which they certainly are
insoluble. It thus appears desirable to confine " catalyst " to
particulate agents acting at surfaces of concentration, and to
apply the term " determinant " to agents, such as ferrous sul-
phate or acids, acting under conditions of uniform distribution,
in solution. The determinant may be said to be required in all
cases, being the agent which constitutes the solvent an electro-
lyte. It is here assumed that no liquid per se is an electrolyte,
excluding fused salts as liquids.
The assertion of the Arrhenius school that water pure water
is very slightly dissociated and that it can by itself determine
some slight amount of change, is neither logical nor rational.
Water is one of the most protean of compounds and has prop-
erties which are altogether special. In considering the problems
of particulate action, it is necessary that changes in water itself
should be taken fully into account. Whilst it is admitted that
water is a polymorphous substance and that we are not justified
in assigning the simple formula H 2 to the molecule except it be
in the state of dry steam, there is no agreement as to the consti-
tution of the liquid or of ice. To avoid confusion, it is well to
assign a special name to the simple molecule : hydrone, proposed
by H. E. Armstrong, appears to be appropriate, most in accord-
ance with its neutral character and justified by analogy, its or-
ganic analogue being the ketone acetone, OC(CH 3 ) 2 . The passage
of water through its three states is too commonly represented as
a series of physical changes; actually there can be little doubt
that a complex series of structural changes is involved. Accord-
630
CHEMISTRY
ing to Tamman, ice can exist in no less than six forms, depending
on the conditions of pressure and temperature. No substance
can be studied better from the electronic standpoint.
On the ground of analogy, the chemist can foresee the exist-
ence of an active Hydronol and of a variety of neutral Hydrones
corresponding to the paraffinoid polymethylenes, thus
H 2 O H 2 O.OHj H 2 O<
OH OH 2 H 2 O.OH,
No valid method of determining the complexity of the mole-
cules either of water or of ice is known; all that can be asserted
is, that water especially must be a mixture and that its compo-
sition not only may but must be subject to considerable varia-
tion as the temperature is changed or substances are dissolved
in it. Whatever the composition of the mass, at the surface, the
simple molecules of hydrone (OH 2 ) must be present in maxi-
mum proportion;'and this will also be the condition at the sur-
face of solid particles suspended in an aqueous solution.
As the most active solvent in water must be the hydrone mole-
cules, in a solution in which fine particles are suspended the liquid
layer at the fluid-solid interface should be more concentrated
than the general body of the solution. Hence the special activity
of enzymes and other particulate agents: apart from any special
attractive influence exercised by the solid surface, the layer at
the interface is likely to be specially active as a solvent.
The enzymes, however, exercise a selective activity which is
altogether peculiar each enzyme can induce the hydrolysis, if
not of a single compound, at most of a set of structurally similar
compounds. Thus the enzyme urease will act only on urea.
Invertase acts only on cane-sugar or derivatives of this sugar
in which its special structure is retained and only an addition
made to the molecule.
In the case of glucose, a large number of compounds are
formed by the introduction, in place of either the one or the
other of two terminal hydrogen atoms, of some equivalent group.
Two series of glucosides are thus produced, known respectively
as a- and /3-glucosides. An enzyme is present in yeast (maltase)
which will induce hydrolysis of all the a-glucosides; the bitter-
almond contains an enzyme which acts only on the /8-compounds.
The only possible explanation of this behaviour seems to be
that the enzyme is structurally related to the compound which it
affects, so that it actually fits upon it and grasps it, as it were.
This view involves the further assumption that the specific
agent of change is also carried by the enzyme, as the amount
of acid which suffices to determine the exercise by the enzyme
of its maximum activity is so small that it scarcely seems prob-
able that the rapid action is the consequence of the mere con-
centration of this acid together with the hydrolyte at the surface
of the enzyme; nor is such an assumption compatible with the
selective activity of enzymes. More probable is it that an acid
radicle is operative which the enzyme itself carries, this being
in such a position that it is brought into proximity with the
attached molecule (the hydrolyte) at the point at which hydrol-
ysis takes place the acid which is added serving to maintain
this radicle free and also acting as the necessary electrolyte,
as in the case of platinum.
It should be added that, although platinum and similar
catalysts are not structurally selective agents, their action is in
some respects limited as, however, is that of most chemical
agents. Thus, whilst hydrogen and oxygen interact at a platinum
surface, a mixture of carbonic oxide with oxygen remains un-
affected; indeed, carbonic oxide interferes with the oxidation of
hydrogen in presence of platinum; this behaviour, however, is
perhaps less a consequence of the lack of affinity of carbonic
oxide for platinum than of intrinsic peculiarities of the gas.
Platinum and similar catalysts, especially nickel, have a very
wide range of activity as hydrogenising agents.
The question remains how is the action of platinum effected;
is it merely a physical condensing agent or is it to be regarded as
acting chemically? The view has long been held that it may
combine with oxygen if not with hydrogen and that it pro-
motes oxidation through the intermediate formation of an oxide.
Recently, Willstatter has shown that platinum and palladium
are without action even as hydrogenising agents if they have
been freed from oxygen. He advocates the view that a compound
is formed, which is both hydride and peroxide, in which hydrogen
is present in a more readily dissociable form than in the hydrides
of the metals. Spongy platinum, prepared by reducing chloro-
platinic acid with formaldehyde in presence of caustic potash,
may be deprived of oxygen by suspending it in glacial acetic acid
and passing hydrogen through the liquid, either in the course of
30 hours at atmospheric temperature or in 8 hours at 50 to 60.
Such a product is insoluble in muriatic acid and does not liberate
iodine from an acid solution of potassium iodide; it will not
condition the hydrogenation of benzene to hexamethylene, etc.,
but acquires the power when shaken, during a short period, with
air. During hydrogenation, the catalyst invariably becomes
deoxidized by the action of the hydrogen and needs revivification
by oxygen. Willstatter suggests that the metal is converted
into either the peroxide Pt< o or the corresponding perhydrol
and that this is convertible into the hydride
II ,
li-
O-OH
OH
By this assumption, the activity of platinum in promoting
oxidation is brought entirely into line with that of ferrous sul-
phate, which, it has been pointed out, is probably active as a
perhydrol. Interesting light is also thrown on the hitherto
enigmatic behaviour of haemoglobin, which combines directly
with oxygen, forming oxyhaemoglobin, by the fact that the
oxidized platinum catalyst may be deprived of its oxygen and
rendered nearly inactive by continuous exhaustion with a high
vacuum pump, the means by which oxyhaemoglobin may be
entirely deprived of oxygen: the parallel is made all the more
remarkable by the fact that the oxygen may be displaced from
oxyhaemoglobin by carbonic oxide, which renders platinum
inert towards hydrogen. Oxyhaemoglobin has a big molecule,
as it is composed of a protein in association with haematin ; if the
oxygen be present in it, perhaps in combination with the iron
atom, in the form of perhydrol and it acts in the blood corpuscle
as a particulate agent, the remarkable oxidizing power of the
blood may be reckoned among the actions promoted by catalysts.
It is customary to regard haemoglobin as a " colloid," but
in using this term we are again in difficulty owing to the lack
of a clear definition of its precise connotation. Latterly the word
has been used almost as the synonym of the state of very fine
sub-division any substance present in suspension in a liquid in a
very finely divided state has been spoken of as a colloid.
Originally this was not the meaning associated with the term
by Graham, who introduced it and applied it generally to glue-
like substances. He appears to have thought of the colloid as
soluble but as merely opposite in the scale of solubility to the
ordinary crystalline, more or less easily soluble substances of
relatively low molecular weight in fact, as a big, lumbering
molecule, with slight affinity for the solvent and therefore ready
to separate from it in the pectous or particulate form. Unfor-
tunately, not only has the connotation of the term been altered
but a confused language has grown up about the term which
renders the consideration of the activity of substances in the
particular state specially difficult. Far worse, the attempt has
been made to constitute so-called Colloid Chemistry a separate
discipline, the designation being arbitrarily confined to sus-
pensions of fine particles varying from one thousandth (/*) to
one millionth (/x/u) of a millimetre in diameter.
If this definition be accepted, the " colloids," when separated,
in the particulate state, from solutions should function as cata-
lysts under favourable conditions; and this appears likely to be
true. One of the few cases apart from the action of enzymes
which are selective catalysts of a colloid having been shown to
act specifically as a catalyst is in the production of hydrazine
from ammonia, by the action of a hypochlorite, by Raschig's
method, an interaction which is promoted by the addition of glue,
CHEMISTRY
631
the amount produced being thereby much increased. In this
instance, the catalytic effect may well depend upon the inter-
mediate formation of a protein chloramine.
It is desirable here to call attention to certain peculiarities in
the behaviour of enzymes which merit consideration in view of
their action being that of particular agents. When submitted to
the action of the enzyme urease best used in the form of an
extract of the soya bean according to the amount of enzyme
used, urea, for example, is rapidly hydrolysed, at a diminishing
rate as the action proceeds. Contrasting the effect on a solution
of moderate strength with that on a concentrated solution, it is
noteworthy that the amount changed is considerably less in the
latter: thus in an experiment in which gramme-molecular (6%)
and five-gramme molecular (30%) solutions were contrasted,
at the end of 10 hours, the ratio of the amounts of acid required
to neutralize the ammonia formed was as 55 in the case of the
stronger to 132 in that of the weaker solution.
Proof that the diminished activity of the enzyme is the con-
sequence of the increase in the concentration is given by the
observation that, if methylurea be, in part, substituted for urea,
the amount of the latter hydrolysed is less than in the absence
of the methylurea. Methylurea is not in the least affected by
the enzyme, this being strictly selective in its action, attacking
only urea, none of its derivatives.
Special reference is made to these observations as showing
that in the case of catalysts generally the conditions at the sur-
face cannot be considered independently of those in the medium.
It is, however, to be noted that, even in simple solutions, in the
case of interactions taking place under the influence only of
determinants in the absence of a catalyst, as denned in this
article the rate of change is not proportional to the concentra-
tion. This is seen at a glance on reference to the accompanying
graph (fig. 3) representing results obtained on hydrolysing cane-
sugar with nitric acid, the sugar being the only variable. Such
variations are certainly due to reciprocal variations in solvent and
solute as the concentration is changed.
400
0-5 10 IS 20 2-5
FIG. 3.
Molecular Proportions of Sugar.
It is known that absorbents take up relatively more of a sub-
stance from dilute than from concentrated solutions. That the
condition of " water " at a surface differs from that in the main
body of the liquid seems also to follow from the observation
that wet paper does not stiffen until the temperature is reduced
to o- 1 and that the water in a clay sphere does not freeze until
0-7. The observation made by Adrian Brown and Tinkler,
that when barley corns are steeped in a 50% solution of acetic
acid, the absorbed liquid ultimately in equilibrium with that
outside the corn contains 80 % of the acid, would seem to show
that the " water " of the thin film distributed over the surfaces
of the starch granules is more active than ordinary water. Sub-
stances so diverse and different from acetic acid as aniline and
phenol behave in a similar way, accumulating in the capillary
spaces. In the enzymes which act on carbohydrates, not
only is the rate of change diminished by foreign substances
generally but those which resemble the hydrolyte in structure
exercise a retarding influence far in excess of neutral materials.
Thus the hydrolysis of the glucosides, whether a or |3, is specially
retarded by glucose, but not nearly to the same extent by the
isomeric galactose. If the argument advanced above that the
enzyme must fit the hydrolyte be accepted, it is obvious that a
substance which could also be fitted upon the enzyme will neces-
sarily interfere more with its activity than would a substance
vhose interference would be merely mechanical by getting in
the way or that of a solute modifying the osmotic condition.
A special interference with enzymes and with other catalysts
which function chemically, not merely as surface condensing
agents, may arise through the neutralization of the functioning
radicle; hence perhaps the great influence of acids and alkalies.
The accompanying graph illustrates the behaviour of urease
100
20
80
100
120
40 60
FIG. 4.
Behaviour of Urease under Action of Enzyme.
when subjected to the action of the enzyme alone or in presence
of either both or one or other of the products of change. Hydrol-
ysis is retarded by the weakly alkaline mixed product of change.
Taking the products separately, the more strongly alkaline
product ammonia has a still greater retarding influence; on
passing carbon dioxide into the solution, however, so that it is
present in excess, the action of the ammonia is held more strongly
in check and the action is greatly accelerated.
In the case of urea, under the influence of the enzyme, the
interaction is complete there is no reaction or reversal. This
is theoretically wrong. Cane-sugar behaves similarly. In other
cases, an equilibrium point is reached and the enzyme will act
reversibly in a solution if it be sufficiently concentrated of
the products of change, reforming the hydrolyte.
Thus a and |3 methyl glucosides are resolved into methylic
alcohol and glucose by the enzymes maltase and emulsin re-
spectively; the resolution appears to be complete in dilute solu-
tions but is less and less so the more concentrated the solution;
and if a mixture of methylic alcohol and glucose in water be
submitted to the action of either enzyme, the appropriate glu-
coside is reproduced in proportion to the concentration.
The behaviour of a fatty oil (olive oil) in presence of the en-
zyme lipase affords a particularly striking illustration of the
manner in which change in the two possible but opposite direc-
tions is balanced as the conditions are varied. On reference to
the accompanying graph it will be seen that as the amount of
water present is increased the amount of fat hydrolysed is in-
creased; as the fat and the fatty acid are insoluble, it is to be
supposed that the water acts by diluting the glycerol and it will
be noted that, if glycerol be added, the extent to which hydrol-
ysis takes place is diminished.
The reason why urea and cane-sugar are not reproducible from
the final products of change by the respective enzymes is not
clear; it is not improbable that the final are not the initial prod-
ucts and that the initial products have but an ephemeral exist-
ence in solution: some link in the chain of change is lost by the
occurrence of an action outside the range of the enzyme.
Urea is known to undergo change reversibly in solution into
ammonic cyanate: CON 2 H 4 t^NH 4 NCO. The proportion
of cyanate present at ordinary temperatures is known to be very
small; it is slightly increased by boiling the solution; if silver
nitrate be added, which serves to fix the cyanate as insoluble
silver cyanate, an almost complete conversion can be effected.
632
CHEMISTRY
10
20 30 40 50
FIG. 5.
Behaviour of Fatty Oil under Influence of Enzyme.
60
70
No evidence of the production of cyanate during the hydrolysis
of urea by urease has been obtained.
It is of interest that, whereas ammonic thiocyanate can be
destroyed by bacterial action, thiourea cannot; this compound is
not known to undergo change in solution.
Before leaving the subject of catalysts, the rusting of iron
may be referred to as a case in which the action is influenced by
a particulate agent. The subject is one of perennial interest and
it is strange how slowly the nature of the process is appreciated.
It must be electrolytic; the metal is attacked primarily in a
circuit comprising the electro-negative conducting impurity
present in all irons and the electrolyte on its moist surface,
usually carbonic acid, the product being a soluble ferrous salt.
If this salt remain at the surface, it necessarily undergoes hydrol-
ysis yielding ferrous hydroxide, which is deposited as solid and
sooner or later oxidized to a ferric hydroxide. J. A. N. Friend
has recently advanced a " colloid theory " in explanation of the
process. He shows that in moving water there is little rusting,
though the iron is slowly dissolved as must be the case on the
above view. He considers that the ferric hydroxide precipitated
on the surface under still conditions acts catalytically, by
oxidizing metallic iron with relative rapidity and simultaneously
undergoing reduction to a lower hydroxide, etc. It is well that
this effect of once formed rust should be insisted on; but it
stands to reason that it should act as an accelerator, by pro-
moting, through the surface action of its fine particles, the con-
densation both of electrolyte and of oxygen, whether or no it act
itself and be alternately reduced and reoxidized.
The part played by the determinant in gaseous interactions
has yet to be appreciated. The results obtained by Bone and his
co-workers at high pressures are specially significant. When a
mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, diluted with nitrogen, is
exploded, the pressure rises to a maximum almost immediately;
if methane or carbonic oxide be burnt in place of hydrogen, the
pressure developed rises to a maximum only gradually. The
process of change must be far more complex in the latter cases.
The slowness of the change, in carbonic oxide, may reasonably
be ascribed to the prior conversion of the oxide into formic acid
(CO+OH 2 =H 2 CO2) before it is burnt (cf. Trans. Roy. Soc.,
1915, A. 215, 275).
Whatever the phenomena considered, if the view be taken
that chemical change is essentially an electrolytic process, con-
clusions such as have been formulated cannot be avoided. The
process, in the main, isthe same in all cases. The " determinant "
is the cause of change; when a catalyst is present, the rate of
change is greatly accelerated, owing to the concentrating effect
this exercises; maybe, in some cases, the catalyst is required
together with the determinant to constitute a conducting circuit
of the interacting materials.
It is strange that the action of the determinant is so much over-
looked. Recent observations by H. B. Baker show that its
influence is to be considered even in cases of chemical change not
ordinarily regarded as such the evaporation of liquids. Long
ago it was proved by him, that not only do hydrogen chloride
and ammonia not interact when dry but that the product of
their interaction, ammonium chloride, does not decompose so
readily, when heated, if dried. He now finds that as liquids, such
as benzene and bromine, are rendered more and more nearly dry,
the boiling point rises and at the same time the weight of the
molecules in the liquid gradually increases. Strange to say,
when shaken with water, the polymerized benzene only slowly
passes back into the simpler state.
As the phenomena of chemical change are more and more
closely examined into, the conviction grows that molecular
structure and affinity are the determining causes; to correlate
these with the electronic structure of the constituent materials
is the difficult task of the coming generation. Why is carbon so
entirely peculiar an element? Why has oxygen so remarkable
an influence on the development of acidic qualities? An endless
series of such questions may be asked. They must be answered in
terms to satisfy the chemist to satisfy his dynamic as well as
his structural cravings, and to explain the many variations in
function which follow from variations in composition.
A revolt is now setting in against the tendency to accept purely
physical interpretations of chemical phenomena, which has so
long been prevalent and has too often led chemists to overlook
the complexity of the conditions prevailing in solutions. As a
result, undue importance has been attached to mathematical
agreements which it is clear have but served to give colourable
expression to the facts; and the minute and penetrating analysis
CHEMISTRY
633
to which phenomena should be subjected has been unduly dis-
couraged. For example, the apparently physical phenomena of
lubrication have been reduced by the observations especially
of W. B. Hardy and of Langmuir to terms of chemical structure
and of function as determined by molecular structure. A single
layer of molecules is sufficient to cover and cloak a surface a
matter of importance to be borne in mind in considering the
action of catalysts and the disposition of the molecules is
determined by their structure. Thus the spread of a liquid upon
water is determined by the affinity of the substance for water
but this is a localized function of its structure. Langmuir's
measurements show that, in the case of the complex fatty acids,
the molecules are to be thought of as having only the terminal
carboxyl groups " dissolved " or dipping down into the water,
the complex hydrocarbon group sticking up much as does a
fisherman's float. Molecules so placed, ranged side by side in
piles, would present an upper surface composed of the terminal
methyl groups (CHs).
W. B. Hardy's measurements show that the lubricating effect
of substances is definitely a function of molecular structure;
it therefore varies with the nature of the surface to which it
applies, as both the affinity of substance to surface and inter-
molecular affinity are functions of the structure of the substances.
Much has been done of late, especially by Jacques Loeb, to
show that chemical conceptions can be applied in explanation
of the peculiar " physical " properties of colloid materials and
that the behaviour of these is comparable with that of crystal-
loids when determined under proper conditions. The passage
of colloid materials from the dissolved to the undissolved
particulate state and the accompanying changes are certainly
matters to be considered from the point of view above explained.
Most irregular results have been obtained by several workers
who have studied the effect of different acids on various proper-
ties, such as viscosity and osmotic efficiency, of liquids containing
gelatin or egg albumin ; as a rule, acids have been used in equiva-
lent concentrations, without taking their relative efficiencies into
account. Loeb has shown that there is no difference in the effects
of a variety of acids when the solutions of the protein acid are
of the same acid efficiency (the same pH value) and the same
concentration of the originally isoelectric protein. The same is
true of alkalies. The proteins exist in three states, by derivation
from the aminocarboxy-acids: either the molecule may be
neutral or it may be either acidic or basic. Thus, if brought into
contact with a salt at apH = 4-7, gelatin is neutral; but at apH <
4-7, it forms an acid salt, whilst if the pH be >4'7, a metallic
salt is formed.
Not only are more precise conceptions of the behaviour of
colloids being formed by such studies but light is also being
thrown on the characters of the acids. W. B. Hardy, in 1907,
pointed out that the solvent power for globulin of strong and
medium acids is measured by the number of gramme-molecules
present, not by the number of gramme equivalents. He wrote
HC1 = H 2 SO4=H3PO 4 ; adding, "very weak acids have a
lower solvent power HCl=5HA = 3ooo H 3 BoOa. These rela-
tions are explained by the very weak basic functions of
globulin." Loeb has obtained results of the same order. Using
gelatin and egg albumin, he has found that most acids act as
monobasic molecules not only phosphoric acid but also the
organic dibasic acids, succinic and tartaric, even tribasic citric
acid; oxalic acid, however, was intermediate in behaviour be-
tween the mono- and di-basic acids; sulphuric acid was definitely
dibasic, serving to couple two molecules. That oxalic and the
other organic acids should act as monoacids sulphuric.
The whole question of effective acidity is one requiring further
study it may be questioned whether any inorganic acid be
more than monobasic in the proper sense of the term.
Benzenesulphonic acid (CeHsSOsH) and similar acids have
about 90% of the hydrolytic efficiency of sulphuric acid; it
would therefore seem probable that this acid is to be regarded
as an unsymmetrical hydroxysulphonic acid rather than as
<QTT
Q H (cf. Proc. Roy. Soc., 1914, 90, 73).
Progress in Industrial Chemistry. Chemistry is a constructive
as well as an analytic science, touching our life at every point:
In it is embodied our knowledge of the materials of which the
world consists and the office of its priests is to make clear the
manifold activities of these materials. The science is fundamental
to all our industries ; the key to our own nature and acts may even-
tually be found within its precincts. How much our insight is
deepening, our outlook widening, how much the science is gain-
ing in precision, the previous sections of this article may have
shown; in the following, the attempt is made to trace out the
main lines along which specific advance is taking place.
The progress in industrial chemistry, in recent years, has been
very marked. Even in the oldest of chemical industries, the
heavy chemical trade, so called, which includes the manufacture
of alkali and of sulphuric, nitric and muriatic acids, as well as
bleaching-powder and soap, great changes have been effected.
Sulphuric acid has been made to an ever-increasing extent,
especially since the outbreak of the World War, by the " Con-
tact Process " by associating sulphur dioxide directly with
atmospheric oxygen, by means of a finely divided platinum used
as a catalyst. When the usual raw materials were not available,
a process was worked out, in Germany, in which calcium sul-
phate was roasted in a rotatory kiln, together with silica, clay and
powdered coal thus producing sulphur dioxide; the residue was
used for cement manufacture.
During the war nitric acid was produced for the first time on
a large scale by the direct oxidation of ammonia again with
the aid of platinum as a catalyst. The special factory erected
for its manufacture was constructed in six months, at a cost,
it is said, of 4,000,000. Another synthetic process of making
nitric acid is that of Birkeland and Eyde, developed at Notodden,
in Norway, since 1903, which involves the application, on a large
scale, of Cavendish's fundamental discovery that nitric oxide may
be produced by passing an electric discharge through air (see
NITROGEN FIXATION). The world is, therefore, now independent
of the natural supply of nitrate in the form of Chili saltpetre.
The manufacture of caustic soda and potash by the elec-
trolysis of a solution either of salt or of potassium chloride, has
been carried out on an ever-increasing scale; as a consequence,
chlorine has been produced, in considerable quantities, together
with hydrogen. More chlorine having been made than could
well be used in the manufacture of bleaching-powder, the first
steps have been taken towards preparing muriatic acid directly
from chlorine and hydrogen. The production of chlorine, in
excess of the normal requirements, was probably the primary
cause of its use in the World War. Another consequence has been
the introduction of a variety of chlorinated compounds, e.g.
chlorinated ethanes and tetrachlorethylene, as solvents.
Even in the ammonia-soda process changes are foreshadowed.
This process involves the treatment of a solution of salt contain-
ing ammonia with carbon dioxide and the production of sodium
bicarbonate, together with ammonium chloride. The custom
has been, after separating the carbonate, to recover the ammonia
by distilling with magnesia, allowing the magnesium chloride
to run to waste. Now that ammonia is likely to be procurable
in large quantity, the more rational course would seem to be
to separate the ammonium chloride as such and use this as an
agricultural fertilizing agent in place of ammonium sulphate
thus saving sulphuric acid.
The manufacture of ammonia directly from atmospheric
nitrogen and hydrogen, through the agency of a catalyst, under
a pressure of between 200 and 300 atmospheres, has been carried
out, on a large scale, in Germany, during several years past;
in fact, there seems to have been over-production. Latterly,
a modified process, at a much higher pressure (1000 atmos-
pheres), has been developed by the French engineer Claude.
Another process of making ammonia, now fully developed,
involves the production first of calcium carbide, CaCj, by
heating a mixture of lime and anthracite coal in an electric
furnace; then the conversion of this carbide, by direct absorp-
tion of nitrogen, into calcium cyanamide, CaCN 2 . This latter
interaction takes place at a moderate temperature and with
634
CHEMISTRY
remarkable ease. Ammonia is obtained by subjecting the cyana-
mide to the action of steam.
Calcium carbide, it should be added, is made on a large scale
as a source of the gas acetylene (CaC2+OH 2 =C2H 2 +CaO),
now so much used as a lighting agent for road-traction purposes
and even for domestic lighting away from towns; but chiefly,
together with oxygen, in the form of the acetylene blowpipe,
in cutting iron plates in the shipbuilding and other trades, in
joining iron rails for the electric tram service, etc.
The production of nitrogen for the above-described processes
and of oxygen has been greatly promoted by the researches on
the liquefaction of gases carried out by Sir James Dewar, at the
Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, London, the home of Davy
and Faraday. The metallic vacuum vessels invented by this
indefatigable student of low -temperature phenomena have made
possible also the use of liquefied air, richer in oxygen than air,
in various ways in hospitals, for example; also, together with
charcoal, as an explosive agent, in mining operations.
The astounding power properly prepared charcoal has, at
liquid-air temperatures, of absorbing gases, another discovery
made by Sir James Dewar, is proving of the greatest value in
operations involving the separation and purification of gases.
It is even contemplated that it may be possible to fill airships
with the incombustible, rare gas, helium, prepared by taking
advantage of this property of charcoal the source of the helium
being the natural gas associated with petroleum, in the American
oil wells and in certain springs in Canada.
To return to the nitrogen compounds, the outstanding impor-
tance of ammonia and nitric acid will be understood when it is
realized that cereal crops, including the sugar cane, cannot be
grown without nitrogenous fertilizers. At Rothamsted, where
wheat has been grown on the same land year after year under
the same treatment since 1852, the average yield of grain has
been only 12-9 bushels per acre on the permanently unmanured
plot; whereas on the plot properly supplied with nitrogenous
manures, it has been 31-6 bushels.
Now that both ammonia and nitric acid can be produced,
by synthetic means, in any desired quantity, the world need
have no anxiety as to the supply of artificial nitrogenous manures.
Even if fuel should not be available to supply power, their manu-
facture will always be possible where water-power is to hand.
Large quantities of ammonium nitrate were made, during the
war, for use in admixture with trinitrotoluene as a high explosive.
Sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda are both only of partial
value as fertilizing agents, as the one necessarily contains excess
of acid and the other excess of alkali; these remain after the
nitrogenous effect is exhausted; also the constant use of the
sulphate involves a steady withdrawal of lime from the soil,
ultimately rendering it acid, whilst the tendency of the alkali
from the nitrate is to make the soil impervious to water. Of late
years, there has been a gradual growth of opinion, therefore,
in favour of ammonium nitrate, as this combines in itself the
activity of an ammonium salt with that of a nitrate and, being
used up entirely in the service of the plant, has not their harmful
effect upon the soil. The objection to the use of the nitrate is its
tendency to liquefy on exposure to a moist atmosphere and that it
sets to a hard mass; moreover, it cannot be transported in bags.
The Germans have foreseen the value of urea, CON 2 H,|,
which is free from the disabilities associated with the nitrogenous
fertilizers now in use. It is an entirely neutral substance and is
undoubtedly an effective fertilizing agent under some conditions
but it has yet to be shown that it could be used generally in place
of the ammonium salts and nitrates. It can be made merely
from ammonia and carbonic acid, so that if its manufacture can
be put upon an economic footing and it prove to be suitable at
least for most purposes, though it may not supersede ammonium
salts, it may largely displace them from use.
Other methods of exploiting nitrogen are being studied which
involve the direct absorption of the gas and its conversion to a
cyanide; it is well within the bounds of probability that these
may ultimately prove equal, if not superior, to the highly mechani-
cal methods now coming into vogue: these latter, however, will
have the advantage that they can be carried out with the aid of
water-power, unless the fixation methods should also be such as
to necessitate the use of electric power.
More natural processes are also in sight. It is now customary,
in most civilized countries, not only to waste the excreta of the
urban populations but to do so at considerable cost. In the East,
in China especially, human excreta are most carefully collected
and used on the crops; they are actually a source of revenue to
one or more towns. An activated sewage sludge process is
coming to the fore which may be of service under European
conditions: whether this will do more than conserve nitrogen is a
question; if also the waste of phosphate can even be partially
prevented, infinite service will be rendered. The chief limiting
factor of agricultural production in the near future will clearly
be the supply of phosphate and in the next degree of potash; we
now know how to bring down nitrogen from the air but the
supplies of phosphate and of potash are being drawn upon
at exorbitant rates and must ere long be exhausted ; no ways of
withdrawing them from the vasty deep, which can be put in
practice, are before us. It is found that at least the solid matter
in sewage can be recovered in a valuable form by forcing air
into the fresh liquid; when this operation has been repeated
several times, first forcing in air, then allowing the suspended
solid to subside, running off the liquid and adding fresh sewage,
the sludge acquires a greatly enhanced bacterial activity and
apparently even nitrogen-fixing organisms come into activity:
eventually it may contain 6 to 7 % of nitrogen and become equal
to farmyard manure in value.
The amount of farmyard manure now available is insufficient,
as the number of horses kept is so much less than formerly.
Recent inquiry has shown that a complex series of changes is
involved in the production of this manure from the straw and
animal exuviae of which it is composed and that eventually it
may contain a considerable amount of nitrogen beyond that
originally present in the raw materials. Organisms are at work
which destroy much of the carbonaceous matter but, in the course
of the operation, they induce the fixation of a certain amount of
atmospheric nitrogen, if supplied with the nitrogenous food they
require for their own development. It is therefore conceivable
that an economic process may be developed of manufacturing
farmyard manure from waste carbonaceous materials with
the aid of ammonia. The development of greatest importance in
agriculture, however, to which we may look forward, is the direct
enrichment of the soil with nitrogen, directly withdrawn from
the atmosphere: either by means of organisms functioning in
immediate association with leguminous crops; or by organisms
within the soil, whose activity is promoted by the judicious use
of green manures. No branch of scientific inquiry is of greater
importance to mankind than studies to promote such ends.
The soap industry has undergone marked development of
late years, owing to the increasing consumption of margarine
as a substitute for butter. As the hard fats are required for the
manufacture of this material, it has been necessary to make
use of the natural fatty oils in soap-making; these differ from
the hard fats in that they are glycerides not of saturated but of
unsaturated fatty acids. To harden them, i.e. to convert them
into glycerides like those contained in the ordinary solid fats,
the heated oils are subjected to the action of hydrogen gas in
presence of finely divided metallic nickel, which acts as a catalyst.
The process is now carried out on a very large scale.
In the metal industry, the developments have been in matters
of detail. Aluminium, nickel, tungsten and sodium have been
brought greatly to the fore. One of the most notable achieve-
ments is the production of a rustless steel, an alloy of iron and
chromium, which will bear sharpening when made into knives;
apparently the special qualities of the steel are the outcome of a
particular structure developed by heat treatment, though why
the alloy should be rustless is not clear.
As illustrations of the manner in which the rarer inorganic
materials are gradually being imported into industry, reference
may be made to the use of vanadium oxide as an oxidizing cata-
lyst; of titanium oxide as awhile paint on account of its high
CHEMISTRY
635
refractive power; and of cerium alloyed with iron in substitu-
tion for the old flint and steel in kindling fire.
Marked progress has been made in devising synthetic methods
of manufacturing some of the simpler carbon compounds hereto-
fore obtained only from natural products. Thus formic acid
has been prepared, on a considerable scale, by combining car-
bonic oxide with caustic soda, under pressure one of the earliest
syntheses effected by the French chemist Berthelot.
Acetylene, another discovery of this chemist, has been con-
verted into alcohol, on the large scale, by processes also due
to his acumen, by passing acetylene, prepared from calcium
carbide together with hydrogen over a suitable catalyst thus
producing ethylene, C2H 4 = C 2 H 2 -|-H 2 ; then absorbing the
ethylene in sulphuric acid of suitable strength and distilling with
water, to hydrolize the sulphate that is formed C 2 H4+H 2 S04 =
C 2 H 5 . HSO 4 !|C 2 H 5 . HSO 4 +H 2 O=C 2 H 5 O+H 2 SO 4 . The process
is said to have been an economic success, in Italy, where
water-power is available. The process has also been carried out
experimentally with coke-oven gases as a source of ethylene.
During the war, much acetic acid was made from alcohol by
first converting this into aldehyde and hydrogen, by passing
the vapour over heated copper; then oxidizing the aldehyde
by means of air, in presence of a manganese salt. Acid so made
is of better quality than that from crude calcium acetate. Acetic
acid has also been produced by oxidizing aldehyde prepared
directly from acetylene, through the agency of sulphuric acid
acting in conjunction with mercuric and ferric sulphates; oxygen
distilled out from liquefied air has been used in the process. The
cost of acid prepared in this way, in one of the chief German
works, in 1919, is stated to have been 50 per ton. The impor-
tance of acetic acid is now far greater than it was, owing to the
use that has been made of it in preparing varnishes or dopes for
airplane cloth. The attempt is also being made to develop the
manufacture of artificial silk from acetylcellulose.
The manufacture of explosives has involved various other
developments. Prior to the war, the acetone used as a solvent,
in making the propulsive cordite a mixture of the trinitrates
produced on supernitrifying glycerol and cellulose was obtained
by the dry distillation of calcium acetate, this being made from
the crude acid which is obtained, in carbonizing wood, together
with wood spirit or methylic alcohol. When a shortage of the
supply of acetate was imminent, two new methods of making
acetone were developed one involving the passage of acetic
acid vapours over heated alumina (2CH 3 . COOH = CH 3 . CO.
CH 3 +CO 2 +OH 2 ); the other the fermentation of glucose by a
special organism giving rise to a mixture of acetone and normal
butylic alcohol. Success was found to depend on the use of a pure
organism and at first much difficulty was experienced in steriliz-
ing the large bulks of liquid used: two of the organisms were not
killed until the temperature was raised to 130.
Acetone was originally used in making cordite, because it is a
solvent of cellulose trinitrate. Another way of overcoming
the difficulty, created by the shortage of the solvent, was found
in the use of a less nitrated cellulose, soluble in a mixture of ether
and alcohol. This departure involved the manufacture of ether
not by a new method but on an unprecedented scale, without
any difficulty. Another substance made on a scale which might
previously have seemed inconceivable was hydrogen cyanide or
prussic acid. Experience showed that any desired substance
may be made on any desired scale, putting economic cost aside.
Hitherto, glycerol has always been obtained from natural fats,
usually as a by-product of the manufacture of soap. It is a
constant product of the fermentation of glucose by yeast in the
brewing process, although only about 3% of the sugar used
takes this form. Experiments carried out in America and Ger-
many, during the war, showed that the proportion might be
raised even to 20% by carrying on the fermentation in presence
of an alkaline sulphite or carbonate. If needs were, therefore,
glycerol might be manufactured from starchy materials.
A point of interest in connexion with explosives was the use
during the war, for the first time, of Borneo petroleum as a source
of much of the toluene required for the manufacture of trini-
trotoluene (TNT). Previously, toluene had been obtained only
from coal tar. The presence of this and similar hydrocarbons in
petroleum was first noticed by Hugo Muller and Warren De la
Rue. The complete nitration of toluene to TNT is a matter
of some difficulty. As proof of the value of scientific insight and
the practice of a rigid scientific method in manufacturing indus-
try, the fact may well be mentioned here that the most efficient
British works for the production of this explosive, although only
a small one, in point of quality of product and cost of production,
was one established, at a very early date, by a Scotch professor
and a young colleague versed in physical chemistry.
The explosive picric acid or trinitrophenol was also made on a
large scale, not only from phenol extracted from coal tar but
also from synthetic phenol, prepared by sulphonating benzene
and fusing the sulphonate with caustic soda (C6H 6 +H 2 SO4 =
C 6 H S . SO 3 H+OH 2 ; Ph. SO 3 Na+Na OH = Ph. OH+SO 3 Na 2 ).
In England and France the old, barbaric, wasteful process of
nitrating the phenol was unfortunately followed and the manu-
facture was never put on a scientific footing. A substantial
amount was made, however, by a very superior process, involving
the conversion of benzene, C 6 H 6 , first into chlorobenzene,
C 6 H 5 C1, then into dinitrochlorobenzene, C 6 H 3 (NO 2 ) 2 C1, next
into dinitrophenol, C6H 3 (NO 2 ) 2 -OH, finally into trinitrophenol,
C6H 2 (NO 2 ) 3 -OH. The operations are all carried out with ex-
treme ease and except the first afford all but quantitative yields.
Many substances were made for the first time on a large scale
during the war, and used as " poison gases " and to excite weep-
ing; among the latter was chloropicrin, produced by " chlorinat-
ing " picric acid, in presence of soda. The one which became of
most consequence, the so-called mustard gas, really a by-no-
means easily volatilized liquid, was always manufactured by the
Germans by a rather involved process devised by Victor Meyer,
which was never brought into operation, in an effective manner,
elsewhere than in Germany. Shortly before the Armistice was
declared, however, a far simpler method was developed, in
England, which involved merely chlorinating sulphur and then
passing ethylene into the chloride:
S 2 C1 2 +2C 2 H 4
C 2 H 4 C1
= C 2 H 4 C1
[s+s
Very large quantities had been prepared for use in the field,
just before the war came to an end. No difficulty was experienced
in preparing any desired quantity of ethylene, by heating alcohol
with phosphoric acid.
Two substances have acquired importance, the one as a
detonator, the other as a primer in starting the ignition of the
less sensitive TNT, lead azide, Pb(N 3 ) 2 , and trinitrophenyl-
methylnitramine, C 6 H 2 (NO 2 ) 3 .N.(CH 3 ).N0 2 . The former has
the advantage that it is stable under the high temperature con-
ditions of the East, where mercuric fulminate, the detonator
commonly used, cannot be kept long. Prior to the war, the acid
HN 3 , from which the azide is made, was little more than a
chemical curiosity and almost feared on account of its instability.
The nitramine referred to was made preferably from methylani-
line but chiefly from dimethylaniline, two substances much used
in the dyestuff industry.
Attention has been directed very frequently, of late years,
to the production of a substitute for indiarubber. Thus far the
German manufacturers have not been able to control the final
stage of the process, that by which the simple hydrocarbon used
initially is converted into the rubber complex. The " poly-
merization " is effected only gradually and at a slow rate; in
fact, the material is merely placed in hermetically sealed barrels
and allowed to remain undisturbed, during six months, at about
32C., the rubber being finally obtained as a white spongy mass
which has to be bored out of the barrels. The minimum cost of
production appears to have been about i8s. per pound. The
Germans went so far, however, that they organized the manu-
facture on the scale of a possible output of i ,000 tons per month.
The opinion that prevails is that the process cannot under any
conditions be an economic success, until it can be controlled
and much accelerated; it is dangerous to assume that this will
636
CHEMISTRY
not be done. Moreover, the attack on the rubber trees by fungoid
pests is becoming so serious and the conditions of growth are so
special, if not unnatural, that the future of the " natural "
industry cannot be regarded as established and secure: it may
well suffer the fate of the coffee plantations in Ceylon. The
direct vulcanization of rubber, it may be mentioned, is now
effected, in a most ingenious manner, by subjecting the material
to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur dioxide gases,
the necessary sulphur being produced in situ by their interaction.
In the great dyestuff industry, the developments have been
mainly in the direction of improvements in the manufacture of
the intermediate materials and in the use of by products as
substantive agents; the tendency has been to aim at the produc-
tion of dyestuffs of ever -increasing fastness, that is to say, able
to withstand light, soaping and the bleaching agents so largely
used in cleansing fabrics. To cite an instance of progress in the
making of materials, phthalic acid is now produced by merely
passing the vapour of naphthalene mixed with air over a heated
catalyst vanadium oxide instead of by the uncertain and
troublesome method of heating with sulphuric acid and mercury.
The most notable advance in the manufacture of dyestuffs
is the use particularly of the hydrocarbon anthracene, the parent
of the madder dyestuffs, in the production of a series of pigments
known as vat dyestuffs; one of the latest of these is a green,
in many ways superior to the green dyestuffs hitherto known.
Like indigo, these are reduced, in the dyer's vat, to a soluble
state, by means of sodium hydrosulphite; when the cloth has
been impregnated with the solution and it is exposed to the air,
the reduced material becomes oxidized and the dyestuff is
deposited within the fibre. The really serious rival of indigo,
in the future, may well be one of these dyestuffs, indanthrene,
which is a magnificent blue considerably superior to indigo in
fastness. The contention that natural dyestuffs are superior to
the artificial is now disproved in a multitude of cases.
In addition to indigo, a variety of indigoid dyestuffs, similar
in constitution to indigotin, including derivatives of this latter
compound, are now in use, differing from it in shade of colour.
Indigo, the product of various species of indigofera, has never
been made artificially: only its chief pigmentary constituent,
indigotin, is manufactured. Synthetic indigotin is now largely
used, especially in calico printing; it is. of particular value in
dyeing light, clear shades of blue. These cannot at present be
secured with the aid of indigo; but the natural product is now
known to be superior for heavy shades on wool (blue serge, etc.),
owing to the presence of other dyestuff constituents, together
with indigotin. Much has been done during the war to re-
establish the indigo industry in India. If scientific findings be
accepted, provided the commercial side of the problem be prop-
erly handled, indigo may well resume the place it had lost as
a dyestuff, though it can never attain to exclusiveness.
One important development in this field is to be chronicled.
In photographic chemistry, which has long been at a standstill,
there has been a notable advance, particularly in the all but
complete control secured over the colour sensitiveness of the
photographic plate. When the necessity arose, the required
staining materials were produced in English laboratories with-
out any difficulty and a command of the problems of staining
has been secured far beyond that of the Germans.
Astonishment has been created by the discovery that cer-
tain stains (notably pheno safranine) so diminish the sensi-
tiveness of the gelatine-bromide emulsion to light, that if the
most sensitive of plates be exposed, then placed during a brief
period in a weak solution of the stain, development afterwards
may be carried out in the weak light of an ordinary candle.
A great new field on the verge of development is that of the
carbonization of coal at low temperatures, with the object of
conserving the gaseous and oily products that are burnt waste-
fully when it is used directly as a fuel, as well as of obtaining a
solid fuel, of higher efficiency than coal, which can be burnt
without producing smoke. The long-discredited process of
making illuminating gas for domestic use by merely distilling
coal must soon be superseded by rational methods, especially
as the demand for gaseous fuel is increasing very rapidly. The
change will involve the disappearance of gasworks tar, so that
the dyestuff industry will be forced to rely upon the high tem-
perature coking ovens for its raw materials or discover other
sources of supply; the use of tar on roads will also be diminished.
The development of a synthetic process to convert a mixture of
carbonic oxide and hydrogen into methane may well prove to be
of importance in this connexion. It is known that the conversion
may be effected without special difficulty, using nickel as a
catalyst ; but the process has yet to be developed on an economic
scale. The successful use of nickel as a catalyst, in purifying coal
gas from sulphur (other than as sulphuretted hydrogen), may be
referred to as another striking instance of industrial advance.
A wave of scientific method is pulsating throughout the
world, which is everywhere influencing industrial development.
There is an obvious desire to assimilate the procedure of the
works with that of the scientific laboratory and particularly to
develop the use of machinery in the former; but if empiricism
be departing, progress is at very different rates, not only in
different lands but in different industries, some being very slow
to move. The chemist of the future, to carry the burdens of his
day and succeed, will needs be both very widely trained and gifted
with reflective power and insight: victory must fall to the scien-
tific rather than to the strong or the swift.
Progress in Organic Chemistry. It is necessary to be clear
what the expression " Organic Chemistry " should cover. As a
philosophy, at the present time, chemistry is in a difficult position
owing to the extent of the field, the over-subdivision of the sub-
jects and the ever-growing tendency of workers to specialize,
knowledge of facts having been unduly cultivated at the expense
of breadth and precision of scientific outlook. Liebig remarks, in
one of the earliest of his celebrated Letters on Chemistry, " The
attaching too high a value to the mere facts is often a sign of a
want of ideas. It is not fertility, but poverty of ideas which
clothes itself with a mass of coverings of all sorts or wears old,
battered, threadbare and ill-fitting garments." It is to be feared
the criticism holds to-day.
The science of chemistry is conventionally divided into two-
main sections the inorganic and the organic; but these are
most unfortunately defined. Substances derived from animals
or plants formed it was thought under the influence of a vital
force were originally the subject matter of organic chemistry.
When the discovery was made that such substances could be
prepared by artificial means first in 1828, when Wohler synthe-
sized urea organic chemistry became the study of the com-
pounds of carbon: though the systematic definition was a gain
of precision, the chemist's outlook was narrowed and confined,
as attention was withdrawn from the concurrent study of vital
phenomena. A more unfortunate consequence of the rigid sub-
division of the field is, that the two branches have been treated
as separate disciplines; usually the carbon compounds have been
regarded as the subject mainly of higher academic and profes-
sional study, so that those who have sought to acquire only an
elementary understanding of chemistry have been denied the
very knowledge likely to be of most importance to them.
The study of carbon compounds has been prosecuted with
extraordinary diligence, during the past 5 years, by a large
number of workers who have been attracted by the beauty of
the problems the subject affords and the consistency of its
methods. An astounding fabric of structure has been reared
which is all but unknown, except to the few; and yet it is laid
upon the simplest of foundations and its main features and lessons
are easily grasped. No one can claim to be a chemist who is not
seized with the spirit of this knowledge.
The study of structure has played little if any part in inorganic
chemistry and until recently this branch attracted relatively
few workers; it has further suffered, not only from neglect to
apply the lessons to be derived from carbon compounds but
owing to its own subdivisions through the treatment of metals
under metallurgy, as a separate subject. Of late years subdi-
vision has been carried still further, by the creation of a physical
section of very limited range, as something apart ; the attempt has
CHEMISTRY
637
even been made to treat " colloids " as a separate branch. To
make chemistry of avail some change of attitude is desirable.
The prime need of our time appears to be that we should recog-
nize the essential unity of chemical science, in order that we may
teach the fundamental principles and the syntactical issues as a
single discipline. The characteristic of organic chemistry has
been the attention paid to the determination of molecular struc-
ture and to that of function, both chemical and physical, as an
outcome of structure; too little attention has been paid by the
inorganic chemist to these issues. It is essential that the con-
ception of structure and the methods followed in determining
structure in the case of the simpler compounds of carbon should
be brought before the student at an early stage.
Ceasing to draw the invidious distinction now made by classing
carbon apart, mainly because this element has so numerous a
progeny, we shall with advantage treat each of the great family
groups of elements as a separate stock or tribe, but take into
account the graded interrelationship of families and the effects of
unions between their members.
No science can work alone. The chemist in future will be
associated either with the physicist or with the biologist, if
not with both. In conjunction with the former, he will extend
his studies of structure and function into atomic regions: the
quest is one that seems to need the mathematical habit of mind.
He will cooperate with the latter by applying his knowledge of
molecular structure and function to the explanation of the living
mechanism and of its activities as functions of structure even
including those of mind: in this field the mathematical habit of
mind seems to be almost out of place.
We may anticipate, wrote Liebig, more than 70 years ago,
that from organic chemistry the laws of life the science of
physiology will be developed. It is in this sense that we need to
raise up a science of organic chemistry in future the organic
chemist must once more be the proclaimed student of vital
phenomena, not merely of materials. The two outstanding
exponents of the art thus defined have been Liebig himself and
Pasteur, the one having rendered supreme service by his general
prescience, the other by demonstrating the essential inter-
dependence of chemical and vital phenomena.
The great lesson we have thus far learnt is that the activity
of nature is of a circumscribed character, far more so, in fact,
than is that of the chemist in the laboratory. At some time choice
has been made of particular types of material and definite lines
on which alone action may proceed have been laid down. Nature
has learnt to wear only a "single glove: all living things are
essentially composed of one-handed (asymmetric) materials.
The controversy long waged over spontaneous generation must
be regarded as futile, in face of this conclusion. Whether the lines
of action in nature are innate in the primary materials used,
time alone can show: the chemist is tempted to think that this
may well be, as within his own field of operation he finds that
the structural possibilities are most definite in character and
relatively few in number. The underlying policy of nature would
seem to be the repetition of units of a simple kind. Tennyson
has summed up the situation in the line
So careful of the type she seems,
and Pasteur, in the more definite comprehensive phrase, La vie
est dominie par des actions dissymetriques.
Apparently the destinies of life are determined by the element
carbon, which is distinguished from all others not merely by the
multiplicity of its compounds but by their relative stability
a stability, however, which is accompanied by remarkable plas-
ticity. If there be life elsewhere, it can scarcely be very different
from ours carbon seems to be the only possible nucleus element,
the only one which can give rise to combinations imbued with the
necessary stability and also sufficiently reactive.
Next to carbon, water is the factor of primary importance.
The operations of dehydration and of hydration play the deter-
mining part in the constructive process; next to these come those
of oxidation and reduction, which are but the separated activi-
ties of those of hydration or its reverse.
The level of energy is raised by oxidation ; it is gradually lowered
by successive " hydrations," as in the process of fermentation.
Whilst the chemist is frequently forced to resort to high tem-
peratures and high electromotive forces to produce his result,
nature does most of her work at a low energy level. In only one
operation is she helped by a transcendent, irresistible power
that of solar radiations of short wave length: but this is the
primal step in life and the energy taken in at this stage must
suffice in all subsequent acts, as even that derived from oxygen
is to be thought of as stored up in the same operation; the separa-
tion of the oxygen from the natural system carbon dioxide plus
water, now with the aid of chlorophyll but primarily through
some simpler agency. Nothing is more wonderful than the silent,
steady way in which the glucose, formed at the expense of the
carbon dioxide present to the extent of only three ten-thousandths
in the air surrounding the plant, is built up underground, in
the dark and at atmospheric or a lower temperature, into starch
as in the potato tuber, for example. In no way can the chemist
imitate the act. Selective and directive influences are clearly
at work: we have reason to believe that these are to be found
in an enzymic mechanism.
The observations made, of late years, on the formation of
minute amounts of formaldehyde and even of glucose on ex-
posure of solutions of carbonic acid to rays of short wave length,
are of little if any assistance in enabling us to follow the natural
process. A complete mechanism is provided in the chlorophyll
system but what this includes we do not know. The suggestion
has been made that there is a factor at present unknown, as
assimilation (measured by the amount of oxygen liberated)
is less active in leaves brought into light when only a few days
old than in leaves equally greened several days older.
Of chlorophyll itself much is now known. So long ago as 1864,
the late Sir George Stokes came to the far-reaching conclusion
that the chlorophyll of land plants is a mixture of four substances,
two green and two yellow, which by proper treatment may each
be obtained in a state of very approximate isolation. Most of the
chemists who followed him succeeded only in isolating de-
composition products, but Willstatter, who took up the inquiry
in 1906, has shown that the inference of the great physicist was
correct. He finds that all green plants contain
Chlorophyll a, blue-black, in solution green-blue CssHyjOs^Mg
Chlorophyll b, green-black, in solution pine green CssHyoOeNiMa
Carotene, orange-red crystals C<oH 5
Xantophyll, yellow crystals C^HseOz
The brown algae contain a third yellow constituent, fucoxanthin
C^HMOe though a very small proportion of b chlbrophyll.
The pigment of the ripe tomato is an isomeride of carotene,
lycopin. Egg-yellow is coloured by an isomeride of xanthophyll,
lutein. Willstatter finds that there is less variation in the
amount of chlorophyll in plants of different species than in leaves
of any one plant of different age or subject to different conditions
of exposure. The amount Varies from 0-6% to 1-2% of the dry
weight and is usually about 0-8%, 0-6% being the a and 0-2%
the b component. There is no noticeable variation during the
day. The yellow pigment varies in amount between o-i and
0-2%, 0-07 to 0-12 being xanthophyll and 0-03 to 0-08 carotene.
Expressed in molecular proportions, the a component is present
in the ratio of 3 to that of i of the b variety ; the yellow pigments
are present in the reversed ratio of i of carotene to 1-5-2 of the
oxidized compound xanthophyll but the variation being greater
between exposed and shaded leaves than in the chlorophylls.
The ratio (a+b) of the chlorophylls to the yellow pigments
(c+x) as a mean of all the determinations made is 3-56, the
value for exposed leaves being 3-07 and for shaded 4-68. Only
further inquiry can show whether the coloured components of
the chloroplasts are all genetically connected and which have
functional significance.
It is a striking fact that chlorophyll has the closest affinity
with haemoglobin, the red colouring matter of blood, the central
system of each being apparently a complex of four substituted
pyrrole rings; the two compounds are so closely related, in fact,
that they may be reduced to the same compound, athiopor-
638
CHEMISTRY
phyrin C3iH 36 N 4 when decarbonylated; in the one, an atom of the
metal iron is included, in the other an atom of the metal mag-
nesium; these metals, however, are not in the state in which they
occur in their ordinary salts. When completely degraded, both
compounds give rise to a mixture of the three simple pyrroles:
CH 3 .C C.C 2 H 6 CH 3 .C C.C 2 H 6 CH 3 .C C.C 2 H S
II II II II II II
CH,.C C.CH, CH 3 .C CH HC CH
\/ \/ \/
NH NH NH
The character and complexity of their structure will be ap-
parent on consideration of the following formula assigned pro-
visionally by Willstiitter to athioporphyrin, the derivative com-
mon to both compounds:
CH = CH
I I
CHr C CH C C
N
C 2 H 6 C C
CjHs C C
\
I NH
CH 3 C = C
CH 3
N II
\
C CH
<?
C
\
C = C C 2 H S
HN |
\
C C = CH,
CH 3
Athioporphyrin is convertible into a magnesium derivative,
aethiophyllin, CsiH^^Mg, which is probably formed from
it by the displacement of the two atoms of hydrogen in the
two NH groups shown in the above formula. Perhaps the iron
occupies a like position in haemoglobin.
In haemoglobin, the coloured system is loosely coupled with a
peculiar protein, globin, present to the extent of 94% in the com-
plex molecule; in the less weighty molecule of chlorophyll, the
coloured system is coupled with the wax alcohol, phytol,
CjoHsaOH. Both appear to be derivatives of dicarboxylic acids:
the disposition of the CO 2 H groups in haemoglobin is not clear
but probably they are in connexion with the globin; in chloro-
phyll, one is neutralized by methyl, the other by the phytol
radicle. Chlorophyll, unlike haemoglobin, is associated, in
most plants, with an enzyme, by which it is hydrolyzed into
phytol and the carboxylic acid, chlorophyllid ; not only may
the action be reversed (to the extent of 65%) but if hydrolysis
be affected, in presence of either methylic or ethylic alcohol,
methyl or ethyl takes the place of the phytol radicle. The be-
haviour of the enzyme is precisely that of the enzyme lipase
towards fats and towards mixtures of fatty acids and alcohols.
Alkalies convert chlorophyll into the corresponding dicarboxylic
acid, from which the magnesium is easily displaced by hydrogen
by means of acid :
(MgN^HMOKCOz.CwH,,) + 2 OH 2 = [MgN < C 32 H 3 oO](CO 2 H) 2 -|-CH 3 .
OH+C 20 H 39 .OH
The special activities of haemoglobin and chlorophyll are in
no way accounted for, at present, by what is known of their
structure: colour apparently is of no consequence in the former
but it is held to be the prime factor in the functional activity of
the latter. Presumably both act as participate agents, in virtue of
their high molecular weights, not in solution. The oxygen-hold-
ing power of haemoglobin is commonly ascribed to the iron and
it is supposed that the gas enters actually into combination with
the molecule; whilst the former is mere matter of opinion, the
latter view is supported by evidence, i.e. by the fact that the
formation of oxyhaemoglobin involves the addition of a definite
proportion of oxygen. Chlorophyll is not known to behave in a
similar way towards carbon dioxide. Willstiitter has shown, how-
ever, that when the gas is passed into water in which chlorophyll
is suspended, this is converted into phaephylin, the magnesium
being wholly displaced, as indicated by the equation
The action may be stopped halfway, when apparently the mag-
nesium is only half dissected out of the molecule and is retained,
perhaps, together with an added molecule of carbon dioxide, thus
.C.C.N.C. .C.C.N.C.
Mg.
C.C.N.C.
+H 2 C0 3 =
I
MgO.C.O.OH
.C.C.NH.C
On the assumption that such a mechanism is operative, it is pos-
sible to understand how the carbonic acid is brought into the
circuit of change and under the direct influence of the pigment.
The acid would be at a maximum concentration at the surface of
the particles. The acid radicle MgO.CO.OH would necessarily
be a terminal point from which electrolysis could proceed: so
that if, on exposure to light, a photoelectric wave were propa-
gated from this point, throughout a circuit in which acid-water
was included, the water would be electrolysed and the carbonic
radicle might well be subjected to the attack of hydrogen ions
and reduced, ultimately to formaldehydrol, chlorophyll being
regenerated in the process. The correlative product of electrol-
ysis would be hydrogen peroxide (2OH 2 =2H+H 2 O 2 ).
The evolution of oxygen from the plant in such case would be
the consequence of the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, per-
haps by a" catalase." That evolution of oxygen and reduction of
carbonic acid are coincident phenomena can scarcely be .doubted,
as the gas is only produced in presence of the acid and the
volume liberated is proportional to that of the carbon dioxide
absorbed. It is conceivable that one of the chlorophyll compo-
nents may play the part of a catalyst, even that the more oxi-
dised may act as platinum black, in the manner Willstatter has
suggested: but these are all matters of mere surmise at present.
Maybe a more complex circuit is formed than that postulated,
one in which perhaps a depolarizer is included; these are all
points, however, which must be left for further inquiry.
It is conceivable that the function of iron in haemoglobin is
similar to that pictured of magnesium in chlorophyll: that the
iron atom becomes partially separated from the molecule, owing
to the formation of a perhydrol radicle, similar to that postulated
by Willstatter as the active agent in platinum black and as oper-
ative in ferrous sulphate perhydrol.
Whatever the process it is to be supposed that formaldehydrol
[CH 2 (OH)2] is the initial product of the assimilation of at-
mospheric carbon dioxide by the plant; no other explanation
that will meet the facts has been advanced. No laboratory proof
that carbonic acid can be reduced and " sugar " produced in
minute amount, however, is of the least value in enabling us to
understand the origin of life. We have to account not for the
formation of sugar but of one of the several not to say many
possible isomeric forms as a fundamental structural unit: to ex-
plain why of the two glucoses of like structure but enantiomor-
phic i.e. related to one another as an object is to its image or one
hand to the other both of which are produced simultaneously
in equal amounts when the synthesis is effected under artificial
conditions, only the one is formed within the plant. What act or
accident determined such selection, it is impossible to say; what-
ever happened, the future course of natural action was limited
thereby to one type of symmetric material to the one-handed
forms, in genetic relationship with that first selected. Innate
peculiarities, only dimly perceptible at present, are also operative
in restricting the number of the primary constructive units. It
is a remarkable fact that formaldehydrol gives rise to a hexose
almost directly, yet it is to be supposed that condensation takes
place gradually. In presence of weak alkali it rapidly gives rise
to both fructose and sorbose; other products are formed which
have not yet been identified; no intermediate products have been
reported, such as are formed forthwith undergo further change.
The product of the interaction of two molecules would be glycol-
lic aldehydrol:
CH 2 (OH) J +CH 2 (OH), ! -CH 2 (OH).CH(OH) 2 -|-OH 2
This is a known substance: it has been shown to give rise to
the same hexose as formaldehydrol under the influence of alkali.
If three molecules of formaldehydrol were to interact directly or
glycollic aldehydrol were to be attacked by formaldehydrol, two
CHEMISTRY
639
trioses might be formed, glyceraldose and glyceroketose; thus
CH 2 (OH)+CH 2 (OH) 2 ->CH 2 (OH).CH(OH).CH(OH) 2 +OH 2
CH(OH) 2 ^CH 2 (OH).C(OH) 2 .CH 2 .OH+OH 2
Both compounds are known: they are easily obtained by oxi-
dising glycerol, CH 2 (OH)-CH(OH).CH 2 (OH). In solution,
in presence of a trace of alkali, the one is rapidly converted
into the other: consequently a solution made from either is a
mixture of the two in equilibrium; but as the molecule of gly-
ceraldose is asymmetric, this compound is present in two forms
of opposite optical activity:
CH 2 .OH CH 2 .OH
HC.OH
CH(OH) 2
HO.CH
CH(OH) 2
Fructose and sorbose, the two ketohexoses obtained in labor-
atory operations, in the manner described, whether from formal-
dehydrol, glycollic aldehydrol or the complex triose mixture re-
ferred to, are constituted as represented by the formulae
H OH OH H OH H
CH 2 (OH).CO.C. C. C.CH 2 (OH)CH 2 (OH).CO. C. C. C. CH 2 (OH)
OH H H OH H OH
Fructose Sorbose
The formation of the two isomerides is accounted for, and is
indeed to be expected, on the assumption that the condensation
is effected equally between glyceroketose and each of the two
oppositely active forms of glyceraldose, which would necessarily
be present in equal proportions: for the same reason each isomer
would be produced in its two forms of opposite optical activity.
It is a remarkable fact, therefore, that whereas fructose is of
universal occurrence in plants, sorbose is very rarely met with:
this is one of the many indications that in plants the course of
synthesis is narrowly directed.
It is conceivable that if six molecules of formaldehydrol were
brought into position side by side and condensation took place
throughout the series, all the possible hexoses might arise, through
the fortuitous arrangement of the molecules in the many possible
ways. The force of the argument is lessened by the probability
that affinities would come into play which would determine
arrangements in particular ways; probably the number would be
less than is conceivable but yet greater than it actually happens
to be. This conclusion, however, but serves to confirm the argu-
ment used above as to the actual course of the process: that it is
essentially a live stage process. Perhaps in nature, at least,
pentoses may be formed directly, but to judge from laboratory
experience it is equally if not more probable that the hexoses are
the only primary products and that other simple carbohydrates
are derived from them: in other words that the hexoses are both
primary products and reserve materials.
The preferential formation and the superior stability of the
hexose system is to be referred to certain peculiarities of structure
which are probably innate in the component elements. It has
long been held that the aldehydic sugars are not true aldehydes
and the ketonic not true ketones; they are too inert in behaviour
to pass as such. The true aldehydrols and kethydrols, if present
at all, enjoy but a fleeting existence in solution; their place is
taken by closed chain derivation. Thus:
CH 2 .OH CH 2 .OH
HO.HC CH.OH
.HO.HC CH.CH(OH). CH 2 (OH)
\/
O
As the " terminal " group concerned in this change carries
two hydroxyls either of which may be active, and the group be-
comes asymmetric in the course of the change a new asymmet-
ric system being created in the molecules, it is to be foreseen
that two isomeric compounds will arise in this way. As a matter
of fact " glucose " is known to be an equilibrated mixture of an a
and b form, differing in optical activity and other ways, which
CH.OH CH.OH
HC.OH ->
CH.OH c
CH.OH
HO.CH.OH
-C.OH
CH.OH
5 CH.OH
. CH.OH
can be separated. If either be redissolved in ordinary water it
soon passes over into the other until equilibrium is again reached.
If hydrogen chloride be added to a solution of glucose in methylic
alcohol, after a time two methyl-glucosides can be separated, an
a and a ft form:
HO.HC - CH.OH HO.C CH(OH)
H
\
\
\
CH 3
\
\
CH.CH(OH).CH 2 (OH) C CH.CH(OH).CH 2 (OH)
CH 3 O O HO
These are neutral, very stable compounds as compared with
the parent glucoses. They are the prototypes of a large class of
glucosides met with in plants and may be hydrolysed by enzymes
which attack these latter. Hence it is possible to classify gluco-
sides generally, in so far as they can be hydrolysed by enzymes
which hydrolyse either a or /3 methylglucoside and can thus be
correlated with either the a or the /3 form of glucose. The en-
zyme maltase or a-glucase, present in yeasts, is used in charac-
terising a-glucosides, the j3-glucase in almond emulsin in charac-
terising /3-glucosides.
All sugars of the aldose and ketose types behave as described.
The fructose sugars exist as condensed stable systems similar to
that of glucose and, therefore, should persist, if formed when for-
maldehydrol undergoes change and is converted ultimately into
hexose sugars. Their non-production gives further weight to the
argument that these latter are formed from the trioses.
Recently a third or -y form of methylglucoside has been found
in the mixture obtained by the interaction of glucose and meth-
ylic alcohol. This new glucoside is very different from the a and
/3 forms; it is easily hydrolysed and easily oxidized by perman-
ganate and very active in other ways. Probably it is a condensed
system of the ethylenic oxide type:
CH 2 CH.OCH,
\ /\
O O-C
/ (CH.OH) 3
CH 2 CH 2 .OH
Ethylenic oxide and glucoside
The discovery is of primary importance, as it has led to the dis-
covery of a similar form of fructoside and has given the clue to
the nature of cane sugar, long remarkable on account of the ex-
treme ease with which, in comparison with other sugars, it is
hydrolysed by acids and by the special enzyme invertase. The
formula suggested for cane sugar is:
i - O - ,
Glucose section CH 2 (OH). CH(OH). CH.(CH.OH) 2 CH
I
O
Fructose " CH 2 (OH). CH(OH). CH(OH).CH.C.CH 2 (OH)
\S
O
The difficulty in accepting this interpretation is that sugar is
shown as either an a or a /3-glucoside and that it is hydrolised
only by a specific enzyme, not by either a or /3-glucose. There
can be little doubt that the fructose element is present in the y
form; if the glucose were also in the y form the peculiar be-
haviour of cane sugar towards acids would be even better
explained.
Although, in the laboratory, the sugars obtained from formal-
dehydrol are the two ketoses, fructose and sorbose, in the plant
glucose plays the preponderating part to a remarkable extent.
Only three of the sixteen possible hexaldoses and two ketoses,
glucose, mannose, galactose, fructose and perbose, are met with
as such or in combination in plants. Three of these are reversibly
interrelated glucose, mannose and fructose. If a solution of any
one of the three be made alkaline and kept, gradually the other
two make their appearance. A natural process is at work which
seems to assure even the rapid passage of any one of the three
into the others. It has been shown that, during fermentation
with the aid of the juice expressed from yeast, an enzyme phos-
phetose is active, which, in presence of phosphate gives rise to a
diphosphoric glucoside, C6Hi O4(PO4P 2 )2 , the result is the
same whether mannose, glucose or fructose be taken, but when
640
CHEMISTRY
this glucophosphate is hydrolysed only fructose is recovered. It
is noteworthy that phosphoric acid has a determining influence
on the plant, especially during the ripening period: it may well
be one of its functions to promote the interconversion of carbo-
hydrates in the manner indicated; if it can convert glucose into
fructose it should be able to produce the contrary change, and so
supply the material for producing either starch or inulin.
The actual change in an alkaline solution is pictured as involv-
ing the production, by dehydration of an unsaturated " enolic "
compound common to the three hexoses and the conversion of
this by dehydration, only in part into the original form and in
part into the other two. The process is one apparently which
plays a preponderating part in the course of vital changes. The
alteration is only in the first and second carbon systems of the
sugar; the manner in which it takes place is simple, thus:
CH(OH),
\
HC.OH
Glucose
CH(OH) 2 CH.OH t CH(OH) 2 Mannose
\ -OH 2 = II +OH 2 -^ \
HC.OH C.OH I HO.CH
C.HJ.OH
C.(OH),
Fructose
It has been pointed out that, in the laboratory, sorbose is
formed together with fructose, when formaldehydrol is con-
densed, and that it is of rare occurrence in nature: if changed in
solution as fructose is changed it would be converted into the
sugars idose and gulose, but neither of these is met with. This
fact and the rarity of sorbose is further proof that the vital syn-
thetic process is narrowly controlled.
It remains to account for the production of galactose, which
is very widely distributed and probably always present in plants,
in small amount (as raffinose) ; this hexose is characteristic of
mammalian milk, being coupled with glucose in milk sugar. Ga-
lactose is closely related to glucose: to account for the conversion
of one into the other, it is necessary merely to assume that the
glucose is resolved, by hydrolysis, into two molecules of glyceral-
dose, one of which is then changed in sign by the reversal of the
position of the median OH group a change known to occur in
solution; if the two molecules of opposite activity were then re-
associated through the agency of a directing mechanism the
change might well be complete.
Two pentoses are commonly met with in plants but only in
combination, the one d-xylose, corresponding to glucose, the
other, /-arabinose, to galactose; a third, d-ribose, is also found,
which is the only pentose normally present in animal tissues, in
both cases as a characteristic constituent of the nucleic acids.
Arabinose and xylose are important components respectively of
the gums and of straw and wood; at present, there is no clue to
the manner in which they are formed from hexoses in the plant,
if indeed they are so formed: it is not improbable that an oxida-
tion process may be at work, by which the CH 2 .OH group is
removed from the hexose molecule whilst it is held in combina-
tion at the aldose end.
The higher carbohydrates are made up of hexose and fructose
units in ways which we are only beginning to know: in fact,
starch, cellulose and inulin are the only three of whose complete
anatomy we have learnt anything, and the information does not
carry us far. The labour involved in such work is immense, and
methods of dissection are few. The most informative is that in-
troduced by Purdie and developed by Irvine and his school, in-
volving the methylation of the carbohydrate, the resolution of
the complex into the constituent hexose fragments and the de-
termination of the position taken up by methyl radicals in these:
whence it is possible to infer, with more or less certainty, the
manner in which the fragments were linked.
Whilst the primary unit of starch is glucose, into which it is
resolved when completely hydrolysed, the chief secondary unit
is the dihexose maltose, which is obtained as main product when
starch is hydrolysed by the enzyme diastase; whether the sub-
sidiary more complex product, dextrin, is also composed of mal-
tose units is uncertain. Maltose is formed by linking two mole-
cules of glucose in direct apposition.
The primary unit of cellulose is also glucose; the secondary
unit, however, is a dihexose isomeric with maltose, cellose, differ-
ing from the former in that the two glucose bricks are laid, as it
were, the one advanced a sixth of its length beyond the other.
Moreover, the one is an a-glucoside hydrolysed by maltose; the
other apparently is a /3-glucoside, as it is hydrolysed by emulsin.
A third diglucose is known in gentiobiose, which is obtained, to-
gether with cane sugar, when the trihexoside gentianose from
gentian root is hydrolysed by invertase; it is not only hydrolysed
by emulsin but has been reproduced from glucose by the action
of this enzyme; it is therefore undoubtedly a /3-glucoside, and
probably the 0-glucoside alternative to the a-glucoside, maltose.
The formula of the three sugars may be written as follows:
-O-
CH 2 (OH).CH(OH).CH.(CH.OH) 2 .CH
O-
O
CH(OH).(CH.OH) 2 .CH.CH.(OH).CH 2
Maltose (a)
Gentiobiose (/3)
CH,(OH).CH.(OH).CH.(CH.OH.)CH
I
O
CH(OH').(CH.OH) 2 CH.CH.CH 2 (OH)
Cellose (0)
Trehalose, a gluco-dihexoside widely distributed in fungi, ap-
pears to be the representative of the third type, but its structure
is not yet ascertained. As it has no " aldehydic " properties, such
as are shown by the three sugars previously considered. It is
supposed that the two glucose components may be conjoined as
shown by the formula:
. - O - ,
CH 2 (OH).CH(OH).CH.CH.(OH).CH(OH).CH
)o
CH 2 (OH).CH(OH).CH.CH.(OH).CH(OH).CH
It is to be expected that such a compound would be hydrolysed
either by maltase or by emulsin; such is not the case but it is re-
solved by a special enzyme present in fungi which appears to be
peculiar to the sugar. The examples given may suffice to Illus-
trate the manner in which hexose units may be linked together.
Inulin, the reserve material of the artichoke and dahlia tuber,
is entirely composed, apparently, of fructose units in the 7-form.
When acetylated it gives rise to a well-defined crystalline tri-
acetate, which is clearly a simple derivative of the parent sub-
stance as inalin may be reproduced from it by careful hydrolysis.
The determination of the molecular weight of this compound
shows that it contains nine fructose units a peculiar number.
In some plants, the monocotyledons especially, the place of
starch is taken by cane sugar, little if any starch being formed;
even in those in which starch is produced in considerable amount
cane sugar is always present in the leaves, and it has been argued
that cane sugar rather than starch may well be the primary prod-
uct of assimilation. It is difficult at present to offer any rational
explanation of the formation of cane sugar; the wish would be
to regard it as traceable to enzyme activity.
All attempts hitherto made to synthesize cane sugar have been
failures; it is completely hydrolysed by invertase. Either the
point of equilibrium is so near to that of complete hydrolysis
that it escapes detection, or the immediate products at once un-
dergo change in solution and cease to be susceptible to the re-
vertive influence of the enzyme: the fact that fructose is present
in the 7-form in cane sugar and that this form does not persist in
solution, either in fructose or dextrose, may not be without bear-
ing on the problem. It is a matter of interest that cane sugar is
usually present in leaves in considerable amount in the cellsap
and together with invertase, but in some way separated from it:
CHEMISTRY
641
maybe means are provided by which the sugar can escape from
the influence of the enzyme immediately it is produced. In roots
such as that of the sugar beet, in which cane sugar is merely
stored up as a reserve material, no enzyme is present.
The close association, in the leaves of many plants, of starch
with chlorophyll, in the chloroplasts, has led to the view that
it may be an all but direct product of synthetic activity and not
formed from glucose. It is indeed conceivable that a directive
(enzymic) mechanism may exist which can induce both the
production of glucose from formaldehydrol and the simultaneous
assemblage and union of the glucose units into starch.
The enzymes are agents comparable with the acids in their
hydrolytic activity, but selective and directive. Unlike the acids
they are catalysts participate agents. The effective area of the
enzyme, however, must be some small section of the molecular
surface: and the only rational interpretation of the special activ-
ity of the enzyme would seem to be that this active area is com-
posed of material compatible with that which the enzyme speci-
fically attacks that indeed it is this material, though conjoined
perhaps with an acid radicle, which acts as the actual " tool " in
hydrolysis. Starch may be regarded as a pavement or simple
mosaic built up of many separate glucose-residues regularly ar-
ranged in a definite pattern, and layer after layer is laid in this
fashion: the enzyme as a template formed of a single layer thus
composed; maybe as the starch layer increases in thickness there
is a coincident up-growth at its margin of the protein constituent
of the enzyme complex. Given such a mechanism, it is conceiv-
able that starch might be almost directly produced: some ex-
planation is required to account for the preponderance of glucose
in the plant. The conception is one, moreover, which may be
used to explain the action of enzymes in other cases.
With reference to the conditions under which enzymes (and
acids) may act reversibly, it is to be noted that the manner in
which action takes place, both rate and direction, is determined
by the conditions of concentration. As hydrolysis proceeds water
is used up; if the reverse action take place, water is produced.
Usually a point of equilibrium is reached, when no further change
seems to be taking place. This is true even of the hydrolysis of
cane sugar by acid: as the concentration of the solution is raised
and the opportunity for change is increased, the rate of change
only rises up to a certain point, beyond which any further in-
crease in concentration only serves to diminish the rate of the
process. As the solution becomes more concentrated in the
case of cane sugar, particularly through the increase of the num-
ber of molecules in solution it becomes itself more attractive of
water and hydrolysis is less promoted. The extent to which syn-
thesis is effected is entirely a question of balance of affinity of
desire for water. This point is one of extreme importance in
connexion with vital phenomena. In plants, during the day
time, synthetic actions prevail, as the tendency is constantly
towards the concentration of the solutions in the leaf cells; when
the influence of light is withdrawn water is attracted into the
concentrated solutions and reversals set in, producing to an in-
creased extent simpler molecules, which can wander out into the
general circulation and be used elsewhere.
Thus far enzymes have been spoken of as influencing the hy-
drolysis and formation only of compounds consisting of sugar
units these are conveniently classed as Hologlucosides. Many
sugar derivatives are known which are to be classed as Hetero-
glucosides, being of more diverse origin: the methyglucosides may
be taken as typical of this class, especially /3-methyglucoside, as
most of these are more or less readily hydrolysed by the constit-
uent of the mixture of enzymes in almond-emulsin to which j3-
methyglucoside responds. Curiously enough, the few known
natural a-glucosides are all hologlucosides; the known a-hetero-
glucosides are all laboratory products.
The heteroglucosides are extraordinarily varied in composition.
Little is known as to their precise function. Often they serve to
give stability to a substance which could not well exist uncom-
bined; or they mask one that would interfere if free; or they have
the advantage of being far less soluble than the parent com-
pounds. They form most of the colouring matters of flowers.
The most interesting member of the class perhaps is that first
studied, amygdalin, present in considerable quantity in the fruit
of the bitter almond and also in the fruit of most of the Rosaceae.
It is resolved by emulsin which is equally well obtained either
from the sweet or the bitter almond into two molecules of glu-
cose, one of benzoic aldehyde and one of hydrogen cyanide:
QoHjyOnN +2H 2 O = 2C 6 Hi 2 O + C 7 H 6 O + HCN.
The two latter are present in direct association, as in the
cyanhydrol, CeH 8 CH(O.H)CN in its dextro-rotatory form, the
isomeric laboratory form being present in sambum'grin, from
elder leaves which, however, contains only one glucose residue.
By the action of one of the enzymes in emulsin, amygdalase,
amygdalin is resolved into glucose and prunasin, the isomeride
of sambunigrin; this heteroglucoside occurs naturally in the leaf
of the almond and of the common cherry laurel in fact, in the
leaves of all Rosaceae whose fruits contain amygdalin. Laurel
leaves particularly are rich in an enzyme, prunase, which hydro-
lyses prunasin; this is present together with amygdalase in all
fruits containing amygdalin. The resolution of amygdalin there-
fore, involves, it will be seen, the action of two enzymes in suc-
cession. What appears to be amygdalase is present in some
yeasts, together with maltase. The advantage to the plant is
that the leaf contains the more soluble glucoside, that in the
fruit being but slightly soluble; the presence of glucose and fruc-
tose in the leaf and stem but of starch in the tuber of the potato
is a parallel case. How the two glucose residues are united is
not determined: the probability is that amygdalin is derived
from gentiobiose. Prunase apparently is the /8-glucase in emul-
sin which acts on the /3-methyglucoside and the /3-heterogluco-
sides generally: to explain its indifference towards amygdalin and
the varying degree of activity which it displays towards different
/3-glucosides, it is necessary to assume that the group associated
with glucose influences the fit of the enzyme. If the enzymes be,
as suggested, but replicas, in part, of the hydrolytes they effect,
in each particular class, the glucoside characteristic of the class
may well be contained in the enzyme: thus prunase from the
Rosaceae is conceivably x a prunasin derivative, whilst the linase
of the Linaceae may be a derivative of the cyanhydrol of acetone,
C(CH 3 ) 2 (OH).CN; consequently although both enzymes affect
prunase they do not act with equal readiness; the addition of a
second molecule of glucose to prunase, although it happens in the
^-position, may spoil the fit of prunase, entirely. The problem
is one of extraordinary interest and importance.
Glucose and its congeners are of special value in the plant, as
constructive materials, on account of their peculiar plasticity
under the numerous enzymic and other influences simultaneously
brought into action in nature. These are specially manifest in the
phenomena of fermentation. In recent years the controversy
which has long been waged over the fermentation process, as
effected by yeast and other organisms, has been settled against
the vitalfsts, as it is proved that it can be carried out apart from
the living cell, in its entirety, by means of the juice expressed from
yeast, and even in presence of substances, such as acetone and
toluene, fatal to the life of the cell. The course of change is
by no means ascertained: as yet only the main outlines are
marked out, but these are of such significance that it is clear that
a most delicate balance of forces comes into play.
When the formulae are contrasted it is obvious that the ulti-
mate conversion of glucose into carbon dioxide and alcohol must
involve much rearrangement within the molecule. Oxygen must
be removed from some of the carbon atoms and its place taken
by hydrogen; the reverse operation has to be effected at others.
That such changes can be induced by mere contact with acids or
alkalies is well known: thus lactic acid, CH 3 .CH(OH).CO 2 H, is
easily formed by digesting glucose with alkali; reduction is car-
ried still further in the production of laevulinic acid, CH 3 .CO.-
CHz.CHj.COzH, by boiling either fructose or glucose with an
acid, fructose being the far more easily attacked. This latter
fact is perhaps not without significance.
A variety of factors come into play when fermentation is in-
duced by yeast juice. Phosphate plays a part of fundamental
642
CHEMISTRY
importance. When a suitable quantity of a soluble phosphate
best in the form of a solution of disodium phosphate saturated
with carbon dioxide is added to a slowly fermenting mixture of
the juice with glucose, a rapid rise is observed in the rate of fer-
mentation, as measured by the amount of carbon dioxide evolved.
As change proceeds, the amount of free phosphate in solution
diminishes up to the point at which the rate of change begins to
diminish; the diminution has been traced to the formation of a
phosphoric glucoside. Apparently, action takes place as ex-
pressed in the equation:
2C 6 Hi 2 O 6 +2PO 4 HR2=2CO2+2C 2 H 6 O-|-2H 2 O-|-C6H 1 o0 4 (PO,R 2 )2;
that is to say, while one molecule of sugar is fermented a second
is fixed as phosphate. Apparently, however, all the sugar passes
through the phosphate stage on its way to fermentation; as this
slackens and finally ceases the amount of free phosphate in solu-
tion steadily rises, the action being reversed the while:
The formation and destruction of the phosphate are changes due
to the action of an enzyme, hexosephosphatase.
The point of importance to be noted is, that whatever sugar
be fermented glucose, mannose or fructose the hydrolytic
product is fructose: one function, at least, of the hexosephospha-
tase would seem to be the presentation of the sugar to the resolv-
ing mechanism in the form most sensitive to rearrangement.
The resolving mechanism has several components. It contains
one or more enzymes easily destroyed by heat, together with a
so-called co-enzyme which survives when the liquid is boiled.
These may be separated by mere nitration, under pressure,
through a film of gelatin supported in a Chamberland filter-
candle: neither residue nor filtrate alone will condition fermenta-
tion, but when they are reunited a mixture is obtained which is
almost as active as the original fluid. Little, if any, light has been
thrown on the nature of the resistant constituent: the most sug-
gestive observation made is that it disappears from boiled yeast
juice when this is digested with castor-oil lipase, an enzyme which
hydrolyses fats and similar substances.
As to the course of change at some stage apparently the hexose
molecule is resolved into two " halves,"- but whether before or
after rearrangement is uncertain. There is, however, reason to
suppose that the production of alcohol involves the prior pro-
duction of aldehyde and the ultimate reduction of this latter.
The formation of aldehyde is attributed to that of pyruvic acid,
CH 3 CO.CO 2 H, which is resolved into carbonic acid and alde-
hyde by the action of carboxylase, an enzyme normally present
in yeast:
CH 3 CO.CO 2 H+OH 2 = CH 8 .COH+CO 8 H 2 .
Not only has this acid been obtained as a product of fermentation,
but when fermentation is effected in presence of an excess of
alkaline sulphite an amount of aldehyde is produced approach-
ing that to be expected on these assumptions, if one half the
molecule were so affected; at the same time, glycerol is produced
in almost corresponding amount.
It seems probable, therefore, that in the ordinary fermentation
process the hexose is normally resolved into a mixture of glyceral-
dose and glyceroketose, which became rearranged into pyruvic
aldehyde, by enolisation and rehydration. The oxidation of these
two molecules of aldehyde to pyruvic acid might then conceiv-
ably be the consequence of the reduction of two molecules of
ordinary aldehyde to alcohol the reduction of these must in
some way be accounted for, if acetaldehyde be an intermediate
product of fermentation. As a matter of fact, the function of an
ordinary hydrolytic enzyme is nearly of this order, involving as
it does either the separate presentation of the H and OH of water
at two contiguous regions in a molecule or their withdrawal from
two contiguous molecules, according as its action is either hydro-
lytic or synthetic. A directed interaction of the character con-
templated is therefore not improbable. Not only is yeast known
to contain the enzyme carboxylase which fits pyruvic acid, but
also another enzyme, glyoxalase, by which pyruvic aldehyde is
converted into lactic acid, an operation involving (i) hydration,
(2) enolisation, (3) reversed rehydration, starting from the
aldehydrol CH 3 .CO.CH(OH) 2 : CH 3 .C(OH) 2 .CH(OH) 2
CH 3 .C(OH) = C(OH) 2 CH 3 .CH(OH).CH(OH) 2 .
That the yeast complex may do all the things suggested is,
therefore, by no means improbable. Glyoxalase, it may be added,
occurs in various animal tissues, and the lactic acid formed as the
result of muscular action may well be produced under its di-
rective action. A striking observation made with yeast juice
is that the action stops on adding hydrogen cyanide but re-
commences when this is removed. Yeast ceases to decompose hy-
drogen peroxide when the cyanide is added. Maybe, in both
cases either an oxidase or a peroxydase is held in check which is
effective in the pyruvic change.
A discovery of great significance, as throwing light on the re-
ductive stage, is that recently made by Gowland Hopkins, of a
minute constituent of yeast juice, liver substance and muscular
tissue, glutathione, a neutral derivative (dipeptide) formed by
the condensation of the two amino-acids, cysteine and glutaminic
acid. It is a powerful reducing agent and acts as a carrier of
hydrogen; cysteine is a sulphur derivative of alanine and is read-
ily converted into cystin, by oxidizing agents; moreover, the
change is reversible.
,SH
o
-2H +
H.CH..SH
Cysteine Cystin
Glutathione apparently is but cysteine weighted by glutaminic
acid, and its activity is doubtless the consequence of a similar
change. Possibly the hitherto unidentified co-enzyme of yeast
juice may prove to be this substance.
General Synthetic Activity. That the plant exercises its syn-
thetic activity with the aid merely of the simple cleavage prod-
ucts derived from carbohydrate material, by processes similar
to those involved in alcoholic fermentation, is clear. The ad-
juncts are merely atmospheric oxygen and various materials ob-
tained from the soil especially ammonia phosphoric acid, mag-
nesium and silicon; these are all of structural significance; in ad-
dition, iron and manganese, calcium and potassium, appear also
to be indispensable, but are mainly, if not entirely, of value as
functional agents. Although it is established that potassium is
essential to the formation of starch, if not of other carbohydrates,
no clue has yet been found to the office it exercises. Sodium, be-
ing there, is taken into the plant; whether it be in any way neces-
sary, as it is to the animal, we do not know.
Whilst many compounds are undoubtedly formed under en-
zymic influences, others are products of the direct spontaneous
interaction of materials which happen to meet. The precise
manner in which even the simple benzene derivatives met with
in plants are formed is not yet clear. That even substances so
complex as the opium and other alkaloids may be formed,
without difficulty, is shown by R. Robinson's remarkable obser-
vation that tropinone, a compound closely related to one group of
these alkaloids, is produced when the aldehyde of succinic acid,
methylamine and acetone, or still better its dicarboxylic acid, are
merely brought together, in aqueous solution, at the ordinary
temperature:
CH,-CH-CH,
N.CH,c!o
CH,.COH
I
CHi.COH
CO
CH 3
CHj.NHa
CHi-CH
CH,
Succinic Acetone Methylamine Tropinone
aldehyde
Plant Colours. Considerable diversity in character may be
the outcome of small differences in chemical structure: this is weD
illustrated in the colouring matters of flowers which, it is well
known, vary over a considerable range. The yellows, however,
appear all to be derivatives of a simple compound, not itself
coloured, flavone, which occurs as a mealy deposit on the leaves
and flower stalks of a large number of Primulaceae. It is resolved,
CHEMISTRY
643
xxx:o^
Flavone
,-r
sA
by hydrolysis, into the two simple compounds, salicylic acid and
acetophenone, from which it may well be formed in the plant:
f^v-XJ-CCsHs
Cft +2M!U=| |_ + ,
CHj
Aceto-
phenone
The plant yellows are hydroxy-derivatives of flavone, varying
in the manner and position of the hydroxyl groups; but whilst
some are flavones in which these groups are contained only in the
benzene sections of the molecule, others are.flavenols, i.e. deriv-
atives of the simple hydroxy-compound
+2H!0
J CO.OH
Salicylic
acid
The plant colouring matters other than the yellows which are
now generally grouped as anthocyan colours, are derived from
the yellows by a very simple process merely by reduction, a
process, however, which involves their conversion into deriva-
tives of ortho-quinone, as shown by the following equation repre-
senting the change of the flavonolquaratin into cyanin chloride:
Cl
, (OH),
;OH
OH
The colour produced by an anthocyan depends not only on the
number and position of the hydroxyl groups but also on its con-
dition, in the plant cell whether it be present in combination
with acid or as a salt.
Nuclear Materials. Substances which play a determining part
as structural elements, if not as functional agents, are far more
complex. The nucleic acids are the chief. Nucleic acid, from
yeast or the wheat embryo, for example, which has the formula
CsgH^OsNisC,,, may be resolved into four sections known as
nucleotides, all of which have been isolated and studied of late
years, particularly by the American chemists, Levene and others.
Each of these nucleotides consists of the peculiar pentose, ribose,
associated, on the one hand, with phosphoric acid, on the other,
with a purine base (a compound of the uric acid series) , the two
former being common to all four sections but each having its
special basic constituent, namely, one of the following:
N = C.NH 2 HN CO ' N=C.NH, HN CO
II II II II
HCC NH HN:C C NH OC CH OC CH
\ \
II II CH I II CH | II I II
N C N HN C N HN CH HN CH
Adenine Guanine Cytosine Uracil
Nucleic acid of animal origin contains a hexose in place of the
pentose, ribose; moreover, the basic elements are not all the same,
jnethyluracil (thymine) taking the place of uracil.
The formula assigned to plant nucleic acid is:
HO
\
OP.O.C 5 H,O 2 . C 6 H 4 N S O
| I Guanine unit
HO O
HO
\
HO
OP.O.CsHsO. C 4 H 4 N 3 O
| Cytosine unit
HO O
\
OP.O.C S H 6 O. C 6 H 4 N 6
I I Adenine unit
HO O
HO
\
OP.O.C 6 H 7 O 2 . C 4 H 3 N 2 Oj
| Uracil unit
HO
Phosphoric Ribose.
unit unit
Complex materials thus constituted, comprising acid, neutral
and basic sections, this last of varying structure, obviously must
offer numerous attractions such as befit a nuclear substance;
probably, however, the phosphoric units are the main functional
elements, and it is in these compounds particularly that the
special value of phosphoric acid to the living organism is appar-
ent. The nucleins are accompanied by a number of enzymes
which, doubtless, are concerned in their formation; these suffice
not only to resolve them, when necessary, into their proximate
components but also to convert the basic units into uric acid.
The Proteins. The fundamental phenomena of vital activity
are best studied, at present, with the aid of carbohydrate ma-
terial, because of its greater simplicity; there is, however, every
reason to suppose that, in the main, the same considerations ap-
ply to the problems offered by nitrogenous materials. The pos-
sibilities are more numerous but the lines of action and reaction
are of the same order. The contexture and configuration of car-
bohydrate material cannot be greatly varied; although, as shown
in artificial silk, cellulose has strength and a world might be built
of carbohydrate material, it would undoubtedly display great
poverty of pattern and less colour. The introduction of nitrogen
has added enormously to structural variety and strength. Else-
where the complex carbohydrates have been compared with pave-
ments of simple mosaic; the proteins, which play so large a part,
especially in animal life, are more like a jig-saw puzzle.
The proteins are the formative materials of animal structures.
They are commonly known in such materials as wheat glutin
easily separated from the accompanying starch by kneading
flour in a gently-running stream of water; egg white; milk casein;
glue or gelatin; and as the chief constituent of meats. A number
of proteins have been obtained in crystalline form, but they are
undoubtedly all substances of high molecular weight. Like the
higher carbohydrates they can be resolved into simple units by
hydrolysis either by acids or by enzymes. They yield a numer-
ous and varied series of fragments; the following is a list of com-
pounds of the glycine type thus far separated from them:
Glycine CH 2 (NH 2 ).COOH
Alanine CH 3 .CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Valine (CH 3 ) 2 :CH.CH(NH,)COOH
Leucine(CH 3 ) 2 :CH.CH 2 .CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Isoleucine (CH 3 )(C 2 H 6 ) :CH.CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Serine CH 2 OH.CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Lysine H 2 N.CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH(NH 2 ).COOH
NHi
/
Arginine HN=C
NH.CH 2 .CH 2 .CH 2 CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Phenylalanine C 6 H 5 .CH 2 .CH (NH 2 ).COOH
Tyrosine HO.C 6 H4.CH 2 CH(NH2).COOH
Aspartic acid HOOC.CH 2 .CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Glutamic acid HOOC.CH 2 .CH 2 .CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Hydroxyglutamic acid HOOC.CH 2 .CHOH.CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Cystine HOOC.CH(NH 2 ).CH 2 S SCH 2 .CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Proline CH 2 CH 2
I I
CH 2 CH.COOH
\ /
NH
Hydroxyproline
HO.CH CH 2
1 1
CH 2 CH.COOH
\ /
NH
Histidine CH
' # \
-N NH
1 |
HC = C CH 2 .CH(NH 2 ).COOH
Tryptophane C CH 2 .CH(NH 2 ).COOH
/>\
C 6 H 4 CH
\/
NH
644
CHEMISTRY
It is not difficult to account for the formation of such com-
pounds from carbohydrate materials and ammonia. Peculiar to
all is the group CH(NH 2 ).CO2H. The presence of this group is
almost certainly a clue to the process by which they are produced,
viz. by the action of ammonia on a keto-carboxy-acid. Much
has been said above of pyruvic acid: alanine is doubtless formed
from this acid by its combination with ammonia and subsequent
reduction of the hydroxy-amino acid:
CH 3 CO.CO 2 H+NH 3 = CH 3 .C(OH)(NH 2 ).CO 2 H
CH 3 .C(OH) (NH 2 ).CO 2 H +2H = CH 3 .CH (NH 2 ).CO 2 H
In the human circulation amino-acids are converted into oxy-
acids which serve as fuels by the reverse process. As the
amino-acids are optically active substances, like the glucosides,
the reduction process must be directed in some way: they
belong to one series corresponding to that of the natural sugars.
The name amino-acid, usually given to the protein hydroclasts,
is not applicable to the compounds as they exist apart, although
they function as such. The names in the above list, which are
those usually given, indicate that most of the compounds are
basic rather than acid. As a matter of fact, owing to internal
neutralization,
.CH
NH 2
COOH
.CH
NH 3
CO.O
they are all but neutral substances, yet they can act either as
acid or base, according to circumstances.
Although obtainable from animal as well as vegetable pro-
teins, all the compounds in the list given, with the exception of
the first, are the products of plant activity alone. The office of
the animal is to take to pieces the complex structures which are
eaten as vegetable food; then, having conveyed them in the blood
stream to various parts of the body, to reconstruct them in ap-
propriate special ways. In some cases the units are built up
around a phosphoric acid nucleus, particularly in cell nuclei, in
brain matter and bone marrow. A number of compounds be-
sides those in the list, even sugars, especially galactose and
ribose, are met with proteins.
In the carbohydrates the linkage is etheric two carbon atoms
are joined through the agency of an oxygen atom. In the pro-
teins two carbon atoms are linked together through the agency
of a nitrogen atom. An additional peculiarity is the presence of a
succession of NH.CH.CO groups, each forming as it were a
short link in a chain, each link carrying a side-group which
may vary greatly in character and dimensions attached to the
CH member. A large number of " polypeptides " have been
built up in the laboratory, from amino-acids, on such a plan as
the following:
NH 2 .CH 2 .CO. ! NH.CH.CO ! NH.CH.CO I NH.CH.CO.OH
I I I
CH, C 3 H 7 C<H,
Even octadecapeptides have been prepared, indeed there seems
to be no theoretical limit to the number of " links " that may be
included in the chain. In this field however, as in that of the
carbohydrates, there is reason to believe that nature has been
sparing in her selection and choice of patterns. At present, not
the least clue to the patterns laid down has been obtained: at
most the order followed in some of the smaller fragments ob-
tained from proteins by hydrolysis has been ascertained.
The uniformity that exists could not be reached the possible
permutations and combinations are so infinitely numerous if
selective and directive influences were not at work, of the order
of those referred to in discussing the carbohydrates. It would be
easy to prepare many unit materials similar to those in use in
plants and animals, but there can be no doubt they would not
be assimilated as foods. If not poisonous they would either be
seized on by glucose molecules and quickly emptied into the
urine or got rid of as such; or they would be just thrown into
the circulation and burnt up in its fires.
The great advance of modern times, since it became possible
to analyse the proteins, is the recognition of the prime fact that a
varied and well proportioned diet is essential, if all the structural
elements required in growth are to be at disposal. Latterly the
even more important discovery has been made that fresh and un-
cooked foods contain minute proportions of mysterious materials
Ox Muscle
Protein.
Casein.
Lact-
albumin.
Gelatin.
Wheat
Gliadin.
Wheat
Glutenin.
Maize
Zein.
Maize
Glutenin.
Edestin.
Sturin.
Glycine
2-1
o
o
19-3
o
0-9
o
0-3
3-8
Alanine
3-7
i-5
2-5
3-o
2-0
4-7
9-8
3-6
Valine
0-8
7-2
0-9
3'4
O-2
1-9
+
Leucine
11-7
9.4
19-4
6-8
6-6
6-0
19-6
6-2
20-9
Phenylalanine
3'2
3-2
2-4
I-O
2-4
2-0
6-6
3'i
Tryosine .
2-2
4-5
0-9
o
1-2
4-3
3-6
3'8
2-1
Serine
o-5
0-4
O-2
0-7
I'D
o-3
Cystine
(?)
o-5
O-O2
o-3
Proline
5-8
6-7
4-0
10-4
13-2
4-2
9-0
5'9
4-1
Hydroxyproline
o-3
6-4
2-O
Aspartic acid
4-5
1-4
I-O
1-2
0-6
0-9
i-7
0-7
4-5
Glutamic acid
15-5
15-6
IO-I
1-8
437
23-4
26-2
12-7
18-7
Tryptophanc
Argmine .
+
7-5
1-5
3-8
3-2
9-3
I-O
3'2
+
47
o
1-6
+
7-1
+
14-4
58-2
Lysine
7-6
6-0
9-2
5-o
O-2
1-9
o
3-o
1-7
I2-O
Histidine .
1-8
2-5
2-1
0-4
0-6
[
0-8
3-o
2-4
[2-9
Ammonia .
l-l
1-6
i-3
0-4
5-2
4-0
3-6
2-1
Total
67-5
66-5
57-o
65-4
83-0
59-72
85-4
45-7
81-9
8 3 -I
The analysis of the proteins is a difficult operation and the re-
sults are usually but approximations. In the accompanying
table, the results of such an analysis are set out. Those quoted
are sufficient to show how complex is their composition and how
much variation there is in the proportions of the several com-
ponents.
Like the higher carbohydrates, the proteins may be broken up
into a series of compounds of diminishing complexity by means
of several different enzymes acting in succession; these proteo-
clastic enzymes have been relatively little studied and but im-
perfectly defined. A striking peculiarity of several is that they
are active either in strongly acid or strongly alkaline solutions
under conditions which render the saccharoclastic enzymes in-
operative. This difference is called for probably because of the
different wav in which the units are linked.
without which healthy growth is impossible. These indispensable
agents or advitants may easily be destroyed in cooking and by
preserving foods. Thus infants fed on boiled milk alone rapidly
develop symptoms of scurvy, but the addition of a little orange or
turnip juice is sufficient to meet the deficiency. To explain such
facts and a multitude of similar observations is very difficult, yet
the discovery of the explanation is of vital importance, as vast
quantities of poor food might have its full value restored, if the
deficit in advitant could be made good.
The advitants can scarcely be enzymic agents, as in most cases
they withstand more heating than would an enzyme: it is true the
antiscorbutic advitant in milk and fresh vegetables is destroyed by
heating or drying, but in orange juice survives boiling.
The alkaloid adrenaline, produced constantly in minute pro-
portion, is known to be a regulant of the arterial system in the
CHESTERTON CHICAGO
645
human body: therefore, it is conceivable that the advitants are
alkaloidal substances or at least substances which exercise regu-
lative functions without being structural elements.
The most suggestive observations of recent times in this direc-
tion, however, are those relating to anaphylaxis. If a minute
amount of a protein be introduced into the blood stream of an
animal, after a certain interval it is rendered so sensitive to the
action of the particular protein that if a further amount be in-
jected the animal is killed. A different protein has no lethal effect.
In this way a clear distinction can be established between such
apparently similar materials as white of egg from the hen and
that from the duck. Nay more according to Dakin and Dale
if egg albumin be treated with weak alkali and the treated ma-
terial be injected into the animal it produces no sensitiveness
either to itself or to untreated egg albumin, and animals sensi-
tised by the latter are not affected by it. The effect of alkali, it
is known, is to racemise the albumin ; that is to say, to bring about
a local change such as that which attends the conversion of glu-
cose into galactose; in the albumin only a few centres can be open
to such a change, yet its fit is spoilt thereby and it is no longer
operative in the system but runs out unchanged in the urine.
Even in the case of adrenaline only the natural form is opera-
tive; the optically opposite form the other glove has little
effect. Attention may be called here to a striking recent observa-
tion in connexion with this alkaloid. When tellurium is com-
bined with methylic iodide two isomeric compounds are formed,
differing in colour and crystalline form: in itself this is a remark-
able result and proof that tellurium has unsymmetric affinities.
The two compounds are probably cis- and trans-forms, thus:
. ,
M/S
Me
{
Me
These produce entirely different effects on animals: the one, pre-
sumably the trans-form, slows and weakens the heart and the
blood-pressure falls. The other, in which the iodine atoms per-
haps act together, has the most profound stimulant action on the
medulla, giving rise to an increase of blood-pressure and increas-
ing the depth and rapidity of respiration. Generally, before the
blood has reached the normal again, a second rise occurs; this is
due to the liberation of adrenaline from the supra-renal glands,
upon which the cis-compound exerts an unique and specific ef-
fect not comparable with that produced by any other known
chemical. Large doses of the compound, such as 60 milligrammes
to a cat, paralyse the whole nervous system brain, spinal cord
and motor nerves (cf. Vernon, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1921, 108).
This effect may be likened to that of secretin, which according
to Bayliss and Starling serves to liberate from the pancreas the
proteoclastic enzyme which is active in intestinal digestion.
In fine, whatever the direction in which we look, the influence
of structure is paramount and determinative: hence the fixity of
our human nature. If organic chemistry teaches us anything it is
that no education can alter our mechanism : only changes in the
germ can be effective: wherein the patterns are laid down in pro-
teins especially, and so handed on from generation to generation.
(H. E. A.)
CHESTERTON, GILBERT KEITH (1874- ), English author
(see 6. in). More recent works: The Innocence of Father
Brown (1911) and The Wisdom of Father Brown (1914), both
collections of detective stories; Man Alive (1912); The Vic-
torian Age in Literature (1913); The Flying Inn (1914); A Short
History of England (1917) ; Irish Impressions (1919) and a play,
Magic (1913), which was produced at the Little theatre, London.
CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY (1841-1915), English divine and
biblical critic (see 6.116), died at Oxford Feb. 16 1915. His
later works include The Two Religions of Israel (1910); Mines
of Isaiah Re-explored (1912); The Veil of Hebrew History (1913)
and Fresh Voyages on Infrequented Waters (1914).
CHEYNE, SIR WILLIAM WATSON, ist BART. (1852- ),
British surgeon, was born in the Shetland Is. Dec. 14 1852
and was educated at Edinburgh, where he took his degrees in
surgery and medicine in 1875. He also studied at Vienna, Paris
and Strasbourg. In 1880 he was appointed to the chair of sur-
gery at King's College, London, and from 1888 to 1890 was Hun-
terian professor of surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons.
From 1900 to 1901 he was consulting surgeon to the South
African forces. On the outbreak of war in 1914 he became con-
sulting surgeon to the Royal Navy and in this capacity accom-
panied the British forces to Gallipoli. He was created a baronet
in 1908 and in 1916 received the K.C.M.G.
His published works include Antiseptic Surgery (1882); The Anti-
septic Treatment of Wounds (1885); Lectures on Suppuration and
Septic Disease (1889); Objects and Limits of Operations for Cancer
(1896); Manual of Surgical Treatment (7 vols., 1899 1903); besides
various papers on the treatment of wounds in war.
CHICAGO (see 6.118). With a pop. in 1920 of 2,701,705,
representing an increase of 23-6% over the enumeration for
1910 (2,185,283), Chicago easily maintained its position as the
second city in the United States. While the city's growth was
greater proportionately than that of New York, which was 17-9%,
it was considerably less absolutely. The percentage of increase
was less than in any other decade of Chicago's history. It was
likewise smaller than that of Detroit, 113-4%, and Cleveland,
42-1 %, Chicago's closest rivals in the Middle West. In 1920 the
negro pop. was 109,594, an increase of 148-5% over the pre-
ceding census. This influx of negroes, largely from the South,
was due to the great demand for unskilled labour, especially
in the packing industry, during the period of the World War
when the European immigration was slight. A shortage of
housing facilities for these negro labourers was one of the under-
lying causes of the race riots of 1919 in which a number of negroes
and whites were killed. Much of Chicago's growth in previous
decades had been due to immigration; this was sharply restricted
after 1914. By the annexation of suburban territory, the area
of Chicago (both land and water) was increased from 191-4 sq. m.
in 1910 to 200 sq. m. in 1920.
Industry and Commerce. The value of manufactures produced in
Chicago increased enormously during the decade, the greatest
advance being after 1914, as indicated by the following table com-
piled by the Chicago Association of Commerce in which, however,
the estimates for 1919 are probably too generous:
LEADING MANUFACTURERS
Industry.
AH industries
Meat packing.
Iron and steel
Foundry products
Men's clothing
Printing and publishing
Electrical machinery .
Agricultural implements
Railway cars .
Plumbing, etc.
Furniture
Timber products .
Bakery products .
Soap
In 1918 the estimated total for all industries was $4,205,914,000.
In 1914 Chicago had 10,114 manufacturing establishments employ-
ing 386,794 persons, of whom 313,202 were wage earners. The cost
of materials was $7<J3,47o,ooo, and the amount paid in wages
$174,112,000. The Chicago packing plants increased their output
while the World War was in progress, as the following figures show:
BEEF AND
No. cattle.
1905-6 1,988,955
1910-1 1,735,185
1914-5 1,442,870
The extent of the grain trade is indicated by the following tabula-
tion of receipts (bus.) :
1913 1915 1918
Wheat .... 50,372,000 70,704,000 69,610,000
Corn 127,773,000 95,357,000 100,409,000
Oats 124,405,000 133,475,000 137,072,000
1919
(Estimated)
1914
(U.S. Census)
$6,500,000,000
$1,482,814,000
3,500,000,000
600,000,000
265,000,000
252,000,000
410,709,000
27,002,000
85,359,000
84,340,000
203,000,000
184,000,000
97,507,000
17,568,000
130,000,000
126,500,000
41,000,000
50,931,000
111,500,000
102,000,000
43,600,000
73,000,000
68,500,000
28,711,000
34,217,000
59,500,000
21,255,000
ID PORK PACKING IN CHICAGO
No. hogs. No. cattle
6,027,432 1915-6 1,962,048
6,294,251 1916-7 2,073,553
6,079,473 1917-8 2,411,750
No. hogs.
7,256,936
7,757,726
6,284,586
646
CHICAGO
Bank clearings in 1920 were $32,669,233,535, as compared with
$16,198,985,174 in 1915 and $13,939,689,984 in 1910. The com-
bined resources shown by the figures of the Chicago banks in 1920
amounted to $1,883,154,592.
The City Plan. The most striking feature of Chicago's recent
history is the formulation of the plan for the physical recon-
struction of the city and the progress of the movement for its
execution. This plan had its genesis in a report, issued by the
Commercial Club of Chicago in 1909, which was prepared largely
under the guiding spirit of Mr. Daniel H. Burnham, Director of
Works of the World's Fair of 1803. The first step was the appoint-
ment of the Chicago Plan Commission, created by ordinance of
the city council, and composed of aldermen and citizens. In
furtherance of the Chicago Plan, Roosevelt Rd. (formerly i2th
St.) was widened to more than 100 ft. between Ashland Ave.
and Michigan Ave., a distance of 2 m., at a cost of $8,303,284.
Michigan Ave. was widened to 130 ft. between Roosevelt Rd.
and the river and to 141 ft. between the river and Chicago Ave.
Widening that part of the street between Randoph St. and Chicago
Ave. was a difficult matter, involving the taking of valuable
private property, and the construction over the Chicago river
of a large two-level bascule bridge. The cost of the Michigan
Ave. project was in excess of $16,000,000, paid for out of bond
issues and special assessments. The new thoroughfare was
opened to traffic in 1920. Other street-widening and street-
opening projects were under way in 1921.
The situation with respect to railway terminal facilities had
long been unsatisfactory. The fact that Chicago is the greatest
railway centre in the world, and that the interests involved
were conflicting, made the problem exceedingly difficult. In
1911 the new passenger station of the Chicago and North-
western railway was opened to service, at a cost of $25,000,000.
This station, which is a dignified structure, was the project of a
single railway. Other terminal projects authorized later repre-
sent greater cooperation, though they materially conflicted in
some respects with the ideas of the Chicago Plan Commission.
The railways using the so-called Union Station the Pennsyl-
vania, the Burlington, the Chicago & Alton, and the Chicago, Mil-
waukee & St. Paul had under construction (1921) a new passenger
station estimated before the war to cost $65,000,000. The actual
cost probably will be nearer $80,000,000. This station is to have a
large office building above it. The proposed passenger station of the
Illinois Central railway, on the lake front, was planned on a scale
large enough to accommodate all the roads 17 in number using
the Illinois Central, Dearborn, La Salle and Grand Central stations.
The Illinois Central project also involved a programme of electric
operation, beginning with the suburban service in 1927 and includ-
ing all service, freight and passenger, by 1940. The estimated cost
to the railway of the Illinois Central improvement was $80,000,000.
As a part of the combined move for terminal improvement and
lake-front development, the Board of South Park Commissioners
planned to spend $60,000,000; of which $20,000,000 has been
authorized by referendum vote. The board was, in 1921, proceed-
ing to make land by filling the lake outside the Illinois Central right
of way, this land to be used for parkways and bathing beaches.
The new building for the Field Museum, located on made land on the
lake front at the foot of Roosevelt Rd., was completed in 1920 at a
cost of $6,000,000, which was provided by the will of Marshall Field.
The museum was formerly housed in the old Fine Arts Building,
first erected for the World's Fair of 1893, in Jackson Park. The new
building opened in May 1921 is 350 ft. wide and 700 ft. long. It is
built oi Georgia white marble, in the Ionic style of architecture.
South of the Field Museum is to be located a large stadium with a
seating capacity of 100,000, for which a bond issue of $2,500,000
has been authorized by referendum vote. The outside dimensions
of this structure of reenforced concrete will be 2,000 by 1, 080 feet.
Other important buildings erected or completed during the decade
191020 include the following, (name, height in storeys and approxi-
mate cost given in order): Atlantic Hotel, 20, $1,400,000; Butler
Bros., 14, $1,750,000; Continental and Commercial National Bank,
20, $4,500,000; Fort Dearborn Hotel, 17, $1,100,000; Insurance
Exchange, 22, $4,000,000; Karpen, 12, $1,400,000; Lytton, 18,
$2,250,000; Mandel (department store), 15, $2,000,000; Monroe, 14,
$1,500,000; Morrison Hotel, 22, $2,000,000; North American, 20,
$1,800,000; Peoples Gas, 20, $3,000,000; State-Lake, 13, $1,600,000.
The present limit of the height of buildings by city ordinance is
260 feet.
One of the most important municipal undertakings of the decade
was the Municipal Tuberculosis Sanatorium, consisting of several
buildings erected after 1909, in which year a site of 164 ac. was
acquired in the north-western part of the city. Its revenues, derived
mainly from taxation, amount to more than $1,000,000 a year; in
1920 there were about 1,000 patients. A notable structure, com-
pleted late in 1915 at a cost of nearly $4,000,000, is the Municipal
Pier. It projects 3,000 ft. into Lake Michigan just north of the
mouth of the Chicago river. The outer portion, 660 ft. in length,
is a three-decked structure devoted to recreation purposes. Up to
1920 the new pier had not been extensively utilized by shipping
interests ; the recreation part of the pier, however, proved extremely
popular from the outset.
Education, Art and Music. The school census of 1916, though not
completely reliable, was of interest as showing that the total pop.,
under 21 years of age, in that year was 996,059. Of these 304,547
were of compulsory school attendance age i.e. over 7 and under 14
years. Between the ages of 14 and 16 there were 96,949 of whom
1 5-393 were at work and 885 unaccounted for. The total en-
rolment in the public schools in 1919 was 377,058 (8,558 teachers) ;
in 1910 the enrolment was 300,893 (6,383 teachers). In 1920 there
were 288 public schools, in many of which night courses were given
to adults as well as to minors. The number of students registered
in the Art School of the Art Institute in 1920-1 was 4,267. The
number of visitors to the Institute during the year was 1,100,000.
The trustees of the Art Institute administer the Ferguson Monu-
ment Fund, consisting of the income from $1,000,000, left by the
will of Benjamin Franklin Ferguson, a Chicago business man, to
be used for the erection of enduring statuary and monuments in
Chicago. Among others, two notable pieces by Lorado Taft have-
been purchased ; one, " The Fountain of the Great Lakes," stands just
to the S. of the Art Institute ; the other, " The Fountain of Time," will
stand at the head of the Midway, between Washington and Jack-
son parks.
Chicago was the first American municipality to adopt the policy
of giving direct official encouragement to local art by using public
funds for that purpose. In 1914, at the suggestion of Mayor Har-
rison, the city council appropriated $2,500 for the purchase of
paintings and works of plastic art, the production of resident artists
and sculptors, and an appropriation for this purpose has been made
each year since. The purchases are supervised by a commission named
by the mayor; it consists of seven members, of whom six are ap-
pointed on the recommendation of different art groups of the city,
including the Art Institute.
The most notable development in music since 1910 has been
the establishment of the Chicago Opera Association, at first known
as the Chicago Grand Opera Co. The company gives a 10 weeks'
season of grand opera each year in Chicago, five weeks in New York
and five weeks in other places.
Parks and Bathing Beaches. Before 1910 the facilities for bathing
in Lake Michigan within the city limits were meagre. In 1920
there were 12 public bathing beaches, 3 maintained by park boards,
and the rest by the city government. Clarendon Beach, managed
by the city, is the largest. It has nearly 10,000 lockers and has been
used by as many as 23,000 bathers in one day. The small park and
playground movement, which was well under way in 1910, devel-
oped largely in the following decade. In 1920, in addition to several
large parks, there were 195 small parks and playgrounds maintained
by the city and by park authorities. Outer park areas for Chicago
were enlarged by the purchase, beginning in 1916, of wooded tracts
in Cook county, nearly all of them outside Chicago, to the extent
of 18,028-77 ac.; these tracts are known as the Forest Preserve Dis-
trict. The total purchase price was $7,221,754.78, or an average
of $400.57 per acre. The members of the Board of Cook County
Commissioners arc ex-officio the commissioners of the Forest Pre-
serve District. The plans call for the acquisition of about 30,000 ac.
all told. A 3OO-ac. tract of land near Riverside was donated by Mrs.
Edith Rockefeller McCormick for the establishment of the Chicago
Zoological gardens.
Finance. The city's corporate finances suffered severely from
causes incident to the World War, and more particularly from the
loss of revenue from saloon licences, which once contributed as
much as $7,000,000 annually. A summary of the more important
city revenues and expenditures in 1919 follows:
Purpose.
Corporate purposes ....
Sinking-funds for bonds .
Municipal water- works .
Schools
Public Library . . . ...
Municipal tuberculosis sanatorium
Special assessments (street improve-
ments)
All purposes 1
Revenue. Expenditure.
$32,541.75? $32,084,658
4,200,342
6,643,958
24,167,362
848,764
4,324,346
8,007,851
27,701,826
847,095
1,054,076
10,757,148
129,432,896
1,287,755
9,449,038
99,142,349
1 This does not include expenditures for the larger parks, for the
sanitary district, or for some other purposes which are in the hands
of separate taxing bodies. The division of each dollar of taxes in
1918 was as follows: city corporate, i;J cents; state, 14^; county
and towns, 9!; sanitary district, 5^; schools and education, 19,
school buildings. 10; parks, 10; tuberculosis sanatorium, ij; pen-
sions, 2; public library, ii; and interest, 9i.
CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO
647
History. Carter H.Harrison (Dem.), who was elected in 1911
to his fifth term as mayor of Chicago, was succeeded in 1915
by William Hale Thompson (Rep.), who was reflected in 1919.
After the United States entered the World War, Thompson was
sharply criticised for various actions that seemed to indicate a
reluctant support of the war policy of the Government.
The disappearance from the newspaper field of the Inter-Ocean
and the Herald left Chicago for a time with only two English-
speaking morning dailies, the Tribune and the Herald and Ex-
aminer. In 1920 the Chicago Journal of Commerce was estab-
lished as a morning paper for business men, with no Sunday edi-
tion. The Joseph Medill School of Journalism was opened in Feb.
1921 , with over 100 students, as a part of the Northwestern Univer-
sity. The Chicago Tribune, of which Joseph Medill was foun-
der, agreed to underwrite the deficit of the school for a five-
year period.
CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF (see 6.125). The grounds of the
University of Chicago increased between 1908 and 1920 from
60 ac. to 92, so that the university's holdings occupied both sides
of the Midway Plaisance continuously for three-quarters of a
mile. During the same period new buildings were erected, at an
aggregate cost of $2,000,000, for a general library (the William
Rainey Harper Memorial), for classics, for geology and geography
(Julius Rosen wald Hall), for pathology (the Howard Taylor
Ricketts Laboratory), and for a women's gymnasium, refectory
and clubhouse (Ida Noyes Hall) . Funds amounting to $3 , 2 50,000
were in hand in Jan. 1921 for further building projects a
theology building and chapel, the Rawson laboratory for medical
research, the Billings hospital (250 beds) and the Epstein dis-
pensary, and the founder's chapel. In 1916-7 funds amounting
to $5,461,000 were secured for the development of the medical
work of the university, and arrangements were made for the
closest cooperation with the Presbyterian hospital, the Otho S. A.
Sprague Memorial Institute and the McCormick Memorial
Institute. A Graduate School of Social Service Administration,
continuing and developing the work previously done by the
Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, was added to the
schools by the university in 1920.
The libraries of the university contained in 1920 685,000 volumes
and 200,000 pamphlets. By a novel arrangement of bridges con-
necting the third floor of the Harper library with adjacent buildings,
reading rooms with an aggregate capacity of 900 readers were
brought into connexion upon the same level and virtually under
one roof. The University Press, the first to be organized under
university ownership in the United States, publishes from 30 to 60
books annually, and II scientific journals, the Biblical World and
the American Journal of Theology giving way on Jan. I 1921 to the
American Journal of Religion. Beginning in 1914 the Meadville
Theological School united its summer quarter with that of the
Divinity School, and in 1915 the Chicago Theological Seminary
(Congregational) became affiliated with the university. While the
trustees of the Divinity School were Baptists, theological instruc-
tion was given by members of five Protestant denominations to
students of every denomination. In celebration of the quarter-
centennial of the founding of the university, June 2-6 1916, the
university published three volumes: The Quarter-Centennial Celebra-
tion of the University of Chicago, 1916, by D. A. Robertson; A Bibli-
ography of the Publications of Members of the University, 19021916,
edited by G. J. Laing; and a History of the University of Chicago,
1891-1916, by T. W. Goodspeed.
Upon the entrance of the United States into the World War,
the President placed the resources of the university at the disposal
of the Government for purposes of experimentation and research
and for military training, and the members of the university entered
actively into war work. President Judson himself led a political
and philanthropic mission to Persia in 1918-9, and, in all, 4,355 mem-
bers of the university, including students, alumni, and members of
the faculties were in the service of the Government ; 70 of these gave
up their lives for their country. Between 1908 and 1920, under the
administration of President Judson, the university's total resources
more than doubled, and on June 30 1920 exceeded $50,000,000,
rather more than $30,000,000 of which was in invested funds. The
members of the faculties numbered 328. Between 1892 and 1920
87,600 students matriculated and more than 12,000 took degrees,
1,200 of them the Ph.D. In 1920-1 the university enrolled 11,479
students. (E. J.G.)
CHILD LABOUR: see JUVENILE EMPLOYMENT.
CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO (see 6.138). In the United
Kingdom little actual legislation for child welfare was passed
between 1908 and 1920, but an immense work was done by the
National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children,
which now has branches all over the United Kingdom. The
worst as well as the most numerous cases of cruelty take place
at home; parents and step-parents are worse than employers.
The society, authorized by name in the " Children's Charter "
(Children Act 1908), was founded at a meeting at the
Mansion House in 1884 and dealt with 95 cases in that year.
The number of cases dealt with in the year ending March 31
1921 was 38,174 in England, Ireland and Wales, but this was
16,598 less than in 1913-4. The number of children involved
was 101,085. Only 3% of the cases were brought into court.
Out of 1,140 prosecutions only 22 failed. The cases are thus
divided:
Cases investi-
gated.
Neglect or starvation 33, 089
Ill-treatment 3,036
Exposure, abandonment, etc 398
Moral wrongs 54 1
Cases where improvement took place by warning were 33,757
or 88-4% of the whole. More than half of these cases (22,095)
were reported by the general public; reported by the police,
3,205; school officials, 6,584; other officials, 3,936. Discovery
by inspectors, 2,354. The children died in 533 cases in conse-
quence of neglect or cruelty.
By the Children Act 1908 any person " over the age of 16
years who has the custody, charge or care of any child under 16
years of age and who causes or procures such child to be assaulted,
ill-treated, neglected, abandoned or .exposed in a manner likely to
cause such child unnecessary suffering or injury to its health including
injury to or loss of sight or hearing, limb or organ of the body and
any mental derangement" can be punished at the Assizes by fine
of 100, and two years' imprisonment, with or without hard labour,
or before a police magistrate by fine of 25 and imprisonment for
six months. The punishment may be ordered although the child
be dead. If the defendant was directly or indirectly interested in
any money payable on the death of the child (e.g. insurance) the
fine can be raised to 200 and five years' penal servitude can be
inflicted. Restrictions are also placed on employment of boys under
14 or girls under 16 for begging or performing or selling anything in
any street, public place, or show (Sect. 2) except under licence if
over the age of 10 years. Application for a licence requires the con-
sent of the police and also the Local Education Authority (Rules
1920). A constable may take any child to a place of safety pending
trial of an offence under the Act (Sect. 5), and the magistrate may
order the detention of the child by a relative, or in a home. After
conviction the court can remove the child out of the control of the
offender and hand it over to a suitable guardian, including a society.
There is also a provision for emigration. The parent of the child
can also be ordered to contribute to its maintenance, and any pen-
sion or source of income may be utilized and charged for the pur-
pose. The religion of the child is protected (Sect. 8). A search
warrant may be issued (Sect. 10) in cases where cruelty to a child is
suspected, but the child cannot be communicated with. The magis-
trate may take the evidence of the child by deposition and not in
the open court, on a medical certificate. Evidence of a child of
tender years may be taken although the child is not able to under-
stand the nature of an oath, but there must be some circumstance
or other person to corroborate such evidence. The court may dis-
pense with the attendance of the child. The onus of proving that
the child is older than 16 is (Sect. 7) thrown on the defendant. The
prosecution must be within six months of the offence. Besides the
offences specified in Sect. I of the Act certain other violent and
criminal offences against the person under an Act of 1861 and
the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 are also punishable.
Baby Farming. The Act provides for inspection and control.
The persons having the care of infants for reward must give notice
to the local authority which appoints visitors and inspectors of
both sexes and, if thought well, in conjunction with philanthropic
societies. Search warrants can be issued, and it is an offence to
refuse admittance to a visitor. Persons who have committed an
offence under this or previous Acts cannot receive or retain chil-
dren. The number of children received can be limited. Children
can be removed. Notice of death must be given to the coroner.
Insurance policies cannot be taken out on the lives of such children.
Miscellaneous^. A penalty is imposed for exposing a child to
danger of burning or scalding by reason of an open grate (Sect. 15)
or for allowing a child to reside in or frequent a brothel. Two
years' imprisonment is the penalty for encouraging the seduction
or prostitution of a girl under 1 6 years of age, or for allowing her
to consort with or enter the employment of any person of immoral
character (Sect. 17). The magistrate may require security from
the parent or guardian not to expose the girl to such risk. Further
648
CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO
precautions are provided for the detention of children in safety
during trial and for placing them with respectable relations or
friends or with societies or industrial schools or reformatories after-
wards. In cases of homicide or grave crime the Home Office has to
provide special places of detention; one of these is the Borstal
Institution at Rochester. The parent is compellable to attend the
juvenile court and can be fined in lieu of the child. No sentence of
felony or death can be recorded against any person under 16 years
of age. Any court may be cleared for a child to give evidence.
No child may be present at any trial in which he is not concerned.
No pawnbroker or dealer in old metal may deal with a child
under 16.
Vagrants who keep children from school can be fined and the
children may be removed to a certified school.
Liquor. By Sect. 119 of the Children Act any person giving a
child under the age of five any intoxicating liquor except by doc-
tor's order can be fined 3. No child under 14 can be allowed
in a bar, and the licencee or any person bringing the child in may
be summoned by the police and fined. Railway and other bona-
fide refreshment rooms are excepted.
Entertainments for Children. Where the majority of the audience
are children and the number exceeds loo the occupier is respon-
sible and can be fined up to 100. He must provide a sufficient
number of adult attendants to take precautions for the safety of
the children. His licence may be revoked (Sect. 121).
Verminous Children. The local authority may direct their medi-
cal officer to examine the children in any provided school and remove
and cleanse any verminous child after notice to the parent who can
be fined on a second offence.
Presumption of Age. The decision of the court on the hearing
can be given on such evidence as is available and is final even if
direct proof of age is subsequently forthcoming. The onus of proof
that the person is over age lies on defendant, and if strictly proved
at the time is a good defence.
Reformatory and Industrial Schools. Part IV. of the Act is a
code regulating these schools. .Briefly, reformatory schools are those
provided for youthful offenders between 12 and 16 years of age who
have been convicted of some offence punishable in an adult by
imprisonment. Industrial schools are those for children under 14
(a) whose parents cannot control them and consent, or (6) who are
found begging under any excuse, wandering, destitute, having
drunken or criminal parents, or associating with thieves or prosti-
tutes or in immoral surroundings, or (c) children under 12 who, if
over 12, might have been sent to a reformatory, or (d) any refrac-
tory workhouse child under 14, or child who cannot be made to
attend any elementary school. In the alternative any child who
could be committed to an industrial school can be committed to a
relative or other person nominated by the court. All these schools
are inspected and controlled by the Home Office, but they are
provided at the expense of the local authority which can borrow in
order to provide them. They are certified by the Home Office and
the certificate may be withdrawn. Managers are appointed to look
after these schools and their expenses are paid. The funds are
partly supplied by the Home Office, partly by the parents of the
children, partly by the local authority.
Scotland. The Secretary for Scotland is substituted for the Home
Office and there are other provisions so as to extend the Act to
Scotland. What is called the police court in England is the sheriff's
court in Scotland, the workhouse becomes the poorhouse, and the
coroner the procurator fiscal.
Ireland. The Act also applies to Ireland.
Juvenile Courts. The most conspicuous advance is the
development of juvenile courts, which have been a great success
and have been adopted in most towns. The appointment of
women magistrates is also a step in advance and an additional
good influence. By 10 and n Geo. V., C 68 (Dec. 23 1920) a
woman justice must sit with the magistrate in a juvenile court.
They are chosen from a panel nominated by the Home Office.
The idea of the juvenile court is to get the child away from the
criminal atmosphere and the kind of public which frequents police
courts, and from the procedure in which the terrified child was
placed in a high dock surrounded by members of the police force
in uniform, too frightened to tell the truth or know what was being
said in the case. The proceedings are conducted in a quiet room
by a magistrate who tries to get the confidence of the child and
act as a father would in a like case.
Defective Children. Much has been done for defective children
since 1893. The Board of Education has issued consolidated
regulations (Cmd. 617) dealing with: (a) medical inspection
and treatment of children in elementary schools; (b) provision
of meals; (c) schools for blind, deaf, defective and epileptic chil-
dren; (d) physical training; (e) evening play centres.
These various activities for the benefit of children are taken into
consideration in " substantive grants " by the Board of Education
to local authorities. The evening play centres, initiated by Mrs.
Humphry Ward, and largely supported by voluntary contribu-
tions, since 1918 have been eligible for such grants. Submission
of arrangements (see Education Act 1918, and Ministry of Health
Act 1919) are made by each local authority to the Board or Min-
istry concerned. Medical records are kept, school clinics and feeding
centres are provided, as are special schools for the deaf and blind
who must be kept completely separate, and the mentally deficient
and epileptic. The necessity of beginning the training between the
ages of two and five is insisted on by the Board. The curriculum
for each class of child, building regulations, rules as to grants regu-
lation for special schools and boarding-houses will be found in the
appendices to the consolidated regulations. The Elementary Edu-
cation Defective and Epileptic Children Acts 1899-1914 make it a
duty of the local authority to provide for their education, and make
it incumbent on the parent of such a child over seven to make
suitable provision for its education or to send it to a certified school.
Affiliation (see 1.300). The maximum payment obtainable
from the father of an illegitimate child was in 1921 increased
to IQS. per week, to be collected by an officer of the court.
Adoption. In 1921 the Report of the Committee appointed by
the Home Office was published (Cmd. 1254). It recommends:
(i) that adoption of children should be made a legal and
enforceable act, the adopting parents having the rights of natural
parents; (2) that the county court as well as high court should
have jurisdiction; (3) that subsequent marriage should legiti-
matize any children previously born.
For the law as to custody and guardianship of children, see
WOMEN, LEGAL STATUS OF. ' (R. TH.)
UNITED STATES
There was a distinct advance in regard to the care of children,
legislative and otherwise, in the United States during the decade
1910-20. In 1912 the Federal Children's Bureau was established
by Act of Congress as a division of what was then the Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labor. The Bureau was made a part of
the Department of Labor when the latter was created in 1913.
The Bureau was directed by statute to investigate all matters
pertaining to the welfare of children and child life, and especially
the questions of infant mortality, the diseases of children,
juvenile courts, abandonment, and the employment of children
in dangerous and other occupations. Miss Julia C. Lathrop
(b. 1858), chief of the Children's Bureau from its establishment,
was responsible for its success in scientific research and in
cooperating with national societies and local public and private
agencies in the advancement of the interests of children.
Children's Codes. The new movement for " children's codes "
took form in 1911, when Ohio was the first state to create an official
Children's Code Commission to " revise, consolidate and suggest
amendments " to the laws of the state pertaining to children. As a
result of the work of this commission, a children's code was adopted
by Ohio in 1913. By 1921, 24 states had followed the example by
appointing official bodies to codify laws and to recommend legisla-
tion in the field of child welfare. Special attention was given by
these commissions to the laws with reference to dependent, delin-
quent and defective children. The legislation which was adopted
after the report of the Minnesota Commission in 1917 made Min-
nesota a leading state in the public protection and care of children.
Here, as in seven other states, the work is centralized in a special
division, a state board of control or whatever state department
has general oversight of the state's wards.
Illegitimacy. There has been some discussion in recent years of
the legal position of children born out of wedlock. Most of the
American states adopted laws which made the issue of certain
annulled marriages legitimate, followed the civil-law principle of
legitimation by subsequent matrimony, and created rights of inter-
state succession between the illegitimate child and the mother. Bas-
tardy support legislation in America has followed English lines.
According to Prof. Ernst Freund, of the university of Chicago, the
most striking feature of this legislation has been its stationary char-
acter, indicative of a lack of thought with reference to the subject
during the past century. This stagnation appears to have come to
an end in the last few years. In 1917 liberal laws were adopted
in the states of Minnesota and North Dakota. The Minnesota
law provides that the state Board of Control shall look after the
interests of the illegitimate child so that he may have approx-
imately the same advantages as the legitimate child. To do
this the Board may initiate proceedings to establish the parent-
age and rights of the child, may cooperate with child-aiding
organizations, and, when requested to do so, may appoint a county
child-welfare board, two members of which shall be women, to
aid in the objects of the state Board; if there is no county welfare
board, the judge of the juvenile court may appoint local agents to
CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO
649
cooperate with the state Board. The abandonment statute is
made applicable to illegitimate as well as to legitimate children.
North Dakota has by legislation declared every child born out of
wedlock to be legitimate and entitled to support and to education
as though born in lawful wedlock. An illegitimate child born in a
maternity hospital is given the surname of the father if known.
The North Dakota law does not, however, provide means for over-
coming some disadvantages from which children born out of wed-
lock suffer and which the law declares are abolished. In 1919 regional
conferences with reference to the problems of illegitimacy, held
under the auspices of the U.S. Children's Bureau, agreed upon
principles with reference to the illegitimacy problem which should
be recommended to legislatures; in Aug. 1920, the National Confer-
ence of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws appointed a com-
mittee to consider legislation in this field and to prepare a model
law which might be adapted by the various states to local condi-
tions. The ground was thus well prepared for legislation.
Dependent Children. Massachusetts did the first important
work in boarding the state's dependent children in family homes
instead of in institutions for children. Since the White House Con-
ference on the Care of Dependent Children in 1909 there has been a
growing recognition by both private and public agencies of the
importance of providing, for child 'en who must be removed from
their own homes, home life as nearly normal as possible.
Although there had been an increase in institutional provision
for the feeble-minded, facilities for the custody and training of the
subnormal were in 1920 still inadequate in all states. A special
commission in Massachusetts relative to the control, custody and
treatment of defectives, criminals and misdemeanants reported to
the Legislature in 1919. As a result of its recommendations laws
were passed in Massachusetts providing for a census of retarded
school-children, the establishment of special classes in the public
schools for such children, and the registration of the feeble-minded
by a Commission on Mental Diseases. By 1921 similar legislation
had been adopted or was under consideration in a number of states.
Juvenile Courts. Since the first fundamental modification of
court procedure relating to children was made in Illinois in 1899,
every state, except Connecticut, Maine and Wyoming, has adopted
so-called " juvenile-court " laws. This legislation has been fitted
into the local judicial systems, so that there, are many differences
not only between states but in different parts of the same state.
A questionnaire study of the courts in the United States hearing
children's cases, made by the U.S. Children's Bureau for the year
1918, showed 2,391 courts organized under these statutes; 1,269 of
them reported a total of 140,252 cases heard during the year,
including 79,946 cases of juvenile delinquency heard in 1, 088 of
these courts; 37,387 cases of neglect and dependency were reported
by 791 courts. From the replies received, the Bureau estimated
that the number of children's cases heard annually in the juvenile
courts of the United States approximates 175,000. The constitu-
tionality of laws creating juvenile courts and certain general prin-
ciples on which they must operate have been generally established;
separate hearings, informal or chancery procedure, professional
probation officers for investigation and supervisory care, deten-
tion of children separate from adults, and a system of recording
and filing the social as well as the legal history of each case are now
recognized as necessary. During the years 1910-20 attention was
centred on the working-out of these principles in actual practice.
As a result there was an extension and improvement of the proba-
tion service (every state except Wyoming had in 1921 legislative
provision for juvenile probation); better methods were developed
for gathering and recording social as well as legal facts, and coopera-
tion with other agencies was increasingly effective. The practice in
many places still fell far short, however, of the idea.
Miscellaneous. Certain significant tendencies of the decade
1910-20 may be noted:
(1) Provision for " mothers' " or " widows' " pensions or " funds
for parents," in order that dependent children may be cared for in
their own homes. The first two laws of this type were adopted
almost simultaneously in Illinois and Missouri in 1911. In Illinois
the legislation was sought by Judge Merritt W. Pinckney, of
the Juvenile Court of Cook County (Chicago). He was moved
to do this by the large number of children for whom dependency
petitions were filed solely because, in his opinion, their fathers were
dead or incapacitated. In 1920, 40 states and the territories of
Alaska and Hawaii had passed what came to be known generally as
" mothers' pension " laws. Such opposition as there was to these
laws came from private relief agencies which believed, because of
the general failure of public outdoor relief, that the laws would
never be well administered by a public agency. In 1 8 states,
among them Colorado, Illinois, Minnesota, Ohio and Wisconsin,
the administration of these laws was lodged in the juvenile courts
and has involved a great increase in the work of those courts.
Contrary to the fears of many, the standard of work done in the
administration of the mothers' pension laws by the Chicago and
other courts was generally equal to that of the better private agen-
cies in the same communities.
(2) Provision for medical and psychological examinations.
The recognition of the physical condition of the child as a factor in
delinquency came first. In 1921 23 courts, all but three in large
cities, had physicians regularly attached to the courts, while 648
courts had either private practitioners or city or county health
officers make physical examinations of the children brought before
the juvenile courts. The Juvenile Psychopathic Institute, with
Dr. William Healy in charge, began in 1909 under private auspices
the study of mental causes of delinquency in the Chicago Juvenile
Court. The judge was soon convinced of the importance of having
before him the information supplied by psychopathic examination
of the children, and Dr. Healy's clinic was therefore taken over by
.the court. Mental clinics became a part of the court organization
in 13 courts; in some the mental examinations being made only in
specially difficult cases, or of children suspected of being subnormal.
In Boston the Judge Baker Foundation, cooperating with the
juvenile court, was (1921) attempting to make a complete physical,
mental and social diagnosis of the condition of most of the children
who came before the court. The diagnosis was agreed upon and
treatment recommended to the judge by the director of the Founda-
tion after a staff conference.
(3) Enlarging the jurisdiction of the court. The first move-
ment in this direction was to expand the definition of what consti-
tuted a delinquent, neglected, or dependent child, so that the court
should in no case be prevented, by the lack of technical jurisdic-
tion, from assuming the care of a child. Mothers' pensions have
already been referred to. Children's agencies were in 1921 advo-
cating that juvenile courts should be given the trial of adults charged
with contributing to the delinquency or dependency of children, of
crimes against children, of bastardy actions, and, less generally,
of cases of desertion and non-support. The " minimum standards
for child welfare," adopted by the Washington and Regional Child
Welfare Conferences called by the U.S. Children's Bureau in 1919,
recommended that the jurisdiction of the juvenile courts should in
all cases be extended to deal with adult sex offenders against chil-
dren, so that the children may be protected against unnecessary
publicity and further corruption in the course of the trial. The
question of combining and coordinating the functions of the juvenile
courts and the domestic relations courts which have been organ-
ized in many places was discussed by probation officers' associa-
tions and social workers generally. There was general agreement
that the juvenile-court method of investigating, of giving weight
to social history and special consideration to the welfare of the
children concerned, is needed in the handling of the family prob-
lems which come before the courts in connection with deser-
tion, divorce and illegitimacy. There was no such general
agreement as to whether these problems should be taken over by
the juvenile court or by a family court.
(4) Curtailment of the jurisdiction of the juvenile courts.
Along with the movement to increase the jurisdiction of the court
there has been a movement in the opposite direction. Early enthu-
siasm for the courts has given place to a more critical attitude,
and it is now very frequently held that functions have been given
the court that could be better performed by other agencies. Child
placing and the whole problem of dependency and mothers' pen-
sions are cited as administrative burdens that should not be placed
on the courts. Massachusetts, the state in which the probation
idea was first developed, does not use its court machinery for
either of these tasks, but assigns them to public charitable agen-
cies; in some states, Minnesota being perhaps the best example,
elaborate administrative agencies have been developed in coopera-
tion with the courts. School machinery that would make resort to
the courts in the truancy cases either unnecessary or less frequent
is also advocated.
(5) The appointment of a specially qualified woman to act as
releree to hear the cases of delinquent girls and to make recom-
mendations to the judge as to the disposition of the cases is believed
to be a forward step. Many states require that a woman, usually a
probation officer, must be present at the hearing of delinquent
girls. Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Denver, Los Angeles and
Philadelphia have women referees who regularly hear the girls'
cases. In D. C. the judge of the juvenile court is a woman.
(6) Extreme decentralization in administrative authority in the
various states is responsible for the great diversity often found
in the same state under the same law. There is an effort to estab-
lish at least minimum administrative standards by increased state
supervision or control in connexion with many types of social
legislation. Recent investigation has shown it is sorely needed in
the juvenile court field, and standardization is being attempted
through the probation service. New York and Massachusetts both
have had for some time state probation commissions, which exer-
cise general supervision over probation officers. Recent legislation
in Alabama and North Carolina goes further in this respect.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For further information see reports of the
U.S. Children's Bureau as follows: S. P. Breckinridge and Helen
R. Jeter, A Summary of Juvenile-Court Legislation (Legal Series,
No. 5, 1920); Helen R. Jeter, The Chicago Juvenile Court (in press);
Evelina Belden, Courts in the United States hearing Ch^ldren's
Cases (Dependent, Defective and Delinquent Classes Series, No. 8,
1920); Laura A. Thompson, Laws Relating to Mothers' Pensions
(Legal Series, No. 4, 1920); S. P. Breckinridge and Edith Abbott,
Administration of Aid-to- Mothers' Law in Illinois (in press) ; Emma
O. Lundberg and Katherine F. Lenroot, Illegitimacy as a Child-
650
CHILD WELFARE
Welfare Problem (Dependent, Defective and Delinquent Classes
Series, No. 9, 1920); Ernst Freund, Illegitimacy Laws of the United
States (Legal Series, No. 2, 1919). See also S. P. Breckinridge and
Edith Abbott, The Delinquent Child and the Home (New York:
Charities Publication Committee, 1912); Bernard Flexner and
Roger N. Baldwin, Juvenile Courts and Probation (1914): William
Healy, Individual Delinquent (1915); Mental Conflicts and Mis-
conduct (1917); Honesty: a Study of the Causes and Treatment of
Dishonesty among Children (1915); Annual Reports and Proceed-
ings of the National Probation Association ; Annual Reports of Massa-
chusetts Commission on Probation; Reports of New York (Slate)
Probation Commission; Proceedings of National Conference of Social
Work, Section on Children. (G. AB.)
CHILD WELFARE. During 1905-21 the question of Child
Welfare became one of continually increasing interest to social
reformers.
Before that, the interest in it was mainly from the philan-
thropic point of view, but the steady decline of the birth-rate
in the United Kingdom made it a pressing necessity to endeav-
our to preserve the vitality of the nation. Though it is true
that the efforts to preserve infant life have been in great
measure successful, this has not made up, from a population
point of view, for the reduction in the number of infants brought
into the world; but the most strenuous and successful efforts are
being made to minimize the evil. France was in even a more
serious condition as regards reduction of population than England
and she very early directed her energies towards the encouraging
of breast-feeding and the supply of institutions for the supply
of good milk known as goultcs de lait, a plan which for a time
was followed in the United Kingdom. It was about the year
1905, however, that the system which obtains of home visitation,
combined with centres for teaching and helping mothers, began
to take firm root in England, and, like so many other agencies for
social amelioration, it began through voluntary agencies, in
which experiments of various kinds could be freely tried. It is to
their credit that the work of assisting the mother and child has
been developed as it has, and it is on the lines that they started
that the work has been followed up. Hampstead, Westminster
and other London boroughs set to work in these early days and
the records then begun are now proving most useful with the
next generation.
Registration of Births. The necessity for work of this kind
depends largely on the keeping of accurate registers, and on their
availability. It is only in Great Britain, Germany and France,
of European countries, that records of a satisfactory kind can be
had. Up to 1837 there were registers of baptisms obtained from
churches and chapels, but they were far from complete. After
this date registration by the parent was made compulsory within
42 days from birth. This, however, was not sufficient for early
visitation of infants and their mother, even could permission to
use the registers be obtained. In 1906 Huddersfield obtained
parliamentary powers for the compulsory notification of birth
to the Medical Officer of Health, and in 1907 a Notification of
Births Act was passed which permitted local authorities to adopt
a system of compulsory notification, subject to the consent of the
Local Government Board. This was given when it was ascer-
tained that the adoption of the Act would be followed by the
utilization of the information given by a system of home visita-
tion. When adopted, the birth had to be notified within 36
hours to the Medical Officer of Health for the district. This Act
was largely adopted, and it was made to extend to the whole
population in 1915 by the Notification of Births Extension Act.
This Act took the important step of giving definite power to
local authorities of levying rates for infant welfare work. Before
it became law, although Exchequer grants became available,
many authorities were unwilling to incur expenditure; much
voluntary work was, however, being carried on, births being
discovered through the lying-in and other hospitals as well as
through district visiting. In 1921 home visitation was largely
done by the local authorities, more especially in the provinces.
In spite of all that was done beforehand, however, notification
has been the key to all welfare work, and it is the carrying of it
out in respect both of births and infectious diseases that has
allowed such work to develop. The World War proved a great
incentive to this work by bringing home to Great Britain the
need for the preservation of the young population.
Infant Welfare Centres. The first task has been to coordinate
the work at the Infant Centre and the visitation of the mothers
in their own homes. The former were often termed " Schools
for Mothers," since they specialized in teaching the mothers
what was considered necessary for good motherhood. It was
soon found that medical advice was required in addition to the
usual classes for cookery, garment -making, etc., and that infant
consultations were of little use without helping the mothers to
carry out the advice given in their own homes. The medical
inspection of school-children showed how essential it was that
the alarming conditions that were discovered in children of
school age should be dealt with before the child came to school,
and, indeed, that it was necessary to go back to ante-natal
conditions. Some of the advanced health centres had already
realized this fact and were carrying on that work. It was brought
home to those interested that the work required was preventive
far more than curative, and that the whole social condition of the
family was involved the health and habits of the parents,
sanitation, and general surroundings. Above all the housing
question was, it was felt, intimately bound up with this question.
The task was now to link up, so far as might be, the various
ameliorative efforts that were being made with the end of better-
ing the chances for the infant, as well as the agencies for invalid
aid, country holidays and so on for the child. It is certainly true
that curative work is required as well, but the child welfare
movement primarily aims at bringing into the world a healthy
population and endeavouring to preserve for it healthy and
natural conditions. At the same time it must be in touch with
hospitals and other directly curative agencies.
Though every birth may be notified to the Medical Officer of
Health, some (about 20%) are not as a rule visited. Visits are
usually made about 14 days after birth, since before that time
the mother is being attended by a midwife or doctor. A record
card is presented in each case, and this has to be carefully filled
in. This card is preserved and kept up to date till the child goes
to school, when the information it contains is invaluable to the
school medical officer.
The "Centre" varies in size from two rooms to many. There are
now many large buildings devoted to the work, in which there are
not only the waiting rooms and doctor's rooms of the old days,
but also a weighing room, toddlers' room, where the older children
are looked after while the mother is engaged at classes or otherwise,
perambulator shed, and an open-air shed where the children can
sleep. Then at a large centre there is a dental room, a pre-natal con-
sulting room, and frequently observation wards, where sickly chil-
dren can be kept for a time under notice. This involves nurses and
servants' accommodation. Sometimes there. is also accommodation
for mothers. Then a day is often given up for the medical examina-
tion of older children under school age. Thus a large centre has
become a varied conglomeration of activities, and it probably has
small branch centres dependent on it, so that no mother may have
more than a short distance (saty a mile) to walk. Much stress is laid
on the matter of clothing, and every effort is made to obtain the best
patterns for the clothing of both infants and mothers and older
children and then to get the mothers taught to use them. A system
of card-indexing for record is adopted, so that all information is
easily available. For the classes (cookery, mending, cutting-out, etc.)
a trained teacher isoften, and in the large centres usually, employed.
In addition, lectures on health matters are given to the mothers as
well as to voluntary or other social workers. Ante-natal work brings
the welfare work into touch with the work of doctors and midwives
(see NURSING), and though in some cases it leads to midwives being
appointed for the work of the centre, the usual plan is simply to see
that the woman in some manner secures adequate and suitable
provision for her confinement. If a medical examination is required
by a midwife for her patient, although the power to pay doctors'
fees was conferred by the Maternity and Child Welfare Act of 1918,
the arrangements for providing it are very limited, and the woman
therefore often prefers to take advantage of the opportunities offered
at the Child Welfare Centre. At these centres nursing mothers are
sometimes provided with dinners, though there is a difference of
opinion as to the desirability of doing this. Under the Act just
quoted these dinners may be paid for from the rates. The provision
of milk has also been frequently carried out. The first form of milk
used was that which is known as "pasteurized," and it was followed
by dried milk, which is often bought wholesale and sold at cost
price. The question of how far milk depots are desirable, and
CHILD WELFARE
651
whether they discourage breast-feeding, is still being discussed.
The shortage of milk during the World War and its high price made
the question acute.
The maternal and infant centre is in some cases provided with a
garden where the mothers can sit with their little ones, or where
infants may be left to sleep under guardianship while the mother is
indoors. Occasionally a play centre for young children is com-
bined with an infant centre. These play centres are instituted in
crowded districts for the use of young children. Though they may
be acquired and supported by the local authority they are some-
times given by private donors and occasionally equipped by them
or by bodies like the Carnegie U. K. Trust. The movement was
naturally retarded by the World War and its after effects. In play
centres provision is usually made for toddlers, children below five
years of age and also separately for older children who can play
organized games. A portion of the ground is often covered with
asphalt for use in bad weather and a pavilion is provided for storing
apparatus and for shelter. There must of course be adequate super-
vision and possibly an expert instructor. The nature of these devel-
opments depends on the size of the ground available and the amount
of money that can be spent on it.
The limitation of the legitimate activities of the infant centre
has never been defined. Thus, not only does the relationship of
the pre-natal work with that of the ordinary midwife come to be a
somewhat difficult one, but there arises the further question
of what amount of treatment and drugs should be given. In
any case it seems clear that it would be wholly unsuitable to
convert an infant centre into anything of the nature of a small
and expensively run hospital. 1 At the same time there is fre-
quently difficulty in obtaining the hospital treatment suitable
for infants and very young children, and certainly no opportunity
is given for teaching the mother how to carry on that treatment
at home. It has been matter of complaint that the health of
children between two and five (school age) has not been cared
for sufficiently owing to the dual authority (Public Health
Department and Education Authority) which respectively con-
trolled infant welfare and school-children. But under the Minis-
try of Health the case may be different.
Health Visiting. The number of visits paid to a mother by a
health visitor naturally varies, but about 400 cases are allowed to
one visitor, though of course it may be that the visitor is called upon
to visit children up to school age, when not nearly so many could
be allowed. The visitor is called on to visit all homes where still-
births are reported, and it is necessary to report all births taking
place after the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy. A certain amount
of ante-natal visiting may also be done if the visitor has midwifery
qualifications, but this might be regarded as interfering with the
work of the midwife or doctor engaged by the mother.
Organization of Child Welfare Work. The movement has made
rapid progress. It was estimated that in 1921 there were in England
and Wales 1,754 infant centres, mostly in the hands of municipalities
or county councils, though 693 were worked by voluntary agencies. 2
The municipal centres are carried on by the Public Health Committee
under the local authority. The county, city or borough council
elects its Committee for Public Health, and in 1918, under the
Maternity and Child Welfare Act, a statutory committee was made
necessary for the purpose of carrying out its requirements, the
majority of whose members must be members of the council. Before
the 1918 Act these duties fell on the Public Health Committee,
though sometimes it devolved them on a sub-committee which
might become the statutory Welfare Committee. At least two mem-
bers of this committee must be women and it has to report to the
Public Health Committee. In counties this Welfare Committee is
usually a separate one, and is granted considerable power. The
staff of visitors work as part of the staff of the department of the
Medical Officer of Health. In the towns the visitors endeavour to
get the mothers to bring their infants to the centres and in some
places half of those visited do so. Of course, not all these children
necessarily go before the doctor on each occasion. There are many
variations in the manner of working the centre, depending on the
nature of the area. In the country the visitors usually undertake
the threefold duties of infant, school and tuberculosis visiting.
The visitors are usually stationed in small towns or villages within
the area and visit around these. " Centres " may or may not beestab-
lished in these towns or villages. In most counties there are nursing
associations for the supply of parish nurse and medicines, and the
Education Committee often helps in the training of the nurse.
These nurses are sometimes employed as visitors for infant welfare
work as well as for school work and occasionally for tuberculosis and
1 During 1920 fifty new maternity homes with over 500 beds were
provided by local authorities and voluntary agencies in England
and Wales.
2 On June I 1921 there were 1,789 infant welfare centres in Eng-
land alone, 710 of which were voluntary.
are subsidized for such visiting through the association. Of course
they must be under the Medical Officer of Health in respect of such
work. The superintendent of the county nursing association may
also be appointed inspector of midwives for the county. Usually
wholetime visitors are employed in the larger towns. It is thought
by some that the whole nursing service should be placed under the
councils and the voluntary element done away with; others are
strongly opposed to such a policy as tending to bureaucracy.
Work of Education Authorities. It is difficult to consider infant
welfare work in Great Britain without taking into consideration also
the work of Education Authorities to whom power was granted to
carry on the work of medical inspection in 1908. As with infant
consultations it was soon found that following up the cases in their
own homes was essential if good was to be done, and very often the
infant visitor carries out the visiting for both infants and school-
children. The Mental Deficiency Act of 1913 also requires county
and borough councils to do work which requires visitation. Unless
care is taken there is serious danger of overlapping.
Training of Visitors. The training of infant visitors cannot as yet
be said to be standardized. The training of a nurse is useful, but
hospital experience alone is not sufficient, any more than is that of
midwifery or the sanitary diploma. The Board of Education has
now issued a regulation for the training of health visitors which is
fairly complete, and includes theoretic training in physiology, hy-
giene, and social work, as well as practical training in cookery and
housewifery, and much work of various kinds at health centres.
Voluntary workers with social knowledge and wide experience arc
of great use. There were in 1920 3,359 health centres in England and
Wales, and probably many more will be required.
Day Nurseries and Creches. In addition to the recognized infant
welfare work, there are numerous day nurseries and creches which
are eligible to receive Government aid. The mothers contribute a
proportion of the cost. Nursery schools receive grants from the
Board of Education under the Act of 1918 and creches come under
the Ministry of Health. Children up to school age are taken by the
former and infants by the latter. During the World War, when
married women were working, these institutions were invaluable
and, if well conducted, day nurseries form an excellent training
ground for young women and girls. An endeavour has been made to
obtain a service of " home helps " of a domestic sort to provide
assistance for the mother before and after childbirth, but it has been
found difficult to obtain candidates for training.
Infant Mortality. It appears that the association of a high birth-
rate with a high infant mortality is a rule to which exceptions are
rare. Thus it is the high birth-rate, despite its accompanying waste,
rather than the low birth-rate and the greater saving of life that
accompanies it, that dominates the increase of population. There is
no doubt that the efforts made to preserve infant life have been
a very effectual method of preserving the population, but this has
not made up for the reduced number of babies born. The chief
cause of the deaths of infants are (l) developmental, wasting
diseases and convulsions; (2) diarrhoea and enteritis; (3) measles
and whooping-cough, bronchitis and pneumonia. One-third of the
deaths during the first year occur during the first months of life.
What is called the " infant mortality-rate " is the number of infants
dying under one year of age per 1,000 infants born. The follow-
ing table shows the infant mortality-rate for England and Wales
and the birth-rate for the corresponding year.
Infant Mortality-rate Birth-rate
(per 1,000 births). (per 1,000 of pop.).
1901-5 138 28-2
1906-10 117 26-3
1913 1 08 ,28-0
1916 91 20-9
1917 96 17-8
1918 97 17.7
1919 89 18-5
1920 80 25-4
This shows that the birth-rate has tended to fall as well as the
infant mortality-rate, but the fall of the latter is remarkable and
may be ascribed partly to the improved social conditions during and
since the war, and partly to the definite work for child welfare, as
well as to the decrease in the number of births. Where there is
overcrowding and bad sanitary conditions child welfare work seems
to do little to prevent infant mortality. The rate of mortality
amongst illegitimate children is approximately twice as great as
that amongst legitimate infants. The Ministry of Health has
approved a number of Homes for single women before and after
confinement as well as hostels where the mothers and children can
live when the mother is able to take up daily work. The highest
mortality amongst infants in England and Wales is found in the
northern county boroughs which include the great industrial centres,
and the least in the southern rural areas. It is to be hoped that
with good midwifery and ante-natal service and better social
conditions, the large infant mortality that now exists may be de-
creased, for it is clear that the health of the mother and child is the
first step towards the health of the community. The Midwives
Act of 1902 and the provisions for maternity benefit in the Insurance
652
CHILE
Act of 1911 have no doubt been contributory measures to the im-
provement in this matter, as well as the School Medical Service that
was organized in 1907, and the Maternity and Child Welfare Act
of 1918. The death-rate of women in childbirth, however, has re-
mained about the same during the last 25 years, and there is a large
amount of abortion, miscarriage, etc., and many children are dis-
abled when born and become chronic invalids. The maternity
mortality-rate from all causes remains between 4 and 5 per 1,600
births The steps necessary to be taken are to secure (l) the super-
vision of pregnancy and the wise administration of maternity bene-
fit ; (2) the supervision of midwifery, including the establishment of
maternity homes; (3) health visiting and nursing and (4) the es-
tablishment of infant welfare centres. In this work voluntary as-
sistance is most desirable.
A very important fact is that by the Ministry of Health Act of
1919 the physical care of maternity, infancy and childhood is now
under one state department and the work of the Education Au-
thority is coordinated so far as possible with that of the Sanitary
Authority which primarily deals with the child to its fifth year. The
same centres and clinics are now used for both. There is a special
department of the Ministry for supervising this work. A scheme
of maternity and child welfare has been inaugurated in every
county (excepting one county in Wales), and in every county
borough and many of the large urban districts. On March 31 1920
not only were there 1,754 maternity and infancy welfare centres and
3.359 visitors as stated before, but also 221 day nurseries or creches,
and 89 maternity homes with 1,360 beds.
The hospital provision for infants is not (1921) large, and there is
often a high mortality found in hospitals owing to the spread of
infectious conditions which are rather obscure. About 220 new beds
have been provided for infants and young children in connexion with
welfare schemes. In cases where young children must be separated
from their mothers a good foster-mother sufficiently remunerated
is recommended as being the most satisfactory guardian.
Scotland. The Maternity and Child Welfare Act of 1918 does not
apply to Scotland, but in the Notification of Births (Extension) Act
of 1915 it is provided that any local authority " may make such
arrangements as they think fit, and as may be sanctioned by the
Local Government Board for Scotland, for attending to the health
of expectant mothers and nursing mothers and of children under
five years of age within the mea ing of Sect. 7 of the Education
(Scotland) Act 1908."
As in England, Exchequer grants-in-aid are given for certain
services in connexion with child welfare, and the extent to which
these services extend depends on the local authority concerned.
There is, however, an important difference between England and
Scotland. In England certain institutions such as schools for mothers
and play centres receive grants direct from the Board of Education
and are under its control. In Scotland all the institutions included
in a child welfare scheme were controlled by the Local Government
Board and are now controlled by the Ministry of Health. In Scot-
land, also, the grants are only made to the local authorities and not,
as in England, to the institution. These grants cannot exceed 50%
of the local authority's approved outlay. The schemes that are
carried on are similar in character to those in England. The infant
mortality (deaths of children under one year old per 1,000 births
registered) is considerably higher than in England and Wales and
Ireland though it is gradually decreasing. In 1917 it was 107;
in 1918, 100; in 1919, 102; and in 1920 it was 92.
Since the coming into operation of the Scottish Education Act of
1918 there has been a considerable accession of energy in the matter
of attending to the health of school-children, and that Act gives
powers to the Education Authority to carry on nursery schools.
Education Authorities often take advantage of the services of dis-
trict nurses in following up their cases in the rural areas, and this is
sometimes also done by the county council in regard to its schemes
for infant welfare. In such cases the nurses may work through a
County Nursing Federation. The Highland districts naturally
present special difficulties owing to the scattered nature of the pop-
ulation and the difficulty of providing adequate attendance.
Ireland. A system of Imperial grant for child welfare obtains
in Ireland similar to that in England. The infant mortality in Ire-
land has always been low as compared with that in England and
Wales and still more with that of Scotland, but it has not declined
in the same regular manner that it has done in the other countries.
The deaths of infants under one year per 1 ,000 births in the years
1891-1900 averaged 104. In 1918 they were 86, and in 1919, 88.
It is notable that the infant mortality in the towns in Ireland is
immensely higher than in the rural districts. In 1919 the infant
mortality in Dublin area was 141 per 1,000 births, while in London
it was 85. Notification of births was made compulsory in all urban
districts by the Extension Act of 1915.
There are many voluntary societies, such as the Women s Na-
tional Health Association and the United Irishwomen, working in
connexion with infant welfare, and in establishing milk depots, etc.,
and since the Treasury grant became available a number of au-
thorities have submitted schemes of a comprehensvie character.
See Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer 1919-1920 (Minis-
try of Health) ; First Annual Report of the Scottish Board of Health
1919 (Appendix to ditto pub. 1920); Twenty-fifth Final Annual
Report of the Local Government Board for Scotland 1919 (pub. 1920) :
Annual Report of the Local Government Board for Ireland 19181919;
Janet E. Lane-Claypon, The Child Welfare Movement (1920);
Nora Milnes, " Child Welfare "from the Social Point of View (1920) ;
Edith V. Eckhard, " The Mother and the Infant (Social Science
Library 1921): Carnegie United Kingdom Trust's Report on " The
Physical Welfare of Mothers and Children " for (l) England and
W 7 ales, E. W. Hope; (2) Scotland, W. Leslie Mackenzie; (3) Ireland,
E. Coey Bigger (1917). Sir J. E. Gorst, The Children of the Nation
and how their Health and Vigour should be Promoted by the State
(1906); Margaret Macmillan, Early Childhood (1900), The Nursery
School (1919). (E. S. H.)
UNITED STATES
In the field of child welfare considerable progress was made in
the United States during the decade 1910-20. The first work
of the Federal Children's Bureau (established 1912) was a num-
ber of remarkable studies on infant mortality, particularly its
social and economic aspects. As a result of emphasis by the
American Medical Association, by the Children's Bureau and by
other children's agencies of the necessity of basing any pro-
gramme for reducing the infant mortality upon reliable statistics,
all but three of the states had adopted in 1921 the uniform reg-
istration plan recommended by the Census Bureau, and all but
five states now have good registration laws.
Popular education in child care has been greatly developed in
the last decade. Aided by the Children's Bureau, Baby Week
Campaigns were inaugurated in a few large cities in 1914. In
1916 the General Federation of Women's Clubs and the Chil-
dren's Bureau cooperated in a nation-wide " Baby Week " cam-
paign, as a result of which Baby Week was observed in every
state. In 1918 the Bureau and the Child Conservation Section
of the Women's Committee of the Council of National Defense
cooperated in a year's educational propaganda known as
" Children's Year." As a result of the interest awakened through
these campaigns as well as by the previous efforts of many child
welfare organizations, child hygiene divisions were established
by law in 30 states from 1918 to 1921, as compared with eight
states between 1912 and 1918. There were also in 1921, special
child hygiene divisions in the health departments of 45 mu-
nicipalities. The Children's Bureau report on maternal mor-
tality in 1917, followed in 1919 by one on maternity benefit
systems in certain foreign countries, resulted in a general demand
by women's organizations for public provision for the protection
of maternity.
Prior to 1910 pre-natal care for mothers was confined to ma-
ternity hospitals. During the decade 1910-20 there were dem-
onstrations in Boston, New York, and a number of other cities
of the reductions that can be effected in maternal mortality
and in infant mortality due to maternal causes, through mater-
nity centres, where pre-natal and post-natal instruction and care
have been given. As a result of the wide-spread interest in the
subject, bills have been introduced in a number of the state
legislatures; and the Sheppard-Towner bill, providing for
Federal aid toward public provision for maternity and child
care, was passed by the U.S. Senate in 1921. Medical in-
spection of school-children was in 1921 required by law in 39
states, and the first legislation had been passed making spe-
cific provision for dental inspection. Without this specific
legislation increased attention has been given to the care of
school-children's teeth in recent years. Nutrition clinics for
undernourished children have been widely established during
the past five years in connexion with schools, dispensaries, and
child welfare agencies. Since 1915 eight states, including .Illi-
nois and New York, have passed laws providing for physical
education in elementary schools.
REFERENCES. Infant Mortality Series, Nos. I to 8; Grace L.
Meigs, Maternity Mortality (Miscellaneous Series, No. 6, 1917).
(G. An.)
CHILE (see 6.142). The term of office of President Don
Pedro Montt, inaugurated in Sept. 1906 to serve for a term
of five years, was terminated by his death abroad on Aug.
16 1910. Sr. Don Elias Fernandez Albano, the Minister
of the Interior, succeeded under the title of vice-president,
CHILE
653
as provided in the constitution, article 65. Before a new
election for the president could be held, in accordance with
the requirements of the constitution, Sr. Albano died on
Sept. 6 and was succeeded by Sr. Don Emiliano Figueroa, Minis-
ter of Justice, who held office until Dec. 23, the date of the
inauguration of Dr. Ram6n Barros Luco, the new president
elected Nov. 15. Dr. Luco had had a long career of public
service starting as a Liberal deputy, and serving as Minister
of Finance under President Federico Errazuriz and President
Domingo Santa Maria, as Minister of the Interior and
premier under Presidents Balmaceda and Jorje Montt, and later
premier for several terms. His election, therefore, marked the
triumph of the Liberal over the Conservative and Clerical
party. In 1910 several other events of general significance oc-
curred. One was the opening of railroad traffic through the
Transandine tunnel, connecting Buenos Aires with Santiago
and Valparaiso. The piercing of the tunnel occurred late in
1909 and the first trains were run through in 1910, thus
completing a remarkable feat of railway engineering and
realizing a dream of many decades. Another important
event was the celebration of the centennial of Chilean independ-
ence, lasting throughout the month of Sept. but concen-
trating chiefly on the i8th, the centenary of the transference
of governmental power from the Spanish governor to the locally
elected junta. Aside from its effects in stimulating patriotism
and national pride, the celebration was made the occasion for
according special honours and attention to the Argentine nation
and its representatives; this strengthened still further the rap-
prochement between the two nations which dated from the
settlement of their long-standing boundary dispute in 1902.
In 1911 the Chilean Government paid 2,275,375 bolivianos in
settlement of the long-standing Alsop claim, in accordance with
the award of King George V. of England. This marked the
termination of a dispute which had for years been one cause of
bad feeling between the Governments of Chile and of the United
States. In 1913 there was completed and put into operation the
railway between Arica, a seaport in the provinces secured by
Chile from Peru in consequence of the war of the Pacific, and
La Paz, the principal city of Bolivia. This line, which has a total
length of 264 m., was built by the Government of Chile with the
cooperation of Bolivia; until 1928 the control of the entire line
was to remain with Chile, after which date Bolivia was to have
control of the portion within her territories, under conditions
stipulated in the treaty of 1905. The provisions of this treaty
with reference to this railway and free access to the sea for
Bolivia were among the factors that led to further attempts to
settle the long-standing controversy between Chile and Peru
with regard to the provinces of Tacna and Arica, especially in the
years 1905 and 1908 (see TACNA-ARICA). In 1913, the two coun-
tries, unable to come to any agreement, decided to postpone
the settlement of this question for another 20 years. It was,
however, reopened, as will appear later.
At the outbreak of the World War a considerable section of
opinion in Chile was inclined to be favourable to Germany.
A number of factors contributed toward making this situation
a natural one. The Chilean army had long been trained by
Prussian officers and modeled on Prussian lines. German
scholars held important positions in the institutions of higher
learning in Chile, and many native teachers had completed their
education in German universities. A considerable homogeneous
and thrifty German population, moreover, was concentrated
in the southern portion of the country and a well directed pro-
paganda system kept the German point of view before the nation.
The clergy, also, were in large part favourable to the cause of
Germany against a nation like France which had in recent years
adopted such a radical anti-clerical policy. Finally, there was
the commercial factor, for in 1914 Germany headed the list of
nations in the value of goods shipped to Chile and ranked third
in the value of the Chilean goods imported. With this commerce,
totalling in that year, in spite of the outbreak of the war, some
$44,000,000, or considerably more than a fifth of the total foreign
commerce of Chile, was combined a quasi-political propaganda
which had not been matched in any way by the other European
nations.
The sinking of the German cruiser " Dresden " by British
warships in the territorial waters of Chile, which had to be
admitted by the British Foreign Office to be irregular, caused
a protest, but the incident was adroitly handled in London by
the Chilean minister, Augustin Edwards, who, throughout the
war, was a friend of the Allies. The reduction of the foreign
commerce of Chile by the blockade caused serious economic
disturbances almost at the very outset of the war, and especially
in 1915. A gradual change in the popular attitude in Chile began
to make itself felt, however, in the last two years of the war,
although Chile, having virtually no ships engaged in European
trade, did not come into immediate conflict with the German
submarine policy as did some of the other Latin-American states.
Officially Chile maintained a position of strict neutrality, though
protesting emphatically against the announcement of German
unrestricted submarine warfare, on Feb. 8 1917. Upon the
declaration of war by the United States in April 1917, Chile
again made a declaration of neutrality.
Meanwhile, in 1915 Sr. Juan Luis Sanfuentes, the candidate
of the Liberal Democrats or new Balmacedists, succeeded to the
office of president for a five-year term beginning Dec. 23.
The political campaign was marked by great excitement and
some disorder, including the assassination of one of the deputies.
The victory in the election was due to a coalition of the Liberal
Democrats with the Conservatives and Nationalists, as against
a combination of Radicals, Liberals and Democrats.'
The law for the conversion of the currency which was to have
gone into effect in 1915 was again postponed for a period of
two years. The financial and industrial situation of the country
was extremely grave in 1915. Some relief was experienced from
the sale of the battleships in construction in British yards which
were requisitioned for war purposes by the British Government.
The year 1916 saw improvement in the commercial situation as
shown by an increase of about $25,000,000 in the value of im-
ports and of nearly $68,000,000 in the value of exports, due
chiefly to the allied demand for materials used in the manufac-
ture of munitions. This was the highest figure ever reached up
to that time in the export trade of Chile, but it was greatly ex-
ceeded the next year and even more in 1918, when the total
value of the exports was more than double the value reached in
any year prior to 1916.
The year 1917 saw still further improvement in financial and
business conditions, though the conversion law was again post-
poned for a two-year period. The year was again marked by the
instability of cabinets which has been so characteristic of the
governmental history of Chile. An agreement was reached for
the resumption of friendly relations with Peru which had been
interrupted in 1910, as on other numerous occasions, over con-
troversies growing out of the old-standing Tacna-Arica dispute.
The year 1918 was marked by renewed difficulties with Peru
in consequence of anti-Peruvian riots at Iquique and Anto-
fagasta, culminating in the mutual withdrawal of consular
agents from both countries. Cabinet resignations were again"' 1 ''
numerous, a coalition cabinet in April being organized under
Arturo Alessandri who was elected two years later to the presi-
dency of the republic. In 1919 the Tacna-Arica controversy
again threatened to disrupt the peace of South America. The
publication of the secret treaty of 1904 between Chile and Bolivia
with reference to the disputed provinces and an outlet to the sea
for Bolivia, combined with disturbances involving Peruvians
in those areas, aroused animosities anew. In the same year
Chile concluded a treaty with Great Britain providing for a
permanent peace commission to settle such disputes .between
the two countries as could not be adjusted through diplomatic
channels.
Chile suffered severely from after-the-war readjustment,
involving there, as in other countries, labour troubles and
radical demonstrations. The year 1920 was marked by one of
the most interesting and in some respects the most significant
of all the presidential elections of Chile. The contest was be-
654
CHILE
tween Sr. Arturo Alessandri, the candidate of the so-called
Liberal Alliance, comprising the Radical and Democratic parties
and a portion of the Liberals, and Sr. Luis Barros-Borgono,
the candidate of the so-called National Union, made up partly
of Liberals and largely of Conservatives. Sr. Alessandri was
distinctly the exponent of the labour and middle classes. Sr.
Barros-Borgono belonged, as had virtually all former presidents
of Chile, to the dominant political aristocracy, comprising the
long-established families closely affiliated with the landowners
and the clergy. The election was held June 25 and the
announced electoral vote was 179 for Sr. Alessandri, and 175
for Sr. Barros-Borgono. Under the constitution of Chile, as in
the case of the United States, the electoral vote for president
is to be canvassed by both Houses of Congress sitting jointly,
and in case no candidate receives an absolute majority the
power of election rests with Congress. Now with the electoral vote
so close and the validity of various electoral votes questioned,
a situation arose almost identical with that which occurred in
the United States in the famous Hayes-Tilden contest in 1877.
The Senate was openly in favour of the candidacy of Sr.
Barros-Borgono, and public opinion, which had been raised to
the highest pitch, demanded that the counting of the electoral
vote should be delayed until the matter could be passed upon by
a special court of honour, a proposal put forth by Sr. Suarez-
Mujica, a former minister of Chile to the United States.
Here again was a reproduction of the extra-legal election com-
mission in the settlement of the Hayes-Tilden dispute. This
court of honour, after a strenuous period of activity, finally
decided on Oct. 4 in favour of Sr. Alessandri by a vote
of five to two, as having received a majority of one electoral
vote, 177 valid votes against 176. Congress accepted this finding
two days later and declared Sr. Alessandri elected. For a
brief period popular excitement ran at fever heat and a general
strike was even instituted. The election was remarkable, alike
in the manner of its final settlement and in the character of the
man elected to the chief magistracy. It was remarkable also,
because of the general participation of the labour and middle-
class elements and a relatively greater freedom from the practice
of buying votes than had ever been experienced before. It
was looked upon, therefore, as a distinct triumph of democratic
principles.
One further development at the close of this period is
worthy of mention, namely, the relation of Chile to the League
o Nations. Chile, not being a belligerent, in the World War
and having adhered to her policy of neutrality, was of course not
represented at the peace table. Nor was she, for the same reason,
among the original members of the League. She was, however,
among those specifically invited by the Covenant to accede
thereto, and in his message of June 1919 President Sanfuentes
approved the League. This suggestion prevailed, and Chile
joined the membership of the League Nov. 4 1919. She
was represented at the first meeting of the assembly of the
League of Nations in Geneva Nov. 15 1920 by a delegation
headed by Sr. Antonio Huneus, Minister of Foreign Affairs,
who was honoured with the chairmanship of the commission
on the admission of new states.
Population. In the period between the census of 1895 and
that of 1907 (the last official census), the pop. of Chile had
increased from 2,712,145 to 3,249,279 showing an annual in-
crease of 1-52%. The estimated pop. on Jan. i 1918 was
4,038,050. The greatest absolute increase was shown by the
province of Santiago in which is located the capital. An
increase of more than 100,000 inhabitants was recorded for
that province in the interval between the last two censuses.
Other provinces that showed a large actual increase were Anto-
fagasta, Valparaiso, Concepcion, and Valdivia, while the prov-
ince of Maule showed a decrease. The provinces of Atacama
and Talca showed an estimated decrease in the to-year period
from 1907 to 1917. The great bulk of the population was still
comprised within the 12 provinces in the Vale of Chile from
Coquimbo to Concepci6n inclusive, although Antofagasta,
Valdivia, and Llanquihue showed a larger actual increase than
did any of these 12 favoured provinces except Valparaiso and
Santiago and a much larger proportionate increase than any of
them. The territory of Magallanes showed an increase of more
than 300% between 1895 and 1907 and a further estimated in-
crease of nearly 100% in the succeeding decade. The percentage
of urban pop. rose from 38-6% in 1895 to 43-3% in 1907
and as the estimated population for the 47 largest towns in 1918
showed a greater percentage of increase than for the country
as a whole, the process of urbanization apparently continued.
According to the census of 1907 there were 134,524 foreigners
in the country, representing 4% of the population. The chief
nationalities represented were Peruvians, Bolivians, Spaniards,
Italians, Germans, English, French and Argentinians in the order
named. In the lo-year period 1907-17 there was a decline in the
marriage-rate and in the birth-rate, but an even greater decline in
the death-rate, so that the excess of births over deaths continued.
The total excess of births over deaths in this period amounted to
more than 350,000.
Provinces
Tacna .
Tarapaca
Antofagasta
Atacama
Coquimbo
Aconcagua
Valparaiso
Santiago
O'Higgins
Colchagua
Curico
Talca
Maule
l.indres
Ruble
Concepcion
Arauco
Bio-Bio
Malleco
Cautin
Valdivia
Llanquihue
Chiloe
Magallanes (Ter.)
Capitals
Tacna .
Iquique
Antofagasta
Copiapo
Serena .
San Felipe .
Valparaiso .
Santiago
Kancagua .
San Fernando
Curico .
Talca .
Cauquencs .
Linares
Chilian
Concepcion .
Lebu
Los Angeles
Angol .
Temuco
Valdivia
Puerto Montt
Ancud .
Punta Arenas
Communications. By the end of the year 1918 there were in all
8,512 km. of railway in Chile of which the Government controlled
4,567 km. and private lines the other 3,945 km. The private lines
were almost altogether in the three provinces of Tarapaca, Anto-
fagasta and Atacama, in the two former of which (containing 97%
of the total mileage of private railways) there were no Government-
owned lines at all. Every one of the provinces had some railway
mileage within it, varying from 9 km. in the territory of Magal-
lanes to 1 ,840 in Antofagasta. One effect of the World War was
virtually to suspend construction of all kinds of railways. In the
six years 190914 the Government lines showed a loss of from
5,000,000 to 10,000,000 pesos (i peso nominally is. 6d.) each year;
during 1915-7 they made profits of 4,738,423, 3,687,340, and
1,061,502 pesos respectively; but in 1918 they lost 9,124,365. Dur-
ing the 10 years 1909-18 the private railways showed profits
from 9,000,000 to 20,000,000 pesos a year. As no explanation of
Pop.
Pop. Est.
Census 1907
Jan. I 1918
28,748
39,357
110,936
134,935
113,323
220,049
63,968
63,950
175.021
191,117
128,486
131,750
281,385
347,757
5i5,78o
627,491
93-429
125,847
159,030
163,407
107,095
"5,563
131-957
131,071
110,316
110,368
109,363
127,818
166,245
198,908
216,094
271,497
61,538
74,974
97,968
106,510
109,775
136,153
139,553
164,463
118,277
187,202
105,043
150,621
88,619
99,044
17-330
32,623
Pop.
Pop. Est.
Census 1907
Jan. i 1918
9,176
12,073
40,171
46,941
32,496
64-584
10,287
11,147
15,996
16,170
10,426
10,426
162,447
212,659
332,724
415,641
10,380
16,633
9,241
1 1 ,067
17,573
23.071
38,040
42,563
9,683
10,717
11,122
15.722
34,269
39,691
55,330
72,785
2,687
2,687
11,691
16,254
7,391
10,537
16,037
21,635
15,229
26,091
5-408
7.807
12,199
22,964
CHINA
655
these figures is supplied, no comparisons can be based upon them.
There were in 1918 nine electric traction companies carrying 1 80,-
388,425 passengers concentrated for the most part in the cities of
Valparaiso, Concepcion, and Santiago. There were also 35,120 km.
of public roads and 70 km. of navigable rivers. The length of the
Government telegraph lines amounted in 1918 to 15,687 km.,
operating through 370 offices and employing a personnel of 1,395.
The private telegraph lines had in the same year an extent of
9,078 km. with 214 offices and 917 employees. In the years 1914-8
the Government-owned lines showed an excess of expenditures
over income of from 100,000 to 1,750,000 pesos a year, while the
private lines showed an excess of income over expenditure of from
1,000,000 to 4,000,000 pesos. No figures are available on which to
base a comparison of the services rendered. The number of post-
offices in 1918 totalled nearly 1,000, with 2,222 men and women em-
ployed. The postal revenues in that year amounted to 5,639,897
pesos and the expenditure for the same year to 5,253,283 pesos. The
merchant marine in 1918 included 35 sailing vessels of 23,381 tons
and 95 steamships of 46,587 tons total. The total number of vessels
entered at and cleared from Chilean ports in 1918 amounted to
26,799 aggregating something over 25,000,000 tons. These figures
were far below those which had been attained previous to the out-
break of the World War (1914). The four ports in which the entries
and clearances exceeded 2,000, in the year 1917, were Punta Arenas,
Valparaiso, Iquique, and Antofagasta, in the order named. Over
half of these ships were Chilean, Great Britain ranking next, and
Germany, of course, wholly eliminated from her former strong
position by the war.
Commerce. The effect of the war on the foreign commerce of
Chile was of such a nature that statistics for the years 1914-8
must be regarded as largely abnormal. After a period of rapidly
rising figures up to and including the year 1913, there came in 1914
a drop of about 20 % in the total figures, followed in 1915 by a further
decline which brought the totals below the figures attained in 1908.
Then followed a marked increase in 1916 reaching a figure higher
than the last pre-war year, and a tremendous increase in the two
years following. In 1918 the total foreign trade of Chile amounted
in value to 1,235,669,482 pesos gold, considerably more than double
the value 10 years before. Of this sum imports represented 436,074,-
065 pesos, and exports 799,625,417 pesos, showing a favourable
balance of 363,551 ,352 pesos. The principal countries of origin of the
imports in 1918 were the United States, Great Britain, Peru, Ar-
gentina, India, France, Spain, Japan and Mexico. The value of the
imports from the United States equalled the combined values of the
imports from all the other countries mentioned, and was 23 times
the value of the imports from Great Britain, which in 1914 had been
in the lead. The chief countries of destination of exports in 1918
were the United States, Great Britain, Argentina, Peru, Japan,
Bolivia, France and Panama, in the order named. The United
States alone received goods of a value equal to three-fifths of the
total exports from Chile, and exceeded the value exported to Great
Britain almost three to one, though in 1914 the exports to Great
Britain exceeded in value those to the United States. The chief
groups of imports arranged according to value were textiles, gold coin
and bullion, chemical products, metals, machinery and implements,
and food products. The chief exports arranged in the same manner
were minerals, chiefly nitrate; the products of grazing, mostly wool
and hides; the products of agriculture, mostly grains and legumes;
and manufactured food products, principally flour and meal and
preserved meats.
Agriculture. The principal agricultural products showing the
number of hectares in cultivation in each and the yield in cwt. appear
from the following table for 1918.
Crop
Wheat
Amber Wheat
Barley .
Oats
Corn
Beans
Peas
Potatoes .
Alfalfa .
Clover
Hectares Planted Yield in cwt.
484,951
42,088
39,680
32,150
26,468
52,950
16,308
32,806
45,860
H-245
5.647,584
644,719
719,312
461 ,088
367,236
693,144
145.828
2,623,587
2,522,323
433,584
There were in 1918 a total of 66,727 hectares planted in vineyards
yielding 1,555,543 hectolitres of wine. In 1917 the figures for the
live-stock industry were as follows: 403,013 horses; 36.069 asses;
52,185 mules; 2,029,942 cattle; 4,182,910 sheep; 375,828 goats;
300,832 swine; and 33,506 llama and alpacas.
Manufactures. In 1917 there were 2,738 manufacturing estab-
lishments in Chile employing 64,660 persons and representing an
invested capital of 596,265,540 pesos. The value of the output was
701,362,029 pesos. Rated according to the value of their output the
chief manufacturing industries were those producing food supplies
(which amounted to more than a third of the total), leathers, furs,
gas and electricity, clothing, chemical products, paper and printing,
metals, alcohol and beverages, lumber, tobacco manufactures, and
textiles.
Mining. In 1917 there were in Chile 38,021 mining properties,
the value of whose licenses was 1,040,551 pesos. The value of the
production of the principal minerals in 1917 is shown by the follow-
ing table:
Nitrate 510,367,506 pesos
Copper 143,512,182
Coal 87,740,898
Iodine
Iron .
Borax
Sulphur
Salt .
Silver
12,199,105
150,000
2,392,600
2,841,300
1,319,290
3,602,485
Gold 2,098,440
Government and Education. In 1918 the police force of the
republic, exclusive of the municipal police and a force of 2,151
carabineros, numbered 8,194. The army the same year comprised
996 commissioned officers of the line, and 82 officers of the intendancy
or other service. The total number of troops including non-com-
missioned officers was 18,826. The navy in 1918 comprised 295
officers and a total force of 5,595 men. The ships were 52 in all, of
which one was classed as a battleship, four as cruisers, two as
armoured cruisers, two training ships, three transports, one gunboat,
nine destroyers, six submarines, five torpedo boats, and the rest of a
miscellaneous character, the total tonnage being 129,080. The value
of the public works constructed in 1918 was 24,452,276 pesos, of
which the largest expenditures were for the ports of Valparaiso
and Santiago, roads and bridges, and public buildings. In 1918
there were 3,581 .primary schools in Chile, of which 3,058 were
Government schools, and 305 private schools receiving subventions;
there were 287 secondary schools, of which 150 were Government
schools and 86 private schools receiving subventions; and 19 in-
stitutions of higher learning, of which 12 were Government in-
stitutions, and one received subventions. The total number of
pupils in the primary schools in 1918 was estimated at 397,721,
almost equally divided between boys and girls, of which number 336,-
292 were in public schools. The number of pupils in secondary
schools was estimated at 54,722, of whom 31,676 were in public
schools. The students enrolled in 1918 in the institutions of higher
learning numbered 4,875, of whom 4,228 were in Government
institutions. There was a total of 105 daily papers, 81 semi-weeklies,
270 weeklies, 49 semi-monthlies, 126 monthlies, seven quarterlies
and a number of miscellaneous publications, making a grand total
of 698 periodicals of various kinds. The number of hospitals in the
republic in 1917 was 109 with a personnel of 3,973. equipped with
2,217 rooms and 10,655 beds. The total number of patients ad-
mitted in 1916 was 108,945. There were in 1916 11,000 inmates of
the various charitable institutions.
Finance. On Dec. 31 1918 there were in circulation 227,688,421
pesos in paper currency. The total amount of gold in the conver-
sion fund at the end of 1918 was 111,272,238. The Govern-
ment expenses for 1918 amounted to 221,616,130 gold pesos and
the receipts to 249,910,012 gold pesos. The national debt stood in
1917 at 625,712,416 gold pesos.
Bibliography. Among the large number of works that appeared
between 1910 and 1920 dealing wholly or partly with Chile, the
following are worthy of special mention, (a) History: Crescente
Errazuriz, Historia de Chile sin Gobernador (1912), Don Garcia de
Mendoza (1914), and Franciso de Villagra (1915); Guillermp Arroyo
Alvarado, Historia de Chile (1916); Alejandro Alvarez, Rasgos
generates de la historia diplomatica de Chile, l8lo-iQio; (V) Travel
and Description: J. P. Canto. Chile: an Account of its. Wealth 'and
Progress (1912); W. H. Koebel, Modern Chile (1913);}. G. -Mills,
Chile: Physical Features, Natural Resources, etc. (H. G. J.)
CHINA (see 6.166*). In the absence of any systematic census
by the Chinese authorities the figures periodically published for
the population of China must always be regarded as rough
estimates. The Imperial Maritime Customs' Report for igi6
calculated the total pop. of the country, including the three
Manchurian provinces (iq,ooo,coo), to be 445,873,000, but the
arguments advanced by Mr. Rockhill in 1904 still justify doubts
as to the evidence on which these estimates are based. Chinese
records since the beginning of the i7th century show that at
various periods the estimated pop. of the empire varied between
250 and 430 millions, and that its density always increased
rapidly in times of peace and plenty only to be reduced with
equal rapidity by outbreaks of floods, famine or civil war. Thus,
in 1851 the pop. was believed to be about 430,000,000, but nine
years later after 12 provinces had been devastated by the
Taiping rebellion it was reckoned at 260,000,000. It is prob-
able that in the period immediately preceding the revolution of
1911, the number of inhabitants in most provinces had attained
to something approaching its normal maximum, but 10 years'
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
656
CHINA
incessant civil strife with widespread brigandage by lawless
troops (in addition to the floods of 191 1 and the severe famine of
1920-1 in the northern provinces) must have produced a great
increase in mortality. Since 1907 there has been a steady mi-
gration of agricultural settlers from the congested provinces,
especially Shantung, into Northern Manchuria, Eastern Mon-
golia and Turkestan. The number of Chinese residents abroad
was estimated in 1918 at about 9,000,000: of these, 2,258,000
were in Formosa; 1,500,000 in Siam; 1,825,700 in Java; 1,000,000
in the Straits Settlements, and 1,100,000 in the East Indies.
The estimated number of Chinese in Australia was 35,000, and
in Canada 12,000; in the United States it was in 1920 61,686.
Social Life and Education. The political upheaval of the
revolution of 1911 {see below, section History), the abdication
of the monarchy and the abolition of the classical system of
examinations for the civil service, naturally produced among the
educated classes a relaxation of the ethical restraints and a dis-
turbance of many of the popular beliefs upon which the social
system of the Chinese is founded. The irreverence displayed
towards the canons of the sages and the Confucian doctrines
(including ancestor worship) by the youthful iconoclasts who
came to power with the proclamation of the republic, became
speedily reflected in the widespread and increasing indiscipline
of the student class, and in a loosening of that parental authority
which is the keystone of the family system and of China's ancient
civilization. Believing that the path to public office common
goal of ambition in China would henceforward lie, not in study
of the classics but in the acquirement of " western learning,"
men of wealth and influence were naturally disposed to allow
their sons to acquire that learning, even if in so doing they should
lose their reverence for the immemorial customs and ceremonial
observances prescribed by the ancestral cult, and fall short of that
filial piety which, according to the Confucian teaching, is the
foundation of a well-ordered society. One of the first results of
the revolution was therefore to give a fresh impetus to the ac-
tivities of European and American missionary educational in-
stitutions and to extend the influence of western ideas in many
directions; these found expression in the Government's en-
'deavours to replace Chinese social customs and ceremonies by
those of the West. After 1916, the increasing demoralization of
the central Government produced a corresponding unrest and
turbulence amongst trie-student class, which on several occasions
successfully asserted its claim to intervene in questions of high
policy and in foreign affairs. The strikes and the boycott of
Japanese goods organized by students and young journalists
(chiefly at the treaty ports) in 1919 afforded significant evidence
of the relaxation of parental authority amongst the educated class
of the urban population.
Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the extent of
the influence of European ideas upon the social life and opinions
of the agricultural and artizan classes, who constitute the great
majority of the Chinese people, but it may safely be asserted
that, generally speaking, the deep-rooted conservatism of the
masses remains impervious to the chances and changes of the
political world, and that in so far as they conform to the new
ordinances promulgated by their rulers (as, for example, in the
cutting of the queue), their acquiescence implies a desire to
avoid trouble rather than any wide-spread desire for change,
or any general departure from the philosophy of life prescribed
by authority of immemorial tradition.
The republican Government's attempts to introduce by law
innovations which run counter to ancient usage such as the
adoption of the western calendar and the proclamation of nation-
al holidays in connexion therewith have been more honoured
in the breach than the observance. Except at the treaty ports
and the provincial centres of western learning, the elaborate
ceremonialism which distinguishes every phase of social life in
China remains practically unaffected by the promulgation of the
law (Aug. 1912) intended to replace the etiquette and salutations
of the old regime by the European custom of hat-raising and
bowing. The reforms contained in the republican and socialistic
programme of the Kuo Min-Tang and other political societies
(including compulsory education, obligatory military service,
equality of the sexes, etc.) became matters of frequent discussion
in the vernacular press after 1912, and produced certain effects
notably a movement for the emancipation of women amongst
the westernized element of the younger generation. As the
number and circulation of Chinese newspapers penetrated farther
and farther into the interior, an increasing number of the literate
minority of the nation became familiar with these ideas, but they
still contained no practical meaning for the masses. Similarly,
by the Criminal Code, promulgated in March 1912 and revised
in 1918, torture was abolished, the prison system reformed, and
trial by jury introduced, together with many other reforms based
on the most modern and humane legislation; but the Code re-
mains generally a dead letter in so far as the general administra-
tion of justice is concerned. After the death of Yuan Shih-k'ai,
the military governors in the provinces became practically
independent of the central Government's authority; each within
his own satrapy administered public affairs and justice as he
thought fit, and since then the framing of national laws has been
of little interest or benefit except to the law makers.
Authorities. A. S. Roe, Chance and Change in China (1920);
Paul S. Reinsch, Intellectual and Political Currents in the Far East
(1912); Emile Hpvelaque, La Chine (1920); Elizabeth Kendall,
A Wayfarer in China (1913) ; R. F. Johnston, Buddhist China (1913) ;
Y. K. Leong and L. K. Tao, Village and Town Life in China (1915) ;
Timothy Richard, Forty-five Years in China (1916); E. H. Wilson,
A Naturalist in Western China (1913).
Political History, 1910-21. Most chroniclers are agreed in
dating the revolution of 1911 from the outbreak which took
place at Hankow in Oct., after the accidental explosion of a bomb
and the arrest of a number of anti-dynastic plotters, but the
country had undoubtedly contained all the materials for an up-
heaval since the death of the Empress Dowager in 1908. The
causes of the revolution and of the disorganization of government
which subsequently prevailed, were, like those of former rebel-
lions, originally social and economic, ascribable chiefly to the
disintegrating influence of " western learning " on the one hand,
and, on the other, to the increasing burdens imposed upon the
nation by foreign loans and indemnities. If the semi-westernized
officials, politicians and students who came rapidly to the front
after the initial successes of the rising at Hankow, were able
to bring about the downfall of the Manchu dynasty and the
establishment of a republic almost without a struggle, it was not
because they represented any conscious objection to the mon-
archical form of government on the part of the masses, but be-
cause they constituted at the moment practically the only organ-
ized body of educated opinion in the country and were inspired
by definite aims and ambitions. Dr. Sun Yat-sen and other
active leaders of the revolutionary movement had for some years
been conducting their anti-dynastic propaganda in the central
and southern provinces, and popular resentment against the
Manchus had gradually increased, partly because the dynasty
had become identified in the public mind with floods and famines,
and partly because of the Government's failure to prevent, and
even to resist, the aggressions and encroachments of foreign
Powers. The Cantonese leaders and agents of the revolutionary
movement stirred up the people, and especially the soldiery,
to vague fears and discontent by disseminating the idea that
the Manchus were in league with foreigners to partition and dis-
arm China. The agitation which they contrived to produce in the
name of " sovereign rights," against the Government's negotia-
tions for railway loans from abroad, led to the formation of
numerous patriotic associations (chiefly at the treaty ports)
which displayed great activity in the press and in the National
Assembly. The signing of the Hukuang railway loan agreement
at Peking (April 5 1911), in the face of strong opposition from
the local gentry and literati of Szechuen, was skilfully turned to
the purposes of the revolutionaries; rioting took place at Chengtu
in July, to the cry of " sovereign rights " and by Sept. the prov-
ince was in open rebellion. The opponents of the Government
found further material ready to their hands in the aggressive
designs manifested in Manchuria and Mongolia by Russia and
Japan, and in Great Britain's occupation of the disputed Pienma
CHINA
657
district on the Yunnan border. The situation was such, in fact,
that, failing a strong ruler at Peking, an upheaval had become
inevitable, and its occurrence simply a matter of time and oppor-
tunity. The Manchus, seeking some means to avert the impend-
ing crisis, had tried several methods of concession, intended to
placate Young China. In Nov. 1910, they had yielded to the
demand of the National Assembly and promised the convening
of the promised parliament for 1913 ; six months later, the Regent
had agreed to replace the Grand Council by a responsible Cabinet.
The Imperial Clan was divided against itself at this critical
juncture by a struggle for supreme power between the Regent
and the Dowager Empress Lung Yu, widow of H. M. Kuang Hsu;
divided also, because several of its leading members, under the
influence of Prince Tsai Tao, were in favour of a policy of constitu-
tional reform. But even had it presented a united front, the
forces which brought about the abdication of the dynasty
were beyond its strength.
When, immediately after the outbreak at Hankow, the muti-
neers captured the Wuchang mint and the arsenal at Hanyang,
it soon became apparent that the Regent possessed no resources
either of strength or of statecraft. Seriously alarmed by the
rapid spread of the rebellion, he was persuaded to call to his aid
the famous Chinese viceroy, Yuan Shih-k'ai, whom he had dis-
graced and dismissed from office in Jan. 1909. By an edict of
Oct. 141911 Yuan was recalled from his retirement and appointed
viceroy of Hunan and Hupeh, with supreme command of the
Imperial forces. From this date until his death (June 1916) the
direction of affairs at Peking lay in his hands.
Yuan Shih-k'ai's military operations on behalf of the monarchy
were half-hearted at best and require but little comment. He
took the field towards the end of Oct. but returned to Peking on
Nov. 13, having been elected prime minister on the 8th. At the
end of Nov., after desultory fighting, the position of the rebels
in and around Hankow had become untenable. But by this time
the propaganda work done by Sun Yat-sen's emissaries, com-
bined with the helplessness of the Manchus, had borne fruit.
Fourteen provinces or rather their officials had declared
for the revolutionaries and against the monarchy, whilst the
attitude of influential mandarins like Tang Shao-yi and Wu Ting-
fang, who had risen to eminence under the Empress Dowager,
was indicative of the fact that the movement was not likely to be
suppressed by military force. Nanking held out for the Im-
perialist cause until the beginning of Dec., at which date Yuan
Shih-k'ai agreed to an armistice, for the purpose of discussing the
whole situation with the revolutionary leaders. From the outset,
after his recall to power, Yuan had done his utmost to stem the
tide of disaffection and to preserve the monarchy, shorn of its
privileges, as the centre of a reformed constitutional system.
He had consistently resisted the demands of the radical ex-
tremists, and when, as the result of the increasing demoralization
of the court and the sympathetic attitude of the foreign press
towards the revolution, Sun Yat-sen's party began seriously to
proclaim their intention to establish a republic, he did everything
in his power to prevent it. He publicly declared his belief that
the overthrow of the throne must mean chaos " amidst which all
interests would suffer, and there would be no peace in the empire
for several decades." When finally he consented to parley with
the revolutionary leaders, he was fighting practically single-
handed for the principles in which he believed. The National
Assembly, which had adhered to the constitutional programme,
had been denounced and superseded by the Kuo Min-tang's
Republican Committee at Shanghai, early in November. The
British Government and others, which had warmly advocated
his recall to office at the beginning of the rebellion, had failed at
the critical moment to give him the moral and financial support
which he had every reason to expect, and it was evident that
without a large foreign loan, his position was hopeless; the
Regent had abdicated (Dec. 6) and Tang Shao-yi, the ablest of
his lieutenants, had frankly declared his sympathies with the
Cantonese republican party.
The armistice negotiations commenced at Hankow on Dec. n,
with Tang Shao-yi acting as Imperial delegate. On the i8th they
were transferred to Shanghai upon the demand of the Republican
Committee. The result was a foregone conclusion; before the
end of the month, the Manchu court had agreed to submit to
a National Convention the question of monarchy or republic.
On Dec. 25, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, who had been in England when
the revolution began, arrived at Shanghai; a week later, a
council of provincial delegates at Nanking elected him to be first
President of the Chinese Republic, and on Jan. i 1912 he took
the oath of office. On the i2th, the court being terrified by bomb
outrages at the capital, the Emperor's abdication was proclaimed
in an edict which transferred the government to the people's
representatives and declared that the constitution should hence-
forth be republican. By the same edict, Yuan Shih-k'ai was
given full powers to organize a provisional republican govern-
ment. On Feb. 14, Dr. Sun Yat-sen resigned the presidency in
favour of Yuan Shih-k'ai, who was elected provisional President
by the Nanking Council and took the oath of office at Peking
on March 10. Li Yuan-hung was elected vice-president and a
provisional constitution was adopted by the Nanking delegates.
On April 2, the Government of the republic was transferred
from Nanking to Peking. A new provisional council was formed
consisting of five members from each province, elected by the
provincial assemblies, five members each from Inner and Outer
Mongolia and Tibet, and one member from Kokonor.
Yuan Shih-k'ai's position as President of the republic was
one of great difficulty and danger. He had never been at pains to
conceal his dislike for the political ideas of the Cantonese party,
or his conviction that the monarchical form of government was
best suited to the needs of the Chinese people; in the eyes of the
Kuo Min-tang Radicals, he was therefore suspect from the out-
set. If they professed to believe in his conversion to Republican-
ism, it was because his was the only name likely to inspire the
masses with respect for the new regime, and also because they
expected him to play the part assigned to him with due respect
for the interests of those who had placed him at the head of af-
fairs. In addition to the chaos of the internal situation (already
clearly manifested in the struggle for supremacy between rival
military chieftains) he was faced with grave financial problems,
chiefly due to the fact that the fiscal machinery of the empire
had been completely disorganized by the revolution. There were,
moreover, increasing difficulties in the field of foreign affairs.
Nevertheless, by consummate ability of statecraft, he succeeded
during the next four years in bringing something like order out of
chaos and gradually restoring the authority of the central Govern-
ment in the provinces. During his first year in the presidency,
the Kuo Min-tang Radicals were still powerful enough to compel
him to adopt a policy of watchful waiting and to concentrate
his attention upon ways and means for raising money abroad.
So long as his treasury remained unreplenished, his position
necessarily lacked the prestige which the financial support of the
Powers confers, and he had no means of securing the support of
the military chieftains, whose troops were usually at the service
of the highest bidder. It was not until April 25 1913 that, after
prolonged negotiations with the Six-Power group of financiers,
Yuan's Minister of Finance succeeded in concluding the " Re-
organization " loan, which placed him in possession of the sinews
of war to the amount of about 10 millions sterling. His financial
position and the moral support of the foreign Powers thus secured,
Yuan proceeded to show his hand and to defy the Kuo Min-tang.
The latter had secured a powerful majority at the elections held
in the beginning of the year. They came to Peking for the open-
ing of Parliament (April 7) in a belligerent mood, greatly exasper-
ated by the assassination at Shanghai of one of their ablest lead-
ers, Sung Chiao-jen, the speaker-elect, whose death was undoubt-
edly planned and carried out by the President's orders. As-
sembled under these conditions, the life of the new Parliament
was not destined to be a long one; its career, indeed, began and
ended with the election of speakers for both Houses. Yuan
Shih-k'ai refused to recognize its claim to supervise and sanction
his loan negotiations and ordered the conclusion of the agreement
with the foreign banks in despite of the agitated protests of the
Radical leaders. Realizing the danger of their position many
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CHINA
of these now fled from Peking, and in the central and southern
provinces " a war to punish Yuan " was begun. It lasted only
two months and ended in a complete rout of the disorganized
forces led by Generals Li Lieh-chun and Huang Hsing. Yuan
was now firmly in the saddle.
After thus forcibly asserting his authority, Yuan proceeded to
vindicate and consolidate it. In the first place, by the lavish use
of money and the display of military force, he succeeded in secur-
ing his election as President for a term of five years his title
having hitherto been provisional. On Oct. 10 1913 he took the
oath of office with much pomp and circumstance, in the throne
room of the Winter Palace; and availed himself of the occasion
to declare that, for the future, he intended to rule without inter-
ference and in accordance with ancient tradition. Four weeks
later, a presidential mandate, endorsed by his docile Cabinet,
ordered the unseating of all the Kuo Min-tang members of
Parliament, on the ground of their treasonable conspiracies.
As half of the Senate and more than half of the House of Repre-
sentatives were thus disposed of, no parliamentary quorum
was left. All obstacles to the exercise of Yuan's autocratic au-
thority were thus removed. He continued for a while to profess
respect for the principles of constitutional government and loy-
alty to the republic, but it speedily became apparent that the
ideas which inspired his policy were those which he had frankly
proclaimed during the crisis of the revolution.
The Parliament at Peking was replaced by a political council
and " an administrative conference for the revision of the con-
stitution," composed almost exclusively of officials and literati
of the old school, selected by the President or by his agents and
representatives in the provinces. The provincial assemblies
were dissolved, on the carefully directed recommendation of the
military governors, " for perversely usurping financial authority
and obstructing the business of administration." By the begin-
ning of 1914, it was evident that Yuan intended to restore the
old orthodox autocracy and centralization of power in the metro-
politan administration; it was also' evident that, so far as the
great mass of the people was concerned, his policy evoked little
or no opposition and that, so far, he was justified in his declared
belief that they were " no lovers of changes that ran counter to
immemorial custom."
When, upon the advice of his administrative council, the
President Dictator announced his intention of performing the
Winter Solstice ceremony at the Temple of Heaven and restoring
the official worship of Confucius, he proclaimed himself to that
nation as an autocratic ruler and gave the first indication of his
own imperial ambitions. There is reason for believing that these
ambitions had no place in his mind when, in 1911, he strove to
uphold the Manchu dynasty, but that they gradually and insid-
iously asserted themselves, partly as the result of the exercise of
despotic authority and partly by reason of the death of the boy
Emperor's guardian, the Empress Dowager Lung Yu (Feb. 1914).
Even when his intentions had become unmistakably clear, he
fully realized the dangers which confront the creation of a new
imperial line under a political system in which the divine right of
rulers is intimately bound up with the sacred institution of
ancestor worship; but he took his risks and carried his principles
to a conclusion for which there were precedents in history and
justification in the situation itself. Had the question of his claim
to the throne been decided simply as a matter of internal politics,
he would probably have succeeded in establishing and extending
his effective authority with the general consent of the nation,
weary of civil strife and disorder. But Japan's assertion of her
" special rights " and material interests in China, greatly in-
creased after the outbreak of the World War and the expulsion
of the Germans from Kiaochow, plainly indicated that Yuan
Shih-k'ai would not have a free hand in the matter. His inability
to discern the serious danger of intervention from this quarter
was the weakest point in his armour; indeed, his failure to grasp
the international situation afforded a remarkable contrast to the
perspicacity he displayed in dealing with his own countrymen.
Within a year of the outbreak of the World War, the move-
ment for the restoration of the throne in China had assumed
definite form and direction. The Chou-An-hui society, composed
chiefly of Yuan's supporters, organized an energetic monarchical
propaganda at Peking and in the provinces, but they, like the
President, failed to draw from the " 21 Demands " (which Japan
had forced upon the Chinese Government in May 1915) the
obvious conclusion that the Japanese Government would strongly
oppose Yuan's plans in the event of his advancing serious claims
to the throne. During the negotiations which took place between
Jan., when the " 21 Demands " were first presented, and May,
when they were imposed by an ultimatum, the President's
attitude towards the Japanese was evasively conciliatory, but
it failed to reveal appreciation of the truth that since the days
of his residency in Korea he had never been persona grata in
Japan, and that the Government at Tokyo would therefore do
its utmost to prevent his assumption of autocratic power. One
of the ablest and most influential scholars in China, the famous
political writer, Liang Ch'i-ch'ao, who had strongly supported
Yuan's fight for the preservation of the monarchy in 1911, stood
forward boldly in Aug. 1915, to denounce the Chou An-hui's
propaganda and to warn the President of the perils which threat-
ened the course upon which he was embarking. Resigning his
position on the State Council, Liang proceeded to publish his
opinions in the Peking Gazette, opposing Yuan's accession to the
throne, partly on grounds of classical orthodoxy and partly be-
cause he perceived the inevitability of Japanese intervention.
Yuan, well aware of the far-reaching influence of Liang's views,
did all in his power to win his support. Failing in this, he made a
pretence of constitutional procedure by referring the question of
the monarchy to a vote of the provinces, or rather, to the vote of a
number of individuals appointed by himself to represent them.
The result, a foregone conclusion, was a practically unanimous
vote (Nov. 5) in favour of Yuan's accession.
But Liang Ch'i-ch'ao's wisdom was rapidly justified. On Oct.
30, the Japanese minister, supported by his British and Russian
colleagues, conveyed to the President, through his Foreign Office,
friendly " advice " to the effect that the Japanese Government
deprecated the idea of his restoring the monarchy in his own
person, on the ground that the change would lead to serious in-
ternal dissensions. Yuan's reply was dignified but short-sighted;
he informed the Japanese minister that his Government was
quite capable of preventing disorder in China, and that he looked
to the Governments of friendly Powers to control the activities
of Chinese revolutionaries within their territories. On Nov. 9
the Chinese Government, in announcing the result of the provin-
cial " vote," intimated that no change would take place before
the New Year; but this decision was rescinded, and matters
hastened by an abortive insurrectionary movement which oc-
curred at Shanghai on Dec. 6. The State Council thereupon
memorialized the President to put an end to the prevalent uncer-
tainty and unrest by proclaiming himself Emperor without
further delay. On the i2th the monarchy was proclaimed,
and the announcement was made that the inauguration ceremony
would take place on Feb. 9.
It was not to be. Within a week of the proclamation of the
monarchy, a rebellion broke out in the far-western province of
Yunnan, led by Tsai Ao, a military official educated in Japan.
On Dec. 27 the province, through its officials and local gentry,
declared its independence in opposition to the monarchy. There-
after, in spite of initial successes gained by the Government's
forces, the insurrection spread with a rapidity which justified the
foresight of Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and emphasized the fact that, as
matters stood, Yuan Shih-k'ai had not achieved either the per-
sonal prestige or the pecuniary resources sufficient to command
for his authority as Emperor the respect and loyalty of the semi-
independent chieftains of the provinces. By the end of Jan.
Kuangsi and Kueichou had renounced their allegiance and other
provinces were wavering. His star was so rapidly declining that
his advisers persuaded him to issue an official announcement
(Jan. 22) postponing indefinitely the establishment of the mon-
archy, in view of the country's internal dissensions. Having thus
confessed to failure, when within sight of the summit of his
ambitions, Yuan's fate as a ruler was sealed. By the end of
CHINA
659
March his opponents had become so many and so active that his
remaining friends advised him to resign the presidency and
retire into private life. A month later he had been denounced as a
usurper in nearly every province by the very men who had
" elected " him to the throne in Nov., and even at Peking there
were but few to do him reverence. Nevertheless he declined to
resign the presidency, and attempted a compromise by issuing
a mandate (April 22), which transferred all civil authority to a
reorganized Cabinet under the premiership of Tuan Chi-jui, an
able and ambitious official, who had first achieved distinction,
as Yuan's Minister of War, by suppressing Sun Yat-sen's revolu-
tion in 1913. In order to placate the Cantonese and other dis-
affected elements in the South, the President announced his
intention of reintroducing parliamentary government without
delay. But the Kuo Min-tang Radical leaders were not disposed
to come to terms with Peking ; the absence of any effective author-
ity at the capital merely served to stimulate new ambitions and
create new causes of conflict amongst the political factions. The
Kuo Min-tang, repudiating Yuan Shih-k'ai, therefore proclaimed
the establishment of a new provisional Government at Canton
and elected the Vice-President Li Yuan-hung to the presidency.
Peking was now confronted with a renewal of civil war and by a
situation which Yuan's persistence in retaining office rendered
peculiarly difficult. But at this juncture Yuan died, worn out
by an illness which chagrin had aggravated, and Li Yuan-hung
duly succeeded to the presidency.
It soon became apparent that with Yuan Shih-k'ai had passed
the only hope of restoring a strong central Government in China.
Had he lived and succeeded in restoring law and order, he might
also have succeeded in turning to his country's permanent ad-
vantage the favourable economic situation in which the European
War had placed it. But with his death the affairs of the nation
became once more involved in a chaotic confusion of personal
ambitions and political rivalries, and the functions of Govern-
ment were rapidly transferred from the civil to the military
organization. At the date of Yuan's death, the fiscal relations
between Peking and the provinces which he had begun to re-
organize in 1914, had completely collapsed, as the result of the
new insurrectionary movement; the central Government was
confronted by an empty treasury and without means of replenish-
ing it, other than foreign loans. The Government banks at
Peking had suspended specie payments in May 1916 and the
military governors of the northern provinces, on whose support
the administration depended, were loudly clamouring for money
wherewith to pacify their unpaid troops. Tuan Chi-jui, as
premier of the new Cabinet, endeavoured to disarm the opposi-
tion of the Southerners and to secure support for the metropolitan
administration, by convening the Parliament which Yuan had
broken up in 1913, to meet at the capital on Aug. i. At the same
time he sought to win over the most influential of the Cantonese
leaders, Tang Shao-yi (prominent before the revolution as a
metropolitan official and protege of Yuan Shih-k'ai), by offering
him the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. But Tang Shao-yi and his
colleagues of the Canton provisional Government showed no desire
for unity; on the contrary, denouncing the Peking administration
as " militarists " and monarchists in disguise, they professed to
insist upon the immediate restoration of the provisional con-
stitution adopted by the revolutionary leaders at Nanking in
1911. Subsequent events proved clearly that no devotion to any
political principle lay behind their factions, and that the central
Government could never have disarmed their opposition by
granting the Nanking, or any other, constitution. The nation
was doomed to civil strife by reason of rivalries that were, and
still are, personal and predatory, and which only lawfully con-
stituted authority, backed by disciplined forces, could ever over-
come. At the opening of Parliament on Aug. i, two facts were
speedily made manifest: firstly, that the Kuo Min-tang's repu-
diation of Peking's authority had not been inspired solely by
Yuan Shih-k'ai's attempt to restore the monarchy and would
not end with it; secondly, that the existence and proceedings
of Parliament, no matter under what constitution convened,
were completely at the mercy of the military governors. One
of the first steps taken by Gen. Li Yuan-hung, as President of the
republic, was to call a meeting of generals and to inform them that
the country's destinies lay in their hands. Thenceforward the
northern military governors, led by the premier Tuan Chi-jui,
became the dominant factor of the situation. At the outset they
were frankly opposed to the revival of the Nanking constitution
and to the reassembling of the Parliament of 1913 ; while the navy,
with its headquarters at Shanghai, was equally decided in its
refusal to acknowledge the authority of Peking until Parliament
had resumed its functions. Finally, a compromise was reached
by the formation of a new Cabinet wherein the South was repre-
sented. Parliament, in which the Kuo Min-tang party pre-
dominated, declared its intention of adhering to the Nanking
provisional constitution, pending the completion of a new and
permanent instrument, for the preparation of which a special
drafting committee was appointed. But it was not long before
the military governors made it plain that, while they might per-
mit the parliamentarians to debate their theories of government,
its practice would continue to be determined by their own neces-
sities, and that the chief problem with which the Cabinet would
henceforth have to grapple, lay in the provision of funds for the
maintenance of their uncontrolled and uncontrollable armies.
After the passing of Yuan Shih-k'ai the history of the Chinese
Government became a series of expedients and experiments in-
tended to provide a temporary solution of this problem, all of
which tended to aggravate its difficulty.
At the time of his " election " to the throne, in Nov. 1915,
Yuan Shih-k'ai had made certain tentative overtures through
the legations at Peking, with a view to China's abandonment of
neutrality and her espousal of the cause of the Allies. By the
adoption of this course he hoped not only to obtain the financial
relief which he required, but to make provision for assistance
in the future against the policy of encroachment displayed by
Japan in the "21 Demands." But he was compelled to abandon
negotiations to this end, because of the troubles that began to
press upon him and because of the Japanese Government's un-
concealed opposition to the proposal. After his death, however,
the chief reason for this opposition was removed and in the winter
of 1916, the question of China's joining the Allies came to be
seriously considered by Tuan Chi-jui's Cabinet. The premier
and most of his colleagues were anxious to take this step, because
it offered an opportunity of suspending the Boxer indemnity
payments and of securing Chinese representation at the Peace
Conference at the close of the war. But amongst the older officials,
there were some (including the President) who, greatly influenced
by the activities of German agents and their lavish propaganda,
preferred a policy of passive neutrality. Opinion was therefore
divided and before the question was finally settled (March n)
by a decisive vote of both Houses of Parliament, it had become
inextricably involved in the dissensions and intrigues of the
rival political factions at the capital, and had led to an open
breach between the Premier and the President. On Feb. 4 the
U.S. minister at Peking invited the Chinese Government to
follow the example of the United States by formally protesting
against Germany's submarine campaign and by severing diplo-
matic relations; on the 9th, the Chinese Foreign Office conveyed
an intimation to the German minister in the sense required.
The premier's party were now for immediate action, but their
policy was opposed and denounced by the German-subsidized
section of the press and by the President's party in Parliament,
advocating cautious delay. On Feb. 28, the Allied ministers at
Peking, by a joint memorandum, notified the Chinese Govern-
ment that if diplomatic relations with Germany were severed,
the Powers would suspend the Boxer indemnity payments and
consent to a revision of the Chinese customs tariff. The premier,
after consulting his supporters at Peking and in the provinces,
decided to act upon this advice and to instruct the provincial
authorities accordingly. The President's refusal to confirm
these instructions led to a ministerial crisis; eventually, after
the premier had tendered his resignation, the President gave way.
Tuan Chi-jui's policy having been endorsed by Parliament,
relations with Germany were severed on March 14 1917; on the
66o
CHINA
same day the German ships at Shanghai and Amoy were seized
by the Chinese authorities, and on the 2$th the German minister
and his staff left Peking.
The premier and his supporters were now anxious to carry
their policy to its logical conclusion and to secure the benefits of
complete identification with the cause of the Allies, by declaring
war against the Central Powers. A conference of military gover-
nors convened by the premier at Peking on April 26 voted de-
cisively for war; a few days later the Cabinet adopted a unanimous
resolution to the same effect. But once again the national aspect
of the question became submerged in a welter of factional in-
trigues. The President's party, consisting of a number of Kuo
Min-tang parliamentarians, who professed to see in the attitude
of the military governors a menace to parliamentary govern-
ment, and of others alarmed by the increasing rumours of secret
agreements between Tuan Chi-jui's party and the Japanese
Government, constituted an opposition sufficient to prevent the
Cabinet from carrying its resolution into effect. Among the
literati and disinterested patriotic men there undoubtedly existed
a genuine difference of opinion as to the advisability of committing
the nation definitely to a policy of hostility to Germany, a dif-
ference which was reflected in the conflicting advice publicly
given by scholars like Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and Kang Yu-wei. But
so far as Parliament was concerned, the question resolved itself
into a sordid struggle for power between Tuan Chi-jui, backed
by the northern Tuchuns, and his political opponents. At a
secret session of the Lower House of Parliament on May 10, it
was apparent that the question of war with Germany had be-
come subordinate to that of a combined attack upon Tuan Chi-
jui. On May 19 a resolution was adopted to the effect that the
House would decline further to consider the question until the
Cabinet had been reconstructed. As Tuan's colleagues with one
exception had resigned at the first sign of serious trouble, the
resolution amounted to a demand for the premier's resignation.
Tuan, however, held his ground stoutly and countered the Kuo
Min-tang move by a communication from the military governors
to the President demanding the immediate dissolution of Parlia-
ment, and by the announcement of their intention not to leave
the capital until this had been done. Thus challenged, the
President issued a mandate (May 23) dismissing the premier and
appointing the septuagenarian Wu Ting-fang in his place. Tuan,
following the course usual on such occasions, fled from the
capital and, taking refuge with the military party's leaders
at Tientsin, announced his intention of defying the President's
authority. The military governors of several provinces north
of the Yangtsze thereupon proceeded to declare their independ-
ence of the central Government whilst the Kuo Min-tang leaders,
hurriedly leaving the capital for the South, announced their
intention of taking up arms in defence of Parliament and the
people's liberties. It is typical of the chaotic condition of Chi-
nese affairs that at this juncture Gen. Feng Kuo-chang, the Vice-
President, while tendering his resignation, announced that the
lower Yangtsze region would remain " neutral."
The struggle thus begun lasted for three months and post-
poned China's declaration of war against Germany until the
middle of August. As it proceeded, it became more and more
apparent that the contending factions were not really concerned
with any question of political principles, but fighting only for
place and power. At the beginning of June, the military gover-
nors established a " Provisional Government " of their own at
Tientsin with the aged ex-viceroy, Hsu Shih-chang (later Presi-
dent of the republic), cast for the dummy role of president-dicta-
tor. At the same time they warned Li Yuan-hung that if he de-
sired to remain President, he must submit to their wishes and
dissolve Parliament; to enforce their demands they proceeded
to mass troops in the vicinity of the capital. Li Yuan-hung
sought to gain time by summoning to his aid as " mediator "
Gen. Chang Hsiin, the famous swashbuckler chieftain of Shan-
tung fame. Gen. Chang promptly came north with a " body-
guard " of several thousand troops, and arrived at Peking on
June 12; but the value of his mediation was discounted in ad-
vance by the announcement that he would insist upon the dis-
missal of Parliament, and by rumours of his intention to restore
the Manchu dynasty. On June 13 Li Yuan-hung yielded, and
Parliament was dissolved by presidential mandate.
The question of joining with the Allies against Germany was
now relegated by common consent to the background and all
attention concentrated on the struggle of personal ambitions at
Peking. Tuan Chi-jui, with his Tuchun supporters, was still in
watchful waiting at Tientsin. Parliament had elected a new
Premier (Li Ching-hsi) but the attitude of the military party
made it an uncomfortable post to fill and he had cautiously
declined to assume office. Many of the Kuo Min-tang politi-
cians had fled to Shanghai and Canton and, with the support of
the navy, were once more preparing to take the field against
Peking. Under these conditions the danger of internal dis-
sensions on a wide scale without definite purpose was unmistak-
ably more serious than at any time since the overthrow of the
Manchus. Regarding the matter in this light, the United States
addressed a note to the Chinese Government (June 6) deploring
the prospect of civil war and intimating that the restoration of
national unity was a matter of more immediate importance to
China than the declaration of war against the Central Powers.
This advice, though morally sound, was politically unfortunate,
inasmuch as it was construed and proclaimed by the Kuo Min-
tang as an intimation that the U.S. Government was opposed
to the policy of Tuan Chi-jui and his military supporters; it
therefore resulted in stiffening Young China and the Cantonese
Radicals in their uncompromising hostility to the central Govern-
ment. It was common knowledge that Tuan Chi-jui had framed
and pursued his policy in close touch with Japan, and that he
relied upon that country for financial support; it was only natural
therefore that Young China should look to the United States
not only to deliver them from the militarist and monarchist
party, but to protect the Chinese republic from Japan.
General Chang Hsiin, as the central figure on the Peking
stage, soon showed that he had no intention of attempting to
bring about a reconciliation between President and premier.
His proceedings were so obviously inspired by his own overween-
ing ambitions that it was not long before signs of dissension
manifested themselves between him and his colleagues of the
military party. When his policy became fully revealed by a
coup de main (July i) which withdrew the young Emperor from
his retirement and proclaimed the restoration of the Dragon
Throne, the chief cause of the opposition which his action prompt-
ly evoked from Tuan Chi-jui and the Peiyang military chiefs
lay in the fact that he proposed to appoint himself regent and
viceroy of Chihli. Few, if any, of those who now denounced
Chang Hsiin as a traitor to the republic and took the field
against him, were in reality opposed to the monarchy (most of
them were, in fact, solemnly pledged to support the restoration) ;
but they could not brook the assumption of supreme authority
by one who had stolen a march upon them and taken advantage
of their divided counsels. Tuan Chi-jui, in particular, was known
to be in favour of the monarchy, but only on condition that he
himself became viceroy of Chihli and the power behind the
throne. Emerging therefore from his retirement at Tientsin,
he led his army to the capital to defend the republic. After a
few days of desultory and half-hearted fighting, Chang Hsiin
capitulated (July 12) and the young Emperor was consigned
once more, with all due respect, to the tranquil dignity of his
court without a kingdom. Chang Hsiin's troops were permitted
to retire, with the honours of war and three months' pay; their
leader, who had found a temporary refuge in the Dutch legation,
was left unmolested.
In " vindicating the Republic," Gen. Tuan had received the
active support of the Vice-President, Gen. Feng Kuo-chang,
commanding the army at Nanking. After the capitulation of
Chang Hsiin, Tuan resumed the premiership, with powers that
were practically those of a dictator, so that the position of Li
Yuan-hung as President became impossible. From the Japanese
legation, whither he had fled for safety upon the proclamation of
the monarchy, he announced his intention of retiring into pri-
vate life. On July 18 he was succeeded in the presidency by
CHINA
661
Feng Kuo-chang, who declared his readiness to endorse the policy
of the premier in the matter of declaring war against the Central
Powers. The agreement thus reached gave promise of a united
administration and a clear-cut policy at Peking; nevertheless,
it failed to reconcile the disaffected elements represented by the
Kuo Min-tang. These declared the new Government to be
illegally constituted and demanded the immediate convocation
of Parliament ; failing which (as a proclamation by Sun Yat-sen
announced) it would meet, under a provisional Government, at
Canton. Undeterred by this opposition, the premier, after
receiving certain assurances from the Allied ministers, notified
them that China would declare war against Germany so soon as
the new President had assumed office. Feng Kuo-chang arrived
at Peking on Aug. i; two days later, the Cabinet adopted a
unanimous resolution in favour of the declaration of war, which
was formally issued on Aug. 14.
The critical situation in Russia and the impossibility of pre-
dicting the future policy of that country, made it difficult for the
Allied Governments to come to a common understanding in
regard to the financial and other advantages to be conceded to
China upon abandoning her neutrality. It was eventually agreed
to suspend the Boxer indemnity payments and to authorize an
increase in the Maritime Customs tariff; and at the same time
the Government's immediate necessities were relieved by a loan
of 10 million yen from the Consortium banks.
With its foreign debt obligations thus diminished and its
revenue materially increased by Sir Richard Dane's highly
successful reorganization of the salt gabelle, the Chinese Govern-
ment had an opportunity of regaining financial and political
equilibrium such as had not occurred since the beginning of the
century. Had Tuan Chi-jui seized the opportunity by offering
to the southern leaders representation in the Cabinet and a fair
share of the sweets of office, harmony might possibly have been
restored; but he refused to do so and his new Cabinet (July 17)
contained only representatives of the military party and the
Chin Pu-tang. The result was a rapid development of a new
separatist movement in the South, which had begun in June,
after the dissolving of Parliament, by the secession of Kwang-
tung. Henceforward, during the period with which we are dealing,
the history of China becomes an increasingly hopeless tangle of
faction feuds. Almost before the new President had assumed
office at the capital, his adherents (the Chihli group of the Pei-
yang party) were in conflict with the premier concerning the policy
to be adopted in dealing with the South ; Tuan Chi-jui being all for
strong measures, and Feng Kuo-chang for conciliation. As the
result of these differences, Tuan Chi-jui once more resigned ; but
again his friends, the military governors, intervened and pro-
claimed their intention of carrying on the war against the South,
with or without the consent of the Government. Eventually
Gen. Chang Tso-lin, the Tuchun autocrat of Manchuria, put an
end to all further peace talk by moving a large body of troops
into Chihli; Tuan Chi-jui thereupon resumed the premiership
and, with the support of the northern Tuchuns, took up the of-
fensive against the southern provinces.
Having " vindicated the Republic," it was necessary for
Tuan Chi-jui to maintain the appearance of constitutionalism.
He therefore convened an assembly, which proceeded to revise
the law for parliamentary elections. This having been duly
promulgated (Feb. 17 1918), a new Parliament (considerably
reduced in numbers) was elected, in time to deal with the quin-
quennial election of the president.
On Sept. 4 the presidential election took place, but the matter
had been decided in advance by the military Tuchuns, assembled
in conference at Tientsin. Feng Kuo-chang was passed over,
because of his inability to work with Tuan Chi-jui, and in his
place was elected Hsu Shih-chang (in 1921 President of the
republic), a veteran official who had achieved a reputation for
sagacity as viceroy of Manchuria and guardian of the heir-
apparent under the monarchy.
Meanwhile, headed by the Chinese guilds and chambers of
commerce at the treaty ports, a strong movement had begun to
manifest itself on the one hand against the continuance of civil
war, and on the other against the subservience and venality of the
Peiyang politicians in their dealings with Japanese agents.
This attitude of the business community was endorsed and the
country's urgent need of peace emphasized, by earnest repre-
sentations addressed to the Chinese Government by the Allied
ministers at Peking. The new President was well aware of the
dangers of China's internal and international position; by tem-
perament and training inclined to methods of conciliation, he did
all in his power to restore peace and goodwill between the Peiyang
party and the Cantonese leaders of the South. On Nov. 16 he
issued a presidential mandate, calling upon the commanders of
the northern forces to suspend hostilities and to keep within
their own lines. This armistice was followed by negotiations for a
conference (eventually convened at Shanghai) with a view to
removing the alleged grievances of the southern Constitutional-
ists and finding means to amalgamate the rival parliaments
under a coalition Government. The President's action was
undoubtedly influenced, and the peace movement strengthened,
by the Allies' victorious conclusion of the war; for a little while
it seemed as if the Shanghai conference might lead to some defi-
nite and satisfactory conclusion, but in the end it merely served
to demonstrate the fact that neither party had anysincere desire
to put an end to the civil strife, from which not only the northern
Tuchuns but the southern parliamentarians profited.
As leader of the southern delegates at the Shanghai peace
conference, Tang Shao-yi demanded the cancellation of the
Government's military agreement with Japan, the abolition
of the War Participation Bureau, and a pledge that the Peking
authorities would accept no further financial assistance from
Japan. Most of the eight demands which he laid before the
northern delegates (May 1919) evoked but little public interest,
but the increasing evidence of Japanese political and financial
ascendancy at Peking produced a strong manifestation of
opinion by Young China in support of the southern party's atti-
tude, which was greatly increased by the decision of the Versailles
Conference in regard to the Shantung question. The Sino-
Japanese military agreement (March 1918) was the most im-
portant of several secret pacts concluded by Tuan Chi-jui's
Cabinet. It was ostensibly intended to provide for united action
by China and Japan against German and Bolshevik activities
in Siberia, and especially for the protection of the Siberian rail-
way; but, according to the leaders of the southern party, it not
only gave Japan a steadily extending control over China's mili-
tary forces in the North, but it virtually reestablished many of the
" protectorate " conditions which had been imposed (and
subsequently withdrawn as the result of representations by the
Powers) under Group V. of the " 21 Demands " of May 1915.
So strong was the feeling produced by the student strike, the
boycott, and other manifestations of Young China's indignation
at the increasing evidence of Japanese ascendancy at Peking,
that the Chinese Government was compelled to instruct its
representatives at Versailles not to sign the Peace Treaty; and
two of the members of Tuan Chi-jui's Cabinet, who were most
prominently identified with the Government's financial dealings
with Japan, were compelled to resign. The attitude of the southern
party remained, however, irreconcilable, and the renewed dis-
cussions of the Shanghai peace conference were fruitless; indeed,
a fresh cause of offence was proclaimed by the southern delegates
in the fact that the military agreement, which should have auto-
matically ended at the same time as the Allied intervention in
Siberia, remained in force by virtue of a new pact, said to have
been secretly concluded at Peking in March 1919.
Since the death of Yuan Shih-k'ai, the position of the group
of politicians in control of the Government at Peking had be-
come entirely a question of funds, in the sense that Tuan Chi-jui
and his supporters were continually confronted by the alter-
native of either retiring into private life or of raising money
sufficient to retain the support of the northern military governors.
It was a position which never offered any prospect of stability or
permanency; no Government could hope to ma ; ntain itself in
power if once its borrowing capacities were exhausted. In the
summer of 1920 the inevitable happened. Denounced by Young
662
CHINA
China, attacked on all sides for having sacrificed the nation's
sovereign rights, and abandoned by many of their dearly bought
supporters. Tuan Chi-jui and his colleagues of the Anfu Club
were forcibly driven from power. The control of the Govern-
ment passed then from their hands into those of the Chihli fac-
tion, headed by the President and the two powerful Tuchuns,
Chang Tso-lin and Tsao Kun. This defeat and expulsion of the
premier were hailed by Young China as a victory for the con-
stitutionalist cause and hopes were expressed that the popular
Gen. Wu Pei-fu, whose troops from the Yangtsze had played a
decisive part in the struggle, might be able to carry out his plans
for a citizen convention and thus unite the rival parliaments.
But these hopes were short-lived. Gen. Wu Pei-fu and the
national convention were very speedily relegated to the back-
ground, while the struggle for place and power was renewed on
the old lines between new groups of rival politicians. The im-
mediate result of the upheaval was to diminish the authority
of a few of the lesser military governors and to increase that of the
great provincial chieftains; but the latter showed no disposition
to sink their individual ambitions in any common purpose of
patriotism. The financial difficulties of the Government were
seriously increased by the heavy claims advanced by the military
leaders of the victorious Chihli party for payment of their troops,
and it was not long before the native press began to denounce
both the President and Chang Tso-lin as being even more dan-
gerously subject to Japanese influence than the Anfu Club
clique had been. A new combination and consolidation of power
became manifested in Sept. 1920 by a matrimonial alliance con-
cluded between the families of Chang Tso-lin and Tsao Kun,
the two most powerful Tuchuns of the North ; at the same time,
there were signs of a rapprochement between these satraps and the
followers of Tuan Chi-jui, while the return to public life of Gen.
Chang Hsiin, under the protection of the President, gave cur-
rency to fresh rumours of a movement impending for the res-
toration of the throne.
At the end of 1920, the situation offered but little hope of
relief for the sufferings of the Chinese people, continually harassed
and plundered since the revolution by the undisciplined forces
of semi-independent chieftains, whilst the general condition of
the country reflected the increasing financial embarrassments
of the Government. The defeat of the Anfu party and the
emergence of a new group in control of the metropolitan ad-
ministration, had produced no change in the situation; indeed
it was evident that no improvements could take place so long as
the Government continued to exist at the mercy of the military
governors and compelled therefore to satisfy their rapacity
at all costs. Even before the conclusion of the war in Europe,
the Allied Powers had had occasion to observe the desperate
nature of the expedients to which the Chinese Government was
resorting in order to raise funds, and the truth had become gen-
erally recognized, not only abroad but by the mercantile class
in China, that no financial or administrative panacea could
produce a stable Government at Peking, unless accompanied by
firm measures, taken under foreign supervision, for the dis-
bandment of the provincial governors' military forces. In July
1918, the U.S. Government took the initiative of proposing the
formation of a new four- Power financial Consortium. To this end
a conference was held at Paris in May 1919, and after protracted
negotiations between the Governments and financial groups
concerned, an agreement was reached (Oct. is 1 1920) which
provided for international cooperation between the United
States, Great Britain, France and Japan in regard to the pooling
of existing and future loan agreements with China. Under the
scheme initiated at Washington it was proposed to make the
disbandment of troops an essential condition of new loans;
at the same time steps were taken to establish an international
board for the abolition of ** spheres of influence " and for merg-
ing all railway concessions into a comprehensive Chinese system,
financed by the Consortium, wherein the principle of effective
supervision would be observed. In the spring of 1921, however,
the prospect of any general disbandment of the Tuchuns' troops
1 Blue Book, Miscell. No. 9 of 1921.
seemed as remote as ever; indeed, the forces of Chang Tso-lin
and Tsao Kun had recently been considerably increased, and
the opinion was gaining ground that something more forcible
than financial cooperation would be required to achieve their
disbandment and to reestablish the authority of the central
Government at Peking.
Authorities. Frederick Colsman, The Far East Unveiled (1918);
H. B. Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire,
vol. iii. (1918); J. O. P. Bland, Recent Events and Present Policies
in China (1912) and China, Japan and Korea (1921) ; Putnam Weals,
The Fight for the Republic in China (1918); H. M. Vinacke, Modern
Constitutional Development in China (1920) ; The China Year Book
(I9I9)-
Government and Administration. The establishment of the
republic, following on the revolution of 1911, was proclaimed
by Dr. Sun Yat-sen and his associates as a complete breach
with the past and the substitution of a democratic form of govern-
ment for China's ancient system of autocracy based on parental
rule. Nevertheless, the history of the country, during the first
ten years of the republic, and the methods of government
practised by its new rulers, afford convincing proof of the abiding
strength of the autocratic principle inseparable from Confucian-
ism, ancestor worship and the family system. Reverence for
this principle was unmistakably displayed at the outset, when
the republican leaders, after the abdication of the Manchus,
made formal obeisance at the shrine of the first Ming emperor
(Feb. 15 1912) and ascribed their success to the protecting in-
fluence of his illustrious spirit. It was subsequently manifested
in the " Articles of Generous Treatment," which pledged the
Government of the republic to allow the Manchu emperor and
his court to continue to reside in the imperial palace, with his
retinue and imperial guards and a pension of 4 million taels
per annum, and which made special provision for His Majesty's
regular performance of the religious ceremonies at the ancestral
shrines and mausolea. The administration of public affairs
under the republic, whether by the "militarists" of the northern
party, or the so-called constitutionalists of the South, has differed
very little in essentials from that of the old regime; but new
causes of unrest, inflicting much suffering upon the common peo-
ple, have arisen from the elimination of the prestige and authority
of the Throne. Neither the mandarins nor the masses have shown
capacity to adapt themselves to democratic institutions.
In theory, the constitution under which the republic of China
is governed is that which was drafted by the leaders of the
revolution at Nanking in Nov. 1911 and formally promulgated
in March 1912. It is admittedly a provisional constitution and
has never yet possessed any effective force in determining either
parliamentary or administrative procedure. Under its authority
a Parliament was elected and convened. It met at Peking in
March 1913, only to be suspended in Jan. 1914, by the President
Dictator, Yuan Shih-k'ai, who thereafter until his death ad-
ministered the Government in accordance with the accepted
traditions of paternal despotism. Following upon the death of
Yuan (June 1916) all the measures which, in the absence of
Parliament, he had personally decreed, were pronounced null and
void. The provisional constitution was reestablished as the
foundation of law in the land, and the restored Parliament (Aug.
1916) proceeded to discuss at great length the provisions of a
new and permanent constitution. But under pressure of the
northern military chiefs, Parliament was again dissolved (June
1917) without having completed the draft. A new Parliament,
elected under revised laws (specially devised for the occasion
by the nominees of acting President Feng Kuo-chang), met at
Peking in Aug. 1918 and elected Hsu Shih-chang to the presi-
dency on Sept. 4. A number of members of the old Parliament,
led by the southern Cantonese party, declared the new Parlia-
ment to be illegally constituted and its proceedings, including
the election of the President, invalid. They declared their in-
tention and their right to regard themselves as the sole legal
legislative body in the State, and in that capacity established
themselves, and a " Military Government," at Canton. In
Aug. 1918, they appealed to the foreign Powers for recognition
CHINA
663
and support on the plea, inter alia, that they were fighting " to
make China safe for democracy." Tested by the terms of the
provisional constitution, neither the Peking nor the Canton
Parliament was a legal body, and the military Government of
the South could have no claim to constituted authority. But
whatever the legal aspects of the dispute, the result of this dis-
sension in the ranks of the mandarinate was to produce a chronic
condition of civil war, or rather of widespread brigandage and
unrest, throughout the country, and to nullify the efforts of the
genuine progressives and patriots for securing reform.
Immediately after the revolution of 1911, the executive author-
ity in each province was assumed by the local military command-
ers (Tutuhs) in most cases natives of the province. Generally
speaking, the administration remained as before, in the hands of
the bureaucracy, minus such control as the central Government
had hitherto exercised. Under the dictatorship of Yuan (1913-6)
that control was partially reestablished, and to a certain extent
the provincial and local administrations became once more re-
sponsible, if not subject, to the central Government. In May
1913, President Yuan denned and promulgated by mandate
the conditions under which the official systems of provinces,
districts and circuits were to be administered, reestablishing the
supreme authority of the civil, as opposed to the military,
mandarinate. The provincial assemblies were suppressed, and
the position of district magistrates strengthened. But after the
death of Yuan no further attempts at centralization of the Gov-
ernment were possible, and as the result of widespread disorders
the administration passed rapidly from the civil to the military
mandarins. The Tuchuns (as the military governors came then
to be called) gradually usurped all the important functions of
administrative authority; and even in those provinces (e.g.
Chihli and Kwangtung) where the civil governor has continued
to function as the chief executive, his policy and proceedings
have conformed generally to those of his military colleague.
According to the provisions of the permanent constitution
advocated by the southern parliamentarians, the provincial
administration is to consist of a civil governor, a military gover-
nor, an intendant (the Taotai of the old regime), a district magis-
trate, and four heads of departments general affairs, interior,
education and commerce; but it is evident that, failing means to
control the autocratic power of the military chieftains, no con-
stitution can avail to secure uniformity of administration on
these, or any other, lines.
As matters stand, the executive authority of the central
Government is provisionally vested in a premier, nominated by
the President, and a Cabinet of nine ministers, nominated by the
premier. The Chinese names of the ministries have been changed
since the abolition of the monarchy, but their general composi-
tion and functions remain practically the same. The nine minis-
tries control respectively foreign affairs, home affairs, finance,
army, navy, justice, education, commerce and communications.
There are five subsidiary departments, dealing respectively
with Mongolia and Tibet, railways, telegraphs, audit and cus-
toms; to most of the ministries and departments a number of
foreign advisers and technical experts have been attached.
The Civil Service. Much of the political unrest and disorganization
which have prevailed of recent years in China is ascribable to the
suddenness with which the ancient system of classical examinations
for the public service was abolished by the Manchu Government in
1906, and to the subsequent failure of the republican administration
to replace it by any practical and authoritative scheme which shall
ensure the continuity of the competitive principle. Under the new
system of examination introduced in 1906 by ordeV of the Empress
Dowager, candidates for the civil service were required to display
some knowledge of western science in addition to the Chinese
classics. During the first four years of the republic, the system was
even more rapidly modernized, the classics and philosophy being
abandoned in favour of modern history, geography, law and science.
But under the dictatorship of Yuan Shih-k'ai, this process was re-
versed and knowledge of the classics restored to its pride of place
in the official curriculum. The general disorganization of public
affairs and internal disorders prevalent since 1916 prevented the
adoption of any comprehensive system applicable to, and accepted
by, the whole nation ; nevertheless, the holding of office remains
the chief highroad to wealth and distinction in China, and the
number of aspirants to position under the Government is probably
greater to-day than at any previous period in the history of the
country. In those provinces where the authority of the central
Government is recognized, the system now in force requires all
candidates to be possessed of a diploma or high-school certificate.
There are two classes of examination, one for those who aspire to
important posts under the central Government and the other
for clerkships and minor posts in the provinces. Under the re-
public the ancient rule which precluded mandarins from holding
high offices in their native province, or for a period exceeding three
years, has been abolished.
Justice. Towards the close of the Manchu reign, with a view to
removing the stigma of barbarism attaching to the Chinese ad-
ministration of justice, and thus to inducing the consent of the
Powers to the abolition of the foreigners' extra-territorial rights, the
Chinese Government was advised to compile a provisional criminal
code, abolishing the torture and flogging of prisoners and certain
barbarous methods of inflicting the death penalty. This new code,
based on the continental model, was promulgated in 1912, the first
year of the republic ; it embodied most of the legislation inspired by
western ideals of humanitarianism. But like many other changes
prescribed at this period from Peking, it remained without ap-
preciable effect upon the administration of justice in the provincial
Yamens, partly because the disordered condition of the country pre-
cluded any prospect of systematic reform in this direction, and
partly because lack of funds prevented the provision of the courts,
prisons, reformatories, and asylums which the code prescribed. It
remained therefore to all intents and purposes a dead letter. Since
then, the preparation of another new criminal code has been under-
taken, part of which was published in 1918; and with the assistance
of Japanese advisers, civil and communal codes have been drafted,
providing for the imaginary needs of many non-existent conditions.
The new system, as laid down in these codes, provides for officials
with purely judiciary powers, for judges functioning respectively in
the High Court of Justice at Peking, in provincial high courts,
metropolitan courts and courts of First Instance, but generally
speaking these judges and courts, like trial by jury and the scheme of
prison reform promulgated by the Minister of Justice in 1912, have
remained pious aspirations on paper, and must continue to be un-
attainable so long as the central Government lacks not only the
authority but the men and the funds required to carry them into
effect. According to a statement 'published by the Ministry of
Justice in 1913, 689 new courts of justice had then been established
and 13 model gaols provided; nevertheless, in most provinces the
district officials remain, as before, charged with judicial functions,
and the administration of justice, as far as the masses are concerned,
is practically the same as that which obtained under the old regime.
The widespread brigandage and continual struggles for supremacy
between rival Tuchuns, which became chronic conditions in most
provinces after 1916, forbade all hope of effecting any general and
permanent reform of the judicial system sufficient to justify the
Chinese Government's aspirations in the matter of the abolition of
extra-territoriality.
_ Defence. As the result of the political disorganization prevailing
since the death of Yuan Shih-k'ai, the Chinese army, as a national
defence organization, practically ceased to exist, but the troops
actually serving under one or other of the 22 Tuchuns (military
governors) are probably more numerous to-day than at any per'od
of the Manchus" rule. The number of these irregular and undis-
ciplined forces was estimated by Chu Chi-chien (northern delegate
at the Shanghai peace conference in 1919) at 1 ,290,657 men of whom
540,344 were supposed to be under the orders of the central Govern-
ment ; but, as the result of the political conditions and the strife of
factions at the capital, the majority of the forces stationed in the
metropolitan province and in Manchuria owed their allegiance to
their respective Tuchuns, and even to the President in his individual
capacity, rather than to the Ministry of War. In the words of a
Chinese writer, 1 " the army has acquired provincial associations and
lost its national character " ; moreover, " in the absence of discipline
among the inadequately paid troops, it is sometimes impossible to
distinguish between the soldiers and the brigands whom they are
expected to suppress." The inability of the central Government to
collect its revenues from the provinces, and therewith to make due
provision for the payment and control of a national army, has led
to the creation of independent provincial forces, which have not
only held the metropolitan administration to ransom, but levied
tribute on the country at large. The disbandment of these forces is
generally recognized in China to be a measure imperatively necessary,
as a preliminary to the restoration of normal conditions.
Finance. In Nov. 1912, prior to the conclusion of the organiza-
tion loan of 1913, a board of audit was established at Peking, with
foreign expert assistance, to audit the revenues and expenditure of
the central and provincial Governments; nevertheless, the only re-
liable information available up to June 1921 on the subject of
national finance were the published returns of the Inspectorate
General of Customs and the revenue totals of the salt gabelle, col-
lected under foreign supervision. The purely pro forma budgets,
1 See S. G. Cheng, Modern China.
664
CHINA
issued at irregular intervals by the Government since the establish-
ment of the republic, have no demonstrable relation to the facts of
the situation, and no good purpose would therefore be served by
quoting their respective figures, or by attempting to draw any con-
clusions from them. It will be sufficient, as an example, to show the
sources of revenue and headings of expenditure recorded in the
budget for the fiscal year July 1916-] une 1917 (which balance to a
tael) as follows :
EXPENDITURE
I. Ordinary.
Foreign Affairs S 4,446,548
Interfor . . 42,570,109
Finance . . 61,792,970
War . .
Marine .
_. Justice
7. Education
8. Agriculture
and Commerce .
9. Communica-
tions
10. Mongolia and
Tibet.
REVENUE
I. Ordinary.
Land Tax. .$ 90,105,784
I.
2. Customs
3. Salt Gabelle .
4. Tax on Com-
modities includ-
ing Likin
5. Regular and
Miscellaneous
Taxes .
6. Regular and
Miscellaneous
Duties .
7. Income from
Investments
8. Miscellaneous
Income of Prov-
inces
9. income of Cen-
tral Administra-
tion
IO. Income direct-
ly received by
Central Govern-
ment .
73,056,663
96,767,010
42,719,194
34,768,432
5,448,686
2,083,401
5,101,531
1,374,648
36.584,311
$388,009,660
I.
2.
3-
4-
5-
6.
156,606.047
7,304,135
9-337,156
4,433,893
2,734,790
i,533- 6 6
1,044,216
$291,803,470
//. Extraordinary.
1. Land Tax. .$
2. Customs .
3. Tax on Com-
modities
4. Regular and
Miscellaneous
Duties .
5. Income from
Government In-
vestments .
6. Miscellaneous
Income of Prov-
inces
7. Income of Cen-
tral Administra-
tion
8. Income direct-
ly received by
Central Govern-
ment
9. Miscellaneous
Income of Cen-
tral Government
10. Loans
11. Advances from
Banks
5,751.464
706,885
21,025
8,351
91,610
2,248,438
23-510,969
77. Extraordinary.
Foreign Affairs $ 1,846,786
Interior
Finance .
War .
Marine
Justice
Education
Agriculture
and Commerce
9. Communica-
tions .
IO. Mongolia and
Tibet .
3,"7,770
162,397,633
10,711-333
847,434
28,610
594,943
1,279,496
"6,833
94,2/6
8,100,000
24,291,468
16,187,305
84.828,924
Total Revenue $472,838,584
181,035,114
Total Expenditure $472,838,584
No budget was issued for the year July 1917-June 1918, a
ministerial order having announced that the figures for the previous
year would serve again. It is to be noted that the expenditure
estimated under the heading of " Finance " includes the sum of
$142,244,888 allocated for the service and amortization of loans;
also, that the receipts and expenditure under the heading of " Com-
munications " do not include the returns of Government railways
or posts and telegraphs.
Customs Revenue. The revenues collected by the Maritime Cus-
toms for the years 1916-20 were as follows:
Hk. Taels Sterling Average Exchange
1916 37,764,311 6,193,347 3s. 3Jd.
1917 38,189,429 8,244,541 4 3!
1918 36,345-045 9,606,828 5 3!
1919 46,009,160 14,566,000 6 4
1920 49,500,000 16,809,000 5 7!
By an agreement concluded between the Allied Powers and
China in the autumn of 1918, the import tariff was revised and new
duties fixed at specific rates, calculated to produce an effective 5%
ad valorem levy. The Boxer indemnity payments were also sus-
pended for a period of five years dating from Dec. I, 1917.
The revenues reported to have been obtained from certain new
taxes and dues, imposed by the Government since 1912, and in-
cluded in the 1916-7 budget under the heading " Income directly
received by Central Government," were as follows:
Stamp Dues
Tobacco and Wine Licence Dues .
Tobacco and Wine Tax
Income from Tobacco and Wine Sale
Mining Dues
. $ 5,864,400
2,012,852
14,350,456
12,134,986
2,221,617
$36,584-3"
Salt Gabelle. The steady growth of the revenue collected and
paid into the Consortium banks by the salt gabelle, reorganized
under foreign supervision, is shown by the following figures:
1914, $60,409,676; 1917, $70,627,249; 1918, $71,589,603; 1919,
$80,636,503.
In May 1921, however, the Times correspondent at Peking re-
ported that in several provinces the military governors, unable to
extract funds from Peking for the upkeep of their troops, were
commandeering the local salt revenues, thereby greatly reducing the
surpluses heretofore available for the use of the central Government.
Whatever value the returns of provincial collections and re-
mittances may have possessed under Yuan's dictatorship, as bases
for future estimates, was completely nullified by the chaotic fiscal
conditions which became chronic after 1916. Thereafter, the
revenue of the central Government became confined to the surpluses
of the Maritime Customs and salt gabelle, the profits of certain
railways, and to loans ; the last-named source of income consequently
became that upon which the administration chiefly relied to main-
tain itself in power. From most of the provinces, none of the usual
remittances to Peking were forthcoming; those Tuchuns of the
North who still professed allegiance to the Government withheld
their quota, generally on the ground that the disturbed condition
of the country compelled them to devote all available revenues to
the maintenance of their armed forces; in many cases they even de-
manded subsidies from the central Government as the price of
their continued loyalty. Under these circumstances, the Govern-
ment contrived to maintain its position by means of loans of all
descriptions, most of them advanced by Japanese banks and in-
dustrial syndicates under conditions which have been severely
criticized in China and abroad. At the end of 1918, the Japanese
Government announced that, as further financial assistance to
China would " add to the complications of her internal situation,"
no further loans by Japanese capitalists would be sanctioned.
In 1919 and 1920, the financial difficulties of the Government became
acute, in spite of the increased revenues of the customs and salt
gabelle and the suspension of the Boxer indemnities ; they were met
by desperate measures, such as the sale to local banks of Internal
Loan (1912) bonds at almost any price, the rapid issue of large
blocks of Treasury bills, and short-term loans of every kind. In
July 1918, recognizing the necessities of the situation, and desiring
to " strengthen China and fit her for a more active part in the war
against the Central European Powers," the U.S. Government took
the initiative of organizing a new Four-Power Consortium, for the
purpose of making loans to China. After protracted negotiations,
the Consortium was established (Oct. 1920) by the British, French,
American and Japanese financial groups, for the purpose of " pro-
curing for the Chinese Government the capital necessary for a
programme of economic reconstruction and improved communica-
tions " ; but inasmuch as the disbandment of the greater part of the
Tuchuns' military forces had been recognized as a preliminary
condition, essential to the undertaking of this programme, no im-
mediate solution of the problem from this quarter was to be ex-
pected. In Feb. 1921, at the " Chinese New Year " annual settle-
ment of debts, the Peking administration only avoided a disastrous
climax of insolvency by yielding to a demand by the associated
Chinese banks for the consolidation of the Government's internal
liabilities of loans, short-term debts and Treasury bills. The ar-
rangement demanded by the banks involved the reorganization of
certain revenues of the wine and tobacco monopoly, under foreign
supervision and subject to the control of the inspector-general of
customs, so as to provide for the regular service of the internal loans
upon which amortization had been neglected. By virtue of this com-
pact, the admhiistration was enabled to meet its most urgent
liabilities, but inasmuch as its ordinary income was henceforward
diminished by the amount of the funds thus allocated, it was evident
that, failing means to restore normal fiscal relations between Peking
and the provinces, the situation must remain fraught with serious
danger. The nature of this danger, and of the disorganization pre-
vailing, was significantly manifested by the terms dictated to the
President of the republic and to the Ministry of Finance, in May
1921, by the three most powerful Tuchuns of the North, involving
the allocation of certain railway revenues for the maintenance of
their increased and increasing forces.
China's Indebtedness. At the end of 1916, the amount required
to meet the service of China's officially stated foreign debts was
CHINA
millions
~^ * 14.1^1*1 ui CHe iviaritimp i ncf^m " ,""* v "" 1 * --- - ~vv,ni,i*i
1917 and 1921, the Boxer ^nd^nitv eVenUeattha - tdate - Betwe en
pended by the Allied Powers and ?h/ payments , ha ving been sus-
and salt revenues more than doublet th fi" g Va - ll l e f the cust ms
disposal of the Chinese Government werp ^"^ l esour ^ at the
vious period. No advantage was ?, kT f^ 6 , than at anv pre '
tunity of reducing the nation's foreign dp ht thl8 favoura ble oppor-
m a ten a lly increased by repeated 1 ' "V e contra ry, it was
course of which many potential ,n, P fr m J apan - in the
recklessly mortgaged. The amount o??h S f , natlonal wealth were
by.Premier Tuan^s Wi"8M- ^Jf^f^
665
,
not been
yen at the e "d
"""devoted to
the " Umbers
f China '"
Information in
UtStanding a '
of ..._, ^
Ac-
"CT, the total
Government
new loans, to
- sion.
concluded with
i uniform na-
that the best
and orders were
ii 1910, this plan
adopted as
I uan s adminstr tion bet
M- I ^ k u wn ' for the deta i's of sever
pubhshed but it was estimat d at over 2oc
S^SAffiSisSS
i 1 1 1 I"3 im r-if-w /-f + 1* T* i i J "* CU LO
ana rapacity of the Tuchuns' military forces
ine official Statempnt ^f *u
issued by the G^nS &*? J<S**
J an - ^o. giving a list of loans
Tne W Bur e und . on the following pa ,
approximately $657 627 08 ? "VdrTth f bllgatio ns outstanding as
calculated is not stated ' (At th e a V, . wh 'ch exchange was
liability in dollars was pract ically dolK^f '? Ja "' ' 921 ' the
is it clear upon what basis this officia tarl * ]a "~ I92a) Nor
it contains no reference to a number of r^ W&S ^'"piled, for
which the Chinese Government k ' resnr f W and <* her 'oans, for
advances obtained from JapaTin recent ^1^' * ^ f the
i he total amount of loans contracted fo
struction at the end of 1918 was ahont /r, ' -if
SSWwSSyrfiwS
between 1912 and July ---"
an aggregate of 230
Currency Reform,
Great Britain in 10
tional coinage. In S^he'covE-n
solution of the matter would be a s
issued to the provincial authorities
was abandoned and a 73-candareen
standard national coin. In Apnfj 9I ,
between the Ministry of Finanrp anr)' fi ff rT " ^"--iuueu
or a loan of 10 millions sterling o f which 8 1 ?lK PoWer C nsortium
lor the reform of the currency but nwin * mi "'? ns wer e to be used
revolution, the loan was not floated , g the u Utbreak of the
of a gold standard was discussed hut in M I' estab lishment
was definitely adopted and in in, " March , I9I 4, the silver dollar
Yuan Shih-k'ai were minted at Tientsin 'in'l!, 8 beanng the effigy o f
already been a considerable productio nf " g t nu , m bers; there had
the mints at Nanking and Wucha Am sta .n d ard " dollars by
of Finance in 19,8 put the total roir " lemo ndum by the Minister
nneness) between ,914 and "918 at X ^ * ( f 89%
52 millions of old coins were wit hdrnwt T'" 10 " 3 .' a g ain st which
currency law promulgated fn Inarch for^ L" 1 - Clrc la ,tion. The
a limited coinage of dollars and Tubsid? a t rf 3 . lnte , nde . d to secure
values. .A code of regulations to tWsPnr^ d ^ clma ' coins of fixed
commission advised" by Dn G Vi^r"
authorities themselves failed to observe
the mints continued to be regulated hi
portumties of the officials concerned The
T^ ar> T raP - ;C \ ly deteriora ted. In Aug." 19.8
( T M-l U " hn) proposed the issue of gold
establishment of a currency deoartm t ----j "~^a aim t ne
the premier. The President endoi -pHth" i? direct control of
the opposition was so strong that it was fnd /T , by mandat e, but
The chaotic conditions of the metal r definitelv pos tponed.
gravated by the fact that numwoS^tiv^l? ha ^ e been a ~
^^^SS&S^^^^S "oS ol
discount in 1919.) During the rev^don nT* ^ q ^ ed at 5 %
were indiscriminately issued some nf wh.Vh fhT' milltarv note s
since redeemed. The amount of provincTa m Gover nment has
tion at the end of 1915 was esti atS ? * m ney ln drcula -
foreign banks having branches in Ch^ l * r6 9.ooo,ooo. Many
the limits of their charters w hichn a rr a r f 1SS r b f nk - noteswithi n
ports. The number of foretn bank, H ' ? r ? 6 ' y ln the treat y
greatly increased, the majority of "th g business '." China has
and American. In io->\ the Nativ R I ? ewc , omers being Japanese
i was an organization of increasing influ^lt'r'esfricts'"?;
indry
the rice U P"
1 rate of the
r spread reviva '
and acti
by a curr ency
!, he Government
&nd ^ Olltput of
necessities and op-
^- inage> in pa ^
Mlniste r of Finance
ff^t^-J&ffiflSSL
S4 E? ^ V^^^^ilxtension of the 2*5
SS^SSsarS 15 ^^*^
crease of national wealth sufficie t t | accom panied by an in-
abroad, must expose the naf n t n ?,/ aC j 'j by Purchases from
bad years. According to the renortf i a " ger f famine in
stat stical secretary of the Marffi C? t * published by the
cultivation of the poppy had he Customs in April, 1920, the
in several provinces^notably Szechu^n Tly j esumed ? a wide scale
Fukien. Between I 9 i 3 and 1020 th' Yu " nan - Kueichow and
steadily increased, in response to them* 3 ^""r" cultiv ation
and weaving industries at Shanghlf ZnT T" d f . the s P inni "8
industrial centres, the chief nrnrW'' Hankow ' Tientsin and other
Shantung, Honan, Hupeh fenesi Inj'rf Smg ^ hihli ' Astern
duction of raw cotton in 1919 wa^ Ch ek,ang. The total pro-
figure which placed China thW on T, ^^ f I2 ' ooo ' oo P'cuis. a
countries. Simultaneously with thel h f co on-producing
agricultural economics, all Talcu ated t T* '",. th ? cou ntry'!
home-grown food supplies thp , d m"nish the nation's
other foodstuffs in Japan and Sn" 01 "^ 3 ^ deman d for rice and
had resulted in a serious shortae rft^S - became acu te in 1919,
country, before the bad harvest of , ,n "!, mal ? y parts of th e
famine in the northeaster^ ^provinces I9 , 2 ? roduced a devastating
Japanese competition for rice was so in ' ^ sun ? mer of '919, the
China was deprived of it ^customarv ^sunni ? f tha f ] he south of
Burma; consequently, the stap^ fo H PP ?h m l " d - Ch a "d
precedented prices. Other recent fl ? e ?' e rose to un '
economic situation are the raoid p ' ures ' the agricultural
area in Manchuria and the dpveln, ^f r , e bea n-growing
(combined with a steady increa^ oHn" fl f W ^f, at cu 'tivation
in N. China and the central Yanrtsz the .. flour - mil hng industry)
the wheat and flour trades are Dart' P rovin .ces. The statistics of
on the one hand a change in the hi > t s '| :ni fi cant > illustrating
certain districts, and on the other tho ! Chin esc people in
been brought to bear upon China's rP,nK g , PresSUre which h as
wealthier nations. In im, the tr f I S by r better organized or
Piculs; in 1919 it was 2 60^-7 T T eX r P rt of flour wa s 194 4SI
took each a third. In 1910 lamn '^Q-K Jap . an and Siberia
export amounting to 4 4^471 nirnll 51beria divided the wheat
was 1,848,071 piculs Simfl'arlv th ' '" I9 i 3 ' the ftal export
nearly 50% higher than in 191'-, vThflp^h , r u S in I9 ' 9 wa s
75/0, Japan being practically the sole ' tbean cake rose by
The manufacture of bean cake and be n Th u f the Iatter "
China's most profitable industries become one of
the same e difficulties and^m^edta^.^'S 113 ' s P1 a . k i n g. n beset by
the first Bureau of Mines in ,898 he fa^t f se t whlch confronted
because of the nature and extent nf th noteworthy, not only
because of the seriously increasfnj finanrt.| C Ti" try > resour ces, but
Under the Manchus, attempts wlro n ? ! ob ' a , tlon s of its rulers,
mg areas by native enterprise und^ th ^. devc P val " a ble rnin-
merchants, or both combined but witho,,?' 1 " 001 ' " ot ^? fficials or
concession system, subsequently adon Id f * .. Su . cce 1 ss - Th e foreign
desired end. for the reason hat the central r a ' S *? attain
and even that of the provincial ll^Trn " al Govern nient > s authoritv,
overcome the conservatfsm or the vested7n S ; "*? "? ver suf ncient to
and gentry. In many cases mM^?^ f the local officia 's
capitalists under the monarchy were "^l 510 " 8 " railt ^ - '-
validated as the result f i i --
Book, Misc. No. g (?' 92I ) ' G vte ^onsorhum in China,
2 vols. (1912-4); H B MorVp TV^rf 5 /J " Chme se Currency,
3rd ed. (1921); jo p ' BianV. Tr &. and Administration of China,
and S. G. Cheng, Modern SSj'(gSS ^
- _ ^^^1 ta.ft.iiiu inven in thr \i-i
would recast her mining rules " ; a such - ----- - -
pediment to the attraction of foreign caoir^r' "Vi? ffer no im -
ulations .ssued in 1907, as the result of m fr h m ' n ' ng reg '
foreign ministers at Polrino } "^ uch Pressure from the
they failed to ^Lt&^ ^ n t^ l ** S&ffi
scale mining by joint-stock comnani^ Th operat 'ons of large^
revolution, matters drifted In inrf' ' " S '^ Untl1 and after f he
Commerce (Chang Chienl with 9 3 ' lnsplre d by a Minister of
industrial methods the Govern^t^r' know 'edge of modern
subject again; the result was a bewiMpK repubhc to k up the
regulations, issued under seven hdin * a maSS - f T 3 minin K
March 1914 and July 191= R V fhU ,1 u va " ous da tes between
first time asserted the claim of the St a t t ^- G Vernment for th e
rights, and " no longer to allow | H d ' Sp se of a " minera '
velopment"; at the ^ mc ^tfme it r pd?, W Tfh tO , hi u nder mini "S de-
rate of direct ta xation levied Urn thl H the h ' the rto exorbitant
miners' produce expose^ \2 x ^,Si U %$' Bu * ^ still left the
1 transit taxes amount-
:, land tax and output tax.
666
CHINA
Name of Debt
Creditor
Amount borrowed
Amount
outstanding
Borrowing
date
Extinction
date
Security
Russian-French loan .
Russia and
fr.4Oo,ooo,ooo
198,538,904
1895
1931
Customs
France
Revenue
Anglo-German loan
England and
16,000,000
8,655,797
1896
1932
Customs
Germany
Revenue
2nd do. do.
England and
16,000,000
11,848,199
1898
1943
Customs
Germany
Revenue
3 Arnhold Karberg loans
Austria
1,050,000
620,000
1912-3
1916-21
Peking
Octroi
& Title
Deeds
Tax
3 Austrian loans .
Austria
3,700,000
2,467,000
I9I3-4
1917
Title
Deeds
Tax
Renewed Austrian loan
Austria
1,233,000
1,233,000
1915
1920
Title
Deeds
Tax
Crisp loan
England
5,000,000
5,000,000
1912
1952
Salt
Revenue
Reorganization loan .
Five Nations
25 000,000
25,000,000
1913
1960
Salt
Consortium
Revenue
Anglo Chinese Co. loan
England
375,ooo
375.ooo
1914
1934
Peking-
Muk-
den Rly.
Industrial loan
France
fr. 1 00.000,000
100,000,000
1914
1964
Industrial
Works &
Wine
Tax
Chin Yu loan
France
fr. 1 00,000,000
10,416,666
1914
1921
Treasury
Bills
Koah Co. loan
Japan
yen 5.000,000
4,500,000
1916
1919
Treasury
Bills
Chicago Bank loan
United States
$5.5oo.ooo
5,500,000
1916
1921
Wine&
Tobacco
Tax
Japanese Group Bank loan
Japan
yen 30,000,000
8,300,000
1917
1920
Salt Rev.
& Trea-
sy. Bills
Telegraph loan
Japan
yen 20,000,000
15,000,000
1918
1923
Teleg.Rev.
Ki Hui Rly. loan
Japan
yen 10,000,000
10,000,000
1918
Treasy.
Bills
Mine & Forest loan
Japan
yen 30,000,000
30,000,000
1918
(renewed)
Mines &
Forest
Receipts
Participation loan
Japan
yen 20,000,000
20,000,000
1918
1928
Treasy.
Bills
Tsishun-Kaohsu Rly. loan
Japan
yen 20,000,000
20,000,000
(renewed)
Treasy.
Bills
Manchn. Mongoln. Rly. loan
Japan
yen 20,000,000
20,000,000
Treasy.
Bills
Pacific Develt. Corp. loan .
United States
$5,500,000
5,500,000
1919
1921
Wine &
Tobacco
Tax
Boxer Indemnity
England
16,573,810
11,186,547
1901
1945
Customs
&Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
America
$53.348.U5
12.455.507
1901
1945
Customs
&Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
France
fr.58o, 1 60,035
391,581,529
1901
1945
Customs
&Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
Italy
fr.217,868,647
147.051,159
1901
'945
Customs
&Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
Russia
42,685,163
30,759,683
1901
1945
Customs
& Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
Japan
11,391,703
7,531-985
1901
1945
Customs
&Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
Belgium
fr.69,447,o6i
46,873,522
1901
1945
Customs
& Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
Portugal
30.203
20,387
1901
J945
Customs
& Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
Spain ,
fr.i, 107,596
690,068
1901
1945
Customs
& Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
Holland
fr.3, 066,005
1,910,191
1901
1945
Customs
& Salt
Revs.
Boxer Indemnity
Sweden and
20,568
12,815
1901
1945
Customs
Norway
&Salt
Revs.
CHINA
667
It was therefore not surprising that the new regulations failed to
give any impetus either to mining exploration by foreigners or to
new enterprise by native capitalists. In Jan. 1916, the Chinese
Government resumed its study of the question ; a new code of mining
laws, framed on the Canadian model, was drawn up by a special
commission under the chairmanship of the Minister of Commerce
(Chou Tzu-chi), which included several highly qualified technical
experts. It was intended to submit this new code for ratification by
Parliament, but with the renewal of civil strife and the passing of
Yuan Shih-k'ai, the question was indefinitely shelved. The un-
willingness of Chinese officialdom under the republic to encourage
any extensive development of mining enterprise by means of foreign
capital has evidently been inspired, as it was under the monarchy,
by fear that the employment of foreign capital and experts is likely
to produce the extension of foreign influence. The chief of the
Chinese geological department (V. K. Ting) , writing on the subject in
May 1917,' declared that the chief obstacle to the rapid extension of
mining operations by foreigners in China lies in the continuance
of their claim to extra-territorial rights; that China cannot afford
" to allow people who are outside Chinese jurisdiction to locate
mining areas under the claim system." There is indisputable
justification for the reluctance of the Chinese to grant to foreigners
mining rights which may lead to political complications or involve
the nation in loss of strategic or economic advantages. But the fact
remains that, while preventing the extension of mining operations by
foreigners in areas where no such considerations could arise, the
rulers of China under the republic, either under pressure or in
return for Japanese subsidies and loans, have parted with many
mining rights of great national importance, in the Yangtsze valley
and in Manchuria.
The total production of coal in China was estimated in 1913 at
13,190,000 tons ; two years later the estimate was 18,000,000 tons, of
which 8,000,000 came from mines equipped with modern plant and
the rest from small native workings. The amount of coal exported
in 1918 was 1,708,149 tons; in 1919, it fell to 1,477,433 tons. The
most important coal-producing enterprises are the Kailan Mining
Administration (an Anglo-Chinese cooperative company) in Chihli
and the Fushun mines (Japanese) in Manchuria, both of which are
rapidly expanding. The principal metals which China has so far
(1921) been able to produce in quantities sufficient for export are
antimony, pig-iron, iron ore and copper. The trade in antimony
was stimulated and the price advanced during the war, but in 1919
the demand had greatly diminished. The export of copper decreased
greatly in 1918 and almost ceased in 1919,, the amount produced
being supplemented by the import of about 2,000 tons to meet the
country's currency requirements. An important feature in the metal
trade of 1919 was the increase in the export of iron ore from the
Tayeh mines to Japan, the amount shipped being about 630,000 tons.
Authorities. H. B. Morse, Trade and Administration of China
(3rd ed., 1921); Montague Bell and Woodhead, China Year Book
(1919-20); W. F. Collins, Mineral Enterprise in China (1918).
Manufactures. Notwithstanding the generally disturbed con-
dition of the country, a rapid advance took place in the development
of industrial enterprises of all kinds during the first decade of the
republic; so much so that, in his report on trade for 1919, the
statistical secretary (Inspectorate General of Customs) observed
that there were then few foreign type articles of domestic use that
were not made in China by factories on modern lines, the majority
of them without foreign assistance.
In 1906 there were 14 cotton-spinning mills in China, with a total
of 400,000 spindles; in the China Year Book for 1919, the number
given is 56 (excluding Hongkong) and the list of other mills, fac-
tories, etc., contained in the same volume covers 17 pages. With the
shortage of raw materials, and the growth of labour troubles in
Europe, Chinese capitalists (a class whose numbers and wealth
rapidly increased under the Tuchun regime after 1916) and the
rich merchants of the treaty ports came to realize after the war how
great and lucrative are the opportunities awaiting the industrial
development of China, with its vast resources of cheap labour and
raw materials, in competition with the manufactures of the West.
Japanese capitalists and captains of industry showed themselves
equally alive to the possibilities of the situation. As a result, the
development of industrial enterprises of many kinds, but especially
in textiles, in the period immediately following upon the Armistice
was limited only by the impossibility of obtaining the necessary
machinery. The statistical secretary's list of articles (1919) manu-
factured in China includes silk and cotton clothing and underwear;
toilet articles; umbrellas; woollen yarn; chemicals; needles; electric
lamps; telephone appliances; wine and beer; asbestos articles and
window glass. Shipbuilding has been established on a considerable
scale at Shanghai and other treaty ports. During 1919 there were
12,307 tons of shipping launched from Chinese yards; in 1920,
vessels were sent to Shanghai from England to have their woodwork
and fittings completed by Chinese carpenters. Auxiliary to the
establishment of native industries, a number of industrial banks were
organized on foreign lines by the Chinese in 191920. As the result
of a contract between the Chinese Government and the Marconi
'See North China Daily News.
Net
1914
1915
1916
Imports
Exports
74,564,285
47,116,453
58,939,819
54,321,069
86,067,833
80,299,561
Net
1917
1918
1919
Imports
Exports
119,072,400
110,301,853
145,658,383
127,544,295
204,882,599
199,758,331
Co., the construction of wireless telegraph stations was commenced
in 1919; wireless telephony was also introduced by the Chinese
National Wireless Co., using the Marconi patents; but it remains to
be seen whether either these or aeroplanes can be made to serve any
lasting purpose of public utility in China.
Commerce. Amongst several noteworthy changes which occurred
in the commerce of China during the period 1911-21, the most
important were the elimination of the lawful traffic in imported
opium, a considerable diversion of general trade from its former
lines in favour of America (largely as a result of the World War),
and the increasing production and consumption of domestic factory
products of foreign type. Remarkable also, considering the disturbed
political conditions prevailing, was the increase in the volume and
value of China's trade during and after the war. The customs
revenue for 1919 exceeded that for 1913 (previously the highest on
record) by two million taels, and this despite the elimination of the
revenue derived from opium and the very low rate of exchange at
which ad valorem import duties were paid. In 1920, the record was
again surpassed, the amount collected being Tls. 49,500,000 (equiva-
lent at the average exchange of 55. 7Jd. to 16,809,000) which was
32 million taels more than in 1919. The value of the country's
trade with foreign countries in 1919 increased by no less than 337
million taels, as compared with the year 1913. The advance was
chiefly in exports and due to the imperious demand for foodstuffs and
raw materials in Europe; for the first time, the value of China's
exports practically balanced her imports. An indication of the pros-
perity resulting from this profitable activity in exports is to be found
in the customs returns of the movements of treasure which show a
net import into China of over 50 million taels' worth of gold and 92
million taels of silver during the years 1918-9. The growth of trade
is also illustrated by the following figures, which show the sterling
value, calculated at the average T.T. exchange for each year, of
China's net imports and exports, exclusive of bullion:
Note: The exchange for 1918 was 55. 3i^d. and for 1919 6s. 4d.
In 1920 the value of silver began to fall; the rate of exchange aver-
aged 55. 7 |d.
The following statistics show the amount of China's direct trade
with the foreign countries named, and afford an indication of some
of the principal economic changes resulting from the war :
Great Britain
Germany
France .
Japan
Russia (Overland
trade) .
U. S. A.
Hongkong (For
transhipment)
Imports
Exports
IQIJ
Ilk. Taels
1919
Hk. Taels
1913
Hk. Taels
1919
Hk. Taels
96,910,944
28,302,403
5.299,517
119,346,662
12,258,180
35427,198
171,366,099
64,292,239
.368
3,375,809
246,940,997
1,724,603
110,236,706
153.631,544
16,346,413
17,025,224
40,749,7*2
65,544,186
3,095,826
37,650,301
117,128,661
57,186,242
163,886
34,285,989
195,006,032
5-516,517
101,118,677
131,495,296
The returns of shipping entered and cleared at Chinese ports
during 1919 show comparatively little change during and since the
war. The figures for the principal foreign nations concerned are as
follows:
Nationality
1913
1919 _j
Vessels
Tonnage
Vessels
Tonnage
American
British
Norwegian .
German
French
Japanese
2458
32,186
637
5,382
1,020
22,716
898,750
38,120,300
739,328
6,320,466
1,232,763
23,422,487
4,433
36,074
3"
471
27,182
2,569,887
36,284,312
302,959
414,161
27,532,449
The chief articles of import in 1919 were cotton goods, metals,
kerosene oil, sugar, cigars and cigarettes, locomotives and railway
cars, machinery, coal, fish, paper and motor-cars. The value of cot-
ton goods imported was 30 million taels more than in 1913, but the
weight of the goods was considerably less, a result partly due to high
prices and partly to the increasingly effective competition of the
products of Chinese mills. The total value of the latter products,
passed through the customs for home consumption and export, was
Tls. 92,698,787, as against Tls. 24,425,069 in 1913. In spite of the
boycott, which remained in force during the greater part of 1919, the
importations of Japanese shirtings showed a considerable increase
over those of 1918. The following figures illustrate the position of
the import trade for 1919, as compared with 1913, and reflect the
growth of native industrial enterprise.
668
CHINA
Building materials
Cigarettes
Electrical materials
Machinery .
Kerosene oil .
Paper .
Railway materials
Motor-cars and lorries
value Hk. Tls.
mille,
value Hk. Tls.
gallons
value Hk. Tls.
IQI3
2,444,787
6,209,037
2,322,339
4,650,001
183,984,052
7.169,255
4,317,694
485,182
1919
5,786,924
7,771,947
4,991,811
14,100,439
199,309,753
10,212,652
3,883,239
2,158,998
The sterling value of China's exports for 1919 was 228 % higher
than that of the pre-war record year 1913. In the order of their
importance the chief articles of export are: silk (representing over
100 million taels), seed oils, bean cake, beans, cereals, raw cotton,
skins and hides, seeds and seed cake, eggs, tea, metals, wool and
sugar. The tea trade, though slightly better than in 1918, was less
than half that of 1913, exports to Russia by sea having practically
ceased and shipments to other countries being severely affected by
the competition of Indian and Ceylon teas. With a view to stim-
ulating the trade, the Chinese Government abolished the export
duty, and reduced the likin by half for two years from Oct. 1919. The
silk trade reflected the increased purchasing-power of the United
States and the growing popularity of silk fabrics in America.
Out of the total of 1 3 1 ,506 piculs exported, the United States took
36,028 in direct shipments, as against 23,772 piculs shipped direct to
France, 16,819 to British India, and 2,297 to Great Britain. Of
Chinese cotton shipped abroad (1,072,000 piculs), nine-tenths was
bought by Japan and the remainder by the United States. These
countries were also the principal buyers of China's seed oils, wood
oil and skins and hides.
Work of Reference C. A. Middleton Smith, The British in China
and Far Eastern Trade.
Waterways. In Dec. 1913 a National Conservancy Bureau was
established, under the presidency of the progressive Minister of
Commerce, Chang Chien, with Mr. Van der Veen as consulting
engineer, to deal with irrigation and river conservancy matters.
The conservancy of the Hwai river, with a view to the prevention
of floods in Kiangsu and Anhui, received special attention. In
July 1914, this river was surveyed by engineers sent to China by the
American Red Cross; their investigations were followed by an agree-
ment between the American International Corporation and the
Chinese Government for a conservancy scheme, to be carried out
under the direction of the Grand Canal Improvement Board. As
the cost of the proposed work, involving the construction of a great
dam and a new subsidiary canal, necessitated the raising of a loan,
the scheme was perforce postponed upon the outbreak of the World
War, pending facilities for raising the funds required.
Railways. The outbreak of war and the impossibility of raising
further foreign loans, resulted in the suspension of several enter-
prises, projected and commenced. Several important agreements
had been concluded by the Chinese Government in 1913 and 1914
for the construction of new lines ; these were compelled to await the
restoration of conditions favourable for financing these undertakings
abroad. The* railways for which preliminary or final agreements
were thus concluded, included the following:
Tatung to Chengtu (Franco-Belgian capital); approximately
960 m. This line forms part of a general scheme intended to provide
through communication between French Indo-China and Kalgan,
connecting at Tatung with the Peking-Kalgan railway extension,
with the Hukuang system, and with a French line to Yunnanfu.
Yamchow (near Pakhoi) to Yunnanfu, and thence to Chungking
(French capital) ; about 1,000 m.
Sinyang to Pukou (British capital). This is the final agreement
(Nov. 14 1913) for a concession originally granted in 1898. Length
of line, about 275 m.
Shasi to Singyi (British capital), a " construction " contract
(Dec. 18 1913) for about 800 m., through Changtefu and Kuei.
Nanking to Hunan (British capital), about 1,000 m. of line, via
Ningkuo and Nanchang to Pingsiang.
In addition to these, agreements were made by the Chinese
Government with the German and Japanese Governments respec-
tively for the construction of a number of railways in Shantung
and Manchuria and Mongolia. (In Oct. 1917, the Industrial
Bank of Japan issued a loan of 50 million yen for the building of
these lines, including two of the ex-German railway concessions in
Shantung.) Two other important railway agreements were made by
the Chinese Government during the war, namely, one (March 1916)
with the Russo-Asiatic Bank, for a Chinese Government railway
from Harbin to Aigun, with several branch lines, and another (May
1916), with an American syndicate, for the construction of a number
of proposed railways, aggregating 1,100 miles.
Coincident with the Government's adoption of the programme of
active construction indicated by these concessions, the policy was
definitely adopted of centralizing control of the various provincial
railway systems and unifying their accounts and methods of man-
agement. A commission was appointed for the purpose in 1913,
under the presidency of Tih Kung-Chao (Minister of Communica-
tions, 1920) with the assistance of an American adviser. On Jan. I
1915, the unified methods came into operation, with the result that
the annual reports on Chinese Government railways, subsequently
published by the Ministry of Communications, afford a compre-
hensive statement of the financial and general situation. The follow-
ing figures are taken from the Ministry's report for the year ending
Dec. 31 1919:
The total length of railway lines in China at the beginning of
1920 was 6,813 m. (10,963 km.), consisting of Government and
" Concessioned " railways, as follows:
Government Railways. Km. Km.
In operation 6,027
Operation by construction forces:
Lung Hai 368
Hupeh-Hunan 15 383
Total Government Railways 6,410
Provincial and Private Railways.
Kwangtung 225
Kiukiang-Nanchang 136
Sunning 171
Swatow-Chaochowfu 42
Nanking City . II
Chung Hsing Mining Co 52
Liu Chiang Coal Mine 12
Tayeh Mining Co 30
Ching Hsing Mining Co 15
Kailan Mining Administration .... 16
Taikaokou Mines 29
Tsitsihar City 29
Ma Chiapu Narrow Gauge ..... 5 773
Total subject to control of the Ministry of Com-
munications 7,183
Concessioned Railways.
Chinese Eastern 1,722
South Manchurian 1,107
Shantung 451
Yunnan 465
Canton Kowloon (British Section) ... 35 3,780
Total kilometres of railway in China (Miles 6,813) 10,963
Excluding the dependencies (Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet)
China has about 276 sq. m. of territory and 54,000 inhabitants to
each mile of railway, as against 40 sq. m. and 8,600 in India.
The Ministry's repdrt showed a surplus of $36,449,392 on the
working of the Government lines for the year 1919, an increase of
$2,944,272 as compared with 1918. The profits per kilometre earned
by the principal lines varied very considerably. The profit per
kilometre on the Peking-Mukden railway was $10,234; on tne
Peking-Hankow $9,678; on the Cheng-Tai, $4,664; on the Kaifeng-
Honan, $3,937; on the Shanghai-Nanking, $3,288, and on the
Tientsin-Pukou, $2,848. On Dec. 31 1919 the accumulated surplus
of the combined Government lines, as shown by the Ministry's
accounts, wasover $63,000, oooof which sum $36,000,000 consisted of
additions to property, 21 millions funded debt retired, and cash
on hand over 22 millions (of the last amount 2 millions consisted
of the notes of the Peking branches of the Bank of Communications
and Bank of China, then circulating at about 50% of their face
value). The net revenues of railways under the Ministry's control
increased by 64% between 1915 and 1919; it is, however, typical of
Chinese official finance that, after showing such excellent results,
the Government should have been unwilling or unable to purchase
the rolling stock required for a section of the Hankow-Canton line
(costing $2,000,000) without having recourse to a new foreign loan.
Telegraphs. In 1912 the head office of the Chinese Telegraph
Administration, until then located at Shanghai, was transferred
to the Telegraphic Bureau of the Ministry of Communications at
Peking and a uniform scale of charges was introduced. In 1915, the
total length of lines in operation was 42,518 m., with 710 stations.
The rates in force (increased in 1920 in aid of the famine relief fund)
are high, and messages in foreign languages are charged 50% more
than those in Chinese. At the high silver exchange prevailing in
1919-20, the rate for telegrams in English was roughly equivalent to
6d. a word for messages in the same province, and Is. a word to
other parts of China. A few foreigners (Danes) are still employed in
the administration and a Danish adviser is attached to the telegraph
departments of the Ministry at Peking. Wireless stations had
(1921) been installed at Peking, Kalgan, Hankow, Nanking, Shang-
hai and Canton, but their service was restricted to Government
messages. In Oct. 1918, a contract was made by the Government
with the Marconi Co. for the installation of three wireless stations
at Kashgar, Urumchi and Lanchowfu, to communicate with a con-
necting station at Sianfu.
Posts. The postal service of China, originally organized as a
branch of the Imperial Maritime Customs, was separated from that
administration and placed under the Ministry of Communications
in May 1911. Under the republic it has remained a department of
that Ministry, but responsible for its own budget and organization.
Since 1911 the department has been controlled by a Chinese direc-
tor general and a French associate director. Its activities extend
CHIROPRACTIC CHRISTIAN SCIENCE
669
not only over the eighteen provinces, but throughout the New
Dominion and Manchuria.
The growth of its progressive development and usefulness has been
remarkable, in spite of the disturbed conditions and brigandage
prevalent throughout most parts of the country since the revolution.
During the three years 1916-8, after the death of Yuan Shih-k'ai,
postal operations and extensions in many provinces were seriously
hampered by the depredations of bandits and lawless soldiery. In
Shensi alone, 78 post-offices were looted in 1918. Nevertheless,
in that year the number of district offices and agencies had increased
to 9,367 (as compared with 5,357 in 1910) employing 27,000 Chinese,
with a foreign staff of about no. The growth of the service is
shown by the following figures :
1908 1913 1918
Mail matter posted . . 79,882,252 197,484,136 302,269,028
Parcels 623,315 1,380,912 2,738,090
Money orders increased from ten million dollars in 1913 to thirty-
five millions in 1918. The earnings of the department in 1918 were
$9,500,000 and showed a profit of $1,910,000 over working expenses,
as compared with a surplus of $303,000 in 1915. China joined the
Postal Union in 1914. On March I 1917 an agreement was con-
cluded with Great Britain for the direct exchange of postal parcels,
and later in the same year a similar arrangement was rrade with the
Russian postal administration for parcels crossing the Russo-Chinese
frontier. In 1921 the Treaty Powers still maintained their own post-
offices in many places for the despatch and receipt of mails from over-
seas, and in certain instances the operations of these extra -territorial-
ized establishments, especially in the matter of the parcels post, had
worked to the detriment of China's postal service and inland rev-
enues. The number of post-offices maintained by the Powers in
1921 was as follows: Great Britain, n; France, 15; Japan, 21 in
China proper and 23 in Manchuria; Germany (before the war),
1 7 ; Russia (before the war) , 28 ; United States, I . (J . O. P. B.)
CHIROPRACTIC, the name given to a method of healing
employed in the United States, based on the theory that most
disease is the result of displacement of the vertebrae of the spinal
column, resulting in abnormal pressure upon the nerves as they
emerge. It is held that the articular joints are frequently thrown
out of alignment, it may be only in slight degree, and the con-
stricted nerves are thereby prevented from transmitting to the
various bodily organs the mental impulse necessary for proper
functioning. The human body has been charted, and it is claimed
that the nerves emanating above each vertebra regulate par-
ticular organs; hence the cause of different diseases can as a rule
be readily localized. Health is possible only when all the organs
function harmoniously, and disease of one organ may affect
some other. The chiropractor attempts to find the subluxated
joint, and with the bared hand to adjust it. He never resorts to
drugs or surgery; he merely tries to relieve the impinged nerve
and leaves the rest to nature.
The first reported healing by chiropractic was made in 1895,
when Dr. D. D. Palmer (b. near Toronto, Canada, March 7 1845;
d. at Los Angeles, Cal., Oct. 13 1913), a " magnetic healer," in
Iowa treated a man who had been deaf for 17 years. He claimed to
have discovered that a displaced vertebra was pinching a certain
nerve and that its adjustment was quickly followed by complete
restoration of hearing. Little was done to work out a theory in de-
tail until 1903, when Dr. B. J. Palmer (b. Sept. 10 1881), a son of
the discoverer, began its formulation, resulting in the development
of a well-defined system of articular adjustment with the hands.
He established the Palmer School of Chiropractic (" Chiroprac-
tic Fountain Head ") at Davenport, la., which remained the best
known, although later many others were founded in different parts
of the United States. The course of study extends over three col-
legiate years of six months each, and the subjects studied corre-
spond with those of the usual medical school, materia medico, alone
being ignored. In 1921 there were about 10,000 chiropractors to be
found in some 30 of the United States. In several states they were
still debarred from practice, and in others legislation was pending.
CHISHOLM, HUGH (1866- ), editor of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, was born in London Feb. 22 1866, of Scottish descent.
His father, HENRY WILLIAMS CHISHOLM (see 25.772), was the son
of Henry Chisholm (1769-1832) private secretary and librarian
for many years to Lord Grenville (auditor of the Exchequer:
Prime Minister 1806-7), by whom he was given a clerkship in
the Exchequer, 1 eventually becoming senior clerk in the Ex-
chequer BUI Office and King's Agent for Sierra Leone and the
1 A set of the 5th ed. and supplement of the Encyclopaedia Bri-
tannica, inherited by his son and grandson, was purchased by him
out of the allowance made for " stationery " to clerks of the Ex-
chequer in those days a form of perquisite in addition to salary.
Gold Coast whose paternal grandfather had left Inverness-
shire and settled in London early in the i8th century. Henry
Williams Chisholm (1809-1901) entered the Exchequer in 1824
with a nomination from Lord Grenville, rising to be head of its
official staff in 1862 as chief clerk; and on the abolition of the
Exchequer in 1866 as a Government department coordinate
with the Treasury, he was appointed, under the Weights and
Measures Act (1867), head of the newly created Standards
Department of the Board of Trade, occupying the old Exchequer
office at 7, Old Palace Yard, Westminster, with the official title
of Warden of the Standards. At the Exchequer he had become
a recognized authority on public finance; and his "Great Ac-
count " (see 10.58), published in 1869 as a Parliamentary Return
in 3 vols., dealing in detail with the history unrecorded till then
of the public revenue and expenditure of Great Britain and
Ireland since 1688, and of the origins of the whole British fiscal
system, was the outcome of 10 years' laborious research. As
Warden of the Standards he was the British delegate to the
International Metric Commission at Paris from 1870 to 187 5, and
took a leading part, as a member of its permanent scientific
committee, in preparing and constructing the newly adopted
international standards. At the desire of the Government, his
retirement from office was postponed for this purpose till the
end of 1876, when he had been 52 years in the public service.
His "Recollections of an Octogenarian Civil Servant" were
published in Temple Bar (Jan. to April 1891).
Educated at Felsted school, and at Oxford as a scholar of
Corpus, Hugh Chisholm graduated in 1888 with a first class in
Literae Humaniores, and then read for the bar, being " called "
at the Middle Temple in 1892; but he had already then drifted
into London journalism. From 1892 to 1897 he was assistant-
editor, and from 1897 to the end of 1899 editor, of the St. James's
Gazette (see 19.561); and during these years he also contributed
numerous articles on political, financial and literary subjects to
the weekly journals and monthly reviews, becoming well known
as a literary critic and Conservative publicist. On resign-
ing the editorship of the St. James's, he became a leader-writer
for the Standard, and later in 1900 was invited to join The
Times, under whose management he acted as the responsible
co-editor, with Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace and President
Hadley of Yale University, of the new volumes, constituting
the loth ed. (1902), of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. In 1903
he was appointed editor-in-chief of the nth ed., which was com-
pleted under his direction in 1910, and published as a whole by
the Cambridge University Press, in 29 vols., in 1911. He sub-
sequently planned and edited the Britannica Year-book (1913).
Rejoining The Times in 1913 as day-editor, and a director of
The Times Publishing Co., he became financial editor at the end
of that year, and occupied this responsible position all through
the momentous period of the World War, resigning his connexion
with The Times in March 1920 in order to reassume the editor-
ship of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and to organize the pub-
lication of the New Volumes constituting the i2th edition.
CHOATE, JOSEPH HODGES (1832-1917), American lawyer
and diplomat (see 6.258), died in New York May 14 1917. Upon
the outbreak of the World War he ardently supported the cause
of the Allies. He severely criticized President Wilson's hesita-
tion to recommend America's immediate cooperation, but shortly
before his death retracted his criticism. He was chairman of the
mayor's committee in New York for entertaining the British
and French commissions in 1917. His death was hastened by the
physical strain of his constant activities in this connexion.
Among his last works were Abraham Lincoln and Other
Addresses in England (1910) and American Addresses (1911).
See Edward Sandford Martin, The Life of Joseph Hodges Choate
(1920).
CHRISTIAN SCIENCE (see 6.291). In 1910 the total number
of Christian Science churches was 1,201 (1,077 in the United
States, 58 in England, 38 in Canada, 28 elsewhere); on Jan. i
1920 the number was 1,804 (i,59 in the United States, 98 in
England, 46 in Canada, 70 elsewhere). As a Christian Science
church invariably has two readers, the one to read the Bible,
6yo
CHRYSTAL CHURCHILL
the other to read the text-book (Science and Health with Key to
the Scriptures), the number of readers in 1910 was 2,402 and in
1920 was 3,608. Statistics of membership are never issued official-
ly; and in 1921 there was nothing later on the subject than the
Report on Religious Bodies, published in 1908 by the U. S.
Bureau of the Census, showing in the United States in 1906
85,717 members, of whom about 72% were women.
After the death in 1910 of Mary Baker Eddy, the founder and
director of the denomination, the board appointed by her be-
came the governing body of the church. Mrs. Eddy's estate,
amounting to $2,500,000, was left for the promotion of Christian
Science, and in 1914 the trustees announced that the income
would be used in providing lectures, in distributing authorized
literature throughout the world, in establishing libraries in
connexion with churches, societies, and reading-rooms, and, so
far as possible, in helping towards the erection of church build-
ings. Upon the outbreak of the World War in 1914 the Christian
Science churches in Paris organized relief activities for war
sufferers, and at the end of the year the board of directors of the
Mother Church (the First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston,
Mass.) appointed a War Relief Committee. Funds were raised
from their own members and distributed through authorized
representatives in the warring countries; up to May 31 1917
the total receipts for relief work were $310,700 of which $264,400
had been forwarded for distribution. In 1917, after the entrance
of the United States into the war, a Camp Welfare Committee
was appointed, over 100 welfare rooms were opened in the
United States, Canada and Great Britain, and approximately
$150,000 expended on buildings and equipment. More than
2,000 persons served without compensation as camp welfare
workers and in other capacities. The denomination had nine
chaplains in the army and one in the navy. The total amount
raised for war work approximated $2,000,000.
The decade 1910-20 witnessed considerable dissension within
the church. In 1909 the board of directors of the Mother Church
in Boston expelled from the church Mrs. Augusta E. Stetson,
who since 1890 had been pastor of the First Church of Christ,
Scientist, of New York City. It was charged that Mrs. Stetson
was using her influence to insure her succession to the headship
of the denomination after Mrs. Eddy's death. This was denied
by Mrs. Stetson, who in turn charged the directors with pro-
moting a false and materialistic interpretation of Mrs. Eddy's
writings. Although defended by a large number of followers,
she quietly resigned her New York pastorship. In 1913 she
published her side "of the case in Reminiscences, Sermons and
Correspondence Proving Adherence to the Principle of Christian
Science as Taught by Mary Baker Eddy. In 1919 a serious dispute
arose between the trustees of the Christian Science Publishing
Society and the board of directors of the Mother Church. The
trustees claimed that the board aimed to create an oligarchy,
and was trying to usurp their powers. They denied that they
were under the jurisdiction of the board, which, in turn, claimed
supreme authority. Through counsel (among whom was Charles
E. Hughes) the trustees secured in 1919 a temporary injunction,
restraining the board from interfering with the trustees of the
publication society. At first the courts seemed to support the
contention of the trustees; the majority of the churches appar-
ently sided with the directors. Several cases were reported in
which persons associated with the trustees' publications were
forbidden by churches to teach in Sunday-schools. The injunc-
tion was set aside Nov. 23 1921.
In 1921 the church was issuing the following periodicals: The
Christian Science Quarterly Bible Lessons; The Christian Science
Journal, a monthly; Der Herald der Christian Science, a monthly,
with pages alternately in English and German ; Le Heraut de Chris-
tian Science, a monthly, with pages alternately in English and
French ; The Christian Science Sentinel, a weekly ; and The Christian
Science Monitor, an excellent international daily, published in
Boston.
CHRYSTAL, GEORGE (1851-1911), British mathematician,
was born near Aberdeen March 8 1851. He was second wrangler
at Cambridge in 1875, and was appointed successively professor
of mathematics at St. Andrews in 1877 and at Edinburgh in
1879, holding the latter post till his death. He was the author
of a standard treatise on algebra as well as of many publications
on physical and mathematical subjects, and his researches into
the surface oscillations of Scottish lakes won him a Royal medal
from the Royal Society. He died at Edinburgh Nov. 3 1911.
CHURCH, ALFRED JOHN (1829-1912), English classical
scholar, was born in London Jan. 29 1829. Educated at King's
College, London, and Lincoln College, Oxford, he took holy orders
and was assistant-master at Merchant Taylors' school for many
years. He was professor of Latin at University College, London,
from 1880-8 and, in partnership with W. J. Brodribb, translated
Tacitus and edited Pliny's Letters; but he is best known by his
English re-telling of classical tales and legends for young people
(Stories from Virgil, Stories from Homer, etc.). He wrote much
Latin and English verse, and in 1908 published his Memories of
Men and Books. He died at Richmond, Surrey, April 27 1912.
CHURCHILL, WINSTON (1871- ), American writer, was
born in St. Louis, Nov. 10 1871. He graduated from the U. S.
Naval Academy in 1894. He was conspicuous alike in scholar-
ship and in general student activities. He became an expert
fencer and he organized at Annapolis the first eight-oared crew,
of which he was for two years captain. He had already decided
upon a literary career, and after brief service in the navy he
resigned and for a time was connected with the Army and Navy
Journal. In 1895 he became managing editor of the Cosmo-
politan Magazine; but in less than a year he retired that he might
have more time for writing. His first novel, after being twice
recast, appeared as The Celebrity, in 1898. His next book, Richard
Carvel, appeared in 1899 and had a sale of almost a million copies.
Its scene is Maryland during the American Revolution. His
next work, The Crisis (1901), opens in St. Louis in the days of the
Civil War. The heroine is the great-great-granddaughter of his
former hero, Richard Carvel. The intervening period of western
expansion, following the Louisiana Purchase, is depicted in The
Crossing (1904). His other works are: Coniston (1906, the
career of a post-bellum political boss); Mr. Creu<e's Career (1908,
the railroads in politics); A Modern Chronicle (1910); The Inside
of the Cup (1913, the 20th-century Church); A Far Country
(1915, methods of "big business") and The Dwelling Place
of Light (1917). All his novels treat of phases of American devel-
opment, historical or social, and form a sort of chronological
sequence. He has written a play in three acts, Dr. Jonathan
(1919). Mr. Churchill took an active part in state politics.
From 1903 to 1905 he was a member of the Legislature of New
Hampshire, and in 1912 he was an unsuccessful candidate for
governor on the Progressive ticket.
CHURCHILL, WINSTON LEONARD SPENCER (1874- ),
English statesman (see 6.347). Mr. Churchill's tenure of the
presidency of the Board of Trade, from April 1908, was marked
by the production of a scheme in the autumn of that year for the
setting up of a court of arbitration in labour disputes, consisting
of three persons nominated by the Board, respectively from
panels of employers, workmen and "persons of eminence and
impartiality." He also welcomed on behalf of the Government
an Eight Hours Miners bill. In 1910 he was promoted to the
Home Office. Here he had to deal with the dangers arising from
the increasing hordes of undesirable aliens who poured into the
East End of London. He was present in person at an extraordi-
nary affray in Sidney St., Mile End Road, on Jan. 3 1911, when
the police, after a time reinforced by soldiers, were kept at
bay for many hours by two foreign burglars who defended
themselves in a house with Mauser pistols, and who ultimately
perished when the building caught fire and was burnt.
In the autumn of 1 91 1 , to the surprise of the public, an exchange
of offices was effected between him and Mr. McKenna, and
he became First Lord of the Admiralty. Hitherto he had been
wont to pose as a disbeliever in the German menace, and an
advocate of reductions in British armaments. In Aug. 1908, for
instance, he rebuked Lord Cromer for uttering grave words of
warning, and ridiculed the bare possibility of an Anglo-German
conflict in arms. Early in 1909 he had assisted Mr. Lloyd George
in the Cabinet in his unsuccessful endeavour to cut down Mr.
CHURCHILL, WINSTON L. S.
671
McKenna's estimates. But the Agadir crisis of July 1911 seems
to have opened his eyes as it did those of Mr. Lloyd George. At
any rate, he spoke at Guildhall on Lord Mayor's Day in a worthy
manner; admitting that the growth of the German navy was a
main factor in British construction, and pointing out that no
power was better able to bear the strain or less likely to fail than
Great Britain. Similarly at Glasgow in Feb. 1912 he submitted
that naval power to the Germans was a luxury; it was existence
to the English, it was expansion to them. " We shall face the
future as our ancestors would have faced it, without disquiet,
without arrogance, but in solid and inflexible determination."
He had in the previous month announced the establishment of a
naval war staff, and in the autumn he reorganized the internal
administration of his office. The same tone was maintained in
his speech on introducing the naval estimates. If any one nation,
he said, were able to back the strongest fleet with an overwhelm-
ing army, the whole world would be in jeopardy. Great Britain
must never conduct her affairs so that the navy of any one power
could engage her at any moment with a reasonable prospect of
success. He announced a complete reorganization of the navy,
which was to be grouped in four fleets, three being for home
defence, based on home ports (the third being the Atlantic
fleet previously based on Gibraltar), and the fourth, based on
Gibraltar, to operate either in home waters or in the Mediterra-
nean. The significance of this new orientation was at once per-
ceived. It was hailed with satisfaction by the Unionists, but the
pure economists complained that he had thrown sobriety and
thrift to the winds. These changes were mainly due to the in-
spiration of Lord Fisher, and of Sir Arthur Wilson, Lord Fisher's
successor as First Sea Lord. There was a slight decline of
300,000 in the total of these estimates; but this was merely a
pause after the 12,000,000 increase of the past three years;
and by the summer a new German navy law necessitated a sup-
plementary estimate of about a million. In 1913 there was a
further increase of about a million and a quarter. Once more a
supplementary estimate, largely due to aircraft development,
added two millions and a half; and in 1914 Mr. Churchill in-
troduced the highest estimates hitherto on record, 51,550,000
an increase on the total of 1913 of some two millions and three-
quarters. He grasped, moreover, at an early date the vital im-
portance of oil fuel, and forwarded eagerly the arrangement by
which oil was to be obtained for the navy from Persia. Mean-
while, he had thrown out, on the estimates of 1913, a hint to
Germany that all naval Powers might well take a year's holiday
from shipbuilding; but, though he repeated and emphasized his
plea for this " naval holiday " in a speech in the autumn of 1913,
it met with no response from Berlin. Large as the estimate for
1914 was, it was attacked by naval experts as inadequate.
There would perhaps have been more general satisfaction with
the results of Mr. Churchill's undoubtedly energetic and patriotic
administration at the Admiralty, if he had not shown himself
so vehement a partisan in internal politics. But he was in the
van of controversy over the Parliament bill, over Home Rule,
and especially over the Ulster resistance. " Full steam ahead "
was his motto for his party in the turbulent session of 1911.
In Feb. 1912 he made a daring incursion into Ulster, in order
to advocate Home Rule at Belfast; but he was wise enough to
give up his original intention of making the Ulster Hall, with its
Orange and Protestant associations, the scene of his meeting,
and also to represent the Government plan as an integral part
of parliamentary devolution. He developed this line of argument
when moving the second reading of the Home Rule bill in April,
and at Dundee in the autumn outlined a general policy under
which England would be cut up into self-governing areas.
But both in the House and at Dundee he emphatically declared
that Ulster, though she had a claim to special treatment, must
not be allowed to bar the way. Next year he declared at Dundee
in Oct. that, if a single province could interpose a " bully's
veto," constitutional and peaceful agitation would be discredited
throughout the British Empire and the civilized world. But
the speech which most exasperated his political opponents was
one which he delivered at Bradford in March 1914, just after
the incident of the Curragh. Against any attempt in action to
subvert parliamentary government, there was no lawful measure,
he said-, from which ministers would or could shrink. If British
civil and parliamentary systems were to be brought to the chal-
lenge of force, he could only say " Let us go forward together and
put these grave matters to the proof." His dispositions of naval
forces in the Irish Channel were bitterly resented by the Union-
ists, who accused him of being in a " plot " to provoke Ulster to
armed resistance and then coerce her. In return, he described
these accusations as " a vote of censure by the criminal classes
on the police," and averred that the measures taken were purely
precautionary.
These controversies were stilled by the war. Here Mr. Church-
ill showed that he appreciated the situation better than the
majority of his colleagues. On Monday, July 20, at Spithead,
there was a great review by the King of the most powerful fleet
ever assembled, numbering some 200 vessels in all, manned by
70,000 officers and men. While the ships were still engaged in
tactical exercises, Austria's ultimatum to Serbia was issued (July
23) and the 12 anxious days which culminated in the World War
began. In the ordinary course the fleet would have been de-
mobilized at the close of the week; but with the outlook so dis-
turbed, the First Lord and the First Sea Lord (Prince Louis of
Battenberg, afterwards Lord Milford Haven) took the responsi-
bility of keeping it on a war footing, ready for action. Hence,
when the rupture occurred, the fleet was already at its stations in
the North Sea, and Adml. Jellicoe was promptly appointed
commander-in-chief. The Expeditionary Force was conveyed
across the Channel in perfect safety, and its communications
safeguarded ; and the German mercantile marine was soon cleared
from the seas. But there were some naval disasters for which the
public were not prepared. The German battle cruiser " Goeben "
eluded the British Mediterranean fleet and got safely into the
Sea of Marmora; three British cruisers were sunk by submarines
in the North Sea; and a British squadron under Adml. Cradock
was heavily defeated by a German squadron off the coast of Chile.
Prince Louis of Battenberg, a most patriotic and capable sailor,
unjustly attacked because of his German origin, tendered his
resignation as First Sea Lord, and Mr. Churchill put in his place
the indefatigable veteran, Lord Fisher. Meanwhile Mr. Church-
ill heartened his countrymen by patriotic speeches at a non-
party meeting in the London Opera House in Sept., and at
Guildhall in November. He rushed to Antwerp when there were
hopes of saving it from the Germans, but though, he exerted
himself indefatigably both in diplomacy and in the actual work
of defence, and sent a British naval division to help, the effort
was in vain. When a war council was formed on Nov. 25, he was
one of the original members and, along with the Prime Minister
and Lord Kitchener, bore the main responsibility. The naval
situation was sensibly relieved by the destruction in Dec. by
Adml. Sturdee, off the Falkland Islands, of the German squadron
which had defeated Cradock, and by a successful action under
Adml. Beatty in Feb. 1915 off the Dogger Bank. On the other
hand, German sporadic attacks by sea and air on British watering
places and the increasing activity of German submarines gave
Mr. Churchill and the Admiralty much concern. He determined
to treat prisoners captured from submarines, in view of their
breaches of the laws of war, with more severity than ordinary
prisoners; but the Germans retaliated harshly on the most note-
worthy English prisoners in their hands, and Mr. Balfour, on
succeeding Mr. Churchill, gave up this discrimination. But
Mr. Churchill's great coup in the war was the attack on the
Dardanelles, which he pressed forward in spite of the increasing
reluctance of Lord Fisher. The idea was a captivating one, and
an appeal from the Russians for help in that quarter was difficult
to resist. It is arguable, and he was disposed to maintain, that
the movement would have succeeded if resolutely pushed by
those in command, both in the initial stage, when it was a purely
naval attack, and in the later stage, when considerable military
forces had been landed and fought many desperate fights. But,
in fact, it faikd; and the friction engendered between the First
Lord and the First Sea Lord was one of the causes which drove
672
CHURCH HISTORY
Mr. Asquith to invite the Unionists in May to join in a Coalition
Government. A change at the Admiralty was imperative. Mr.
Churchill had shown enormous vigour, industry, imagination and
patriotism; but insufficient judgment and discretion. He was
transferred to the sinecure office of the Duchy of Lancaster, but
held it only till Nov., when, on the appointment of a small war
committee of the Cabinet from which he was excluded, he re-
signed, being unwilling to accept a position of general responsibil-
ity for war policy if he had no effective control. He placed him-
self at the disposal of the military authorities and was sent to
France as a major in the Grenadier Guards. He was accordingly
little seen in Parliament for the next year or more, though he was
in his place to criticize the navy estimates of his successor Mr.
Balfour, to reproach him for want of energy, and to recommend
the recall of Lord Fisher.
The report of the Dardanelles commission, which was published
in March 1917, confirmed the view of the public that some of the
blame for that mismanaged enterprise rightly attached to Mr.
Churchill. It was therefore with surprise and some disapproval
that people found Mr. Lloyd George, who appreciated his powers,
admitting him into his Government in July 1917 as Minister of
Munitions, a post in which he did good work for a year and a half,
but did not come specially before the public. After the war,
however, when Mr. Lloyd George reconstructed his Govern-
ment, he became Secretary of State both for War and for Air,
a conjunction of offices which was much criticized. As War
Minister he had the gigantic task of demobilizing armies of be-
tween four and five millions who had been in the war, of providing
armies of occupation and forces for immediate garrisoning of the
Empire, of building up an after-war army, and of re-creating the
territorial army. He made considerable progress in the following
two years, but he was greatly criticized for the size of his esti-
mates, and especially for the large forces retained in Mesopotamia
and Palestine. On Lord Milner's retirement in the spring of 1921
he succeeded him as Secretary of State for the Colonies; and a
new arrangement was made by which the responsibility for
Mesopotamia and Palestine was taken over by the Colonial
Office. Mr. Churchill went out to 'Egypt, and held in Cairo a
conference of the British civil and military officers then adminis-
tering those countries. On his return, he outlined to Parliament a
scheme by which the cost might be greatly reduced, mainly
through the transference of authority to Arab chiefs.
He and his wife had a son and three daughters. His mother,
Lady Randolph Churchill, divorced her second husband, George
Cornwallis-West, in 1913; and married in 1918, as her third
husband, Montague Phippen Porch, formerly a Government
official in Nigeria. She died June 29 1921. (G. E. B.)
CHURCH HISTORY (see 6.330). (I.) CHURCH OF ENGLAND
(see 9.442). The most important event in the Anglican Com-
munion in the decade 1910-20 was the sixth Lambeth Con-
ference, held at Lambeth Palace under the presidency of the
Archbishop of Canterbury from July 5 to Aug. 7 1920. There
were present 252 bishops, as compared with 76 out of the then
total of 144 at the first gathering in 1867. These Conferences
claim no conciliar or legislative authority, i.e. it is left to the
various branches of the Church throughout the world to act
upon their decisions or recommendations, in whole or in part,
or to ignore them altogether. Their claim is to present a con-
sensus of Anglican opinion upon subjects vitally affecting the
welfare of the Church and the world, and to set forth, so far as
diverse conditions may admit, general principles of action.
The subjects considered at the Conference of 1920, in the order
in which they are arranged in the Encyclical Letter wherein the
bishops set forth their conclusions, were: the reunion of
Christendom, the ministry of women, Spiritualism, Christian
Science and Theosophy, problems of marriage, the Church and
industrial problems, international relations, missionary prob-
lems and the development of ecclesiastical provinces.
Reunion of Christendom. By far the most momentous of
these subjects is the reestablishment of the broken unity of the
universal Church, and in relation thereto the Conference put
out an " Appeal to all Christian people." This document rec-
ognizes that " the causes of division lie deep in the past, and are
by no means simple or wholly blameworthy," but insists that the
time has come for " a new outlook and new measures," and for
" reaching out towards the goal of a reunited Catholic Church."
The essentials of visible unity are defined as the acceptance of
the Scriptures as the ultimate standard of faith and of the Nicene
Creed as the sufficient statement of that faith, of the sacraments
of Baptism and the Holy Communion, and of " a ministry
acknowledged by every part of the Church as possessing not
only the inward call of the Spirit, but also the commission of
Christ and the authority of the whole body." On this last-
named crucial point, upon which the real difficulty of reunion
turns, the bishops say:
" May we not reasonably claim that the Episcopate is the one
means of providing such a ministry? It is not that we call in ques-
tion for a moment the spiritual reality of the ministries of those
Communions which do not possess the Episcopate. On the contrary
we thankfully acknowledge that these ministries have been mani-
festly blessed and owned by the Holy Spirit as effective means of
grace. But we submit that considerations alike of history and of
present experience justify the claim which we make on behalf of the
Episcopate. Moreover, we would urge that it is now, and will prove
to be in the future, the best instrument for maintaining the unity
and continuity of the Church. But we greatly desire that the office
of a Bishop should be everywhere exercised in a representative and
constitutional manner, and more truly express all that ought to be
involved for the life of the Christian Family in the title of Father-
in-God."
By way of practical suggestion the Appeal goes on to say:
" If the authorities of other Communions should so desire, we are
persuaded that, terms of union having been otherwise satisfactorily
adjusted, Bishops and clergy of our Communion would willingly
accept from these authorities a form of commission or recognition
which would commend our ministry to their congregations, as having
its place in the one family life. . . . It is our hope that the same
motives would lead ministers who have not received it to accept a
commission through episcopal ordination, in obtaining for them a
ministry throughout the whole fellowship."
The resolutions, of which the Appeal formed part, recom-
mended that the Churches of the Anglican Communion should
invite conference with other religious bodies concerning the
possibility of taking definite steps to cooperate in a common
endeavour on these lines to restore unity. In the committee's
report it was suggested that authority might be given to bishops
to permit ministers not episcopally ordained to preach in
churches within their dioceses and to their own clergy to preach
in the churches of such ministers, and " in the few years between
the initiation and the completion of a definite scheme of union,"
to admit to Communion baptized but unconfirmed communi-
cants of the non-episcopal congregations concerned. The
bishops, however, disapproved of " general schemes of inter-
communion or exchange of pulpits." It was expressly stated
that these decisions were " all but unanimous." In further
pursuance of the desire for reunion the Conference approved of
Anglican bishops taking part in the consecration of Swedish
bishops, being satisfied that those bishops possess the Apostolical
succession, and on Sept. 19 1920 the bishops of Durham and
Peterborough joined in the consecration of the Swedish bishops
of Visby and Vesteras. Both before and after the Conference
rapid progress was made towards a better understanding between
the Church of England and the Orthodox Eastern churches.
Ministry of Women. The committee of the Conference was of
opinion that there is nothing to prevent the belief that the
Apostolic commission recorded in St. John xx. 19-23 was de-
livered to women as well as to men, and dealing with the dis-
ciplinary directions of St. Paul as to the subordination of women
in the churches, declared that: " To transfer with slavish
literalness the Apostle's injunctions to our own time and to
all parts of our own world, would be to renounce alike our
inalienable responsibility of judgment and the liberty wherewith
Christ has made us free." The bishops went on to lay down the
conditions for the constitutional restoration of the ancient
Order of Deaconesses. For some sixty years past there have
been Anglican- deaconesses, but save in the United States,
where they are formally recognized, they have derived their
CHURCH HISTORY
673
authority less from the several Churches of that Communion
than from individual bishops. Upon her ordination a deaconess
will acquire Holy Orders, conferred according to a " form and
manner, such as might fitly be included in the Ordinal." The
functions of deaconesses are defined as: " (a) To prepare
candidates for Baptism and Confirmation. (6) To assist at the
administration of Holy Baptism, and to be the administrant of
that Sacrament in cases of necessity in virtue of her office.
(c) To pray with and to give counsel to such women as desire
help in difficulties and perplexities, (d) With the approval of
the bishops and of the parish priest, and under such conditions
as shall from time to time be laid down by the bishop (i.) in
church to read Morning and Evening Prayer and the Litany
except such portions as are assigned to the priest only; (ii.) in
church also to lead in prayer and, under licence of the bishop,
to instruct and exhort the congregation." It should, however,
be pointed out that Clause (d) (ii.) was passed by a majority
only. Women other than deaconesses should have opportunity
given them, with the bishop's permission, to speak and lead
in prayer both in consecrated and unconsecrated buildings at
other than the regular and appointed services of the Church,
on the same conditions as men.
Spiritualism, Christian Science, and Theosophy. The Con-
ference saw " grave dangers in the tendency to make a religion
of Spiritualism," the practice of which as a cult " involves the
subordination of the intelligence and the will to unknown forces
or personalities." The teaching of Christian Science " cannot
be reconciled with the fundamental truths of the Christian faith
and the teaching of Scripture," since it tends to Pantheistic
doctrine, to a false antithesis between spirit and matter, and to
the denial of the reality of sin, disease and suffering. The Con-
ference declared that in the positive teaching of Theosophy
there are cardinal elements irreconcilable with the faith.
Marriage and Sexual Morality. " The Conference affirms as
our Lord's principle and standard of marriage a life-long and
indissoluble union, for better for worse, of one man with one
woman, to the exclusion of all others on either side, and calls on
all Christian people to maintain and bear witness to this stand-
ard. Nevertheless, the Conference admits the right of a national
or regional Church within our Communion to deal with cases
which fall within the exception mentioned in the record of our
Lord's words in St. Matthew's Gospel, under provisions which
such Church may lay down." " Grave concern " is expressed
at " the spread in modern society of theories and practices
hostile to the family," such as the use of unnatural means for
the avoidance of conception. In regard to venereal disease,
" the Conference must condemn the distribution or use, before
exposure to infection, of so-called prophylactics, since these
cannot but be regarded as an invitation to vice."
The Church and Industrial Questions. " An outstanding and
pressing duty of the Church is to convince its members of the
necessity of nothing less than a fundamental change in the spirit
and working of our economic life. This change can only be
effected by accepting as the basis of industrial relations the
principle of cooperation in service for the common good in place
of unrestricted competition for private or sectional advantage."
Christianity and International Relations. Stress was laid
upon the importance of endeavouring to increase international
comity and good-will, and of securing their expression by an
increased recognition of international law and custom. Steps
should immediately be taken to enable the whole Church of
Christ to urge upon the peoples of the world the principles of the
League of Nations. " We hold that the peace of the world, no
less than Christian principle, demands the admission ot Germany
and other nations into the League of Nations at the earliest
moment which the conditions render possible."
Missionary Problems. It was urged by the Conference that
missionary societies and boards should make their work centre
in the Church rather than in the mission organization by the
establishment of councils and diocesan boards, which should
have a real share in financial control and general direction.
Liturgical uniformity should not be regarded as a necessity
everywhere, i.e. the Prayer Book, as the one fixed liturgical
model, is inapplicable in many parts of the mission field. It
is sufficient that local liturgical forms should retain " those fea-
tures which are essential to the safeguarding of the unity of the
Anglican Communion."
Development of Provinces. The gradual creation of new
ecclesiastical provinces should be encouraged, and each newly-
founded diocese should as soon as possible become a constituent
member of a province. In the opinion of the Conference four is
the minimum number of dioceses to form a province, but no
number is too great so long as convenience of consultation is
assured. Newly-constituted provinces should have some distinct
voice in the elections of their metropolitans.
Self-Government of the Church. The need of a representative
body which, by including laymen, should interpret to the nation
the desires of churchpeople and make clear the need for self-
government with greater force than was possible to the Houses
of Convocation, had been felt in the Church of England for
many years. After much discussion and considerable opposition
a Representative Church Council was formed in 1904 and en-
dowed with a constitution in the following year. It consisted
of the four Houses of Convocation and the twx> Houses of Lay-
men. The council, however, had no legal existence and no
powers save such as were accorded to it by the good- will of church-
people. It served a useful temporary purpose and encouraged
the growing conviction that the laity were entitled to a much
larger share in the councils of the Church, but its lack of author-
ity made it an imperfect instrument, and it soon became clear
that nothing short of a statutory body would satisfy the in-
sistent claim for lessened State control. In 1913, therefore, a
committee was appointed by the two archbishops " to inquire
what changes are advisable in order to secure in the relations
of Church and State a fuller expression of the spiritual independ-
ence of the Church as well as of the national recognition of
religion." This committee unanimously reported that Par-
liament, owing to modern changes in its memberships, was no
longer the right legislative authority for the Church, and that
the time was ripe for granting to the Church wider powers of
self-government, and presented a scheme for enabling statutory
form to be given to four elective bodies, i.e. parochial church
councils, ruridecanal conferences, diocesan conferences, and a
Church council. As we have seen, the germ of the last named
already existed in the Representative Church Council. The
other three bodies were also in voluntary existence, although the
number of parochial church councils was relatively small. In
1917 the scheme was accepted in principle by both Convocations,
and in 1919 a further committee appointed by the Repre-
sentative Church Council presented an amended plan which was
finally adopted with one dissentient. In May of that year the
Convocations addressed the Crown, asking that legislative
authority should be conferred upon the proposed Assembly, and
on Dec. 23 1919 the Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act
according this authority received the Royal Assent. For this
result the active propaganda conducted by the Life and Liberty
Movement was largely responsible. The Assembly consists of
the whole of the diocesan bishops of England (the House of
Bishops), the whole of the members of the two Lower Houses
of Convocation (the House of Clergy), and a number of laymen
and laywomen proportioned to the size of each diocese, elected
for five years by the diocesan conferences (the House of Laity).
The three Houses may sit together or separately. Under the
Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act (commonly called
the Enabling Act), the first two duties of the Assembly were
to draw up a constitution for the parochial councils and to take
steps for the reform of Convocation.
The Assembly, which met for the first time on June 30 1920,
was empowered to legislate by means of bills (technically called
Measures) which, after being passed by it, are to be sent to an
ecclesiastical committee consisting of 15 members of the House
of Lords, appointed by the Lord Chancellor, and 15 members
of the House of Commons, appointed by the Speaker. This
committee is to consider each measure, and " draft a report
674
CHURCH HISTORY
thereon to His Majesty, stating the nature and legal effect of
the measure, and their views as to its expediency, especially
with relation to the constitutional rights of all His Majesty's
subjects." If the report is favourable the Measure will go
before Parliament, but will not be presented for the Royal
Assent until each House has asked for it.
Parochial Church Councils. Under the Parochial Church
Councils (Powers) Measure, which received the Royal Assent in
1921, a church council is to be formed in every parish, elected
by the registered parishioners or non-resident attendants at the
parish church. The electors, male or female, must be 18 years
of age, and have been baptized, and must subscribe a declaration
that they are not members of any religious body out of commun-
ion with the Church of England. To these councils most of the
powers of the churchwardens have been transferred; they will
be responsible for raising and spending money for parochial
purposes, and they are charged to cooperate with the incum-
bent in all matters concerning the welfare of the parish.
Ruridecanal Conferences. These are elected by the parochial
church meetings from their own members. In most cases they
elect the members of the Diocesan Conferences.
Diocesan Conferences. In their turn the Diocesan Confer-
ences elect the lay members of the Church Assembly in given
proportions for each diocese. They form also the financial and
business authority of the diocese, to which all the immovable
Church property within their area must be legally transferred.
To them are affiliated the Boards of Finance which are to act
as the collecting and spending authorities of the dioceses.
Reform of Convocation. In Nov. 1920, the Church Assembly
performed its first legislative act by passing a Measure declaring
that the Convocations have power, with the Royal Assent, to
make canons for the amendment of their constitution. This
assent having been given, the Convocations, in Feb. 1921, drew
up new constitutions which made the following provisions:
The Upper Houses will consist, as now, of all the English diocesan
bishops; the Lower Houses will consist of all the deans, in-
cluding those of Westminster and St. George's, Windsor,
the two senior archdeacons in each diocese, one proctor for
every hundred electors, with one more for every incomplete
hundred not being less than fifty ; the electors will be all clergy-
men beneficed in the diocese, or possessing the bishop's licence,
or holding office in a cathedral or collegiate church ; all clergy-
men in priest's orders will be eligible for election as proctors;
the voting is to be on the lines of proportional representation.
Prayer Book Revision. The revision of the Prayer Book
authorized by the Royal Letters of Business first issued in 1906,
and since renewed, to the two Convocations enjoining them to
consider " the desirability and the form and contents of a new
rubric regulating the vesture of the ministers of the Church at
the times of their ministrations, and also of any modification
of the existing law relating to the conduct of divine service, and
to the ornaments and fittings of churches," had in 1920 been
completed subject to the assent of the National Assembly of
the Church. The proceedings were necessarily slow and com-
plicated, since each of the four Houses of Convocation had to
debate every proposal in detail. Many of the emendations were
merely verbal; others raised questions the most sharply con-
troverted between sections of opinion in the Church.
The Athanasian Creed. One of the sharpest controversies
raged around the Athanasian Creed, of which a new translation,
prepared at the request of the Archbishop of Canterbury, was
published in 1917. After prolonged discussion it has been
decided by both Convocations that the Creed shall be retained
in the Prayer Book, without the existing rubric, and with a new
rubric prescribing that on Trinity Sunday it may be said in
place of the Apostles' Creed.
The Holy Communion. The revision permits the priest to
celebrate in a surplice or in " a white alb plain with a vestment
or cope." He is to say the service " in a distinct and audible
voice." The Commandments are shortened: thus the tenth
reads simply " Thou shall not covet." They may be omitted
altogether at a given service provided that they are said once
every Sunday. The collects for the king are omitted; the
reader of the Epistle and Gospel is to turn towards the people;
the sermon is permissive; ceremonial mixing of the chalice is
permitted; in the Exhortation the words " eat and drink our
own damnation " are corrected to " eat and drink judgment
unto ourselves." An altered Proper Preface is provided for
Whitsuntide and several new Proper Prefaces are inserted.
In the Canterbury revision only the Canon is rearranged, the
Prayer of Humble Access following immediately after the Com-
fortable Words, and the Lord's Prayer following the Prayer of
Consecration. The latter is lengthened by the addition of
thanksgiving and prayer. Of the Prayers of Oblation and
Thanksgiving, one or both may be said. The words of Admin-
istration may be said once " to the whole number " of com-
municants, either the first or the second half of the words being
recited to the individual, or the whole words may be said once
to each railful of communicants instead of saying them to each
separately. A declaration is added to the effect that the Order
of Holy Communion ought not to be diminished or added to,
" nor should the private devotions of the minister be such as
to hinder, interrupt, or alter the course of the service." The
Convocation of York concurs in these emendations, with the
exception of the amended Canon.
The Psalter and the Lectionary. In the main the revision of
the Prayer Book Psalter has consisted of the emendation of
unintelligible, misleading or obscure phrases, archaic punctua-
tion, and the discarding of words which have changed their
meaning or fallen into disuse, such, for instance, as " leasing "
for which " lying " is substituted. As regards the recitation of
the Psalter, Psalms are appointed for every Sunday in the
year and for certain Holy Days. Otherwise the Psalms, with a
few omissions, will be read through in order once a month.
Psalms have also been selected for use on various occasions
instead of those for the day, but others may be substituted
with the approval of the bishop. Certain Psalms and portions
of others are discarded altogether from public reading. Coming
to the Lectionary, we find that alternative first and second
Lessons have been provided for Sundays. To make it possible
for congregations to hear selections from the less familiar parts
of the Old Testament and from some Books of the Apocrypha,
alternatives have been chosen to the Lessons taken from the
Pentateuch, the Historical Books, and the Book of Proverbs.
Two series of Second Lessons have been provided, one from the
Gospels and the other from the Acts, the Epistles, or the Book
of Revelation. The First Lessons for week-days follow a co-
herent plan the principle of the arrangement of the Second
week-day Lessons is that when a Lesson from the Gospels is
read at Matins, one from the Acts, Epistles, or Revelation
should be read at Evensong, or vice versa. Special Lessons
have been provided for Holy Week, Easter Week, Rogation Days,
Whitsun Week, Holy Days, and Dec. 29, 30 and 31. It is recom-
mended that Lessons should be prefaced by a brief Introduction.
The New Calendar. A new calendar has been prepared,
to which have been added, among others, Saints Polycarp,
John Chrysostom, Thomas Aquinas, Patrick, Cuthbert of
Lindisfarne, Leo the Great, Anselm, Catherine of Siena, Athan-
asius, Basil, Bernard of Clairvaux, Aidan, Ninian, Francis of
Assisi and Clement of Alexandria. All Souls' Day is added,
and the Saints, Doctors and Martyrs of the Church on Nov. 8.
Other Provisions. Alternative Epistles and Gospels are
provided for Christmas Day and Easter Day, and collects for
St. Mary Magdalene, the Transfiguration, the Nativity of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, All Saints' Day, Harvest Thanksgiving
and Saints' Days in the Calendar not otherwise provided for.
In the Exhortation in the Marriage Service the second of the
causes for which matrimony was ordained now reads " that the
natural instincts and affections, implanted by God, should be
hallowed and controlled." In the Lesson in the Burial Service
(i Cor. xv.), verses 27 to 34 inclusive are omitted and an al-
ternative Lesson is provided from 2 Cor. iv. i6-v. n, " Though
our outward man," etc. In the Ordinal an important alteration
has been made in the Questions to Deacons as to their belief in
CHURCH HISTORY
675
Holy Scripture. It now runs: " Do you unfeignedly believe
all the Canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as
given of God to convey to us in many parts and in divers man-
ners the Revelation of Himself which is fulfilled in our Lord
Jesus Christ ? "
The Scottish Revision. The Church in Scotland has also
revised its Prayer Book, and a tentative revision is now in use.
In 1910 the Episcopal Synod prepared a revised Scottish Com-
munion Office, and in the same year the Consultative Council
on Church Legislation prepared a schedule of permissive addi-
tions to and deviations from the Book of Common Prayer.
The new and revised forms were finally sanctioned and came
into operation in a permissive form in 1912. In the Communion
Office, according to both the Scottish and the English rite,
either of which may be used in Scotland, the Commandments
may be omitted and replaced by Our Lord's Summary of the
Law. The collects for the king may also be omitted. When
there are many communicants the words of administration may
be said once, the first half of the words only being recited to
each person. The mixed chalice and reservation for the sick
are authorized by rubric. New Proper Prefaces have been
provided for festivals which hitherto lacked them and new
collects, Epistles and Gospels for marriages, funerals and other
special occasions and for certain festivals. There is now power,
with the bishop's consent, to omit the Litany altogether on the
three great festivals. Certain portions may be omitted at other
times; new suffrages have, however, been added for the king's
forces, for missions, and for Parliament. A variety of addi-
tional prayers have been added, together with commemorations
of the dead. In the Marriage Service the exhortation has been
altered and abbreviated, and there are alternative Lessons in
the Burial Service. In the Confirmation Service the sign of the
cross may be used. Considerable difficulty was experienced in
preparing a revised Psalter which should be generally acceptable,
but in 1915 a committee appointed by the Scottish bishops
produced a new distribution of the Psalms, which is now in
permissive use. Its distinct feature is the provision of separate
Sunday and week-day courses. The Sunday course allows of
the recitation of the whole, with the exception of some of the
minatory Psalms, once a year; the week-day cycle is completed
every 28 days. A new Lectionary which prescribes Proper
Lessons for the eve of festivals and other special occasions, and
makes larger use of the Apocrypha, was adopted in 1918. A
committee appointed in 1918 by the Consultative Councilon
Church Legislation to consider further revision of the Prayer
Book reported in June 1921, and the Council agreed that a
complete new Scottish Prayer Book should be published.
Church Reunion. The movement which rendered possible
the " Appeal " put forth by the Lambeth Conference began
definitely in 1910 when the General Convention of the American
Episcopal Church resolved unanimously to invite the Christian
Communions all over the world to hold a World Conference
" for the consideration of questions touching Faith and Order."
The World War seriously delayed progress, though much was
done to clear the ground. A committee representing the Church
of England and the Free Churches produced two interim reports
containing a statement of agreement on matters of faith, and a
similar statement regarding order, the latter of which accepted
the Sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper and recog-
nized that there had been conferred upon " the whole Church "
" a ministry of manifold gifts and functions." The questions
upon which differences still remained in 1921 were how far the
visible society involves uniformity or allows variety in policy,
creed, and worship, the conditions, objective and subjective, in
the ministration of the Sacraments upon which their validity
depends, and whether the ministry derives its authority through
an episcopal or a presbyterial succession, or through the com-
munity of believers, or by a combination of them. The second
interim report recognized that continuity with the historic
episcopate should be preserved, but that the episcopate ought to
resume a constitutional form. The acceptance of the fact only
' of episcopacy should be expected, theories as to its character
being set aside. " The acceptance of episcopacy on these terms
should not involve any Christian community in the necessity
of disowning its past, but should enable all to witness and
influence as heirs and trustees of types of Christian thought,
life, and order not only of value to themselves, but to the
Church as a whole." A meeting preliminary to the Conference
was held at Geneva in Aug. 1920 at which 40 countries and 70
religious communions were represented, and a Continuation
Committee was appointed to make further preparations for the
World Conference on Faith and Order. The date of the Con-
ference had not been fixed in June 1921, but the Patriarch of
Jerusalem had invited it to meet in the Holy City. Meanwhile
there was much domestic discussion on the subject of reunion.
The propriety of the exchange of pulpits between ministers of
the Church of England and of the Free Churches was hotly
debated, but such exchanges were frequently taking place.
The most remarkable instances occurred when a Baptist minister
preached in Canterbury cathedral on the occasion of a war
anniversary, and Dr. Jowett (Congregationalist) preached in
Durham cathedral, in each case at the invitation of the dean.
In 1919 the Bishop of London formulated a scheme for reunion
with the Wesleyan Methodists, the main features of which were
that the Wesleyan Church should be a society within the
Church; that a certain number of presidents and superintendents
should be consecrated bishops, and that ordinations in each
Church should be in a form which would satisfy the other.
No practical result has yet followed. A conference of Church-
men and Nonconformists at Mansfield College, Oxford, resolved
in favour of interchange of pulpits, mutual admission to the
Holy Communion, and " acceptance by ministers, serving in
any one denomination, who may desire it, of such authorization
as shall enable them to minister fully and freely in the churches
of other denominations." The Federal Council of the Evangelical
Free Churches has expressed a desire to discuss with repre-
sentatives of the Anglican Communion the proposals of the
Lambeth Conference for the avoidance of misunderstandings.
Reform of Church Finance. The chaotic condition of the
finances of the Church of England, the overlapping and waste
of effort resulting from innumerable more or less isolated en-
deavours to accomplish a given end, the existence of many
societies with aims and policies of their own, led in 1909 to the
appointment of the Archbishops' Committee on Church Finance.
After more than two years' inquiry and deliberation this Com-
mittee reported in 1911, and its recommendations were sub-
sequently carried into effect. The keynote of the report was
the recommendation that the diocese and not the parish should
be the unit of Church life and that responsibility for the work
of the Church should be brought home to every member. There
is now a Board of Finance in every diocese elected by and
affiliated to the Diocesan Conference. These boards arrange a
system for the assessment of every parish according to its means
and population. There is a Central Incorporated Board of
Finance, a Committee of Maintenance of the Clergy and a
Central Advisory Council on Training for the Ministry. These
general provisions include arrangements present or prospective
for recruiting and training ordination candidates who are
unable in whole or in part to provide the cost of their own
education; for maintaining the ministry by the endowment and
augmentation of benefices, etc.; for the provision of clergy
pensions; for providing for the widows and children of the
clergy and making grants to clergy in difficulties through mis-
fortune; for the erection of new churches and other parochial
buildings, and the repair of those already existing. The most
noteworthy result is that the Church of England now possesses,
for the first time in its history, a legal corporate existence. A
bequest of money to " The Church of England " is now valid
and effective; previous to these important rearrangements it
would have been void, since under English law no one was en-
titled to give a receipt on behalf of the Church as a corporate
body. So soon as it was in working order (in the autumn of 1918)
the Central Board of Finance began an attempt to raise a cen-
tral fund of 5,000,000 for the maintenance of the clergy,
676
CHURCH HISTORY
the education of ordination candidates, training colleges and
other Church purposes. In 1919 a sum of 120,000 was allo-
cated to the pecuniary assistance of the clergy, but in 1920
only 30,000 was available for this purpose, the progress of the
central fund having been disappointingly slow; most, if not all,
of the dioceses have failed to raise their quotas. The Board
has established an Ordination Test School at Knutsford, for
testing the vocation of candidates for the ministry who had
served in the war, and down to the end of 1920 about 700 men
were sent there, while a somewhat similar number were helped
to go to the universities and theological colleges. The school was
in 1921 being used mainly for civilian candidates. The Central
Board of Finance, whose methods have been seriously criticised,
is henceforward to be responsible to the Church Assembly.
Welsh Church Commission. The Royal Commission appointed
in 1906 to " inquire into the origin, nature, amount and applica-
tion of the temporalities, endowments and other properties of
the Church of England in Wales and Monmouthshire, and into
the provision made and work done by the Churches of all de-
nominations in Wales and Monmouthshire for the spiritual
welfare of the people and the extent to which the people avail
themselves of such provision," did not report until Dec. 1910.
The statistics presented on behalf of the Church showed that the
actual number of communions made at Easter rose from 134,000
in 1905-6 to 144,000 in 1908-9, and that the total number of
persons upon all the Welsh communicant rolls was, in the latter
year, 193,000. These returns were based upon lists for each
parish, with the name and address of each communicant. The
Nonconformist lists of " full members " gave the Congrega-
tionalists 175,000, the Calvinistic Methodists 170,000, the
Baptists 143,000, the Wesleyans 40,000 and the smaller Pro-
testant denominations 19,000 among them. Other figures
prepared on behalf of the Church showed that in every diocese
in Wales there had for many years past been a constant and sub-
stantial increase in infant baptisms, confirmations, and Sunday-
school scholars, and that in most cases the numbers had grown
in a larger proportion than the population, the inference being
that the Church was expanding by conversions from Non-
conformity. The Commission found that the Church in Wales
provided 1,546 churches and mission rooms, with seating
accommodation for 458,917. The officiating clergy numbered
1,597 968 incumbents, 561 curates and 68 others. The seating
accommodation provided by the Church in Wales was 22-8%
of the population. The accommodation in the Nonconformists'
places of worship provided for more than double the total of
Nonconformist adherents; the chapel-building debt of the
Calvinistic Methodists amounted in 1906 to 668,000, and of the
Congregationalists to 318,000. On the other hand the Anglican
Church accommodation failed to keep pace with the increase of
the population. Resident clergy, however, grew by 1 1 1 % and
regular Sunday services by 176%. Much controversy arose as
to the accuracy of the figures presented on the one side or the
other, but in the end it appeared to be clear that the Church
of England was numerically the largest single religious body in
Wales. The Commission found the total gross endowments of
benefices in Wales in 1906 to be 242,669. (A Parliamentary
return issued in Nov. 1912 showed it to be then 260,037.) Of
this sum 135,980 is income of endowments believed to have
been in existence in 1703; 37,344 is income derived from Queen
Anne's Bounty; 49,669 is income derived from the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners; 19,672 comes from private gifts since 1703.
Welsh Disestablishment. Before the Commission could report
the Government in 1909 brought in a bill for the disestablish-
ment and disendowment of the Church in the four Welsh dioceses
and the county of Monmouth, generally similar in its provisions
to the bill of 1895, but withdrew it after the first reading. The
date after which private benefactions were to be exempt from
the operation of the Measure was fixed at 1662, instead of 1703,
as in the former bills. In April 1912 a fresh disestablishment
and disendowment bill was introduced which admittedly took
away 135. 4d. in the of the endowments. The measure, after
numerous alterations and amendments, and after being twice
rejected by the House of Lords, received the Royal Assent, under
the Parliament Act, in Sept. 1914. Coincidently with it a
Suspensory Act was passed, postponing its operation as regards
disestablishment, but not disendowment, for 12 months, or until
the conclusion of the World War, whichever should be the
longer period; by a subsequent Order in Council the date of
disestablishment was postponed until the end of the war.
Under the Established Church (Wales) Act, the vested interests
of incumbents were preserved for their lives. Welsh Church
Commissioners were appointed to whom were transferred all
property belonging to the Church in Wales which was vested in
the Ecclesiastical Commissioners and Queen Anne's Bounty;
the property left to the Church was transferred to a Repre-
sentative Body, appointed by the Welsh Church. The property
so allocated included the churches and parsonages, a propor-
tion of the value of the glebes, private benefactions since 1662,
and all the movables contained in the churches. The tithe rent
charges and other property of which the Church was deprived
went to the Welsh County Councils and the university of
Wales. The Act was modified by the Welsh Church (Tem-
poralities) Act passed in 1919. Under this measure a sum of
1,000,000 was granted by Parliament to the Church in
Wales, mainly as compensation for the increased value of tithe
since the passing of the principal Act, and the date of disestab-
lishment was finally fixed as March 31 1920. The Parliamen-
tary history of this legislation is dealt with elsewhere.
Constitution of the Church in Wales. The constitution of the
disestablished Church was drafted by a Convention consisting
of representatives of each of the four Welsh dioceses. This
Convention decided that the Church should be called " The
Church in Wales," and that the governing body shall consist
of the diocesan bishops and their suffragans or assistant bishops,
the dean and archdeacons, 25 elected clergy and 25 elected laity
from each diocese, together with 12 coopted women. The gov-
erning body is to maintain the Articles, doctrines, rites and
formularies of the Book of Common Prayer, subject to sub-
sequent modification. New canons may be made by a two-
thirds majority of the diocesan bishops, clergy and laity. The
Representative Body consists of the diocesan bishops, four
clergymen and eight laymen from each diocese, 1 2 coopted mem-
bers and eight nominated by the bishops; subject 'to the assent
of the governing body, 12 women may be added. The Repre-
sentative Body will act as trustees of the Church's property,
under the orders of the governing body. The bishops are to be
elected by a board of 33 electors, consisting of the remaining
bishops, six clerical and six lay representatives of the vacant
diocese, and three clerical and three lay representatives of the
other dioceses. The election must be by a two-thirds majority,
failing which the appointment is to be made by the Archbishop
of Canterbury. Presentations to livings are to be made by
Diocesan Patronage Boards, but every third appointment is
reserved to the bishop. Benefices are held for life, subject to the
right of the governing body to divide or rearrange parishes, to
the right of the bishop, with the consent of the patronage board,
to remove an incumbent to another living of equal or greater
value, and to the right of the Supreme Tribunal to deprive an
incumbent whose conduct " grievously hinders " the welfare
of the Church. In case of such removal reasonable provision is
to be made for the maintenance of the priest so removed. On
April i 1920, a week after disestablishment became effective, a
Province of Wales was constituted and the Bishop of St. Asaph
(Dr. Edwards), was elected Archbishop of Wales; but it was
anticipated that ultimately the Primacy would be attached to
the See of St. David's. The new archbishop was enthroned by
the Archbishop of Canterbury in St. Asaph cathedral on June
i 1920. It is intended, so soon as circumstances permit, to divide
the dioceses of St. David's and Llandaff. A fund of 1,000,000
was started for reendowment; rather more than half the required
amount had been obtained by June 1921.
The Kikuyu Conference. In 1913 an event occurred which
for a time threatened serious consequences to the unity of the
Church and caused much excited and angry feeling. In June'
CHURCH HISTORY
677
of that year 60 missionaries, representing the different mission-
ary societies working in British East Africa, met at the Church
of Scotland station at Kikuyu, on the Uganda railway, to dis-
cuss the possibility of a federation between the Christian bodies
working in that region. Among those present were the Bishop
of Uganda, who presided, and the Bishop of Mombasa; repre-
sentatives of the Church of Scotland; the (American) Africa
Inland Mission; the Friends' Industrial Mission; the United
Methodists; the Lutheran Mission, and the Seventh-Day
Adventists. The Conference adopted a " constitution," the
preamble of which declared that " with a view to ultimate
union of the native Churches, a federation of missionary
societies should be formed." The " constitution " settled the
following basis of federation: " The loyal acceptance of the
Holy Scriptures as our supreme rule of faith and practice; of
the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds as a general expression of
fundamental Christian belief, and in particular belief in the
absolute authority of Holy Scripture as the Word of God, in
the Deity of Jesus Christ, and in the atoning death of our Lord
as the ground of our forgiveness; recognition of common member-
ship between the Churches in the federation; regular ad-
ministration of the two Sacraments, Baptism and the Lord's
Supper, by outward signs; a common form of Church organiza-
tion." At the end of the conference there was a corporate Com-
munion celebrated by the Bishop of Mombasa, in which the
whole of the delegates participated. The inevitable storm
speedily broke. In Nov. the Bishop of Zanzibar published an
open letter to the Bishop of St. Albans entitled " Ecclesia
Anglicana: what does she stand for?" in which, declaring that
" there has not been a conference of such importance to the life
of the Ecclesia Anglicana since the Reformation," he charged
the Bishops of Mombasa and Uganda with heresy, and asked
for the judgment of his fellow bishops of the Province of Canter-
bury upon what had happened. The Bishop of Uganda imme-
diately replied, defending his action and explaining that the
corporate Communion was an exceptional incident standing
apart from any general scheme of federation. After further
controversy the Archbishop of Canterbury, having refused to
take proceedings for heresy and schism against the incriminated
bishops, referred the subject to the Central Consultative Body
of the Lambeth Conference, which consisted of 14 bishops
representing various parts of the Anglican Communion. The
following is a summary of the decisions (April 1915) of this
body, which actually consisted of the Archbishops of York,
Armagh, the West Indies, Rupert's Land, and the Primus of
Scotland, the Bishops of Winchester, Exeter and Gibraltar,
Bishops Copleston, Wallis, and Ryle:
" Ministers recognized in their own bodies may be welcomed as
visitors to preach in Anglican churches provided they are accredited
by the Diocesan Bishop. 2. Non-Anglicans may be admitted to the
Holy Communion at the discretion of the Diocesan Bishops, on
condition of the acceptance of the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds,
the absolute authority of Scripture as the VVord of God, and the
Deity of our Lord. 3. Anglicans must not receive the Holy Commu-
nion from ministers not episcopally ordained or whose orders are
otherwise irregular."
With reference to the corporate Communion, the Consultative
Body, while recognizing that it was an abnormal and spontaneous
act of devotion, added that " any attempt to treat it as a
precedent, or to encourage habitual action of the kind, must
be held to be inconsistent with principles accepted by the
Church of England. ... So far from promoting unity it would,
in our judgment, rather imperil the measure of unity which we
now possess." Meanwhile the Bishop of Zanzibar had renounced
communion with the Bishop of Hereford (Dr. Percival) on the
ground that he had given a Canonry in his cathedral to the Rev.
H. Streeter, who was accused of " Modernist " teaching.
Prolonged controversy followed both of these events, in the
ourse of which in 1917 the bishops of the Province of South
Africa, assembled in Synod, criticised the Kikuyu scheme on
the grounds that it dealt exclusively with natives and ignored
the essential difficulties between the various denominations,
tid that more could be done " by holding fast to Catholic
order " than " by laxity and compromise." In July 1918
another conference was held at Kikuyu at which an " alliance
of missionary societies in British East Africa " was concluded,
after an alternative scheme for a united Church, as distinguished
from an alliance, proposed by the Bishop of Zanzibar, had been
rejected. The alliance consists of the Church Missionary
Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Church
of Scotland Mission, the United Methodists, and the Africa
Inland Mission. The societies forming the alliance pledge them-
selves to respect one another's spheres, and the autonomy of
each member of the alliance within its own sphere; to foster the
desire for union; to develop local Church organizations along
similar lines of councils, parochial and district; to recognize the
status of each other's Church members; to discourage proselytiz-
ing; and to respect the disciplinary decisions of the allied
societies regarding their own members.
Increase of the Episcopate. The movement for the division of
unwieldy dioceses has resulted since 1914 in the erection of five new
sees. In that year there were created : Sheffield (taken from York) ;
Chelmsford (taken from St. Albans) ; and St. Edmundsbury and
Ipswich (taken from Norwich and Ely). In 1918 the diocese of
Coventry was formed (taken from Birmingham and Worcester) ; and
in 1920 that of Bradford (taken from Ripon and Wakefield). A
committee appointed by the Archbishop of Canterbury prepared a
comprehensive scheme for the division of large dioceses in the
Southern Province, and several proposals to this end took more or
less practical shape. A committee was considering in 1921 the best
means of dividing London into two or three bishoprics, and a similar
project was being prepared for Winchester, which presents peculiar
difficulties owing to the complexities of a convenient division and the
impossibility of a bishop with a reduced income living at Farnham
Castle. In Manchester a diocese of Preston was to be carved out of
the mother see. It was proposed to divide the diocese of Oxford into
three portions, roughly coextensive with the three counties Ox-
ford, Berkshire, and Buckinghamshire of which it mainly consists,
with new see towns at Reading for Berkshire and Aylesbury for
Buckinghamshire, but the scheme made only slow progress. It was
hoped to form a Shropshire diocese by the division of Lichfield, to
relieve Southwell by taking from it the county of Derby, and to
form a diocese of Plymouth from that of Exeter. Meanwhile the
necessity for increased episcopal supervision was being inadequately
met by the erection of new suffragan bishoprics. There were in 1921
42 dioceses in England and Wales.
The Supply of Clergy. The scarcity of clergy, which had been
growing annually more acute, was accentuated by the war. But the
possibilities of obtaining candidates from the services after the end
of the war seemed to be so favourable that in 1917 a Service Candi-
dates' Committee was formed for the training of ordinands who had
served in the forces. By the time it got into working order the Church
was short of 2,000 clergy. The disused prison at Knutsford in
Cheshire was taken over as a school for the testing of vocations and
intellectual fitness, and by the end of 1920 more than 1,500 men were
at work and nearly 250 others had been ordained. The supply of
ex-service men being exhausted, civilian candidates are now (1921)
being tested there. There has been a necessary postponement of the
intention of the bishops to enforce a higher standard of education by
requiring candidates for Holy Orders to possess a recognized degree
and to have undergone at least one year's training at a theological
college. Meanwhile an agitation began in 1914 in favour of the ad-
mission of women to the priesthood, and in 1916 the Central Council
of the National Mission of Repentance and Hope gave a general
approval to the " women's movement." In 1917 Miss Maude
Royden, one of the leaders of the movement, began a ministry of
preaching, first at the City Temple and subsequently in a hall taken
for the purpose; in 1921, after preaching the Three Hours' addresses
on Good Friday at St. Botolph's, Bishopsgate, she acquired a chapel
of her own. In a large number of dioceses women messengers and
pilgrims are at work under the guidance of the parochial clergy.
The Church and the Stale. At the beginning of 1918 there was a
lively controversy upon the appointment of Dr. H. Hensley Henspn,
Dean of Durham, to the bishopric of Hereford, and a public meeting
of churchmen in London asked that the Crown should appoint "a
small Commission of Churchmen to assist in the exercise of its
ecclesiastical patronage." In 1920 Canterbury Convocation re-
solved that the two archbishops ought to be consulted by the Prime
Minister before he submitted names for appointment to bishoprics.
The Prime Minister replied that it had been his " invariable prac-
tice " to do so. In consequence of the rapid increase in the value
of tithe rent charge by reason of the high prices of agricultural pro-
duce, an Act was passed in 1918 fixing the value at 109 33. lid.
until 1926. The increase in local rates caused a determined agitation
against the rating of tithe rent charge, on the ground that it is
professional income, and that no other earned income is rated, which
led in 1920 to the passing of the Ecclesiastical Tithe Rent Charge
(Rates) Act. Under this measure the rates are restricted, during the
678
CHURCH HISTORY
currency of the Tithe Act of 1918, to the amount payable in that
year, with the proviso that where a benefice does not exceed 300
in value no rates will be payable on the tithe, and that if it exceeds
300 and does not exceed 500 one-hajf the rate only will be payable.
Since the Act of 1918 sales of ecclesiastical tithe rent charge have
greatly increased; it may be added that, in consequence of the im-
proved value of agricultural land, there have been very extensive
sales of glebes, to the substantial enhancement of the value of many
benefices. A movement has been set on foot for relieving clergy of
the Church of England from the statutory disability of sitting in the
House of Commons and on municipal corporations. A bill with this
object passed its second reading in the Lords in 1919 but in Com-
mittee the relief as regards Parliament was struck out. It was rein-
troduced in the Commons in 1920, but made no progress. In 1919 a
Union of Benefices Act, limited in its duration to Dec. 31 1921,
enabling the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, with the concurrence of
the bishop of the diocese, to prepare after public enquiry schemes for
the amalgamation of small contiguous parishes, was passed. These
unions became effective by Order in Council.
Doctrine, Discipline and Ritual. During the decade several
important events affecting the doctrine and discipline of the Church
of England occurred. The first turned upon the interpretation of the
Deceased Wife's Sister Marriage Act of 1907, and led to the suit of
Banister v. Thompson. The plaintiff married his sister-in-law in
Canada, where he had no domicile, under the Colonial Act, before
the passing of the English Act, and was refused communion by his
vicar, the defendant. The Court of Arches found in 1908 that the
passing of the Act of 1907 validated the marriage as a civil contract,
and that therefore the parties could not be repelled as " notorious
evil livers," to use the language of the rubric which the defendant
held to justify his refusal. The High Court, by a majority, upheld
this decision, which was endorsed by the Court of Appeal and con-
firmed by the House of Lords in June 1912. In 1911 the Rev. J. M.
Thompson, Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford, pub-
lished Miracles in the New Testament, which produced an animated
controversy. In the result the Bishop of Winchester, as visitor of
the college, withdrew the licence he had granted to Mr. Thompson
who was, and continued to be, dean of divinity, on the ground that
the book denied the articles of the Creed affirming the Incarnation
and the Resurrection. There has been much discussion upon the
propriety of permitting Reservation of the Eucharist, and in 1917
the Upper House of Canterbury Convocation reaffirmed the draft
rubric on the subject which it is proposed to insert in the revised
Prayer Book. This rubric permits Reservation for the sick, and pro-
vides that if the consecrated elements are not taken immediately to
the sick person " they shall be kept in such place and after such man-
ner as the Ordinary shall approve, so that they be not used for any
other purpose whatsoever,' the object being to prevent the spread
of organized devotions before, or in the presence of, the Sac-
rament. In 1919 and 1920 an acute controversy arose upon the
adoption of the service of Benediction in a few churches, and two
clergymen were deprived of their livings for persistence in celebrating
this rite the Rev. L. S. Wason, perpetual curate of Cury-with-
Gunwalloe, in Cornwall, and the Rev. R. Wynter, vicar of St. John
Taunton. Mr. Wynter, together with a number of his parishioners,
was shortly afterwards received into the Church of Rome. In 1918,
the Bishop of Manchester (Dr. Knox) refused to institute the Rev.
C. S. Carey to the living of Sacred Trinity, Salford, on the ground
that he was habitually guilty of reserving the Sacrament, wearing
Eucharistic vestments, using incense ceremonially, and lighting
candles when not required for giving light. The case went to the
High Court, and Mr. Justice Coleridge gave judgment in favour of
the bishop, on the ground that three of the four practices are illegal.
An appeal was not pressed, the patron having agreed to accept
another presentee.
Care of Church Buildings. Doubts having been expressed as to
the efficiency of the supervision by the Church of the ancient monu-
ments under her care, a committee was appointed in 1912, under the
auspices of the Dean of the Arches, which reported favourably
upon the extent of the supervision exercised, but expressed the opin-
ion that more attention might sometimes be given to aesthetic
considerations. Recommendations in the direction of better super-
vision of works of restoration were made, and a number of dio-
cesan advisory committees were appointed. In 1913 an Ancient
Monuments Act was passed which created boards for England,
Scotland, and Wales to advise the Commissioners of Works upon the
repair of monuments, and in 1920 a committee was appointed to
consider the advisability of strengthening the Act and including in
its scope churches and other ecclesiastical buildings still in use.
Shortly afterwards the House of Lords passed a motion condemning
the Government for appointing the committee " without consultation
with the Church authorities and without some proof that the pro-
visions for the protection of cathedrals and churches which have pre-
vailed for centuries have proved inadequate." Shortly before a
commission appointed by the Bishop of London had recommended
that 19 of the City churches should be removed, as being redundant.
A great outcry followed, and in the end the Bishop of London
undertook not to settle the matter finally without the concurrence
of the National Assembly. The subject was kept prominently before
the public by the necessity, revealed at the end of the war, for exten-
sive and costly repairs to several of the most famous ecclesiastical
monuments in England, notably Westminster Abbey, which will
require approximately 250,000 for its reparation, and St.
George's Chapel, Windsor, the choir of which was found to be dan-
gerously unsafe. St. Paul's cathedral has also given great anxiety.
The pressure of the dome upon the piers caused them to give signs of
instability, and for several years the work of strengthening them
has been proceeding slowly and at great cost.
Canada. During 1910-21 there was great activity in the Church
of Canada in consequence of the enormous influx of English settlers,
especially into the N.W. provinces. The first service of the English
Church in what is now the dominion was held at Annapolis Royal
in 1710, and the bicentenary was marked by the opening of a new
cathedral at Halifax, Nova Scotia. To meet the needs of a rapidly
growing population unable to provide for its own spiritual needs the
Archbishops' Western Canada Fund was established in 1910 for the
provision of men and money to meet these needs, and the Rev. W.
G. Boyd, one of the chaplains of the Archbishop of Canterbury, went
out at once with five clergy and four laymen, who worked on the
Bush Brotherhood system, and were afterwards joined by many
others. By the time the fund, which was always intended to be of
limited duration, came to an end in 1920, it had built 68 churches in
connexion with the Edmonton, Alberta, and Railway Missions. In
1912 a mission of help was sent to the Province of Rupert's Land.
In 1911 British Columbia was erected into a province and in 1912
it was decided that instead of one province for the whole of Canada
E. of Manitoba, a new ecclesiastical province of Ontario should be
formed to include the dioceses of Ottawa, Algoma, Huron, Niagara,
Ontario and Toronto. There are consequently now four Canadian
provinces. In 1913 the archdeaconry of Edmonton was constituted
a diocese, and in the same year it was decided to form a diocese of
Brandon out of that of Rupert's Land ; this see has not yet come
into actual existence. It is also proposed to create a see of Saskatoon
by dividing the diocese of Saskatchewan. A new Canadian Prayer
Book was adopted in 1918.
Australia and New Zealand. In Australia the " Question of the
Nexus " which arose in 1912 is still pending. Distinguished counsel
have stated their opinion that the Church in Australia is an integral
part of the Church of, and in, England, and that it is bound by the
judgments of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. There is
a movement in the direction of independence, but considerable
opposition has been manifested to any disturbance of the status quo.
A more local yet important disturbance of harmony was caused by a
question of vestments at Sydney in 1910. The only churches in that
city in which vestments were used were St. James's and Christ Church,
and the incumbencies of both fell vacant within a few months of
each other. The Archbishop of Sydney refused to institute any
clergyman who declined to give an undertaking not to use, or allow
to be used, " the chasuble or other vestment in any church under his
charge until, in the judgment of the Archbishop of Sydney for the
time being, they have become legal." In each case this requirement
caused a long delay in making an appointment, and the incident
produced a serious division of opinion in the diocese. The first
portion of Brisbane cathedral was consecrated in 1910. In 1914 the
creation of a diocese of Kalgoorlie enabled the erection of Western
Australia into a province, the Bishop of Perth becoming archbishop
and metropolitan. Two other new dioceses have been formed in
Australia Willochra and Grafton both in 1914, the latter taken
from the old see of Grafton and Armidale. A mission of help was
sent from England to New Zealand in 1911.
India. The centenary of the Indian Episcopate was celebrated in
1914, Thomas Fanshawe Middleton having been consecrated on
May 14 iSl^ first Bishop of Calcutta, a see which originally included
also Australia, New Zealand, Mauritius, and Cape Colony. In 1915
a bishopric of Assam, cut away from the Metropolitical Diocese of
Calcutta, was formed, and in 1912 a native priest was, for the first
time, raised to the Episcopate, the Rev. V. S. Azariah being ap-
pointed Bishop of the new see of Dornakal, in Hyderabad State. In
1913 the bishops decided that the time had come for the introduction
into India of full synodical government; but legal opinion was
opposed to the practicability of the change, and it was consequently
decided that a provincial council, consisting of bishops, clergy and
laity should be formed on a voluntary basis, side by side with the
Episcopal Synod. Diocesan councils are also to be erected, and a
beginning has been made in that direction. In consequence of the
intended removal of the capital to Delhi, the Provincial Synod of
Calcutta has prepared a memorandum suggesting the formation of
two new archbishoprics one of Madras to include the sees of Madras,
Tinnevelly. Travancore, Colombo and Dornakal; and another of
Delhi, to include Delhi, Lahore, Lucknow, Bombay and Nagpur.
Much attention has been given to the position of the Eurasians,
whose education has been greatly neglected in the past. Roman
Catholic and Nonconformist schools have provided for large num-
bers of what is now called the domiciled English community, and
special funds are being raised for improving and strengthening the
Anglican schools in the great centres of population.
Africa. Two new dioceses have been formed in South Africa
George, taken out of the sees of Cape Town and Grahamstown (1911),
and Kimberley and Kuruman, taken out of the diocese of Bloem-
fontein (1912). In 1915 the diocese of Mashonaland was renamed
CHURCH HISTORY
679
Southern Rhodesia. The missionary diocese of Western Equatorial
Africa (originally the Niger) wasdivided in 1919, the dioceseof Lagos
being carved out of it. Khartum cathedral was consecrated in 1912.
A missionary diocese of Egypt and the Sudan was created in 1920;
the cathedral, to be erected at Cairo, is intended to be a memorial of
Lord Kitchener, Lord Cromer, and the men of the Imperial forces
who fell in Gallipoli and Egypt during the World War.
China and Japan. In 1909 a new diocese of Kwangsi and Hunan
was formed out of the diocese of Victoria ; the new diocese of Honan
has also been formed and allocated to the Canadian Church. Arch-
deacon T. S. Sing, the first Chinese to be raised to the Episcopate,
was in 1918 consecrated Assistant Bishop for the diocese of Chekiang.
In 1909 the Missionary Church in China took the name of " The
Holy Catholic Church of China," and in 1913 constitutions and
canons and a general synod were formed. In 1912 a theological
college for training native candidates was established. The American
Church has been asked to work the new diocese of N.E. Japan, to
be formed by the division of the diocese of N. Tokyo.
Miscellaneous Events. In 1916 an elaborately organized National
Mission of Repentance and Hope took place, the object of which was
compendiously stated to be the inducement of " a serious determi-
nation on the part of the nation to seek and deserve divine help."
It was otherwise described as " a mission of witness by the Church
as a whole to the nation as a whole." After various stages of prepara-
tion, the " Message to the Nation " was delivered during a few days
in each parish by a large body of " Bishops' messengers," consisting
of clergy and laity, some of the latter being women. Subsequent
stages continued in 1917, and many committees were appointed
to consider outstanding subjects arising out of the mission, such as
public worship, evangelistic work, problems of industrial life, the
teaching office of the Church, etc. The reports of these committees,
although some of them have provoked much criticism, have been
generally regarded as of greater practical importance than the im-
mediate results of the mission itself. In 1917 a similar mission was
held in Scotland. These events were followed by an "Anglo-Catholic
Congress " in 1920, the purpose and aim of which were officially de-
fined as " to extend the knowledge of Catholic faith and practice at
home and abroad, and by this means to bring men and women to a
true realization of our Lord Jesus Christ as their personal Saviour
and King." Fourteen thousand members took part, and the sub-
jects discussed (with many sub-headings to each) ' were "The
Message of the Church," " Our Position," " Christian Unity,"
" Corporate Religion," "Personal Religion," and " The Church and
Social and Industrial Problems." Before the year was out 36,000
had been raised towards a thankoffering of 50,000 for foreign mis-
sions. The work of the Congress was continued by a " Conference of
Catholic Priests " at Oxford in July 1921. The Church Congress
kept its jubilee in 1910 at Cambridge, its birthplace; in 1914 it was
for the first time intromitted on account of the war, and not resumed
until 1919, when it met at Leicester.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Many books of importance in theology and Bib-
lical criticism, or as reflecting the development of opinion and the
resultsof scholarship, were published between igioand 1921. Among
them may be mentioned the following: Foundations: A Statement of
Christian Belief in Terms of Modern Thought (1912), by Seven
Oxford Men; B. H. Streeter, Restatement and Reunion (1914);
W. Sanday, The Primitive Church and Reunion (1913) ; F. W. Puller,
The Continuity of the Church of England (1913); A. Nairne, The
Epistle of Priesthood (1913); S. Baring Gould, The Church Revival
(1914) and The Evangelical Revival (1920); J. N. Figgis, Churches
in the Modern State (1913) ; Edouard Naville, The Archaeology of the
Old Testament (1913) ; H. Latimer Jackson, The Eschatology of Jesus
(1913) and The Problem of the Fourth Gospel (1918) ; James Gairdner,
Lollardry and the Reformation (1908-13); J. R. Illingworth, The
Gospel Miracles (1915); A. C. Headlam, The Miracles of the New
Testament (1914); F. E. Brightman, The English Rite (1915); T. A.
Lacey, Unity and Schism (1917); J. K. Mozley, The Christian Hope
in the Apocalypse (1915); H. B. Swete, The Holy Catholic Church
(1915); G. H. Box, The Virgin Birth of Jesus (1916); Correspondence
of John Henry Newman with John Kcble and others 1839-184$;
William Temple, Mens Creatix (1917); H. M. Gwatkin, Church and
Stale in England to the Death of Queen Anne (1917); J. N. Figgis,
The Will to Freedom (1917); J. P. Whitney, The Episcopate and the
Reformation (1917); M. G. Glazebrook, The Faith of a Modern
Churchman (1918) ; Essays on the Early History of the Church and the
Ministry (1918), ed. H. B. Swete; Charles Gore, Dominant Ideas and
Corrective Principles (1918); J. H. Shakespeare, The Churches at the
Cross Roads (1918) ; H. Rashdall, The Idea of Atonement in Christian
Theology (1919); W. R. Inge, Outspoken Essays (1920); Oscar D.
Watkins, A History of Penance (1920); A. C. Headlam, The Doctrine
of the Church and Christian Reunion (1920) ; Kirsopp Lake, Land-
marks in the History of Early Christianity (1920); R. H. Charles,
The Apocalypse (1921). (J. P.-B.)
II. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
The decade 1910-20, including the last four years of the
pontificate of Pius X. and the first six years of that of Benedict
XV., proved an eventful period for the Catholic Church.
The Church and the Civil Power. Several interesting ques-
tions in the relations of the Church to the civil power were
put to the test of practical working.
In France the friction between the Vatican and the French
Republic had resulted in 1905 in the separation of Church
and State and the rupture of diplomatic relations. It had
followed upon the refusal of Pius X. to permit the effective
intervention of the French Government in the trial and re-
moval of two French bishops in a matter of purely ecclesiastical
discipline. The bill of separation enabled the State to take
possession of Church property and to withdraw the subsidy
for the clergy. It placed the upkeep of the Church in the
hands of voluntary parochial corporations (associations cul-
luelles) which to a large extent would have been subject to the
control and supervision of the civil authority. Pius X. declared
the refusal of the Church to accept such conditions, and the
French bishops, as a body, although menaced with the loss of
their incomes, their dwellings, seminaries, and funds vested for
religious and charitable purposes, supported the Pope in his
refusal. A compromise, which would have turned the associa-
tions cultuelles into associations canonico-legales, was proposed
and would, it is said, have found favour with a large number of the
bishops, as apparently safeguarding sufficiently the liberty of
the Church, but when the Holy See affirmed the safeguards to
be inadequate, and declined to sanction it, the French episco-
pate unanimously accepted its decision, and affirmed its readi-
ness to face any sacrifice rather than that of Church freedom
and unity.
During the fifteen years before 1920 the Church in France
had to maintain itself upon the voluntary offerings of the faith-
ful, and the result of the experiment may be said to be that,
despite manifold losses and difficulties, it has entered upon a
new era of vigour and freedom. The State no longer presents
to the bishoprics, and the Holy See is free to select and appoint
bishops of its own choice in consultation with the bishops of
the province. In fact, just as the Concordats with Francis I. in
1516 and Napoleon I. in 1801 practically superseded or abolished
capitular election, and substituted nomination or presentation
by the head of the State, leaving institution or effective appoint-
ment to the Pope, so now the abolition of the Concordat has led
to the adoption of what may be called the List system, which
promises to be the method of the future, not only in France but
in all countries in which there is no longer the union of Church
and State. By this arrangement, a list of priests who by their
qualifications are reputed to be eligible for promotion to bish-
oprics is kept at Rome, and is drawn up in consultation with the
local episcopate. When sees become vacant the Holy See fills
them from the persons so nominated, on the advice of the
Consistorial Congregation. The procedure to some extent marks
a new era in the history of methods of episcopal appointment.
Thus on Feb. 25 1905 Pius X. himself consecrated in St. Peter's
at Rome no less than 14 bishops thus chosen for vacant French
bishoprics. At the same time the abolition of the Concordat
has freed the hands of the bishops from many civil formalities
or restraints in the government and organization of their
dioceses. A notable example of this liberty and progress has
been seen in Paris, where the late Cardinal Amette, before his
death in 1920, was able to found some 32 new parish churches
in the environs of the city. Clerical authorities, notably the
well-informed Annuaire Pontifical Catholique of 1915, describe
the Church of France, 10 years after its separation from the
State, as gaining in energy, influence and freedom. Although
the State shows no disposition to depart in any respect from
the policy of separation, its attitude to the Church, especially
from the outset of the World War, has been in many ways
more friendly, based on the higher policy of the Union Sacree,
and in 1920 the French Government passed a bill for the re-
newal of diplomatic relations with the Pope and restored the
French embassy at the Holy See, while a papal nuncio was
once more to be sent to Paris.
A much more violent case of separation of Church and
State was that which was effected by the revolution in Portugal
68o
CHURCH HISTORY
in 1910. The revolutionary government which had deposed
Dom Manuel promptly abolished the Concordat of 1778, based
on the Concordat concluded between Pope Leo X. and King
Emmanuel in 1516, seized the temporalities of the Church and
placed them under the control of lay corporations resembling
the French associations cultuelles. As any word, written or
spoken in public, blaming or criticising the action of the Govern-
ment, was forbidden under the severest penalties, in a short
time the Patriarch of Lisbon, Mgr. Mendes de Bello, and
several of the bishops were exiled, and a large number of the
clergy imprisoned or deported. The Holy See, in the Encyclical
Jamdudum (May 24 1911), refused to recognize the lay cor-
porations, forbade the clergy to accept the pensions offered
by the Government, and exhorted the bishops to stand firm
while waiting for better times.
The ten years preceding 1921 brought into play the wisdom
of milder measures. More moderate rulers succeeded the earlier
extremists, and the legislation in Portugal on ecclesiastical
matters was mitigated, so that the bishops and clergy were
able to return to their sees and parishes, and an arrangement
acceptable both to Rome and the Government was gradually
worked out, so that in 1918 diplomatic relations were resumed
with the Holy See. In fact, Cardinal Gasparri, the papal Secre-
tary of State, at a dinner given in 1920 to the Portuguese envoy,
publicly expressed his congratulations on the good understand-
ing prevailing between Portugal and the Holy See.
It would be difficult to forecast with accuracy from such
events how far the traditional union of Church and State based
on Concordats will be, in the future, compatible with the
principles and programme of liberal or revolutionary govern-
ments amongst the Latin nations. That the actual separation
of Church and State demanded by such governments need not
necessarily mean a rupture between the two powers, and may
be carried out in a friendly spirit in which the right and liberty
of both are respected, would seem to be indicated by the modifi-
cations which have followed upon the revolution in Brazil since
1890. In that country the Church, after the separation, has
been left fairly free in the control of her property, with powers
as a corporation to possess and receive bequests. In 1905
Pius X. had marked his satisfaction with the action of the
Brazilian Republic by raising the Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro,
Mgr. Arcoverde de Albucuerque, to the Sacred College and
giving to Brazil the honour of having the first cardinal ever
created in South America. The papal nuncio presided over
the diplomatic commission which sat for some five years and
succeeded in maintaining peace and arranging all the points
of dispute between the three republics, Brazil, Peru and the
Argentine. In 1918 the Senate of Brazil, by a unanimous
vote, appointed a commission to congratulate Pope Benedict
XV. on the anniversary of his coronation, and to thank him for
his efforts for peace during the World War. Since then, chap-
lains and religious services have been restored in the Brazilian
navy, and notable Church progress has been made in the vast
territories of the republic by the erection of new sees and the
organization of missions in the Chaco and far interior.
In Serbia the great majority of the population belongs to
the Eastern Orthodox Church, and before the war the number
of Catholics in the kingdom was estimated at 8,000. Over these
the Emperor of Austria, by the treaty of Carlovitz, exercised a
protectorate which gave him a handle for intervention in
Serbian affairs, and became a factor of considerable political
value. The Serbian Catholics were placed under the jurisdiction
of the Albanian Archbishop of Scutari, and Austria was credited
with the design of making use of this protectorate to promote
her ambitions of eastward extension, which had the port of
Scutari for its objective. To the great displeasure and annoy-
ance of the Emperor of Austria and his Government, the Holy
See in June 1914 practically crushed this scheme by abolishing
the protectorate and by concluding a Concordat with Serbia
which, by the inclusion of Uskub, had now a Catholic population
of some 16,000 Catholics. By this Concordat the full and free
exercise of their religion was guaranteed to the Serbian Catholics,
and an ecclesiastical province, consisting of the archbishopric of
Belgrade and the bishopric of Uskub, was recognized and
endowed by the Government. The Catholic Church as a legal
corporation was to have complete liberty to possess and to
administer her temporalities. Teachers of the Catholic catechism
(who might be priests) were to have free entry into the State
schools, and as long as they enjoyed the approbation of the
Catholic bishops were to be paid by the Government for their
services. This Concordat was ratified by Pope Benedict XV.
in March 1915, and diplomatic representation has been estab-
lished between Serbia and the Holy See.
A still more important step in the appreciation of the political
advantages of representation at the Vatican as a centre of
influence and information was taken by the British Govern-
ment in 1914 by sending as its envoy to Rome the late Sir
Henry Howard, who in 1916 was succeeded by the Count de
Salis. In 1915 Holland followed the example of Great Britain
and appointed a temporary representative, and in 1917 Luxem-
burg resumed the diplomatic relations which had been sus-
pended under Leo XIII. In the same year the new Russian
Government which came into power after the fall of the Tsar
sent a minister plenipotentiary as its representative to the
Holy See, and the Pope was able to procure the liberation of
the Ruthenian Bishop of Lemberg, who had been sent into
exile. On learning of the arrest of the Tsar and Tsaritsa and
their family, Benedict XV. made earnest efforts with the
Maximalist Russian Government, but without success, to
procure their liberation. In 1919 Archbishop Sylvester of
the Russian Orthodox Church wrote to the Pope describing
the cruel persecution to which he and his co-religionists were
subjected, and Benedict XV. wrote to Lenin begging him to act
fairly to members of all religions, but received from the Foreign
Minister, Tchicherin, an evasive reply. At the same time the
Letts petitioned the Pope to erect Danzig into an archbishopric,
and in August 1919 the Government of the Ukraine sent an
envoy to represent its interests at the Holy See.
The diplomatic activity of the Vatican during this period
made itself felt in various directions. In 1917 Benedict XV.
addressed a strong remonstrance to the German Government
against the deportation of French and Belgian workmen, and
received through Count Hertling, the Foreign Minister, an
assurance that deportations would cease, and that those who
were deported in error would be sent back to their homes. He
obtained later on from that Power that prisoners-of-war suffer-
ing from consumption or similar diseases should be allowed
to go to hospitals or homes in Switzerland or neutral territory.
Large numbers of the prisoners thus transferred addressed to
the Holy See a letter of thanks for this intervention in their
favour.
In 1918 a new treaty was concluded with Spain, which went to
obviate the danger of over-multiplication of monasteries. In the
same year in Canada there arose a vehement agitation amongst the
French-speaking Catholics against the new bilingual school laws in
Ontario. The Pope dispatched to Cardinal Begin, Archbishop of
Quebec, an apostolic brief strongly exhorting all concerned to
mutual peace and good-will, and giving directions as to the steps
to be taken to effect a conciliation of the various parties. In the
same year the Vatican received a solemn embassy and special envoy
from the Empress of Abyssinia, with every assurance of her friend-
ship. A diplomatic mission was received at the same time from the
new Chinese Republic, and a convention was concluded by the Holy
See and the Emperor of Japan, in accordance with which the German
missionaries in the Caroline and Marshall Is. were replaced by
the Capucin friars, who are under French superiors.
It may also be of interest to those whose studies in Church history
lead them to the work of research in the Vatican archives that in
July 1918, through the zeal of Cardinal Gasquet, Prefect of the Vat-
ican Library, a friendly agreement took place between the Vatican
and the Italian Government by which the latter restored to the
Vatican archives a large quantity of valuable documents and
Church records which had fallen into its possession at the occupation
in 1870, and the Vatican in return handed over to the Government
a similar quantity of title-deeds of property jnd documents concern-
ing the civil administration of the city and province which had been
retained in its keeping. This mutual concession and the amicable
way in which it was conducted showed a new spirit of conciliation
between the Vatican and the Quirinal.
CHURCH HISTORY
681
The Church and the "Exclusive.." An event which will be
noted by ecclesiastical jurists and students of the relations of
Church and State, the abolition of the Veto or Jus Exclusivae,
was solemnly decreed by Pius X. in 1904, and carried out in the
Conclave of 1914.
For some centuries past three Catholic powers Austria, France
and Spain had claimed each to have the right to intervene in the
election of a Pope by excluding one cardinal from being elected to
the papacy. Save that it barred the succession of someone regarded
as personally hostile, the intervention was generally ineffective, as
the veto of the civil power was restricted to one cardinal, and this
exclusion usually had the result of transferring to some other cardinal
of like views and temperament the votes which had been given to
the person excluded. Certain writers have supposed that the veto
had its origin in the action of the emperors in the Middle Ages who
at times confirmed the elections made by the cardinals. _ Later and
fuller research has shown that the practice, at least in its direct
form, dates only from the middle of the I7th century. Before that
time the sovereigns of the nations mentioned frequently exercised
influence upon the cardinals living within their dominions and urged
them to form a coalition by which a given candidate, deemed to be
obnoxious, might be prevented from having the two-thirds majority
required for election. In 1590 the Spanish ambassador even pre-
sented a list of candidates who alone would be acceptable to Philip
II. So far, the veto was an attempt to sway the electorate, but
towards the end of the I7th century it took the direct form of a
communication to the Cardinal Protector of the nation concerned,
or to the Dean of the Sacred College, expressly excluding a given
cardinal, irrespective of the numbers who might be ready to vote
for him. The conclave frequently took note of such representations
and, as a matter of friendly dealing with the Catholic power from
which they emanated, abstained from electing the person excluded,
but it is held that the Holy See, while tolerating the practice, has
never officially recognized this right of intervention, and has more
than once warned the Sacred College to ignore it. In 1721 and in
1732 Cardinal Imperial! was successfully vetoed, first by Austria
and then by Spain. In more recent times Austria sent its veto
against Cardinal Mastai Ferretti (Pius IX.), but the envoy arrived
too late, and the Pope was already elected. In the conclave which
was held on the death of Leo XIII. in 1903 Cardinal Rampolla was
on the verge of having the required number of votes when Cardinal
Puzyna, to the great surprise and displeasure of the assembly,
delivered in the name of the Emperor Francis Joseph the veto against
his election. This step on the part of the aged emperor is known to
have been inspired and carried out by the Foreign Minister, Count
Goluchowski, who had been hostile to Cardinal Rampolla when he
was nuncio at Vienna. To save the Holy See from diplomatic fric-
tion, Cardinal Rampolla, under protest, withdrew his candidature,
and his supporters, at his request, transferred their votes to Cardinal
Sarto, who as Pius X. succeeded to the papacy. One of the first
acts of Pius X. was to issue a solemn constitution (Commissum
Nobis) in Jan. 1904 abolishing forever the Veto or Jus Exclusivae,
declaring excommunicated by the fact any cardinal who in future
would act as bearer of any such communication to the Conclave,
and requiring from all cardinals taking part in the election of a pope
an oath that they will disregard all such acts of intervention on the
part of the civil power. In 1914 Benedict XV. was elected under
this constitution, and the historic Veto has disappeared as an in-
fluence in the elections to the papacy.
Organic Expansion. Next to the regulation of her relations
to the civil power, and her diplomatic activities, may be con-
sidered the organic work of the Church. Both are intended
to clear the field and smooth the way to spiritual efficiency and
progress in her diocesan and parochial centres. In this domain
may be included the creation of new dioceses and spheres of
missionary enterprise. To understand the statistics of the
Church's expansion it may be noted that, while a missionary
area has still to be evangelized, and is yet in the earliest stage
of organization, the "Holy See marks out its territory, and
places its missionary forces under a prefect-apostolic, who is
not a bishop, but has ample powers of jurisdiction. Later on,
when it has sufficiently advanced in the number of its churches
and Catholic population, it is made into a vicariate under a
vicar apostolic, a bishop who has delegated authority from
the Pope, and has his episcopal title from some ancient or
obsolete see, and is classed as a titular bishop, or what was
formerly called a bishop in partibus infidelium. Finally, when
the work of the Church has become stable and substantial, the
vicariate is erected into a diocese, and its bishop, no longer a
mere delegate of the pope, becomes an ordinary, invested with
full canonical rights and title, and the see takes its place amongst
the residential bishoprics of the Catholic Church. With these
three stages in mind, one may fairly measure the Church's
organic expansion by the fact that, during 1910-20, there were
erected in various parts of the world 29 prefectures apostolic, 41
vicariates apostolic, and 71 new dioceses altogether 141 terri-
torial units added in the geography of the Church.
As to what are known as the foreign missions of the Church, the
field is too vast for exact statistics. The following summary, taken
from official sources published in 1918, and stated here in round
numbers, may be taken as substantially correct for contemporary
purposes.
The number of priests in the mission field is about 12,000, of whom
more than 4,000 are natives. They have as helpers about 3,000 lay
brothers and about 20,000 nuns. This forms a missionary army of
nearly 35,000 workers. To these must be added a body of more than
34,000 catechists and native teachers. The number-of the Catholic
people in these missions amounts to 17,000,000. Of these, 13,000,000
are in Asia; 1,000,000 in Africa; 13,000 in Australia; 200,000 in
Oceania; 230,000 in North American missions, and 1,000,000 in the
missions to natives in South America. It is estimated that in the
Catholic mission field there have been founded about 1,700 schools,
in which are being educated more than 800,000 pupils. These
figures represent broadly the missionary work of the Catholic Church.
The work of the foreign missions was seriously affected by the
World War of 1914-8. The contributions to their finances from the
devastated and from the blockaded countries were naturally dim-
inished, while many of the younger missionaries were recalled to the
colours to take part in the contest. No little dislocation of work was
caused by the removal of German or Austrian missionaries, as the
Holy See, anxious to protect the cause of the missions from being
prejudiced by any suspicion of political propaganda, entered into
agreements with the Allies by which, in many cases, missionaries
who were subjects of the Central Powers were replaced in India
and in the conquered German colonies by others who belonged to
one or other of the Allied nationalities. Nevertheless, on the whole,
most of the missions were numerically stronger after the war.
Organic Reform. Simultaneously with this organic expansion
of the Church abroad there took place a notable organic reform
at her centre. In June 1908 Pius X. decreed an important
reconstruction of the Roman Curia, which may be described as
the ruling body of the Holy See. The Roman Curia includes
about a dozen departments of Church government, called
" Congregations." These are standing commissions charged
to deal respectively with matters of doctrine, discipline, wor-
ship, episcopal appointments, foreign missions, relations to
Oriental churches, and other spheres of ecclesiastical admin-
istration. Each is presided over by a cardinal-prefect, who
is assisted by a number of other cardinals, and, under them,
by a trained council of canonists, theologians and consultors of
expert authority. Their decisions, which mostly take the form
of answers to questions or petitions addressed to them from
various parts of the Catholic world, are issued as decrees, and
these, when ratified by the approval of the pope, become
part of the authoritative law of the Church. The constitution
of Pius X. (Sapienti Consilio) maintained the continuity of the
congregations and tribunals, but effected changes in their
structure and working greater than any which had been at-
tempted since the days of Sixtus V. in 1587. With the con-
stitution were issued 34 canons, which regulate more clearly
the distribution of work and go to secure greater efficiency and
promptitude in procedure (see 7.639).
Amongst the alterations thus introduced is notably one which
deeply interests Catholics in the English-speaking world. After
the Reformation, Catholics in England, Ireland, Scotland and in the
United States and Canada were classed amongst those of the mis-
sionary countries, and were placed under the charge of the Great
Congregation of the Propaganda, which controls the missionary
work of the Church in all parts of the world, and whose cardinal-
prefect is, for that reason, sometimes styled " the Red Pope."
Even when the episcopal hierarchy was preserved or restored in
these countries, their business at Rome was transacted by the Propa-
ganda, their bishops were appointed by apostolic briefs which it
obtained for the purpose, and it was to it that they made the reports
of their dioceses when they went to Rome on their periodic visits
ad limina Apostolorum. By the new constitution all these countries
(and with them Holland and Luxemburg) were withdrawn from
the care of Propaganda and were transferred to the Consistorial, the
congregation which deals with the Church in non-missionary lands,
and are to have the same status and ordinary government as the
Church in Catholic countries. Although in several of these nations
the Catholic population is still in a minority, their bishops will deal
with the Holy See through the Consistorial, and be appointed and
682
CHURCH HISTORY
preconized in Papal Consistory, and render to it an account of their
stewardship, in the same way as the bishops of Italy, France,
Austria, Spain or other parts of the world where the bulk of the pop-
ulation is Catholic.
This historic measure is based on the recognition of the progress
of the Church in the countries mentioned. It is reckoned that there
are now some 12,000,000 of Catholics in the British Empire. There are
17,000,000 in the United States and 5,000,000 in the Philippines,
making 22,000,000 under the Stars and Stripes and, in round num-
bers, about 34,000,000 of the English-speaking world. This total
forms more than a ninth part of the whole Catholic Church.
Restoration of the Rota. Another important feature of the
same constitution completed by the brief has been the restora-
tion of the well-known Court of the Rota. All who have engaged
in the study of mediaeval history are familiar with this famous
tribunal which was for centuries the supreme court of eccle-
siastical appeal for the universal Church. It was this court
that in final instance adjudged those cases of appeal to Rome
which are found in such numbers in the records of every Catholic
country, especially during the Middle and later Middle Ages.
Such cases cast a vivid light on the state and working of the
mediaeval Church, and students of Church history of the school
of Maitland, Othenthal or Dr. Sagmuller have found how neces-
sary for a true understanding of them is the knowledge of the
methods and procedure of the Rota and the Chancery.
The Rota consisted of a dean and 12 judges, or auditors (usually
chosen from the various nationalities), with a large attendant body
of advocates and notaries. Each case was heard by a panel or " turn "
of three judges. If a litigant was dissatisfied with the decision he
could have the case tried anew, or even a third time by a fresh
" turn " of three other judges, one of whom could be chosen
by himself, and the other two by the judge thus selected. When
two or three of the judgments thus given were concordant, the case
was definitely settled. (Hence the clause: " After a third definitive
sentence," so often found in the records of appeals in the pre-
Reformation centuries.) In the later Middle Ages the volume of
judicial business in the Rota was very considerable, but in later
times it was notably reduced, as the Holy See had extended and
encouraged the system of having cases tried "extra-judicially "
by judges delegate, acting by papal authority, but chosen by the
litigants themselves, and adjudicating in their own country, as may
be seen in numberless entries in the volumes of the Calendar of Papal
Letters relating to Great Britain.
Pius X. restored the Rota to its ancient preeminence as the chief
court of the Catholic Church. It has now a dean, and 10 instead of
12 judges, but its procedure by " turns " or successive sentences on
appeal remains substantially unaltered. It is in this tribunal that
appeals on matrimonial cases are heard from all parts of the Catholic
world, and amongst them such causes celebres as that of Parkhurst
and Reid, and Miss Anna Gould and the Marquis Bpni de Castel-
lane, who, after strenuous efforts, have failed to obtain a verdict of
nullity upon their marriages. A further appeal from the Rota now
lies to the commission of judges in the Apostolica Segnatura, inso-
much as the latter acts as a court of cassation, and takes cognizance
of defects of procedure.
As the Catholic Church condemns the doctrine of divorce, in the
sense that any marriage between Christians that has been validly
contracted and consummated can be dissolved by anything but the
death of one of the parties, the matrimonial cases justiciable in the
Rota or the Segnatura are only those in which a plea is brought
against validity of the marriage, and is put forward to prove that,
for reasons good in Divine or Church law, the bond of matrimony
never existed. A modern feature of the restored Rota is that con-
densed reports of the leading trials are published in the official
Ada Apostolicae Sedis, with a summary of the facts (Compendium
Facti) and of the juridical principles involved (Compendium Juris).
Reconstruction in England and Wales. The same policy of
reconstruction was applied to the Catholic Church in England.
At the restoration of the hierarchy in 1850 the whole of England
was included in a single province, having its archiepiscopal see
at Westminster. On Oct. 28 1911 Pius X., after consultation
with the English bishops, issued a constitution (Si qua est),
in which, after reciting the distribution of sees made by his
predecessors Gregory I. and Pius IX., he divided the Catholic
Church in England and Wales into three provinces, with
archiepiscopal sees at Westminster, Birmingham and Liverpool.
Westminster retained as suffragan sees the dioceses of North-
ampton, Nottingham, Portsmouth and Southwark. To Bir-
mingham were assigned Clifton, Plymouth and Shrewsbury and
the two dioceses of Menevia and Newport which included
Wales. To Liverpool were given the sees of Hexham, Leeds,
Middlesborough and Salford. The Archbishop of Westminster
and his successors were declared to be perpetual presidents of
the episcopate, with the right to wear their pallium, and to be
preceded by their cross in any part of England and Wales, to
preside at all meetings of the bishops, and to represent them
in any dealings with the civil Government of the country,
having first consulted their suffragans and accepted the decision
of the majority. A further development of this plan was effect-
ed five years later, when Benedict XV., by a Bull of Feb. 7
1916 (Cambria), erected Wales into a new and separate province,
transferred the see of Newport to Cardiff, and raised it to an
archbishopric, with Menevia as its suffragan.
The motive underlying this change is best expressed in the open-
ing clause of the Bull: " Wales, by the Celtic origin of its people,
its language, customs and traditions, is so different from the rest of
England that it needs, even in its ecclesiastical order, to be taken
apart from the other dioceses and to be given its own hierarchy."
It has been pointed out that these words are the recognition and ful-
filment of a claim which was made by the canons of St. David's
in the year 1145, when they petitioned Pope Eugenius III. to make
Wales a distinct ecclesiastical province and to grant the pallium to
its archbishop.
The Church and Doctrine. The action of the Church in
matters of doctrine included chiefly the continuance of her
conflict with " modernism," which had been condemned by
Pius X. in his Encyclical (Pascendi) of Sept. 7 1907. This was
followed up and reinforced by a Motu Proprio, addressed to the
whole Church (Sacrorum Antistitum) on Sept. i 1910.
The Encyclical contained an elaborate exposition of the views
put forward by the chief modernist writers, who for several years
previously had carried on an active propaganda, mainly amongst
the priests and seminarists in France and Italy and, to a smaller
extent, in England and America. The ostensible object of the move-
ment was to win recognition for a restatement of religion and the
Catholic faith in such a form that it might be made acceptable to
men holding the most advanced opinions outside the Catholic
Church. The attention of the Pope was drawn to their utterances by
several councils of bishops, and, after a full examination of their
literature, the Holy See arrived at the conclusion that, in pursuing
their end, they had essentially altered the meaning of the Catholic
doctrines which they professed to explain. Such concepts as " re-
ligion," "faith," "revelation," "dogma," "sacraments," "author-
ity," "the Person of Christ," were set forth in a sense alien and
contrary to that which is taught by the Catholic Church. Pius X.
vigorously condemned the whole system as "a summary of all the
heresies" and ordered rigorous measures to be taken to secure its
elimination from the fold.
The Motu Proprio of 1910 emphasized the decision of the Encyc-
lical, and prescribed further steps for the exclusion of all modernist
doctrines, requiring that holders of ecclesiastical offices or dignities
should take an oath and make a specific profession of faith for this
purpose.
In the course of the years that followed, the "modernist"
movement, in view of this condemnation, practically ceased to
trouble the peace of the Church. Of its three chief leaders,
Father Tyrrell in England, the Abbe Loisy in France, and the
Abbate Murri, who was the exponent of its political and social
activities in Italy, the first died in 1909, and was buried out-
side the Church; the second, who had already abandoned his
belief in the Godhead of Christ, was excommunicated; the third
laid aside his priesthood and shared the same fate. Some friends
of the movement had entertained the hope that, on the death
of Pius X. and the accession of a new pope, the reprobation
of their views might in some degree be modified and " the
storm pass over," but one of the first acts of Benedict XV., in
his Encyclical ad Beatissimi, addressed to the episcopate of
the whole Catholic world, was to renew the condemnation of
"modernism," denouncing its "monstrous errors" as a "col-
lection of all the heresies," describing the movement in the
words of Job (xxxi. 12) as "a fire that devoureth even to de-
struction and rooteth up all things that spring," and warning
the faithful not only against its teaching but against its spirit.
The effect has been to indicate that if modernism has a future
it must be one that will be outside the Catholic Church.
The Church and the Social Question. In relation to socialism
and the economic questions which arise out of the contending
claims of capital and labour, the main lines of direction to
Catholic thought and action had been laid down in the Encyc-
CHURCH HISTORY
683
licals of Leo XIII. In these there were two chief points which
entered into the Catholic position. The first was that man by
nature has a right to possess private property, and that the
right as natural and vested in the individual lies at the root
of all social economy. The second is that the labourer has a
right to a " living wage," and by this is distinctly meant a
wage " sufficient to enable him to maintain himself, his wife,
and children in reasonable comfort" and put by sufficient sav-
ings " to secure a small income." The noteworthy feature
of this second point is that the living wage is taken as the
fundamental postulate rooted in reason and justice, and not as
something left at the mercy of the open market and the physical
law of supply and demand. Sweating and abuses of child and
female labour are condemned, and ownership, especially in
land, by " as many as possible of the humbler classes " is
commended and encouraged (Rerum Novarum, De conditione
opijicum, May 1 5 1891). To this was added a plea for shortening
the hours of the labourer, especially in the mining industry, so that
he might have sufficient leisure for his mental and religious
development. These principles had been already set forth in
more elaborate form by a Catholic society known as the Union
of Fribourg, established for the study of social questions, and
its annual reports and papers had been studied with interest and
approval by Leo XIII.
In France the Encyclical exercised a notable influence on the
direction of the leading Catholic organizations, the Jeunesse
Catholique Francaise and the Society of Catholic Workmen
founded by the Comte de Mun. It led to the formation of an
important and popular organization known as the " Sillon,"
under the inspiration and leadership of M. Marc Sangnier.
It had for its object the defence of the rights and the betterment
of the condition of the labouring population based on the
teaching of the Catholic Church. Circles for the study and
diffusion of sound social principles were formed in all parts
of France, and met with the encouragement of several of the
leading bishops, notably Mgr. Mignon, Archbishop of Albi.
As its following increased, its organization assumed a national
or extra-diocesan importance, and large numbers of men who
were not Catholics or merely nominal Catholics were attracted
to its membership. In this way, from the original stage in
which its members were frankly Catholics, it came to be in
great measure composed of those who were content to pledge
themselves as " not anti-Catholic." In this, the " Gros Sillon,"
the aim was to unite the workmen of all nations and all parties
and all creeds in a movement of democratic progress. Its
evolution of thought and teaching went to emphasize strongly
not only the rights, but in many ways the autonomy of the
individual, and, in the opinion of Cardinal Andrieu and several
of the bishops, it had begun to verge into what seemed to be a
species of modernism applied to social economy, thus com-
mitting the Church to what many deemed to be an ultra-
democratic and, therefore, a party programme. In response to
many and repeated complaints made in this sense to the Holy
See, Pius X. in Aug. 1910 finally addressed a letter to the
French episcopate (Notre charge Apostolique) pointing out the
aspects of the later Sillonist movement which had departed from
the lines laid down by Leo XIII., and requiring that the asso-
ciation should be brought back to its former Catholic basis,
and placed under diocesan direction.
In Germany, some years before the issue of the papal Encyc-
lical on labour in 1891, Herr Windthorst, the leader of the
Centrum, had founded the great organization of German
Catholics known as the Volksverein. It was followed in 1910
by the Congress of Christian Syndicates at Cologne which
represented 360,000 workmen in Germany and 100,000 in
Belgium and 100,000 in Italy. Associations for promoting the
welfare of the labouring classes (Arbeiterwohl) and Catholic
working-men's unions (Arbeitervereine) throughout Germany
marked the growing interest and importance of the labour
movement. At the same time societies were instituted on an
international basis for the study of social problems, and circles
were formed to encourage the reading and discussion of popular
Catholic social textbooks and literature. In eastern Germany,
Cardinal Kopp, Prince Bishop of Breslau, on the occasion of his
jubilee, was met by a vast concourse of Catholic workmen,
marshalled in their unions, to thank him for the work he had
achieved for their organization. In the west Cardinal Fischer,
Archbishop of Cologne, had encouraged the same movement,
albeit on more general lines. The unions in the east were of
distinctively Catholic membership, while in the west Catholic
workmen were often included in unions of a non-denominational
kind. This difference of policy led to a considerable amount of
discussion, and comparisons between what was known as the
" Cologne influence " and the " Breslau influence " were much
in circulation amongst German Catholics. On the one hand
it was thought that the membership of Catholics would exercise
a moderating influence on non-denominational associations. On
the other it was felt that the strength and zeal of the Catholic
unions would be best consulted by keeping them upon their
own lines. In 1912 this matter was laid before the Holy See,
and Pius X. addressed a brief (Singulari quadam) to Cardinal
Kopp and the bishops of Germany in which he speaks in terms
of the highest praise of the workmen's unions, and then, dealing
with the point in dispute, lays it down that the Catholic unions
are to be encouraged, as fostering the spirit and development
of the members in harmony with their religious convictions
(as at Breslau). At the same time the association of Catholics
in non-denominational unions (as at Cologne) is not to be
condemned, provided that due precautions are taken to safe-
guard their teaching by their enrolment as well in the Catholic
societies.
The Church and Canon Law. Pius X., a few months after
his accession to the papacy, took in hand the codification of the
Canon Law, a work of monumental importance to the Church,
but one so difficult that many had deemed it to be impossible.
The ordinary sources of Canon Law are the canons of Church
councils and the decrees of the popes, and during the ages these had
accumulated to such an extent that their assortment became a task
which would require many minds and many years to accomplish
(see 5.192). In 1151 Gratian, the monk of Bologna, had gathered
together in his Decretum (which was not official) many of the or-
dinances of the Church, doing for her law something of the same ser-
vice that Peter Lombard had done for her theology. Other collec-
tions of canons followed by Balbo, Gilbert, Allain, Bernard the Great,
Innocent III. and Honorius III., and these materials served as the
base of the great work of Gregory IX. in 1234, known as the five
books of Decretals. To it were added the Decretals of Boniface
VIII. (the Sextus) and of Clement V. (Clementines) and of John
XXII. (the Extravagantes), and these, with later enactments, formed
the Corpus Juris, which throughout the Middle Ages and to our own
time has been the standard groundwork of the voluminous treatises
and textbooks of Canon Law in the Catholic Church.
The Council of Trent in the i6th century, and the Council
of the Vatican in the i9th, had urged the need of bringing
codification of the Canon Law up to date, and several collec-
tions had been attempted by individual authors like Mgr.
Martinucci and M. Wolf von Glanwell, but ah 1 of these had
fallen short of what was required. On March 19 1904 Pius X.
issued a M otu Proprio authorizing the inception of this difficult
undertaking " arduum sane munus " and entrusting it to a
commission of which the president was to be the Pope himself.
The commission consisted of 16 cardinals, with 17 consultors.
Before the completion of the work the consultors numbered nearly
80, and were chosen as distinguished canonists or theologians from
the various nations. A few days after the publication of the Motu
Proprio, Cardinal Merry del Val, the Secretary of State, addressed
a letter to the Catholic bishops in all parts of the world, explaining
the nature of the enterprise, asking their cooperation by suggesting
new points of reform or legislation, and requesting them to consult
those in their dioceses who might have expert knowledge of the sub-
ject, or even to send them to Rome to help in, the project. As a
result voluminous communications were received from all parts of
the Church, in the shape of suggestions or practical recommenda-
tions. These were duly sifted, arranged" and discussed, and as far as
possible adopted, and proofs and revises were transmitted to their
proponents. In this way, at the cost of much labour and time, the
whole episcopate throughout the world was consulted no less than
three times over as to the matter and form of the forthcoming volume.
Its main characteristic was that, unlike the Corpus Juris, it would
be not a series of collections of canons under various pontificates and
684
CHURCH HISTORY
subdivided into titles and chapters, rendering the work of reference
difficult except to the initiated, but, after the manner of modern codes,
a single collection in which the canons are numbered consecutively
throughout, while, by means of headings, the titles and chapters
and the usual classification familiar to canonists have been main-
tained. It is thus not a Corpus but distinctly a Codex of the Canon
Law. The gain in clearness of presentment and simplicity of ref-
erence is immense. The work has been not merely one of codifica-
tion but in several ways, consistently with the immutability of
faith and moral principle, and within the domain of methods, a
modification and reconstruction of the laws of the Church to the new
needs and conditions of the time. Thus in the rules of fasting, the
reduction of holidays, the number of marriage impediments, the
irremovability of parish priests, the election of bishops, the holding
of conclaves, useful changes have been introduced. The treatment
of the subject is a marvel of terseness and condensation, as the
whole body of Canon Law, as far as the Church at large is concerned,
is stated in 2,414 canons, and brought within the compass of a
single volume of some 600 pages.
The Codex is the work of the best canonists and theologians
in the Church, and occupied the Papal Commission for more
than 13 years. Pius X., as he foretold, did not live to see its
completion. It was promulgated by Benedict XV. in a con-
stitution dated Pentecost 1917, to come into force on Pentecost
of the following year. A permanent commission was created to
deal with all questions affecting its interpretation. On June
28 1917, at a final meeting in the consistorial hall, a copy of the
new Codex was solemnly presented to Benedict XV. who
expressed the thanks of the whole Catholic Church to the com-
mission, and especially to Cardinal Gasparri, Secretary of
State, who from the outset had been the prime mover and chief
agent in the work of codification. In the medal struck to com-
memorate the occasion, the Cardinal stands prominent in the
group of assistants that surround the person of the Pontiff.
The Church and Liturgy. One of the great measures which
will make the pontificate of Pius X. memorable in the history
of the Church is his reform of the Roman breviary. It altered
and improved in many ways the Divine Office or chief prayer
of the Church, the recitation of which occupies the clergy for
about an hour and a half each day, and thus the change was
one which affected the daily life of more than 200,000 secular
priests, and of many religious, in every part of the Catholic
world. While the main structure and composition of the Divine
Office were preserved, the alterations were greater than had
been made at any time since the pontificate of Pius V. and
Clement VIII. in the i6th century. They went to secure the
ancient practice of the Church, reaffirmed by the Councils of
Trent and the Vatican, by which the Divine Office said by the
clergy includes the recitation of the entire Psalter each week.
The new breviary was prepared by a commission of expert
liturgical scholars whom some years previously the Hojy See had
appointed for the purpose. The papal constitution (Divino Afflatu)
which brought it into force throughout the Church was issued on
Nov. I 1911. The wording of the constitution implied that further
liturgical improvements in the breviary were likely to follow.
The constitution for the improvement of Church music (Motu
Proprio, Nov. 22 1903) had preceded the reform of the breviary.
A notable liturgical event was the solemn celebration of Mass
according to the Greek rite in the papal chapel in presence of the
Pope on the centenary of St. John Chrysostom on Feb. 12 1908.
The Church and the Eucharist. Amongst the acts of the Holy
See during 1910-20 there were innumerable decrees and briefs,
issued to encourage prayer and to foster the spiritual life of
both clergy and people. The great movement known as the
" Eucharistic Congress " was held each year with great success
in one or other of the chief capitals of the world, and in centres
like Paris, London, Madrid, Montreal and Jerusalem. To these
the Holy See gave the highest sanction by sending a papal
legate to preside over the solemnities.
The most noteworthy development in the matter of devotional
practice was the decree of Pius X., Aug. 8 1910 (Quam singulari),
ordering that little children from their seventh year should be ad-
mitted to Holy Communion/ For this permission the Pope received
the thanks of the clergy and of children and parents from every
country throughout Catholic Christendom.
The Church and Scripture. During the same period the
action of the Church in regard to Holy Scripture led to three
important undertakings. In the earlier part of the pontificate
of Pius X. a standing commission had been organized at Rome,
composed of leading biblical scholars, to deal with problems of
biblical research. The commission has issued reports from
time to time in the shape of conclusions on biblical questions
of the day, and these are published by the Holy See for the
information and guidance of Catholic professors of Scripture
and of Catholics generally. In 1912 there was opened at Rome
the Biblical Institute (founded by Pius X. in 1909). It was
placed under the fathers of the Society of Jesus, and its object
is to serve as a home of biblical research and as a training
school for those who devote themselves to the study of the
Bible. This project met with a cordial response, and one family
alone contributed 200,000 (five million francs) towards its
foundation. In Aug. 1916 Benedict XV. confirmed the act of
foundation, and laid down rules for procedure.
In 1907 the Holy See undertook the great enterprise mooted
by Sixtus V., to discover and determine the exact text of the
Vulgate edition of the Bible, as it left the hands of St. Jerome.
It involves the patient labour of many expert scholars, and
research in many of the libraries of Europe, and the collation
of their variant readings, so that long years and many lives
will have to be spent before its aim can be accomplished. The
work was confided to the Benedictine order, and was installed
in the Palazzo di San Calisto, in Rome, being presided over by
Cardinal Gasquet, Prefect of the Vatican Archives. On the
centenary of St. Jerome, Benedict XV. issued a Bull of com-
mendation, and in 1921, at the Catholic Biblical Congress
held at Cambridge, in England, Cardinal Gasquet described the
nature of the task, its importance to the Church and to European
scholarship, and the progress made during the last 13 years.
It may be added that Benedict XV. in Oct. 1914 issued a letter
of approbation and encouragement in favour of the Society of
St. Jerome, which has for its object the circulation of vernacular
editions of the Gospels amongst the masses of the people.
The Church and the War. During the World War the attitude
of the Catholic Church was both national and general. In
each of the belligerent nations Catholics were free to give full
expression to their patriotism, and to throw themselves cordially
into the cause of their country, and under their bishops and
clergy prayers were continually offered and services held in their
churches in supplication or thanksgiving for victory. The Holy
See itself, as super-national and having its spiritual subjects in
all countries, was bound by its position to observe an attitude
of neutrality in the sense of impartiality, and to confine its
action to the promotion of peace and the alleviation of suffer-
ing. Pius X. endeavoured up to the last moment to avert the
outbreak of hostilities, and on Aug. 2 1914 caused prayers to
be said in every parish throughout the whole Church for peace
and good-will amongst the nations. A month after the declara-
tion of war Sept. 8 1914 his successor, Benedict XV., made
it the first act of his pontificate to issue an exhortation to
Catholics throughout the world " to leave nothing undone to
put an end to the calamity." In Nov. of the same year he
addressed an Encyclical to the whole Catholic episcopate, com-
manding them and their flocks to implore the Author of Peace
to still the tempest. In Jan. 1915 the Pope composed and issued
a form of prayer for peace "to be translated into all languages,
and ordered that on Feb. 7 all Catholics in Europe, and on
March 21, all outside of Europe, should assemble in their
churches in a joint act of supplication. He himself, attended
by his court, recited this peace prayer in St. Peter's with a
congregation of 30,000 people. In 1915 the perpetual recitation
of the Rosary was enjoined and all Catholic priests throughout
the world were asked to offer mass for the same purpose.
In Dec. 1914 the Pope endeavoured to induce the belligerent
Powers to consent to a truce at Christmas, but failed to obtain
their assent. In his allocution of Jan. 22 1915 he pleaded
especially against the devastation of the occupied territories.
On May 26 1915, when the submarine and aeroplane terror had
already commenced, he issued a letter deploring " the use on
sea and land of methods of offence which are contrary to the
laws of humanity and to international right," and imploring
CHURCH HISTORY
685
the rulers of nations to adjust their quarrels " by reason and by
conscience and by generous goodwill." On July 28 of the same
year he made a similar appeal to the statesmen of the com-
batant nations. This method of public exhortation was the
only means left to the Holy See to advocate peace, as a secret
treaty (London, April 26 1915) had been signed by Great
Britain, France, Russia and Italy, by which these Powers
consented to the request of Italy that no representative of the
Holy See should be allowed to take diplomatic action towards
the conclusion of peace, or the settlement of questions arising
from the war (Art. 26).
In the consistory of Dec. 4 1915, and again on Dec. 24,
Pope Benedict renewed his condemnation of the spirit of hatred
engendered by the war and his protest against the cruel persecu-
tion of the Armenian people. He regretted that his appeal for
peace to the belligerents, although received with all reverence,
had failed to secure its object. On Feb. 9 1916 the Pope re-
ceived an address representing three millions of Jews in the
United States, and expressed his sincere desire that in all
matters they should be treated with fairness and equity. In
the consistory of Dec. 4 1916 the Pope spoke of the iniquities
and cruelties of the war by sea and by land, by deportations
of civilians, and air raids on open towns, and said: " We brand
once more with our reprobation all the atrocities committed
in this war, wheresoever they have taken place, and by whom-
soever they have been perpetrated." In response to a petition
from the cardinals, Benedict XV. once more appealed to the
rulers and peoples of the combatant countries to foster the spirit
of goodwill, by which alone peace could be restored.
In Aug. 1917, at a time when the struggle appeared to many
to have reached a hopeless impasse, he went further and ad-
dressed a diplomatic note to the belligerents, suggesting the
outlines on which at least preliminary conditions of peace
might be considered. These were that there should be reciprocal
condonation as to the costs of war; that Germany should
evacuate Belgium and guarantee its complete independence in
the future, and also evacuate all French territory and possibly
receive in return her lost colonies; that all disputed territory
between Germany and France (Alsace and Lorraine) and
between Austria and Italy (the Trentino and Trieste) should be
arranged by mutual consideration and conciliation. The argu-
ment of the note was that, whatever loss either side might suffer
by such an arrangement, it would be immeasurably less than that
involved in the sacrifice of life and treasure by the continuance
of the war. Respectful replies were made to this note by Bel-
gium, the United States, Japan, Germany, Austria and Turkey
in writing. England answered orally by her envoy at the
Vatican; and France, who had no representative there, is said
to have tacitly or privately adhered to the British response.
All appreciated the good intentions of the Pope as a peace-
maker, but the hour for overtures had not yet come. One result
of the note was that the British Government desired to be in-
formed more definitely as to the intentions of Germany in
regard to Belgium. The papal nuncio at Munich thereupon
asked the German Chancellor Michaelis, and obtained precise
information on the point, and Cardinal Gasparri transmitted
to the British authorities the replies of the German and Austrian
Governments, and offered, in case that the answer given should
seem to furnish to the Entente Powers a basis of mediation, to
obtain any fuller information that they might desire. The
Allies apparently found that no sufficient basis existed, and the
matter proceeded no further, but at the end of 1917, and previous
to the great offensive of the German army, the Pope once
more addressed to the Central Powers a strong entreaty to
desist from methods of warfare which are contrary to inter-
national law. On May 22 1918 he wrote to Cardinal Ferrari of
Milan a letter explaining and justifying the attitude of the
Holy See during the war, and replying to the manifold ways in
which it had been misjudged or misrepresented.
The action of the Pope in regard to those who suffered by the
war was first of all directed to making provision for the spiritual
welfare of the armies engaged. In concert with the episcopate of
the belligerent nations and the military authorities, the Holy See
caused to be organized the body of chaplains who were to accompany
the troops, and invested them with the fullest powers for the dis-
charge of their ministry. In most cases an episcopus castrensis,
or field bishop, was appointed to preside over the chaplains of each
country. Societies were formed for the equipment of the chaplains,
and more than 10,000 portable altars with consecrated altar-stones
for the celebration of Mass were placed at their disposal. Prayers
and Masses for the fallen were offered throughout Catholic
Christendom.
As early as Dec. 1914 the Pope established in the Vatican an
information office with a view to enable the relatives of prisoners-
of-war to ascertain their address. In Oct. of the same year the Pope
wrote to Cardinal Hartmann of Cologne to urge him to use all his
influence to secure better treatment for the prisoners in Germany.
He wrote also to the bishops of places where prisoners were interned
to see that priests speaking their language should visit them, en-
courage them to write to their families, and if need be defray the
postage. In Sept. 1915 the Pope obtained from Germany the sup-
pression of the camp for air-raid reprisals at Neuenkirchen. At the
same time he obtained an assurance from all the Powers that prisoners-
of-war should not be forced to work on Sundays. He sent in 1917
a special delegate to visit the prisoners in Germany, charged to see,
if possible, the prisoners alone, and to report to the Holy See on
their treatment. At Easter 1916 the Pope sent presents to be dis-
tributed to the English prisoners in Turkey. In May 1916 he ob-
tained the transfer of a number of English prisoners from Germany
to the hospitals of Switzerland, and received the cordial thanks of
the British Government and a letter of thanks from the prisoners
themselves. He procured in 1918 the liberation of Dr. Beland,
former Canadian minister, who had been for four years a prisoner
in Germany. He also charged his nuncio at Vienna to find homes
in the country for the children suffering from want of food.
In 1916 a commission of Austrian priests made inquiries into the
atrocities perpetrated in Belgium and drew up a report damaging to
the Germans. The Archbishop of Vienna courageously read the
report publicly from the pulpit, whereupon the Austrian Govern-
ment, at the instigation of its ally, wrote to the Pope asking that the
archbishop should be made to resign. The Pope categorically re-
fused. He received in the following year a letter of thanks from
King Albert for the help and sympathy given to Belgium through-
out the war. The Holy See had sent 100,000 francs for the starving
children in Vienna, and 50,000 francs for the children and prisoners
in Belgium, and a larger sum to be distributed to the sufferers in
the devastated regions in France. At the same time, he received
the thanks of the Belgian Government for obtaining the reprieve
of more than 50 persons who had been condemned to death by the
Germans. He was able at the same time to procure from the Ger-
man headquarters the liberation of a large number of French pris-
oners and the repatriation of civilians from the northern districts of
France. His intervention was equally successful in obtaining from
the Austrian Government the release of a considerable body of
Italian prisoners-of-war.
Immediately after the conclusion of the Armistice the Holy
See communicated with the several Powers and urged the speedy
liberation of the prisoners that remained in their hands. In
Aug. 1918 the Pope, in response to a petition from 200,000 war
widows in France, celebrated Mass for their husbands, in the
presence of a large pilgrimage from their number sent to Rome
for the occasion. The fund which Benedict XV. organized
throughout the Church in behalf of the starving children in the
countries ruined by the war had early in 1921 reached the sum
of more than 11,000,000 lire (then about 160,000).
Amongst the chief authorities on which the above article is
based are the official reports of the Holy See, the A eta Apostolicae
Sedis, the Annuaire Pontifical of Mgr. Battandier, and the volumes
of the Documentation Catholique. (J. Mo.*)
III. THE FREE CHURCHES
Doctrinal. The disquietude caused among the Free Churches
in Great Britain by the " New Theology " movement (1907)
had no long life or lasting effect. At the Congregational Union
meeting in Nottingham in Oct. 1911, Principal Forsyth and Rev.
R. J. Campbell, who had figured most prominently in the con-
troversy, appeared on the same platform. In 1916 Mr. Camp-
bell was ordained into the ministry of the Anglican Church, and
withdrew his book from publication. The attacks on the histor-
icity of Jesus, put forward by A. Drews in Germany and J. M.
Robertson in England, were met with thoroughness and skill,
especially by Dr. Estlin Carpenter, of Manchester College,
Oxford. The question of miracles, brought into prominence
by the Rev. J. M. Thompson, of Magdalen College, Oxford, led
686
CHURCH HISTORY
to some discussions, but neither it nor Dr. Schafer's utterances
on the origin of life (British Association, Dundee 1912) stirred
the waters to any extent. The general position of biblical
scholarship is well illustrated by Peake's Commentary on the
Bible, to which not only Free Churchmen but several Anglicans
contributed. Dr. Buchanan Gray has (continuing the work of
Dr. Driver) provided a monumental commentary on Job. Per-
haps the outstanding work on theology is Dr. R. S. Franks'
History of the Doctrine of the Work of Christ (1918). Popular
clamour during the war against German theological works had
no echo among scholars. The younger men were becoming busily
concerned with the application of the Gospel to the conditions
of the post- war world; their activity is illustrated in The Christian
Revolution series and the publications of the Student Christian
Movement. Two books by Dr. T. R. Glover, of Cambridge,
The Jesus of History and Jesus in the Experience of Men, have
had a wide circulation.
There is no disposition among those churches that dispense
with formal creeds to introduce anything of the kind, and where
confessions are already in existence the tendency is to modify
and adjust them, or to regard them as declaratory rather than
binding. Thus the English Presbyterian Church has revised the
statement of Church principles made at the ordination of
ministers, and the form of the questions put to the candidate,
the aim being to lay more emphasis on the minister's message
and less on his theory. Similar steps were being taken in 1921
by the U.F. Church in Scotland. On the other hand, proposed
unions of Methodists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists in
the dominions involve the last-named denomination in a
confession or creed, or at least a statement of faith which in
most cases would be accepted for the sake of union. The war
gave rise to some discussion on prayers for the dead, and it may
be said generally that the old rigidity has given way here to
a more open-minded spirit. It is sufficient merely to mention
other discussions raised by the war providence, patriotism,
conscience, reprisals, eschatology which found expression in
books and still more in pamphlets.
Union and Federation. Looking for a moment to the over-
seas dominions, which in so many ways have developed their
impact on the home land, far-reaching movements had come by
1921 into operation. The Baptists, indeed, stoutly maintained
their distinctive witness, and were disinclined toward schemes of
amalgamation. But both in Australia and Canada Presbyterians,
Methodists and Congregationalists were steadily approximating.
The first-named Church, not so unanimous as the others, did not
give a sufficiently decisive vote in Australia in the autumn of
1920, but negotiations, accompanied by a large measure of
cooperation, still continued. In Canada also the Presbyterians
had been the most cautious, but in June 1921, by a majority of
about 400 to 100, they agreed to union with the other two
bodies. In New Zealand Congregationalists were being absorbed
into the Presbyterian Church. In the mission fields, especially
in South India and to some extent in China, the movement
was much more successful, and included Episcopalians. In East
Africa the Kikuyu controversy (in which the Bishop of Zanzibar
dissociated himself from his brethren of Mombasa and Uganda
for their fellowship with non-Episcopal missionaries in an
attempt at union in face of Moslem aggression) created some
unpleasantness, but a modus operandi was found. In Great
Britain, apart from Scotland, it cannot be said that any new
organic union was in 1921 actually in sight. For some years
past the three next Methodist connexions (Wesleyan, Primitive
and United) had been exploring avenues to union. Among the
difficulties were the proportion of lay to clerical representation
in Conference, and the relative priority of representative and
pastoral sessions. Some Wesleyan leaders felt that the con-
templated union might prejudice the case for the larger union.
It seemed possible that Primitives and Methodists might come
together apart from Wesleyans, but probable that patient con-
tinuance would secure the triple bond.
Meanwhile the overlapping of Free Churches in smaller towns
and villages made for weakness, and caused concern to the
leaders of the different denominations; and it was with the design
of securing closer cooperation that Rev. J. H. Shakespeare, when
president of the National Free Church Council at Bradford,
1916, propounded a scheme for federating the Evangelical Free
Churches of England, which was afterwards accomplished. The
federation differed from the National F.C. Council in that its
executive members were appointed by the conferences or
assemblies of the different communions, and its aims and
objects were specifically moral and spiritual. Alongside this
there was increasing cooperation in the mission field, in social
service and in the training of ministers, especially in the theo-
logical faculties at London and Manchester. One of the most
impressive demonstrations of the Free Church unity was the
thanksgiving service after the Armistice, in the Albert Hall,
London, at which the King and Queen were present.
Relations with the Anglican Church. In spite of some tension
caused by the question of Welsh disestablishment and the com-
memoration in 1912 of the ejectment of 1662, there was between
1910 and 1920 a decided growth of sympathetic and amicable
feeling between the Anglican and the Free Churches and no small
amount of cooperation. British Nonconformists still believed
that they were entitled to more real recognition at State fes-
tivals, and valued the fellowship exemplified at the installation
of the Prince of Wales at Carnarvon in July 1911. In the
academic world, churchmen of all denominations worked
together in harmony and full trust on the theological boards of
the newer universities; and the removal of the restrictions on
divinity degrees at Oxford, Cambridge and Durham was
warmly appreciated. The placing of a Bunyan memorial window
in Westminster Abbey, and its joint dedication by the Dean
and representatives of the Free Churches, was a happy sign of
the time. During the war, chaplains of both sides learned to
appreciate each other and worked happily together, and the same
stress did much to bridge the chasms at home. United services
of intercession and thanksgiving were frequent, and created a
new sense of fellowship. The action of the Bishop of Hereford
(Percival) in inviting Nonconformists to a coronation commun-
ion service in the cathedral in 1911 was in advance of common
Anglican sentiment, but the fact that Dr. Jowett preached in
Durham cathedral in 1920 (at the invitation of the bishop, Dr.
Moule), and Bishop Welldon, Dean of Durham, in Westminster
chapel in 1921 was significant. The Lambeth proposals indeed
rather deprecated any such pulpit exchanges, though it might
seem, as Dr. Wallace Williamson intimated to the Archbishop
of Canterbury at the Church of Scotland Assembly in May
1921, in the light of Scottish experience, that they pave the
way to union more surely than theoretical discussions.
The Lambeth proposals were discussed in nearly all the
" supreme courts " of the Free Churches and by the Federation
of Free Churches, and received sympathetic and friendly con-
sideration. Free Churchmen were not slow to indicate certain
ambiguities of utterance in the proposals and to assert the
impossibility of accepting reordination. But in 1921 they were
coming to see that the Lambeth proposals were not an ultimatum
so much as an appeal to " come and reason together." It
was possible that along the line of this idea of " extended com-
mission " the difficult question of reordination might be avoided.
It was great gain that the proposals did not contemplate the
absorption of non-Episcopal communions in the Episcopal fold,
but the Anglican leaders had hardly yet made that detailed
study of the history and principles and genius of nonconforming
Churches that seemed essential to any realization of their sug-
gestions. Many Nonconformists would require a readjustment
of the relations of the Anglican Church to the State, and many
more looked askance at any proposal involving relationship with
the Roman or Greek Churches. Meanwhile there were abun-
dant opportunities for united service which did not entail the
least abandonment of conviction and principle on either side.
In the mission field, in theological study and in social service,
there was already manifest in 1921 a degree of cooperation and
fellowship which was full of promise for the consummation of a
unity that need not be confounded with uniformity.
CHURCH HISTORY
687
The World Conference on Faith and Order, propounded
by American Episcopalians, and temporarily frustrated by the
war, was sympathetically considered by Free Churchmen. A
preliminary meeting held at Geneva in Aug. 1920 attracted
1 20 delegates from 40 countries. A continuation committee of
55 members was appointed.
Modifications of the Independent Position. In the Baptist
and Congregationalist denominations the decade 1910-20 was
perhaps the most important in their history. Great movements
in thought and action transformed both the polity and the
position of these communions. The movement in thought may
be summed up by saying that they had come gradually to realize
that Independency, pure and simple, as it was understood and
practised in earlier days, was no longer sufficient to meet the
conditions of modern religious life. And the main movement
of polity was in line with that of the world as a whole in sub-
stituting the ideal of interdependence for that of independence.
This movement of thought found expression in two or three
main directions. In the first place it was generally recognized by
1921 that the training, the appointment and the proper support
of the minister was not the concern of the individual church
only but of the whole denomination. This recognition led to the
raising of sustentation funds of 250,000 in each case. The
object of the funds was primarily to secure to every accredited
minister a minimum stipend adequate for his support, but
inevitably the scheme could not stop there. If the denomination
accepted responsibility for the support of the minister, it followed
logically that it must have some voice in his training and appoint-
ment. Not much had yet been done up to 1921 towards a
reform of the college system, though a beginning was made by
the creation of a united collegiate board in each denomination
and further advance was inevitable in this direction. But in
the matter of ministerial appointments the scheme introduced
radical changes into the old Independency. It combined pro-
vision both for sustentation and settlement. Churches were
still left free to call anyone they chose as their ministers, but
grants from the sustentation fund were conditional on their
choice being approved by the executive committee of the fund.
Another important provision of the Baptist scheme was
that all appointments to the pastorate of aided churches should
be for a definite term of five years, and then should automat-
ically cease unless renewed by the express invitation of the
church, with the consent of the executive committee.
With the introduction of these changes it speedily became
clear that the responsibility of the denomination for the ministry
could not end even here. If all pastorates were to end auto-
matically after five years, there must be some central organiza-
tion, like the synods of the Connexional Churches, to secure
other pastorates for the ministers thus out of charge, and to
maintain them during the time they were out of office. Accord-
ingly the system of general superintendents was introduced.
The country, was divided into 10 areas, with a general superin-
tendent in charge of each, whose duty it was to visit the churches,
to advise them in their perplexities, and, in concert with the
other superintendents and the executive committee, to arrange
for the resettlement of ministers at the expiration of the term
of their pastorates. This part of the scheme, which introduced
the most important change into the older Independency, was
an unqualified success. While still leaving the churches full
liberty in the management of their own affairs, it completely
solved the problem of ministerial settlements which was one
of the most serious questions in earlier days.
The Congregationalists had in 1921 not yet gone so far as the
Baptists, who in their general secretary, Dr. J. H. Shakespeare,
had an ecclesiastical statesman of rare gifts. They did not subject
the aided pastorates to a five years' term, but they divided the
country into nine similar provinces with a moderator in charge
of each, whose functions and duties practically coincide with
those of the Baptist superintendents. This scheme was only
launched in Nov. 1919, but had already justified itself by 1921.
The World War. The Free Churches of Great Britain bore
their full share in service during the World War. In earlier
days Presbyterians (through the Church of Scotland) and Wes-
leyans alone had any army chaplains or army work. But when
the men .of the Free Churches entered the British forces by
myriads, provision had to be made to meet their spiritual
needs. Under the leadership of Dr. Shakespeare a United Navy
and Army Board was formed by the Baptists, Congregationalists,
Primitive Methodists and United Methodists, to appoint
chaplains to the members of these four denominations. No
fewer than 320 chaplains served with the forces in the home
camps and all theatres of war, many of whom were awarded
high distinctions. After demobilization the board remained,
and was in 1921 represented by five permanent chaplains.
With the great increase in the cost of living the lower stipends
of ministers in all denominations became quite inadequate.
Local effort was often unequal to the task of rectifying this, and
denominational machinery had to come to the rescue. The fall
in foreign exchanges due to the high price of silver in 1919-20
put a heavy burden on the missionary societies and led to much
hardship in the foreign fields. Generally speaking the situation
was met with courage and zeal. The Baptists, e.g. in six months
in 1920 raised a new fund of 270,000, of which half was for the
relief of the missionary society and half for increasing the
minimum stipends of the home ministry. The Congregationalists
were in 1921 promoting a fund of 500,000 for similar pur-
poses, and especially for a superannuation scheme. Methodists
and Presbyterians were similarly diligent. With the fall in
the price of silver the foreign aspect was improved.
The war brought other difficulties. The revelations made in
the survey published under the title of The Army and Religion,
as to the relative ignorance in spiritual matters of men of all
denominations, caused much heart-searching. In church circles,
as in other departments of the nation's life, there were disap-
pointment and disillusion. Neither war nor peace had brought
the millennium. The churches were not filled. The theological
colleges, depleted and generally closed during the years of war,
were by no means filled again afterwards. For some years there
had been no adequate output of ministers, and the outlook
was not bright in 1921.
The Society of Friends, with its particular peace testimony,
met the situation of war in its own way. While many of its
young men suffered as conscientious objectors, others embraced
dangerous non-combatant service such as mine-sweeping;
many more were engaged in Red Cross work, and the Society
as a whole did invaluable work in repairing waste places, assisting
in the restoration of villages and lands, and in combating disease
and famine in Allied and (since the war) in enemy countries alike.
One curious effect of the war was that Nonconformists became
much more familiar with liturgical forms of service. The many
united services of intercession and thanksgiving were responsible
for this, and it was significant to note the number of new manuals
issued, containing systems of common prayer and praise.
Presbyterians, Congregationalists and Methodists alike were
drawn into this movement. The elasticity of the Free Churches
was well illustrated by the ministry of Dr. Orchard at the
King's Weigh House chapel, London, where a full-blown liturgy
was in use long before 1921 and a high sacramentarian practice
followed. Dr. Orchard was also the leader in what is known
as the Free Catholic movement.
Other Denominational Activities. Two great ecumenical con-
ferences were held in 1911, both in America. The Baptists met
at Philadelphia; one of the most striking features of the gathering
was the presence of a group of ministers from Russia and S.E.
Europe, where the Baptist cause was making phenomenal head-
way. The war played havoc with this progress, but afterwards
there were indications once more of reconstruction and growth.
The same may be said of the Presbyterians of Hungary and
Transylvania, who suffered additionally by the unsympathetic
action of Rumanian officials. Methodists of all shades met at
Toronto in 1911. The war prevented these international
gatherings for some years, but Congregationalists held their
Fourth International Council at Boston in 1920, and Presby-
terians met in Pittsburg in Sept. 1921. Another noteworthy
688
CHURCH HISTORY
Methodist event was the opening of the new Wesleyan Church
House in Westminster (Oct. 1912), as the headquarters and focus
of the multiple organization of the Connexion. It is an outcome
of the million-guinea fund raised at the beginning of the century
and is a monument of the unwearying care and ability of Sir
Robert Perks. The Wesleyans in 1921 also established a theo-
logical college at Cambridge.
In 1912- the Congregationalists, and to a less extent the
Baptists, Presbyterians and Unitarians, celebrated the 25oth
anniversary of the Act of Uniformity and the consequent ejec-
tion of 2,000 ministers (1662). Here and there the occasion was
used somewhat aggressively against the Anglican Church, but
on the whole attention was drawn to the positive lessons of the
ejectment, fidelity to conscience, and the dawn of the modern
idea of a free Church in a free State. In 1920 the tercentenary
of the Pilgrim Fathers was widely celebrated in England, Hol-
land and America.
In this connexion may be mentioned a notable crop of sound
historical research in which most of the Free Churches have
taken part, and which contrasts favourably with the com-
paratively uninformed productions of past generations. For
Elizabethan Puritanism and Separatism we have the work of
Mr. Champlin Burrage and Dr. Albert Peel, while Rev. W.
Pierce has done much to clear up the Marprelate mystery, Rev.
Ives Cater that attaching to Robert Browne, and Rev. W. H.
Burgess has investigated anew the story of John Smith, " the
Se-Baptist," and of John Robinson. As regards the i7th
century, the Rev. B. Nightingale has pointed the way to a very
necessary revision of Calamy's story of the ejected ministers,
and brought to light many facts respecting Cumberland and
Westmorland, and Prof. Lyon Turner has made a special study
of the indulgences granted in 1672. Prof. Alex. Gordon is another
diligent worker in this field. Mr. W. C. Braithwaite has written
a standard history of early Quakerism in England, and Dr.
Rufus Jones has performed a similar service for America. Rev.
H. W. Clark has produced a comprehensive history of Non-
conformity in two volumes. Dr. Rendel Harris has been inde-
fatigable in his researches into the history of the " Mayflower,"
that carried the Pilgrims to New England, and has brought to
light very interesting information. It is even suggested that
part of the ship itself is preserved in the timbers of a barn at
Jordans, in Buckinghamshire.
Statistics. -The Free Churches in the United Kingdom had to
admit a falling-off in their figures during 1910-20. For several years
prior to the war most of them, especially Baptists and Wesleyans,
had to lament an annual decline in numerical strength. The Welsh
revival of 1904-5 brought into the churches an immense number of
recruits whose stability proved to be in inverse ratio to their
enthusiasm, and many quickly fell away. This accounted for much
of the decrease; emigration and the movement from the rural to the
urban districts were other causes. People change their residence
more often than of yore, and are not always careful to transfer
their membership. The increase of Sunday pleasure and the general
" spirit of the age " have also to be taken into account. The incidence
of the war made the compilation of statistics very difficult, and even
in 1921 the machinery was not in proper working order. There were
indications, however, that pointed towards a cessation of the decrease
and in some quarters towards an increase. The figures given in the
following schedule are but an approximation. The meaning of the
.term " members " varies to some extent in the different denomina-
tions, and some of the returns are a year or two old.
Ministers
Members
Sunday
Scholars
Wesleyan Methodists
2,768
489,870
849,861
Congregationalists ....
2,883
451,229
605,796
Baptists
2,061
380,357
481,128
Primitive Methodists
1,095
206,372
424,452
United Methodists .
709
138,921
264,113
Calvinistic Methodists or Welsh
Presbyterians ....
961
187,575
191,295
Presbyterians (Eng.)
390
84,232
67,139
Society of Friends ....
18,753
17,222
Independent Methodists
38i
8,468
25,192
Unitarians
338
28,330
Churches of Christ ....
13,310
15,702
Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion
34
1,933
2,736
Moravians . . .
39
5,539
4,162
Wesleyan Reform Union
16
8,506
21,978
The Salvation Army returns 9,635 corps, circles and societies;
17,288 officers and cadets; but gives no returns as to adherents.
In Ireland the (disestablished) Episcopal Church claims about 600,-
ooo of the population, the Presbyterians 450,000, the Methodists
65,000. Congregatipnalists and Baptists are very thinly represented.
Allied Organizations. The Brotherhood movement, in some
places known as the P.S.A., was particularly hard hit by the war,
and was still finding reconstruction difficult in 1921. But a great
opportunity was there for these services, brief and bright, where
addresses are given on Bible subjects or on themes of current interest
from the Christian point of view, much stress being laid on the obliga-
tions of Christian citizenship. The movement has spread to the
continent of Europe, and had much success in Canada. The Adult
Schools, a much older institution, and one in which Friends have been
particularly active, have been hampered by the lack of suitable local
leaders and class teachers, but exercise a very potent influence
through the men who meet usually on Sunday mornings about nine
o'clock. Sunday Schools have suffered in the number of scholars,
but the quality of the work done is rapidly improving, as better
methods of grading and instruction are introduced.
The Y.M.C.A. found its great opportunity in {he war. By its
operations at first in the home camps and then by invitation in N.
France, and subsequently in every field of war, near and far, it led
the way in ameliorating the lot of the soldier. It gained the good-will
of men in the field and their relatives at home, of Government and of
employers of labour. Its after-war programme, somewhat ambitious,
like that of many another concern, was checked by trade depression
and financial stringency, but its Red Triangle Clubs did good work.
The Student Christian Movement is one of the most vital Christian
agencies in existence, and affords a happy meeting ground for the
educated youth of all the churches. It has widened its earlier scope,
when it was chiefly concerned with foreign missionary aims, and
is now placing alongside those the claims of social service at home.
It is increasingly powerful in other countries, and held an important
international gathering at Glasgow in Jan. 1921.
The British and Foreign Bible Society and the Religious Tract
Society are the willing handmaids of all the churches. They too did
excellent work during the stress of war, and continued it afterward?,
though hampered by the high cost of production. In March 1911
the 3OOth anniversary of the issue of the English Authorized Version
was worthily commemorated. With regard to Bible revision, a
number of Free Church scholars issued a manifesto in Oct. 1912
stating that, in their opinion, the time was not ripe in view of the
work yet to be done in getting an approximately true text of the
original Hebrew and in utilizing recent linguistic discoveries affect-
ing New Testament Greek. A number of them also joined with
representative Anglican scholars in a public protest against the issu-
ing of the revised Bible of 1881-5 without the reviser's marginal
readings. A new translation of the New Testament by Prof. J.
Moffatt, of the United Free Church College, Glasgow, has gained
high appreciation and wide use. (A. J. G.)
IV. THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES OF SCOTLAND
In Scotland, apart from the relation of the World War to
religion and the churches, the most prominent question between
1910 and 1921 was a possible union between the Church of Scot-
land and the United Free Church. These two communions em-
braced nine-tenths of the church members in the Northern
kingdom, and thoughtful men on both sides had long been anxious
for closer fellowship in the face of decreasing rural populations
and the increasingly serious problems of the cities and large
towns. Holding the same standard of faith and order these two
great wings of Presbyterianism had practically everything in
common except the State connexion. Patronage in connexion
with ministerial appointments which led to the disruption in
1843 ceased to operate in the Established Church a generation
ago and thus a great stumbling-block was removed. The Union
of the Free Church and the United Presbyterian Church in 1900
was a predisposing cause to the thought of a larger union, and in
19 10 the two Assemblies (Established and United Free) appointed
committees to confer on the causes which keep the two Churches
apart. These causes were not primarily connected with doc-
trine, discipline or worship, but with the spiritual independence
of the Church, its freedom from parliamentary interference with
doctrine, discipline and worship. The United Free Church felt
that, in spite of the absence of any conflict between Church and
State in Scotland for 70 years, the decisions reached by Lord
Brougham's judgments in the Disruption cases held the field,
and witnessed to the State's claim to be omnipotent in the spiri-
tual as in the secular domain. In 1912, in a document known as the
Memorandum, the Church of Scotland committee gave a new
turn to the matter by suggesting: (i) that instead of the State
CHURCH HISTORY
689
conceding spiritual liberty to the Church and prescribing its
limits, it was for the Church to formulate and assert its own
liberty and prescribe the limits within which it claimed freedom
from external interference; (2) that instead of disputing over
the terms establishment and disestablishment an attempt should
be made to put the Church in a relation with the State not in-
consistent with the historical ideals of either church. With the
coming of the war, active negotiations were suspended, but the
years of strife brought the two churches very closely together
in many practical ways, e.g. in the temporary amalgamation of
the divinity colleges, and in local parochial and congregational
arrangements. With the advent of peace, the lines of the Memo-
randum having been already generally approved in both churches,
a new step was taken by the formulation of a series of Draft
Articles declaring the constitution and liberties of the Church.
The United Free Church held that it was for the Church of
Scotland alone to straighten this matter out with the State,
and though it approved the Draft Articles as formulated it would
not join in any approach to Parliament with a view to legislation.
The Government was well disposed and in 1921 introduced and
carried through a bill to give effect to the Draft Articles. The
bill did not, of course, unite the two churches, but it was a step
towards union. Opposition to it came from both sides. There
were those in the Church of Scotland who said that it meant vir-
tual disestablishment, and changed the whole nature of the
Church's position in the State. On the other hand there was
a body of opinion in the United Free Church, which saw in the
bill rather the reestablishment of the Church of Scotland, the
retention of all its exclusive privileges, e.g. as to royal and Indian
chaplaincies and university divinity chairs. Nor did this bill
touch the teinds or tithe endowments. It must be remarked here
that the United Presbyterian Church had been strongly volun-
tary, and that the Free Church, though it had not disrupted on
this point, had also by the time of the Union in 1900 come to be
a staunch supporter of the cause of disestablishment and dis-
endowment. The bill of 1921 was to be followed by legislation
dealing with the teinds and until this question of the patrimony
of the Church of Scotland was settled there could be no technical
negotiations for union.
The question of the teinds had come up in another connexion.
Stipends of parish ministers in Scotland were regulated according
to " fiars," i.e. the prices of grain legally struck or fixed at an
annual court in each shire. During the war these prices rose
enormously. The ministers found the result as agreeable as the
heritors found it irksome, and considerable discussion (culminat-
ing in a Parliamentary bill introduced and withdrawn in the
autumn of 1920) took place on attempts at compromise.
At both the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church
Assemblies in May 1921 the Lambeth proposals were submitted
in person by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of
Peterborough. These prelates were very heartily received and
sympathetic replies were given by representative leaders. The
official response of organized Presbyterianism was given at the
Pan-Presbyterian Council, meeting in Pittsburg, U.S.A., in
Sept. 1921. A joint conference of Anglicans and Presbyterians,
meeting in Montreal during the spring of 1921, unanimously
agreed on forms of service by which "extension of commission"
might be given to and by the respective parties, but this agree-
ment was personal rather than official.
In the matter of social problems and social service both churches
have been active. The Church of Scotland appointed a com-
mission on the war, and the result of its inquiries was a valuable
survey entitled Social Evils and Problems, prefaced by a state-
ment on " The Ethical Mission of the Church " by the Rev.
Prof. W. P. Paterson. That the same church was alive to the
needs of the hour was evidenced by the appointment in 1920 of a
committee to inquire into the recrudescence of spiritualism.
In the temperance campaign which preceded the first series of
elections on the Local Option issue, the United Free Church was,
as might be expected, more unanimous and energetic than the
Established, though some powerful champions were found in the
ranks of the latter. One particularly interesting scheme in which
both churches were uniting in 1921 was a memorial to Scottish
soldiers who fell in Palestine. This was to take the shape of an
Archaeological Research school in Jerusalem with a Scots kirk
attached. The two churches also cooperated in the endeavour
to rebuild the broken life of their coreligionists in central and
south-eastern Europe and to reestablish mission work in Pales-
tine and Syria, where the new conditions had entirely altered
and complicated the situation. The churches gave of their best
during the war in combatant and non-combatant and remedial
services. The noteworthy volume entitled The Army and Re-
ligion owed much of its value to the editorial skill of Dr. D. S.
Cairns of the Aberdeen U.F. College. The Scottish churches,
like others, had not up to 1921 been receiving the recruits for the
ministry that were expected on the cessation of war, and the
position seemed likely to become acute in a few years' time.
Even if the projected Union was accomplished, the experience
of the United Free Church since 1900 showed that it would be a
matter of some difficulty to get local congregations to unite even
in places where all could be well accommodated in one building.
Among the smaller Presbyterian churches, the Free Church
remained vocal, but made little progress and found it increasingly
difficult to get ministers. Its chief strength was in the Highland
and Western Islands. The Free Presbyterian Church, the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church and the Synod of United Original
Seceders remained stationary.
The following figures give some idea of relative strength in
Scotland :
Ministers
and
Evangel-
ists.
Churches
and
Halls.
Church
Members.
Sunday
Scholars.
Church of Scot-
land .
United Free
Church
Free Church
Episcopal Church
Congregationalists
Baptists
1809
1707
88
35
183
117
1704
1534
165
410
183
149
728,239
528,084
56,000
36,615
21,537
192,496
201,014
26,909
18,462
Further particulars, also those relating to the smaller Presbyterians
and to the Wesleyans and Primitive Methodist Churches, will be
found in the respective year books and in the Scottish Church and
University Almanac. (A. J. G.)
V. CHURCHES IN THE UNITED STATES
The most accurate statistics for the religious bodies of the
United States in 1920 were undoubtedly those published by
the Federal Council of the Churches in the Year Book of the
Churches, the figures being so far as possible those reported
by the church bodies themselves. Unfortunately, the progress
made during the decade 1910-20 cannot be measured precisely,
for trustworthy statistics are not available for 1910; the nearest
approach are those of the U.S. religious census for 1906 pub-
lished in 1909. Using these two sources, the number of local
Christian church organizations of all forms in the United States
is seen to have grown during 1906-20 from 208,678 to 234,370;
the number of ministers and priests from 164,830 to 186,018;
the membership from 32,447,741 to 44,322,215; the number
of Sunday schools from 189,291 to 199,274; the Sunday-school
enrolment from 16,238,083 to 20,892,327.
For Roman Catholic churches the increase during the same
period was as follows, the figures for 1906 being taken from
the U.S. census and those for 1920 from the Official Catholic
Directory:
1906
1920
Church
Organizations
12,482
16,580
Cardinals Priests R. C. Pop.
i 15,177 14,210,755
3 21,643 17,885,646
The growth of Protestant churches, as given by the census and
the Year Book already cited, has been as follows:
Church Sunday Sunday-school
Organizations Ministers Members Schools Enrolment
1906 194,980 146,437 20,201,885 !64,577 13,002,241
1920 215,698 163,951 26,058,513 183,991 19,004,638
690
CHURCH HISTORY
In comparing these figures with those already given for the
Roman Catholic Church, it should be noted that the Roman
Catholic figures include as members all baptized persons,
whether confirmed or not. The Protestant practice is to in-
clude in a count of members only those who were communicant
members when the enumeration was made. The estimated
Protestant population, counting all members of any family in
which anyone is a communicant member of a Protestant church,
grew from 30,000,000 in 1906 to 40,000,000 in 1920, an increase
f 33'3%- The increase of Roman Catholic population during
the same period, as above shown, was 26%. An exact com-
parison between the growth of population and the growth of
church membership is impossible owing to the fact that the
population census and the religious census are not taken the
same year but several years apart. A comparison of figures,
however, indicates that the population of the continental
United States increased between 1910 and 1920 at an average
annual rate of 1-5%. During the period from 1916 to 1920, on
the other hand, church membership increased at an average
annual rate of 2-5%.
The World War. Perhaps the most striking phase of the work
of the churches during the decade 1910-20 was their service
in the World War. As soon as the United States entered the war
almost every church or denomination organized a war com-
mission or council to aid the Government in securing chaplains
and in similar tasks. The war-work commissions of the Prot-
estant churches cooperated in the General War-Time Com-
mission of the Churches; while the activities of the Roman
Catholic Church were carried on through the National Catholic
War Council. The General War-Time Commission, besides
largely developing the spirit of cooperation, was able to under-
take activities which were impossible to the separate church
bodies, such as surveying the needs and opportunities for
religious work in the camps and war communities; coordinating
the plans and efforts of the denominational commissions;
representing the Protestant churches in relations with the war
and navy departments; securing qualified chaplains; providing
for the moral and religious welfare of negro troops; supplying
religious ministration for interned aliens; arranging for the wel-
fare of workers in communities engaged in the manufacture of
munitions and in shipbuilding; and stimulating the churches
to cooperate with the Government and welfare agencies in the
various campaigns for funds, food conservation, personal serv-
ice, etc. Equally important work was done by the National
Catholic War Council. Of the effect of the war on the American
churches very little can be said. Expectations that the men
would bring back from their experiences in the army or navy
fresh interpretations of Christianity, and that the churches
would apply in their local work many of the methods found
effective among soldiers, have not been realized. Positive results,
however, are: gain in practical cooperation among the churches,
a larger place for the Church in the life of the community,
stimulation and enlargement of missionary work and greater
attention to education.
Cooperation and Union. The decade 1910-20 was note-
worthy among the Protestant churches for the development
of cooperation and union. This appears in three fields: (i)
local cooperation and federation, (2) cooperation of adminis-
trative bodies, (3) denominational federation and union. In
the first of these, cooperation in local communities, there is to
be noted a growing movement in the formation of federated
churches, i.e. two or more churches joining their activities under
the same pastor while each retains its separate organization and
denominational affiliation. Several hundred of these federated
churches have been organized, the Home Missions Council
having (1921) a list of about 200. In many localities the growth
of a community consciousness has expressed itself in one de-
nominational church, serving the whole community, often
having an associate membership for Christians of other de-
nominational preferences, and carrying on a variety of activities
for the uplift of the community. A notable development has
been the exchange of territory between denominations in some
of the older states, like Vermont, and the allocation of territory
to home mission agencies of different denominations in newer
sections, such as Montana, Alaska and Porto Rico; In larger
cities federations or councils of churches have steadily grown
in number and importance. Under the leadership of the Com-
mission on Councils of Churches of the Federal Council of the
Churches of Christ in America, first organized in 1912, such
federations have been formed in nearly 50 cities, having strong
local financial backing and employing one or more secretaries.
Among their activities are social service, evangelism, religious
education, religious publicity and missions. Important con-
ferences on interchurch work were held in Pittsburg in 1917
and in Cleveland in 1920.
In the second field of cooperation, that of denominational
administrative boards, the development has been principally
in missions and education, culminating in the Interchurch
World Movement. The World Missionary Conference held in
Edinburgh in 1910 powerfully stimulated cooperation among
foreign mission boards, and the Continuation Committee has
represented the American boards in organizing cooperative work
in foreign mission fields. The similar Congress on Christian
Work in Latin America, held at. Panama in 1916, was the out-
come of a conference in 1914 of missionaries and Protestant
mission boards working in Mexico. Among its results is the
permanent Committee on Cooperation in Latin America,
which unites in many forms of service most of the boards having
work there. The Foreign Missions Conference of North America,
organized in 1893, which officially represents the Protestant
foreign mission boards of the United States and Canada, has
during the decade 1910-20 greatly enlarged its sphere of activ-
ities, particularly through its Committee of Reference and
Counsel, its Board of Missionary Preparation, and its Com-
mittee on Religious Needs in Anglo-American Communities.
In home missions cooperation has been greatly furthered through
the Home Missions Council, organized in 1908, which aims to
prevent duplication of effort and to provide for adequate
occupation of fields and in general to coordinate the home
mission agencies of the denominations it represents. Similar
cooperation has developed among women's mission boards,
through the Council of Women for Home Missions (1908)
and the Federation of Women's Boards of Foreign Missions of
North America (1916). The decade 1910-20 stands out beyond
all previous decades in missionary cooperation, so that by 1921,
with but few exceptions, the leading Protestant missionary
boards were thoroughly committed to this policy. The same
was true, in scarcely less measure, of the educational boards.
In 1911 these united in the Council of Church Boards of Educa-
tion, which collated information, studied the standardization
of courses in church schools and colleges, and held conferences
of university pastors and other church workers in the larger
institutions. The Sunday-school agencies of the denominations
formed in 1911 the Sunday School Council of Evangelical
Denominations, for cooperation in educational, editorial, mis-
sionary and publishing activities.
The Interchurch World Movement of North America was
organized by representatives of Protestant mission boards in
1918, primarily to meet the urgent need of expansion in mis-
sionary work as a result of the war. It rapidly extended its
scope, however, to include surveys of all Christian work at
home and abroad, missionary education, recruiting for the
ministry and mission service, and a simultaneous appeal for
funds by all cooperative church bodies. The movement failed,
owing, among other things, to unbusinesslike financial operations
and irresponsible activity on the part of some of its leaders;
but it revealed a widespread spirit of cooperation.
In the third field of cooperation and union, that of the de-
nominations and church bodies as ecclesiastical organizations,
the development has proceeded along two lines: federation
and organic union. The first is represented especially by the
Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, organ-
ized in 1908, in which about 30 Protestant denominations are
officially represented. While retaining their autonomy the
CHURCH HISTORY
691
uniting church bodies have provided representative organiza-
tion which operates through various commissions, including
those on the Church and social service, evangelism, councils of
churches, the Church and country life, temperance, Christian
education, relations with the Orient, international justice and
goodwill, and relations with France and Belgium. A staff
of secretaries at New York and Washington care for these
activities.
Side by side with federation has developed a movement in
the direction of organic union. In several denominations
union has taken place, as between Baptists and Free Baptists,
and among various Lutheran churches. There has been ap-
proach, also, between unrelated communions, as Congrega-
tionalists and the Protestant Episcopal Church. The year 1910
was notable: on the same day there was organized, by the
Protestant Episcopal General Convention, the Commission on
a World Conference on Faith and Order, and, by the Disciples
of Christ, the Association for the Promotion of Christian Unity,
while earlier in the same year the Christian Unity Foundation
had been formed. Over 70 commissions have been appointed
by various church bodies to cooperate in plans for the con-
ference on faith and order. The proposal contemplated an
organic union of aU the churches, Protestant, Roman Catholic
and Eastern Orthodox, on the basis of an agreement concerning
essential doctrines. The Roman Catholic Church, however,
declined to participate. Some important Protestant churches,
also, look with little interest on the conference.
The tendency in the movement towards church unity has been
toward, not a complete amalgamation of denominations, but a
federal union which would allow for diversity of temperament,
practice and doctrine. Such was the purpose of the Council of
Organic Union held in 1918, attended by representatives of 19
Protestant denominations. An ad interim committee was
appointed which presented a plan of union at a second con-
ference, in 1920, to become effective when adopted by six
denominations.
Social Service. The widening interest in social questions was
a notable development of the decade 1910-20. This showed
itself, first, in the recognition of social service in the programmes
of the various national church bodies, and, later, in its growing
recognition by local churches. During the first half of the
decade most of the larger Protestant denominations adopted in
their national gatherings a definite social service programme,
nearly the same as the " Social Creed of the Churches " put
forth by the Federal Council of the Churches. A similar state-
ment was published by the social service commission of the
American Federation of Catholic Societies. Social service com-
missions or departments were organized by most of the larger
denominations, many having executive secretaries in charge.
The commission on the church and social service of the Federal
Council has been one of the most active commissions of that
body since its formation, and more recently the National
Catholic Welfare Council has put in operation a vigorous social
programme. One result of this development of social interest
is seen in the place given in the theological seminaries to social
service and training for community leadership. Quite as
significant is the addition of these subjects to Sunday-school
study courses. So far as the official organizations of the de-
nominations are concerned, social service has become definitely
established as a vital part of their programme.
Naturally the progress in the local churches has been slower,
but it may be said in general that the churches have come
to recognize their social responsibility, though in their work-
ing programmes they differ widely. While the movement of
churches from the business sections of large cities toward
the residential sections and suburbs still persists among Protes-
tant churches, a tendency in the opposite direction has also
developed, and well-organized churches are being established in
the heart of large cities. In some cases several denominations
have cooperated in apportioning the field. In Cleveland, for
example, 30 such churches are planned, of which 10 are already
in operation, different sections being cared for by different
denominations. A similar and allied movement is the establish-
ing of Christian centres or community houses. These are under
church direction, are staffed by trained workers and undertake
various activities: kindergartens, day nurseries, mothers'
meetings, industrial classes, forums, boys' and girls' clubs,
employment bureaus, rescue work, lectures, music classes,
gymnastics, etc., besides Bible study and religious worship. In
rural communities progress has been slower, but in many of the
Protestant denominations larger attention has been given to
the cultivation in the country churches of the ideal of thorough-
going community service religious, social, educational, econom-
ic. Both nationally and locally the churches, city and country
alike, have exercised a powerful influence in favour of prohibi-
tion, and the adoption of the Eighteenth Amendment is due
principally to their efforts.
In the field of industry, the social service pronouncements
of the churches have been outspoken in favour of better con-
ditions and opportunities for labour. Efforts have also been
made to cultivate closer relations with the unions, as by sending
fraternal delegates or appointing special representatives. The
Federal Council of the Churches each year issued a Labour
Sunday message for the first Sunday in Sept. and many churches
observe the day.
Missions. The American churches in their mission work have
progressed in cooperation, organization and expansion. The decade
opened with the holding of the World Missionary Conference at
Edinburgh, in which American Protestant mission boards played
a large part. As a result of this conference and the Congress on
Christian Work in Latin America, held at Panama in 1916, and of
the continuation conferences that followed in many mission fields,
the boards have largely broadened their field of cooperative activi-
ties, particularly in educational and medical work. Other important
factors aiding in this development have been the Foreign Missions
Conference of North America, the Federation of Women's Boards
of Foreign Missions, the Home Missions Council and the Council
of Women for Home Missions, which represent most of the mission
boards of the Protestant churches. The Edinburgh Missionary'
Conference resulted in increased efficiency of organization and greater
interest in missions. In several church bodies missionary agencies
have been combined and missionary administration centralized;
steps have also been taken toward uniting the missionary agencies
of different denominations. Increased attention has been given to
missionary education, through study groups, women's societies,
Sunday-school classes, and reading contests. Interdenominational
summer conferences and schools for development of missionary
leaders have grown rapidly in number and quality of work. A very
important movement has taken place in the securing of new mis-
sionaries. Some denominations have appointed candidate secretaries
for their mission boards, and interdenominational conferences have
been held to consider the problem. The most significant develop-
ment in this connexion was the organization in 1911 of the Board of
Missionary Preparation, which made a thorough study of the best
methods of preparing for work among peoples of different lands and
different religions.
The rapid expansion of mission work by the American churches
during the decade will be evident from a few figures. For home
missions the Protestant churches appropriated in 1912 (the first
year for which figures were compiled) $10,653,119; in 1920, $23,-
135,601. The number of home missionaries fully supported by the
church boards in 1916 was 3,372; in 1920, 4,473. Foreign mission
income grew even more rapidly, the figure for 1910 being $11,946,-
281 (including both the United States and Canada); in 1920,
$40,292,602. The number of foreign missionaries sent out was as
follows (United States and Canada) :
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
617
818
812
620
531
609
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
772
661
641
I-I37
1,686
In 1910 the Roman Catholic Church had 20 American foreign mis-
sionaries; in 1920, 50. The first American Roman Catholic foreign
mission seminary was founded during the decade, and several
religious orders of this Church were engaged in preparing men and
women for the foreign mission field.
While new enterprises have been undertaken the policy has been
primarily to strengthen existing work. Expansion has taken place
especially in union schools, colleges, hospitals and other institutions.
Many denominations have frankly faced their whole task in those
parts of the world which might be considered as their responsibility,
and after careful survey of the needs and requirements they have
undertaken financial campaigns covering home and foreign missions
and education. The total number of these forward movements was
692
CHURCH HISTORY
26, the total objective being nearly $400,000,000. In most cases,
for various reasons, the completion of the financial campaigns was
delayed, but large sums were secured by all the denominations
and the work was correspondingly strengthened.
In continuing the attention of the churches to evangelism (in
the larger sense of enlisting individuals in the programme of Chris-
tianity) a variety of methods has been employed. The earlier
years of the decade saw the development of spectacular mass meet-
ings led by a professional evangelist, this method reaching its
culmination just before the war. In the latter part of the decade,
however, more attention has been given to the work of the pastors
themselves. City-wide campaigns, in which all or most of the churches
cooperate, with services conducted by them separately but accord-
ing to a uniform plan, became common. Many denominations have
departments and secretaries of evangelism, who cooperate with the
Commission on Evangelism of the Federal Council in developing
interest and organizing the work.
Education. Religious education advanced conspicuously during
the decade. In 1910 the Sunday-School Council of Evangelical De-
nominations was formed, representing the official Sunday-school
agencies of the Protestant churches; in 1912 the World's Sunday-
School Association added to its executive committee the official
representatives of the church boards; in 1914 the International
Sunday-School Lessons-Committee took similar action; and in 1920
plans were made to amalgamate the International Sunday-School
Association and the Sunday- School Council. The significance of
STATISTICS OF CHRISTIAN CHURCHES IN THE UNITED STATES 1920
As given by Year Book of the Churches for 1920.
Church
Sunday-
Total
Name.
Congrega-
Ministers.
Members.
Sunday
Schools
school
Expendi-
tions.
Members.
tures.
Adventists
2,772
1,526
123,143
3-177
113,629
$ 2,505,786
Apostolic Christian Church
52
73
5,000
40
3,315
29,893
Apostolic Faith Movement
24
26
2,196
16
769
38,380
Assemblies of God
1,000
937
6,703
81
4, 8 39
61,941
Baptists
61,992
46,086
7,598,280
48,750
4,305,170
44,460,716
Brethren
1,262
3,767
122,932
1-304
119,706
917,461
Catholic Apostolic Chs.
13
13
2,768
4
192
29.740
Christadelphians
H5
2,922
79
3,ioi
16,340
Christ, and Miss. Alliance .
166
114
9,625
161
11,077
232,029
Chris. Ch., Amer. Chris. Conven-
tion
1,204
1,037
105,310
963
76,055
644,044
Chris. Congregation .
15
28
3,000
15
1,650
20,000
Chris. Union
220
211
13,692
173
13,061
47,079
Ch. of Christ, Scientist
1-589
Church of God ....
429
490
12,012
232
7,796
5,931
Ch. of God and Saints of Christ
94
101
3,3ii
57
1,783
18,674
Ch. of Nazarene ....
999
844
35,041
990
50,397
239,986
Churches of Christ
5,570
2,507
3 '7, 937
3-441
183,022
679,091
Churches of God in N.A., Gen-
eral Eldership ....
. 458
419
25,847
4i3
37,952
37,828
Church of the Living God .
184
450
14,050
88
1,925
20,012
Church of the New Jerusalem .
116
134
7,252
81
4,488
189,129
Congregationalists
Disciples of Christ
6,019
8,912
5,722
6,031
808,122
1,193423
5,804
8,643
709,859
961,723
11,608,650
10,413,823
Eastern Orthodox Churches
393
368
303-844
169
10,019
886,857
Evangelical Association
1,729
1,327
I59,3io
1,700
222,793
7,506,769
Evang. Prot. Ch. of N.A. .
37
34
17,962
38
8,792
197,194
Evang. Synod of N.A.
1,385
1,131
352,644
1,301
141,015
1,443,272
Free Chris. Zion Ch. of Christ .
35
29
6,225
35
3,699
19,154
Friends
861
699
107,422
754
56,615
825,337
Internat'l Holiness Ch.
325
640
11,000
152
8,975
73,639
Lithuanian Nat. Cath. Ch.
7
3
7,343
I
142
17,374
ilfa&
0,7^1
2.4.m,OQ7
7-4 2 9
955,336
2A,'i87, c i2Q
Mennonites ....
* \J*-\J V
887
7- / O
1,488
* ,^J , 7:7*
82,722
706
42,236
T^,J / ,o y
456,193
Methodists . . . . _ .
67,493
46,364
7,867,863
69,078
7,287,381
69,114,296
Missionary Ch. Association
25
59
1,554
29
3,343
37,930
Moravians
136
183
28,402
135
17-435
317-879
Non-Sectarian Chs. of Bible
Faith
58
26
2,273
12
571
1,263
Old Catholic Churches
9
19
34,025
6
840
21,700
Pentecostal Holiness Ch. .
192
282
5,353
143
8,143
50,600
Plymouth Brethren
470
13-717
261
12,813
185,954
Polish National Cath. Ch. .
34
45
28,245
27
2,967
149,839
Presbyterians ....
16,066
14,623
2,243,678
14-627
1,847,945
36,536,465
Protestant Episcopal Ch. .
8,103
5,677
1,065,825
5-790
435,76i
22,509,942
Reformed Episcopal Ch.
65
65
1 1 ,806
60
7,750
132,079
Reformed
2,779
2,236
535,040
2,758
484,548
7,042,538
River Brethren ....
112
248
5-389 '
71
6, 1 80
34,752
Roman Catholic Ch. .
16,580 '
2I.643 1
17,885,646 ''
12,800
1,932,206
72,358,136
Salvation Army ....
957
2,918
28,586
720
46,823
I,722,I2O
Scandinavian Free Ch.
458
506
37,8i6
453
47-347
722,535
Schwenkfelders ....
4
6
1,150
6
1,961
7,889
Unitarians
477
55
82,515
346
23,160
1,485-550
United Brethren ....
3,907
2,810
367,087
3,599
478,119
4,716,157
United Evangelical Chs.
949
535
88,847
955
121,391
729,945
Universalist Chs.
650
56i
58,566
467
58,442
1,069,075
Volunteers of America
97
307
10,204
26
1,611
232,010
Fourteen churches having less
than 1 ,000 members
177
434
5,593
1 08
4,459
222,258
Totals for 68 denominations .
234,330
186,018
44,322,215
199,274
20,892,327
$327,615,3^5
1 As given by Official Catholic Directory.
1 The Roman Catholic Church includes in its membership, as already stated, all who have been baptized that is, practically all
the members of Roman Catholic families. Protestant churches, on the other hand, reckon as members communicants only, with the
exception of a few denominations, e.g. Lutherans, who publish figures for both communicant members and baptized members. The
statistics given for Protestants in this table, as elsewhere in this article, are for communicant members only.
CILICIA CINCINNATI
693
these changes lies in the growing recognition of pedagogical principles
in the church school. Schools having graded departments and a
graded curriculum have increased in number, and the higher stand-
ard of work has resulted in the creation and use of an increasing
body of technical material for teachers and executives. The im-
portance of a trained teaching force 'is gaining larger recognition;
standard normal courses have been improved; summer schools
of methods have grown in number and attendance; and community
schools of religious education, meeting on a week-night for an ex-
tended period, with classes studying the Bible, pedagogy and depart-
mental methods, having sprung up rapidly in many parts of the
country. This new interest in religious education has led to impor-
tant developments. A new religious profession is growing up, that
of director of religious education in a local church. Colleges and
theological seminaries have established courses in religious educa-
tion, and several have organized departments or schools for the study
of this and allied subjects. Especially noteworthy is the providing
of rooms for school uses in Protestant churches as a result of the
increased attention to the educational side of the work. This change
began before the decade under review, but has now become practi-
cally universal in its influence. Finally, it is being recognized that the
ordinary Sunday-school session does not give sufficient time for
proper religious instructions, and various methods of week-day in-
structions have been adopted, by churches separately, or by groups of
churches, or in cooperation with the public schools.
There is a growing feeling of responsibility for their educational
work on the part of the churches. Boards of Education have been
organized by some denominations and those of others have been
strengthened; most of the movements have included in their finan-
cial objectives large sums for education; and the relations between
the churches and the schools and colleges, both denominational
and undenominational, have been made correspondingly closer.
This interest has grown since the war. The Knights of Columbus,
for example, set aside a very large sum for educating worthy
men, regardless of their church relations, and Protestant churches
have correspondingly enlarged their programme. Roman Catholic
institutions have also conducted financial campaigns and largely
increased their funds. Most of the money has been raised for the
equipment or endowment of institutions related legally or by tradi-
tion to the various churches, with a resulting increase in facilities
and strengthening of teaching force. In most of the denominational
schools and colleges the Bible has a prominent place in the curriculum,
the number of chairs of Biblical literature or religious education
having increased to about 200. An important development of the
decade has been the installation of university pastors by various
denominations in connexion with the larger institutions, to care for
their own students, to keep them in touch with the church, to give
friendly counsel in their problems, to organize Bible classes, etc.
In smaller institutions several denominations combine in the support
of one representative. There were 320 of these workers in 1920
giving whole or part time to the work. A student church has been
organized in a few centres, and some denominations have under-
taken the establishment of a school of religious education in con-
nexion with a university. All these church representatives work in
close relation with the student Christian associations. Student
conferences, directed by the Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A. or by the
denominational education boards, have grown in importance.
Cooperation with these two organizations and with one another
through the Council of Church Boards of Education (organized
1911) has been a growing feature of the educational work of the
churches during the decade.
In the development of thought religious experience has become
increasingly the test of doctrine, and interest has shifted from dog-
ma to life. Religion is thought of in terms of this life, not primar-
ily with reference to the next, considered not as belonging to one
part of man's life but as affecting the whole range of human experience.
There was notable growth during the decade in (i) laymen's
activities, especially in the Laymen s Missionary Movement, the
Men and Religion Movement and the Y.M.C.A.; (2) religious
publicity, manifested in the combination and strengthening of
church papers and the increasing use of secular newspapers and
magazines for advertising and descriptive articles; and (3) inter-
national relations, in which there has been a widening of interest
and an enlarging of activity through denominational and inter-
denominational organizations. (S. R. W.)
CILICIA (see 6.365). During 1909-21 the old geographical
name of Cilicia came again into familiar use, chiefly in connexion
with Armenian matters. The ancient district of Cilicia covered
nearly the same territory as the medieval kingdom of Lesser Ar-
menia, and the present population includes a considerable Arme-
nian element. This portion of south-eastern Asia Minor, there-
fore, is regarded by Armenians as a region which should form
part of an independent Armenia, or itself become an independent
protected Armenian state until the greater project can be real-
ized. Unhappy events in recent Armenian history have been
enacted in Cilicia, largely owing to Armenian aspirations; thus
convenient usage has linked the ancient name with the fortunes
and tragedy of the Armenian race. Cilicia of present Armenian
interest includes the Turkish vilayet of Adana, the independent
sanjak of Mar 'ash, and the sanjak of 'Aintab in the vilayet of
Aleppo. In these areas there were, in 1914, about 175,000 Ar-
menians, while the population included some 500,000 Moslem
and other elements.
The recent history of Cilicia belongs, in the main, to the his-
tory of the Armenian people (see ARMENIA). In 1909 the Adana
massacres destructive of hopes created by the Turkish Revo-
lution of 1908 extended over the whole of Cilicia. During
1915-6 massacres and deportations organized by the Young
Turk Government destroyed or removed the greater part of the
Armenian population including the 20,000 inhabitants of Zei-
tun, an Armenian mountain stronghold, never hitherto entirely
subdued. In 1918-9 Cilicia was occupied by British troops after
their conquest of Syria, but on being evacuated by them passed
under French control. Subsequently the Treaty of Sevres as-
signed to France the southern portion of Cilicia, as far westward
as the left bank of the river Jihan, as part of the mandated terri-
tory of Syria. The remainder of Cilicia was brought within the
French sphere of influence in Asia Minor by the Tripartite
Agreement, executed at the same time as the Treaty of Sevres.
Under French occupation Cilicia received a large immigration
of Armenians owing to their reliance on French protection and
the hope apparently without much foundation that a Franco-
Armenian state would be created. The province was the scene
of continued warfare between French troops and Turkish Na-
tionalists during 1920, in the course of which the Nationalists
gained several successes, and were able to renew the massacre of
Armenians on a large scale. In the spring of 1921 an agreement
was signed on behalf of the French and Nationalist Governments
whereby France was to evacuate Cilicia, and the southern fron-
tier of Turkey, as defined in the Treaty of Sevres, was to be re-
moved southward about 40 miles, for the whole distance from the
Gulf of Alexandretta to the frontier of Mesopotamia. These
proposed territorial concessions by France the Great National
Assembly at Angora considered inadequate, and in consequence
it refused to ratify the agreement; and in September 1921 France,
therefore, still remained in occupation of Cilicia. (W. J. C.*)
CINCINNATI (see 6.370). During the decade 1910-20 the
area of Cincinnati was extended from 44 to 72 sq. miles.
The pop. in 1920 was 401,247, as compared with 363,591 in
1910, an increase of 37,656, or 10-4%. In 1920 the city possessed
parks covering 2,691 ac., including the Mt. Airy Forestry
project which embraces 1,132 ac.; and a plan was being carried
out for further extension by utilizing the boulevards and bluffs.
The widely discussed statue of Lincoln, by George Grey Barnard,
presented to the city by Mr. and Mrs. Charles P. Taft, was
unveiled in Lytle Park in 1916. The city was building in 1921
a rapid transit loop at an initial cost of $6,000,000, which with
subway, surface and elevated railways will encircle the city,
provide access to inter-urban traffic and relieve congestion. The
traction roads were being operated under a service-at-cost contract.
Manufactures. -In 1919 there were more than 2,200 manu-
facturing establishments in Cincinnati proper, covering 90 in-
dustries, with capital of $565,000,000 and products valued at
$600,000,000, employing 112,000 persons of whom one-fourth were
females. The five most important industries in the Cincinnati dis-
trict were soap and soap products, $100,000,000; foundry and
machine-shop products, $50,000,000; slaughtering and meat pack-
ing, $45,000,000; clothing (men and women), $35,000,000; printing
and publishing, $30,000,000. In 1916 the freight movement by
boat was 1,411,149 tons, of which 1,252,739 were receipts. The
chief cargoes were coal, stone and sand, lumber and grain.
Government. A new charter was adopted on Nov. 6 1917
providing that the city " shall have all the powers of local self-
government and all other powers possible for a city to have "
under the state constitution. The mayor and council were to be
elected for a term of four years, the chief executive offices to be
filled by appointment of the mayor. The charter provided for a
city planning commission of seven members, consisting of the mayor,
the director of public service, the three park commissioners and
two citizens. It was to submit recommendations for new streets,
subways, bridges, playgrounds and parks. In 1919 an ordinance
was enacted forbidding the erection or maintenance of billboards
within any residential block without the written consent of the
694
CINEMATOGRAPH
owners of the majority of property on both sides of the street. In
1920 the city's aggregate receipts, including balances on hand, were
$24,346,445 and disbursements $17,330,791 leaving a cash balance,
practically covered by authorizations, of $7,015,654. The tax
valuation for that year was $737,4.72,310. The rate of taxation was
$20.02 per thousand. The municipally owned waterworks and the
Southern Railway, also municipally owned, were more than self-
supporting. As a result the net debt not self-supporting on Dec. 31
1920 was $37,887,582.
Education and Charities. In the decade 1910-20 extensive
additions were made to the Jewish, Good Samaritan, Bethesda, and
Christ hospitals, and to the tuberculosis sanatorium. The General
hospital with its group of 24 buildings, occupying 27 ac. and con-
sidered the best example of the pavilion type on the continent, was
finished in 1915 at a cost of $3,500,000. Its capacity in 1920 was 850
beds. It is under the administration of the university of Cincinnati,
whose new medical school adjoins it. Other new buildings and de-
partments of the university (3,565 students in 1920) included the
law school, the college of engineering and commerce, the college for
teachers, the training school for nurses, the school of household
arts, a department of hygiene and physical education, a new gym-
nasium and athletic field, evening departments, and a woman's
building. The cooperative system, originated in Cincinnati, of sup-
plementing college instruction by practical training in various
shops and manufacturing establishments, was greatly expanded
between 1910 and 1920. Several new high-school buildings were
erected, with improved class-rooms, laboratory, and gymnasium
facilities which served to complete an educational system which
carried the student at public expense from the kindergarten through
the graduate schools of the municipal university. The public school
expenditures for 1920 were $4,749,605. The enrolment of the day
schools was 51,104 and night schools, 14,864, with 1,625 teachers in
70 school buildings, including 5 high schools. The Roman Catholic
university of St. Francis Xavier in 1919 removed its college depart-
ment to a 26 ac. tract in the suburbs adjoining the newly developed
boulevard system of the city and constructed administration, science
and recitation buildings. The colleges of music increased in build-
ings and faculties; and in 1915 the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra
received an endowment of $1,000,000 as a bequest from Cora M.
Dow. Of special importance was the recent establishment of the
American House for the training of aliens for citizenship, and for
social service work.
Building. Between 1900 and 1919 nearly $100,000,000 was
spent in new buildings, among which were the Union Central Life
of 34 storeys, 495 ft. high, the tallest building west of New York
City; a court house, in modern Ionic style, completed in 1919 at a
cost of $5,000,000; and the Dixie Terminal for the Kentucky traction
lines.
World War. During the World War Cincinnati supplied 1,200
men to the Marine Corps; 1,400 to the navy, and 15,000 to the
army. To the Liberty and Victory Loans Cincinnati subscribed
$212,946,300. (C. T. G.)
CINEMATOGRAPH OR MOTION-PICTURES (see 6.374).
The word " cinematograph," frequently shortened to " cinema,"
designates primarily the mechanism by which motion-pictures
are projected on to the screen, but the term has come to be used
generically to refer not only to the entertainment but to various
phases of its production. In the United States, the designation
' motion-picture " or " moving-picture " (colloquially, " the
movies ") is much more frequently used, though " photoplay,"
referring specifically to dramatic compositions, is commonly
employed.
In 1910 the cinematograph as a means of entertainment was
making its first bid for public favour ; it was still a novelty, and
many persons, including experienced showmen, thought its
appeal would decline as soon as the novelty had been thoroughly
exploited. Before 1920, however, it had become by far the most
popular form of commercialized amusement throughout the
world. The production of motion-pictures on a large scale was in
1920 confined to a few countries, chiefly the United States,
Great Britain, Italy, Germany, and France, but their exploitation
was world-wide. Their appeal was apparently limited by no
ordinary conditions of age, race, or degree of civilization, and
it was asserted, a little grandiloquently perhaps, that they con-
stituted the one universal language. In 1920 it was estimated
there were throughout the world at least 40,000 cinema theatres,
of which perhaps 17,000 were in the United States, 5,000 in the
British Isles, 3,200 in Germany, 2,700 in France, 1,000 or more
in Italy, 1,000 in Spain, 800 in Australasia, 700 in Sweden, 600 in
Japan, and so on. There was hardly a country too remote not to
have at least a few motion-picture theatres, and occidental films
had penetrated where occidental ideas were still regarded with
prejudice and disfavour. Constantinople, for example, had ir
cinema theatres, Canton 10, Bangkok 9, Rangoon 8, and Tientsin
6. Such theatres, of course, exhibit American, English or
European films almost exclusively. It is perhaps interesting to
note that in Constantinople only religious pictures were subject
to censorship. In South America the cinema was as popular as
elsewhere; Buenos Aires, for example, had 131 theatres, and
nearly every Argentine town of more than i ,000 population had
its moving-picture palace. In the United States the daily
attendance at motion-pictures in 1920 was estimated at a little
less than 10,000,000, while a British estimate in 1910-20 was that
a number equal to half the population of the British Isles
attended the cinematograph twice a week which would be
equivalent to a daily attendance of more than 6,000,000. If
this estimate is correct it indicates that the cinema attendance
in the United Kingdom practically doubled after 1916-7, when a
careful estimate placed the daily attendance at 3,375,000 (see
The Cinema, 1917). The same report gave the following analysis
of seats occupied in the course of a year (week-days) :
Price of
seat
id ......
2d ......
3d ......
4d ......
6d ......
9d ......
is ......
Total
No. occupied
78,250,000
58,844,000
400,640,000
186,235,000
195,468,500
97,812,500
39,125,000
Per cent
of total
7-4
5-6
38-0
17-6
18-5
9-2
1,056,375,000
100-0
(This tabulation is based on an estimate of 4,500 theatres with an
average daily attendance per theatre of 750. In 1917 the price of
seats had begun to go above is. ; in 1920 in London it was frequently
2s., 33., and higher in the best houses.)
From the business point of view remarkable progress was made
during the decade 1910-20. In the United States, where the in-
dustry had reached its highest commercial development, the
gross receipts of all exhibitors in 1920 were placed at $800,000,000
(as against $675,000,000 in 1918 and $65,000,000 in 1907).
The price of admission was usually from 25 to 50 cents; in small
towns or poorer neighbourhoods it was sometimes less, while the
best houses in New York frequently charged from $i to $2.50.
U.S. Government statistics show that the total gross income of
American motion-picture producers (manufacturers) was about
$90,000,000 annually. Capital invested in the producing business
was estimated at $100,000,000, while the amount of positive film
"consumed " each week was said to be 10,000,000 ft., as compared with
3,000,000 ft. before the World War. The following table shows the
operations of one of the leading American film companies (Famous
Players-Lasky) :
1919 1918
Gross income ..... $27,165,327 $18,090,500
Cost of film production . . 16,815,636 12,647,320
Cost of selling and distribution . 5,822,860 3,904,918
Other expenses ..... 1,393,846 257,087
Operating profit 3,132,985 1,281,175
The outbreak of the World War favoured the growth of the
industry in the United States to such an extent that it became by far
the leading producing country in the world. In most European
countries, as well as elsewhere, the majority of films displayed after
1915 were of American origin. About 75% of the films shown in
Great Britain in 1920 were of American manufacture. The extent of
American exports in that year is indicated by the following table:
U.S. Exports of Exposed Films.
Linear Ft. Value
United Kingdom .... 45,538,55' $2,348,256
France ...... 22,250,847 943, 781
Canada ...... 17,952,511 1,226,514
Australia ...... 14,238,587 653,047
Argentina . . . ." . 9,920,491 330,104
Brazil ...... 8,416,158 363,544
Cuba ...... 6,761,701 248,226
Japan ...... 6,302,468 233.028
Spain ...... 6,071,560 242,569
Denmark ..... 5,816,537 233,646
Norway ..... 3,410,232 33O,77
Newfoundland and Labrador . 1,950,337 79,54'
Italy . . . . . . 677,120 30,273
Other countries .... 39,220,065 1,625,236
Total ...... 188,527,165 $8,888,535
CINEMATOGRAPH
695
European production, however, was beginning to regain lost
ground; artistically the best European work was not infrequently
superior to that produced in America. Germany's recovery seemed
particularly rapid ; this was due in part to legislation prohibiting the
importation of foreign films until May 1920, and even after that date
the introduction of foreign films was to be strictly limited. In Eng-
land producers were making great efforts to meet American com-
petition, though without the aid of legislation. The manufacture
of motion-pictures in Great Britain, however, suffered from the
handicap of a climate which, being often dull and lacking in sunlight,
was not well adapted to photography. This handicap was partly
overcome by improved methods of artificial lighting. Gross receipts
from all cinema theatres in the British Isles were estimated in 1920
to be about 35,000,000 annually. Data for other countries were
lacking; in France, however, the official statistics for Paris show that
in 1919 the receipts of cinema theatres in that city were 49,664,661
francs as compared with 26,388,292 francs in 1918 and 17,377,000
in 1917. Admission prices ranged from 1.50 francs to 2.50 francs.
In 1919-20 some of the larger American companies sought and
obtained financial assistance from leading banking houses, which
had hitherto held aloof from the industry. As a condition of this
assistance the banking interests indicated they would insist upon
greater attention to economy and conservative business practice
than had characterized the industry in the past. The sudden prosper-
ity of the film producers had naturally led to lavish expenditures;
this is well illustrated by the amount of the salaries paid to motion-
picture actors and actresses. Towards the close of the period 1910-20
capable actors of the legitimate stage were able to obtain from $100
to $400, and in relatively few cases as high as $1,000 a week; cinema
salaries, however, were in most cases at least twice as large, while
favourite " stars " were frequently able to command a weekly
salary ranging from $5,000 to $10,000. Even these figures were
surpassed in the case of a few of the best-known popular favourites ;
the combined annual income of three leading stars, for example, was
said to be $1,500,000 (1920). After 1920 the influence of conservative
investors was beginning to make itself felt, and there was a tendency
to reduce salaries and to introduce other economies. It was seen
that this new influence would make for greater stability in the
industry and probably for better pictures.
Mechanical Progress. The popularity of the moving-picture
led to much research to determine its inventor, and the difficulties
were not altogether removed by the assertion of Thomas A.
Edison (see his letter to the New York Times, June 9 1921) that
the honour belonged to him. It is true that the modern cine-
matograph was evolved out of Mr. Edison's kinctoscope, or
kinetograph, though these devices likewise owed a great deal to
earlier experiments. But the prototypes of the modern projecting
machine seem to have been produced by others apparently by
three men: Louis Lumiere in Paris, R. W. Paul in London and
C. F. Jenkins in Washington, D.C., each of whom was engaged
virtually at the same time (1894-5) on the new invention. Their
efforts all contributed to the final result, and the cinematograph
of 1920 had not changed greatly from what it was 25 years before,
when, relying on the well-known psychological principle of
persistence of vision, it was first made a practical device for
reproducing " animated pictures " on the screen. In matters of
detail, however, great improvement had been made.
An important advance was t^ie adoption of a standard film,
if in. in width, with 16 pictures, sometimes called " frames," each
I by } in., to every foot of film. Near the margins of the film, on
either side of the pictures, are sprocket holes by means of which
the strip of miniature photographs is run through the projector at
the rate of approximately one ft. a second, about the lowest practi-
cable speed to give a satisfactory illusion of motion. On the reels
used in the projectors about I, coo ft. of film could be wound; the
term " reel " thus came into use as a unit of measure. The elimina-
tion of " flicker," which caused much annoyance in early cinemato-
graph exhibitions, was brought about partly by improving the
mechanism which draws each succeeding picture momentarily into
place and partly by increasing the number of revolving shutter
blades from one to three, of which one serves to cut off the light while
the change of picture is effected and the other two merely increase
the frequency of the alternations of light and darkness, thus render-
ing them less noticeable.
Other valuable improvements were made in the nature of the
screen on which the image is thrown, in the quality of the lenses, and
in the electric lamp used to illuminate the film pictures. In the early
days of cinematograph projection the danger arising from the
inflammable nature of the celluloid film was very great. An effort
to reduce this danger was made by interposing a trough of cir-
culating water between the electric arc and the optical condenser to
absorb the greater part of the heat rays. A safety shutter was also
devised to cut off the light from the film when the motion of the
latter was halted for any reason. Strict enforcement of regulations
requiring that machines be enclosed in fire-proof " booths " while
being operated greatly reduced the danger of serious fire losses when
film did become ignited. After 1913 a non-inflammable film, made
of acetate of cellulose, was put on the market; unfortunately films
of this material were found to be less durable than those of celluloid,
and were not widely adopted.
The cinematograph camera, being in a sense merely the reverse
of the projecting mechanism, was developed along similar lines;
and the best models were adapted to record almost any moving
scene with great fidelity. Although somewhat cumbersome they
were still easily portable, making it possible to use them in remote
explorations as well as in picturing current events. In commercial
practice, the films, after exposure, were mounted on frames (holding
from 150 to 300 ft.), developed often by means of machines, fixed
and washed in large tanks, and then wound on drums, 5-10 ft. in
diameter, and dried by being rapidly revolved in warm, dry air.
From the resulting negative it was possible to print as many positives
as might be desired. This was ordinarily accomplished by means of a
printing machine in which the strip of negative, superimposed on a
strip of unexposed positive film, moved past an illuminated opening
with an intermittent motion, somewhat as in a projecting machine.
As long as the negative is preserved it is possible to obtain fresh
reproductions of the original picture.
Colour Pictures. The first colour pictures were made by colouring
each small picture or frame by hand. This was laborious and ex-
pensive, therefore not well adapted for wide exploitation. The most
successful of the early efforts to reproduce natural colour by mechan-
ical means was that of Charles Urban and George A. Smith of Lon-
don, whose " Kinemacolor " pictures were for a time very popular;
the Kinemacolor representations of the Coronation of King George
V. (1911) and the Durbar at Delhi were displayed all over the world.
Although never entirely satisfactory, the essential features of
Kinemacolor had an important bearing on later experiments, and
for that reason may be briefly noted. The pictures in this process
are taken through a revolving screen or light filter which exposes
alternate spaces on the sensitized film to the green and the red rays,
respectively, so that each pair of frames represents all the colour
values that may be derived from these two primary colours. The
resulting negative is black and white. In projection a revolving filter
corresponding to that employed in the camera is used, with the
result that alternating green and red pictures are displayed; but
because of the rapidity with which this is done the eye fails to dis-
tinguish between the two and a colour combination is effected. The
process involved additional expense for the exhibitor for the reason
that special equipment designed to project the pictures at twice the
normal speed was required. This objection might not have proved
material if the representation were free from certain obvious faults
such as false colour values, arising from the use of only two primary
colours, and " fringing," due to the fact that a certain time elapses
between the exposure of each negative, the result being that a moving
object will often occupy a slightly different position in the " red '
frame, for example, from that which it occupied in the preceding
" green " frame. Thus when the two frames are combined there is an
imperfect " register " of colours.
Later experimenters endeavoured to overcome these difficulties
by various means; in the process exhibited by Leon Gaumont in
Paris in 1912 three lenses were used to produce three-colour images
simultaneously; in reproduction, of course, the process was reversed.
Another device, displayed at the American Museum of Natural
History (New York) in 1917, elaborated the Kinemacolor process
by exposing the negative through a four-colour red-orange, blue-
green, yellow and blue- violet revolving filter; the filter used in
projection, however, contained only two-colour divisions. A promis-
ing development in 1921 was the process invented by W. H. Peck of
New York. This is a two-colour method, but it differs from Kinema-
color in that each pair of negatives is obtained simultaneously by
means of a prism which splits the light so that part of the rays are
directed to one frame and the remainder to the other. After de-
velopment the " green " negative frames are printed on one side
of the positive film, and the corresponding " red " frames on the
other; the positive is then developed and passes through a series of
vats and tanks, coming out coloured, dried and ready for exhibition
through the ordinary projection machine. The production of the
positive is a complicated process, and it remained to be seen whether
it could be successfully employed commercially. The result never-
theless seemed to approximate the requirements of an ideal colour
film, which should consist of a series of pictures, each a complete
colour-rendering of the subject in itself, so that the film could be
exhibited on any machine at a normal speed. Despite the progress
made in colour photography the majority of films displayed in
1920-1 were still in black and white, or in some monochrome tint
which could be obtained either by dyeing the film itself or by placing
a colour screen in front of the projection lens. Some colour films
were made by an adaptation of the hand process in which the
colouring is done with the aid of stencils.
Vocal Pictures. The invention of the phonograph had preceded
the moving-picture by about 18 years; it was natural, therefore, that
efforts should be made to synchronize the two in order to produce
talking pictures. Encouraging results were obtained by Leon
Gaumont in Paris as early as 1910 and two years later by Tromas A.
696
CINEMATOGRAPH
Edison in America. The usual method was to make the phonographic
record first, the actors merely speaking their lines into the gramo-
phone without attempting to pose before the camera. Rehearsals
were then necessary to enable the actors to fit their actions to the
dialogue as repeated by the record already obtained ; and the only
remaining problem was to ensure a synchronization in the theatre
of the phonograph and the picture. This was accomplished by means
of electrical devices to control the speed of the phonograph. For
various reasons, most of which will be obvious to any one familiar
with the phonograph, this sort of talking picture never became
popular; instead of enhancing the representation, the phonograph
seemed merely to emphasize its artificiality. Later in the decade
other methods, seemingly more adequate to give the necessary
illusion, were devised and exhibited. The later experimenters
abandoned the gramophone altogether; in the scheme elaborated by
Eugene Lauste of New York the sound waves are transferred, by
means of microphones, to a circuit containing a sensitive string
galvanometer, and the fluctuations of the string or wire of the
galvanometer are recorded photographically on the side of the film.
When developed one side of the film shows a series of peaks resem-
bling the profile map of a mountain range. Reproduction is accom-
plished by the use of a selenium cell placed in front of the moving
film; the sound waves are then conveyed electrically to the rear of
the screen and disseminated through loud-speaking telephones. The
cinema industry showed comparatively little interest in vocal pic-
tures and their future was uncertain. Another problem which
engaged the attention of inventors concerned the discovery of
some method of obtaining stereoscopic effects on the screen. One
solution of the problem failed of success because, in order to com-
plete the illusion, every spectator was required to wear a pair of
specially devised spectacles; most audiences, it was found, were not
only reluctant about putting them on but took little pleasure in the
result, even though the effect was superior to that of a flat picture.
Recreational Aspects. Improvements in apparatus, while im-
portant, were overshadowed during the decade 1910-20 by
the truly remarkable achievements in developing the artistic,
educational and recreational possibilities of the cinema. It is
true that in 1910 the cinema had begun to outgrow that early
period when its repertory consisted largely of express trains,
automobile races, military parades and like subjects. The
first step had been taken, and the pictures began to be con-
nected by a story; the express train, for example, suggested the
pictorial possibilities of a train robbery, and a story was in-
vented to give the scenes continuity and culmination. Then
the story became the chief thing. But the development in
the cinema of the story-telling art was hindered by the cir-
cumstances of its early exploitation. The pictures of that
period were exhibited either as part of vaudeville entertain-
ments, where they took the place of the usual feats of legerde-
main, or in cheap halls that had been converted from other
purposes; the latter were usually dark, ill-ventilated and far
from clean. Every circumstance of their presentation tended
to discourage attendance by the better classes of the com-
munity. Yet their cheapness the admission price was usually
five cents in the United States and fourpence, or less, in Eng-
land attracted thousands of people for whom no amuse-
ment of so absorbing a character had ever been provided at so
small a cost. Wherever the moving picture was introduced
similar conditions prevailed; the initial appeal was almost uni-
formly to the illiterate, the half educated, and even, as it seemed,
to the mentally incompetent. Probably no art ever developed
under so great a handicap; the result, still obvious in the crudity
and vulgarity of later films, was too often attributed to some
inherent coarseness of the medium rather than to the unhappy
conditions of its origin. But it was not only the character of
those early audiences which left its impress on the cinema art;
it was also the character of the men who engaged in this new
industry. They were for the most part showmen of the itinerant,
hand-to-mouth type, promoters and managers of the cheapest
forms of vaudeville entertainment. Some of them remained
exhibitors only; others began to assemble companies and produce
motion-pictures. While many persons of intelligence and ability
had been attracted to the industry by the end of the decade,
not a few of the most influential men in the business were those
who had been carried to success by the sheer momentum of the
new art; they were survivals of that early group of showmen
whose hope of profit lay in exploiting the crudest instincts in
the most obvious fashion.
Yet in estimating the social influence of the moving-picture,
even in that early period, it would be a mistake to overlook the
fact that in many localities the cinema afforded the only effec-
tive competition with the allurements of the saloon and public-
house. However bad the pictures were, and they were usually
aesthetically rather than morally reprehensible, nevertheless
they were a positive benefit in comparison with many types
of amusement that were open to the poorer classes. When the
workingman's- family began to insist that he take them to
the moving-picture palace of an evening he found it more
difficult to offer an excuse for going to the bar. With the advent
of Prohibition in the United States the motion-picture interests
profited greatly; the cinema then became one of the most effec-
tive substitutes for the liquor saloon.
It is not surprising that for an appreciable interval many
actors who had achieved fame on the stage refused to act for
the " movies." Cultivated opinion was inclined to scorn if not to
denounce the photoplay. For a time it seemed improbable that
the moving-picture could ever be lifted above the vulgarity
of its origins. The cinema seemed to be held in a vicious circle;
exhibitors were afraid to raise the admission price, yet the fee was.
too small to pay for a better theatre or to justify spending more
money for better pictures. Between 1910 and 1912 attendance
actually began to fall off; even the public whose attention the
" nickelodeon," as it was called in the United States, sought
to challenge, appeared to grow tired of what, after all, was-
only an attempt to compete with the old-fashioned " dime
novel " and " penny dreadful." A few far-sighted producers
perceived that radical measures must be taken if the com-
mercial possibilities of the motion-picture were to be advanced
beyond those of a third-rate vaudeville attraction. The first
step was to break down the prejudice of recognized artists, for
as long as the cinema was held to be an object of ridicule, beneath
the dignity of persons of artistic or cultural pretensions, it was
hopeless to try to interest the public at large in the new art. An
American producer accordingly set about to persuade Mme.
Sarah Bernhardt to appear in moving-pictures, his theory
being that if the best-known living actress should in this way
give her sanction to the cinema the rest would be easy. Mme.
Bernhardt, it is said, was won over on the plea that she ought
to leave future generations some permanent record of her great
art. The result marked something like an epoch in the history
of the motion-picture; the old-time prejudice began gradually
to give way, and the cinema, now certain of its ability to pay
high rewards to popular actors, was soon attracting some of
the best theatrical talent. Money was lavishly spent on huge
productions that required six months or a year to complete;
and a finished picture was likely to cost from $100,000 to
$200,000 instead of from $10,000 to $20,000 as formerly. The
Bernhardt films Camille and Queen Elizabeth were followed
by such productions as Quo Vatfis, Les Miserable!, Tess of the
D'Ubervilles (with Mrs. Fiske), the Italian film Cabiria, written
especially for the cinema by Gabriele D'Annunzio, and The
Birth of a Nation, produced by D. W. Griffith. Cabiria and
The Birth of a Nation deserve especial notice aside from their
excellence as dramatic spectacles, because it was with these
films particularly that the first effort was made to compete
directly with the legitimate theatre; not only were they pre-
sented with full orchestra accompaniment in theatres hitherto
given over to the spoken drama, but admission prices were
raised to the highest scale for Broadway or West End pro-
ductions. The success of these ventures had the effect of raising
the standards of the cinema theatre in every direction; better
theatres adapted solely for motion-pictures were built, per-
manent orchestras installed, prices increased, undesirable
patrons barred; and exhibitors who had formerly looked for
support from the riff-raff of the town discovered it was more
profitable to appeal to the less impecunious and more self-
respecting classes of the community.
There followed a period of keen competition with the legit-
imate drama. In many communities the motion-picture en-
tirely usurped the place once held by the older art. Many
CINEMATOGRAPH
697
stock companies were forced out of existence, while the prospect
of making a profitable tour with a metropolitan success was
rendered more and more precarious.
An American dramatic critic has cited the case of his home town,
Pittsfield, Mass., a city of 40,000 pop., and the situation that de-
veloped there may be taken as typical of what was happening all
over the United States and elsewhere as well. Before the advent of
the motion-picture Pittsfield had one theatre devoted to the legiti-
mate drama ; here were presented at intervals many of the plays that
had attained success on Broadway. But the cinema changed all
that; the one legitimate theatre was transformed into a motion-
picture " palace," and four new " movie " theatres were opened.
Friends of the cinema urged that the casualties brought about by
the onward sweep of the new art were on the whole richly merited.
Certainly the grave apprehensions once entertained for the
future of the dramatic art were ill-founded ; it was natural that the
new form of amusement should menace the existence of the cheaper
and usually inferior grades of theatrical production, but it became
equally evident that each form of dramatic story-telling had its
place, and neither one, if properly conducted, need fear the other.
It might even be urged that in some respects the competition pro-
duced a beneficial effect on the stage. The alleged menace of the
cinema came into prominence in a new form in 1919 when an
American film company (Famous Players-Lasky) purchased the
theatrical business of Charles Frohman, Inc., which included
control of the Empire theatre in New York City. It was assumed
that this invasion of the legitimate stage might result in making the
latter a mere appendage of the cinema theatre, but less than a year
after the purchase of the Empire Jesse L. Lasky confessed that
" the experiment has not been a great success; we have found that
the screen can borrow very little from the stage " (North American
Review, Aug. 1920).
Technique of Production. While aesthetic theory and practice
remained in a somewhat chaotic state, the technique of produc-
tion had been brought to a very high degree of perfection. In
1920 at least 80% of American films were produced in or near
Los Angeles, where the brilliant sunlight makes it possible to
operate the cinema camera almost continuously without the
aid of expensive artificial lighting. In the early days whole
film companies were transported to the supposed scene of the
action, even when the scene was laid in a foreign country;
after the outbreak of the World War, however, this practice
was abandoned, and remote scenes came to be represented as
nearly as possible by the aid of the carpenter and scene-painter.
A thousand workmen would sometimes be employed to construct
a single sham village, while theatrical agencies were developed
to supply almost every variety of foreign " type " that the
imagination of the scenario writer or the exigencies of pro-
duction could demand. Nothing better illustrates the illiteracy
that still clung to certain phases of the business than the ab-
surdities and anachronisms which these made-to-order settings
not infrequently disclosed; as, for example, that widely exhibited
picture in which the great pyramid appeared with certain im-
provements that Cheops had neglected to provide, notably a
very convenient stairway rising to the top.
An early discovery was that the film would lend itself to a great
variety of tricks. A typical example very common in " slapstick "
comedy, was that in which a man, caught under the wheels of a
steam roller, is merely flattened out by the experience, and by means
of a seeming piece of legerdemain is restored to his normal shape. It
is hardly necessary to explain that in taking such a picture the
camera is stopped at the appropriate moment and a dummy sub-
stituted as the victim of the steam roller. Another artifice introduces
at the proper juncture certain ghost-like figures which hover in
uncanny fashion about the scene, or still more uncannily, perhaps,
shows us an actor apparently shaking hands with himself. In each
case the effect is produced by taking two pictures on the same film
(or sometimes by printing two negatives on the same positive). It
is an artifice which was sometimes employed by actors to play two
important r&les in the same scene; an actress, for example, would
appear as both mother and daughter. The most successful of such
pictures, however, scarcely ever rose above the level of an interesting
tour de force. Other peculiar effects were produced by increasing or
decreasing the speed with which the film is normally run through the
camera. Increasing the speed in the camera reduces the relative
rate of projection; this has the effect of separating each motion of
an object into its component parts, and the result is not only in-
teresting in itself but valuable for scientific and educational pur-
poses. The wing movements of a bird, for instance, can be ex-
amined in a manner that would otherwise be impossible. By the
reverse method, the opening of a flower can be presented continuous-
ly within a few minutes, though the separate pictures may have been
taken at the rate of one an hour over a period of days or weeks. By
the use of magnifying lenses minute organisms could be photo-
graphed; and similarly, by employing telephoto lenses, motion-
pictures showing various heavenly bodies could be obtained. In
farcical or melodramatic films the ability to increase relative speed
was employed to make various " stunts " involving horses, railway
trains and automobiles seem more dangerous than they really were.
Another illusion often used for the same purpose is that obtained by
projecting the film backward. By this means a man is made to seem
to jump to the top of a building or to defy the law of gravitation in
some equally astonishing manner. It is a trick also employed in
those pictures in which knives are apparently thrown with such skill
that they almost, but do not quite, strike a person standing against
a wall ; the scene actually photographed is one in which the knives are
being withdrawn from the wall by fine, black threads. For a few
years these artifices were in great vogue, but they presently grew
tiresome, especially after audiences learned that they were frequently
victimized by elaborate pieces of deception. One result was to
discount nearly every scene in which an actor performed a seemingly
hazardous feat; audiences refused to be thrilled, and such " stunts,"
fortunately for the artistic advance of the moving-picture, fell
somewhat into disrepute. Nevertheless there were film companies
which continued to exploit devices of this kind, and a special class of
performers, known as " hazard people," was employed.
The possibilities of the animated cartoon were first suggested by
the well-known illusion in which chairs and other objects are made
to seem to move of their own volition. This illusion was effected by
stopping the camera while the position of the object was actually
being shifted. The animated cartoon is achieved somewhat similarly
by photographing a series of drawings, each showing a slight advance
over the other. In the earliest examples as many as 8,000 separate
drawings were made for each 500 ft. of film, and the process, as thus
evolved, was extremely slow and laborious. Later methods were
developed whereby only moving parts of the picture were redrawn,
and in this way the number of drawings could be reduced to less
than one thousand. Even with this simplification a staff of artists
was required to complete an animated drawing or cartoon, and
the artist to whom it was attributed rarely did more than furnish
the outline of the story or a few preliminary sketches. The method
employed in making animated cartoons was soon adapted to other
subjects; it was found of particular value in illustrating new in-
ventions, or in depicting the operation of certain kinds of mechanism
too intricate to be easily photographed from original models.
Early pictures purporting to be taken under the sea were actually
photographed through the side of a glass tank. In 1913, however,
the so-called submarine tube, which had been devised to lower
beneath a boat for observation purposes, was adapted for cinema
photography, and the first actual submarine pictures were taken.
By this means the under-sea scenes of Jules Verne's Twenty Thou-
sand Leagues Under the Sea were filmed, and later some remarkable
pictures were made of divers fighting with sharks. Interesting cin-
ema views were also obtained of many varieties of ocean fish and
submarine plant life.
Educational Use. With the development of cinema tech-
nique it came to be seen that the moving-picture .might be used
as a valuable aid to education. The hopes of many people tnat
the commercialized cinema would undertake this work on a
large scale were of course not realized. Nevertheless, in most
cinema theatres it became customary to exhibit excellent pictures
of current events, travel, or similar subjects in addition to the
regular programme; and the educational value of such pictures
should not be overlooked. The British Cinema Commission
of Inquiry found that, other conditions being equal, the fund
of general knowledge possessed by children who frequent the
pictures is far wider and far richer than that possessed by those
who do not. This information covered a wide range, including
facts of geography, literature, natural science, industrial pro-
cesses, social life, current events, etc. Moreover, the ideas
formed from a moving-picture were often demonstrably more
accurate than those which the children had previously acquired
from an oral or printed description.
It is obvious that, wherever the intention is to impart infor^
mation which is concerned primarily with visual impressions,
the motion-picture is greatly superior to any other form of in-
struction. Words are only an inadequate substitute for pictures
in giving correct ideas of landscape, natural or mechanical
processes, foreign customs and the like. For this reason, ten
minutes in a motion-picture theatre will often give a better
grasp of such subjects than several hours devoted to text-books.
Knowledge acquired in this way has a vividness and an in-
terest that do not attach to other forms of instruction; con-
sequently it is acquired with less mental friction and with less
698
CINEMATOGRAPH
likelihood of its being forgotten. During the World War, the
Governments engaged in that conflict produced thousands of
war pictures to encourage enlistment and keep up morale; and
the cinema proved itself to be one of the most potent methods
of propaganda in reaching the mass of the people. Films taken
on the battle-field, moreover, will acquire more and more his-
toric interest as time goes on. Such pictures, displayed in
connexion with the course of study at military colleges, have
a value above mere entertainment. Practically all Govern-
ments, therefore, provided special archives for preserving mo-
tion-picture films, especially those dealing with military sub-
jects. The taking of pictures of current events was developed
as a special branch of the motion-picture industry. Certain com-
panies perfected organizations with cameramen acting as
their representatives all over the world, and facilities were
provided for the rapid transportation and development of news
films. These companies began to compete to get their pictures
into the theatres at the first possible moment, and motion-
pictures of important events were frequently exhibited within
an hour or two after the event had taken place. Sometimes
pictures showing earlier phases of a prize fight, an inaugural
ceremony or occurrence of like nature were displayed even
while the event itself was still in progress.
The U.S. Government was probably the first to use the
cinematograph for the purpose of disseminating agricultural
information among farmers. In 1920 the Department of Agri-
culture had in circulation approximately 100 cinema pictures
showing such subjects as How to Select a Laying Hen and The
Story of Cotton. The films were produced under Government
supervision and developed in Government laboratories, which
then had a capacity of one reel a week. Towards the close of
the decade many private institutions were also undertaking the
production of moving-picture films for educational purposes,
and the installation of projecting machines in schools and
churches was becoming rather general. In 1920 there were in
the United States 1,500 schools, universities, and similar institu-
tions so equipped, while more than 2,000 had arrangements with
local theatres for the exhibition of pictures of special value in
connexion with educational work. About 2,000 churches
occasionally showed moving-pictures either at the church
proper or at some outside place under church supervision.
In order to supply schools and churches the " film library,"
devoted largely to educational subjects, was developed and gave
promise of serving a need analogous to that supplied by the
circulating library of books. These libraries were at first in-
stituted as commercial enterprises, but in the United States in
1920 there was at least one organization which supplied films
gratis to institutions that offered to exhibit them free of charge.
Censorship and Regulation. A demand for the regulation,
supervision and censorship of the cinema theatre arose very
soon after the film began to be used for narrative and dramatic
purposes. Regulation was first concerned with construction
of the theatre, the elimination of the fire hazard, and the super-
vision of audiences; then it came to be felt that the chief danger
lay in the pictures themselves. Social workers in nearly every
country conducted an agitation for a censorship that would
prevent the showing of objectionable pictures.
One of the first countries to establish a national censorship
was Sweden (1911); other countries soon followed Spain (1912),
Italy (1913-4), France (1916). Censorship was also instituted
in Russia and Japan; in the latter country the prohibitions
included anything that " contradicts morality and consequently
the principle that good brings its own reward and evil its own
punishment."
In Great Britain the Cinematograph Act of 1909 provided
for the licensing of cinema theatres but not for censorship.
As a result, however, of the discussion incident to the importa-
tion, chiefly from France and America, of certain objectionable
films, the Cinematograph Exhibitors' Assn., with the approval
of the Home Secretary, established an independent Board of
Film Censors. Exhibitors were not of course obliged to accept
the decisions of this Board, yet before the close of the decade
1910-20 more than 97% of the films exhibited in the British
Isles were first reviewed by the Board of Censors.
Jn IQ2O the Cinematograph Exhibitors' Assn. adopted a resolu-
tion providing lor the expulsion of any member who refused to
submit to the censorship of the Board. It might have been expected
that such censorship, in view of its close connexion with the trade
itself, would prove careless and ineffective. It was, however, the
opinion of the Cinema Commission of Inquiry, which conducted a
very careful investigation of the whole subject in 1917, that the
work of the Board was for the most part conscientious and commend-
able. This commission had been instituted by the National Council
of Morals ; its report. The Cinema, already referred to, is a valuable
treatise on many aspects of the moving-picture industry. One of
its conclusions was the recommendation of a State censorship,
largely on the ground that the authority of the State could be ex-
ercised more effectively than that of an independent board. Testify-
ing before the commission, T. P. O'Connor, who had been appointed
president of the Board of Censors in 1916 (following the death of
G. A. Redford, his predecessor), stated that films were censored with
respect to a series of prohibitory regulations, 43 in number, of which
the following are typical: " Indecorous, ambiguous and irreverent
titles and sub-titles. Irreverent treatment of sacred subjects. The
modus operandi of criminals. Cruelty to young infants and excessive
cruelty and torture to adults, especially women. Nude figures;
impropriety in dress or conduct. Gruesome murders, strangulation
scenes, executions. References to controversial politics. Subjects
dealing with the drug habit, white-slave traffic, race suicide, etc.
Illicit sexual relationships; suggestive scenes of immorality; incidents
suggestive of incestuous relations. Scenes tending to disparage
Eublic institutions or characters. Materialization of the conventional
gure of Christ."
Besides showing much good sense, these prohibitions indicate
to what lengths even a moderate censorship can go; if logically
applied such rules would bar many of the plays of Sophocles, Shake-
speare and Ibsen.
The British Board of Censors exercised no control outside of
the British Isles. In Canada in 1920 each province had a
board of censors appointed by the lieutenant-governor in
council; in general the censorship was very rigid, but the fact
that a film had been approved by the authorities of Ontario,
for example, was no guarantee that it would be passed by the
board in Quebec, or vice versa. Elaborate regulations for cen-
sorship were adopted by New Zealand in 1916, and in 1920
State censorship of films existed in many parts of the British
Empire, including India and New South Wales.
In the United States, a non-official censorship, subsequently
known as the National Board of Review, was instituted in
1909 by the People's Institute of New York. Its review com-
mittee (unpaid) was in 1920 composed of 140 representative
citizens, many of whom were engaged in social welfare work.
The American Board, unlike its British counterpart, had no
direct connexion with the cinema industry; its revenues were
derived in part from contributions and in part from a flat charge
of $6.25 (1920) per reel which was assessed against the pro-
ducer for the review of his pictures. In 1920 nearly 6,000 reels
were so reviewed, representing, it is said, more than 99% of
the films exhibited in the United States. The censorship ex-
ercised by the American Board was on the whole noteworthy
for its enlightened character, but while the Board won support
in many communities, there were others which seemed to think
its supervision was either too lenient or not suited to local
needs. By 1921 six states Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Kansas, New York and Massachusetts had established official
censorship boards, and agitation for similar laws was in progress
in many other states. Certain groups were also advocating a
national board of censors to be appointed by the president.
National laws to 1921 consisted only of general prohibitions
against the shipment of improper films in interstate commerce,
though in 1918 the Secretary of the Treasury was empowered to
censor imported films.
For the most part, the cinema industry strongly opposed the
extension of laws for official censorship of motion-pictures, and the
objections put forward were often well founded. For people of the
Anglo-Saxon tradition it is hard to justify the establishment of a
bureaucratic control over any form of artistic or intellectual ex-
pression, whether the medium be the press or the stage. It should be
said, moreover, that opposition to censorship by no means involves a
covert desire for licentious pictures; even without censorship the
exhibitor is fully responsible for the films he shows. Legalized
censorship removes the opportunity to show improper films; it is
CINEMATOGRAPH
699
preventive. Its great danger is that it may become rigid and
arbitrary. Special reasons, however, were advanced why in the case
of the moving-picture preventive action should be taken. One of
these was that the cinema theatre makes an extraordinary appeal
to children, who comprise a large percentage of the average neigh-
bourhood audience. But it could be answered that if the cinema was
ever to become a mature art, it could not forever be restricted
by standards of what might and might not be good for children. The
best solution here seemed to lie in providing special performances for
children ; no good reason appeared why children should be encouraged
or even permitted indiscriminately to attend the cinema theatre.
A better plea for censorship was that the industry, haying arisen in
less than a quarter of a century, was still in a formative condition,
without adequate artistic and moral standards. It was urged, there-
fore, that censorship was necessary not only to protect the public
but to protect the producer against his inability to perceive his own
best interests. Such an argument clearly anticipated a period when
censorship would be unnecessary ; unfortunately experience points to
the difficulty of abolishing any kind of bureaucratic agency when
once it has become established. The continued existence of the
British dramatic censorship, despite very great efforts to modify its
powers, affords an excellent illustration of the tenacity of Govern-
ment bureaus. It should be noted also that in the United States the
censorship laws seemed to be designed partly as revenue measures,
which of course still further entrenched them against attack. For
these reasons the voluntary censorship undertaken by the Board
of Film Censors in England and the National Board of Review in the
United States would on the whole seem preferable to other methods
of preventive supervision. In this connexion the following excerpt
from the official statement of the American Board is significant:
" The National Board's standards are, of course, progressive and
will change with the lapse of time . . . becoming more ideal as the
motion-picture in America emerges from its present condition as a
new art. Moreover, the increased experience of the producers, the
development of motion-picture artists, the classification of the
theatres, the influence of more cultivated audiences, and the popular
adoption of motion-pictures into education, all of which is even now
in progress, will in time bring about conditions so different from the
present that regulation may perhaps not be necessary."
Artistic Value. The close of the decade was marked by
various controversies as to whether the cinema could be classi-
fied as an art. That discussion was in itself a valuable indica-
tion of the improving status of the moving-picture; ten years
earlier the cinema was either ridiculed or ignored. Later critics
very naturally sought to establish their case against the cinema
on the obvious fact that a majority of the films were crude and
childish, mostly slapstick farce and sentimental melodrama;
but an argument evolved in this fashion has little to commend
it; doubtless in the England of the isth century it seemed equally
impossible that the crude mystery and morality plays of the
day should ever give rise to distinguished art. Yet these crude
efforts were the precursors of the drama of Marlowe, of Jonson
and of Shakespeare. This is not to say that friends of the cinema
are looking forward to a Shakespeare of the films; the artistic
values that can be achieved in the motion-picture are not com-
mensurable with those which pertain to the written drama.
What is contended is that, considered solely as a method of
telling a story, the motion-picture is capable of achieving highly
artistic results. Even sentimental melodrama as produced
in the cinema became a more artistic type of narrative than
the old popular melodrama of the stage. But the best producers
were not content to have made only this degree of progress,
and their finest achievements at least foreshadowed the develop-
ment of singularly beautiful and expressive art.
Action and setting constitute the chief means of this art,
and in both elements it has advantages over the older forms of
narrative. The cinema can present action more successfully
than the novel and hardly less effectively than the drama. In
the ease with which it can represent and control the element of
setting it has an immense superiority 'over both the novel and
drama, though its possibilities in this direction were only be-
ginning to be appreciated. Some writers, notably Prof. Hugo
Munsterberg in his interesting study, The Photoplay (1916),
insist that the essence of the new art lies in its ability to triumph
over the ordinary limitations of mundane existence. " The
photoplay," says Munsterberg, " tells us the human story by
overcoming the forms of the outer world, namely, space, time
and causality, and by adjusting the events to the forms of
the inner world, namely attention, memory, imagination and
emotion." The plasticity of the motion-picture medium, its
freedom from merely conventional restrictions of time and
space, undoubtedly give fresh scope to the imagination and the
power to weave new patterns out of the materials of existence.
Possessing these advantages, the cinema lacks the means to
tell any appreciable part of its story in words. Failure to
appreciate the artistic possibilities of the moving-picture often
arose from a failure to perceive that it must be regarded as
an art quite different in method, if not in purpose, from that of
essentially literary forms, particularly the spoken drama. It is
not a literary art. It cannot rely on literary methods. This
explains the lack of success that attended the efforts of many
literary men, novelists and dramatists, to use this new medium.
Its central purpose, namely to arouse emotion, is identical with
that of the spoken drama; it is perhaps more amenable to
fundamental laws of dramatic composition than many pro-
ducers and directors seemed to realize. But in most respects it
differs more widely from the accepted dramatic form than
Shakespeare differs from Sophocles or Ibsen from both. In
virtually surrendering dialogue, the motion-picture surrenders
a form of expression upon which the dramatist relies very
largely for the presentation of character and the clash of char-
acter; it follows that a scene representing mental conflict, for
example, must either be inadequately represented in the mov-
ing-picture or expressed in a different way.
For this reason, the production of a successful motion-picture
play makes the very highest demand on the skill and imagination of
the scenario writer, the director, and the actor. In the composition
of the story every scene and every element of the scene must
possess an expressiveness which is quite unnecessary where words
can be used to cover defects of action or setting. The art of sugges-
tion must be pushed far beyond the conventional limits of the
legitimate stage; an attitude, a look, a gesture, a bit of pantomime
must be made to tell as much as pages of dialogue. There is no reason
to disparage such a method ; in ordinary life we discern the nuances
of character quite as much from facial expression as from what we
are told by the person himself; the light in the eye often illuminates
the mind better than the spoken word. Setting, also, may be made
to reflect character ; it may show the world as the protagonist of the
drama himself sees it, sometimes twisted and distorted, sometimes
fair and alluring. Here at least is an opportunity to do what the
legitimate drama could never do. Setting likewise may advance
the plot; as Otis Skinner points out, sometimes a glove, a pistol, an
empty chair, will tell a better story than action. To a much greater
extent than the drama, the successful motion-picture requires the
coordination of the efforts of the author, the actor and the producer:
a play may have an existence of its own without ever having been
produced on the stage, but a moving -picture scenario is the barest of
skeletons before it is acted in front of a camera. The photoplay is
thus a composite art, almost equally dependent on its various ele-
ments. Some advance had been made in the decade 1910-20 in
achieving a successful coordination of these elements, but no com-
pletely adequate method or procedure for securing this result had
been evolved, so that good acting was frequently wasted on ridicu-
lous scenarios, while good stories were made childish by incompetent
direction.
Film Actors. In an art so new, it is not surprising that the
greatest reputations were made by actors whose appeal to the
public is less a matter of circumstance than that of the scenario
writer or the director. By reason of the extensive popularity of
the motion-picture the names of Mary Pickford, Douglas Fair-
banks, and Charles Chaplin had a renown that was no less than
world-wide. Miss Pickford (family name Smith) was born
in Toronto, Can., April 8 1893, the daughter of a character
actress. She made her debut on the stage at the age of five, but
her first marked success was in motion-pictures, and she after-
wards appeared as leading woman in many highly successful
photoplays, among them Tess of the Storm Country, Cinderella,
Fanchon the Cricket, Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, etc. For
many she typified the charm of innocent girlhood. On March
28 1920 she married Douglas Fairbanks. She was in 1920 head
of the Mary Pickford Film Company. Fairbanks, who was born
May 23 1883 in Denver, Col., attended for a time the Colorado
School of Mines. He appeared in a minor r61e on the New York
stage in 1901; later he was " starred " in several comedies and
musical pieces, after which he left the stage for motion-pictures,
where his engaging smile and athletic prowess stood him in
700
CITY GOVERNMENT
good stead. In 1916 Fairbanks organized his own producing
company. At the age of seven Charles Spencer Chaplin (born
in 1888 near London) first appeared on the London vaudeville
stage. A piece called A Night in an English Music Hall brought
him to the United States, and in 1914 he became a cinema actor
for the Keystone Film Co., under whose auspices he quickly
showed his genius for comedy, though his early roles were
principally those of the inebriate clown, borrowed or imitated
from the vaudeville stage. In succeeding years he performed
in motion-pictures for the Essanay Co., the Mutual Film Corp.,
and the First National Exhibitors' Circuit; it is stated that in
1917 he received $1,000,000 from the last-named organization
for making eight two-reel pictures. He afterwards constructed
a motion-picture plant at Los Angeles and undertook the direc-
tion of his own pictures.
Before the invention of the motion-picture the art of acting was
perhaps the most ephemeral of the arts. We have been told that
David Garrick, for example, was a great actor, but we have no
means of judging for ourselves. The motion-picture can now give to
the actor s art a permanence that is to some degree analogous to
that of the printed book. Up to 1921 it was, however, a more con-
ditional permanence, for the reason that cinema film as then manu-
factured had much less enduring quality than the printed page; a
book can be preserved for centuries, but the commercial film of the
day was not expected to remain clear for more than 15 years. Films
kept longer than that showed signs of rapid disintegration. A con-
tinual renewal of old films by making new copies was therefore the
price of keeping a permanent motion-picture record. Many old
films were accordingly allowed to lapse, and it is obvious that ac-
cident will play a large part in determining what films shall be pre-
served as the years go by. But with good fortune, some motion-
pictures may achieve an immortality comparable with that of the
great works of arts or letters. It would be more than hazardous to
say that the cinema, in the brief period of its existence, had yet
produced any picture which deserved immortality. Still, every one
who is interested in this new art would wish to make a few excep-
tions, if only for the sake of their historical importance.
(H. CR.)
CITY GOVERNMENT (UNITED STATES). Lord Bryce's Ameri-
can Commonwealth (1888) maybe said to mark the turning point
in the consideration of city problems in America. From the end
of the Civil War in 1865 to 1888 the United States was engrossed
in problems of readjustment, reconstruction, transportation and
internal development. Municipal affairs, where not wholly
neglected, were at low ebb and in the hands of selfish political
organizations, whose interests were wholly those of personal
aggrandizement and profit. Lord Bryce's criticism stung the
country into consciousness of the shortcomings.
A national conference on city government was held in Phila-
delphia in 1894, out of which grew the National Municipal
League. Its early meetings were devoted to a statement of con-
ditions and to a discifssion of the lessons they taught. Publicists
and students were not in a position to agree upon a statement of
belief, mainly because they had not given to general plans the
necessary attention and study; their experience had been purely
local. There was no regular form of American municipal govern-
ment, and the greatest diversity of types, although the general
tendency was toward a federal plan modelled on that of the
national Government with a division of functions (legislative,
administrative and judicial). Out of the League's efforts grew a
" municipal programme " the fundamental features .of which
were that every community should have the right of self-govern-
ment in local affairs without the interference of outside govern-
mental or party machinery; that the city's public property in
land, and especially its franchise rights, should be preserved un-
impaired; that all barriers should be removed which prevented
the popular will from expressing itself freely and effectively;
that municipal administration should be conducted in the main by
a class of public servants who by reason of experience and special
training were particularly fitted for their official duties; that
official responsibility should be so placed, through simplification
of governmental machinery and full publicity of accounts, that
the people could hold their public servants to the execution of the
public will with the least possible delay and uncertainty.
In the year in which this programme was adopted (1900)
the Galveston flood nearly destroyed that city. Among other
things swept away was the typical old-style mayor and council
form of government, which was replaced by a commission of five
men appointed by the governor of Texas. This commission
worked so swiftly and efficiently, and with so much less annual
cost, that, after the emergency passed, an attempt was made ta
continue it with a commission of five members, three appointed
by the governor and two chosen by popular vote. A court de-
cision declared such appointments to be unconstitutional and
the entire commission forthwith became elective. To the sur-
prise of many observers, no demoralization ensued, and through
successive elections the changes in the personnel were slight.
In 1908 Des Moines adopted the Galveston plan, with the
addition of the initiative, referendum, recall and non-partisan
primary. This broader plan was widely copied, and 481 cities
and towns of 2,000 and over by Jan. i 1921 had adopted it.
The following cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants (census of
1920) were in 1921 operating under this form: Buffalo, N. Y. ;
Dallas, Tex. ; Erie, Harrisburg, Wilkesbarre, York, Lancaster, Mc-
Keesport and Reading, Pa.; Jacksonville, Fla.; Kansas City, Kan.;
Lawrence and Lynn, Mass.; Newark, N. J.; New Orleans, La.;
Portland, Ore.; St. Joseph, Mo.; St. Paul, Minn.; Salt Lake City,
Utah ; Seattle, Spokane and Tacoma, Wash. There were in the same
year 56 cities and towns in Illinois under commission government;
Texas followed with 48 ; Kansas had 42 ; New Jersey 38 ; Pennsyl-
vania 32; Oklahoma 23; California 17; Michigan 17; South Dakota
16; Alabama 13; Louisiana 13; Tennessee 13; Florida 12; Iowa,
Missouri, North Dakota and Washington 10 each. The number
per state gradually decreased until in Arizona, Connecticut, Maine,
Maryland and New Mexico there was one each. There was none in
New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Delaware, Virginia,
Georgia, Indiana, Arkansas, Wyoming, and Nevada.
Few changes of importance were made in the Des Moines
model for several years after 1908 (except the preferential ballot
first added by Grand Junction, Colo., 1909) until the appearance
in 1913 of the first modification providing for a city manager.
Out of this grew a city-manager form of commission government,
which the National Municipal League recommended to charter-
makers, then multiplying in great numbers due to the growing
dissatisfaction with existing conditions. A second " municipal
programme " formally adopted by the National Municipal
League in 1914, definitely embodied the city-manager plan and
later recommended that the council or legislative body be elected
on the principle of proportional representation.
The city-manager movement is justly regarded as the best
fruit of the movement for better municipal government. It
embodies the short ballot, responsiveness to public opinion,
concentration of executive power and responsibility, expert
administration of city affairs, and elimination of legislative
control over the administrative, all essential principles of sound
governmental practice. The success of the plan has been abun-
dantly proved, although here and there expectations, because
unreasonable, have not been met. Like other governmental
agencies it is open to change and improvement, but it stands as
the big contribution to political science of the past quarter of a
century. Moreover, its application to an increasing number of
cities is developing municipal policies as perhaps no other single
factor does. City-planning, zoning, budget-making, the prepara-
tion of adequate and carefully devised plans for transportation,
intelligent housing, have all been stimulated by the introduction
of experts in municipal affairs.
On Jan. i 1920 there were 203 cities, according to the City Man-
ager Association roll, operating in this form; Michigan leading with
27 cities; California, Texas and Virginia following with 19 each;
Iowa and Ohio 12; North Carolina 9; Florida 8; New York 6;
Pennsylvania and Georgia 5. There was none in New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, Delaware, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, North Dakota,
Nebraska, Alabama, Mississippi, Montana, Wyoming, Nevada,
Idaho, Washington. The following cities with a pop. of 25,000 or
more (census of 1920) were in 1921 administered by city managers:
Alameda, Pasadena, Sacramento, San Diego and San Jose in
California ; Colorado Springs, Colo.; Tampa, Fla.; Dubuque, la.;
Waltham, Mass.; Bay City, Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo, Muskegon
and Pontiac, Mich.; Niagara Falls and Watertown, N. Y.; Akron,
Ashtabula, Dayton, Lima and Springfield, O.; Muskogee, Okla.;
Altoona, Pa.; Beaumont, Tex.; Lynchburg, Newport News, Nor-
folk, Peterburg, Portsmouth, and Roanoke, Va. ; and in West Vir-
ginia, Charleston and Wheeling.
CLARETIE CLEMENCEAU
701
Home rule for cities, a far cry when Lord Bryce's book appeared,
was in 1921 the guaranteed constitutional right of the cities of
one-quarter of the states in the Union and bade fair to become
the policy of many more. It represented a great gain both for
municipal government and for an efficient administration of
state affairs. Improvements in the personnel of city officials
have not kept pace with improvements in other directions,
although substantial changes for the better are everywhere to be
noted. There can be no lasting improvement in this connexion
until the short ballot becomes an established fact. This change
will come less quickly than the others because of the " vested
interests " of the great political organizations, which will yield
with the greatest reluctance, for the short ballot means the sub-
stitution of citizen management for party organization. Whether
the latter would ever cease to be necessary was still in 1921 a
question upon which there was a sharp difference of opinion.
There is no doubt, however, that party ties, particularly in local
contests, are far looser than they formerly were. " Municipal
affairs" was in 1921 a phrase which included a multitude of
things that a generation earlier were not discussed even academ-
ically. One has only to study the budget of the present-day
American city to appreciate how manifold those affairs have
become. Not only numerically but intrinsically they have grown
in importance and this constitutes an important feature of the
present public interest in them. The municipal activities of
American cities are numerous and varied. Prof. Frank Parsons,
in summing them up, declared that the following subjects were
held to be proper public purposes and proper subjects of muni-
cipal ownership and control: " Roads, bridges, sidewalks, sewers,
ferries, markets, scales, wharves, canals, parks, baths, schools,
libraries, museums, hospitals, lodging nouses, poor houses,
police, jails, cemeteries, prevention of fire, supply of water, gas,
electricity, heat, power, transportation, telegraph and telephone
service, clocks, skating rinks, musical entertainments, exhibitions
of fireworks, tobacco warehouses, employment offices." The
three decades following 1890 witnessed a steady growth toward
responsible, efficient democratic government among American
cities. (C. R. W.)
CLARETIE, JULES ARSENE ARNAUD (1840-1913), French
man of letters (see 6.436*), retired from the administration of the
Theatre Frangais in 1913. La Vie de Paris was completed in
1913, and published in 21 vols. in 1914. He died in Paris Dec. 23
CLARK, CHAMP (1850-1921), American politician, was born
in Anderson co., Ky., March 7 1850. He first entered Kentucky
University but finished his course at Bethany College in 1873.
The following year he was elected president of Marshall College,
West Virginia, and one year later was admitted to the bar. After
1880 his law office was in Bowling Green, Missouri. He was city
attorney for Louisiana (Mo.) and Bowling Green from 1878 to
1881, was prosecuting attorney for Pike co. 1885-9, an( l then for
three years was a member of the Missouri House of Representa-
tives. He was a member of Congress from 1893 to 1895, an d f rora
1919 to 1921, being Speaker from 1911 to 1919 and minority
leader thereafter; he was defeated in the ehction of 1920. At
the Democratic Convention for the nomination of a presidential
candidate held at Baltimore in 1912, he led on 27 ballots, and
had a clear majority on eight, but he was finally defeated by
Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey. He died in Washington, D.C.,
March 2 1921.
CLARKE, ALEXANDER ROSS (1828-1914), British soldier,
was born Dec. 16 1828. He entered the Royal Engineers, and
in 1854 was placed in charge of the trigonometrical operations of
the ordnance survey. He retained this position until 1881. He
was one of the British representatives at the international geo-
detic congress held in Rome in 1883, and in 1887 received the
Royal medal of the Royal Society. Colonel Clarke was a recog-
nized authority on geodesy, and made valuable contributions
to the subject. He died at Reigate Feb. n 1914.
CLARKE, SIR CASPAR PURDON (1846-1911), English art
expert, was born in London Dec. 21 1846. Educated privately
at Sydenham and Boulogne. In 1862 he entered the art schools
at South Kensington and was trained as an architect. In 1865
he entered the Office of Works, and in 1867 was attached to the
works department of the South Kensington museum. He trav-
elled extensively for the museum, purchasing objects of art, and
at the same time carried on his profession as an architect. In
1883 he became keeper of the India museum at South Kensington,
in 1892 keeper of the art collections at South Kensington, in
1893 assistant-director, and in 1896 director. This post he held
until 1905, when he became director of the Metropolitan museum,
New York, resigning in 1910. He was knighted in 1902. He
died in London March 29 1911.
CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841- ), English
lawyer and politician (see 6.444), retired from the bar in 1914.
He published in 1918 an autobiography, The Story of my Life.
CLAUSEN, GEORGE (1852- ), English painter (see 6.467).
His recent work has been chiefly landscapes, such as " The
Fields in June " (1914), now in the Cardiff gallery, and " Mid-
summer Dawn " (1921), but has also included portraits and
figure work such as " The Window " (1912), now in Cape Town
gallery. For the Imperial War museum he painted the large
" Gun Factory at Woolwich Arsenal " (1919), broadly decorative
but very refined in handling. His decorative work also includes
"Renaissance" (191 5) and decorations for the Hall at High Royd,
Huddersfield, consisting of life-size figures in lunettes. He was
elected R.A. in 1908, and is a member of the R.W.S. He is
represented in the Tate gallery by " The Girl at the Gate "
(1890) and " The Gleaners Returning " (1908).
CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES EUGENE BENJAMIN (1841- ),
French statesman (see 6.482). When Clemenceau resigned the
French premiership in July 1909, he had already played as great
a part in his country's history as would have satisfied the energies
and ambitions of most men. He might be driven from office;
nothing could force him to give up the fearless use of his critical
gifts as a speaker and as a writer. Out of office he remained a
formidable figure. As a senator he did his utmost to defeat
Raymond Poincare in the presidential election of 1913, and
rallied against him all the forces of French radicalism. Clemen-
ceau's candidate, Jules Pams, was adopted by the party caucus,
but, in spite of Clemenceau, Poincare maintained his candidature
at Versailles and was elected. There were many then who felt
that at last " the Tiger " had been killed. On the boulevards,
young students who, years afterwards, were to seek from Clemen-
ceau all their hope and inspiration, paraded shouting " Down with
Clemenceau! " The old fighter refused to accept this defeat.
He founded 1'Homme Libre, in which to carry on his warfare
against Poincare. Every morning he poured a column of acid
upon the new President of the republic, but soon found himself
forced by patriotic honesty to support with all his strength the
chief measure introduced to Parliament during the first year of
Poincare's term of office the Three Years' Military Service
bill. He belonged to the generation of defeat, and, while in no
way a revanchard, believed, in spite of his cynicism, that injustice
cannot be permanent, and therefore desired to see his country
strong. He, more than any other Frenchman, had studied and
appreciated the meaning of German military preparations, and
to him also belongs the honour of having been calmly consistent
in warning France of what was to come and exhorting her to gird
up her loins. He fought for the Three Years' Service bill with
every weapon in his armoury, and it was he who opened the eyes
of many Radical opponents of the measure to the danger of
allowing considerations arising from the approaching elections
to cloud their judgment on a matter of life or death to the
country.
On the very eve of the World War in July 1914, speaking in
the Senate, he insisted upon steps being taken to press forward
at top speed the realization of the artillery programme. His
war writings began long before war was declared, and there are
some worthy of a place in history. Among them were the articles
published by 1'Homme Libre under the splendid titles of " Vou-
loir ou Mourir, " " Pour Etre, " " Triompher ou Perir. " After
the outbreak of hostilities he soon made acquaintance with the
stupidity of rigorous censorship, and in Sept. 1914 his paper
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
7O2
CLERK CLEVELAND
was suppressed on account of a violent attack upon the
appalling inefficiency of army medical services. With charac-
teristic irony and decision two days later he issued I'Homme
Enchainf, a title which was kept until he himself took office
on Nov. 16 1917. Each day the censorship had to forge
fresh fetters for chaining him. With all the skill of a surgeon
Clemenceau laid bare the faults which too frequently charac-
terized French war-leading. Poincare was the butt for many
of his bitterest jibes, and by the savagery of his opinion Clemen-
ceau perhaps shut himself out of office for so long a time. He
fought government after government in his paper, but there the
censorship put buttons on his foils. His voice, however, could
not be stilled in the private proceedings of the Senate. At the
beginning of the war he was president of the foreign affairs com-
mittee, and when de Freycinet joined the Briand Ministry he
also was elected president of the army committee of the Upper
Chamber. These two posts gave him an observation post com-
manding the whole field of war affairs, and his criticisms and
suggestions on these committees were invaluable. M. Caillaux,
in his defence, Mes Prisons, states that throughout the war two
policies fought in France for supremacy his own tendency
towards reconciliation with Germany, and peace without victory,
to be made very largely at the expense of Great Britain; and the
uncompromising faith of Clemenceau that France must fight to
a finish, that it would be better for the world and for France that
she should go down into dust rather than she should live in
dishonourable partnership with injustice. Caillaux 's analysis is
right in its main perspective, and he is also correct in stating
that it was in the spring of 191 7 that Clemenceau won his victory.
Then it was, without a doubt, that the clear revelation of the
results of the doctrine of defeatism startled the people from the
war-weariness into which they were slipping.
It was upon the wave of feeling then created that Clemenceau
came into power. He had to fight not only Caillaux and his
henchmen, who knew that with Clemenceau at the head of
affairs their shrift would be short; he also had arrayed against
him a legion of self-made enemies and the instinctive distrust
of mediocre politicians for a man they knew to be their master.
By July 1917, Clemenceau had driven Malvy from office by
his charges of negligence in dealing with enemy propaganda.
The position of the whole Ribot Ministry was made untenable,
and the Painleve Government was the last barrier erected against
Clemenceau. On Nov. 16 1917, he formed his Victory Cabinet.
Nearly all the men in it were unknown, and Clemenceau could
well have said: " Le Gouvernement, c'est moi."
The story of his ministry is told under FRANCE (History).
A few facts and dates complete the record. He presided over the
Paris Peace Conference, at which he was chief French delegate.
On Feb. 19 1919 he was wounded by revolver shots fired at him
as he was leaving his house in the rue Franklin, by a young an-
archist, Emile Cottin (sentence of death, March 14, commuted
to imprisonment for life). He allowed himself to be put forward
as candidate for the presidency at the preliminary party caucus
meeting on Jan. 16 1920, but, in view of the support given to M.
Deschanel, he did not stand for election at the National As-
sembly of Versailles, and then retired from all public activity.
He afterwards traveled in Egypt and India. In June 1921 he
was given a doctor's degree at Oxford University.
CLERK, SIR DUGALD (1854- ), Scottish civil engineer,
was born at Glasgow March 31 1854. He was educated at the
West of Scotland Technical College and the Andersonian College.
He invented the Clerk cycle gas engine in 1877, improving it in
1878 (see 11.498), and became a recognized authority on internal
combustion engines. He also interested himself in motor engineer-
ing, acting as judge at the automobile trials at Richmond in
1899 and 1900, and in 1908 becoming president of the Incor-
porated Institution of Automobile Engineers. During the World
War he became director of engineering research to the Ad-
miralty, and until 1919 was a member of the advisory committee
for aeronautics to the Air Ministry, and also of the air inven-
tions committee. In 1908 he was elected F.R.S. He was knighted
in 1917 ifi recognition of his work.
CLEVELAND (see 6.503), the largest city in Ohio and the fifth
in the United States, had in 1920 a pop. of 796,841, a gain of
236,178 or 42-1% for the decade. The area in 1921 was 56-655
sq.m. as against 41 sq.m. in 1910. To the two viaducts across
the valley of the Cuyahoga river were added three others, of
which the most noteworthy is the High Level bridge, connecting
Superior avenue on the east with Detroit avenue on the west.
Its central span is 591 ft. long and 96 ft. above water, permitting
the tallest masts of lake shipping to pass. The total length, with
approaches, is 5,630 ft. and its cost was $5,407,000.
The centre of retail trade moved steadily eastward, crowding
out the large houses with spacious grounds which had made
Euclid avenue famous. New residential sections were developed,
especially near Wade park and on the heights east of the city.
Noteworthy additions were made to Cleveland architecture in
the county court house and the city hall (of the uncompleted
" Group " plan) ; in office buildings like the Engineers, the Illumi-
nating, the Leader-News, and the Hanna buildings; in the " Plain
Dealer " newspaper building; in the Cleveland Trust Co.'s bank
building; in the Museum of Art; and in churches, the Church
of the Covenant (Presbyterian), St. Agnes (Catholic), Euclid
Avenue Temple (Jewish), and the Amasa Stone memorial chapel
of Adelbert College.
The schools were reorganized in 1917 as a result of a " survey."
Significant features were the development of junior high schools, of
which there were in 1921 sixteen, and the effective establishment of
departmental supervision to coordinate, standardize, and improve
the work in each study. The cost of instruction in 1919 was $4,383,-
924. The Normal school, now the Cleveland school of education,
was affiliated with Western Reserve University. To the university
were added schools of pharmacy and of applied social science, and a
department of religious education. In 1920-1 the university had 243
instructors and 2,027 students. Of other institutions of higher
education, Case school of applied science had 67 instructors and
690 students, St. Ignatius College 26 instructors and 560 students,
the Cleveland school of art 17 instructors and 547 students. The
most important addition to the educational and artistic life of the
community was the Museum of Art, located in Wade park. The
building, of beautiful classical design, and admirably adapted to its
uses, was completed in 1916. By reason of collections already made
and additional gifts, the museum at once took high rank. Its direc-
tors have sought through classes, lectures, and special exhibitions,
to make it a power in popular education and to coordinate its work
with that of the schools and colleges. The musical development of
the city was stimulated by the creation of a symphony orchestra.
In its charities Cleveland has carried far the principle of co-
operation, seeking to obviate through a welfare federation the waste
in soliciting contributions. In 1919 and 1920 Community Chests
were organized, and sums aggregating $4,000,000 and $4,500,000
were subscribed in " drives," to meet the needs of all community
activities, not only charities, but also Red Cross, Y.M.C.A.
and Y.W.C.A., Knights of Columbus, etc. The Cleveland Founda-
tion was created in 1914, becoming the model for similar institutions
in other cities. Its purpose was to enable a competent commission,
renewable in part each year, to utilize a portion of funds entrusted
to it in inquiries on the best methods of furthering the interests of
the community, and, when the funds became large enough, to apply
their income directly to schemes of betterment. Under its auspices
were conducted in 1916 an educational survey at a cost of $50,000,
a survey for a community recreation programme in 1920, and a
survey of the administration of justice in 1921.
Cleveland is the seat of a federal reserve bank. Its two largest
banks were in 1921 the Union Trust Co., formed that year by the
consolidation of several older banks, and the Cleveland Trust Com-
pany. In the same year the city still retained its position as the
greatest ore market in the world and also led in many steel products.
The increase in automobile production in the decade closing in
1914 was 486%. The total value of all products in 1914 was $352,-
531,000 compared with $172,115,101 in 1905. Harbour facilities
were developed by the completion of the Government breakwater,
5i m. long. Passenger steamship service was transferred to a new
5 ac. pier on the lake front, built at a cost of $500,000.
In accordance with authority conferred by the home-rule amend-
ment of the state constitution, a charter, submitted by a special
commission, was accepted by the citizens on July I 1913. Under its
provisions the mayor and the 26 councilmen are the only elected
officials. Nominated by petition, all candidates appear on tickets
without party designation. Heads of departments and divisions
are appointed by the mayor; all other officials are appointed accord-
ing to the merit system.
The city added to its waterworks a filtration plant, with a total
capacity of 150,000 gal. a day. Water is drawn through tunnels
from a submerged crib about 5 m. from shore.
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
703
The total number of men supplied by Cleveland to the U.S.
armies in the World War was 55,000; the total amount subscribed
in the Liberty and Victory Loans $437,041,300. (H. E. B.)
CLIFFORD, JOHN (1836- . ), British Nonconformist divine
(see 6.507), resigned his position at Westbourne Park chapel in
1915. He was president of the National Brotherhood Council
from 1916 to 1919.
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY (see 6.509). In climatological
progress during 1910-21 certain general tendencies are observable,
(i) Increasing emphasis has been laid upon applied, as distin-
guished from theoretical, climatology. Practical climatology is
essentially human and economic. The investigation of its life-
relations is the most important subject with which climatology
has to deal. (2) More attention is being paid to the variability,
the frequency, and the probability of occurrence of the various
climatic elements, with correspondingly less limitation to simple
mean or average values. Mathematical treatment of climatic
data along well-established lines, such as the use of frequency
curves, and of coefficients of correlation, is becoming more general
with the result that the whole body of climatological knowledge
is more precise and of greater practical value. (3) In most of the
recent publications on climatography the fact is recognized that,
climate being average weather, no vivid and accurate picture
of any climate can be gained merely from a statistical tabulation
of the ordinary climatic elements. It is necessary to have also
clear and interesting descriptions of the various weather types.
The addition of such descriptions has resulted in a distinct gain
in the more thorough understanding of climates, especially in
their relations to man. For years, one of the most significant
sections of British Rainfall has been Dr. H. R. Mill's discussion
of the occurrence of heavy rainfalls in relation to the actual storm
conditions which brought them. Such studies have also recently
been carried out in other countries.
The outstanding general text and reference book on all aspects
of climatology is the 3rd edition, in three volumes, of Dr. Julius
von Hann's Handbuch der Klimatologie. 1 These volumes con-
stitute the one indispensable handbook for all who are in any
way concerned with the study of climate. The first volume (1908)
deals with general climatology. The second (1910) and third
(1911) volumes are devoted to climatography. In them, a
summary of what is known concerning the climate of every part
of the world may be found. The climatic pictures are made
notably complete and accurate by means of vivid descriptions of
weather types; by frequent reference to the effects of climate
upon vegetation, upon crops, and upon human activities, and
by well-chosen quotations from the writings of residents and of
travellers who are familiar with the climates concerning which
they have given accounts. Temperature, rainfall and other
essential data for large numbers of stations, in many cases here
worked out in detail and summarized for the first time, constitute
a very valuable feature of the book. All important literature up
to the date of publication of the Handbuch is cited. References
to more recent literature will be found in the regular meteoro-
logical bibliographies.
Classification of Climates. In the systematic study of the world's
climates, some scheme of classification must be employed. Many
such classifications have been suggested, some based on a single
element of climate and others on various combinations of these
elements. The late Dr. A. J. Herbertson, whose " major natural
regions " are well known, made a later study of " thermal regions,"
using certain critical actual temperatures (68, 50, 32 F.) and con-
structing maps which show the numbers of months during which
these temperatures prevail.*
The duration of these Critical temperatures is of importance in
the distribution and growth of vegetation, and therefore also in the
life of man. A more elaborate scheme of classification has been
suggested by Koppen. 3 This is a thorough revision of the classifica-
tion proposed by him in 1900.
1 J. von Hann, Handbuch der Klimatologie, 3rd ed., Stuttgart,
vol. i., 1908; vol. ii., 1910; vol. iii., 1911.
8 A. J. Herbertson, " The Thermal Regions of the Globe," Geog.
Journ., vol. xl., 1912, pp. 518-532.
* W. Koppen, " Klassifikation der Klimate nach Temperatur,
Niederschlag und Jahresverlauf," Pet. Mitt., vol. Ixiv., 1918, pp.
193-203, 243-248.
The critical features of the controlling factors are worked out
with great accuracy and detail. A brief, simple scheme of two or
three reference tetters and numbers (climatic formulae) is used for
the characterization of each climatic subdivision. As a framework
for comparative studies of climates and of climatic controls the new
map is of great value.
In studies of the general controls exercised over seasonal weather
conditions, and hence also over climates in all parts of the world,
the publication of the Roseau Mondial is of great significance. 4
This is a compilation of world data by 10 squares of lat. and long.,
based on observations at land stations averaging two for each square.
Monthly and annual summaries of pressure, temperature and
precipitation are included, with charts for the year 1911.
Another general publication of broad climatic interest is a study
of the snow-line. 5 The snow-line is the resultant of climatic and
topographic controls. An analysis of the observations of the snow-
line is therefore an important subdivision of climatology. Nearly
two-thirds of this monograph is taken up with a detailed summary
and a critical examination of the data from all parts of the world,
with copious references to the sources of information.
Variations of Climate. The whole question of climatic variations
is still under active debate, both as to the occurrence, characteristics
and frequency of any such " changes," and also as to their possible
causes. Dr. Ellsworth Huntington has been the most prolific
writer on this problem. His investigations, which began in central
Asia, have been extended over parts of western Asia, Palestine, the
Libyan Desert, the southwestern United States and portions of
Central America. 6
From an examination of a large body of evidence archaeological,
physiographic, historical including the rings of the giant Sequoias
of California, the conclusion is drawn that from the beginnings of
human history a gradual change from moister to drier climates has
been going on. This process has, however, not been steadily pro-
gressive, but has taken place in a more or less irregular pulsatory
fashion, drier and moister epochs alternating without definite period-
icity as subordinate irregularities on the general curves of desicca-
tion. The major fluctuations are believed by Huntington to have
been essentially synchronous, and of the same general character
under similar geographic conditions, in central and western Asia,
in the Mediterranean area, and in North America. These pulsations
are further believed to have been potent factors in bringing about
certain great historical migrations and events, such as, e.g., the de-
cline of Persia, the barbaric invasions, the decay of Rome, the rise
and fall of Central-American civilization, etc.
While much evidence in favour of changes of climate in historic
times has been brought forward, the opinion is quite widely held
that a good deal of this is not wholly trustworthy. Much of it is so
distinctly contradictory that in certain cases nothing less than a
complete deadlock exists. Further, it is held by a considerable num-
ber of meteorologists that much of the evidence seems to have been
interpreted without due consideration of controls other than climatic
fluctuations. In cases where careful examination of the evidence
has been made by experts in archaeology, botany, geology and
history, there has usually been hesitation in ascribing the facts
solely, or often even partly, to fluctuations in climate.
There have been several critical studies of the evidence concerning
fluctuations in climate within historical times, such as those by
J. W. Gregory, 7 Hildebrandsson* and Berg. 9 It seems, at the present
time, to be the general consensus of the most expert meteorological
judgment that there is not as yet sufficient unimpeachable evidence
to justify a belief in any progressive change of climate within
historic times. That there are certain fluctuations in the values of
the climatic elements is, however, a well-established fact. The so-
called Bruckner period, averaging about 35 years in length, is gen-
erally recognized. No definite or universally accepted conclusion
has yet been reached regarding the existence of other longer periods.
A period of about II years in temperature, rainfall, and certain
other meteorological phenomena has been made out by several
investigators. On the whole, the variations in the values of these
elements have appeared to be very slight, and the results are often
debatable, if not contradictory. Koppen has greatly extended his
investigations of sunspot controls over temperatures, begun some
4 Reseau Mondial, 1911, Tables and Charts; 1912, 1913, Tables
without charts, Meteorological Office, London.
'Viktor Paschinger, " Die Schneegrenze in verschiedenen Kli-
maten," Erganzungsheft, No. 173, Pet. Mitt., 1912.
6 Ellsworth Huntington, Palestine and its Transformation, 1911;
" The Climatic Factor as Illustrated in Arid America," with chap-
ters by Charles Schuchert, Andrew E. Douglass and Charles J.
Kullmer, Carnegie Inst. Publ. No. 192, Washington, D.C., 1914.
(Also numerous other articles.)
7 J. W. Gregory, " Is the Earth Drying Up?" Geog. Journ.,
vol. viii., 1914, pp. 148-172, 293-318.
8 H. H. Hildebrandsson, " Sur le Pretendu Changement du Climat
Europeen en Temps Historique," Nova Acta Regiae Societatis
Scientiarum Upsaliensis, Ser. IV., vol. iv., No. 5, Upsala, 1915.
8 L. Berg, " Das Problem der Klimaanderung in geschichtlichet
Zeit," Geog. Abhandl., vol. x., No. 2, Leipzig, 1914.
704
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
30 years ago, and has found that the 1 1 -year periodicity appears to
be somewhat less marked but more regular than he at first thought
it to be. 1 The increase of temperature within the tropics at times of
sunspot minima is about IF. higher than in years of sunspot max-
ima, and becomes less and less apparent outside the tropics. The
general conclusions reached by Dr. Gilbert T. Walker do not appear
to indicate any marked influence of variations in sunspot activity
upon atmospheric conditions. 2 The correlation coefficient in the
case of rainfall, e.g., is not, in general, shown to be much larger
than would result from chance.
A. E. Douglass has for some 20 years been studying the evidence
of climatic fluctuations given by tree rings in California and else-
where. Some of his conclusions have been used by Huntington and
others in their investigation of climatic fluctuations. In a recent
volume, which also summarizes his earlier work, Douglass indicates
that a close relation exists between the thickness of tree-rings and
climatic conditions; sees an agreement between the tree-ring records
and the results of meteorological observations during recent years,
and finds evidence of periodicity, over large areas, in agreement with
the sunspot cycle or multiples of it. 3 There is not as yet any agree-
ment as to the causes of such climatic fluctuations. Very small
irregular variations in the intensity of solar radiation are known
to exist. There is also the sunspot period, and longer periods may
later be established. A distinct inclination at present exists among
meteorologists to seek the cause of climatic variations in changes
in the general atmospheric circulation resulting from fluctuations
in the sun's activity. There has been much discussion, but there is
no unanimity of opinion, as to just how such variations in the
amount of solar radiation will affect conditions on the earth's sur-
face. A highly complex train of effects must obviously result, in
which temperature, pressure, evaporation, cloudiness, and rainfall
are all concerned, and in which readjustments in the general cir-
culation of the atmosphere play an important part. The varying
strength of the atmospheric and oceanic circulations and the re-
sulting effects upon the development and location of the great
" centres of action," and of the wind and rain belts, seem to many
writers competent to account for any climatic variations which may
have taken place in historical times. Thus, in one of the outstanding
publications of the past decade, Helland-Hansen and Nansen, in
their study of North Atlantic temperatures, conclude that variations
in the supply of solar energy, acting through the atmospheric cir-
culation, are the initial cause of temperature changes on the earth's
surface.*
So far as the effect of a variation of short period like that of the
sunspots is concerned, it seems highly probable that the effects are
so many, so complex, and so mutually interdependent, that the
periodic cause undergoes its next change before its effects are every-
where fully established. This point is emphasized by C. E. P. Brooks
in a significant study of the secular variations in climate. 6 The
sunspot period being so short, the " repercussions " do not " die
down sufficiently to allow a clear vision of the relation between
the solar causeand the terrestrial effect." By means of a new method
of analyzing meteorological data with reference to secular variation,
it appears that opposite kinds of changes in temperature, pressure
and rainfall are taking place in different parts of the world in rela-
tion to a long period of sunspot numbers which shows a general
decline since 1870.
The effect of volcanic dust veils in diminishing atmospheric
transparency and thus affecting terrestrial temperatures has been
brought forward by several writers as a possible contributing cause
in climatic variations, in historical and in geological time.'
So far as changes of climate during the geological past are con-
cerned, there has been a decided tendency towards seeking an
explanation in factors which are recognized as being effectively at
work in determining present-day climates, and a lessened appeal to
purely astronomical causes, which in the past were most widely
advocated.
The time has clearly not yet come when a general agreement fs
to be expected on a subject as highly complex as that of climatic
1 W. Koppen, " Lufttemperatur, Sonnenflecken und Vulkan-
ausbriiche,' Met. Zeitschr., vol. xxxi., 1914, pp. 305-328.
2 G. T. Walker, " Sunspots and Temperatures," Mem. Indian
Met. Dept., voLxxi., Pt. n, Simla, 1915, pp. 61-90; "Sunspotsand
Rainfall," ibid., vol. xxi., Pt. 10, 1915, pp. 17-59.
8 A. E. Douglass, " Climatic Cycles and Tree Growth: A Study
of the Annual Rings of Trees in Relation to Climate and Solar
Activity," Carnegie Inst. Publ. No. 289, Washington, D.C., 1919.
4 B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen, " Temperature Variations in
the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Atmosphere: Introductory
Studies on the Cause of Climatological Variations," Smithson.
Misc. Coll., vol. Ixx., No. 4, Publ. 2537, Washington, D.C., 1920.
5 C. E. P. Brooks, " The Secular Variation of Climate," Geog.
Rev., vol. xi., 1921, pp. 120-35.
See, e.g., the following: C. G. Abbot and F. E. Fowle, " Vol-
canoes and Climate," Smithson. Misc. Coll., vol. lx., No. 29, 1913;
Charles Schuchert, " Climates of Geologic Times," Carnegie Inst.
Publ. No. 102, Washington, D.C., 1914; W. J. Humphreys, Physics
of the Air, Philadelphia, 1920, pt. iv.
fluctuations. The facts which demand explanation are not yet
sufficiently well determined or correlated, and the processes which
are at work are still too imperfectly understood.
Local Climatology. Two countries, the United States and Aus-
tralia, stand out by reason of the progress which has been made,
during the past decade, in the scientific investigation of their
climates. Mention is here made only of general studies dealing with
these areas as a whole. In the United States, the preparation of a
section on climate for a new " Atlas of American Agriculture "
marks an important advance in the accurate charting and discussion
of many of the essential features of the climatic conditions of this
large area. This atlas will, for many years to come, be the standard
authority on all the subjects with which it deals. At the beginning
of 1921 only one part of the climatic section, that on frost, had
been issued in its final form. Advance publication had, however,
been made of the new maps of mean annual, 7 monthly and seasonal
rainfall 8 and of the new maps of sunshine. 9
The new rainfall maps are based on the records from about 3,600
stations, all covering or reduced to the uniform period of 20 years
(1895-1914). The base maps show the main features of the topog-
raphy, reasonable account of which is taken in locating the iso-
hyetal lines. In the new series of sunshine maps the same basic
period is used. Many details of rainfall and sunshine are further
set forth by means of special diagrams and graphs. The whole
subject of frost has been presented with a detail not hitherto at-
tained in any other area of equal size in the world. 10 The average
dates of first and last killing frost are charted (2O-year period,
1895-1914), as well as the variations in the dates of spring and
autumn frosts; the length of the growing season, etc.
Two new maps of average annual snowfall of the United States
have been prepared. The first of these is based on observations
made at about 2,000 stations during the 15 winters from 1895 to
1910." In earlier maps, the observations came mostly from near sea-
level, and hence the heavy snowfalls on the mountains were not
indicated. On this new map, observations made at higher altitudes
were also used and topographic effects were taken account of. A
later map bears the date igig. 12 This was prepared from all available
records in the western mountains, and from the complete records
E. of the Rockies for the period 1895 to 1914, and revised somewhat
in order to bring it into conformity with certain obvious topo-
graphic influences. The first-named map brings out more clearly the
heavier snowfalls on the mountains; the second adheres more rigidly
to the actual observations. Investigations of relative humidities
and of vapour pressures, and of the wind records for the 2O-year
period 1891 to 1910, have added to the more accurate knowledge of
United States climates. 13
The United States Weather Bureau has done useful work in
summarizing the essential climatological data of the country by
sections. 14 This publication includes the information usually desired
regarding the climates of different parts of the country, brought
together in convenient form for ready reference.
Australia is the second large area a knowledge of whose climatology
has advanced very rapidly in the past decade. The Australian Com-
monwealth Bureau of Meteorology has issued an unusually valuable
series of reports, dealing especially with rainfall, but also presenting
many other essential facts concerning the general climatic charac-
teristics of the country. These studies are notable because of their
clear and concise method of treatment, and the emphasis which is
laid on the practical economic aspects of the subject. A report on
the climate and weather of Australia is one of the best available
discussions of the meteorological and climatic conditions of any
part of the globe. 16 Australian weather and climate have been dis-
cussed in publications by Dr. Griffith Taylor. 16
7 R. de C. Ward, " Mean Annual Rainfall of the United States,
with Notes on the New Chart of Average Annual Precipitation
from the ' Atlas of American Agriculture,' " Mo. Weather Rev.
(Washington, D.C.), vol. xlv., 1917, pp. 338-345.
* I. B. Kincer, " The Seasonal Distribution of Precipitation and
its Frequency in the U. S.," ibid., vol. xlvii., 1919, pp. 624-631.
9 Idem, "Sunshine in the U. S.," ibid.,vo\. xlviii., 1920, pp. 12-17.
10 W. G. Reed, " Frost and the Growing Season," Atlas of Ameri-
can Agriculture, pt. ii., Climate, Sec. I., Washington, D.C., 1918.
"Charles E. P. Brooks, "The Snowfall of the United States,"
G. J. Met. Soc., vol. xxxix., 1913, pp. 81-84.
12 Mo. .Weather Rev., vol. xlvii., 1919, Chart 151.
13 P. C. Day, "Relative Humidities and Vapor Pressures over
the United States, including a Discussion of Data from Self-Record-
ing Hygrometers," Mo. Weather Rev., Suppl. No. 6, Washington,
D.C., 1917; "The Winds of the United States and Their
Economic Uses," Yearbook, Dept. of Agric. for 1911, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1912, pp. 337-350.
4 " Summaries of Climatological Data by Sections, Bulletin
W. U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1912 (and later).
16 H. A. Hunt, G. Taylor and E. T. Quayle, " The Climate and
Weather of Australia," Common. Bur. of Met., 1913.
"See, e.g., Griffith Taylor, " The Australian Environment, espe-
cially as Controlled by Rainfall," Federal Advisory Council of Science
and Industry, Mem. No. i, Melbourne, 1918.
CLODD CLYNES
705
The main thesis of these monographs is the climatic limitation
and control of agriculture and of stock-raising. The results are
likely to be of practical value in the future development of Australia.
The extreme importance of rainfall is emphasized, not only of the
annual amounts but also of the season at which the rain falls, and
of its reliability.
While the meteorology of the Arctic has made little progress during
the last ten years, the Antarctic has been visited by a large number of
expeditions, most of the results of whose scientific work, as well as
some of the results of work done prior to 1910, have been published
in the last decade. These discussions include those relating to the
British expeditions of 1901-4, 1910^-3 and 1914-7; the Australian
expedition of 1911-4^; the Norwegian of 1910-2; the German of
1911-2. Meteorological observations are now available, for com-
plete years, made at fixed land stations; on board vessels drifting
slowly in the ice; on sledge journeys, and from the upper air by
means of kites and balloons. The available material is, however,
still too scattered and incomplete to give an accurate and satis-
factory picture of Antarctic climate. Most of the discussions have
concerned the physical problems of Antarctic meteorology rather
than the larger facts and controls of climate. The mean tem-
peratures of the higher southern lats. have been determined by
Meinardus as follows:
S. Lat. 60 70" 80" 90
Jan 37.0 F. 29.7 F. 24.3" F. 2i.2F.
July .... 12.9" -7.6 -19.7 -27-9
Year .... 25.7" 9.0" 5.1 13-0
The fact that these lats. are colder in the Antarctic than in the
Arctic is now abundantly confirmed. The Antarctic obviously has
a distinctly continental climate, but with a cold summer. The
lowest mean annual temperature hitherto recorded was observed
at Framheim, the nearest fixed point to the South Pole at which ob-
servations have been made ( n.2F.). Much light has been thrown
on the cyclonic phenomena of the southern oceans through the in-
clusion, in both British and German publications, of a considerable
series of daily synchronous weather maps.
Climate and Agriculture. Recent studies of the larger controls
of climate over crop distribution, and of weather factors which
most affect the critical periods of growth and of yield of field and
garden crops, have brought out much information which will prove
of importance in the advance of agricultural climatology. The
geographic origin of the world's food supply and of other essential
agricultural products, and of the climatic and other factors which
control the present distribution of the world's crops and live stock,
have been discussed. 1
In this atlas, the essential climatic controls in the case of the
important crops in all parts of the world are briefly stated. Another
outstanding publication, also of wide interest, deals with cotton. 2
The climates of all the cotton areas are discussed, detailed considera-
tion being given to the United States. The facts here given are of
practical value in the selection of the most favourable climates for
future cotton-growing. A very practical application of scientific
research to agricultural practice is seen in the establishment, for
the United States, of a " bioclimatic law." 3 According to this law,
there is a country-wide average rate of variation in the time of
occurrence of the regular periodic events in plants and animals, de-
pending on altitude, latitude and longitude. The rate is four days
for each i of long., 5 of lat. and 400 ft. of altitude.
Forests and Climate. But little important work has lately been
done on forest influences upon climate. So far as this goes, it points
to nothing more than inconsiderable effects. For example, in India
the latest indications are that while forests tend to increase rain-
fall, the effects are by no means marked. 4
In the United States, an investigation of the forests of the S.W.
shows that their influence is essentially similar to that previously
indicated by European observation. 6 In other words, forests have
a little higher mean annual temperature than the open; somewhat
modify the extremes of temperature; reduce wind velocity and de-
crease evaporation within the forest, but have only a negligible
effect upon precipitation except in connexion with the distribution
and disposal of snow and rain.
1 V. C. Finch and O. E. Baker, " Geography of the World's
Agriculture," U.S. Deft, of Agriculture, Office of Farm Manage-
ment, Washington, D.C., 1917. Atlas and text.
2 O. C. Stine and O. E. Baker, " Cotton," Atlas of American
Agriculture, pt. v., Sec. A, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Farm
Management, Washington, D.C., 1918.
3 A. D. Hopkins, " Periodical Events and Natural Law as Guides
to Agricultural Research," Mo. Weather Rev., Suppl. No. Q, Wash-
ington, D.C., 1918. See also O. E. Baker, C. F. Brooks and R. G.
Hainsworth, " A Graphic Summary of Seasonal Work on Farm
Crops," Yearbook, U.S. Dept. of Agric., 1917, pp. 537-589.
4 M. Hill, " Notes on an Enquiry by the Government of India into
the Relation between Atmospheric and Soil Moisture in India,"
Forest Bull. No. jj, Calcutta, 1916.
5 G. A. Pearson, " A Meteorological Study of Parks and Timbered
Areas in the Western Yellow-Pine Forest of Arizona and New
Mexico," Mo. Weather Rev., vol. xli., 1913, pp. 1615-1629.
Physiological Climatology. It has for some time been recognized
that conditions which are best for human beings are moderately cool
and moderately moist air, in motion, together with a reasonable
variability of temperature. Numerous suggestions have been made
regarding the instrumental measurement of the climatic elements
most essential in this problem. In general, the tendency has been
to use already available flata on air temperature and relative
humidity, or to employ ordinary wet and dry bulb thermometer
readings. Dr. Leonard Hill has devised a so-called " Kata-ther-
mometer " which indicates, by the rate of cooling of wet and dry
bulb thermometers heated to about the surface temperature of the
human body, the combined effect of temperature, humidity, wind,
evaporation, etc. 6 Several investigators have sought to determine, in
actual numerical values, the most favourable atmospheric conditions
for man. Dr. Griffith Taylor, using wet bulb temperatures and rel-
ative humidities, has worked out the criteria of a suitable climate
for Anglo-Saxons in the tropics. 7 The " type white climograph "
which this study suggests as representing ideal conditions shows, for
summer, a wet bulb reading of 62 F. and relative humidity of 68-5 %;
for winter, 37 F. and 8 1 %. Using statistics of the efficiency of
factory operatives, students and others in the eastern United States,
Huntington has determined what he calls the " optimum " tempera-
tures for man's greatest efficiency. 8
These are outdoor temperatures of 6o-6^" F. for maximum
physical efficiency and 40 F. for maximum mental efficiency.
There is also found to be a beneficial stimulating effect in a certain
moderate degree of temperature variability, which is associated with
storm controls. The different parts of the world are graded accord-
ing to their approximation to such a climate, and the civilizations
of those areas are also graded. A close agreement is found between
the results. The conclusion is reached that a certain special combina-
tion of climatic conditions prevails today where high civilization is
found; and that past climatic fluctuations which brought a similar
type of climate were associated with corresponding periods of high
civilizations.
Criticism of these far-reaching conclusions has been based on the
insufficiency of the data of human efficiency upon which the study
rests; the somewhat arbitrary combination of the climatic factors,
with disregard of the element of humidity, and a lack of any general
agreement as to the facts concerning the distribution of civilization
and the occurrence of special climatic types in past times.
(R. DE C. W.)
CLODD, EDWARD (1840- ), English anthropologist, was
born at Margate July i 1840, and educated at Aldeburgh gram-
mar school. At the age of 15 he became a clerk and seven years
later entered the London Joint Stock Bank, Ltd., where he rose
by 1872 to the post of secretary. He interested himself in ques-
tions of the descent of man and the origins of religion, and early
became known as a rationalist thinker.
Amongst his writings are: The Childhood of the World (1872);
The Childhood of Religions (1875); Myths and Dreams (1885);
Story of Primitive Man ( 1 895) ; A nimism or the Seed of Religion ( 1 906) ;
Magic in Names (1920), and biographies of Huxley and Grant
Allen, as well as a volume of Memories (1916) and a discussion of the
possibility of human survival after death, entitled The Question
(1917)-
CLYNES, JOHN ROBERT (1869- ), English politician,
was born at Oldham March 27 1869 of working-class parents,
and worked himself as an artisan for many years. He was active
in the trade-union movement, and eventually became president
of the National Union of General Workers, and chairman of the
executive council. He came into Parliament as Labour member
for N.-E. Manchester in 1906, when the Labour party were
returned for the first time in numerical force over 50 in all.
It was not, however, until the World War that he attractec} pub-
lic attention. He protested, in Feb. 1915, on behalf of his party
against the rise in prices, which he attributed mainly to con-
tractors and dealers exploiting the needs of the people. His
interest in this subject made it natural that he should be selected
as himself a working man to be parliamentary secretary
6 Leonard Hill, " Atmospheric Conditions which affect Health, "
G. J. Met. Soc., vol. xlv., 1919. pp. 189-206: " The Science of Ventila-
tion and Open-Air Treatment." Medical Res. Counc.. Spec. Report
Series, No. 52, London, 1920, p. 295.
'Griffith Taylor, " The Control of Settlement by Humidity and
Temperature (with Special Reference to Australia and the Empire) :
An Introduction to Comparative Climatology," Commonwealth Bur.
of Met., Bull. 14, Melbourne, 1916.
8 Ellsworth Huntington, Civilization and Climate, New Haven,
Conn., 1915. (This vol. also summarizes much of the author's
earlier work, including that on historical changes of climate.)
World Power and Evolution, New Haven, Conn., 1919.
706
COAL
under Lord Rhondda soon after the latter accepted the position
of controller of food. In the arduous and successful work of that
office he took his full share. He became president of a consumers'
food council in Dec. 1917, so that the office might keep in regular
touch with the needs of the public. When Lord Rhondda died,
in June 1918, he succeeded him to th? general satisfaction. He
gave special encouragement to the creation of national kitchens,
the number of which had grown by the end of Aug. to over 600,
and he set up in Sept. inside the Ministry a food council to con-
sider questions of policy, and to cooperate with other bodies
dealing with the food problems of the Allies. In consequence of
the decision of the Labour party to terminate its support of the
Coalition Government he resigned, office in Nov. just before the
general election. At the beginning of the session of 1910 he was
elected vice-chairman of the party, and he took a considerable
share in debate, speaking with a moderation and appreciation
of the standpoint of other classes not always manifested by
Labour members. At the trades union congress in Sept. he made
a strong speech against the policy of " direct action," pointing
out that Labour could capture the political machine if working
men were sufficiently united and sufficiently active, but that
threats would only throw back their cause and set all other classes
against them. But a year later he acquiesced in the establish-
ment of a Labour council of action, and in the threat of a general
strike in case of any military or naval intervention against the
Soviet Government of Russia. In 1921 he was chosen chairman
of the parliamentary Labour party.
COAL (see 6.575). I n I 9 I the world output of coal, including
lignite and anthracite, may be estimated to have been 1,160
million metric tons, and it reached 1,342 million tons in 1913.
The rapid growth in the production of coal up to 1910 is indicated
by the fact that in the period 1894-8 the average quantity raised
each year was only 604 million tons, or about one-half the
quantity raised in the year 1910. In the five years 1874-8, 285
million tons were raised each year on the average, or about
one-fourth of the quantity raised in 1910.
The output of coal in 1913 was subsequently exceeded but
once up to 1921, viz. in 1917, when 1,345 million tons were
raised, and the dislocation in the production of coal caused by
the World War is seen from the following estimates of output
during the years 1910-20, prepared by the United States
Geological Survey Department:
Estimated
Quantity of
Coal Raised
(Million met-
ric tons)
Percentage
of 1913
Estimated
Quantity of
Coal Raised
(Million met-
ric tons)
Percentage
of 1913
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
,160
,189
,249
,342
,205
,196
86
89
93
IOO
90
89
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
,296
-345
,33'
,158
,300
97
IOO
99
86
97
The effect of the war, however, was chiefly felt in Europe, as
the following comparison of the output of coal in the years 1913
and 1920 shows:
Continent
Output of Coal in
Increase ( + ) or
Decrease ( ) in
1920
1913
1920
Quantity
Per-
reutasjf
Europe
America: North
South
Asia
Africa .
Australia and Oceania
Milli
730-0
531-6
1-6
55-8
8-3
15-0
on me
597-5
601-3
1-7
75-8
11-8
II-9
t no to
-132-5
+ 69-7
+ -i
+ 20-0
+ 3-5
- 3-1
ns
-18-1
+ 13-1
+ 6-2
+35-8
+42-2
20-7
World
1,342-3
1 ,300-0
- 42-3
- 3'2
The aggregate loss of output in Europe during the years
1914-20 was nearly equal to the quantity raised in the year 1913,
or considerably more when allowance is made for the normal
rate of expansion prior to the war. From the position of a
continent self-contained in regard to coal supplies and able to
furnish no inconsiderable part of the requirements of the navies
and merchant fleets of the world, Europe had temporarily be-
come dependent upon outside sources of supply. In 1920 coal
was obtained chiefly from North America, but small quantities
from South Africa, from China, from Australia and from Spits-
bergen found their way to Europe.
While the output of coal in Europe in the year 1920 diminished
by nearly one-fifth when compared with that of 1913, partly
owing to reductions in the hours of labour and partly to labour
disputes, the number of workpeople employed at coal-mines
increased in the principal countries of Europe by about one-
seventh. And after the conclusion of the war the question of
the " nationalization " of the coal-mines (see NATIONALIZATION)
became a subject of more or less acute controversy in the chief
producing countries of the world.
The immense coal resources of the world were but imperfectly
realized up to 1910, and knowledge with regard to them was
greatly increased as a result of the Twelfth International
Geological Congress held in 1913 at Ottawa, for which a mono-
graph on " The Coal Resources of the World " was prepared.
From this the following summary is taken:
Continent
Lignites and
sub-Bitumi-
nous Coals
Bitumi-
nous
Coals
Anthracite
and semi-
Anthracite
Total
Europe
America: North
South
Asia ....
Africa
Australia and Oceania
Mi
36,682
2,811,902
4
111,851
1,054
36,270
1 1 i o n m
693,162
2,239,682
31,398
760,098
45,123
I33.48I
etric ton
54,346
21,842
700
407,637
1 1 ,662
659
s
784,190
5,073,426
32,102
1,279,586
57,839
170,410
World .
2.997.763
3,902,944
496,846
7,397,553
The coal raised during the n years 1910-20 amounted to
13,771 million tons, or one-fifth of i% of the estimated reserves.
It should, however, be added that no deduction has been made
in framing these estimates for coal which was not mineable, nor
for the loss of coal in working. A large part of the coal included
will be raised with great difficulty and the loss in mining will
also be great.
UNITED KINGDOM
For at least half a century prior to the outbreak of war the
production of coal in Great Britain increased at a substantial, if
unequal, rate annually. But after the year 1913 this movement
was arrested and during the three years 1918-20 the output of
coal was only equal to the quantity raised in the years 1902-4.
Estimated on the experience of the period 1871-1900 the output
of coal in 1918-20 should have been not less than 300,000,000
statute tons per annum.
After the conclusion of the war the number of persons employed
at coal-mines was greater than at any previous date, and in 1920
was 50% greater than in the year 1903. The hours of labour oi
those employed below ground, it is true, had been twice reduced
since that year. An 8-hour shift from bank to bank (equal to
more than 85 hours per man on the average) was introduced in
1909-10, and a further reduction to 7 hours per shift was effected
in July 1919. No general change was made in the hours of labour
of surface workers until Jan. 1919, when a maximum 49-hour
week was established. In July of the same year this was reduced
to 46-2 hours per week, or a total reduction of 43 to n| hours per
week over the whole period.
Prior to the introduction of the 8-hour shift below ground
the annual rate of output was 285 tons per person employed,
and the normal rate of output subsequently appears to have been
some 20 to 25 tons less. In the year 1920 the output of coal per
person was 191 tons, or about 200 tons, making allowance for the
effect of the national strike of coal-miners in that year.
With the shrinkage in the supply of coal there had been a
serious increase in its selling price. Between the years 1910 and
1914 the average selling price at the pit rose from 8s. 2d. to IDS.
per ton. During the war the selling price was gradually raised,
and it stood at zos. nd. per ton on the average in 1918. This
was due partly to the increased cost of timber and stores, but
COAL
707
chiefly to the general upward movement in nominal wages.
The average selling price of coal during the latter half of 1920
was 393. to 405. per ton, the average for the year being 343. 7d.
per ton.
One bright feature alone reveals itself in this picture of
increasing cost and diminishing supplies of coal, in the increasing
safety of the workers employed at the mines. Though the years
1910 and 1913 were both marred by mining disasters of some
magnitude that at the Sengheneydd pit in Glamorganshire in
the latter year being the greatest on record there was a notice-
able diminution after 1910 in the number of persons killed and
injured by accidents at coal-mines.
Particulars of the quantity and value of the coal raised, the
number of persons employed at coal-mines, and the numbers
killed and injured by accidents during the years 1910-20, will
be seen in the statement which follows:
Output of Coal
Number of
Number of
Persons
Persons Killed
Quant'y
(Million
Value
at Pit
Average
Value
Employed
at Coal-
or Injured
by Accidents *
statute
(Million
per ton
mines
tons)
Q
(s.d.)
Killed
Injured
1910
264.4
108-4
8- 2
1,032,700
,775
159.042
1911
271.9
110-8
8- 2
1,049,900
,265
166,616
1912
260.4'
117-9
9- I
1,072,400
,276
150,652
1913
287.4
145-5
IO- 2
1,110,900
.753
177,189
1914
265.7
132-6
IO- O
1,041,200*
,219
158,862
1915
1916
253-2
2564
157-8
2OO-O
12- 6
'5- 7
939,600
984,800
.297
,313 ,
(Particu-
lars not
1917
1918
248.5
227.7
207-8
238-2
16- 9
20-11
1,006,300
994.300
.37 |
1,411 J
available)
1919
229.8
3H-I
27- 4
1,176,100
1,118
117,422
1920
229.5
396.9
34- 7
1,233,200
1.103
117,302
The period covered by the statement above includes the years
down to 1914 during which the development of the coal resources
of the country reached its zenith under the individual ownership
of the mines. Early in 1912 a national strike of miners laid the
pits idle for a period of six weeks and was settled by the passage
of the Coal Mines (Minimum Wage) Act, 1912.
Ejects of the War. In Aug. 1914 war was declared, and early
in 1915 the necessity for Government supervision of the pro-
duction and distribution of coal became apparent. At first this
was restricted to the limitation of the selling price of coal at
home and of the quantity sold abroad. By the middle of 1916
the number of miners employed had fallen by nearly 14 % since
July 1914, the younger, stronger and the most capable amongst
whom had joined the fighting forces. The loss was much greater
in reality, since 282,200 men had left the mines up to the end of
March and the places of some 116,900 of these men had been
taken by others. By the end of the war 400,000 coal-miners had
joined H.M. forces. Increasing difficulties in the supply and
distribution of coal were experienced, and in order to deal with
them a committee representing various Government depart-
ments, railway companies, colliery owners and coal factors and
merchants was appointed in Jan. 1916. This committee co-
ordinated the action of other committees of colliery owners in
each coal-field. At the end of 1916 acute labour troubles in the
South Wales coal-field compelled the Government to take
possession of the mines in the district, and on March i 1917
similar action was taken with regard to all coal-mines.
Output and Management. Up to 1916 the rate of output in normal
years was still at or above 260 tons per person employed, the total
output in 1916 being 31,000,000 tons less, and the number of persons
employed 126,000 less than in 1913, the year of maximum produc-
tion. The average selling price of coal in 1916, whether for consump-
tion at home or abroad, was 153. 7d. per ton, or 53 % higher than in
'Not including 2,268,000 tons of refuse raised with coal and
similarly in subsequent years. For years previous to 1912 such refuse
was included.
2 The number of persons employed during Jan. to July 1914 was
1,116,600. On the last pay day in Dec. the corresponding number
was 965,800, approximately, and the number taken represents the
mean of these numbers.
8 Including deaths and injuries through accidents reported at all
mines of coal, stratified ironstone, shale and fireclay.
| 1913, the highest pre-war figure since records were first established in
1882. From March 1917 to the end of March 1921 the mines were
under Government control and a special Department of State was
created for their administration. By powers conferred upon the
Board of Trade by the Mining Industry Act, 1920, this Department
has since been organized on a permanent basis with a view to the
better administration of the mining industry generally, and was
assisted during the period of control by the central and district
organization created early in 1916. In June 1917 the price of coal
sold for export and for bunkering vessels was definitely brought
under control and so remained until May 1919. The control of
prices at home was only relinquished on March I 1921.
As compared with the year 1916 the output of coal had fallen in
1920 by 27,000,000 tons, while the price had risen by 193. per ton
and some 248,000 additional workers had been enrolled.
The output of coal in relation to the number of persons employed
at coal-mines is a convenient measure of changes which occur in the
productivity of the industry, but unless allowance is made for the
amount of employment available the results are liable to be mis-
leading. Fortunately for the comparison which follows, employ-
ment at coal-mines was exceptionally good from 1913 onwards
except during the latter part of the years 1914 and 1920. In 1910
and 1911 employment was moderate, and in 1912 the pits were
idle for about six weeks owing to the minimum-wage dispute.
Absenteeism from work on the part of the miner amounted during
the war period to about 10% of the total number of possible shifts.
Of this one-half was due to sickness, injury and other unavoidable
causes. The normal working time of the miner in the several districts
approximates closely to 5j days per week, including overtime. In
the case of coal-getters about 5 days per week is usual.
Tonnage
Raised
per Person
Employed
Percentage
of
1913
1 onnage
Raised
per Person
Employed
Percentage
cf
1913
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
260
261
245
263
252
266
266
99
99
93
IOO
96
IOI
IOI
1917
1918
1919
1920
Average
for years
1910-20
1900-9
250
228
202
191
244
285
95
87
77
73
93
1 08
When compared with the output of the American miner, these
figures, even in years of maximum output, appear to be small. It
is necessary, however, to bear in mind the relative thickness and
accessibility of the coal measures from the surface in each country,
the position in which they are found, the extent to which mechanical
cutting is capable of adoption and the method of haulage employed
below ground. In some or all of these ways the American coal-miner
enjoyed considerable advantages over the British miner.
But the output rate is affected by the extent to which develop-
ment work in the pits is maintained and by the opening of new and
productive pits. Since the middle of the year 1914 it is probably true
to say that such work has suffered considerably, though by con-
centrating upon the best seams a higher rate of output was achieved
during the earlier years of the war.
The progressive nature of the fall in the rate of output, synchroniz-
ing as it did with successive increments of wages, seems to indicate
that other causes were' partly responsible and this responsibility
the management must share with the miners.
In the year 1917 the method of percentage additions to hewers'
wages with corresponding additions to the wages of time-workers was
abandoned in favour of flat-rate additions .to the wages of workers
of all classes, and, with minor exceptions, of all ages, as in the case
of the war wage and Sankey wage. These flat-rate increments
favoured the lowest-paid workers at the expense of the higher-paid
workers, since the relationship of the wages of each class was al-
tered. Successive additions of uniform amount had the effect of
raising the minimum rates of wages to a level at which many hewers
found the inducement to rest upon it greater than they could
resist. In 1920 an attempt was made to restore the percentage
principle in wage adjustments and greater differentiation in respect
of age, but with little success.
The output of the mirier, however, is influenced by good and bad
management, and it is necessary to consider how the management
of the mines was affected by the arrangements made during the
period of control. The position with regard to profits in the coal-
mining industry in South Wales prior to Dec. I 1916 and in all other
coal-fields to March I 1917, when the mines came under control,
was the same as in all other industries. The Coal Mines Control
Agreement (Confirmation) Act, 1918, provided for the retention by
colliery owners of the profits earned when they did not exceed the
amount of the pre-war standard fixed for excess-profits duty. Where
this amount was exceeded, one-fourth was retained and the balance
was collected as coal-mines excess payments. From the sums so
collected the pre-war profit of the collieries earning less than the pre-
war standard of profit was made good, but the full pre-war standard
;o8
COAL
of profit was permitted only in cases where output was fully main-
tained and the business was efficiently conducted.
This arrangement was amended retrospectively as from April I
1919 by the Coal Mines (Emergency) Act, 1920, by which the in-
dustry was regarded as a single concern. Where the pre-war standard
of profit was exceeded, nine-tenths of the excess profit was paid over
to the State, while of the remaining tenth, after the deduction of
excess-profits duty, one-half was distributed on a tonnage basis to all
collieries and one-half was shared by the collieries contributing the
excess profits. The net amount of excess profit retained by the in-
dustry was 4 % of the gross profits earned.
Owing to the serious fall in the price of coal sold abroad early in
1921 a further variation was made in the existing arrangement by
which profits in excess of nine-tenths of the pre-war standard were
required to be surrendered and shared as from Jan. I 1921. On
March 31 1921 the period of control was terminated.
The general effect of these intricate arrangements was to curtail
the excess profits of colliery owners much more severely than in
other industries, and it is difficult to resist the conclusion that
the decline in the rate of output after 1916 was largely due to the
stifling of incentive in both the management and the workers.
The distribution of the revenue of the industry in 1913, 1918 and
1920 is shown by the following comparisons, the amounts being
calculated on the basis of the tonnage of coal disposed of:
I9I3
(Jan. to
Dec.)
1918
(July to
Sept.)
1920
(July to
Sept.)
Cost of Production :
Wages ....
Stores and Timber . \
Other Costs . . /
Royalties ....
Total Cost
Proceeds from Sales
Balance of Proceeds
Coal Raised per Person Em-
ployed per Quarter .
Earnings per Person .Em-
ployed per Quarter .
s. d.
6 4
i 10}
51
s. d.
15 7*
( 3 6 f
I i 4i
7i
s. d.
26 3
5 5i
2 6|
7*
8 7 J
IO Ij
I 6
21 ij
24 10
t ft 1
3 fj
34 ioi
39 7
4 10 J*
65^ tons
(average)
21
(average)
58 -J- tons
42
50 tons
59
Though not strictly comparable owing to minor differences in the
method of computation, these figures show the progressive increase
in the cost of production and the disparity in the rates of output and
earnings of the workers. In 1913 rather more than one ton of coal
was raised on the average for each man shift worked, the average
earnings per shift being about 6s. 6d. In the third quarter of 1920
the average earnings were nearly 173. per shift, while not more
than 1 6 cwt. of coal were raised.
Against the balance of proceeds has to be set the cost of deprecia-
tion, interest on loans and the profits in each year, and in 1918 and
1920 excess-profits duty and the cost of control. Various estimates
have been made of the amount of capital invested in the coal-mining
industry. Owing to the combination of coke, iron and steel-making
with the production of coal, the results are necessarily approximate,
but for the years prior to the outbreak of the war may be taken at
130,000,000, not including the capital invested in coke ovens and
by-product plant. The capital of the industry in 1921 was more than
50,000,000 greater.
During the years 1909 to 1914 the average profits earned,
apart from royalties, were nearly 10% per annum of the capital
invested, making no deduction for profits carried to reserve and
capitalized. In the three years following profits, exclusive of royal-
ties and excess-profits duty, amounted to 17 % per annum, and during
the years 1917 to 1921, to 15$% per annum. Making allowance
for profits reinvested in the industry during the seven years 1914-21,
the amount available for dividends, partners' drawings, and income
tax represented a possible yield of 1 1 J % per annum on the capital
employed in the industry.
During the quarter ended Sept. 1920 the average price of coal
sold at home was just over 333. per ton at the pit, that of coal
shipped as foreign bunkers 673. 3d. per ton and of coal exported
763. 8d. per ton. The surplus revenue on the bunker and export coal
provided the fund from which the profits of the industry were paid.
During the winter of 1919-20 a special rebate of los. per ton was
granted on coal sold for domestic use, including coal converted to
gas and electricity for domestic heat and light. The average selling
price at this period did not greatly exceed igs. per ton at the pit.
The home consumer, it will be seen, enjoyed considerable ad-
vantages in regard to the price paid for coal, but the protection of
the home consumer extended to the quantities supplied, which were
maintained throughout the war and subsequently at the same level,
approximately, as before the war.
* Including the sum of ijd. per ton disposed of commercially,
derived from the proceeds of miners' coal supplied at special prices.
The quantities of coal shipped abroad during the years 1910-20
and the quantities available in each year for consumption at home
are shown below:
Coal
Exported f
Coal Shipped
as Foreign
Bunkers
Coal Available
for Home
Consumption
Million statute tons
1910
65-0
19-5
179-9
1911
67-8
'9-3
184-8
1912
67-5
18-3
174-6
1913
77-3
21-0
189-1
1914
62-5
18-5
I84-7
1915
46-3
13-6
193-3
1916
42-0
13-0
201-4
1917
38-5
10-2
199-8
1918
34-6
8-7
184-4
1919
39-3
12-0
I78-5
1920
29-7
13-9
185-9
As compared with the year 1913 the reduction in output amounted
in 1920 to 58 million tons which fell almost entirely on supplies for
shipment abroad, the home supply suffering to the extent of little
more than three million tons. The bulk of the coal shipped abroad,
apart from that shipped as bunkers, was supplied to Europe and
the countries lying round the Mediterranean Sea as is shown below :
Destination
1913
1920
Europe and Mediterranean Countries
Africa and Asia (exclusive of Mediter-
ranean Countries) ....
South America
North and Central America
Other Destinations
Total: (Coal Cargoes) .
Quantity Shipped as Bunkers by Ves-
sels Engaged in the Foreign Trade .
Coke and Manufactured Fuel Ex-
ported in Terms of Coal .
Total Shipments ....
tons
63,481,000
2,678,000
6,939,000
160,000 1
142,000]
tons
22,791,000
932,000
557.000
652,000
73,400,000
21,032,000
3,906,000
24,932,000
13,923,000
4,821,000
98,338,000
43,676,000
The chief uses to which the home supply is put will be seen from the
following comparison of the distribution of coal in 1913 and 1919:
Use
1913
1919
Domestic
Railways
Steamships (Coasting) ....
Gas Works
Colliery Engines and Miners' Fuel
Blast Furnaces
Other Industries and Commercial Uses
Total
Million st,
35-0
13-6
2-4
17-0
23-0
21-2
76-9
itute tons
36-5
13-5
1-3
17-8
22-5
15-7
71-2
I89-I
I78-5
The reduction of 10-6 million tons in the consumption of coal
between 1913 and 1919 was almost entirely accounted for by the
lessened industrial demand for coal upon the cessation of war.
Plant and Equipment. While the importance of an adequate
supply of coal assured a certain measure of priority during the war
to the demands made for colliery plant and equipment, it was in-
evitable that some falling off should be observed in the provision
and perfection of plant and equipment as compared with the years
immediately preceding the war. The importance of this arises from
the fact that the coal used at colliery engines amounts to about
one-tenth of the consumption at home.
In the year 1907 the capacity of the engines in use at coal-mines
(including the stratified iron-mines of the Cleveland district) was
2,293,978 H.P., of which some 7 % was used for the generation of
electric power and light. The capacity of the motors then installed
is known, but since the year 1912 the capacity of electrical apparatus
in use at coal-mines has doubled.
There were 1,959 mechanical coal-cutters installed at mines in
1910 and nearly 16 million tons of mineral were cut by these ma-
chines. In 1920 the number of machines had increased to 5,073 with
an output of 30 million tons of mineral. The chain-drive machine
has shown the greatest relative increase in the interval, though
percussive machines show the greatest absolute increase.
The tenacity with which the industry clings to past tradition is
nowhere seen more clearly perhaps than in the maintenance of
horses and ponies for haulage work below ground. In 1920 there
were 67,748 horses and ponies so employed at coal-mines, or only
3,778 less than in 1912. The number of mechanical conveyors em-
ployed at the coal face increased from 274 in 1910 to 823 in 1920.
t Including the coal equivalent of coke and manufactured fuel
exported.
COAL
709
While the tallow dip used as an illuminant below ground is not
yet extinct, the safety lamp is all but supreme. In 1910 there were
705,482 of these in use, including 2,055 electric portable lamps. The
total number of safety lamps in use in 1919 was 833,880 and of these
197,722 were electric lamps. In 1920 the number of electric lamps
in use had risen to 245,900. The caution which necessarily marks the
extended use of electricity below ground for lighting and power-is
less observable in the increased use of portable electric lamps, but
there are limits to the universal use of electric lamps in mines where
the risk of finding gas is great.
Accidents, Safety Measures and Health. The usefulness of
governmental control of industry is exemplified to an exceptional
degree by the notable reduction which has taken place in the number
of fatalities and injuries to the workers at coal-mines. In the years
1851-60, the earliest for which complete information is available,
the number of deaths from accidents at coal-mines was 4-07 per
1,000 persons employed per annum, while during the years 1910-20
the number reported was only 1-27 per 1 ,000 persons per annum.
In the United States 3-40 deaths per 1,000 persons employed
occurred through accidents at coal-mines during the years 1910-9,
or nearly three times as many as in the United Kingdom.
The period from 1910 opened with a series of disasters, two of
which were exceptionally severe. The principal disasters occurring
in the years 1910-20 include the following:
Name and Situation of Pit
Number of
Lives Lost
1910
1910
1912
1913
1918
Wellington Pit, Whitehaven Colliery,
Cumberland .....
No. 3 Bank Pit, Hulton Colliery, Lan-
cashire (Pretoria Pit) ....
Cadeby Main Colliery, Conisborough,
Yorkshire
Sengheneydd Colliery, near Caerphilly,
Glamorgan
Minnie Pit, Podmore Hall Colliery,
Newcastle, Staffs. ...
136
344
88
440
155
The Royal Commission on Mines, which was appointed in 1906,
dealt exhaustively with the health and safety of miners and the
administration of the Mines Act. The chief recommendations of the
Commission related to the augmentation of the staff of mines in-
spectors; alteration of the system of inspection and the appoint-
ment of practical miners on the inspectorate; fixing of responsibility
upon owners and their agents; qualification by examination or
experience of firemen and deputies; greater regularity and frequency
of inspections; a higher standard of ventilation; investigation of the
methods of minimizing the quantity of coal-dust in mines; precau-
tions to be adopted in shot-firing; rules for the proper testing and
use of safety lamps; effective timbering of mines; regular medical
inspection of winding enginemen; organization of rescue stations
and the provision of rescue appliances; provision for pit-head baths
and dressing-rooms; and the accurate keeping of colliery plans.
Practical effect has now been given to the majority of these recom-
mendations, which were embodied in the Coal Mines Act, 1911.
This Act consolidated and codified the law in regard to safety at coal-
mines and was at the time of its promulgation the most detailed of
any form of Government regulation of industry.
The most notable additions made in the decade to the provisions
for the safety of mine workers were the organization of measures for
effecting rescues from accidents below ground due to gas, fire or ex-
plosions, which was brought into operation in 1910, and the intro-
duction of preventive measures against explosions of coal-dust.
Fairly complete arrangements had by 1921 been made for the
organization and^training of rescue brigades and the provision of
appliances at mines. At the end of 1919 there were 49 central rescue
stations each with its trained rescue brigade, a minimum provision
of breathing apparatus and other appliances, and able to supply the
oxygen or liquid gas required for the use of the former. These
stations provided the rescue service for 610 mines, or groups of
mines, and there were in addition 553 mines or mine groups at
which 1 ,263 rescue brigades were maintained with A suitable propor-
tion of breathing apparatus and appliances. These brigades are
recruited from the mine workers and each consists of five or six men
who are required to qualify by prescribed courses of training and
practice, to be familiar with mine plans, the use and construction of
breathing apparatus and skilled in the detection of poisonous or
inflammable gases.
Following upon the recommendation made by the Royal Com-
mission on Mines, experimental work with regard to the origin of
coal-dust explosions in mines and the measures to be taken for their
prevention was carried out at Altofts in Yorkshire by the Mining
Association of Great Britain, the mine-owners' organization. In
1911 the Home Secretary appointed a committee of experts to control
and direct an experimental inquiry at Eskmeale, near Barrow-in-
Furness, in continuation of this work.
The main conclusions arrived at as a result of these experiments
were that by stone-dusting or by watering mines, or by a combination
of both methods', the risk from- explosions would be very greatly
minimized, if not prevented, and a preliminary communication in
this sense was sent to colliery owners in 1912. Owing to the war,
statutory effect was not given to the recommendations of the Home
Office Committee until July 1920.
The number of deaths and injuries to persons caused by accidents
at all mines of coal, stratified ironstone, shale and fireclay in the
years 1910, 1913 and 1920, distinguishing the place and cause of
injury or death, is shown below. Injuries involving an absence from
work for less than seven days are not recorded :
Cause of Death or Injury
1910
1913-
1920
NUMBER OF P
Below ground
Explosions of firedamp
Falls of ground ....
Shaft accidents ....
Haulage accidents
Other accidents
Total : Below ground
Surface
On railways, sidings or tram-
ways
Elsewhere on surface
Total: Surface . . . .
Total : Below and above
ground
Per 1,000 persons employed
Excluding deaths due to ex-
plosions of firedamp .
ERSONS KILLED
501 462
636 620
89 98
286 251
i 10 149
26
544
40
237
118
1,622
1,580
965
7i
82
81
92
54
84
153
173
138.
i,775
i,753
1,103
1-69
I-IO
i-55
1-04
0-88
0-85
NUMBER OF P
Below ground
Explosions of firedamp
Falls of ground ....
Shaft accidents ....
Haulage accidents
Other accidents
Total : Below ground
Surface
On railways, sidings or tram-
ways
Elsewhere on surface
Total: Surface . . . .
Total : Below and above
ground
Per 1,000 persons employed
Number of persons employed 1 :
Below ground
Above ground .
Total ....
ERSONS INJURED
167 131
55,967 62,094
851 825
47,o83 43-993
43,063 56,441
105
4L358
486
28,937
35,844
I47,i3i
163,484
106,730
4,315
7,596
4,102
9,603
2,946
7,626
11,911
13,705
10,572
159,042
177,189
117,302
152
156
94
848,381
201,026
909,834
218,056
990,359
257-865
1,049,407
1,127,890
1,248,224
The accident experience at coal-mines in the years 1919 and 1920
is similar and differs widely from that of 1910 and 1913 whether the
disastrous explosions of the earlier years are included or not. Having
regard to the exceptional conditions of the industry in 1919 and 1920,
however, it would be premature to conclude that a permanent
reduction of the magnitude indicated by the figures above had taken
pla-e in the number of deaths and injuries caused by accidents.
The staff of inspectors in 1921 numbered 81, or twice as many as
in 1910; but greater regularity and frequency of inspection would
appear to be a less adequate explanation of the diminished number of
accidents than the growing self-consciousness of the workers as a
class. This growth is the outcome of the improvement in the
general standard of education, and it has been stimulated by the
measure of responsibility with which certain classes of workers have
been invested since the year 1910. Indications of this may be seen
in the partial satisfaction of the demand for the appointment of
practical miners as inspectors, in the number of apprentices, work-
men and colliery officials who obtain certificates of competency each
year as managers and under-managers of mines, and in the provision
made in the Coal Mines Act, 1911, for the certification of firemen,
examiners, and deputies. Altogether 115,000 candidates had up to
1 Including persons employed at stratified ironstone, shale and
fireclay mines.
7io
COAL
1919 preserved themselves for examination, the majority of whom
were successful. Nor should sight be lost of the training of the
rescue brigades in this connexion.
While the contribution of each and all of the factors referred to
above cannot be ignored, the question arises whether some more
fundamental cause may not be responsible for the greatly reduced
number of accidents. Reference has already been made to the
effect of the Minimum Wage Act of 1912 upon the rate of production
of coal, and it is not inconceivable that economy of physical effort
may have diminished the accident risk of the workers.
Statistics with regard to the mortality of miners show that al-
though they appear to suffer more than the average from diseases
of the respiratory system, the mortality of miners from phthisis
is little more than one-half of the average, as is also that from al-
coholism and liver diseases and from suicide. The mortality of miners
from influenza, cancer, diseases of the nervous and circulatory
systems and Bright's disease is also below the standard.
The virility of the miner as a class is further attested by the in-
formation obtained in 1911 with regard to the fertility of marriage.
The class showed a higher number of children born per family than
in any other social class, but it was also shown that in no other class
of the community is the rate of child mortality higher. The im-
portance of the housing problem for miners will be obvious.
Position in ipzi. The year 1921 opened disastrously for the
coal-mining industry owing to a wave of industrial depression as
widespread as it was severe. This was followed by a dispute of
unprecedented magnitude with regard to the future regulation
of wages (see STRIKES). The output of coal during the first
quarter of the year was at the annual rate of little more than
215,000,000 tons, while during the whole of the second quarter
nearly all the pits were idle. Nor were the effects of the in-
dustrial depression confined to the home market. When early
in 1921 the restrictions on the supplies of coal for bunkering
vessels and for export were finally removed, British supplies
abroad came sharply into competition with those from the
United States and with German coal supplied to France and
Belgium by way of reparation.
Yet, disastrous as were the immediate consequences to the
industry, signs were not wanting that the industry might be
restored in the near future to a degree of efficiency not previously
surpassed. The turmoil of recent years would have been in vain
if it had not settled one or two fundamental questions in no
uncertain measure. It was already clear that the time had not
yet arrived when the State could with advantage to the com-
munity take over the ownership of the coal-mines, notwith-
standing the conclusions of the Coal Industry Commission of
1919. But it was not less clear that the principles which had
hitherto governed the relations of capital and labour in the
industry were wrong. The regulation of wages by reference to
the selling price of coal with its evil corollary the limitation of
supply had gone beyond recall. The proposal made by the
mine-owners in 1921 to regulate wages and profits in accordance
with the prosperity of the industry was based upon principles
as fruitful as they were sound, and now that ways and means
for the adoption of the proposal have been found, it is not too
much to say that a key has been fitted to the gates of a new world.
The ability of Great Britain to maintain its position in-
dustrially is largely dependent upon the existence of a cheap
and plentiful supply of coal. Under efficient management no
reasonable doubt can be entertained with regard to the ability
of the industry to furnish these supplies, and certain qualities
of coal produced are unrivalled. Moreover, their proximity to
the sea ensures advantages which few other coal-producing
countries possess, and it needs but a brief examination to show
what abundant reserves of coal are still available.
Reserves. In 1904 the Royal Commission on coal supplies esti-
mated the reserves of coal within 4,000 ft. of the surface at 141,636
million tons. Sir Aubrey Strahan, formerly Director of the Geolog-
ical Survey of England and Wales, reexamined the evidence and he
concluded that 178,727 million tons of coal remained unworked in
the year 1910. The quantity available, as thus estimated, would be
in close agreement with the earlier estimate when allowance is made
for the coal raised during the interval and the quantities which must
be left for the support of surface buildings, barriers, etc. The latest
estimate was that made in the year 1915 by Prof. H. Stanley Jevons,
according to which the reserves of coal were placed at 197,000 million
tons within 4.000 ft. of the surface. When the necessary deductions
have been made for loss in working and for the coal raised since
1910, the quantity available for use would be some 13,000 million
tons greater than the previous estimate.
Having regard to the proved extensions of the concealed coal-
fields of Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and Kent since the earlier
estimates were framed, it may be assumed with some confidence
that the reserves of coal available in 1921 amount to not less than
135,000 million tons, and might amount to 150,000 million tons,
in addition to further considerable quantities at depths lower than
4,000 ft. or in concealed areas.
Some idea of the magnitude of the reserves of coal thus indicated
will be gained from a consideration of the output since 1855 shown
below. The quantities of coal shipped abroad and available for
home consumption are added for comparison :
Period
Coal
Raised
Coal !
Shipped
Abroad
Coal Available '
for Home
Consumption
1855 to 1860
1861 ' 1870
1871 ' 1880
1881 ' 1890
1891 ' 1900
,1901 ' 1910
1911 ' 1920
Million
412-8
974-9
1,311-0
1,642-6
1,954-4
2.453-7
2.530-5
statute
38-5
94-0
187-2
3I4-7
457-8
732-8
654-3
tons
374-3
880-9
,123-8
,327-9
,496-6
,720-9
,876-2
Total 1855-1920
11,279-9
2.479-3
8,800-6
(R. F. T.)
UNITED STATES
Previous to the lo-year period ushered in with 1911, bitu-
minous coal production in the United States was scattered,
uncoordinated and wasteful. The mines had a variable but
large idle capacity, and the uncertainty of operations was at
once a menace to the stability of the labour supply and to the
maintenance of. an adequate output : the technique and prac-
tice of storing coal were imperfectly developed, as was still
the case to a great measure in 1920; the seasonal fluctuations
of demand were uncompensated. These conditions were essen-
tially the product of past circumstances excessive competi-
tion, over-development of resources, and inadequate prices
at the mine mouth, which led to poor engineering and low
recoveries of values. The technology of production during
the World War period 1914-8 showed great improve-
ment, and there was evidence of growing industrial efficiency
in extracting coal, although this progress was accompanied by
excessive prices and an approach to monopolistic conditions.
Bituminous and anthracite formed over a third of all U.S.
freight in 1920, but transportation was the weakest link in the
supply. Continuous mining depends on an unbroken move-
ment of coal-cars past the mine mouths; and the number of
coal-cars has never been equal to the full capacity of the devel-
oped mines. Unless railroad equipment becomes more nearly
adequate, every period of industrial prosperity must result in
a car shortage.
The United States had in 1920 the largest coal reserve of
any country about 3,527,000 million out of a total world
reserve of 7,900,000 million tons, and a good reserve of each of
the several classes of coal. For many generations there will
be no danger of a shortage except of anthracite, good coking
coal, and the highest grades of steam coal, which in 1920 were
being actively mined. Each year found anthracite more of a
luxury. Three thousand million tons of hard coal had been
consumed, and the thinner, deeper and poorer seams were
being mined. If the rate of consumption in 1920 continued,
the United States would use up more anthracite between 1920
and 1940 than it did in the preceding 100 years. It is bitu-
minous coal, therefore, that will support the future industrial
life of the United States. According to geologists the country
had in 1920 upward of 1,400,000 million tons of the various
grades of true bituminous coals in addition to 49,863 million
tons of semi-bituminous, 987,514 million tons of sub-bitu-
minous and 1,093,290 million tons of lignite. Of these total
deposits, however, less than 5 % were high-grade coals. Almost
all the production before 1920 came from this better class of
1 Including the coal equivalent of coke and manufactured fuel
exported and the coal shipped as bunkers by vessels engaged in the
foreign trade.
COAL
711
fuel. The earliest depletion of steam and gas coals will come
in the fields that have supplied the great manufacturing districts
of the eastern states.
Throughout the greater part of the country the large operating
coal companies owned both surface and mineral rights. In certain
districts coal land that sold in 1910 for $50 an ac. brought $700 in
1920. Seams that had netted the owners royalties of 6 to 10 cents
a ton were often leased on a royalty basis of 30 cents per ton. In the
Rocky Mountain region the Government sold the coal rights, but
the state school lands of Colorado and Wyoming were generally
leased at royalties of about 10 cents a ton. In the state of Washing-
ton a considerable area of the bituminous district was owned by the
Northern Pacific railway, which had opened up the territory and had
secured land grants from the Government. The royalty was from
15 to 25 cents a ton. In Alaska, in the Matanuska and Bering river
bituminous fields, and in the Nenana lignite field, the Government
offered the coal for leasing at 2 cents a ton for the first period, under
restrictions providing for conservation and reasonable prices to
consumers. Some units were taken up in the Matanuska and
Bering river fields, but as the measures are badly contorted and
the coal-beds difficult to trace progress was slow, and in 1920 pro-
duction had scarcely begun. In 1920 the Alaskan Railway Commis-
sion was working some mines temporarily at Chickaloon and Esak
creek to obtain a supply of coal pending the development of other
mines by lessees. Congress, in opening the coal lands in Alaska for
leasing, reserved tracts of not exceeding 7,680 ac. and 5.120 ac.
respectively in the Matanuska and Bering river fields, for the use
of the navy. In the western states the Government still owned large
areas of coal and lignite lands generally remote from railways and
difficult of access, but containing enormous reserves. In 1920 the
Gebo mine at Gebo, Wyo., was the only one leased to an operating
company by the Government, but the extension of a leasing system
similar to that proposed for Alaska will ultimately be effected.
In the United States the two branches of coal-mining
anthracite and bituminous present totally different aspects.
In fact, it has become almost an axiom that what is true of
the anthracite industry is untrue of the bituminous industry.
The anthracite industry is well organized, and railroad con-
nexions make it notably efficient and powerful. Bituminous
coal, on the other hand, is so widely distributed on both public
and private lands that no organization of private companies
was ever able to control the industry. All centralized control
of coal production was always opposed by Congress and the
general public. Only during the World War did the United
States attempt to exercise authority ovr commercial mining
and the sale of coal. A fuel administration was created, and coal
was shipped under its instruction and at prices fixed by it.
Government control practically disappeared with the war.
There was a growing feeling, however, that production and
distribution should be classed as a public utility and regulated.
In the 10 years from 1891 to 1900 the average annual work-
ing time of the mine workers in the anthracite regions ranged
from 150 to 203 days, with a mean average of 176 days. During
this period the entire anthracite industry was demoralized.
A great strike occurred in the hard-coal region in 1902. President
Roosevelt appointed a commission, and the anthracite industry
emerged from the difficulties plus a Board of Conciliation, com-
posed of representatives of the operators and the miners,
which was still in power in 1920. Under this plan the annual
working time in the hard-coal mines increased gradually to 229
days in 1910, about 30% over the annual average working
time of the to-year period preceding the appointment of the
Board. From 1911 to 1920 the annual average never fell below
230, and the mean was 255 days. The better conditions for
miners in the anthracite field after 1902 were not solely due
to increased annual working time. Between 1902 and 1920
there was also an increase in wages of something like 85 per
cent. In the period 1900-10, the production of anthracite per
man per day increased materially, but the next decade, 1910-
20, showed a drop, due to the reduction of the length of the
working-day from nine to eight hours.
In 1920 it seemed practically impossible to duplicate in the
bituminous fields the conditions existing in the anthracite re-
gion. The anthracite mines all lie in a small area of one state,
Pennsylvania. The collieries were all owned by a few large
companies, which rendered it possible to centralize the control
in a few men. But bituminous coal in 1920 was mined in 27
states, various producing districts competing for the same
markets. It was because of this wide distribution of soft coal
that it had never been possible to bring about unified action.
Yet production managed to keep pace with the country's
normal industrial growth. The industry grew from an output
of 111,000,000 tons in 1890, from mines whose aggregate capac-
ity was estimated at 152,000,000 tons and which employed
192,000 men, to the record figures of 1918, when the output was
579,000,000 tons, the mine capacity approximately 715,000,000
tons, and the mine workers numbered 615,000.
Analysis of the records over the 3O-year period 1890-1920 shows
that coal output and labour employed during this period increased
largely, and that the production of the average mine-worker was
greater. Output fell off, however, in the years of general business
depression 1894, I 94> I 98, 1911 and 1914. Mine capacity kept
well in advance of output, largely because of ever-increasing ex-
penditures in mine equipment, which also largely account for the
increased average production per man underground from 579 tons
in 1890 to 1,134 tons ' n 1918.
The considerable time lost in the soft-coal industry is shown by the
fact that in only seven of the years during the period from 1890-1919
was lost time less than 25% of the working year. That coal-mines
are idle for many days in the year is familiar to everybody acquainted
with the industry; but what is not generally realized is the amount
of time lost. During the 1890-1919 period, out of 308 possible work-
ing days a year, the bituminous mines were idle on the average 93
days. Ten times during that period the time lost exceeded 100 work-
ing days. The greatest loss was in 1894, when the average for all
mines was 137 days, or 44% of the working year. The smallest
loss occurred in 1918, the year of record production; yet even then
the mines were closed down for one cause or another for the equiva-
lent of 59 days out of 308 nearly one-fifth of the time. These
figures for lost time indicate only the days that the mines were not
operated. Absenteeism of a part of the force when the mines were '
running still further reduced the output. The greatest extremes in
output occurred in 1914, when the rate of production rose in March
to 123 % of the monthly average for the year and fell in April to 66 %.
The high rate was nearly twice the low. In that year two influences
were at work: the normal seasonal fluctuation was intensified and
distorted by the biennial wage negotiations. The normal April
slump was aggravated by strikes, in anticipation of which there had'
been anxious buying in March. The year 1914 may be taken as a
somewhat exaggerated example of the fluctuation to be expected
in an " even " year the year of biennial wage adjustment. In one
respect, however. 1914 was not typical. The autumn peak came in
Sept., and was followed in the last quarter of the year by a de-
pression which was one of the effects of the outbreak of the World
War. In other years the peak was reached in November.
When monthly fluctuations represent seasonal fluctuations in
demand only, uninfluenced by labour disturbances, as in 1913, such
a year may be accepted as a fair type of the " odd " year in local
production, when the biennial adjustment is not a factor. In such a
typical year the capacity required during the month of maximum
demand will be from 35 to 40 % greater than in the month of mini-
mum demand. In other words a mine capacity and a labour force
sufficient for Nov., if working full time, would be employed in April
only 70 to 75 % of the time ; and as in actual practice the mines never
attain 1 00%, or full time, even in Nov., but under the very best of
conditions reach only 80 %, the time of employment to be expected
during April is about 59%. Rate of mining in April 1919 was only
50 %, or 24 hours out of a 48-hour week. The highest weekly per-
centage of full time averaged by full-time bituminous mines was
86-8, during July 7-13 1918. The average for that particular month
was 84-4. In Sept. 1918 an average of 84-9% w-as reached. In Nov.
1917, however, when the demand was intense but the zone system
and other features of wartime control of distribution were not in
force, the percentage averaged was only 75^3. To put it in another
way, even in years of active demand the inequalities in the summer
and winter buying of coal render inevitable a long period in which
the labour and capital engaged in the industry cannot work more
than 27 to 30 hours out of a 48-hour week. This is not the measure
of working time necessary to meet demand. The 3O-hour week is
almost invariable during springtime in the bituminous coal industry.
Under the conditions obtaining in 1920 there was a third set of
fluctuations in addition to the annual and seasonal fluctuations in
production. The railways work seven days a week; the mines only
six. Over Sunday the carriers catch up in their work of placing cars,
and in consequence of the better car supply the miners work longer
on Monday, but later in the week their hours show a gradual de-
cline, accentuated on Saturday by holiday absenteeism. Even if
the mines should obtain full time on Monday, which in practice
they never did. they could not expect to work more than 86% of
the time on Friday and 79% on Saturday. But the Monday rate
never in practice gets up to 100% and the performance on the latter
days of the week is correspondingly defective. A significant, if
rough, relation exists between the loss of working time in the soft-
coal industry and the degree of unionization. Those bituminous
712
COAL
regions in which interruptions were most pronounced showed a
tendency to become union territory. The presence of the union is
both cause and effect. Wage disputes cause lost time, but on the
other hand, irregular employment is a prime incentive to unioniza-
tion. Full-time operation, if it could be brought about, would reduce
production costs per ton. Careful investigation of many mining
operations disclosed that the cost of mining varied as much as 60
cents a ton from one month to another, depending on the number of
idle hours. A coal-mine differs from a factory, which when closed
needs only a watchman to guard it. In an idle mine the forces of
nature are busy : there are roof and floor movements that change the
haulways; there are gas exudations and inflows of water with which
to contend. An idle mine cannot be left unattended, without heavy
loss. In mining the costs go on even if the coal is not produced.
At the end of 1920 experts agreed that there was no prospect
of a return to pre-war prices because of the larger difficulties of
mining less favourable seams, more costly equipment, higher
wages and increased freight rates. These changes seemed
likely to cost the people of the United States upward of a
thousand million dollars annually as compared with the fuel
bills of 1914. During the period 1900-20, the population of the
United States increased 42%, and the consumption of coal
172%. Mechanical means, more and more employed to do
work, formerly done by hand, consumed more power, and coal
was the chief source of energy. Assuming that the population
and industrial growth of the United States continue unchecked,
and that the use of coal increases accordingly, by the year
1940 the United States will be consuming 1,400,000,000 tons
of coal annually. It would be wholly impossible for the system
of American railways as constituted in 1920 to handle any
such production and at the same time carry the normal in-
crease of other freight. It appeared essential, therefore, that
immediate thought be given to the important problem of a
national power supply.
There were in 1920 about 8,opo commercial or shipping mines
producing bituminous or anthracite coal in the United States, and
about 12,000 " wagon mines," or " country banks," supplying local
trade. Kentucky, West Virginia and Ohio had the greatest number
of these small openings. Though the total production of these coun-
try banks was less than I % of the total output, the effect of dumping
their unprepared and inferior product on the general market was not
desirable, and as a miner can produce from two to four times as
much coal in a properly developed colliery as in the average wagon
mines, the effect on the labour situation was adverse.
The whole American coal industry in 1920 employed 750,000
men in and about the mines. The operations in the Appalachian
fields, from the Tennessee-Kentucky line N. into Pennsylvania,
furnished the bulk of the bituminous coal used in New York and
New England. The Appalachian region also provided all the bitu-
minous coal exported to Canada. Consumers required shipments of
at least 28,000,000 tons monthly from the mines. In winter all this
output was consumed as fast as produced, but in summer consump-
tion dropped to approximately 24,000,000 tons a month. The re-
mainder, about 4,000,000 tons a month, normally served to build
up winter stocks in New England, the north-western states and
Canada. An analysis of coal production in the United States by
periods and decades from 1807, and by years from 1908, is given in
the annexed table in short tons.
The table illustrates the great increase of American industries,
which absorb nearly all of the bituminous production. Gauging the
industrial development of the different nations by the per capita
consumption of coal, it is interesting to note that in the United States
the annual consumption per capita in 1920 was six tons ; in the United
Kingdom it was estimated to be 5-1 tons; in Germany 3-4; France
1-2; Italy 0-34; and Russia 0-18. Before the outbreak of the World
War in 1914, Belgium was consuming about four tons of coal per
capita, which indicated its intense industrial development. While
the output of European nations steadily decreased in recent years,
the production of the United States increased. American mines in
1918, as shown by the table below, under stress of war demands broke
all records, producing nearly 600,000,000 tons of bituminous coal. The
average production per man during that year was 1,134 short tons.
The closest competitor was New South Wales, where each under-
ground worker in 1918 produced 814 tons. British Columbia ranked
third with 790 tons, and Nova Scotia fourth with 718.
Mining machines played an important part in the development of
coal-mining in the United States in the period 1910-20. In 1918,
18,463 machines were in use in the bituminous mines, an increase of
1,228 over 1917, and 2,265 over 1916. The tonnage mined by ma-
chine in 1918 was 323,931,000, an increase of 17,535,000 tons, or
5-7% as compared with 1917. No great change occurred in the
proportionate machine output for 1920, because the intense demand
called forth a large production by hand as well. In 1916 the propor-
tion of the total output mined by machines was 56-5%, in 1917 it
was 55-5% and in 1918 59-9%.
Of the annual bituminous production in the United States in 1920,
40% was used for steam or industrial purposes, 27% was burnt by
the railways, 15% was used for household purposes and the remain-
ing 18% consumed in coking, exports, smithing, gas-houses and
bunkering. Assuming that it is possible to obtain the by-products
from only 25 % of the industrial coal and from 50 % of the railway
coal through establishing control stations and electrifying, also that
all the household coal can be coked first (which could be done
if modified ranges and furnaces were used), it has been calculated
that 195,000,000 tons of bituminous that in 1920 was burned raw
in the United States should have been coked. If but two-thirds of
this tonnage could have been subjected successfully to by-product
coking, the saving would have amounted to at least $238,000,000.
In other words, more than $200,000,000 went up in smoke from
American plants in a year. Production of coke in 1920 was nearly
57,000,000 tons. Of this quantity approximately 30,000,000 tons
were produced in the old-fashioned beehive ovens and the re-
Years
(Inclusive)
Pennsylvania
Anthracite
Bituminous
Total
Period Totals
1807-20 . . . . .
1820-25 . . . . .
1826-35 . . .
1836-45 . . .
1846-55 . . . .
1856-65 . .
I 866-7 5
12,000
7i,HI
3-007,371
13,393484
51,948,337
98,593-540
198,436,722
309,991,788
486,784,754
612,395,214
851,878,227
Annual Prod
83,268,754
81,070,359
84,485,236
90,464,067
84,361,598
91,524,922
90,821,507
88,995,061
87-578,493
99,611,811
98,826,084
88,000,000*
89,000,000*
3,000
256,040
1,160,778
9,784,153
31,469,490
75,201,474
220,988,382
537,768,531
1,099-313-887
2,220,007,532
4,066,839,056
uction During Period 190
332-573,944
379,744,257
417,111,142
405,907,059
450,104,982
478,435-297
422,703,970
442,624,426
502,519,682
551,790,563
579,386,000
458,063,000*
556,500,000*
15,000
327,181
4,168,149
23,177-637
83,417,827
173,795-014
419,425,104
847,760,319
1,586,098,641
2,832,402,746
4,918,717,283
I-2O Inclusive.
415,842,698
460,814,616
501,596,378
496,371,126
534,466,580
569,960,219
513-525-477
531,619,487
590,098,175
651,402,374
678,212,084
546,063,000*
645,500,000*
End of 1865
284,900,808
1807-1885
1,552,086.231
1807-1905
5.970,587,618
1876-85 . . . .
1886-95
1896-1905 . .
1908
1909
I9IO
1912
1913
lOId .
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
Total 1908-1920 ....
1,158,007.892
5,977,464,322
7,135,472,214
*Estimated. Bituminous coal in the United States is mined and sold in short or " net " tons. Anthracite is mined and sold in long tons.
The figures in the table for anthracite have been reduced to net tons to make them correspond to the bituminous figures.
NOTE. Anthracite production exceeded bituminous until after the Civil War. After that time it became less proportionately, from year to
year. In 1908 bituminous production had become about four times as great as anthracite, and in 1918 it had become nearly six times as
great.
COAL
maining 27,000,000 tons came from by-product ovens. The maxi-
mum capacity of the by-product plants of the United States has
been estimated at 27,000,000 net tons of coke at the beginning of
1908, 33,700,000 at the beginning of 1919, and 39,500,000 at the
beginning of 1920. These estimates were based on 100% operation.
In actual practice, however, an average operation above 9% cannot
be assumed; and for the country as a whole 85% is a safer figure.
This would show the capacity for 1920 to be 33,575. tons.
Estimated according to the quantity of by-product coke produced
in 1919, 25,171,000 tons, by-products recovered during that year
were 668,200,000 Ib. of ammonium sulphate or equivalent, 251,000,-
ooo gal. of tar, 84,800,000 gal. of crude light oil, and 367,700,000
cub. ft. of gas. The largest by-product coke plant in the world in
1920 was that of Clairton, Pa., owned by the Carnegie Steel Co.
This plant carbonized 12,500 tons of high volatile coals daily, pro-
ducing 8,000 tons of metallurgical coke, 150 gal. of coal tar, 75,000-
ooo cub. ft. of gas, 40,000 gal. of light oil and 174 tons of am-
monium sulphate each 24 hours. The comparative production of
these resultants varies in different parts of the country.
In contrast with the reserves of coal in the United States and the
annual production, the exports in 1913 (a normal year) were only
about 12% of the exports of coal from all other countries; and a
large part of the American exports went to Canada by rail. Of
sea-borne coal, the United States sent out only about 4 %. This small
proportion of over-seas trade was due to the distance of American
coal from seaports, the lack of organization among operators and
among related shipping organizations, and further, to the relative
independence of the United States, which could utilize only a small
amount of imports from most countries as a return cargo for coal-
exporting ships. Most of the American coal was used at home, but
the advantage of exporting a considerable quantity of coal, for its
effect in increasing trade relationships with other countries, was
becoming more manifest. During a part of the autumn of 1919 the
United States exported coal at the rate of 65,000,000 tons a year.
This was practically every pound of coal that could at the moment
be loaded into ships at the Atlantic ports. The total coal-loading
capacity of all the Atlantic coast export docks was about 31,000
tons per lo-hour day. It was this limited coal-handling facility which
militated to a large extent against the United States gaining a per-
manent position as the world's leading coal export nation.
The war opened several foreign markets, especially in South
America, to U.S. coal. The United States had coaling stations
as far away as the Samoa Is. and Manila, but little coal reached
them from America. American coal supplied the Government
coaling stations in Alaska, Hawaii, the home ports both Atlantic
and Pacific, Cuba, Porto Rico, Nicaraguan ports, Panama
Canal ports, Mazatlan (Mexico) and South American ports.
U.S. Government Control, 1017-20. On April 6 1917 the
United States entered the World War, and centralized war-
time control over the coal industry was delegated by President
Wilson, in May 1917, to an officially constituted Fuel Board,
with Francis S. Peabody, a practical coal operator, as chairman.
Soon after the formation of the Board, plans were announced
for the stabilizing of coal prices, the collecting of production
statistics, and the efficient distribution of coal.
The Fuel Board acted as a kind of clearing-house, collating
and digesting the vast mass of information needed. In June
1917 labour was given representation on the board, and the
way thus smoothed for more efficient cooperation between
the board and the mine workers. Keenly desirous of efficiently
handling the coal situation, the Federal Trade Commission,
through the Fuel Board, made recommendations which created
surprise, as no such drastic measures had been expected. In
essence, the most important of these recommendations were:
First, the institution of a pooling arrangement, to be placed
in the hands of a Government agency, to control the production
and distribution of coal and coke. The producers were to be paid
their full cost of production plus a uniform profit per ton, with
due allowance for quality of product and efficiency of service.
Second, all agencies of transportation, by both rail and water,
were to be similarly pooled and operated on Government account,
as a unit, under direction of the President. The owning cor-
porations were to be paid a fair compensation, which would
cover normal net profit, upkeep and betterments.
In the latter part of June 1917, after conferences with the
coal operators, the Fuel Board (then known as the Committee
on Coal Production) made sweeping reductions in the current
prices of bituminous coal, which had been showing a tendency to
rise to unheard-of levels. Early in these conferences it be-
came apparent that a national organization of coal operators
would be necessary to carry into effect the price-fixing and other
plans of the Government. A tentative organization was formed,
composed of the secretaries of the 25 coal-trade associations
which were represented at the sessions. C. P. White, of Cleve-
land, was chairman of this new body, and C. E. Lesher, statis-
tician of the U.S. Geological Survey, was secretary. The asso-
ciation was to work in conjunction with Mr. Peabody's com-
mittee, and to be supported by an assessment not to exceed
one-quartet mill per ton, levied on all operating coal companies
in the United States. By Aug. i 1917 the pooling arrangement
suggested by the Federal Trade Commission was in full operation.
All shippers of tidewater bituminous coal had agreed to pool
their output at the ports of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore
and Hampton Roads. The regulations fixing maximum prices
for coal, announced by the Committee on Coal Production, were
carefully observed by the coal operators, although the new fig-
ures had been characterized as " unjust " in some quarters and
as " exorbitant and oppresive " by Secretary of War Baker,
who wanted cheap fuel for the navy.
The prices set by the Committee on Coal Production were
short-lived, for on Aug. 21 1917 President Wilson took price-
fixing into his own hands and prescribed provisional prices to
cover all the bituminous-coal-producing districts of the country.
The new figures were one-third lower than those agreed upon
voluntarily by the operators in concert with Mr. Peabody.
The announcement of the new prices stated that they were
based upon actual cost of production and were deemed to be
not only fair, but liberah Provision was made, however, for a
reconsideration " when the whole method of administering the
fuel supplies of the country shall have been satisfactorily
organized and put into operation." All the coal operators in the
United States were called upon by the Board of Directors of
the National Association of Coal Operators to meet Aug. 29 191 7
at Pittsburg, to discuss the latest ruling.
Soon after the President's announcement fixing the prices
of soft coal, came the setting of prices of anthracite coal, the
specification of the margin of profit that could be charged by
a jobber and the naming of a coal controller. In a fifty-word
statement, President Wilson announced that, in accordance
with an Act of Congress approved Aug. 19 1917, he had ap-
pointed Harry A. Garfield, president of Williams College, as
his fully empowered representative on control of fuel.
The new schedule of coal prices had no appreciable effect on
anthracite, though it threw the bituminous trade into con-
fusion. Practically all coal disappeared from the market, and
delegations from all parts of the country rushed to Washington
in an endeavour to have the prices on bituminous coal increased.
Dealers who had purchased stocks of coal at prices considerably
above the latest Government figures were in a quandary. On
Sept. 8 1917 Mr. Garfield made pubh'c his plans for controlling
retail prices of coal by the formation of local fuel administrators
in every coal-consuming section of the country. Soon after, in-
timations came from Washington that the President's pro-
visional prices for bituminous coal would be increased, as the
original schedule had tended to decrease production. In the
autumn of 1917 the educational department of the Fuel Ad-
ministration, in the daily press and in circulars, posters and
pamphlets, began to preach economy to both domestic and
industrial coal consumers. Industries that were not strictly
necessary to the winning of the war became apprehensive as to
their future coal supplies. Through the fall of 1917 the demand
for both anthracite and bituminous coal was urgent, and many
sections of the country were in dire straits for want of soft
coal. The price of bituminous had been increased 45 cents mean-
time, the advance being made to cover the increase in the
miners' wage scale that, had gone into effect.
By Dec. 1917 it became evident to those in the coal industry
that the Fuel Administration would brook no interference with
its plans. The personnel of the Administration had been growing
since its inception, and there were organizations in most of the
states of the Union. With the coming of the exceptionally cold
COAL
winter of 1917-8, came more urgent demands for coal from all
classes of consumers. New England in particular was in dis-
tress, and large cities such as New York could get but little
hard coal for heating. The great tonnage which the railways
were called upon to handle congested the yards, terminals
and equipment so that it became impossible to supply quickly
even the most vital needs. Embargo followed embargo, and
preferential shipment orders for sundry commodities further
hampered transportation. Dr. Garfield stated that adequate
coal supply depended in large measure upon more ample trans-
portation. Every soft-coal operator reported a shortage of
coal-carrying equipment, and although the clamour for relief
was loud and long, no one seemed to know just what steps
to take to ameliorate this condition.
The attempt was then made to deal with the problem by
conservation. Estimates by the fuel authorities indicated a
shortage of at least 50,000,000 net tons of bituminous coal.
As there seemed to be little likelihood of output catching up
with demand, reliance was placed on securing less waste of
coal in large plants and in curtailing unnecessary uses of power.
David Moffat Myers, advisory engineer of the Fuel Administra-
tion, in consultation with conservation committees and en-
gineers, formulated a plan to reduce fuel waste in power-plant
operation, not by costly installations of more efficient apparatus,
but by a more intelligent and careful use of existing equipment.
It was proposed to ascertain first how far each plant complied
with certain well-recognized standards in its operation and
maintenance, and then, by a system of rating degrees of effi-
ciency, to force on the attention of the" plant management such
wasteful conditions as were disclosed. To supply a strong in-
centive for improvement, it was announced that the relative
rating of plants would influence the Fuel Administration's
allotment of coal should a shortage occur. The plan further in-
cluded a programme of education through lectures, Govern-
ment publications, meetings of plant owners, engineers and
firemen. This campaign in each state was to be in the hands
of an experienced power-plant engineer who, with his staff of
workers, should be a part of the conservation division of the
state Fuel Administration. Printed " Recommendations of the
United States Fuel Administration " were issued establishing
the standards of plant operation and maintenance as well as a
questionnaire to ascertain from the power-plant owner the
condition of his plant with relation to these recommendations,
and to obtain the initial information for rating. It was an essen-
tial part of the plan that this information be confirmed or
amended by an accredited inspector after investigation of
the plant itself.
As a climax to Dr. Garfield's frequent statements, that the
railways were chiefly responsible for the deplorable situation,
came the proclamation by the President on the night of Dec.
26 1917, by which the Government took over the railways.
At this time the efforts to relieve congestion on the railways
were beginning to bear fruit in the shape of a slight improve-
ment in the car supply at the mines. On Jan. 16 1918 came the
order shutting down business for five days and closing up in-
dustries on every Monday until March 25. The storm of pro-
test which this evoked was far louder than any that had greeted
the other revolutionary edicts of the Fuel Administrator. There
had been no advance notice of the order, and following its pub-
lication the U.S. Senate, with only 19 adverse votes, passed
a resolution, introduced by Senator Hitchcock, requesting a
five-day suspension of the order to allow those opposing it to be
heard. Nevertheless, the order was obeyed with a promptness
that clearly showed the resolution of the public. On Feb. 13
1918 the order providing for " heatless " and " workless "
Mondays was suspended. Although it was admitted in official
circles that little coal had been saved by the order, it was gen-
erally acknowledged that it had stimulated the railway managers
and had relieved to some extent the freight congestion.
After months of preparatory work, the Fuel Administration
on March 22 1918 announced a zoning plan for the distribution
of coal, to take effect April i 1918. Every state in the Union
was affected more or less. The aim was to confine coal pro-
duced in the eastern section of the United States to eastern
markets, and make it compulsory for states in the Middle
West, as well as in other sections, to use coal produced in mines
near by. The announcement was received by the coal-mining
industry with mixed feelings. Many operators and shippers
who had spent years in building up their trade suddenly found
their best customers taken from them. Consumers who had
been accustomed to burning certain kinds of coal were forced
to use fuels with which they were less familiar. But producers
and consumers alike readjusted their methods to conform to
the new order of things. The coal trade was still further con-
vinced that the Government intended to control the entire output
of fuel, from the time it left the mines until it was in the con-
sumer's bin, and even in the furnace, when Dr. Garfield on April
i 1918 announced that coal jobbers must procure licences.
Many abuses had arisen which the Government desired to
eliminate, and the licensing plan was announced as fair to the
operator, to the bona-fide jobber and to the consumer. The new
system enabled the retailer to buy direct from the producer,
whereas he had before been able to deal with the jobber only.
With the railways under its control, the Government had
made material progress in the task of clearing the path for a
quick movement of coal from mine to consumer. New prices
had been announced, and the local fuel administrators had
perfected their organizations to take care of distribution. In
many producing districts the car supply was still below normal,
however, and not sufficient motive-power was available. The
railways had shown little improvement in the method of allotting
empty cars to the mines. Before the Railroad Administration
assumed control, it had been the practice of some railways to
allot cars to those operators on their lines who favoured the
carriers in respect of prices. John Skelton Williams, in charge
of purchases for the Government-controlled railways, insisted
that the Railroad Administration had the right to distribute
cars where and how it pleased. This was a continuation of the
old policy of using such control of shipping facilities as the rail-
way possessed to force concessions in price from the coal pro-
ducers, and it was in direct antagonism to the Fuel Administra-
tion's endeavour to further the production of fuel. Thus one
Government body set at naught the edicts of another.
This action on the part of the Railroad Administration served
as did nothing else to bring to the support of Dr. Garfield many
of the coal operators who had been inimical. With the warmer
weather of May 1918 came admonitions from the Fuel Admin-
istration that consumers would best serve their own interests,
and those of the nation, if they laid in their winter coal supplies
during the summer. The production of both anthracite and
bituminous coal had been steadily increasing, though inadequate
car supply still prevented a maximum output of the latter.
By June 1918 it had become apparent to those interested that
the coal industry was being organized as it never had been
before. The Fuel Administration, under Dr. Garfield, was
accomplishing the seemingly impossible. Weekly reports kept
him conversant with the actual output and consumption of
coal in each zone, and a watch was kept on the needs of each
section. Coal was in many instances diverted in transit to
provide for emergencies. Quotas had been fixed for cities that
were permitted to burn anthracite, none of which was to be
sent west of. the Mississippi or south of the Potomac or Ohio
rivers. Industries deemed unessential to the winning of the
war were being denied the use of any kind of coal.. By July
1918 the coal industry was hard and fast in the grip of govern-
mental regulations and administration. Competition had
ceased. The railways and the fuel authorities were working
together in harmony, and the bituminous mines, under the
stimulus imparted by Dr. Garfield's newly formed production
bureau, were producing record tonnages. The difficult task of
inciting the soft-coal miners to greater endeavours was placed
in the hands of James B. Neale, who had been acting as ad-
viser to Dr. Garfield. In Aug. the Department of Labor
classified coal-mining as " war work," in order to keep the
COAST DEFENCE
miners from leaving their tasks for other war industries, such as
munitions and shipbuilding, where higher wages prevailed.
Conditions in the latter part of Aug. 1918 were about as
follows: That part of the United States lying roughly be-
tween the Rocky and Allegheny mountains appeared to be
fairly well supplied with fuel, though Michigan was complaining
of a shortage of domestic coal. The scarcity of coal seemed to
be worst along either coast. New England, while admitting
that coal was coming forward in adequate volume for immediate
needs, nevertheless was apprehensive as to the future. On the
Pacific coast, industries were somewhat short of fuel; although
little anxiety was felt, it was anticipated that wood and other
fuels would have to be used there during the winter. By the
middle of Oct. even the most carping critic was forced to admit
that Federal control of the coal industry was beneficial. In
charge of all production and distribution facilities, the Fuel
Administration had carried out many of the plans which it had
formulated early in the year. In the face of apparently insur-
mountable obstacles and of bitter criticism from many quar-
ters, Dr. Garfield and his assistants had laboured steadily until
disorder had given way to order. New England and a number of
other important industrial centres had ample reserve stocks
of fuel against the uncertainties of mining and shipping con-
ditions in winter, a complete reversal of the conditions that
obtained in the autumn of 1917, a year earlier.
The need for quantity production of soft coal being less
urgent, the Fuel Administration again turned its attention to
quality. During the week ended Oct. 28 1918, orders were issued
to a number of bituminous coal miners prohibiting them from
mining or shipping their product, as it was of an inferior quality.
The Fuel Administration closed down 99 mines in its campaign
for clean coal. Early in Nov. 1918 a surplus of soft coal was
reported from practically every mine west of the Mississippi
river, this unusual condition being attributable largely to the
expectation of an early peace which led manufacturers of war
goods to stop buying coal, and partly to exceptionally mild
weather throughout the country. On Nov. n 1918 the signing
of the Armistice practically ended the activities of the Federal
Fuel Administration. Government control of prices and other
regulatory measures of the Fuel Administration were suspended
Feb. i 1919, but control of the coal industry was again estab-
lished Oct. 30 1919, when all regulations were restored, in order
to deal with the results of a strike in the soft-coal fields. These
regulations continued in force until April i 1920, when the coal
industry was returned to its owners.
Apart from the phases of the conservation work carried on
by the Fuel Administration as already described, other fuel-
saving plans and recommendations were either discussed or put
under way. These activities may be classified as follows:
Interconnexion of power plant. This meant that municipal
electric plants should connect with central stations; that isolated
office-building plants, as well as industrial plants, should shut down
and take power from central stations; and the interconnexion of
hydro-electric plants with steam electric plants.
" Skip-stop." Many street-railway companies of the United
States adopted the " skip-stop " system for the saving of fuel by
passing many streets without a stop; steps were taken to decrease
coal consumption by automatic control of heat on cars and by
the elimination of unnecessary street-railway service.
Industrial gas. -The managers of foundries and other industrial
plants in sections of the country where artificial or natural gas was
available, were induced to substitute this form of fuel for hard coal
or coke. Many restaurant proprietors and bakers were persuaded to
abandon solid fuel for gas.
Domestic heating. Although domestic heating consumed only a
small portion of the total coal output, methods of burning fuel in
domestic heating equipments were improved, and faulty installa-
tions were corrected.
Wood fuel. Various local Fuel Administrators devoted themselves
to ascertaining where dead timber was obtainable and, through
women's organizations, boy scouts, and other volunteers, this fuel
was savyed and distributed, taking the place of coal.
Lighting restrictions. The use of electric illumination for display
purposes was curtailed.
Efforts in the direction of conservation ran from the smallest
consumer, who carried his coal home in a pail, to the huge coal-
consuming corporations in the large industrial cities. What
the Federal Fuel Administration accomplished cannot be ac-
curately measured in terms of coal saved, though it may be
stated that it amounted to many millions of tons. (F. W. P.)
COAST DEFENCE (see 6.599). Broadly, the term, "coast
defence " might be said to include all military and naval meas-
ures taken to defend the sea-margin of a count rv against any
attack by an enemy conveyed by vessels on or under the surface
of the water. But the usual military meaning is a much nar-
rower one, and may be taken to denote only the fixed defences
of a coast and their various accessories. Even this requires
qualification. Unless the sea-margin be a very short one it is not
practicable to defend it efficiently by any defences tied down to
the coast-line concerned. The cost in men and material would
be very great, and the whole, being rendered immobile, would be
incapable of use in any other part of the theatre of war. So far
as these forces were concerned initiative would always rest with
the enemy who could attack or not as he liked. Victory lies
with the attack and not with the mere parrying of a blow.
Therefore, any country desiring victory must be prepared to
strike, and for this reason must limit purely passive defence to
its minimum; and defences tied to a coast arc purely passive.
It is true that a country with very weak naval forces often
tends to increase its coast defences as compared with another
power possessing a strong navy. But even here this tendency
should be carefully limited. The hostile navy will hardly ever
be able to compel victory by itself; land operations will be neces-
sary, and every effort should be made to conserve energy to
combat these. The real defence of a coast, in the plain English
of the words, lies in beating the enemy. The numerous coast
guns on the east coast of the United States of America never
fired a shot in the Spanish- American War; that coast was de-
fended at the naval battle outside Santiago de Cuba. Practically
then it may be said that coast defence, in the present mili-
tary acceptation of the words, refers to the fixed defences at
certain limited portions of a coast which, as will be seen later,
arc vital to the whole general fighting scheme of the country.
This view in its entirety has not always prevailed either in
England or in other countries, and it may be said that the
modern British scheme of coast defence has only been accepted
since about 1885. Some years earlier the so-called Palmerston
Commission, which commenced its sittings in 1859, had carried
out a very large scheme of coast fortification which, although it
concentrated the defences at certain important harbours, still
was so far imbued with the ideas of the past that it caused its
works to be much too heavily gunned, and so locked up too
many men and too much material.
Starting with the experience gained at the bombardment of
Alexandria in 1881 the British school of thought on coast
defence, as it existed before the World War, gradually took
shape, and its ideas were crystallized largely owing to the influ-
ence of Sir George Clarke (Lord Sydenham).
The World War has naturally caused changes in this as in
every branch of the military art. Opinions are expressed to the
effect that the whole scheme of coast defence must be radically
changed, owing to the theory that surface craft are practically
doomed and that the weight of a future attack will come from
the air or under the water. This is almost certainly to anticipate
the future too rapidly. The use of aircraft and the expansion
of the use of the submarine boat have undoubtedly caused great
changes. But they are changes and not revolutions. History
shows that no inventions in the past have ever caused sudden
revolution in the art of war. It will be found that the new arm
or the fresh invention take their places in the armoury of war
alongside of, but at first not in place of, what has gone before.
In time the old weapon may be discarded altogether, but some-
times this does not happen. In the matter under consideration
surface craft must always be used for ordinary commercial
purposes, as less energy is required to move a given mass floating
on the water to what is necessary to move it in the air or com-
pletely submerged in the sea. These surface craft being in
existence will certainly have to be used in warfare. Also, the
716
COAST DEFENCE
present stage of mechanical engineering, advanced as it may be
considered to be, hardly warrants the belief that a surface war
fleet, with all which that implies, can be completely replaced now
by aircraft or submarines or a combination of both. The art of
war is constantly changing, but by a gradual progress, and many
of the old views with modifications will be found to be sound in the
future as in the past. Amongst these it is contended that the
basic principles underlying British schemes of coast defence
before the war will be found to have been of this sound nature,
and only require modification in detail.
In order to understand these general principles it is necessary
to consider the whole question of the contest between the ship
and the shore defences, the main element of which is artillery.
These two contestants have never been on an equality, and that
for various reasons which may be briefly recapitulated:
(1) Gun Platform. The shore gun is on an immovable plat-
form while the naval gun is not. It may be taken that a shore gun
presents a vertical target of about nine feet. This subtends an angle
of slightly over 30 sec. at a range of 20,000 yards. Assuming a naval
gun correctly aimed at the centre of this target a movement of the
gun of 15 sec. in the vertical plane containing the trajectory of the
shell at the moment of firing would be sufficient to throw the gun
off the target. Such a movement is almost imperceptible on a ship.
(2) Control of Fire. On a ship the means of range-finding are
necessarily restricted within the dimensions of the ship and its
masts, while the shore gun has the whole coast within the limits
of vision to use for purposes of bases for range-finding. It is true
that in these days aircraft can be used for correcting fire, but the
results of this are not so accurate as those from terrestrial instru-
ments, and in any case aircraft can be used by both sides.
(3) Ammunition. The supply of ammunition of the shore gun
is naturally kept up more readily than that of the gun afloat.
(4) Visibility of Target. So long as a ship is within the horizon
it cannot conceal itself except by means of a smoke screen. This
latter has disadvantages from the point of view of offensive action
from the ship. A shore gun on the contrary can be rendered very
inconspicuous, and in many cases may be invisible from the sea
behind a fold of the ground, using indirect fire.
(5) Target. Apart Irom the visibility of the respective targets
their vulnerability differs. It is not difficult to design a shore bat-
tery so that only a direct hit on the gun itself will put it out of
action, all other parts of the battery being fully protected. At
Tsingtao on Oct. 29 1914 ten large shell from H.M.S. " Triumph "
were observed to burst just inside Fort Iltis, but none of the guns
of the fort were damaged. With the ship, on the contrary, there are
many parts, other than the guns, damage to which would mate-
rially affect its fighting efficiency. Examples of this occurred on
March 18 1915 in the Dardanelles.
To a certain extent these unequal conditions have always
existed, but when they are examined it will be seen that the
increase of power of artillery and improved methods of range-
finding tend to put the ship's guns more and more at a dis-
advantage. When the effective range of artillery was about 1,000
yd. it was very difficult to make anything inconspicuous on
shore, and range-finding instruments did not exist at that time.
In these days of ranges of 30,000 yd. and more, shore guns
become practically invisible from a ship even if they are in
direct view from the sea, and range-finders may be situated
several miles away from the guns they serve and give no indi-
cation of their presence. It is true that with modern ranges
it cannot be expected that shooting can be very constant; there
are too many factors to prevent it. But this fact is at least as
disadvantageous to the naval gun as to its rival on shore.
Guns are not mathematical instruments. Their shooting powers
are affected by very slight variations of propellant charge in
quality and in quantity, of weight of projectile, of the amount
by which the latter is rammed home in the bore, and by the
wear of the gun itself, not to speak of change of atmospheric
conditions and wind. The Battle of Jutland brought out the fact
that a large number of shell are required even to hit a ship, and
still more would be needed to hit such a target as a shore gun.
In one other point also modern ships are at a greater dis-
advantage than their predecessors in a contest against shore
batteries in the fact that they possess a smaller number of guns.
If it be granted that a direct hit is necessary to put a shore gun
out of action then the more guns which are available to fire at
it the greater the chance of hitting. During the World War a
number of British monitors were built and used for bombarding
the German batteries on the Belgian coast. While they possessed
many advantages in their design which tended to render them
less vulnerable, they had the grave disadvantage of an arma
ment small in number.
Except in special cases ships are built to fight other ships and
not to fight coast batteries, and it would seem to be admitted
now that naval fire can never be effective against such small
targets, and that it is better to reserve it, in action against the
shore, for firing upon areas such as docks or dockyards.
If a fleet was determined, regardless of loss, to come to really
close quarters with coast defences, some of the advantages of
the shore gun would undoubtedly be minimized. But the
superiority of the land range-finder would render such an
operation in day-time extremely hazardous to the fleet, apart
from any action by submarines-on the part of the defender, while
at night it is difficult to see what object could be attained, apart
from such a special attack as was carried out at Zeebrugge.
Very many actions have been fought between ships and batter-
ies, and a lew of the most instructive may be mentioned here.
At Eckernforde in April 1849 a Danish fleet consisting of one
battleship, three lighter vessels and two steam gunboats attacked
the Prussfan defences, which comprised two batteries containing
two 8-in. guns, two 24-prs. and six l8-prs., assisted by one field
battery and three battalions of infantry. The batteries were near
the water's edge on low sites. After a long action at short ranges,
the battleship and one frigate surrendered and the remaining ships
retired, all having suffered severely. The casualties in the batteries
were one gun temporarily disabled and ten men.
One of the most instructive instances in the past was the naval
attack on Sevastopol in 1854. There the British in-shore squadron
of five large ships engaged three works Fort Constantine, a large
masonry-casemated fort with barbette guns on the top, which rose
from the sea at the mouth of the harbour; a small brick fort called
the Wasp battery, on a cliff 1 10 ft. high ; and the Telegraph battery,
an earthen one on the same cliff, the two latter works having five
guns each on the sea front.
From a range of 800 yd. 22 out of the 27 barbette guns of Fort
Constantine were silenced in a very short time by the fire of three
ships, the splinters from the stone walls causing a great deal of
damage. But the other two batteries caused the retirement of the
whole squadron with considerable loss, while they themselves
suffered very little, the Wasp battery having one gun upset and 22
men wounded while the Telegraph sustained no loss at all.
In the action at Alexandria in 1882 the conditions were almost
wholly in favour of the ships, namely, smooth water, works not
only on very low sites close to the water but badly designed, a poor
armament and inexpert gunners; yet the shooting of the ships had
little real effect, and against better troops the fleet would hardly
have gained its object. This was due, no doubt, principally to the
nature of the naval armament, which consisted to a very large
extent of slow-shooting heavy guns, few in number, while the
shore guns were well dispersed.
When the World War began it was sometimes argued, as it had
been argued in past periods, that present-day naval artillery is so
powerful that it would reverse the lessons of the past. But the
experiences of the war have only emphasized those of its predecessors.
A long series of engagements took place between British ships
and the batteries erected by the Germans on the Belgian coast.
The number of these actions was at least 40, and yet no gun, mount-
ing or magazine of the'se numerous batteries was ever hit.
In the naval operations in the Dardanelles, on March 18 1915, a
deliberate attack was made on the main batteries of the defence
near the Narrows by 1 6 battleships, at the comparatively short
ranges of from 10,000 to 14,000 yards. The Turkish batteries and
guns were old, the works were badly sited, as a rule close to the
water, and their high traverses rendered them very conspicuous.
At the end of the day three battleships had been sunk by mines
and three others so badly damaged by shell-fire as to necessitate
immediate withdrawal to a dockyard.
The damage to the batteries was very small. For instance, the
old Hamidie I. battery near Chanak, which contained three 14-in.
and six g-2-in. guns, had one of the latter put out of action and
suffered some losses in its garrison. A war-time battery of five 6-in.
guns at Dardanos, near the top of a conspicuous hill some 150 ft.
high, received a large amount of attention, but the only result was
that three gun-shields were dented by splinters.
A general summary having been given of the conditions of
the combat between ships and shore batteries in the past, the
point next to be considered is what are the objects to be attained
by coast defences to-day.
In order that the navy shall be free to carry out its true func-
tion of attacking the enemy's naval forces and keeping clear the
ocean lines of communication of the country, it must not be
COAST DEFENCE
717
hampered by having to think of guarding its own bases against
any attack likely to be made on them. If it had to do this its
mobility would be lost. Naval bases, where ships can renew
their fuel supplies, ammunition and stores of all sorts, and
where they can repair damage, must be self-protected. Similarly,
it is advantageous that certain commercial ports where a country
receives large overseas traffic or where convoys are assembled
for dispatch should be self-protected. Also, for strategical
reasons certain harbours should be self-protected, where naval
squadrons can lie at ease without jeopardizing their own safety
or risk being caught like rats in a trap.
It is at ports of the above description that " coast defences "
find their real use, and while, as stated above, such defences
should be kept down to a minimum, they must be capable of
doing their protective work effectively. The necessary scale of
defence will vary with every nation; and, with the far-flung
possessions of the British Empire and any country with overseas
dependencies, the requirements will vary in every case. Many
factors must be taken into account. The strength of the naval
forces of the country in question, the strength of the naval
forces of any possible enemy, the geographical position of the
harbour in consideration with respect to the enemy and with
respect to the main forces of the country to which it belongs
all these points must be duly weighed in deciding on the scale
of defences to be adopted, as well as the particular role which
the harbour is intended to fill in the general fighting scheme.
Fixed defences may be said then to form a part of the scheme
for utilizing the naval forces of a country, and it has been argued
that these defences should be manned and controlled by the
navy. In a few countries this is the practice, but in the majority
it is not, and it would seem that the latter are right for the
following reasons: the service and control of artillery afloat
differs greatly from those of artillery in coast batteries; the use
of artillery in such batteries is not very different from that in
heavy batteries in land warfare. Therefore it would seem
advisable to have coast batteries manned by land gunners and
not by naval gunners. History has shown that the defences on
the land side of a coast fortress are often the door by which an
enemy seeks to enter, e.g. Sevastopol, Port Arthur, Tsingtao, and
the Dardanelles in the World War. These land defences are
very intimately connected with the fixed coast defences and
also with the field land forces, which must form a part of the
army and not of the navy. It is evident then that in the general
scheme of defence of a defended port there must be some line of
demarcation between naval and military control, involving the
closest cooperation between the two wherever that line of
demarcation is drawn. For these reasons alone it is argued that
the proper line of demarcation should be that provided by
nature, namely, the edge of the sea.
Adaptation of Coast Defences to Local Conditions. While
coast defences will vary according to the scale on which they are
based, they will also vary according to the local conditions of
the place to which they are applied. These local conditions,
apart from topographical considerations, fall into three main
classes: (i) Defence of a harbour; (2) Defence of a channel;
(3) Defence of a landing place. The greater number of cases
will come within the first class.
(i) Defence of a Harbour. This may be a naval port, a
commercial harbour or a strategical anchorage. The scale having
been determined upon, the coast defences necessary will depend
upon the different forms of attack to which the harbour may be
exposed. Attack on the land side of the harbour by forces
landed outside its rayon is omitted here, as it is a branch of land
warfare and is dealt with elsewhere. It is sufficient to remark
that in the past this has often been the most effective form of
attack on a defended harbour. With this omission it may be said
that the forms of attack are: (a) Bombardment; (6) Attempts
to block narrow parts of the approach channel by sinking ships
in the fairway and so sealing up the harbour; (c) Close attack
by small torpedo craft on ships or dockgates, probably at night.
(a) Bombardment. This form of attack may be taken to in-
clude not only bombardment of the object for which the har-
bour exists, such as a dockyard or anchorage, but also action,
analogous to counter-battery in land warfare, agiinst the
batteries protecting the harbour, as, in the event of bombard-
ment these batteries naturally come into play. The positions
of these batteries will largely depend upon the topography of
the environs. There are two general types of harbours, namely,
one with an approach channel, which may be either long or
short and broad or narrow, or one where the coast-line is to all
intents a straight line, the harbour being forme 1 by a slight
indentation of the coast, or by artificial breakwaters.
Whenever possible the batteries should be pushed out as far
as may be from the real object of defence. This has always been
advisable, but in these days it is more than ever necessary. The
fact must be faced that with the present long ranges a larger
amount of ammunition will be necessary than previously to
obtain hits on hostile vessels. This means expenditure of time,
during which the vessels may be able to shell the area forming
their point of attack and inflict damage.
It may be taken now that bombardment can take place from
such distances as 50,000 or even 60,000 yd., and across inter-
vening portions of land. If at all possible then the primary
batteries should be pushed so far forward that they can keep
ships beyond this distance, or be so far forward that they will
bring an effective fire to bear on the ships at much less than ex-
treme ranges, before the latter come within bombarding range.
This, however, is not always possible, and in the event of a
straight coast-line the enemy will be practically equidistant from
the batteries and from the object of their defence. This will
undoubtedly be a great disadvantage to the batteries, and the
number of guns will have to be greater than usual in order to
occupy fully the attention of the hosti'e vessels.
In the past, when the range of artillery was shorter, it was
sometimes necessary to construct forts in the sea itself in order
to cover effectually the whole of a broad channel, e.g. Spithead,
Kronstadt or the entrance to Tokyo Bay. Nowadays, however,
this will practically never be necessary.
The experiences of the World War have shown that the
number of guns required to defend a harbour is even less than it
used to be. Enemy ships for one thing will be chary of approach-
ing too close on account of mines, submarines and electrically-
controlled torpedo craft, and the great superiority of modern
land range-finders over ship range-finders will ensure greater
accuracy on the part of the shore guns. These latter should
be well dispersed and should be able at the same time to con-
centrate their fire. Batteries with single guns would have their
advantages, but there would always be the chance of a lucky
hit from the sea putting the gun out of action and so silencing
the fire from a portion of the defence. It is probable then that
there will be always two guns in a battery, but they will be
well separated by about 200 yd. or even more.
Form of Batteries. The form that batteries will take will undoubt-
edly be influenced by the lessons of the war. Taking into consid-
eration the long ranges in use and the dislike of ships to come close
in, there are many advantages to be gained by making primary
batteries into indirect-fire batteries, siting them where they will
be unseen from the sea and controlling their fire at all times by
some system of position-finding. The advantages so gained would
be, increased protection from hostile fire, much greater latitude in
the choice of sites, a great simplification in design due to the pro-
tection the battery gains from its position and probably easier com-
munications up to the battery. The disadvantages are, loss of
range, a certain area of dead water in the foreground of the bat-
tery, and the impossibility of fighting the guns in the event of the
means of control of fire breaking down. The loss of range would
be unavoidable but the amount would be small. The area of dead
water would depend upon the topography of the coastal region
(it is always assumed that the dead water is navigable). In very
many cases it can be covered by the fire from another primary
battery. Should this not be the case it might be necessary to instal
a direct-fire battery ad hoc, which possibly might be able also to ful-
fil one of the duties of secondary batteries, or to use mobile howitzers
to cover the area. As regards the third disadvantage, adequate
protection for the communications of the fire-control system,
together possibly with its duplication, would seem to reduce the
contingency of this breakdown to a negligible point.
All the primary batteries erected by the Germans on the Belgian
coast were for indirect-fire. After the evacuation by the Allies of
7 i8
COAST DEFENCE
the Gallipot! Peninsula the Germans commenced the construc-
tion of an indirect-fire battery inland from Cape Helles, which was
not quite finished at the end of the war, while at the Black Sea
entrance of the Bosporus on the European side there was a bat-
tery constructed by the Germans which was sited (designedly or
not) in a peculiarly clever manner. It was near Rumeli Fenner and
contained three 24-cm. guns. Owing to the configuration of the
ground it was an indirect-fire battery if used against ships in
the Black Sea to the west of the Bosporus, while in the event of
vessels trying to force the entrance the guns could use direct fire
at a comparatively short range.
Size of Guns. There is a certain amount of disagreement as
regards the size of guns required in coast batteries. In the case
of a straight coast-line the guns must be powerful enough and
possess sufficient range to engage and cause the retirement of the
ships, or at all events to make them confine their efforts to reply-
ing to the batteries. This means that they must be equal in ranging
power to the guns of the enemy.
When an approach channel exists, however, and the batteries
can be pushed forward, it is not really necessary that the coast guns
should be as long-ranging as those of the ships. They only require
to have sufficient range to enable them to bring effective fire on
the ships before they come within bombarding range of the object
of attack. To obtain long range it is also not really essential to
have guns of very large calibre, although the life of a large gun is
certainly longer than that of a smaller one of equal range. Natur-
ally, the shell fired by a coast gun must have a real effect on a ship.
But at the range at which actions are now fought the angle of descent
is so great that the deck is more often than not the place where a
hit would take place, and the protection in this part of a ship is
not very great. On the Belgian coast the Germans had five 15-in.
guns (38-011.), four 12-in., and a number of ll-in., but it seems
questionable whether, provided sufficient range can be economically
obtained, a gun of n-in. or possibly 12-in. would not be quite
powerful enough for a coast battery against any kind of vessel.
As already stated, it is necessary to reduce to a minimum the
amount of material and number of men employed in coast defences,
and the smaller the gun the greater the economy in both.
It has often been advocated that guns on railway mountings
should be used for coast defence, and at first sight they appear to
be advantageous. They can be moved comparatively easily from
place to place in accordance with strategic requirements. But the
ordinary railway heavy-gun mounting is not suited for use against
ships since it does not give sufficient traverse, as it can be fired only
a few degrees on either side of the axis of the railway. Ships are
moving targets and coast guns must have a very large arc of fire.
For considerable variations in the line of fire a railway gun has to
be on a curve of the line and move along the curve as required.
This is too slow for use against a moving target. From the point
of view of protection the faculty of being able to be moved is hardly
required, especially if the gun is firing indirectly. There may be
strategic advantages however in having movable coast guns, design-
ing the mountings so that they can be moved on rails and can also
be transferred in a fairly short time from their travelling wheels on
to prepared pivots.
Range-finding. For the modern coast-defence gun it is essential
that the best possible means of range-finding be employed. Many
instruments have been used for the purpose. Some are adapted
to give only the range of a target from the site of the range-finder,
others termed position-finders give the actual position of the target
on a chart of suitable scale and therefore its relation to the gun
position, which is also marked on the chart.
Both range-finders and position-finders are of different kinds.
Some depend on a vertical base and so require correction for tide
level. Others depend upon a horizontal base and therefore must
be in pairs, one at each end of it. In this case one is known as the
transmitting instrument and the other as the receiving, the latter
being near the gun. In a different class again is the self-contained
range-finder, in which telescopes at either end of a tube from 3 to
33 ft. long, furnished with prisms, conduct the visual rays to cen-
tral object-glasses telescopes and object-glasses being so controlled
by mechanism that when the two images of the target are in a cer-
tain definite agreement the range is marked mechanically.
The long ranges now required practically put out of court all
instruments except those depending on a horizontal base, which
must be sufficiently long to obtain intersections at the target that
are not too acute. There are two classes of this system, one in
which the receiving instrument itself combines the observations
of the two and the results are automatically recorded on dials at
the gun, the other in which the observations of both instruments
are combined graphically at a central plotting station and the
range and training are telephoned to the battery. The former sys-
tem has the advantage of using fewer operators than the latter,
but it requires more elaborate instruments and a larger number of
electric circuits. The latter system is hardly any slower than the
former, and its communications consist of telephones only. It
is possibly the one best suited to conditions of active service.
The chambers required for the angle-measuring instruments are
quite small, and though they must be in direct view of the sea they
can easily be made very inconspicuous. The receiving instrument
should be somewhere near the battery: if an indirect-fire battery it
should be nearly straight in front of It. For economy, principally,
it is customary for one pair of instruments to suffice for all the guns
of a battery, one gun being selected as the " master," and the
other guns are laid by previously worked-out corrections (known as
group differences) upon the training of the master gun.
In order that the instruments can have sufficient range of vision
it is necessary that they should be at a considerable height above
sea-level. This is not always easy of attainment on a low-lying
coast. In order to see the horizon at 50,000 yd. an observer must
be a little more than 450 ft. above sea-level. But for coast-defence
purposes a lesser height would serve, as the target ship will have
some height above horizon. For instance, the records of a minor
engagement between a German n-in. battery near Blankenberghe,
Belgium, and one or two British ships, show that the greatest range
used by the battery was 27,000 yards. The instrumental system
was a long-base position-finding one. The base was 9,445 yd., the
receiving instrument was no ft. above sea-level, on the top of an
hotel, and the transmitter was on the top of a house on the dunes,
the instrument being 90 ft. above sea-level. This latter height has a
sea horizon of 22,090 yd., but the battery was 1,670 yd. back from
the sea. Thus the transmitter was laid on a target more than a
mile beyond its sea horizon.
The Germans made great use of the tall buildings on the Belgian
coast for their observing instruments, but it may be necessary to
erect towers to obtain the requisite height.
The question of visibility is a very important one in the
matter of range-finding, especially in such a climate as that of
Great Britain. There are many days on the British coasts when a
view of anything like 50,000 yd. is impossible, owing to sea fogs.
Such are often low-lying, and it might be possible to overcome them
by the use of captive balloons. Another means of correcting fire is
the employment of aircraft, which may be used by both sides in
the contest. Here length of range is immaterial, but the accuracy
of observation is naturally far less than that from instruments.
Self-contained instruments (such as the Barr and Stroud and
the Zeiss) have been mentioned above. These are range-finders
only. They were supplied in large number to the German bat-
teries on the Belgian coast, but the records show that they were
not relied on for long ranges, but regarded as stand-bys in the
event of anything happening to the long-base system.
Design of Batteries. The experiences of the World War show
that the battery of the future can be greatly simplified. No longer
need it be regarded as a fort, and the fact can be frankly accepted
that the chances of damage by hostile naval fire are extremely few ;
the batteries may be designed accordingly. The guns require their
stable platforms of concrete, but parapets are not necessary.
Ammunition can be stored in light weather-proof structures or in
covered railway wagons on a feeding railway, protection
being sought by dispersion rather than by thickness of covering.
The supply of ammunition to the guns must naturally be made as
easy as possible, and great use can be made of light tramways.
This type of battery was used by the Germans in Belgium
in the later stages of the war. At first their batteries were all of the
type in use before the war, with heavy concrete and earth protec-
tion over the magazines. But after their experience of many bom-
bardments they practically abandoned all material protection. Also,
while the earlier range-finding stations had thick concrete protec-
tion the later structures were weather-proof only.
Effect of Aircraft. The war has introduced a new arm which
cannot be ignored in any branch of the military art, namely, the
air service. As already mentioned, aircraft can and will be used for
correcting the fire both of ships and of coast batteries. But it is
also necessary to consider the offensive action of aircraft against
batteries. Unless the aircraft can descend low enough to make use
of machine-gun fire this action will consist of bomb-diop-
ping. The use of bombs is very similar to the use of long-range
large shell, and, at all events up to the present, it is extremely diffi-
cult with bombs to obtain any accuracy against small targets.
A coast-battery gun emplacement may be taken to be about 12
yd. in diameter. If an aeroplane were travelling at a speed of 120
m.p.h., in order to get a direct hit on such a target the bomb must
be released at an exact fifth of a second, the plane must be flying
exactly across the emplacement, and there must be no wind at all,
or at all events no variation in the wind, during the descent of
the bomb. All these conditions are very difficult to fulfil conjointly,
but practically only direct hits will put the gun out of action.
It would also be quite easy to erect vertical splinter-proof protec-
tion round an emplacement to guard against approximate hits,
although this has the disadvantage of making it more conspicuous
to the eye of an aerial observer. Efficient overhead cover for the
guns is almost impossible to provide, and is not really required.
It would probably be advisable to furnish some material protec-
tion for the gun detachments when not in action, as the explosion
of large bombs in close vicinity is a trying experience.
However, the main protection of batteries against aerial attack
will lie in the use of counter aircraft and of anti-aircraft guns. Even
with the latter only hostile craft will have to keep high up, and the
accuracy of their aim will be very 1 greatly impaired. Therefore
every battery must be within the rayon of some anti-aircraft guns.
COAST DEFENCE
719
Direct-Fire Batteries. Under certain circumstances it may be
impossible to site a primary battery in a position concealed from
the sea. It may have to be a direct-fire battery. In this case it
should, if possible, be on a high site in order to facilitate fire with
automatic sights at short range and also to render it less easy to hit.
Since the guns will be visible from the sea every endeavour must
be made to render them as bad targets as possible, by having
nothing upstanding in the outline of the battery as seen from the
sea. The essential point is that they must have a background.
This may exist naturally, but, if not, an artificial background must
be provided with an outline in keeping with the vicinity.
As regards ammunition storage it would still seem advisable to
adopt the scheme of small dispersed expense stores with tramway
communications to the guns, combined with small dumps in or
near the gun emplacements for immediate use.
(b) Blockship Attack. Hitherto only the primary batteries
have been considered for protection against bombardment, but
there are the other possible forms of attack, which necessitate
the use of secondary batteries of lighter guns. One of these is
attack by blockships in order to seal up a harbour. This is pos-
sible only where there is a very narrow channel which is to seaward
of the important part of the harbour. For instance, there are the
entrances to the harbours of Santiago de Cuba and Port Arthur,
and to the Bruges ship canal at Zeebrugge. These were all
attacked in modern times; the attempts made by the Amer-
ican and Japanese navies respectively were unsuccessful, while
at Zeebrugge the British attack succeeded.
Such attempts would always be made at night, and old war-
ships would often be used for the purpose. This means that the
time available for stopping the ships would be very short, and
the feat is not to be accomplished easily. But they should be
stopped before they reach the bottle-neck of the channel.
The defence guns must have a rapid rate of fire with good
shell-power, and the means of illuminating the approaches must
be the best possible. It may well be also that, in certain cases,
torpedoes fired from the shore would prove effective. The guns
need not be of the heaviest calibre, but nothing under a 6-in.
gun will be of much use. The idea of protection for these guns
requires very little consideration. In the dark there is little
chance of direct hits on them, while shrapnel can be guarded
against by light gun-shields. Such guns, and all secondary arma-
ment, should be direct-fire, with automatic sights.
The succepsful'blocking of the Bruges ship canal on April 23 1918
is an excellent instance of the fact that a fleet, which is determined
to come to close quarters with coast defences, will most surely
find out any weak spot in the latter. There were weak spots at
Xeebrugge. Most of the German guns were sited as if they were
meant to defend the water outside the Mole, and none seemed to
have been specifically allotted to deal with blockships, although
the Germans quite realized the possibility of such a form of attack.
The searchlights were sited similarly there was no concentration
of illumination at the spot where the guns could have been certain
of hitting. On the other hand the flanks of the canal entrance
were crowded with machine-guns, trench mortars and rifles, some
machine-guns being only 50 yd. from the final positions of the
blockships. These weapons were of no use in stopping the ships,
but were admirably placed for killing the crews, who, in leaving
the ships, were completely exposed. That the losses amongst the
crews of the blockships and the motor-boats were small can only
be put down to the theory that " Fortune favours the brave."
(c) Close Torpedo Attack. Another form of close attack is
that by small craft such as destroyers, torpedo-boats or motor
craft, which would attempt to run in at night and attack ships
at anchor inside a harbour, or dockgates, using the torpedo as-
their main weapon. Here the question of the electric lights (see
6.601) is of primary importance. To stop such an attack
secondary batteries are required. The guns of these batteries
will have to possess increased shell-power compared with those
previously in use, in order to keep pace with the greater protec-
tion and greater speed now given to torpedo craft. This increase
of speed gives less time for the shore guns to get in their hits, and
therefore it is essential that each shell should have good de-
structive effect. Wherever possible very low sites should not be
used for secondary batteries. A certain height facilitates the
use of automatic sights with the guns and favours observation
of fire, and the guns are better enabled to see their target in
the beams of the electric lights. However, it must be remem-
bered that no dead water is permissible with these batteries, and
that the limit of navigable water is nearer the shore for light
craft than for larger ships. Therefore, there are limits to the
height at which secondary batteries should be placed, taking
into account the angle of depression obtainable with the guns.
With an illuminated area of water it is generally not possible to
bring an effective fire on torpedo craft at a greater range than 1,000
yd., at which range a height of 40 ft. is sufficient to allow automatic
sights to be used effectively. While foggy weather would probably
interfere with an attack of this nature some craft might try to take
advantage of the obscuration of the lights and creep in. In such a
case sound-ranging, especially sub-aqueous, a new method of posi-
tion-finding produced by the war, could be profitably employed
to ascertain the position of any such craft and allow a fairly accurate
fire to be developed against it.
It seems probable, however, that modern conditions will render
this form of attack less likely in the future than it was thought to
be in the past. Still another form of it may have to be taken into
account should the use of torpedoes from aircraft attain the sue- .
cess which its advocates prophesy. Here the direction of approach
of the enemy is not limited to a navigable channel, as the aircraft
may descend from any quarter of the heavens. The defence against
this modern phase is practically the general case of defence against
any aircraft, except that the planes should be attacked as soon as
possible before they have a chance to release their torpedoes. Also,
they will be most likely to effect this release where their torpedoes
have a fair run in the water against their targets.
(2) Defence of a Channel. Here the word channel is meant to
imply a comparatively narrow stretch of water which has open
or nearly open water at either end, the passage of which it is
desired to bar to an enemy. Such channels as the Straits of
Messina, the Straits of Shimonoseki, the Dardanelles and the
Bosporus would come within the meaning. Also it may be
taken to include harbours having a long channel of approach
and a wide stretch of water inside the channel.
A fair number of cases in which such channels have been forti-
fied and attacked have occurred in history. Not to go too far
back, in 1807, a British squadron under sail forced the Dar-
danelles in spite of the batteries. In this case and in similar
cases in the past the outstanding feature has been that gun-fire
alone has not been able to stop the passage of a determined fleet,
where the ships have been able to pursue their course un-
hindered by obstacles and where they could finally gain water
unswept by gun-fire. Perhaps the most striking instance of such
an operation was the passage of the Federal squadron under
Farragut at Vicksburg on the Mississippi in 1863. The ships
were slow and the current was swift, the navigation was not easy,
the range was short and the guns were well-sited. But the
squadron passed the town not once but several times. The
defenders relied on their batteries only, no obstacles being
placed in the river.
The World War produced a notable instance of this class of
operation in the attempts of the British and French fleets to
force the passage of the Dardanelles. Here the current is swift
but the ships had greater speed than those of 1863. The
Turkish batteries were certainly numerous but the guns were
not up to date, and the batteries were generally badly sited and
designed. But the Turks did not depend upon their guns only;
they made extensive use of obstacles in the shape of submarine
mines.
A desultory bombardment took place on Nov. 3 1914, but the
real attack did not begin till Feb. 19 1915. The entrance to the
Straits was gained and operations continued inside, culminating
in the great attack on the main batteries near the Narrows on
March 18 1915. In his despatches the British admiral states
that the withdrawal of the ships was due to the menace of the
mines. It may be said that the backbone of the defence was the
minefields. Until they were removed the ships were hampered
in their movements and could not deal properly with the
batteries protecting the minefields; also the ships could not
remove the mines until the protecting batteries were silenced.
The attack of March 18 was not repeated.
It is possible and even probable that if the Turkish batteries
had been of a modern pattern and had possessed proper range-
finding appliances (the Germans added these afterwards) the
shore guns might have played a larger part than they did, and
this point should be remembered should similar operations take
720
COATS
place in the future. If the ships are intent on forcing a channel
ranges will naturally become short and the fire of the shore
guns will become very accurate. The small battery at Hartle-
pool which fought the German squadron on Dec. 16 1914
undoubtedly left its mark on the enemy vessels.
The outstanding lesson of the naval operations in the Dar-
danelles would seem to be a very old one that men are more than
material, that even moderately armed and organized defences,
when manned by stout-hearted troops, as the Turks undoubtedly
were, although not well trained technically, can still have in
them a very great power of resistance, provided the tactical
organization of the defence is not radically unsound.
It has been mentioned with reference to the Dardanelles that
minefields may play an important part in the defence of a channel.
Such minefields, although they may, by the active power of the
mines, do great damage to a ship which strikes one, may be
removed by sweeping or countermining, and really form an
" obstacle " in the military sense of the word which to be
effective must be protected by fire. It will therefore be necessary
to arrange that minefields are under the effective fire of batteries.
The guns of such batteries would probably be about the same
size as those for dealing with torpedo craft, as the vessels used in
attempts to remove mines will not be large. If possible minefield
batteries should be so sited that they are protected from the fire
of the larger hostile ships. This was done at the Dardanelles by
taking advantage of the projecting points of land on both the
European and Asiatic shores. As mine-sweeping would gener-
ally take place at night electric lights must be provided spec-
ially for the use of the minefield batteries.
(3) Defence of a Lattding- Place. In certain cases it may be
necessary to prepare defences against the chance of an enemy
landing on a stretch of coast. It would rarely be possible to
hold such a line in any strength, nor would such a course be
desirable, as it would mean locking up troops for an indefinite
period, while it is hardly likely that no warning of a possible
landing would be received. Suitable defences can play an im-
portant part by enabling small bodies of men to hold up an
attack until reinforcements arrive, but for deliberate prepara-
tions to defend all possible landing-places the expenditure of
men and materials will always be prohibitive. Such measures
can be taken only in the case of very important places.
The line of coast to be dealt with may or may not lie within the
rayon of a coast fortress. If it does there may be some guns of
the fortress capable of bearing on the water in front of the shore
to be defended, and their fire will be of the greatest value against
both the covering ships and the boats containing the landing
force. The scheme of defence will have to be arranged so as to
take full advantage of this fire and not to mask it in any way.
The works of fortification required on the stretch of coast-line
will then fall under three heads: (a) defences on the actual coast
so designed as to enable the minimum number of men to hold up
any probable attack; (6) ample communications of all kinds to
allow reenforcements to be sent up as quickly and as safely as
possible to the threatened spot; (c) measures to be taken to deal
with parties of the enemy who may succeed in effecting a landing
and breaking through the defences on the shore. -
(a) The nature of the coast-line to be defended will naturally
vary in many ways, but, as it forms an assumed landing-place there
will always be a beach or strand of some sort, and in all probability
the gradient of the slope into the water will not be excessively gentle.
It is likely also that in most cases the landing-place will be a bay,
with reasonable expectations of higher ground at the extremities
of the bay. A long straight coast-line is an unusual case.
The backbone of the scheme of defence on the coast-line itself
should consist of the provision of enfilading fire along the shore and
the water close to it where the landing parties are expected. To
economize men use should be made of all the machine-guns which
can be obtained. Advantage must be taken of all promontories in
siting these enfilading weapons in order to obtain cover for them
from the view, and if possible from the fire, of ships covering the
landing, but in any case it should be ensured that all the possible
landing beaches are covered by a sufficiency of fire, and this fire
should be as grazing as possible. Therefore, the enfilading posts
must not be high up above the water.
Should there not be any natural protection for these posts from
view from the sea they must be made as inconspicuous as may be,
their outline being Wended into their background, and their colour
corresponding with it. As they will be very low structures this
should not prove difficult of accomplishment. It would probably
be advisable that the machine-guns should be given splinter-proof
cover, the weapons firing through slit loopholes. For deliberate
work the actual posts for the machine-guns might well be made of
concrete. Their distance apart will vary according to circum-
stances and ground, but a fair average distance might be taken as
half a mile, allowing four enfilading machine-guns to each post.
An effective obstacle along the shore is of the greatest importance.
This will usually be barbed wire, and it should extend all along the
line to be defended as thick as circumstances will permit. The
machine-guns must be able to enfilade the obstacle. If it is possible
to erect any wire actually in the water this will greatly assist in
impeding a landing and in breaking up the formations of the enemy.
But the wire along the shore is the more important, that in the
water being considered an addition.
The machine-gun posts should be protected by and should form
part of small infantry posts, say for a platoon. These are primarily
intended to protect the enfilading guns, and must therefore be pre-
pared for all-round defence. At the same time they should be able
to fire over the water and along the shore between them. These
works must be quite inconspicuous, but this should not prove diffi-
cult to arrange. Each post should be completely surrounded with a
wire obstacle, and as they may be shelled by the covering ships it
would be well if some deep dug-outs were provided for the garrison.
If not, the trenches themselves will give very fair protection.
Trenches actually facing the sea, in the case of a long coast-line,
require a large number of men and should be used only sparingly.
But it might be well to prepare some of these for occupation by
some of the reenforcing troops, although the action of the latter is
more likely to take the form of counter-attacking any hostile
troops that have succeeded in landing. If such trenches can be
enfiladed from the infantry posts so much the better, as then they
would be of less value to the enemy should he manage to land and
seize them before the defence reenforcements arrived.
In addition to any coast batteries that may be available field
artillery and trench mortars should be ready to play their part in
repelling the attack. These weapons should also, as a rule, be used
for enfilading,' and emplacements should be prepared for them
together with shelters for their ammunition and detachments. Full
advantage must be taken of any natural cover to secure protec-
tion for them from the fire of the ships.
(6) The provision of ample means of communication for reen-
forcements must be complete. They will depend on the local con-
ditions, but it must be borne in mind that the covering ships will
probably shell these communications and this must be prepared
for. Points such as bridges on the line of route, road crossings, etc.,
must receive special attention in the way of providing alternative
routes, and roads exposed to view from the sea should be screened,
especially near the shore. Movement along such roads will always
be liable to be noticed by hostile aerial observers, but these can be
countered only by offensive action of the defending aircraft.
(c) Some works are also necessary to localize any successful
attempts at landing. These should take the form of lines running
back from the shore (" switches "), starting from one of the infantry
posts on the coast. These switches would generally be inclined at
an angle to the coast-line. If any coast batteries are included in
the area the switches should be utilized to add to their defences,
as the capture of such batteries would certainly form one of the
objectives of the enemy. The actual work to be executed on these
switches would consist mainly in providing a line of wire entangle-
ments, but posts should be prepared at intervals which could cover
this wire with their fire. (J. C. M.*)
COATS, the name of a Scottish family, which established at
Paisley the Ferguslie cotton-thread mills, as well as mills in the
United States, Canada, Mexico, South America, Russia and
other European countries (now J. & P. Coats, Ltd.) and, with
the fortune thence acquired, became munificent benefactors of
their town (see 20.520). JAMES COATS (1803-1845) and SIR
PETER COATS (1808-1890), first and third sons of James Coats of
Paisley, were the founders of the firm. The younger but eldest
surviving brother was knighted in 1869, and his eldest son, SIR
JAMES COATS, ist bart. (1834-1913), directed the fortunes of
J. & P. Coats, especially in Canada and the States, his younger
brother, ARCHIBALD COATS (1840-1912), being chairman of the
company at Paisley. Sir James Coats was created a baronet in
1905 and died at Ayr Jan. 20 1913. His son, SIR STUART AUCHIN-
CLOSS COATS, 2nd bart. (1868- ), was for a time a member of
the old firm and of the associated American and Canadian Thread
companies. PETER COATS (1842-1913), third son of Sir Peter
Coats, and brotherof Sir James Coats, another director of the firm,
died at Whitney Court, Hereford, Sept. 16 1913. SIR THOMAS
GLEN COATS, ist bart. (1846- ), second son of Thomas Coats
COCHERY COLLCUTT
721
of Ferguslie, younger brother of the founders of the firm, assumed
by royal licence the surname Glen-Coats when created a baronet
in 1894. He succeeded Archibald Coats as chairman of the firm
and sat in the House of Commons for W. Renfrewshire from
1906 to 1910. His elder brother, JAMES COATS (1841-1912), was
the giver of the Coats libraries, 4,000 of which were sent to
villages and schools in Scotland. Each consisted of a bookcase
containing about 400 volumes, and the school-children were
provided with satchels for carrying the books to and fro. Spec-
tacles to the number of about 90,000 were also supplied under
the direction of a qualified oculist, to readers who needed them.
Similar libraries were sent to places abroad, such as Smyrna,
Cairo, Jerusalem, etc. No endowment was, however, provided,
and the libraries, at first much appreciated, fell into disuse. A
younger brother, GEORGE COATS (1849-1918), also a director
of the firm, was raised to the peerage in 1916 as Baron Glentanar.
He died at Glentanar, Aboyne, Aberdeenshire, Nov. 26 1918,
and was succeeded by his son, THOMAS COATS (b. 1894).
COCHERY, GEORGES CHARLES PAUL (1855-1914), French
politician (see 6.619), died in Paris Aug. 8 1914.
CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK (1846-1917), American scout
and showman (see 6.637), died in Denver, Col., Jan. 10 1917. He
was buried in a tomb blasted from solid rock on Lookout Moun-
tain, 20 m. from that city.
COHN, GUSTAV (1840-1919), German national economist
(see 6.652), died in Sept. 1919, at Gottingen.
COLAJANNI, NAPOLEONE (1847-1921), Italian author and
politician, was born at Castrogiovanni (Sicily) in 1847. He fol-
lowed Garibaldi in his Sicilian expedition, and later at Aspromonte,
when he was taken prisoner by the Royal troops and deported to
Palmaria. Again in 1866 he fought under Garibaldi in the Tren-
tino and was decorated with a silver medal for valour. Three
years later, while a medical student, he was imprisoned for
taking part in republican agitation. After graduating in medi-
cine he took up the study of social science, and in 1892 was
appointed professor of statistics at the university of Palermo.
He published many books and essays on social and political
problems, and exposed the fallacious and unscientific theories
of Lombroso and Ferri on criminology. For many years he
edited the Rivista popolare, by means of which he strove to
improve the moral and intellectual standard of the masses and
combated all forms of intolerance and hypocrisy. He began his
public career as a municipal councillor in his native town in 1872 ;
in 1882 he was elected provincial councillor and in 1890 deputy
for the same place. In Parliament he sat as a Republican and
showed Socialist tendencies. He was active in the exposure of
the Banca Romana scandal, and a strong opponent of Crispi's
somewhat autocratic tendencies. While he had always opposed
militarism and had also attacked the army with much animus,
on the outbreak of the World War he admitted his error in that
connexion and became a warm supporter of Italian intervention.
After the Armistice he conducted a vigorous campaign against
the Socialist organ Atianti and the bolshevist tendencies of the
Italian Socialist party. He died at Castrogiovanni Sept. 2 1921.
COLBY, BAINBRIDGE (1869- ), American politician,
was born at St. Louis Dec. 22 1869. After graduating from
Williams College in 1890, he studied at the Columbia Law School
and the New York Law School. He began to practise in 1892
in New York. He was counsel for Mark Twain in settling the
affairs of the publishing house of Chas. L. Webster & Co. He
was a member of the New York Assembly, 1901-2. He was
an ardent supporter of the candidacy of Theodore Roosevelt
for the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, and was in
charge of the contests for seating the Roosevelt delegates in the
national convention. Following the split in the Republican
party he became one of the founders of the National Progressive
party and was a delegate at its national convention in Chicago
in 1912. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the U.S. Senate
from New York on this party's ticket in 1914 and 1916. He was
appointed a commissioner of the U.S. Shipping Board, and a
member of the U.S. Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corp.
1917-9. He was likewise a member of the American mission
to the Inter-Allied Conference at Paris in 1917. In Feb. 1920 he
was appointed Secretary of State to succeed Robert L. Lansing
by President Wilson, to whose administration he had given his
support.
COLERIDGE-TAYLOR, SAMUEL (1875-1912), British musi-
cal composer, was of Anglo-African parentage, his father
being a native of Sierra Leone and his mother an Englishwoman.
He was educated at the Royal College of Music in London,
entering as a violinist in 1891. In -1893 he won an open scholar-
ship for composition, and studied for four years under Sir
Charles Stanford. In 1898 his cantata, Hiawatha's Wedding
Feast, was produced in London with marked success, and was
followed by two other cantatas, The Death of Minnehaha and
The Departure of Hiawatha (see 19.85). This trilogy was first
given complete at the Albert Hall, London, in 1900. The Blind
Girl of Castel Cuille was given at Leeds in 1901, Meg Blane at
Sheffield in 1902, and an oratorio, The Atonement, at Hereford
in 1903. He also produced Endymion's Dream and the Eon-Eon
suite (1908-9), and A Tale of Old Japan (1911). He died at
Croydon Sept. i 1912.
COLLCUTT, THOMAS EDWARD (1840- ), English archi-
tect, was born March 16 1840. After a pupilage with R. W.
Armstrong, he entered the office of G. E. Street, where he re-
mained as chief assistant for three years. The time spent under
so strong and impressing an influence had, however, little effect
on his own work and design in the future, which never went along
Gothic lines, but always spoke his own predilection for a free and
personal treatment of Renaissance work owing more, perhaps,
to French than to Italian suggestion. To this method he was,
throughout his career, strongly attached, and his designs, shaped
on these lines yet speaking his own individuality, had a pro-
nounced influence on the current work of the English architects
of the last quarter of the igth century. It was at the beginning of
this period that Collcutt made himself felt in helping forward
the movement to which at the same time William Morris was
devoting himself for a highly raised standard in the considera-
tion of the interior treatment and furniture of the English house.
Under, and for, the then well-known firm of Collinson & Lock he
carried out the decorative work to, and furniture for, many
houses in various parts of the country, a preparation of value to
him at a somewhat later period when he was one of the first
artists to be asked to help in a worthier treatment of the interior
decoration of the ships of the large steamship companies. In
this capacity he dealt with a considerable number of the P. and O.
steamships. It was in 1872 that T. E. Collcutt carried out his
first important building the free library at Blackburn, the
commission for which he obtained, as was the case with much of
his subsequent work, by a spirited and brilliant design which was
successful in a large competition. The even more important town
hall in Wakefield, obtained in the same manner, followed a few
years later, and is an example of Collcutt 's skill in arrangement
of plan. His most noteworthy building, however, is the Imperial
Institute, London, founded in 1886 by King Edward VII., then
Prince of Wales, as a national memorial of the jubilee of his
mother's reign. The new building faces on a road formed across
the site of the Horticultural Gardens, the whole of the area of
which it occupies, and its free and open position, thus obtained,
gives it an advantage uncommon amongst modern London
buildings. Its elevational treatment speaks the grace and refine-
ment characteristic of the architect's work, and of his usual
suggestion of verticality by means of non-ordered pilasters the
whole height of the building. Its style is of a free Renaissance
type, with details such as cornices and strings perhaps, as some
critics say, on somewhat too small and delicate a scale. It never-
theless stands out as a successful achievement in modern English
architecture, and one upon which the artist's signature is clearly
written. With very much the same character and feeh'ng Collcutt
designed the Royal opera house, London later known as the
Palace theatre making much use of marble and alabaster as
decorative material for the interior, and later on he carried out
the Savoy hotel, another instance of his careful plan arrange-
ment. He was elected a president of the Royal Institute of
722
COLLIER COLOMBIA
British Architects in 1906; he received that society's gold medal
in 1902, and three years earlier was awarded the Grand Prix
for architecture in connexion with his artistic services at the
Paris Exhibition.
COLLIER, PRICE (1860-1913), American writer, was born
at Davenport, Iowa, May 25 1860. He lived, while a boy, in
Switzerland and England. After studying at Leipzig and at the
Harvard Divinity School (B.D. 1882) he became a Unitarian
clergyman, but retired from 'the ministry in 1891. He is best
known for his clever sketches of national character in America
and the Americans from the French Point of View (1896); England
and the English from an American Point of View (1909); The
West in the East from an American Point of View (1911) and
Germany and the Germans from an American Point of View (1913).
He died on the island of Fiinen, in the Baltic Sea, Nov. 3 1913.
COLLINGS, JESSE (1831-1920), British politician, was born
at Littleham, Exmouth, Devon., Jan. 9 1831. He was partly
educated at home, and also at Church House school, Stoke, near
Plymouth. In 1866 he settled in Birmingham, where he founded
the mercantile firm of Cpllings & Wallis, and had a highly suc-
cessful business career. Entering municipal life, he was intimately
associated with Joseph Chamberlain, whose devoted henchman
he became. In 1878 he was elected mayor of Birmingham, and
in 1879 retired from business. In 1880 he was elected as Liberal
M.P. for Ipswich, and during this period became prominent as
an advocate of the Radical land policy, known as " three acres
and a cow." In Dec. 1885 Lord Salisbury's Government was
defeated on an amendment to the Address concerning this policy,
moved by Mr. Collings. In 1886 he entered the Liberal Govern-
ment as parliamentary secretary to the Local Government Board,
but resigned with Chamberlain over Gladstone's Home Rule
policy. The same year he successfully contested the Bordesley
division of Birmingham as a Liberal-Unionist. In 1895, on the
appointment of Chamberlain to the position of Colonial Secre-
tary in the Unionist Government, Collings became under-secre-
tary to the Home Office, retaining the post until 1902. He
resigned his seat in Parliament in 1918. He was always interested
in agricultural affairs, and was the founder (1872) of the Rural
Labourers' League and also of the Exminster industrial school.
In 1906 he published Land Reform, in 1914 The Colonization
of Rural Br itain, and his A utobiography, written in conjunction
with Sir J. L. Green, appeared in 1920. He died at Edgbaston,
Birmingham, Nov. 20 1920.
COLLINS OF KENSINGTON, RICHARD HENN COLLINS,
BARON (1842-1911), English jurist and lord of appeal, was born
in Dublin Jan. i 1842, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
and Downing College, Cambridge. He was called to the English
bar in 1867 and joined the northern circuit. He edited the 7th,
Sth and 9th editions of Smith's Leading Cases, was made a Q.C.
in 1883 and a judge in 1891. In 1897 he became a judge of appeal
and a privy councillor, in 1901 Master of the Rolls, and in 1907 a
lord of appeal (resigning in 1910). In 1899 he represented Great
Britain on the tribunal appointed to arbitrate in the boundary
dispute between British Guiana and Venezuela; and in 1904 he
was chairman of the commission which investigated the case
of Adolf Beck (see 14.287) and resulted in his conviction being
annulled. Lord Collins died at Hove Jan. 3 1911.
COLLYER, ROBERT (1823-1912), American divine (see
6.694), died in New York City Nov. 30 1912.
COLOMBIA (see 6.700). According to the census of 1912,
the South American republic of Colombia (excluding Panama)
had a pop. of 5,072,604, living in 14 departments, two territo-
ries (inlendancias) and seven special districts (comisarias) .
Significant modifications of the constitution of 1886 were made
by the Congress of Colombia in 1910. A law enacted on June 6
provided that, in case of a vacancy in the presidency, two persons
selected by Congress were temporarily to exercise the powers
of the president in a designated order. If Congress did not select
any substitute, then the members of the president's Cabinet were
to assume the powers of the president in an order to be designated
by law. The presidential office was declared to be vacant in case
of the president's death, the acceptance of his resignation, or
his demotion by judicial sentence. The Senate was given the
right to determine when the president was permanently in-
capacitated to perform his duties or when he had abandoned his
post. On Oct. 31 1910, another law was enacted that made im-
portant constitutional amendments, among which was a pro-
vision that only male citizens who were able to read and write,
and either owned real estate, or had an income, should be allowed
to vote in congressional and presidential elections. Capital
punishment was prohibited. The president's term of office was
limited to four years. Senators were to be chosen by assemblies
in the respective departments. The Supreme Court was granted
the right to determine whether or not a law should be en-
forced which the national Government or a citizen had denounced
as unconstitutional. During the administration of President
Concha (1914-8), Congress enacted a law providing for the re-
establishment of the Council of State which was to be composed
of eight members, namely, the first designado and seven members
to be appointed according to law. This council was to act as an
advisory body to the president.
Communications. European steamship service to Caribbean
ports of Colombia was much disturbed by the World War, but later
was largely reestablished. Early in 1914 wireless stations were in
operation at Cartagena, Santa Malta, and San Andres. Com-
munications with the United States were much improved by the
service of the United Fruit Co. with vessels touching at Cartagena,
Puerto Colombia, and Santa Marta, Measures were taken by
Colombia to promote good roads. In 1920 the total railway mileage
was not quite 800 miles. Various short railway lines were at that
time either projected or under construction. From Puerto Wilches
a railway eastward was begun, designed ultimately to reach Bu-
caramanga. Plans were laid for the extension of the Pacific railway
on the north to Cartago and on the south to Carchi. The Northern
railway was built from Bogota to Nemocon and plans were made to
extend it to the lower Magdalena river via Chiquinquira. Puerto
Bcrrio and Medellin were connected by rail. An extension of the
Araucaplumas and La Dorada railway to Giradot was being con-
sidered, and one through the department of Caldas toward Pereira
was being built. The great artery of interior traffic remained the
Magdalena river.
Foreign Commerce. In 1910 the foreign commerce of Colombia
totalled 35,008,191 pesos de oro (nominal value $0.973 or approx-
imately one-fifth part of i sterling); in 1913 it totalled 62,851,032
and in 1915 49,4^19,481. According to official statistics the total
value of Colombia's imports for 1916 amounted to 29,660,206.16
pesos de oro; while her exports came to 36,006,821.16 pesos de oro.
Her most important imports were roughly classified in pesos de oro
as follows: Textiles, 13,476,932.37; provisions, salt, etc., 2,436,-
578.78; metals, 2,240,845.86; drugs and medicines, 1,346,516.33;
paper, etc., 913,502.97; agricultural and mining implements,
830,622; lighting and fuel, 681,816.98; liquors, 666,351.33; oils and
greases, 242,450.
During the war there was a great increase of commerce with the
United States. In 1916 more than 50% of Colombia's imports were
from that country ; 28 % were from England ; about 3 % from France;
and 3% from Spain. Her exports were classified as follows:
Vegetable products, 22,801,094.51; mineral products, 7,289,070.34;
animal products, 4,127,179.72; manufactured articles, 1,173,158.81;
live stock, 521,905.58; money, 68,443.80; miscellaneous, 25,968.40.
In 191 6 over 85- 13% of Colombia's exports went to the United States;
7'35% to Venezuela; 1-8% to England; 1-53% to Panama; 1-03%
to France and 0-96% to the Dutch Antilles.
Army and Navy. A law of 191 6 fixed the size of the standing army
at 6,000 men, artillery, engineers and infantry. In time of war
men not in active service might be summoned to the colours. It
was estimated that the army could thus be swelled to 120,000 men.
In 1920 a decree was issued which fixed the period of obligatory
service for infantry at 15 months; for cavalry and artillery at 18
months; and for railway engineers at 24 months. The navy in 1921
was composed of a few small cruisers, gunboats, and other vessels.
Steps had been taken to establish a military aviation school.
Education. Primary education was free but not compulsory
for children between the ages of 7 and 14. It was in charge of
and supported by the departments except in Bogota where it was
maintained by the national Government. The census of 1912
indicated that some 50% of the population of the republic was
illiterate. In 1916, according to figures of the Minister of Public
Instruction, there were in Colombia 5,387 primary schools. The
total attendance at primary schools, both public and private, was
347,985. Secondary education was in charge of the Minister of
Public Instruction who was assisted by an inspector in each depart-
ment. In 1916 there were in Colombia 401 institutions, public and
private, where secondary and professional training was given to
both sexes. The total of primary, secondary and professional educa-
tional institutions, public and clerical, for both sexes in Colombia in
1916 reached 5.839, and the total attendance 384,089. The chief
COLORADO
723
institution of higher education was the National University at the
capital, which in 1920 was composed of four colleges, one of philos-
ophy and letters (Colegio del Rosario), one of medicine and natural
science, one of mathematics and civil engineering, and one of
law and political science.
Finances. In 1911 and 1913 Colombia contracted new foreign
loans aggregating some I 800,000 and bearing interest at 6%.
The budget for 1920 estimated the total revenue at 23,845,250
pesos de oro; and the expenditures at 27 792.581.37 pesos de pro.
In his message to Congress, July 20 1920, President Fidel Suarez
estimated that the revenues for the current year might reach
24,000,000 pesos de oro. At that date the external debt of Colombia
amounted to 8,508,000 pesos de oro, besides a debt of 1 1, 335.065
pesos de oro which had been incurred to promote the construction of
railways. Upon these debts the Government was paying interest
regularly through a London firm. The internal debt of Colombia
was composed of the consolidated debt and the floating debt, amount-
ing respectively to 2,848,260 pesos de oro and 10,840,654 pesos
de oro. The total debt in July 1920 amounted to 35,040,073 pesos
de oro, excluding some 4,000,000 pesos de oro of current obligations.
Monetary System. By a law of 1909 the regulation of Colombia's
currency was entrusted to a board which was directed to gather a
gold reserve and to guarantee the redemption of the paper money and
to give new bills and coins in exchange for old paper. The ratio of
the gold peso to the pound sterling was fixed at 5 to I. In 1915
an official estimate of the money in Colombia in U.S. currency
was as follows :
Paper money .
Silver coin
Nickel coin
Colombian gold coin ....
English and U.S. gold coin
Old silver coin, Colombian and foreign
Gold coin on deposit ....
Total
$10,056,300
4,004,700
997,700
85,000
6,356.300
3,000,000
2,586,400
$27,086,400
Early in 1916 the Government issued an order that paper currency
should be exchanged at the rate of loo paper pesos (moneda papel)
for one peso de oro in coin or new banknotes. The monetary unit
of Colombia was in 1920 the gold peso.
History. On Aug. 3 1909, Gen. Ramon Gonzalez-Valencia
was elected by Congress to serve as president for one year in
place of Gen. Reyes, who had resigned. On July 15 1910, Carlos
E. Restrepo, a journalist and publicist, was elected president.
President Restrepo aimed to restore the credit of the country,
to rehabilitate the finances, and to make a satisfactory adjust-
ment of the Panama affair. At the end of his term he refused to
become a candidate for reelection. In the presidential election
of Feb. 1914, a Conservative, Jose Vicente Concha, was elected
president for four years. The Liberal candidate had withdrawn
from the contest before the election was held; and President
Concha, who was inaugurated on Aug. 7 1914, gave the Liberals
minority representation in his Cabinet. His Minister of Foreign
Affairs was the litterateur and statesman, Marco Fidel Suarez;
and his Minister of the Treasury was the liberal leader, Diego
Mendoza. Before the end of Concha's administration, however,
the last-named minister resigned from the Cabinet. Aside from
fiscal and diplomatic problems which he inherited, President
Concha had to face new problems resulting from the war. In
Oct. 1917 the Minister of Foreign Relations, whom the Conserva-
tives had nominated for the presidency, resigned from Concha's
Cabinet. Marco Fidel Suarez was elected president of Colombia in
Feb. 1918. He was inaugurated on Aug. 7 forthe term 1918-22.
Colombia's relations with Panama and the United States had
long remained delicate b:caus3 of unsettled questions arising
out of the setting up of Panama as a separate State in 1903.
After Gen. Reyes' visit to Washington failed, an attempt was
made in 1909 to adjust those questions by a treaty negotiated by
Colombia's envoy, Enrique Cortes, and Secretary of State Elihu
Root. In connexion with the projected treaties between Colom-
bia and Panama and between Panama and the United States,
this treaty stipulated that Colombia should acknowledge Pana-
ma's independence; that Colombia should renounce all claims
and declare Panama free frpm all debts incurred by Colombia
before Nov. 3 1903; and that Panama should pay Colombia
annually $250,000 (U.S. currency) for 10 years. As this agree-
ment was unacceptable to Colombia, on April 6 1914 Thaddeus
A. Thompson, minister of the United States in Bogota, and
Jose F. Urrutia, Minister of Foreign Relations for Colombia,
signed a treaty containing expressions of regret by the United
States for the difference that had arisen between herself and
Colombia because of Panama, granting Colombia special privi-
leges in the use of the Panama Canal, and providing that the
United States should pay Colombia $25,000,000 to recompense
her for the damages due to Panama's independence. This treaty
was" ratified by a law of the Colombian Congress on June 9 1914.
The apologetic phrases, in particular, occasioned delay in the
United States: with modifications, in April 1921 it was ratified
by the U.S. Senate.
After the outbreak of the war, Minister Fidel Suarez addressed
a circular to the editors of Colombia, on Nov. 27 1914, exhorting
them to observe a strict neutrality. In response to a communica-
tion of Germany's minister at Bogota, announcing the renewal
of the unrestricted submarine campaign, Fidel Suarez expressed
a desire for an end of the war and deplored its effects. When he
mentioned the use by belligerents of measures which rendered it
difficult to save neutral property and innocent lives he declared
that his Government reserved the right to protest and to demand
justice. On June 2 1917 he sent a circular to the governors of
departments stating the intention of his Government to observe
neutrality in the war between the United States and Germany.
In making this announcement he took occasion to deprecate
certain attempts that had been made to show that Colombia
" sympathized incorrectly with one or another of the belliger-
ents." As one of the countries invited to accede to the League
of Nations, the Government, in accordance with the authoriza-
tion of Congress dated Nov. 3 1919, accepted and joined the
League. In filing her adhesion, however, Colombia served notice
that her acceptance of Article X. of the Covenant did not imply
her acknowledgment of Panama as an independent nation. Two
delegates from Colombia attended the assembly of the League
at Geneva which adjourned in Dec. 1920.
See Annual Report of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign
Bondholders (London 1910 ) ; Censo General de la Repiiblica de Colom-
bia levantado el 5 de Marzo de 1912 (Bogota 1912): Diario Official
(Bogota 1910 ) ; P. J. Eder, Colombia (London 1913) ; Direccion Gen-
eral de Estadistica: Comercio exterior de la Repiiblica de Colombia,
ano de 1916 (Bogota 1919); Informe del Ministro de Instniccion
Publica at Congreso Nacional (Bogota 1911 ) ; Informe del Ministro
de Hacienda al Congreso (Bogota 1914 ); Informe del Ministro de
Guerra al Congreso (Bogota 1914 ) ; Informe del Ministro de Rela-
ciones Exteriores al Congreso (Bogota 1910 ) ; Mensaje del Presidents
de la Repiiblica de Colombia al Congreso Nacional (Bogota 1911 );
Monthly Bulletin of the International Bureau of the American Re-
publics (Washington 1910 ) ; Pan-American Union, Colombia, General
Descriptive Data (Washington 1910 ); Proceedings of the First Pan-
American Financial Conference (Washington 1915); Republica de
Colombia; Leyes expedididas par el Congreso Nacional en su Legisla-
tura (Bogota 1911 ) ; A. J. Uribe, Anales Diplomdticos y Consulares
de Colombia (5 vols., Bogota 1900-18). (W. S. Ro.)
COLORADO (see 6.717). The pop. of the state in 1920 was
939,629; in 1910, 799,024 an increase of 140,605, or 17-6% as
compared with 48% in the preceding decade. Native-born were
83-8% in 1919, whites 98%, negroes and Indians numbered
12,935, and there were 3,736 Chinese and 2,300 Japanese. The
density of pop. increased from 7-7 persons to the sq.m. in 1910
to 9-1 in 1920. The decay of mining towns altered the balance
between urban and rural pop.; in 1920 the urban pop. was 48- 2%,
the rural 51-8%; in 1910 the urban 50-7% and the rural 49'3%-
The pop. in 1920 of the six cities then having a pop. of over
10,000, their pop. for 1910 and the percentage of increase, were:
Increase
1920
Denver 256,491
Pueblo 43,050
Colorado Springs
Boulder
Greeley .
Trinidad
30,105
1 1, 006
10,958
10,906
1910
213,381
4L747
29,078
9,539
8,179
10,204
Per cent
20-2
3-1
3-5
15-4
34-o
6-9
Leadville decreased in pop. from 12,455 in 1900 to 7,508 in 1910
and to 4,959 in 1920.
Agriculture. During the-decade 1910-20 agriculture displaced
mining as Colorado's most important industry. The number of
farms increased 29-8%, to 59,9341 their area 80-8%, to 24,462,014^
ac. ; and their average size 39-2%, to 408-1 acres. The value of all
farm property increased 119-1%, to $1,076,794,749. Land values
724
COLORADO
were estimated at $763,722,716; buildings at $102,290,944; im-
plements and machinery at $49,804,509; and live stock at $160,976,-
580. The farm crops in 1919 were:
Crop
All crops .
Cereals, total .
Corn .
Oats .
Wheat .
Hay and forage
Vegetables
Misc. crops, total
Fruits and nuts
Orchard fruits
Acreage
2,640,664
752,637
174,189
1,328,616
2,215,730
176,494
Production
38,436,55 bus.
10,105,627 "
4.535,527 "
18,260,663 "
3,580,123 tons
4,627,825 bus.
Value
$181,065,239
63,380,214
14,147,875
4,308,752
37,616,960
60,769,080
24,804,225
17,673,726
8,751,678
8,226,734
ac. in 1909, 3,348,385 ac. in
The irrigated area was 2,792,032 , , _ _
1919, while acreage under all irrigation enterprises, whether com-
pleted or not, had decreased from 5,917,457 to 5,220,588 acres.
Organized drainage enterprises, most of them having been rendered
necessary by faulty irrigation, had affected 171,656 ac. at a cost of
$1,081,875. I n J 9 2 there were in the state 420,704 horses, 31,125
mules, 3,099 asses and burros, 1,434,423 beef cattle, 322,193 dairy
cattle, 1,813,255 sheep, 28,688 goats, and 449,866 swine. In the
same year the number of poultry was 2,994,347, and there were 63,-
253 hives of bees.
Mining. Colorado's rank among the states in the production of
the principal metals in 1918 was as follows: Radium, first, with
an output of $7,500,000; tungsten, first, with an output of $1,833,-
600; gold, second, with an output of $12,944,600; lead, second, with
an output of 64,282,841 Ib. ; zinc, fifth, with an output of 88,141,748
Ib. ; silver, fifth, with an output of 7,071,768 oz.; copper, tenth, with
an output of 6,423,919 pounds. Production of coal reached a total
of 12,511,481 short tons in 1917. Petroleum production in 1917 fell
off to 204,000 barrels. There has been great interest in the deposits
of oil shale in the Green river formation in the western parts of the
state. Processes for exploitation on a commercial scale have not
yet been put in operation.
Manufactures. From 1900 to 1920 the number of manufacturing
establishments in Colorado nearly doubled, the number of persons
engaged more than doubled, and the capital invested increased 225 %.
In 1919 there were 2,631 manufacturing establishments, employing
44,731 persons, using capital to the amount of $243,827,000, and
the value of the products was $275,622,000. Higher prices rather
than increased production caused most of the increase. In 1914 the
state ranked thirty-second in value of manufactured products, which
represented only 0-6 % of the value for the United States. Beet-sugar
manufacture became the leading factory industry in 1914. There
were 14 operating plants in 1919, which manufactured sugar valued
at more than $37,000,000. Slaughtering and meatpacking products
amounted to more than $41,000,000. Flour and gristmill products
ranked third in 1914, with a value of $7,535,633; a moderate in-
crease in output in 1919 was accompanied by high prices, giving
that year an unusual value of $20,000,000. Butter, cheese, and
condensed-milk industries became important, their products being
estimated at $12,000,000 in 1919.
Education. In 1919 the illiterates, 10 years of age or over, were
3'7% of the pop. of the state, although the foreign-born whites of
those ages were 11-3%. There were 1,880 school districts in the
state in 1919, maintaining 3,125 schools and employing about 7,500
teachers. The school pop. for the year ending June 30 1918 was
257,884, and the enrolment in public schools 191,199. Public school
expenditures for the year were $9,892,699. The total amount in-
vested in school property was $15,212,000, an average of $79.08
per pupil enrolled. The state's permanent school fund, derived from
Federal land grants, amounted to $4,948,492 in 1918. The income
of the permanent school fund (about $600,000) is apportioned among
the school districts, giving about $2.35 per capita of the school popu-
lation. Sales and leases of school lands, and royalties on minerals,
have increased the state school funds, and the unsold lands, to-
gether with coal and other mineral reserves, are estimated at
$125,000,000. County and district tax levies, the main source of
school revenues, produced $11,572,155 in 1918. There was a pro-
nounced movement for the consolidation of rural schools, and for
joint support of centralized schools in which two or more counties are
interested. The Legislature of 1921 passed a law providing a mini-
mum salary for teachers graded for the several classes of districts.
Several districts in cities (notably in Denver, Colorado Springs, and
Sterling) in 1920 adopted salary schedules which fixed higher
standards for teachers with advanced professional training. Public
high schools and institutions of higher education developed from
1910 to 1920 even more rapidly than elementary schools. Enrolment
of students taxed the capacity of secondary schools and colleges,
requiring increased taxation for current expenditures and bond issues
for buildings. The enrolment in the secondary schools in 1920 was
24,404; in 1910, 11,495.
finances. The total bonded indebtedness of the state Nov. 20
1920 was $4,187,300. The general assessment valuation of taxable
property in 1919 was $1,498,661,128, in 1920 $1,591,307,396, on
which there was a state levy of 3-47 mills, producing $5,200,355 in
1919 and $5,521,836 in 1920.
History. A special session of the Legislature in 1910 sub-
mitted to the voters a constitutional amendment adopting in-
itiative and referendum, which was ratified in Nov. of that year.
The same special session adopted a primary election law, pro-
viding for direct nominations by the people of candidates for the
U.S. Senate, Representatives in Congress, and all elective state,
district, county, ward and precinct officers, as well as members
of the state Legislature. This Act provided for party assemblies,
at which party candidates might be designated to seek nomina-
tions in the primaries, every candidate receiving 10% or more
of the votes of the delegates to the assembly being certified
by the assembly as a candidate to enter the primaries. It was
also provided that persons not entering the assembly might
become candidates for any of the offices above mentioned by
petition, the number of signers required being 300 for any
official who is to serve any political district in the state greater
than a county and 100 for other officials. The expense of can-
didates in such primaries was limited by the Act and severe
penalties were provided for violations. In 1911 an Act was
passed providing for registration of voters for all elections to be
held in the state except school elections, and providing severe
penalties for false registration and other violations of the Act.
In Nov. 1912 the people approved amendments to the state
constitution providing for recall of elective officials and, in
certain cases, for the recall of judicial decisions. An Act pro-
posed by initiative was passed at the same time, providing for a
ballot without party headings.
The voters adopted in Nov. 1914 an amendment to the state
constitution prohibiting the sale and manufacture of intoxicating
liquor, which became effective Jan. i 1916. The Legislature at
its regular session in 1917 petitioned Congress to adopt an
amendment to the Federal Constitution to prohibit the manufac-
ture and sale of intoxicating liquors in the United States, and the
prohibition amendment to the Federal Constitution was ratified
by the Colorado Legislature in regular session Jan. 15 1919.
The Legislature in 1919 passed an Act providing for a budget
system in making appropriations and creating a state budget
and efficiency commissioner. The first budget prepared under
this Act was presented to the Legislature in 1921. The Legis-
lature in 1921 passed amendments to the constitution, for sub-
mission to the voters, proposing the extension of the tenure of
state and county officers from two to four years. A proposal
was submitted to the voters for a convention to revise the state
constitution, this action being simultaneous with the failure of a
series of Acts urged by the governor for the reform and consolida-
tion of executive offices and boards. Persistent advocacy by the
governor secured the passage of laws for reestablishment and
encouragement of a national guard, for a department of safety
with a force of rangers as a state police force, and for a substantial
appropriation to be available to suppress riots.
There were a number of serious labour disturbances between
1910 and 1920, some of them marked by violence and virtual
insurrection which had to be put down by the military forces.
A notable contribution to better relations between capital and
"labour was the industrial representation plan put into effect
by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., in the properties of the Colorado
Fuel and Iron Co. in 1916. Employees, by districts and classified
groups, elect representatives who have the right to confer with
executives on all questions affecting wages, conditions of employ-
ment and operation, and general welfare. The success of the
system in Colorado has had marked influence on similar large
industrial organizations elsewhere.
In 1910 the state administration was in the hands of the
Democratic party, with Joseph H. Shafroth as governor. The
Democrats again elected a governor in 1912, Elias M. Ammons, a
result largely due to the split in the Republican party throughout
the nation. In 1914 George A. Carlson, Republican, was chosen
governor. He was succeeded by Julius C. Gunter, Democrat,
elected in 1916 when the leadership of President Wilson on inter-
national issues made his party dominant in the states, largely
through women's votes. A reunited Republican party, profiting
by popular reaction on war issues, elected Oliver H. Shoup as
COLOURS OF ANIMALS
725
governor in 1918, and reelected him in 1920 with an increased
majority and a Legislature almost completely Republican.
During the World War, approximately 45,000 men from
Colorado served in the army, navy and marine corps, of whom
about 22,000 had been drafted. There were in the state 698,169
subscriptions to the Liberty and Victory loans, amounting to
$144,813,550, which was 24% more than the quota.
Bibliography. Wilbur Fiske Stow, History of Colorado (three vols.,
1918); Jerome C. Smiley, Semicentennial History of Colorado (1913);
Irving Howbert, Indians of the Pike's Peak Region (1914); Prof.
James F. Willard, Union Colony of Greeley (State Univ. Hist. Col-
lections, 1918); Enos A. Mills, Spell of the Rockies (1911), Rocky
Mountain Wonderland (1915), In Beaver World (1913)- Your Na-
tional Parks (1917); E. Parsons, Guide Book to Colorado (1911);
A. C. Carson, Colorado, the Top of the World (1912) ; Mae Lacy
Baggs, Colorado, the Queen Jewel of the Rockies (1918); Alice Palk
Hill, Colorado Pioneers in Picture and Story (1915). (C. A. D.)
COLOURS OF ANIMALS (see 6.731). Since 1910 the knowl-
edge of animal coloration has been added to in many directions.
Broadly speaking, however, the new facts confirm the views
previously held, which are only modified in points of detail.
Cryptic Colouring. As regards cryptic coloration, A. H.
Thayer and his followers have shown that many arrangements
of colour and pattern which had been previously considered to
be revealing, are in truth concealing. A few biologists go so far
as to express the view that all coloration is concealing and
explain all cases of the mimicry of one animal by another, as
due to a common cryptic (syncryptic) coloration, both animals
having independently developed the same concealing coloration.
Apart from mimicry, there are great difficulties in maintaining
this thesis. The habits of many brilliantly coloured animals
clearly prove that they do not seek to hide themselves but rather
to show off their bright colours.
Mention may be made of the method of concealment by dis-
ruptive coloration first described by Thayer. This is for the
concealment of animals likely to be seen against two or more
backgrounds. An animal, for instance, coloured green and brown
in large areas, when viewed against a green background will be
visible in respect of its brown areas, and as these brown areas
will not have the shape of the animal but will be like one of the
many oddments of nature (stones, leaves, etc.) so the animal will
be mistaken for one of these. It will be similarly concealed
against a brown background: in this case, only the green areas
will be noticed. In these cases concealment is effected by dis-
rupting the characteristic outline of the animal. The white areas
which many animals present, are considered to be for disruption
against the background of the sky, as, for instance, when a
partially white bird in a tree is viewed against the low horizon.
Many experimental findings and field observations form the basis
of these conclusions.
Another use of pattern is to give a blurred or indistinct appear-
ance to an outline. It is common to find, along the margin of the
wings of butterflies and moths, a very small black and white,
or contrasted, pattern which is visible at short distance; at
longer range the pattern blends and then the margin has an
indistinct appearance, causing the insect to fade into its back-
ground. The finely spotted, barred and striped patterns of
many mammals and birds are similarly effective in concealing
the outlines at distance the spots cannot be seen.
The solidity of an animal is concealed by what is now called
counter-shading, namely, by the darkening of surfaces exposed
to the light, and the whitening of those in shadow. Large dark
spots or broad dark stripes on the back, gradually changing to
small spots and narrow stripes on the under sides, has the same
concealing effect and the added advantage of a blurred outline
when the animal is viewed at a distance. The very remarkable
striped pattern of the zebra has been considered to be of this
nature. In some animals not only is their solidity thus concealed,
but a false solidity or modelling is superimposed. A flat surface
is often made to appear rough or uneven: this is effected by an
arrangement of light or dark tones used in a manner precisely
similar to that by means of which the artist produces the de-
lusion of a solid object on a flat canvas.
The use of colour in animal coloration can at present only
be very imperfectly understood because little is known of the
colour vision of animals. There is some evidence that animals
have a colour perception less sensitive than man: if such prove
to be the case, then a ready explanation for several dimorphisms
is available. For instance, among insects it is common to find
that whilst some individuals of a species are green, others are
brown; but towards a colour perception slightly less sensitive
than man's, these colours will be indistinguishable, and thus
against either green or brown backgrounds neither the brown
nor green individual would have the advantage. A common
defect in man's colour sense is an inability to distinguish red
from green; it is possible that such a colour as the red of the
robin's breast against green foliage may serve to conceal the
bird from its enemies.
When bright colours are used for revealment, as shown by the
animal's habits, and by the particular pattern and position which
the colour occupies, then advantage appears to be taken of the
fact that red is a very conspicuous colour at high illuminations
and blue at low illuminations. The brilliant inhabitants of the
forest present a preponderance of blue, whereas red is more often
found among those living in the open. This also apph'es to
flowers, the bluebell typifying the colour for woods and the
poppy for the open.
Experiments have shown that it is possible to determine, in
many cases, whether a given pattern is for concealment or re-
vealment: for instance, it has already been mentioned that
concealment may be effected by a pattern which breaks out
along the animal's margin and thus tends to conceal its char-
acteristic shape. Conversely, patterns which follow an animal's
margin and tend to accentuate its characteristic shape and
separate it from its surroundings, make for revealment. A
pattern of this kind, commonly seen in butterflies, is a broad
black band following the outer margins of both wings and often
enclosing a brilliant yellow or blue central area. Experimental
evidence of this kind, as well as that derived from a study of an
animal's habits, is strongly against the view that all coloration
is for concealment.
The concealment of cast shadow is commonly brought about
by the crouching or squatting of either hunted or hunter. Among
butterflies Marshall has pointed out two methods of avoiding
cast shadow: Certain species when resting on the ground with
closed wings will tilt over the wings, generally away from, some-
times towards the sun, thus reducing and hiding the shadow cast
upon the ground. Other species will settle on the ground with
wings spread and orient themselves so that either their head or
more often their tail is pointed at the sun. Should a bird or
other enemy come near they at once close the wings over the
back and then only a line shadow of the wings is cast on the
ground.
Sematic Colouring. Passing on to the consideration of sematic
or signaling coloration, certain advances have been made.
Feeding experiments have shown that the preyed-upon can
be arranged in a series, for any given preyer, from the most to
the least palatable. The former will be eaten when the preyer's
hunger is almost satisfied; the latter, only when the preyer is
starved. The colours of this series are then found to be arranged
from cryptic coloration corresponding to the very palatable,
to a revealing (warning) coloration for the very unpalatable.
Further, it has been observed that in many cases, whilst con-
cealment by a cryptic coloration is the usual form of protection,
nevertheless, a revealing coloration is exhibited to the preyer,
when concealment has failed. This revealing coloration, such
as the hind wing of a moth, is as a rule hidden by a cryptically
coloured fore wing, and is only revealed at the last moment to
advertise a relative unpalatability. There is also evidence ob-
tained from watching feeding birds, that revealing coloration
is used for deception in the manner of a conjuring trick. Thus,
the Leaf butterfly (Kallina) when flying appears blue and yellow,
but directly it settles with closed wings it becomes like a dead
leaf: the pursuing bird will continue to look for the blue and
yellow insect among the dead leaves in which the insect has taken
7 26
COLOUR-VISION AND COLOUR-BLINDNESS
refuge. Many grasshoppers and moths look red and blue when
flying, but on settling, these bright colours are at once hidden.
Swynnerton has suggested the substitution of " distinctive
coloration " for" warning coloration "; the assumption is that
the preyer will remember the distinctive colours and patterns,
and associate them with their varying palatability. In support
of this there is much evidence to show that many animals have a
good memory in this respect.
Mimkry. In view of the fact that insects can be graded in
respect of their palatability, the distinction between Mullerian
and Batesian mimicry appears difficurt to maintain. A set of
animals presenting common warning coloration (Mullerian
mimicry) are never equally unpalatable, and therefore it may
be said that the relatively palatable of this set are of the nature
of Batesian mimics. Although in extreme cases a distinction
may be drawn, nevertheless intermediate cases occur which it is
impossible to classify in this way. In the study of mimicry
many notable advances have been made, chiefly among butter-
flies. Several insects which were thought to be different species,
or varieties, have lately been shown by breeding-experiments to
be polymorphic forms: the same species mimicking sometimes
one species and sometimes another, both forms being bred from
the same mother. Also it has been shown that, in situations
where models are scarce, the mimicking species presents tran-
sitions between its various polymorphic forniSj and this fact
is considered to indicate that natural selection is required to
maintain a mimicry. At one time it was thought that butter-
flies had few enemies, and that therefore their remarkable
mimicry could bear no relation to natural selection; however,
evidence that they are eaten by birds to a considerable extent
has been brought forward by several observers.
Sexual Coloration. Secondary sexual coloration still gives
rise to much speculation. The Darwinian view that it represents
selection by the female is still held by some observers. Others
consider that it serves the purpose of stimulating the sexual
instinct of the female; or that it is related to the different habits
of the male and female, as, for instance, the incubation of eggs;
or that it represents a difference in value to the species between
male and female, making the conspicuous but less valuable male
more likely to be destroyed by enemies than the inconspicuous
and valuable female. These various theories are mentioned to
show that no general law to explain these colorations has been
accepted. Much valuable field work has been done in which many
new facts as regards sexual displays have been collected.
Chemistry of A nimal Colours. It has been shown that, in the
case of the lobster and salmon, the colours which the males
assume at the breeding-season are due to the laying down of a
coloured waste product in the scales and shell. This waste
product is finally got rid of when the scales become worn and the
shell cast. In the case of the female the waste product is dis-
charged in quite a different manner; it is deposited in the eggs
and disposed of when they are laid. In certain parts of England
and Germany, chiefly in the neighbourhood of large towns, many
species of moths have developed melanotic forms, or these dark
forms have greatly increased in number. Much work has been
done in an endeavour to discover the cause of this change, as it
was at one time thought to be a case of the acquirement of a dark
coloration for concealment against sooty surroundings, and
thus to be an example of the rapid action of natural selection.
Melanism, however, occurs in other districts, distant from large
towns, more particularly near the sea. Recently evidence has
been brought forward that this change is due to the particular
feeding of the caterpillar; that, in fact, a deposit occurs on the
leaves near large towns and near the sea, which causes this change.
Physics of Animal Coloration. Several eminent physicists
have taken an interest in, and attempted to explain on a physical
basis, the brilliant metallic and iridescent colours of many insects
and birds. Although a physical explanation of the coloration
of most objects is available the brilliant colours of these animals
remain a mystery. A recent summary by the late Lord Rayleigh
in the Philosophical Transactions may be quoted: " These
colours are probably structural rather than pigment, but still
much remains to be effected towards a complete demonstration
of the origin of these effects. Even if we admit an interference
character questions arise as to the particular manner and there
are perhaps possibilities not hitherto contemplated."
It has been suggested that fluorescence plays a part, and to
test this insects have recently been examined in a beam of ultra-
violet light. It was found that the brilliantly coloured species are
not fluorescent. A few Lepidoptera were found to be fluorescent
and this character has been found to be of some service in classi-
fication, as the property appears to be limited to closely allied
species when it occurs in a group.
AUTHORITIES : Carpenter, Naturalist on L. Victoria; Dixey, Presi-
dential Address Ent. Soc. (1911); Howard, British Warblers;
Longstaff, Butterfly Hunting in Many Lands (1912); Marshall,
Trans. Ent. Soc. (1909); Mottram, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1915, 1916, 1917)
and Controlled Natural Selection (1914); Poulton, Essays on Evolu-
tion (1908) ; Punnett, Mimicry of Butterflies; Pycraft, The Courtship
of Animals (1913); Swynnerton, Journ. Linn. Soc. (1919); Thayer,
Concealing Colouration in the Animal Kingdom (1909). See also the
article CAMOUFLAGE. (]. C. Mo.)
COLOUR-VISION AND COLOUR-BLINDNESS (see 28.139).
Much new work has been done in research on these questions,
which have become increasingly important in practical life; and
a restatement is needed (1921) of the accepted views.
The Physical Basis of Normal Colour-Vision. White light
can by means of a prism be split up into its constituent parts
to form a spectrum which shows a number of colours. The spec-
trum or rainbow consists of a series of waves of light of different
refrangibility extending from the red, which are the largest waves,
to violet , which are the smallest . These waves are similar to those
of the sea, only infinitely smaller. Similar waves, differing in
size and not giving rise to a sensation of light, are found above
the violet and below the red. In the visible spectrum we have a
physical series arranged in consecutive order, each member of the
series differing in wave-length.
Special Physiological Facts in the Appearance of the Spectrum. If
a number of persons be asked to state how many definite colours
they see in the spectrum, very different answers will be obtained.
The large majority will say that they see six colours, red, orange,
yellow, green, blue and violet. A few will state that there are seven
colours, indigo being added as a colour, being seen in the region of
blue-violet. Newton appears to have seen the spectrum in this way.
The spectrum may be examined in another way, certain portions
of it being isolated between two shutters. An extraordinary fact
then becomes apparent, viz. that large divisions of the spectrum
appear monochromatic, as if they had been painted with one brush
of colour, though physically every part of the division differs. Most
normal-sighted persons divide the spectrum into about 18 mono-
chromatic divisions: those with super-normal colour-perception, into
about 25, and those with diminished colour-perception a less num-
ber. For instance, those who see three colours in the spectrum
generally divide it into ten monochromatic divisions. These divi-
sions when examined by a normal-sighted person appear quite
wrong and to contain several colours instead of one. It is obvious
that a man who sees only ten colours instead of 18 will confuse col-
ours which appear different to the normal-sighted.
The Anatomical Basis of Vision and Colour-Vision. It is upon
the outer layer of the retina, the membrane lining the back of the
eye, that the images of external objects are formed. The outer
layer of the retina is the layer farthest away from the front of the
eye, so that light has to pass through all the other layers before it
reaches the sensitive portion. This sensitive layer consists of two
elements, which are called respectively, on account of their shape, the
rods and cones. A little dip in the centre of the retina, the fovea, is
the region of most distinct vision. In the fovea only cones are
present. External to the fovea the rods are arranged in rings round
the cones, and the proportion of rods to cones increases as portions
of the retina farther from the fovea are taken, except at the extreme
periphery where, again, only cones are found. In the outer segment
of each rod there is a rose-coloured substance, the visual purple,
which is photochemically sensitive to light. This visual purple i-.
not found in the cones, but only in the rods. It was for this reason
that it was not considered to be essential to vision, because it
was absent from the cones, and only cones are to be found in the
fovea, the region of most distinct vision. Though the visual purple
is not present in the cones of the fovea, it is found between them,
four special canals aiding the flow from the periphery to the centre
of the fovea. When there is no visual purple in the fovea it is blind.
The rods and cones project into a thin layer of fluid, which is kep
in its place by a membrane.
The visual purple is diffused into this liquid and on being de-
composed by light stimulates the cones, thereby setting up a nerve
COLOUR-VISION AND COLOUR-BLINDNESS
727
impulse, which causes the sensation of vision. The movements of.
after-images show that the stimulus in vision is fluid and situated
outside the cones. The rods are not percipient elements but regulate
the formation and distribution of the visual purple.
The decomposition of the visual purple by light stimulates the
ends of the cones, and a visual impulse is set up which is conveyed
through the optic nerve fibres to the brain. The character of the
impulse differs according to the wave-length of the light causing it.
Therefore in the impulse itself we have the physiological basis of the
sensation of light, and in the quality of the impulse the physiological
basis of the sensation of colour. The impulse being conveyed along
the optic nerve to the brain stimulates the visual centre, causing a
sensation of light, and then, passing on to the colour-perceiving
centre, causes a sensation of colour. But though impulses vary in
character according to the wave-length of the light causing them, the
colour-perceiving centre is not able to discriminate between ad-
jacent impulses, the nerve cells not being sufficiently developed.
Even with the normal-sighted there is room for much further de-
velopment in the discrimination of colour, but when the develop-
ment is not up to the normal standard or there is a defect in any
portion of the apparatus diminishing the power of discrimination,
colour-blindness is the result.
Evolution of the Colour-Sense. There can be no doubt that an
evolution of the colour sense has taken place. The only point is,
how, and when, did this occur? It is obvious that in those low forms
of animal life in which the most rudimentary sense of sight exists
there can be no sense of colour. The animal which can only perceive
light and shade, can only discriminate in a rough way between
varying intensities of the stimulus. It is obvious, therefore, that the
sense of light must have been developed first and then the sense of
colour. The sense of sight must have been first developed for
those waves which produced their maximum effect upon the sensi-
tive protoplasm.
The next process of development would be for the protoplasm to
become sensitive to the waves above and below those which first
caused an effect. In the physical stimulus which produces the
sensation of light there are two factors to be considered, the length
of the wave and its amplitude; the greater the amplitude within
certain limits the greater the intensity of the sensation.
The wave-length of the physical stimulus is the physical basis of
the sensation of colour. How did the sensation of colour first arrive?
Let us suppose that the physiological effect of the physical stimulus
differed according to the wave-length of the physical stimulus. At
a certain stage the eye had become sensitive to a fair range of the
spectral rays, that is to say, evolution had proceeded to the extent
of making the protoplasm sensitive to rays of light considerably above
and below those which first caused a sensation of light. There was
then an eye which was sensitive to the greater part of the rays which
form the visible spectrum. It was, however, an eye which was de-
void of the sense of colour, no matter from what part of the spectrum
the rays were taken. The only difference appreciated was one of
intensity. Let us now suppose that a fresh power of discrimination
was added to the eye and that it became able to discriminate be-
tween different wave-lengths of light. What would be the most
probable commencement of development of the sense of colour?
Most probably the differentiation of the physical stimuli which were
physically most different. That is to say, the eye would first dis-
criminate between the rays which are physically most different in
the visible spectrum, the red and the violet; that is, presuming that
the eye had become sensitive to this range. We have examples of
cases of defective light-perception in which there is shortening of the
red or violet end of the spectrum.
Let us now work out the evolution of the colour sense on the as-
sumption that the rays which are physically most different, namely
red and violet, were those which were first differentiated. We
know that the various rays differ in their effects on substances : the
red rays are more powerful in their heating effects, whilst the violet
are more active actinally, as is well known by the readiness with
which they act upon a photographic plate.
We should now have an individual who would see the spectrum
nearly all a uniform grey of different degrees of luminosity but with a
tinge of red at one end and a tinge of violet at the other. There is a
great deal of evidence to show that this is how the colour-sense was
first developed. For instance, in the degree of colour-blindness just
preceding total the spectrum is seen in this way.
It will be noticed in the first evolution of colour that the added
power of discrimination is something distinct and separate from
light-perception. It can be destroyed as by mixing the two colours
without interfering with the perception of light. Here we have the
foundation for the distinction between light and colour-perception,
the proper recognition of which is so essential in physiological optics.
As the colour-sense developed it was not necessary that the rays
should be so far apart before a difference was seen, so the two colours
red and violet gradually encroached on the grey band until they
met in the centre of the spectrum.
We have now a series of cases each of which only sees two colours,
red and violet, with a varying degree of grey band in the centre of
the spectrum. We should expect that those who had the smallest
white region left in the centre of the spectrum would have the' best
colour-perception, because they belong to a later stage of evolution.
Cases of colour-blindness are found corresponding to all these
degrees, from almost total to those bordering on the trichromic.
In all the dichromics a mixture of the two colours which they
perceive, namely red and violet, will form white, and so we have the
foundation of complementary colours.
The next stage in the evolution of the colour-sense was when
a third colour appeared at the third point of physiological difference,
that is in the centre of the spectrum in the position of the green.
The colour-sense now assumed a trichromic form, red, green,
and violet being seen in the spectrum.
As green replaced the grey which existed in the spectrum of the
dichromic we should expect that green should be complementary
to the other two colours combined, and this we find to be the case.
We have now reached the stage in which three distinct colours
were seen in the spectrum, namely red, green, and violet, and the
vision has assumed the trichromic character which must remain.
When the green was first developed it was a comparatively un-
important colour. As evolution proceeded the power of differentia-
tion affected the regions between the red and the green and the
violet until a stage was reached in which a fourth colour, yellow, was
seen at the next point of greatest physiological difference.
The next step in the process of evolution occurred when the
retino-cerebral apparatus was able to differentiate a fresh colour
between the green and the violet, namely blue, five definite colours
being seen in the spectrum. It will be obvious that in any further
evolution the intermediate portions will be still further differentiated,
and so we arrive at those who can see six and seven colours in the
spectrum respectively.
It is not necessary to consider the further evolution of the colour-
sense because it is not known that any person can distinguish more
than seven definite colours in the spectrum.
Colour-Blindness. Colour-blindness is not really a good term
for the defect so named. Though in certain varieties there is
actual blindness to colour, in the ordinary varieties colours are
clearly seen and seen as colours, but there is a lack of power to
differentiate between them: for instance, reds are confused with
greens and greens with reds. A colour-blind man picked up a
red-hot coal, remarking as he did so, " What funny green thing
is this? " The case which first drew general attention to the
subject of colour-blindness was that of Dalton, the famous chem-
ist. After Dalton had received the scarlet gown of a doctor of
civil law at Oxford, he actually wore it for several days in happy
unconsciousness of the effect it produced in the street. When
he was asked what the bright scarlet gown which he wore re-
sembled, he pointed to some evergreens outside the window and
said the colours were exactly similar to him. The lining of the
gown, which was pink, he stated appeared to him sky-blue.
A soldier in the days when they wore scarlet coats took off
his coat and put it on a hedge, and was quite unable to find it
when he wished to put it on again, though it was the most con-
spicuous object in the landscape to other people. Many colour-
blind golfers find great difficulty in recognizing the red flags on
the greens at a distance.
Those who are colour-blind often first discover their defect
as children by finding great difficulty in picking cherries or straw-
berries, because of the similarity in colour to their leaves. A
colour-blind man has bought a bright green tie under the im-
pression that he was purchasing a brown one; an artist has
painted the face of a portrait green and trees red. A colour-blind
man has written half of a letter in black ink and half in red ink,
under the impression that the whole was written in black ink.
At first sight it would seem a very easy thing to detect persons
who make such errors. Though this is true in certain cases it is
not so in others. In fact, cases have been submitted to experts
"who have failed to detect them after an hour's examination.
A musician's wife informed the writer that she had tested her
husband again and again and was quite sure that he was not
colour-blind, and that he was able to see colours as well as she
could ; she was only convinced when she found that he was quite
unable to read any of the letters on the card test.
Cases of colour-blindness may be divided into three classes,
which are quite separate and distinct from each other though
one or more may be present in the same person. In the first
class there is light as well as colour loss. In the second class the
perception of light is the same as in the normal-sighted, but there
is a defect in the perception of colour. In the first class certain
rays- are either not perceived at all or very imperfectly. Both
these classes are represented by analogous conditions in the
728
COLOUR-VISION AND COLOUR-BLINDNESS
perception of sounds. The first class of the colour-blind is repre-
sented by those who are unable to hear very high or very low
notes. The second class is represented by those who possess
what is commonly called a defective musical ear. Colour-blind
individuals belonging to this class can be arranged in a series.
At one end of this series are the normal-sighted, and at the other
end the totally colour-blind. In the third class of the colour-
blind there is defective perception of colour through the fovea
or central region of the retina not being normal.
Abnormalities and defects of light-perception may be sub-
divided as follows :
1. Increase or diminution in the visible range of the spectrum.
2. Defective sensibility for certain wave-lengths.
3. Increased sensitiveness for certain wave-lengths.
4. Variations in the maximum of the luminosity curve.
5. Increase or defects in the power of dark adaptation (a) Very
rapid or slow adaptation; (b) very complete or imperfect dark adap-
tation.
If a number of persons be examined with a bright spectrum as to
the point when they first see light where the red commences and
the point where violet terminates, it will be found that there are
considerable variations in different cases.
A very common mistake due to shortening of the red end of the
spectrum is the confusion of pink and blue. If a person with con-
siderable shortening of the red end of the spectrum is shown a pink
which is made up of a mixture of red and violet, the red consisting of
rays occupying the missing portion of the spectrum, only the violet
is visible to him, and so the pink appears a violet without a trace of
red. This pink is therefore matched with a violet or blue very much
darker than itself.
An examination of those belonging to the second class of the
colour-blind will show that those who are only slightly defective
will declare that there are only five colours in the spectrum, orange
not being seen as a definite colour, but as a yellowish-red. Another
set will be found who will state that there are only four definite
colours, red, yellow, green, and violet. Those who are still more
defective will state that there are only three colours in the spectrum,
red, green, and violet. These describe the spectrum as red, red-
green, green, green-violet and violet. Then there are those who
state that there are only two colours in the spectrum, red and
violet, with a neutral point in the green. This neutral division be-
tween the red and the violet may in extreme cases be so large that
only the ends of the spectrum appear coloured with a large grey re-
gion between. Finally there are persons who see no colours in the
spectrum, but see it as a colourless band varying in luminosity in
its different parts. It will be seen therefore that we can classify the
degrees of colour-perception according to the number of definite
colours which are seen in the spectrum. Those who see seven
colours may be called heptachromic, those who see six, hexachromic,
those who see five, pentachromic, those who see four, tetrachromic,
those who see three, trichromic, those who see two, dichromic, and
finally the totally colour-blind.
It might at first be thought that this classification was artificial
and that some of the classes saw exactly alike, but further examina-
tion will show that this is not the case. Those who see six colours in
the spectrum know that there are several varieties of green, but all
these are associated by their green character, and are plainly com-
pound and not simple colours; for instance, in yellow-green it is
quite obvious that the colour is a mixture of yellow and green, and
hence the term yellow-green correctly describes it. The trichromic
designate yellow as red-green and this does not correctly describe
yellow for the normal-sighted.
The Tests for Colour-Blindness. On account of the arrange-
ment of signals by sea and land it is necessary that persons em-
ployed in the marine and railway services should be able to
recognize and distinguish between the standard red, green, and
white lights, in the requisite conditions.
It is not only necessary to find out whether a man is able to
distinguish between the red, green, and white lights, but to
ascertain as well that he thoroughly understands what is meant
by colour, and the individual character of red, green and white
respectively. Too little attention has been paid to this in con-
structing tests for colour-blindness, and those who have had
much practical experience in testing for this defect, are aware of
the ignorance which exists among uneducated persons with re-
gard to colours. Many are under the impression that every shade
of a colour is a fresh colour, and others have the most novel ideas
witli respect to colours. It is necessary that a sailor or engine-
driver should be able to recognize a red, green, or white light by
its character of redness, greenness^ or whiteness respectively;
that he has definite ideas of colour and is able to reason with
respect to them. All persons who are not able, through physical
defect, to have definite ideas of the standard colours and to be
able to distinguish between them, must be excluded from the
marine and railway services. An engine-driver or sailor has to
name a coloured light when he sees it, not to match it. He has
to say to himself, " This is red light, therefore there is danger,"
and this is practically the same as if he made the observation out
loud. Therefore, from the very commencement we have colour-
names introduced and it is impossible to exclude them. Making
a person name a colour is an advantage, because the colour-name
excludes the element of shade. If, as some persons have said
in the past, testing by colour-names is useless, then the whole
series of colour-names is useless. But if I say to a friend, " That
tile is red," and he agrees with me, it is evident that one object
the colour of which is by him classed as red, is also classed as red
by me. The ordinary colour-names, red, blue, yellow, and green,
form excellent bases for classification. The engine-driver is told
that red is a " Danger " signal, green an " All Right " signal.
Therefore it is necessary that he should know what is meant by
these colours. It is on account of there being so many variations
in hue that such great difficulty has been found in constructing
an adequate test for colour-blindness, as it is the definite colours
and not the variation of them of which we wish to know the
number. The colour-blind see a distinct difference in hue, lumi-
nosity and saturation. The normal-sighted could divide the
green of the spectrum into yellow-green, green and blue-green,
and would, in the majority of cases, be able to range all greens
under these three classes. The dichromic colour-blind see two
colours' only, and name colours as variations of these two differ-
ing in luminosity and saturation; they recognize yellow by its
superior luminosity and distinguish between red and green by the
latter appearing of less saturation.
The test which should be used for the marine and railway
services is a lantern in which the requisite conditions are repre-
sented. A lantern of this kind is used by the Admiralty and the
Board of Trade. It is obvious that a man who cannot distinguish
the red, green and white lights in these lanterns will not be able
to do so in actual practice, and this fact is easily proved by testing
with signal lights.
Another test for colour-blindness, a card test, 1 is useful but
it is not intended for the decisive testing of sailors or railway
men, though it may be used as a supplementary test. It is for
use when the lantern is not available, and is probably the simplest
for demonstrating to the normal-sighted person defective colour-
vision in a subject. The principle involved is the perception of
difference between two colours presented in a special diagram
of spots of irregular shape and various tones. On a ground of
separate spots of one colour a letter is formed in spots of another
colour. The test consists in discriminating between the colours,
and hence recognizing the letters.
This test is useful for children as it is of importance that any-
one who is colour-blind should know of it at the earliest time,
so that he can avoid occupations in which an accurate colour-
sense is necessary.
The wool test is a failure. It is now obsolete, as it allows over
50% of dangerously colour-blind persons to pass, and it will be
noticed in certain reports that of those who were rejected by the
wool test and who appealed, over 50% were found to be normal-
sighted and had been rejected wrongly. The colour-blind people
who can pass the wool test see a slight difference between the
colours, but the smallness of this is shown by the card test.
Theories of Colour- Vision. The facts of colour-vision are quite
inconsistent with the older theories of colour-vision, and modifica-
tions of the theories made to explain particular cases at once give
rise to difficulties in the explanation of other facts. All fundamental
observations should be made with pure spectral light as the use of
coloured wools, coloured papers and pigments gives rise to results
which are different and due to the defects of the methods employed.
The trichromatic theory, which assumes that there are three
fundamental sensations the mixture of which gives rise to all other
colour-sensations, was based on the facts of colour-mixing. Un-
doubtedly normal colour-vision is trichromatic in the sense of colour-
mixing; therefore the term trichromatic theory is not a good one
and has led to much confusion. The three-sensation theory would
1 Published by G. Bell & Sons, London, 1920.
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY COMMERCE
729
be a better term. The three-sensation theory is only one explanation
of the fact that when spectra! green and spectral red are mixed
they make yellow. The explanation that when red and green are
mixed the resulting impulses cannot be distinguished by the nerve
cells from those caused by simple yellow is sufficient. This explana-
tion is supported by the fact that the trichromic see yellow as red-
green. There is no evidence that the assumptions of the three-sensa-
tion theory are true. Simple yellow cannot be. split up into its
hypothetical red and green constituents. An hour's dark adapta-
tion does not alter the hue of spectral yellow. As blue is supposed
to be made up chiefly of the green and violet sensations, and yellow
to be made up chiefly of red and green sensations, the green element
should be affected after fatigue with blue, and yellow viewed sub-
sequently should appear red. This is not the case. The eye may also
be fatigued with spectral yellow, so that all yellow disappears from
the spectrum without affecting the appearance of a very feeble
red. It is known that if the intensity of a number of coloured lights
be reduced in the same proportion all the colours do not disappear
at the same moment. If, therefore, spectral yellow were a compound
sensation it should change colour on being reduced in intensity. If,
however, spectral yellow be isolated in the spectrometer, and the
intensity be gradually reduced by moving the source of light away,
the yellow becomes whiter and whiter until it becomes colourless,
but does not change in hue.
In cases where a subjective red is seen with an illumination by
white light, this red is seen with a compound yellow but not with a
simple spectral yellow.
When the theory is applied to colour-blindness it is still more
unsatisfactory and is quite unable to explain the fundamental facts,
as for instance why the colour-blind should make an increased mono-
chromatic division in the spectrum or why certain colour-blind per-
sons should be able to pass the wool test. Again no explanation is
offered of the fact that simultaneous contrast is increased in the
colour-blind. One of the best-known cases of colour-blindness, a
simple dichromic, was classified by one expert as a case of complete
red-blindness and by another as a case of complete green-blindness!
The present writer has never examined a single case of colour-
blindness which, on a detailed examination with spectral colours,
could be explained on the three-sensation theory. For instance, a
case of shortening of the red end of the spectrum may be taken in
which the red is shortened to X68o; at X6/o the perception of red
may be defective to about half the normal and at X66o it may be
quite normal. This can be proved with a colour-mixing apparatus
with the equation X67O+535 =Xy8<). If red X66o be substituted for
red X6?o an absolutely nor nal match will be made ; if red of X6/O be
used, twice as much red will be put in the mixed colour as with the
normal, and if red of X68o be used a match is quite impossible in any
circumstances. Now on the three-sensation theory a case of this
kind may be classed as -5 red-blind, all the ordinates of his red
sensation curve being supposed to be reduced to one-half of the
normal, but the red in the shortened portion should according to
this hypothesis be brought up to the normal by doubling the amount
of red, whereas it will be found when there is complete shortening that
any amount of red light f ro n the shortened portion may be added
without being perceived. In another way it can be conclusively
proved that the shortening is not produced by the diminution of a
hypothetical red sensation which is stimulated by rays from every
part of the spectrum. A man with shortening of the red end of the
spectrum wilt match as identical pink and blue wools, the pink wool
appearing much lighter to the normal-sighted than the blue one.
If these two wools be now viewed through a blue-green glass which
is opaque to the rays occupying the shortened portion, they will
appear identical in hue and shade. It should be noted that whilst
the blue-green glass cuts off the physical red rays it transmits
numerous rays supposed to stimulate the red sensation.
When three selected spectral colours, for instance red, green and
violet, are mixed in suitable proportions a white is made which
will exactly match the white fro n which the spectrum was formed.
On the three-sensation theory the two are physiologically identical,
that is to say, the three hypothetical sensations are stimulated in
similar proportions by the mixture and by the white light, though the
two are physically different. It is essential to the three-sensation
theory that after fatig-le (say) to red or green the match should
still remain, and supporters of the theory state that no change is
observed in these circumstances. This, however, is not the case, and
if a number of normal-sighted persons view the white equation after
fatigue with red light, which is supposed to affect only the hypo-
thetical red sensation, the match is no longer correct, and a very
remarkable fact becomes apparent, namely, that much more red will
be required in the mixed white.
The mixed white appears a bright green to a person whose
eyes have been fatigued for red, and in order to make a match
the amount of green has to be reduced to about one-half, so
that the mixture now appears bright red to a normal-sighted
person with unfatigued eyes.
See F. W. Edridge-Green, The Physiology of Vision (G. Bell &
Sons, London, 1920). (F. W. E.-G.)
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY (see 6.739). The work of Columbia
University during the period 1910-20 was greatly extended. A
school of journalism was founded in 1912, a school of business
in 1915, and a school of dentistry in 1917. In order to render the
largest possible service to the community, courses in university
extension were organized for men and women who could give
only a portion of their time to study, but who desired to pursue
subjects included in a liberal education. These courses, as such,
did not lead to degrees, but might be offered as credit toward a
degree under one of the faculties. Under university extension
there was organized also an institute of arts and sciences which
conducted series of lectures and recitals of a popular nature,
as well as a system of courses for home study for persons
unable to attend classes in the university. These courses also
did not lead to academic credit or degrees. In 1920 there were
in Columbia University in all departments 1,150 instructors and
administrative officers, and in the twelve months ending June 30
1920, 28,314 students were enrolled. Of these, roughly one-
third were registered in the 1919 summer session; one-third in
the degree-granting schools and faculties during the academic
year 1919-20; and one-third in university extension during the
academic year 1919-20.
The productive endowment of the university, including the en-
dowments of Teachers College, Barnard College, and the College
of Pharmacy, amounted in 1920 to $47,000,000, which, added to the
property occupied for educational purposes, made a total capital
investment of $72,000,000. To meet the increased costs of education,
the fees in the several schools were raised so that they ranged in 1921
from $250 to $350. The alumni of the university were given a definite
part in the government of the institution by an agreement under
which six of the 24 trustees were elected on alumni nomination. In
1912 the corporate title of the university was changed from the
Trustees of Columbia College in the City of New York " to the
" Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York."
The university took an active part in the World War. Immedi-
ately upon the severance of diplomatic relations with Germany in
Feb. 1917, it placed its resources, both physical and intellectual, at
the service of the Government. There were established at the
university schools for training men for both the army and the
navy, including work in radio, photography, quartermaster's
routine, explosives, gas engines, submarine detection, and the
Student Army training corps, which prepared men for the various
officers' training camps of both armed services. Students, faculty
and alumni to the number of 4.125 were enlisted in the army and
navy, and 2,175 'eft their previous occupations and assisted the Gov-
ernment in some one of the civilian branches. Two hundred Columbia
men died in the war. (N. M. B.)
COLVIN, SIR SIDNEY (1845- ), English man of letters
(see 6.748), was knighted in 1911, and retired from his position
in the British Museum in 1912. In 1911 he published an edition
of the Letters of R. L. Stevenson and in 1917 John Keats, His
Life and Poetry. His autobiographical Memoirs and Places ap-
peared in Nov. 1921.
COMBES, [JUSTIN LOUIS] EMILE (1835-1921), French
statesman (see 6.751). The campaign for the separation of
Church and State was the last big political action in his life.
While still possessed of great influence over extreme Radicals,
M. Combes took but little public part in politics after his resigna-
tion of the premiership in 1905. He joined the Briand Ministry
of Oct. 1915 as one of the five Elder Statesmen, but without
portfolio. He died May 26 1921.
COMMERCE, DEPARTMENT OF, one of the executive depart-
ments of the U. S. Government. It succeeded the earlier De-
partment of Commerce and Labor, by an Act of Congress,
approved March 4 1913, which also created a separate and inde-
pendent Department of Labor (see LABOR, DEPARTMENT OF).
The Secretary of Commerce is a member of the president's
Cabinet but is not in line of succession to the presidency. It
is his duty to promote the commerce, domestic and foreign, of
the United States. There is also an assistant secretary and a so-
licitor, the latter acting as legal adviser to the Secretary and
to the heads of the various bureaus of the department.
As originally organized there were 9 bureaus, as follows: (i) The
bureau of the census, charged with the collection of data concerning
population, agriculture, manufactures, mining, etc. ; (2) the bureau
of foreign and domestic commerce, for the collection and diffusion
of information of use to the manufacturer and exporter; (3) the coast
730
COMMUNISM
and geodetic survey, for charting coast waters and surveying rivers
to the head of tidewater or ship navigation, and for making deep-
sea soundings, magnetic observations, etc. ; (4) the bureau of fisheries,
for regulating and conserving fisheries; (5) the lighthouse service,
in charge of the aids to navigation on all U.S. territory, except
Panama and the Philippines: (6) the bureau of navigation, having
general superintendence of the commercial marine and merchant
seamen, and the enforcement of navigation laws; (7) the steam-
ship inspection service, which inspects steam vessels for the pur-
pose of insuring safety at sea, and issues licences to masters,
mates, pilots, and engineers of the merchant marine; (8) the bureau
of standards, for determining all American measurements; and (9)
the bureau of corporations. The last-mentioned bureau, on March
16 1915, was transferred to, and merged with, the Federal Trade
Commission (see FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION).
Because of the importance of manufactures there had long been
agitation among various commercial organizations of the United
States for the creation of a governmental department for promoting
commercial interests; but it was not until 1903 that a bill establish-
ing the Department of Commerce and Labor was passed by Con-
gress; it was approved by President Roosevelt Feb. 14. For
the next ten years the joint interests of labor and capital were
entrusted to this department. The arrangement proved unsatis-
factory because of the frequent conflict of these interests, and in
1913 an independent Department of Labor was created, the name
of the Department of Commerce and Labor being changed to
Department of Commerce.
COMMUNISM (see 6.791). The term " communism " is used
loosely to cover all forms and theories of social ownership of
wealth, but has a more specific current meaning to denote the
type of revolutionary socialism first expounded in The Commu-
nist Manifesto of Marx and Engels (1847) and to-day held by the
various communist parties that exist in most countries and are
united in the Communist International. Communism is thus
both an old term and an old theory; but the practice of the
Bolshevik revolution in Russia (see BOLSHEVISM) and the sub-
sequent propaganda of the Communist International have given
it a significance that is in many ways new.
It is important to distinguish at the outset the various senses
in which " communism " is often used, in order to avoid the
confusions that beset the term. The English writer, Sidney Webb,
has distinguished five senses of communism: (i) the communism
of free use, or " all things in common," as exemplified on a limited
scale in public roads and bridges, and as aimed at on a general
scale in religious or Utopian " communities " of all ages; (2)
communism by rationing, or the equal distribution of some par-
ticular thing or things among the whole population; (3) com-
munism in treatment, or the supply of some particular service,
not equally, but according to need, as in the public provision of
medical care or education; (4) communism in the sense of nation-
alization or municipalization; (5) the communism of The Com-
munist Manifesto. To these should possibly be added the
anarchistic communism of Kropotkin and his school, to which
the name of " anarchism " was formerly given (see 1.914).
It is only the last of the five senses given above (the commu-
nism of The Communist Manifesto) which will be treated here,
since the other senses either do not cover a specific political
theory or else are coterminous with Socialism in general. It
alone has a continuous history and a present significance.
Historical Development. The conditions which gave rise
to communism began with the industrial revolution. The social
transformation produced by that event, the emergence of a new
middle class and its rise to power, and the creation of a growing
town population of wage-earners in large industry, led to numer-
ous movements of unrest in the early igth century and to all
kinds of social theories and questionings. At this time the term
socialism became applied to various types of theories of a benevo-
lent or cooperative economic order. These theories, however,
formulated mainly by individual thinkers in England and France,
had no direct relation to the movement of the masses. s The new
feature introduced by communism was its direct correlation
of social theory with the struggle of the working class. The
necessity for this was making itself felt in various quarters; but
its first clear expression was given to the world in what is still
the classic statement of communism, The Communist Manifesto
of Marx and Engels, written in Nov. 1847. The year 1847 thus
marks the starting-point of communism as a conscious force.
The Communist Manifesto. The Communist Manifesto opens
with the statement that the history of all hitherto existing human
society has been the history of successive class struggles,'which
have on each occasion either resulted in the revolutionary trans-
formation of society or in its collapse. From the slave systems of
ancient civilization to the feudal system of mediaeval society,
and from that in'turn to the rule of capitalism or the bourgeoisie,
there has been on each occasion a new class rising to power out
of the conditions of the old society after a violent and revolution-
ary struggle with the preceding class. The rise to power of the
bourgeoisie is described in rapid outline, its origin from the
bosom of feudal society, its breaking of the bonds of feudalism
and monarchy, its revolutionizing of the methods of industry,
agriculture and communication, its establishment of modern
industry with its accelerated and concentrated production,
extended franchise, the national state and the international
trade, and finally its subjugation of the whole world to its mode
of production. " It has achieved greater miracles than the con-
struction of Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts or Gothic
cathedrals; it has carried out greater movements than the mi-
gration of peoples or the crusades. . . . Although it is scarcely
a century since it became the dominating class, the bourgeoisie
has created more powerful and more gigantic forces of produc-
tion than all past generations put together."
Yet to-day the bourgeoisie finds itself threatened in its turn
by the new class of the proletariat or wage-earners which its own
method of production has created. Like the systems which pre-
ceded it, capitalism has created the forces which, in the commu-
nist view, will lead to its overthrow: the proletariat, evergrowing
in numbers and in the insistence of its demands, and an anarchi-
cal system of production leading to periodical crises, unemploy-
ment, gluts and overproduction in the midst of famine and misery,
and (a modern communist would add) in its last phase the fierce
struggles of imperialism and the havoc of world war. It is
contended that these contradictions of capitalism 1 reveal that
the forces of production have outstripped the existing conditions
of social organization, and are producing goods faster than society
can control the use of them under the existing laws of property.
Social production has been established, but individual appro-
priation of the results still remain. The contradiction receives
expression in the class struggle of the workers against the capi-
talists. The proletariat, being without property and living in a
regime of increasing social production, can no longer fight for
individual ownership, but only for the socially conducted utiliza-
tion of the means of production belonging to the community
and of the goods produced. Thus capitalism has created in the
1 To explain the " contradictions " of capitalism would demand
an examination of Marxian economic theory for which there is
here no room. It must suffice to say that Marx saw in the wage
system a system by which monopoly in the means of production is
used to compel those outside the monopoly (the proletariat) to sell
their labour in return for subsistence and forego all rights to the
actual value produced. The resulting surplus provides new capital
for yet more production on the same system, but always with the
need of finding new markets, since the workers themselves, only re-
ceiving in wages a portion of the value produced, can only buy back
a portion of the value produced; with the result that, while the
early stages of capitalism show rapid expansion and develop-
ment, opening up the whole world and forcing every nation and race
into the circle of its operations, the later stages show increasing crises
of overproduction and rivalry in markets, tre/nendous concentration
of financial power, and, in the last phase, the continually intensify-
ing struggles of imperialism culminating in world war and world
economic disorganization. In this progress capitalism by its own
development has completely destroyed the basis of private property
from which it began. Originating in private property and competi-
tion, it has eaten up the independent small proprietor and replaced
him by tremendous combines, replaced competition by monopoly,
reduced the masses of the population to the position of a proletariat
which in a regime of private property is without private property,
and finally reached a stage of production whose forces it is no longer
able to control, any more than it can control the proletarian masses
who now begin to rise against its domination. Thus all is ready for
its dissolution and for the replacement of its worn-out basis of private
property by the new basis of social ownership in accordance witli
the new mode of production and through the agency of the new class,
the proletariat, which has no knowledge of private property. (For
a different view of the capitalistic system, see CAPITALISM.)
COMMUNISM
proletariat a social class which can only have as its object the
abolition of the capitalist system of ownership and its replace-
ment by the proletarian system of common ownership.
But there is this new feature in the struggle and future victory
of the proletariat, that, whereas all previous class struggles have
resulted simply in the rule of a new minority the rise to power
of a new separate stratum of society the victory of the prole-
tariat carries with it the emancipation of the whole of humanity,
because there is no remaining class below them to be freed. vThe
struggle of the working class is thus the struggle of the humanity
of the future, and this is the secret of the class basis of all com-
munist thinking.
It is with this struggle that the communists identify them-
selves, not as any special party, but simply as the champions of
the interests of the working class. They believe that just as each
succeeding class has won to power only after violent and revolu-
tionary struggle with the preceding class, so the working class
can never realize its aims save by the violent overthrow of the
capitalist class and its whole system of power. " The com-
munists disdain to reveal their aims and intentions. They de-
clare openly that their ends can only be attained by the forcible
overthrow of every obtaining order of society. Let the ruling
classes tremble before a communist revolution; the workers have
nothing to lose by it but their chains. They have the world to
win. Workers of every land, unite! "
The Later Period of Marxism. In The Communist Manifesto
may thus be traced all the characteristic conceptions of Marx:
the materialist conception of history (not to be confused with
either materialism or economic determinism), the doctrine of the
class struggle, and the theory of the revolutionary transference
of power to the proletariat. At the same time the analysis of the
role of capitalism, which was to be worked out later with a wealth
of detail in the pages of Capital (1867), is already briefly indicated,
and in a rapid forward glance the prospect is presented of a
transition through the revolutionary rule of the proletariat to
a classless society. It remained in his later work to give elabora-
tion and precision to these original conceptions in the light of the
experience of European history and the working-class struggle for
the next generation. These writings have particular reference
to two dominant events, the revolution of 1848 which led in
Paris to the first distinct attempt of the working class to seize
power in '' the days of June," with the consequent coalition of all
the bourgeois forces into a single " Party of Order," and the
Commune of Paris in 1871 when for the first time the working
class held power for six weeks. The later developments in Marx's
historical and other writings are of especial interest for the new
light they throw on the practical questions of the communist
attitude to the State and the conception of the dictatorship of
the proletariat (a phrase which did not take shape till after the
writing of The Communist Manifesto, its first appearance in
Marx's writings coming in 1850).
The modern State has already been described in The Com-
munist Manifesto as the " executive committee for administering
the affairs of the capitalist class as a whole." The experience
of the igth-century revolutions appears to have convinced Marx
that it was idle to expect any fundamental change so long as the
apparatus of the existing State was left unaffected. Alike in
writing of 1848 and of 1871 he stresses the necessity for destroying
and shattering the existing machinery of the State. The one
and only amendment of substance to The Communist Manifesto
that he makes in his last preface to it before his death, written
in 1872, is to declare that " One thing especially was proved by
the commune, namely, that the working class cannot simply
lay hold of the ready-made State machinery and wield it for its
own purposes." But he demands not merely the destruction of
the existing State, but its replacement by a new type of State, a
Workers' State or the dictatorship of the proletariat as the
transitional organ to carry through the change to communist
society:
" Between capitalist society and communist society there lies
a period of revolutionary transformation from the former to the
latter. A stage of political transition corresponds to this period, and
the State during this period can be no other than the revolutionary
dictatorship of the proletariat." (Critique of the Gotha Pro-
gramme, 1875.)
This new State will be based on the workers' organizations: -
" Against this new official Government," Marx wrote, in de-
scribing the tactics for communists during a revolution in its first
stages, " they must set up a revolutionary workers' government,
either in the form of local committees, communal councils, or
workers' clubs or committees, so that the democratic middle class
government not only immediately loses its support among the
working class, but from the commencement finds itself supervised
and threatened by a jurisdiction behind which stands the entire
mass of the working class." (Address to the League of Communists,
1850.)
On the other hand the proletarian State is in its nature tempo-
rary, because, in proportion as it carries out its task of suppressing
class distinctions it destroys its own class basis, and the State
as a special organ of class power and coercion gives way to the
machinery of a homogeneous communist society. It is only in
this second phase of communism that freedom becomes realizable.
The First and Second Internationals. While the main body
of communist doctrine was thus receiving its completed form,
the first attempts were being made at giving expression to com-
munism in working-class organization. The First International
(1864-73) was not a Marxian body; it was a coming together of
various types of working-class organization and theory; but from
the first Marx played a leading part in it, he drafted its principal
declarations, and his ideas became more and more dominant
within its ranks, until the controversy with the anarchist Bakunin
led to its break-up. The First International was the battle-ground
in which Marxism established its supremacy as the social phil-
osophy of the working class. By the time of its demise in 1873 the
seed of Marxian socialism had been sown in the working-class
movements of Europe.
When the movement towards international working-class
organization was resumed with the formation of the Second
International in 1889, Marxian socialism was now assumed as
the natural basis. Henceforward the class struggle and the
transference of power to the proletariat were the statutory
objects of international working-class organization. But mean-
while, beneath this apparently rapid victory of Marxism, a deep
change in conditions had taken place. The movements that came
together in the Second International were no longer the scattered
sections of a handful of pioneers in working-class organization.
They were powerful national organizations of the workers,
numbering their adherents in millions. Thus the second stage
had been reached of winning the masses to organization; but the
work of training in the principles of the revolutionary struggle
still remained. This was the task begun, but never fully achieved,
by the Second International, as the war revealed. The peaceful
conditions of the period led to hopes of peaceful progress and a
gradual transition to socialism without the disastrous necessities
of catastrophic change. It was not until the World War, with
the collapse that it brought to the ideals of peaceful progress,
that communism appeared once more in its full force and with
all the revolutionary implications with which Marx had left it.
The War and Bolshevism. The World War, then, is the start-
ing-point of modern communism. The war forced to the fore-
front in an acute form the issues and divisions that had been
latent in the socialist movement. It was no longer possible for
the great national movements to maintain their dual allegiance,
at once to the existing national State which they hoped some
day to control, and to the international class war which they had
still continued to proclaim in their resolutions. So there came the
division of forces, the division of majority and minority which
manifested itself in every belligerent country. The bulk of the
official parties supported the war, and in consequence found them-
selves involved in closer and closer alliance with the Govern-
ments. Sections in each country, and in some cases (notably
Italy and Russia) the majority, were in opposition.
This division, which began as a difference over the issue of war
and peace, soon developed into a deeper opposition. It was not
possible for one side to support the war without entering into
closer and closer relations with the whole administration of the
732
COMMUNISM
existing Governments; it was not possible for the other side to
oppose the war without implying a denial of the whole conception
of the existing national State. As the division developed, its
revolutionary implication became more and more manifest;
the Zimmerwaldian organization of anti-war socialists, which had
been founded as a temporary substitute for the collapsed Inter-
national at a conference at Zimmerwald in Switzerland in 1915,
gradually evolved from an organ of international peace and
working-class solidarity into an organ of international revolution
and working-class struggle.
It was the Russian revolution that finally brought this new
division to a head. The Russian revolution forced into the realm
of actual decision the old controversies of class war or class peace,
working-class government or democracy. The party which pro-
claimed its stand on the Marxian principles of class struggle and
working-class government was the Russian Social Democratic
party (Majority) or Bolsheviki. (From this title of Bolsheviki,
meaning " Majority," derived from their holding the majority
at the Brussels-London Conference of the Russian Social Demo-
cratic party in 1903, has been formed the word " Bolshevism "
as a current popular expression for communism and a loose
journalistic term for all forms of extremism and violence.)
Against the other socialist sections who maintained a coalition
with the bourgeoisie, the Bolsheviki carried through the second
revolution of Nov. 1917, and established a new form of govern-
ment based on the Soviets or workers' councils. With this govern-
ment they proclaimed the inauguration of the dictatorship of the
proletariat, and maintained their power against a series of attacks
from without and within. From thenceforward they became the
natural leaders of the revolutionary working-class movement of
the world. As the revolution spread to other countries, the divi-
sion in the socialist world became more and more complete, and
in 1919 the Third or Communist International was founded on
the basis of the revolutionary working-class struggle. The old
Marxian term communism was thus revived against the social
democracy which Marx and Engels had always declared an un-
suitable description for a movement which stood for the sup-
pression both of the State and of democracy, and which the com-
munists regarded as having been a cover for the betrayal of the
socialist cause. At the Second Congress in 1920 a detailed state-
ment of communist aims, policy and tactics was drawn up; and
communism finally came into existence as a fully organized
world force.
The Modern Communist Outlook. The First Manifesto of the
new Communist International describes the modern communist
outlook. It sees in the ruin of the World War and the peace that
succeeded it the fulfilment of the Marxian prediction of the
catastrophic destiny of. capitalism. Capitalism, it declares, torn
by its own contradictions, has plunged into the agony of world
war; "but war has brought no solution to its problems, just as peace
has brought no relief. Hardly has the last war ended before the
next war is being prepared; imperialist rivalry continues with
more intensity than ever; economic disorganization spreads
apace. There is no way out save the complete ending of the
system of imperial capitalism that compels these results, and
its replacement by the world organization of production on the
basis of the workers. " This is the epoch of the decomposition
and break-up of the world capitalist system, which will mean the
break-up of European culture in general if capitalism with its
irreconcilable antagonism is not destroyed." The war has brought
the populations of the world face to face with the realities of
capitalism : what was before the theory and speculation of a few
has become the bitter experience of millions. " The contradic-
tions of the capitalist system were converted by the war into
degrading torments of hunger and cold, disease and savagery
for all mankind." They have seen the vanity of the hopes of
peaceful progress in face of the iron onward sweep to destruction
of the existing system. " The catastrophe of imperialist war has
with one swoop swept away all the gains of experts and of Parlia-
mentary struggles." Not only the populations of Europe, but
the colonial populations of Asia and Africa, have been dragged
into the vortex, and are now finding their only chance of libera-
tion in the international communist revolution. In the midst of
this world upheaval there is need of a strong revolutionary power
that can alone form the coherent force to carry through the neces-
sary change and establish the new system. Reaction solves
nothing, and half-measures are fatal. " Only the proletarian
dictatorship, which recognizes neither inherited privilege nor
rights of property, can shorten the period of the present crisis,
and for this purpose will mobilize all materials and forces, in-
troduce the universal duty to labour, establish the regime of in-
dustrial discipline, and in this way heal in the course of a few
years the open wounds caused by the war and raise humanity to
undreamt-of heights." It is the conditions of society that are
producing chaos and revolution; it is the object of the communists
to end those conditions by giving conscious direction to the
instinctive forces of revolt, instead of vainly seeking to stem
them. No error, in fact, could be greater than to suppose that the
communists are out to " make " a revolution in order to impose
their system upon mankind. " The Communist parties, far from
conjuring up civil war artificially, rather seek to shorten its dura-
tion." In the communist conception the alternative to prole-
tarian dictatorship is not peace. It is war and blockade, famine
and disease, blind revolts and the break-up of civilization.
Communism and Democracy. It is from this point of view
that the controversy of communism and democracy should be
approached if the communist position is to be understood. The
communists do not reject the current conceptions of democracy
because they believe in the superiority of the few, but because
they believe that the phrases of democracy bear no relation to
present realities. The divorce between the realities of power and
the theory in modern democratic states has been noted by observ-
ers of all schools; it is the special point of the communist to insist
that this divorce is not due to accidental and remediable causes,
but is inherent in the nature of capitalist democracy. Democracy,
in fact, is held to be unrealizable in capitalist society because of
the fundamental helplessness of the propertyless man; the parlia-
mentary forms only serve to veil the reality of the " bourgeois
dictatorship " by an appearance of popular consent which is
rendered unreal by the capitalist control of the social structure;
and even this veil is cast aside in moments of any stress by the
open assumption of emergency dictatorial powers. The plea
that this situation may be remedied by education and propaganda
is met by the reply that all the large-scale organs of education
and propaganda are under capitalist control.
On the other hand communism, while rejecting current democ-
racy, differs from syndicalism and other revolutionary philoso-
phies which proclaim the right of the " militant minority " to
endeavour to change society. The glorification of the minority
and of the coup d'etat really belongs to the Blanquist school,
which was always vigorously opposed by Marxism. Marxism
taught that the liberation of the workers could only be the act
of the workers themselves, and that all the communists could do
was to endeavour to guide the struggle of the workers into its
realization in the dictatorship of the proletariat. In this way the
Bolsheviki did not carry through their revolution of Nov. 1917
until they had gained the majority in the Soviets and the trade
unions. Where the communists differ from other believers in the
ultimate victory of the working class is that they do not believe
that victory will be achieved until after a very much more severe
struggle than is ordinarily contemplated. They believe that the
ruling class will use every means, political, economic and military,
to defend its privileges, and that the final decision will not be
reached without open civil war. In support of this they quote ev-
idence to show the readiness of the ruling class in many countries
to fling constitutional considerations to the winds when their
privileges are in danger. To mistake dislike of this prospect for
evidence of its improbability they regard as a fatal policy, and
they believe it necessary, therefore, to make preparations for the
event, considering the best guarantee against the chaos of pro-
longed social disorder (otherwise inevitable in the period of
capitalist dissolution) to be the existence of a powerful revolution-
ary party. It is this aspect of communism which has led to
the current distinction between communism and other forms
COMPASS
733
of socialism as a difference of method: but it will be seen that
this difference of method arises from ,a far more fundamental
divergence in outlook and philosophy. The methods of the
communists are not comprehensible save in relation to the
whole philosophy of The Communist Manifesto.
Communist Organization. From the above considerations
certain conclusions follow as to the role and character of the
communist party in any country. The fully organized com-
munist party, it is stated, is to be the " advance guard " of the
working class, never regarding itself as separate from the working
class, always working in and through existing working-class
organizations on the plane of the struggle of the moment, but
always coordinating and giving conscious direction to the differ-
ent aspects of the working-class struggle with a view to the larger
ultimate issue. For this purpose it must be based on the strictest
internal discipline, and on severe conditions of membership;
but this internal strictness of theory and discipline must be ac-
companied by an external policy of revolutionary opportunism
which is in contrast with the usual " purism " of the revolution-
ary sect. This is the explanation of the alternate charges of
" doctrinairism " and " opportunism " which are levelled by
other socialists against the communist party. This discipline is
ultimately international in character, because the struggle is
regarded as international. To the communist the International is
more than a coming-together of sympathetic parties in a common
struggle: it is the union of different divisions in a single army,
each with its own tactical problems, but all with a single ultimate
directing centre. For this reason an absolute ultimate authority
is vested in the International Executive, subject to the World
Congress. This authority of the International is regarded as of
particular importance, not only for the immediate struggle,
but as the nucleus of future international authority in the World
Soviet Republic.
Bibliography. The classic statements of communism are con-
tained in the writings of Marx and Engels : in particular, The Com-
munist Manifesto by Marx and Engels (1848); The l8th Brumaire
(1852); Capital (1867); The Civil War in France (1871) and the
Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875) by Marx; and The Origin
of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884) by Engels.
The Life and Teaching of Karl Marx by Max Beer (1918, English
translation 1921), gives a valuable short summary of his theories.
The controversial literature of Marxism is very extensive, and would
need a special bibliography. The most important documents of
modern communism are the writings of Lenin, especially The
Stale and Revolution (1917) and Left Comtmmism, an Infantile Dis-
order (1920) ; the writings of Trotsky, including The Russian Revolu-
tion to Brest Litovsk (1918); Bukharin's Programme of the World
Revolution (1920), and other writings of the Russian leaders; and
the publications of the Communist International, including the
Congress Manifestoes (1919 and 1920), the Theses and Statutes
of the Communist International (1920) and the monthly organ The
Communist International. Presentations by English workers of
communist theories may be found in R. W. Postgate, The Bolshevik
Theory (1920) and E. and C. Paul, Creative Revolution (1920). For
criticisms of communist theories see Karl Kautsky, The Dictatorship
of the Proletariat (1919) ; J. R. Macdonald, Parliament and Revolu-
tion (1919), and Bertrand Russell, The Practice and Theory of
Bolshevism (1920). (R. P. D.)
COMPASS (see 6.804). In view of the large extension of the
field covered by the term " compass " due to the introduction
of the " Gyro Compass " and its adoption for navigational pur-
poses, it is essential to define exactly what is meant by a word
which is being very loosely applied to instruments of no practical
navigational value.
The compass is an instrument designed to seek a certain
definite direction in azimuth and to hold this direction perma-
nently. For use in navigation, a compass must satisfy the follow-
ing practical requirements:
Magnetic. When disturbed should return to within 1 of the
above direction within 2 minutes of time.
Gyroscopic. When disturbed or started should return to within
1 of the above direction within 3 hours.
Magnetic Compass. The description given in the earlier article
may be taken as generally applicable to the magnetic compass
of the present day; a very great extension, however, in the use
of the "liquid " type for nautical purposes has since taken place,
while for aeronautical use the liquid compass is essential. The
British Admiralty compass department now occupies the
" Compass Observatory " at Langley, Bucks., and deals with
compasses of all types both for the Admiralty and Air Ministry.
A comprehensive museum is now attached to the observatory.
Gyro Compass. The gyro compass is an instrument in which
use is made of the rotation of the earth and the properties of a
rapidly spinning body to indicate some fixed direction relatively
to the earth. Up to the present the only successful models have
been definitely North-seeking, and all such compasses consist
essentially of:
1. A wheel mounted so as to be capable of spinning rapidly with-
out vibration about its axis and also free to point that axis in any
direction.
2. A gravity control of some description which restricts the tilting
freedom of the axis of the wheel.
Modern gyro compasses differ somewhat in the mechanical
devices by which the degrees of freedom of the axis are obtained
and in the methods adopted to provide the gravity control;
but they are all the practical outcome of experiments made in
1852 by Foucault to demonstrate the rotation of the earth by
means of a gyroscope. Edward Sang, of Edinburgh, had described
in 1836 how this could be done, but he did not actually carry
out the experiment. Much later, in 1884, Lord Kelvin exhibited
a model gyro compass before the British Association. Early in
the present century the development of submarines called for
a non-magnetic type of compass, and fortunately the advance
in electrical and mechanical science made it possible for Dr.
Anschutz to utilize this pioneer work and evolve the first prac-
tical gyro compass. In this instrument a single gyro was used
and both the tilting and the azimuthal freedoms were obtained
by attaching to the gyro case a float supported in a bath of
mercury. A full account of this compass and the elementary
mathematical theory of it is to be found in Crabtree's Spinning
Tops and Gyroscopic Motion. The chief objection to this com-
pass was its failure to function correctly if the ship was rolling,
especially when on a quadrantal course. This intercardinal
rolling error was, for some time, a stumbling-block to further
progress, but in modern gyro compasses it is almost non-existent.
Anschutz in 1912 brought out a very different instrument which
was adopted by the German navy. In this model three gyros are
used in place of the single one of the earlier model, the two extra
gyros having been introduced to overcome the rolling error.
About the same time, the Sperry Co. of New York put on the
market their gyro compass. The first model was found, on trial,
to be subject to rolling error and this necessitated an alteration
in design, a small gyro-pendulum, called the floating ballistic,
being introduced. This compass, in its modified form, was very
largely used by the British and Allied navies during the war.
More recent types are the Brown, Carrie and Twin Sperry.
The first is an entirely British-made compass and has many
novel features; in particular, the device used to obtain the azi-
muthal freedom and the gravity control. It is small and light,
the whole as fitted in the binnacle weighing about 15 pounds.
Certain very important modifications of the Sperry compass
were developed by the Admiralty compass department as a
result of war experience, especially the mercury control attach-
ment invented by Commander G. B. Harrison, O.B.E., and
Mr. A. L. Rawlings; this simplifies the construction of the com-
pass, reduces its cost and makes it more efficient, particularly
in bad weather (fig. 4).
The most important constants of the Anschutz, Brown and
Sperry wheels are as follows:
Radius of Rate of
Mass Gyration Spin in
in Ib. in inches. r. p. m.
Anschutz ..... 6 1-85 20,000
Brown . . : . ... 4i 1-57 15,000
Sperry 50 4-62 8,600
Precession.- So far as gyro-compass work is concerned the
phenomenon of precession may be described in the following
manner. If a torque is applied to a free gyro in any plane passing
through the gyro-axis then the axis will precess in a plane per-
pendicular to the plane of the torque and also to the plane of the
734
COMPASS
spin; and the sense of the precession is such that it causes the
plane of the spin to move towards the plane of the torque as if
to secure agreement of sense after one quarter-turn.
The Sperry Compass. The Sperry type being the most universally
known is used in the following discussion as a convenient example to
illustrate the principles of gyro compasses. It consists essentially of
a gyro mounted so as to be free to spin, free to tilt about a horizontal
axis and free to turn in azimuth round a vertical axis. The tilting
freedom is modified by the addition of a gravity control in the form
of a bail weight, fastened to the case by a roller connexion at one
point only.
For the present it will be assumed that this roller connexion is in
the vertical plane through the gyro-axis, so that whenever the
gyro-axis is tilted the gravity control only produces a torque on the
gyro in the vertical plane. On account of the earth's rotation the N.
end of the gyro-axis will, whenever it is | ^y^ of the meridian be
tilting | downwards ' and as a result of the S ravit y control, whenever
the N. end of the axis is tilted
the horizontal plane it must
be processing < g t . This precession, however, is relative to space
and not relative to the earth.
It follows that such a gyro compass will have, at the equator, a
resting-position in which the gyro-axis is horizontal and in the
meridian. At a place in N. lat. the gyro-axis, in its resting-position,
will be in the meridian with the N. end tilted up slightly, so that the
gravity control may provide a torque in the vertical plane sufficient
to cause the gyro-axis to precess in azimuth at a rate equal to that
at which the meridian is turning round the vertical.
With the Sperry constants the tilt required is about 8' of arc in
lat. 53, for this tilt produces a torque of ^- X ^- X - ft.-pound-
8 Xi6oX36oo ,
als and so a rate precession equal to degrees per
OO /\ / XN 9OO
hour or about 12 per hour. (Mass of bail = 10 Ib. ; depth of O. G.
below tilt axis =6 in.)
Further, if the gyro-axis is disturbed from its resting-position it
will oscillate about that position but will not settle again unless
there is sufficient friction to damp out the oscillations. Such friction
must always be reduced to a minimum as it involves a degree of
uncertainty in the resting-position.
In order to damp out any oscillations of the gyro-axis the roller
connexion between the bail weight and the case is placed slightly to
the E. of the vertical plane through the gyro-axis. This roller con-
nexion will, in what follows, be referred to as the " eccentric pivot."
With this arrangement whenever the N. end of the gyro-axis is
tilted above the horizontal plane there are two torques acting on the
gyro, both proportional to the tilt :
(a) one in a vertical plane as before,
(b) the other in a horizontal plane.
The second torque is the damping torque and always acts in the
sense opposing the precession in azimuth due to the first torque. Its
effect on the gyro is always to reduce the tilt whether above or below
the horizontal plane. By reducing the tilt it lessens the torque pro-
ducing the azimuth precession and so diminishes the amplitude of
the azimuth movement and consequently damps out the oscillations.
The angle between the two planes through the gyro-axis which pass
through the slope diameter and the eccentric pivot respectively is
called the eccentricity of the pivot, and is usually about 1. By in-
creasing this eccentricity the damping can be made heavier, the
value 7 being enough to give to the Sperry compass a dead-beat
movement in all latitudes.
The damping torque causes the compass to settle, in N. latitudes,
with the N. end of the gyro-axis tilted up and E. of the meridian.
This damping error, or latitude error as it is sometimes called, varies
as the eccentricity of the pivot and the tangent of the latitude. In
the resting-position the damping torque maintains the slight pre-
cession of the gyro-axis in the vertical plane necessary to keep the
tilt constant although the axis is not in the meridian.
The resting-position in any latitude can be adjusted to be horizon-
tal and in the meridian by putting out the horizontal balance of the
case. Imagine a weight put on the N. side of the case sufficient to
produce the torque in a vertical plane required to keep the gyro-axis
processing at the same rate as the meridian is turning round the
vertical. Then in the resting-position there would be no tilt and so
no pressure at the eccentric pivot, no damping torque and no damp-
ing error. That is, the gyro would settle with its axis horizontal and
in the meridian. This gives a clue to the effect of a change in the
horizontal balance on the resting-position making this balance
N. heavy reduces the upward tilt of the N. end and causes it to
settle to the W. of its normal resting-position.
In a similar way can be seen the effect of a twist in the suspension.
This merely introduces an extra torque in a horizontal plane and so
either increases or decreases the damping torque and therefore the
damping error. Hence the only effect on the resting -position is
to introduce a change in azimuth in the sense of the twist.
The preceding remarks refer to a compass in a binnacle fixed rela
tive to the earth. When the binnacle is mounted in a ship further
complications arise. That part of the earth's rotation which is
essential to the working of a gyro compass is the tilting movement
of the horizontal plane about a N.-S. line. This tilting movement
in combination with the gravity control causes the gyro compass
to be N.-seeking. If the ship, in which the compass is mounted, is
steaming due N., the curvature of the earth's surface causes a tilting
movement, sense S.-Z.-N., of the horizontal plane about an E.-W.
axis; the gyro compass detects this tilting movement and on ac-
count of this alone would point its N. end west. The final result is
that the gyro-axis points in the direction of the axis of the resultant
angular movement. Since the angular velocity of the horizontal
plane due to the ship's speed is only a small fraction of that due to
the earth's rotation, this direction will be only slightly W. of N.
Hence for northerly speeds the compass has a resting-position which
is W. of its normal one. This error is called speed error and its value
in radians is given approximately by the expression
Northerly speed of ship
Easterly speed of the latitude circle
For British latitudes it is roughly 1 per 10 knots. The error for
southerly courses is E. and for east or west courses it is zero. Thus
it is clear that every alteration of course will involve a change in the
resting-position of the compass. Take the case of a ship which, when
steaming N. at 20 knots, alters course to S. The gyro compass,
supposed settled when the ship was on the northerly course, would
be pointing some 2 W. of its normal resting-position; at the end of
the turn the new resting-position will be 2 E. of the normal one
and so 4 E. of that for the northerly course. But during the turn
there has been a southerly acceleration, and consequently a tendency
for the bail weight, acting as a pendulum in the N.-S. plane, to lag
behind to the north. Hence it exerts a pressure (due to the accelera-
tion) on the case at the eccentric pivot, and so produces two torques
on the gyro:
(1) in a vertical plane' sense N.-Z.-S.;
(2) in a horizontal plane sense W.-S.-E.
The former of these causes the N. end to precess E., that is toward
the new resting-position for the southerly speed. The angular dis-
placement of the gyro-axis thus obtained is called the ballistic
deflexion. If the constants of the compass are so arranged that this
deflexion is equal to the difference of the two speed errors, then dur-
ing the turn the gyro-axis will have moved in azimuth exactly to its
new resting-position. But the ballistic deflexion is independent of
the latitude, whilst the change of speed error varies with the latitude.
Hence this adjustment can only be made correctly in one particular
latitude called the standard latitude. To obtain this effect the con-
stants of the compass must be adjusted so that its undamped period
is 85 minutes in the standard latitude. This is the reason why all
gyro compasses of this type have periods approximating to I j hours.
The torque in the horizontal plane produces no such beneficial
results. It causes an upward precession of the N. end during the
turn and so increases the tilt. Since the resting-position for the S.
speed requires the same tilt of the N. end as that for the N. speed,
the gyro-axis will begin to wander, after the turn i$ completed to-
wards the west. This wander, called the ballistic tilt effect, is always
opposed in sense to the ballistic deflexion. It also occurs in the
Anschutz and Brown compasses because the acceleration causes a
transference of the oil in the damping mechanism. In order to re-
duce this ballistic tilt effect the eccentricity of the pivot is kept
small in the Sperry compass.
The mercury-box attachment to the Sperry compass provides a
means of making the ballistic deflexion approximately correct in
all latitudes, and is noteworthy as being the only practical device
which so far has overcome this difficulty. The gravity control con-
sists of two cast-iron boxes containing mercury and joined together
by a long U tube which enters each box at the bottom. This is.
essentially a top-heavy form of gravity control and the magnitude
of the torque exerted by it depends on the area of the free surfaces of
mercury in the boxes. Each box is divided by vertical partitions into
three compartments whose areas are as 1 : 2 : 3. A valve at the bottom
of the box, actuated by turning a knob at one bottom corner, en-
ables the area of the free surface and so the magnitude of the bail
weight to be varied in the ratios 3:4:5:6. By means of this device
the bail weight can be so adjusted that the ballistic deflexion is
equal to the change of speed error within i in any navigable latitude.
Further complications arise due to the rolling and pitching of the
vessel. A swinging ring oscillates stably in its own plane but unstably
in a perpendicular plane. This is because the moments of inertia of
the ring, about a diameter and about a line through the centre at
right angles to the plane of the ring, are not equal. This inequality
existed in the original Sperry compass but was removed by the at-
tachment of the compensator weights and frame to the vertical ring.
In addition, with the ship on an intercardinal course, say N.E.,
and rolling, the compass in the binnacle is subject to an alternating
acceleration in the N.W.-S.E. vertical plane. The E.-W. com-
ponent of this causes the compass as a whole to swing in the gimbals
in the plane of the case, and so the eccentric pivot swings E. and W.
COMPASS
735
of its true position relative to the vertical through the gyro-axis.
The N.-S. component causes the bail-weight to exert an alternating
pressure on the case at the eccentric pivot, first N. then S. These
two alterations, the E.-W. swing of the pivot and the N.-S. pressure
at the pivot, keep step, and so a torque of invariable sign in a
horizontal plane is produced. This causes the gyro-axis to tilt and
wander and so introduces rolling error. To get rid of this error Sperry
aimed at eliminating the E.-W. swing of the pivot by making use of
a small gyro pendulum, called the floating ballistic, to form the
connexion between the bail weight and the case. This fitting gave
excellent results except in bad weather; a further modification, ob-
tained by the addition of a frame, carry-ing a lead weight, to the
stem of the pendulum, in order to raise its centre of gravity and so
increase its period, produced a great improvement. Even so the
compass was not quite reliable in really bad weather, and it was
not until the mercury control was fitted that the intercardinal rolling
error was finally overcome. In this device the period of the liquid
pendulum is so arranged that the forced oscillations of the mercury
due to the rolling of the ship are approximately 90 out of phase
with the roll, and so complete compensation is obtained.
VERTICAL AXIS UPPER GUIDE
LUBBER RING
FIG. I. Thwartship section of frame. South view of compass.
Mechanical Operation of the Compass. In the Sperry compass a
follow-up system is essential to the correct functioning of the master
compass; in other types, such as the Brown and Anschutz, this is
not the case. The reason for this lies in the different methods of
suspension, all of which must be as nearly free from friction as
possible, as has been previously stated.
LU88ER PING
PHANTOM GEAR
FlG. 2. Aft view of frame. North view of compass.
The gyro and case in its vertical ring, known as the sensitive ele-
ment (see figs. I, 2 and 3), is supported from the top of the phantom
or follower ring by a wire suspension. The vertical ring is also pro-
vided with upper and lower guide bearings in the phantom. These
bearings do not support any of the weight, the whole of which is
taken by the suspension. Suitable trolley contacts (not shown in
the diagram) are carried on the trolley posts and work over fixed
contactors situated opposite them on the upper part of the phantom.
The compass card is fixed to the top of the phantom ring and the
rack just below it gears into the azimuth motor which is fixed to the
frame or spider. The trolley and fixed contactors are suitably con-
nected to the relay of the azimuth motor.
VERTICAL
PHANTOM
FIG. 3. Starboard view of frame. West view of compass
This electrical follow-up system operates so as always to keep the
phantom co-planar with the vertical ring. If the gyro precesses in
azimuth the trolley wheel is carried to one side or other of the fixed
contactor which is insulated in the middle; this operates the azimuth
motor through the relay and moves the phantom which carries the
compass card, to follow the gyro. On the other hand, when an al-
teration of course takes place the phantom is at first carried round
by the ship until the contacts cause the azimuth motor to drive it
back to its normal position in relation to the vertical ring.
In addition to the master compass, which is usually placed more
or less centrally in the ship and near the water line, repeater com-
passes form part of an equipment and may be placed in any con-
venient position.
BRACKET CARRYING
MERCURY BOXES
LEO CARRYING HOLLER
CASING TBACK
CONNECTING TUBE
ROLLER
FIG. 4. General view of mercury control.
They are worked through a transmitter which is operated by a
pinion working into the phantom rack just under the compass card.
This pinion forms the head of a camshaft which carries three double--
faced cams set 60 apart. These cams operate contacts which, using
a common return, work the repeater motor. The speed and latitude
dials in conjunction with the cosine ring provide an automatic
correction for both speed error and damping error, by turning round
the lubber ring through an angle equal *o the sum of these errors.
As seen from the S. side the direction of rotation of the wheel
is clockwise, but this must be reversed when the mercury control is
fitted, because this form of gravity control is top-heavy.
References. For a detailed description of the whole equipment
and instructions as to the care and maintenance of the Sperry
compass, the Sperry Handbook, 2nd ed. Feb. 1919, gives full in-
formation. This, and a handbook on their Twin Compass, may be
736
COMPAYRE CONNECTICUT
obtained from the Sperry Gyroscope Co., Ltd., 15, Victoria Street,
S. W. I., by whose permission their copyright diagrams of the
Sperry compass are produced in this article. Messrs. S. G. Brown,
Ltd., of Victoria Road, North Acton, have also published a small
pamphlet on their compass. Several types of gyro compasses can
be seen in operation at the Admiralty Compass Observatory,
Langley, on application to the Director. (F.C.-O.)
COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL (1843-1913), French educa-
tionalist (see 6.809), died March 23 1913.
COMPTON, EDWARD (1854-1918), English actor, was born
in London Jan. 14 1854. He was the son of the actor Henry
Compton (Charles Mackenzie) and was educated at Kensington.
He married Miss Virginia Bateman, an actress and a member
of a well-known theatrical family. He first appeared at Bristol in
1873 and in London in 1877. In 1881 he organized the Compton
Comedy company, which for over 30 years played Shakespearean
and old English comedies throughout the country and formed a
valuable school of training for young actors and actresses. He
died in London July 16 1918. Among his children were Mr.
Compton Mackenzie (b. 1883), the well-known novelist, and
Miss Fay Compton, the actress.
CONNAUGHT, ARTHUR WILLIAM PATRICK ALBERT, DUKE
OF (1850- ), 3rd son of Queen Victoria (see 6.950), went in
1910 to S. Af. to open the Union Parliament on behalf of King
George V. He was appointed in 1911 to succeed Earl Grey as
governor-general of Canada, retiring from this office in 1916.
In Dec. 1920 he went to India as the representative of King
George in order to inaugurate the provincial legislative councils
of Madras, Bengal, and Bombay, arriving at Madras Jan. 10
1921. In various speeches he sounded a note of conciliation with
Indian progressive feelings, and it was agreed on his return to
England that valuable help had been given by his utterances
to the work of self-government in India under the new regime.
The Duchess of Connaught died in London March 14 1917.
The Duke's only son, Prince Arthur of Connaught (b. 1883),
married in 1913 Princess Alexandra, Duchess of Fife, daughter of
the Princess Royal, who had succeeded in 1912 to her father's
dukedom by special remainder. Prince Arthur was in 1920 ap-
pointed governor-general of the Union of S. Africa. The Duke
of Connaught 's elder daughter, Princess Margaret (1882), was
married in 1905 to the Crown Prince of Sweden, and died at
Stockholm May i 1920. The younger daughter, Princess Pa-
tricia (b. 1886), married in 1919 the Hon. Alexander Robert Maule
Ramsay, third son of the i3th Earl of Dalhousie. Princess Pa-
tricia of Connaught resigned her royal title on her marriage,
and elected to be known as Lady Patricia Ramsay.
CONNECTICUT (see 6.951) had in 1920 a pop. of 1,380,631,
as compared with 1,114,756 in 1910. The increase for the decade
was 23-0%, as compared with 14-9% for the whole United States,
and was the highest percentage of increase for Connecticut of
any decade up to that time. In 1900 the pop. per sq. m. was
i8i-9;in 1910, 23i-3;in 1920, 286-4.
The populations and percentages of increase of the important
cities during the years 1910-20 are as follows:
Increase
1920. 1910. Percent.
Bridgeport 143.538 102,054 40-6
Bristol 20,620 9,572 116-4
Hartford 138.036 98,915 39-6
Meriden 29,842 27,265 9-5
New Britain 59.3'6 43.9'6 35-1
New Haven 162,519 133,605 21-6
New London 25,688 19,695 30-7
Norwalk 27,700 6,954 299-0
Norwich 22,304 20,367 9-5
Stamford 35,o86 25,138 39-6
Torrington 20,623 15.483 33-2
Waterbury 91,410 73,141 25-0
Agriculture. In 1900 40^1% of the population was classed as
rural by the census; in 1910 34-4%, and 1920 32-2%. The farming
population was actually somewhat smaller than even these figures
would signify. In 1900 the farms of the state numbered 26,948, in
1910 26,815 and in 1920 22,655, a loss of 4,160 in the latter decade.
During the decade 1900-10, the state lost 126,295 ac. held in farms,
or 5'5% of the total area of the state. Moreover, 76,273 ac. of im-
proved land, 7-2 % of the total, were allowed to go back to forest.
In spite of this decline, the total value of farm property increased
by 40-7 % during the decade. In 1910 the average value of land per
ac. was $33.03; in 1920 it was $53.28. The most important crops
of the state are hay, corn and tobacco. The rapid growth of the
cities has stimulated dairying, market gardening and egg raising.
During the World War a Farm Bureau was introduced into each of the
counties of Connecticut. It is one of the most important factors
in the state, making for better farming and the solution of the local
agricultural problems.
Manufactures. Connecticut is one of the preeminent manu-
facturing states. From 1909 to 1914 the increase in the total of its
manufactured products was 1 1 -3 %. In 1914 thisvalue was$545,47l,-
517. Connecticut, although the 46th state in size, was in 1914 I2th
in the value of its manufactured goods. The per capita value was
$454 as compared with $245 for the United States. In 1914 the state
contained 4,104 manufacturing establishments employing an average
number of 226,264 wage-earners, and was the 8th among the states
in number of wage-earners. The five most important branches of
manufacturing were the following:
Products Manufactured.
Brass, Bronze and copper goods
Foundry and machine-shop products
Cotton goods
Silk goods
Firearms and ammunition
No. Establish-
ments.
67
388
50
44
13
Value of
Products.
$69,353.103
67,009,127
30,808,918
30,591,825
25.657,797
The outbreak of the World War speedily brought profound
changes to Connecticut manufacturing. Inevitably, large war
orders of the belligerent nations were placed in Connecticut.
Not only did munitions plants grow, but many other factories
benefited by making accessory parts such as springs for shells, bases
for machine-guns, etc. A rough measure of the effect of the new
stimulus is to be found in the building projects of the state. During
the years 1913 and 1914, 254 manufacturers constructed 386 build-
ings at a cost of $6,288,230. In 1915 and 1916, 294 manufacturers
built 627 buildings at a cost of $18,277,825, nearly three times the
amount of the preceding two years. The expansion continued during
1917 and 1918, when 386 manufacturers engaged in 738 building
operations at a cost of $13,837,802, but in the summer of 1920 it
came practically to an end as a result of the post-war depression
setting in at that time. In May 1918 Gov. Holcomb stated that 80 %
of Connecticut manufacturing was " directly or indirectly engaged
in producing munitions, rifles, machine-guns, clothing and other
articles used by the army ; and we have at least five plants within
our borders where ships and power-boats are being constructed."
With the signing of the Armistice and the cancelling of war orders,
Connecticut factories began to reorganize. The readjustment to a
peace footing was made easier by the great demand for manu-
factured goods that characterized the year 1919, and had been
practically completed throughout the state when the depression of
1920-1 brought a considerable slowing up of productive effort. The
growth of manufacturing, coupled with the increase in the cost of
living that followed the outbreak of the World War, brought labour
troubles to Connecticut. Before the war the wage-earners of the
state were not well organized, labour organizations totalling in
1912 59,895 members. The bulk of these organizations were among
the skilled trades and the transportation workers. Factory employees
were in general not unionized. In 1911 and 1912 the state suffered
only 48 strikes and in the next two years 45. In 1915 and 1916, the
years of the great expansion, there were 422 strikes, involving ap-
proximately 68,000 employees. In the next two years there were 183
strikes involving 33,391 employees. From that time until 1921
strikes diminished in number until the depression of 1920-1, when
because of wide-spread unemployment they practically ceased. The
rapid changes in the manufacturing situation from 1918 to 1921 and
the constant shifting of the wage-earning population made it
difficult to collect statistics of -value regarding the labour organiza-
tions. In 1918, however, there were 327 labour organizations in the
state, mostly among the skilled trades and transportation workers.
The most important result of the war-time labour disturbances
was a general increase in wages. The attempt to increase the num-
ber, size and power of unions met with but indifferent success.
Government. In 1911-2, the 34th and 35th, and in 1915-6 the
36th, amendments to the Connecticut constitution were adopted. The
first stated the conditions under which the lieutenant-governor was
to take the place of the governor; the second provided that the Gen-
eral Assembly should adjourn not later than the first Wednesday
after the first Monday of June; the third allowed the passage by
the General Assembly of a law to cover payment of mileage to the
legislators. In 1914 a workmen's compensation law was passed,
which applies to all industries in which five or more persons are
employed. Compensation for total disability is one-half the em-
ployee's weekly wages, compensation to be not less than $5.00 nor
more than $14.00 per week, and in no case to run for more than 520
weeks; compensation for partial temporary disability not more than
half the weekly wages, compensation not to run more than 1 12 weeks;
permanent partial disability, at same rates; in case of death, graded
benefits. The law is enforced by Compensation Commissioners,
CONRAD
737
appeals from whose findings may be made to the superior court
of the county. In the physical examinations for the draft during the
World War, 20-79 % of those examined were disqualified for physical
disability, Connecticut being the seventh highest state in this
percentage. On investigation it was found that many of the dis-
abling disorders were due to preventable conditions in childhood.
The result was the appointment of a commission to report a pro-
gramme for child welfare. The commission reported in 1921. It
was found at the same time that 37-21 % of all Connecticut regis-
trants under the draft law were aliens. Only one state had a higher
percentage. The result of this situation was a vigorous movement
for the Americanization of aliens.
Education. Beginning July 15 19*09, the organization of public
education changed from the district type to that of town manage-
ment. There were in 1921 less than ten townships in the state that
had not availed themselves of the law. Under township management
all schools of the township are under the direction of the town school
committee. Appropriations for the support of the schools are made
at a town meeting. The plan has resulted in better and more uniform
advantages for school children. Compulsion was made more rigid
by the enactment providing that after Sept. I 1911 no employment
certificate of any description could be accepted by any employer
except such as were issued by the State Board of Education. On
July I 1917 a law went into effect providing that all new public-
school teachers pay annually 5 % of their salary into a pension fund.
At the end of 35 years (changed to 30 in 1919), the last 15 of which
must be within the state, or on reaching the age of 60, the teacher
might retire and receive' the annuity which his or her contributions
and accrued interest would warrant. To this the state would add
as a pension a sum equal to the annuity. Special provisions were
made to apply to public-school teachers already in service at the
time of passage. In 1911 a charter was granted for a woman's
college at New London, and in 1914 it was opened as the Connecticut
Woman's College, with Dr. F. H. Sykes as president.
In 1920 the corporation of Yale University announced the estab-
lishment of a Department of Education in the graduate school,
designed among other things to train " superintendents, supervisors,
principals, directors of special activities, research specialists, normal
and college instructors in education and class-room teachings." For
further information regarding YALE UNIVERSITY, see that heading.
History. In 1913 it became known to the public that the
financial condition of the New York, New Haven, and Hartford
railway was unsound. The dependence of the people of the
state on the road was made clear by a statement of the road's
president, Mr. Howard Elliott, that in 1913 the road controlled
942 of the 1,000 m. of steam railroad in the state, and in addition
was interested in separately operated trolley lines aggregating
605 m. out of a total of 911 miles. This dependence was aug-
mented by the fact that (to quote Gov. Holcomb) " the se-
curities of this corporation are quite largely owned and held by
women and children, in trust funds, and by our insurance com-
panies who purchased them as a safe, conservative investment."
The change. in the financial affairs of the railway brought its
stock rapidly from far above par to much below. The suffering
caused was general and very considerable. Public opinion forced
a change of management.
When the United States was finally compelled to sever
diplomatic relations with the Imperial German Government
(Feb. 3 1917), Gov. Holcomb requested the Legislature (Feb. 6
1917) to provide for a census of men of military age, the object
being to determine not only the number of such men but their
occupations, previous military training, nationality and whether
or not they were citizens. It was the pioneer military census
within the United States and served as a model for those of
other states. The Home Guard of Connecticut, formed March 9
1917, rose to 10,000 men. During the summer of 1917 the 26th
Division was organized from the New England National Guard.
Of the units in that organization the following came from Con-
necticut: the ist and and Conn. Infantry became part of the icznd
Infantry; two batteries of Conn. Field Artillery became part of
the 1 03rd Field Artillery; the Conn. Cavalry became part of the
loist Machine-Gun Battalion; and the ist Conn. Field Hos-
pital and ist New Haven Field Hospital became part of the
loist Sanitary Train. The division established its headquarters
in France at Neufchateau, Oct. 31 1917. It participated, among
other actions, in the Aisne-Marne, the St. Mihiel and the Meuse-
Argonne offensives. During the formation of the 26th Division,
preparations were being made for the National Army. The ist
Provisional Training Regiment was organized at Plattsburg,
N. Y., May 15 1917- To this regiment Connecticut sent her
officer candidates to train for commissions. On Aug. 25 1917 the
76th Division was organized at Camp Devens, Ayer, Mass., its
officers below the rank of lieutenant-colonel being drawn almost
entirely from the ist Provisional Training Regiment. The bulk
of the drafted men from Connecticut went originally to this
division. In July 1918 the division established headquarters in
St. Amand-Mont-Rond, France, and became the 3rd Depot
Division. The number of Connecticut men drafted under the
Selective Service Act was 34,574; this figure does not include the
numerous volunteers in the armies of the United States or of
the Allies. The number who died were 1,305. The amount
subscribed by Connecticut in the five War Loans was $437,476,-
103, an amount $137,557,803 above the state's quota.
Connecticut failed to ratify either the i8th (Prohibition)
Amendment or the i9th (Woman Suffrage) Amendment to the
Constitution of the United States. The governors of Connecticut
in the years following 1909 were: Frank B. Weeks, 1909-11;
Simon E. Baldwin, 1911-5; Marcus H. Holcomb, 1915-21;
Everett J. Lake, 1921-
Bibliography. For recent works on Connecticut see H. W. Wal-
dradt, The Financial History of Connecticut from 1789 to 1861,
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, March 1912; P. W.
Bidwell, Rural Economy in New England at the Beginning of the
Nineteenth Century, ibid. April 1916; C. M. Douglas, The Govern-
ment of the State of Connecticut, revised and rewritten by Lewis S.
Mills, agent of the Conn. State Board of Education (1917); R. J.
Purcell, Connecticut in Transition (1918); C. M. Andrews, The
Fathers of New England and Colonial Folkways in The Chronicles of
America (1919); M. Newcomer, Separation of State and Local
Revenues in the United States (a comparative study of eight states,
including Connecticut) (1917); H. Elliott, Connecticut and the
New Haven Road (1913). (R- H. G.)
CONRAD, JOSEPH (1856- ), English novelist (see 6.968).
Later work includes a study of the revolutionary temperament,
Under Western Eyes (1911); an autobiographical set of Remi-
niscences (1912); three volumes of short stories, ' Twixt Land and
Sea (1912), Within the Tides (1915) and The Shadow Line (1917);
as well as 4 novels, Chance (1914); Victory (1915); The Arrow
of Gold (1919) and The Rescue (1920). A dramatized version of
Victory was played at the Globe theatre, London, in 1920.
CONRAD VON HOTZENDORF, COUNT (1852- ), Aus-
trian field-marshal, was born at Vienna, and after graduating at
the military academy of Wiener Neustadt entered the army
as lieutenant in a Jager regiment. He was appointed to the
general staff, and distinguished himself during the fighting in
Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878 and 1881. He continued to be
employed mainly on the general staff, especially as lecturer on
tactics in the Kriegsschule (the highest military academy),
and he gained the reputation of an authoritative writer on mili-
tary subjects. Among the many people in whom he inspired
confidence was the heir to the throne, the Archduke Francis
Ferdinand, by whose influence he was_ appointed in 1906 to
succeed Count Beck as chief of the general staff. He displayed
extraordinary activity, concerning himself not only with the work
of his own office, but with matters of internal, and still more of
foreign, policy. This brought him into increasingly sharp dis-
accord with the Foreign Minister, Count Aehrenthal. Conrad
was filled more particularly with the deepest distrust of Italy,
and, convinced as he was that it would be impossible to avoid a
struggle for the very existence of the Habsburg Monarchy, he
wished to precipitate this struggle while the chances were not un-
favourable. The latent opposition between the two men led to
Conrad's temporary retirement in 1911. At the end of 1912 he
was recalled to his post and in 1914 agreed to the military meas-
ures against Serbia which led to the World War. For more than
two years of the war he was the real leader of the Austro-Hun-
garian armies. Though he was not always successful in the un-
equal struggle, the essential credit of the great success at Gorlice
(1915) must be ascribed to him. To him also are due a series
of successful operations, although a decisive victory was denied
him. In 1917 he assumed the command of the forces operating
in Tirol, and took part in every engagement until the battle
of the Piave in the summer of 1918. After this he retired from
738
CONS CONSERVATION POLICY
active service, was raised to the rank of count, created a field-
marshal, decorated with numerous orders, and appointed com-
mander of the Imperial Guard. Conrad was one of the most pre-
dominant personalities of the fallen monarchy, whose fate he was
unable to avert. In his active military operations his most dis-
tinguished colleague was Gen. Metzger (b. 1870), who, after
Conrad's retirement, took over a high command, distinguishing
himself on the Italian front and finally in France in cooperation
with the German armies. (A. K.)
CONS, EMMA (1838-1912), English philanthropist, was born
in London March 4 1838. As a young woman she studied art,
but, owing to an acquaintance with Miss Octavia Hill, became
interested in social work, and in particular in questions of housing.
She became best known, however, for her work in connexion
with Morley College and the Royal Victoria Hall, Waterloo
Road, generally known as the " Old Vic." At one time a well-
known theatre, it had degenerated into a disreputable haunt
where nothing but the lowest melodramas were played. Miss
Cons, whose social work in Lambeth had made her well acquainted
with the difficulties of providing decent amusement at a cheap
rate for the people of the neighbourhood, obtained an interest in
the building about 1880. It was enlarged and improved, the
sale of drink was forbidden, and miscellaneous programmes of
music, drama, and lectures were embarked upon. In 1882 the
wealthy manufacturer and philanthropist Samuel Morley
began to take an interest in the affairs of the Hall, and in 1884
he joined the executive committee. He contributed a large amount
of money to the scheme, and his unfailing sympathy and practical
business advice were of the greatest value. His death in 1886 was
a great blow to the work, but his name has been perpetuated in
the foundation of the Morley College for working men and women,
which developed from the lectures given at the " Old Vic." Its
first vice-principal was Miss Caroline Martineau, a friend and
co-worker of Miss Cons, and the institution now has over a
thousand members. Miss Cons's work bore fruit after some years
in the excellence of the entertainment provided and the high
repute which the " Old Vic " attained. In 1889 concert per-
formances of grand opera were started, and in 1896 a chorus
was formed, thus making it possible adequately to present the
operas. In 1905 symphony concerts were embarked on, and
continued for several seasons. Miss Cons was elected to the
first London County Council (1888), and was chosen an alderman,
but retired owing to difficulties raised as to the right of women to
sit. She died at Hever, Kent, July 24 1912.
Her sister, ELLEN CONS (1840-1920), was also closely associ-
ated with many philanthropic schemes, and was one of the gover-
nors of the " Old Vic." She died in London June 25 1920.
CONSERVATION POLICY. The name " Conservation " has
been given in the United States to the movement for using and
safeguarding the natural resources of the country (or indeed
any country) for the -greatest good of the greatest number of
the inhabitants for the longest time. It is a fundamental mis-
conception to suppose that Conservation means nothing but
the husbanding of resources. The first principle of Conservation
is use, but it refuses to recognize needless waste and destruction
as normal processes in the proper development and enjoyment of
natural wealth. This conception of Conservation as a principle
to be followed by the American Government was first brought
into prominence by the Chief Forester of the United States
during the Roosevelt administration, and was first applied
to forest protection.
As with all nations that are both rich and young, a general
indifference to the protection and preservation of its natural
resources had marked the history of the United States. The
rapid and reckless destruction of the forests was the first cause
of a change in the attitude of the American people toward natural
wealth. Effective action toward the protection and preservation
of natural resources was not taken until long after the early
warnings, which were heard nearly a century before the Con-
servation movement was born. In 1819, more than three score
years before forestry had secured a foothold in America, a
French naturalist, Andre Francois Michaux, in his work The
North America Sylva, spoke thus of the destruction of forests in
America:
"... neither the Federal Government nor the several states
have reserved forests. An alarming destruction of the trees proper
for building has been the consequence an evil which is increasing
and which will continue to increase with the increase of population.
The effect is already very sensibly felt in the large cities, where the
complaint is every year becoming more serious, not only of excessive
dearness of fuel, but of the scarcity of timber. Even now inferior
wood is frequently substituted for the White Oak ; and the Live Oak, so
highly esteemed in ship-building, will soon become extinct upon
the islands of Georgia. '
Conservation, as an American problem, received its first
recognition in the work of the Inland Waterways Commission.
On Oct. 3 1907 this commission suggested to President Roosevelt,
who had created it, the calling of a conference of governors to
consider the condition of the natural resources of the United
States. The conference assembled May 13 1908 in the White
House at Washington. Among those in attendance were the
President, the Vice- President, 7 of the 9 members of the Cabinet,
the 9 justices of the Supreme Court, the governors of practically
all the states and territories (including Alaska, Hawaii, and
Porto Rico), numerous members of the Senate and the House of
Representatives, representatives of 68 national societies, more
than 50 citizens selected for their special attainments, and the
members of the Inland Waterways Commission. This was the
first time the governors of the states met in conference, and the
gathering was unique in American history. The conference,
after deliberating for some days, adopted a declaration containing
the following passage:
" We agree that further action is advisable to ascertain the
present condition of our natural resources, and to promote the con-
servation of the same: and to that end we recommend the appoint-
ment by each State of a commission on the natural resources to co-
operate with each other and with similar commissions of the Federal
Government."
In accordance with this recommendation, the governors of 42
states promptly appointed state conservation commissions,
and less than a month after the conference had closed President
Roosevelt appointed a National Conservation Commission,
divided into four sections dealing respectively with waters,
forests, lands and minerals. The commission was directed by the
President to investigate and report to him regarding the condition
of the natural resources, and to recommend to him measures for
conserving them. As the commission had no funds at its dis-
posal, the President directed the heads of departments at Wash-
ington to place their officers and facilities at the service of the
commission. Thereupon the commission undertook, for the
first time in the history of any nation, to prepare an inventory of
the natural resources of the country.
The report of the commission was presented to the President
in Jan. 1909, and was by him transmitted to Congress with a
special message concurring in its statements and conclusions,
and recommending it to the consideration of Congress and of the
people generally. After making its report the commission con-
tinued its efforts in cooperation with governmental and extra-
governmental agencies for the conservation of natural resources,
in order both to extend its inventory and to determine what
specific laws were needed for the wise and orderly development of
the country's natural wealth. Unfortunately, this constructive
work was stopped by the abolition of the commission through a
law enacted by Congress later in the same year. Meantime
President Roosevelt had invited the governor-general of Canada,
the governor of Newfoundland and the President of Mexico to
appoint commissioners to discuss, with commissioners represent-
ing the Unjted States, the principles of conservation in their
application to the continent of N. America. As a result of this
movement, the first N. American Conservation Congress was
held in Washington in 1909. President Roosevelt in Feb. 1909,
after consulting the Queen of the Netherlands, invited the powers
of the world to meet at The Hague for the purpose of considering
the conservation of natural resources everywhere. Although a
majority of the nations accepted this invitation, the project,
after President Roosevelt's retirement from the presidency,
CONSTANS CONST ANTINE
739
was allowed to die. During the administration of President Taft
the struggle for conservation centred in the so-called Ballinger-
Pinchot controversy, the cause of which was an effort on the part
of Richard Achilles Ballinger, then Secretary of the Interior,
to transfer to private ownership certain valuable coal lands in
Alaska, and to throw open to private acquisition highly valuable
water-power sites upon the public lands which had been set aside
by President Roosevelt. The controversy resulted in the resigna-
tion of Mr. Ballinger, and had much to do- with the defeat of
President Taft in the election of 1912. The coal lands and water-
power sites which formed the subject matter of the dispute
remained in the public hands.
In the effort to secure the use of the natural resources so as
to promote the greatest good to the greatest number for the
longest time, President Roosevelt, in support of legislation by
Congress to that end, withdrew from private entry 148,000,000
ac. of forest land, 80,000,000 ac. of coal land, 4,700,000 ac.
of phosphate land, and 1,500,000 ac. containing water-power
sites on the public lands. Thus during the Roosevelt administra-
tion more than 234,000,000 ac. of land were preserved, most of
which will probably be permanent property of the nation.
Because of the abolition of the National Conservation Com-
mission, the movement threatened to be seriously hampered by
the lack of a central body in which could be conjoined for united
and effective action the many persons and agencies devoted to
the movement. Accordingly, the National Conservation As-
sociation, whose purpose was to inform and give effect to public
sentiment, was established in 1909. In its successful efforts to
prevent the passage of bad laws and to secure the enactment of
good laws, this association became an effective factor in the
passage by Congress of measures that carry out the Roosevelt
policies of Conservation. The more important of these measures
are: the Weeks law, to purchase lands for national forests in the
White Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains where there
was no public land; the Coal and Oil Leasing bills (for the con-
tinental United States, including Alaska) which are securing
conservation by wise use, without waste and without monopoly,
of valuable resources still in the public hands; and the Federal
Water-Power Act, to provide for the development by private
enterprise, under Federal ownership and control, of water-power
in the public domain and navigable streams. Here again public
property worth thousands of millions of dollars has been saved
for the benefit of all the people of the United States. The associa-
tion has been especially influential in defeating legislation that
sought to destroy the national forests and to permit the diversion
to private ownership of natural resources.
The Conservation movement is probably, among the many
constructive policies inaugurated by President Roosevelt, that
which will be most influential for good, and for which he will
be longest remembered. (G. P.)
CONSTANS, JEAN ANTOINE ERNEST (1883-1913), French
statesman (see 6.986), resigned from the embassy at Constanti-
nople in May 1909. His success as a diplomat was less marked
than as a minister. Presenting himself for the Senate (for Avey-
ron) in 1912 he was defeated. He died April 7 1913.
CONSTANTINE, King of the Hellenes (1868- ), eldest son
of George I. of Greece, was born Aug. 2 1868, and succeeded to
the throne March 18 1913, on the assassination of his father.
As the first prince of a Greek reigning dynasty born in modern
times on Greek soil, and reared in the Greek Orthodox faith, he
became from his birth to the Greek people the embodiment of
their national aspirations, and was given the name of the last
Emperor of Constantinople, in the superstitious hope that he
would fulfil the old prophecy that the Empire of Byzantium
would be restored to the Greek nation, when a king named
Constantine and a queen named Sophia should reign on the
Greek throne. This strange legend strengthened Constantine's
popularity amongst the Greeks, and when in 1889 he married
Sophia Dorothea of Hohenzollern, daughter of the Emperor
Frederick of Germany, the coincidence of the name enhanced
immensely the superstitious belief of the Greeks. He received
his early education under private tutors at Athens. At the age
of 18 he was sent to Berlin for a military education, and served
in one of the Imperial Guard regiments, attending also a few
desultory courses at the university of Leipzig. It was during
his stay in Berlin that he made the acquaintance of his future
wife, and (very much against his father's wishes) formed the
attachment that was destined to exert such an important in-
fluence on his career.
After returning to Greece he was given various military com-
mands. In 1897 he was sent to Larissa to take command of the
Greek army in Thessaly, just before the outbreak of the dis-
astrous war with Turkey. At the close of the war the Crown
Prince was probably the best-hated man in Greece. The popular
voice attributed the disasters to him and to his father. He still
retained, however, his nominal post of commander-in-chief.
It was only in Aug. 1909, when the garrison of Athens sud-
denly revolted and demanded sweeping reforms, including the
reorganization of the army and navy and the removal of the
princes from all military commands, that Constantine and his
brothers, George, Nicholas and Andrew, hastened to resign their
commissions and to go abroad to escape the open hostility of
public opinion. From this practical exile the Crown Prince first,
and his brothers Nicholas and Andrew afterwards, were recalled
and reinstated in their commands by Venizelos, when the latter
became the all-powerful head of the Greek Government. His
bill for the reappointment of Crown Prince Constantine as
commander-in-chief of the army was bitterly opposed in the
Greek Chamber by Theotokis, Gounaris, Rallis and other poli-
ticians, who a few years later were to become King Constan-
tine's chief supporters. The army officers, too, with few excep-
tions, were much opposed to the bill. By a curious irony, it
was only Venizelos' determined attitude that saved it from
rejection. The Greek successes in the Balkan wars subsequently
enhanced the Crown Prince's credit, and it was in an atmos-
phere of renewed popularity (Venizelos himself helping to
exploit it) that he succeeded unexpectedly to the throne oh his
father's assassination.
King Constantine at once showed his monarchical spirit. He
took to copying the modes of speech and action of his brother-
in-law, the German Emperor. He began to speak, in his official
utterances, of "My army" and "My navy"; to attend in
person the swearing-in of the annual recruits and to impress
upon them the extreme sanctity of their oath of allegiance to
him. Officers were made to feel that their only hope of advance-
ment lay in their devotion to the War-lord. And when his
youngest daughter was born in 1913, he proclaimed " his "
army and navy godfathers to the little princess. Such inci-
dents attracted little serious attention at the time. But the
subsequent course of events showed that the King was intent
on converting the democratic, ultra-constitutional monarchy,
which that of Greece had been, into one of a more absolute
type on the Prussian model. Constantine and his defenders
have indeed vehemently denied the existence of any secret
understanding between himself and the Kaiser, either before or
after the outbreak of the World War. Apart, however, from the
indirect evidence furnished by the private telegrams exchanged
between the royal couple of Greece and the Kaiser in 1916-7,
which came to light after Constantine's dethronement, the exist-
ence of a definite understanding between William II. and Con-
stantine to secure Greek neutrality in an impending European
war has been expressly attested by Gen. Ludendorff himself in
his war memoirs. During the first six months of the war Con-
stantine gave no sign, even when Venizelos, before the first
battle of the Marne, offered the alliance and aid of Greece to the
Entente Powers. But when in Jan. 1915 the Entente promised
Greece extensive territory in Asia Minor if she would join in the
Dardanelles operations, and Venizelos proposed to cooperate,
Constantine refused to give his sanction. Venizelos at once
resigned, and at the ensuing parliamentary election a large
Venizelist majority was returned (June 1915)- The King was
seriously ill at the time, and the Queen and the Government
flatly refused to allow the appointment of a regent. Thus it
was a full three months after the election before Venizelos
740
CONVOY
returned to power; during that interval every effort was vainly
made by Court and Cabinet to seduce the Venizelist deputies
into joining the " King's party," as it was now openly termed.
When Venizelos finally was reinstated in office Bulgaria was
preparing to fall upon Serbia in the flank, and Venizelos hastened
to inform Bulgaria that any attack by her upon Serbia would
cause the intervention of the Greek army. But Constantine,
sending for the Bulgarian minister behind Venizelos' back,
authorized him -to inform his Government confidentially that
Bulgaria need not fear any intervention on Greece's part. He
gave the same assurance through the channel of the German
Government. Thus Bulgaria proceeded unhesitatingly to order
a general mobilization (Sept. 1915). To this step Venizelos
at once replied by ordering a general mobilization of the Greek
army. The King offered no objection to signing the decree, but
when the next day Venizelos announced in the Greek Chamber
that Greece would declare war against Bulgaria if she attacked
Serbia, Constantine immediately sent for him and asked for his
resignation, informing him that he would never consent to
attack one of Germany's allies. To Venizelos' remonstrance
that after the recent popular verdict the Crown was bound to
follow the responsible Government's policy, Constantine replied
that in questions of foreign policy he did not hold himself bound
to follow the popular will, as he considered himself " personally
responsible to God alone." Thus, after Venizelos' fresh resigna-
tion and the formation of a Zaimes Cabinet, the Greco-Serbian
treaty was repudiated and Serbia was abandoned to her fate.
As the Venizelist parliamentary majority refused to support the
new Government a fresh dissolution was decreed, and in the
new election (Dec. 1915), owing to the Venizelist party abstain-
ing as a protest against the repeated unconstitutional proceed-
ings of the Crown, a new Chamber was elected, composed entirely
of Constantine's supporters. At Venizelos' invitation just before
his resignation an Anglo-French force of over 100,000 men had
been landed at Salonika, too late indeed to save Serbia but
strong enough to entrench itself at Salonika.
Constantine and his party did not yet dare to commit them-
selves to a policy of open hostility to the Entente, although the
Greek army, mobilized by Venizelos to defend Serbia, re-
mained under arms in Macedonia until July 1916 to " de-
fend Greek neutrality." But the Allied army in Macedonia
was subjected to every sort of petty annoyance and even to
espionage on the part of the Greek authorities; thus a Greek
lieutenant, who was accused of tapping the Allied military
telephone wires, was ostentatiously decorated by the King
within the week. On May 26 1916, by direct order of Gen.
Dousmanes, the King's chief-of-staff, over the head of the
responsible Minister of War, Fort Rupel, which commanded the
Struma Pass into east Macedonia, was surrendered to the Bul-
garians by pre-arrangement between Constantine and the Ger-
man general staff.
After Venizelos had seceded from Athens and established
his " Provisional Government of National Defence " at Salonika,
Constantine's movements became more and more openly hostile
to the Entente. Regular communications with the Central
Empires were kept up through north Epirus and Albania, and
the German-Austrian submarines were suspected of receiving
valuable assistance from royalist agents in Greece. Finally,
Constantine's troops having become a standing menace to the
Allied army in Macedonia, the Allies demanded the surrender
of a quantity of arms and ammunition on the part of the Athens
Government. The Lambros Ministry protested against this
demand, but the King privately promised the French admiral,
Dartige du Fournet, to surrender these arms if Athens were
occupied by an Allied force to " save his face." When, however,
on the following day (Dec. i 1916) a body of 1,800 Allied blue-
jackets landed at the Piraeus and marched up to Athens, they
were allowed to walk into positions carefully ambushed, and
there were set upon by the royalist troops and thousands of
reservists specially enrolled and armed for the purpose over-
night. The Allied force drew off at nightfall with heavy losses.
They would have been annihilated but for the presence at
Phaleron of a powerful Allied fleet, which late in the day hurled
a few shells into the royal palace and caused Constantine to
order a cessation of hostilities.
This act of treachery on Constantine's part was followed the
next day by wild scenes of hunting down as rebels and enemies
of the King the unarmed Venizelist citizens of Athens. But the
Powers took no immediate steps either to protect their friends
or to avenge the insult to their own flags. After a whole month
of deliberation, on Dec. 31, they declared a blockade of Greece
and demanded the removal of the entire Greek army to the
Peloponnesus. But no measures were taken against Constan-
tine himself, since apparently there were still quarters within
the Entente unwilling to believe the worst. It was only on the
downfall of the Tsar (March 1917) that Great Britain and
France finally arrived at a decision. On June n 1917 a power-
ful Anglo-French fleet arrived at the Piraeus, carrying a land
force of 30,000 men; and M. Jonnart, in the name of the Allies,
demanded the immediate abdication of Constantine and his
eldest son and their departure from Greece. Constantine saw
that resistance was hopeless and bowed to the inevitable. Con-
stantine (or " Tino," as he was commonly called) withdrew to
Switzerland; there, with the aid of the German propaganda, he
organized intrigues in Greece among the disaffected. He went
so far in 1918 as to send his chief aide-de-camp to Germany to
select two officers of the Greek army corps of Kavalla, then
interned at Gorlitz, to proceed to Greece on board a German
submarine, to spy upon the Allied army in Macedonia and to
organize an armed uprising in their rear. And he openly pro-
claimed urbi et orbi that he had never renounced his rights to
the Greek throne and was still the only legitimate sovereign,
his son Alexander (who had been proclaimed the new king)
being merely his temporary locum tenens. Thus it came about
that upon Alexander's untimely death and Venizelos' defeat at
the polls in Nov. 1920, Constantine returned in triumph to
Athens, in defiance of the Allies' non-recognition of him. He
was not recognized in 1921 by any of the Allied Powers. On
June ii 1921 (still without any formal recognition from the
Allies) he left for Smyrna to take command of the Greek army
in Asia Minor in the renewal of war (England and France stand-
ing aloof) against Turkey.
CONVOY (see 7.67*). The system of convoy adopted by the
British and American navies in 1917, by which merchant vessels
sailed in organized groups under naval escort, played an impor-
tant part in the World War. In the following account it should
be noted that the term is used in the British Admiralty sense to
signify not only the system but also the merchant ships under
escort; in the U.S. navy the warships are the escort, the mer-
chant ships the " train," and the whole is the convoy.
At the beginning of the war the British system of commerce
protection was based on cruiser squadrons stationed at the focal
points of trade and in important areas to deal with enemy cruisers
and raiders. Though it proved sufficient to accomplish the
destruction of the " Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse " and the " Cap
Trafalgar," the principal cruiser raiders escaped its clutches;
for the " Emden " was sunk by the " Sydney " escorting a
convoy at the time, the " Karlsruhe " was blown up by an
internal explosion and the " Dresden " was sunk by a squadron
detached for that purpose. From the first the system had been
dislocated in every sea by demands for convoy, but by March
1915 the cruisers had been run to earth, and though raiders such
as the " Moewe " and the " Wolf " reappeared, it was only
occasionally and one at a time. The system of convoy was used
in the case of the first large contingents of Australian and
Canadian troops. The " Sydney " with the " Melbourne " and
the Japanese cruiser " Ibuki," was escorting the Australian
convoy across the Indian Ocean when she was detached to run
the " Emden" down at Cocos I. on Nov. 9. The first Canadian
contingent of 31,200 men which sailed from Quebec on Oct. 3
1914 in 31 transports was escorted by the cruisers " Charybdis,"
"Diana," "Eclipse" and " Talbot," reenforced, as they
approached British shores, by the battle cruiser " Princess
Royal " and the old battleship " Majestic." The system was
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
CONVOY
74i
resumed in the Atlantic in 1916 when the " Moewe " was out,
and in the course of that year some 15 convoys of two to three
transports each sailed from Halifax. But these were special
escorts intended to protect their convoys from surface craft.
The adoption of a general convoy system was still outside the
pale of contemporary naval thought. A considerable propor-
tion of the troop service across Channel was escorted; but this
was a local service arranged by the admirals at Dover (for
Folkestone to Boulogne) or Portsmouth (for Southampton to
Havre). There was a tendency to regard the loss of merchant
ships with little concern during that period, and a number of
large ships were even fitted out at great expense to act as dummy
battleships to be torpedoed by the enemy instead of the vessels
they tried to counterfeit. The idea of using destroyers to escort
the ordinary trade would have received short shrift at the Ad-
miralty and in the Grand Fleet, nor was it necessary at the time.
In March and April 1917, when the British losses in merchant
shipping assumed alarming proportions, the idea of a convoy
system came again to the front. Previous ocean convoys had
been directed against the surface raider; it was the submarine
that now formed the principal menace. The system was in use
in the case of what was called the French coal trade, a cross-
Channel traffic from Portsmouth and Falmouth performed by
small ships, where it had worked very successfully, and it was
now suggested to extend it to the ocean routes. The system
of protection in vogue at the time may be called the patrolled
route system. There were three main approach routes to the
British Isles, one N. of Ireland for ships making the Clyde or
Liverpool by the North Channel (Route C); one S. of Ireland
for ships making the British Channel and Liverpool by St.
George's Channel (Route B) ; one towards the Scillies for ships
making the English Channel (Route A). These were called the
Tory I., Fastnet (S.W. point of Ireland) and Scillies approaches,
from the lights sighted by the ships as they made the coast.
These approaches may be regarded as three great triangles
gradually narrowing to three apexes at or near the points men-
tioned. They were patrolled with trawlers and a sprinkling of
destroyers, and when any area was threatened by submarine
activity the routes in it were changed.
In March 1917, the system was slightly modified. Half a
dozen different routes were specified in ach approach triangle,
and it was proposed to switch the traffic from one route to the
other every five days. As the routes in each triangle could lie
some 150 m. apart in long. 15 W., there was considerable scope
for dispersion, and the system was in effect a system of protection
by means of dispersion and routeing. The patrols were a mere
pretence, for the routes were on an average some 240 m. long, and
to patrol them in strength with two destroyers and 16 trawlers
was impracticable. The scheme was in its essence an endeavour
to circumvent the submarine by routeing and it failed. Its
advocates could not possibly maintain that it was as efficient as
an escort system, for all important ships were actually escorted,
and it must be regarded merely as an attempt to burke the
significance of the fact that was beginning to assert itself, that
every ship had to be escorted.
The idea of general convoy met with strong opposition from
every side at the Admiralty, in the Grand Fleet and amongst
the masters and owners of ships. The Admiralty saw that it
would involve the creation of a new organization; the Grand
Fleet saw its destroyers being taken away; very few recognized
the fact that the battlefleets were now becoming merely comple-
mentary factors in a guerre de course. The policy of the fleet
being ready at any moment to rush out and join battle still held
sway. It was a policy resting chiefly on the basis of intelligence
supplied by wireless directionals, which made it possible to know
when the German fleet was at sea. It meant that the fleet had
to be ready at any moment to put to sea in battle array, and in
these circumstances the commander-in-chief clung tenaciously
to every one of his destroyers. These may be called the strategi-
cal objections to convoy, but other strong arguments could be
urged against it. Ships would incur delay in assembling, instead
of sailing direct; fast ships would incur further delay by having
to reduce their speed to that of the convoy. Convoy meant
congestion of ports on departure and arrival, and congestion of
labour due to the simultaneous arrival of a number of ships.
These objections were as old as the days of Duguay Trouin and
Jean Bart, but there were other objections of a more modern
type. The masters would never be able to keep station, and were
at first much in favour of independent sailings.
On the other hand strong arguments could be marshalled in
favour of convoy. Why string out 15 armed trawlers 10 m.
apart to supply feeble protection on a line 1 50 m. long, when four
destroyers attached to a convoy could give it continual and effi-
cient protection over double the distance? It might appear at
first that a convoy gave the submarine a massed target, but the
danger of approaching it was greater, and submarine com-
manders preferred to attack unescorted ships. The real obstacle
in the way of a convoy system was the difficulty of finding the
destroyers required for the escort. More than half the modern
destroyers were absorbed by the Grand Fleet and the Harwich
flotillas. In Feb. 1917 10 were detached from the Grand Fleet
to Devonport to assist in escorting important ships, and the
use of armed trawlers was extended, but the latter were too slow
and too ill-armed to be of much value."
The weekly returns issued by the trade division at this time
conveyed a misleading idea of the situation. They gave the
number of arrivals and departure of all nationalities, with the
number of British ships of over 1,600 tons lost. The first set of
figures had little to do with the real issue, for a small Dutch
coaster making three voyages a week to France would figure
six times in the arrivals and departures, which ran into several
thousands, whereas the number of big ships arriving and leaving
daily was very much less. The situation was much worse than
it appeared, and the idea of general convoy gained ground.
In April 1917 the British had 3,534 ships over 1,600 tons, of
which 1,125 were required for naval and military purposes,
leaving only 2,409 available for civil purposes. There were not
more than 15 patrols in each area of approach, and in March and
April 1917 the number of ships passing through them was about
300, of which 24 were sunk, at which rate, giving each ship a
round voyage of two months, practically one-half would have
been sunk by the end of the year. Again those who argued in
favour of the patrolled route system were arguing in direct
opposition to their own policy, for escorts were always provided
for all valuable munition ships and ships of national importance
carrying Government cargo (some three or four a day in 1917).
The patrolled route system was thereby acknowledged to be an
inferior sort of makeshift for ships that were not of national
importance. But in April 1917 it began to be seen that every
ship was of national importance, and that a loss of 373 ships a
month meant that the navy would lose the war before the army
could win it. The great advantage of the patrolled route system
was that it gave much less trouble and required very few ships,
but the same virtues were inherent in no system at all.
One other argument was marshalled against the system,
namely, that it would be better to use destroyers directly against
submarines. The reply was that no likelier spot could be chosen
for seeking them than in the vicinity of a convoy, and from the
date convoys commenced to run in May 1917 to the end of the
war some 15% of submarines sunk were actually sunk in the
vicinity of or when attacking convoys. The losses of April
brought the question to an acute stage. The centralization of
the control of shipping in the Ministry of Shipping facilitated
the inauguration of a general system of convoy. On April 26
the director of the anti-submarine division urged its introduc-
tion, and on May 17 1917 a convoy committee was appointed to
arrange the details of a specific scheme. The volume of trade
in the Atlantic daily at that time amounted to about 400 vessels,
of which 300 were British and 87 neutral. As the area of convoy
only extended to about long. 20 W., only some 30 vessels had
to be convoyed daily, and it was decided to start with a convoy
from the United States and Canada every three days, from
Gibraltar every four and from Dakar every five days. The in-
itiation of the system fell largely to Comm. Reginald G.
742
CONVOY
Henderson, R.N., and its organization and business management
to Paymaster-Capt. H. W. Manisty. The first homeward-bound
Atlantic convoy started on May 24, and by June 1917 convoys
were being regularly run.
The system may be considered under two heads: (i) the
organization at the ports of assembly and at the Admiralty, (2)
the system of command at sea and the tactical measures of the
convoy and escort. At the ports of assembly, escorts had to be
provided to conduct ships from the ports of loading and to the
ports of discharge. The convoy had to be assembled, the masters
mustered and given their instructions, and the convoy handed
over to the commodore. This work was done by port convoy
officers, who were appointed at home to Lamlash, Devonport,
Falmouth and Milford Haven and abroad to Sydney (N.S.),
New York, Halifax, Gibraltar and Dakar. At all ports of any
size, there were shipping intelligence officers who were now
merged in the system and issued route instructions to the masters.
At the British Admiralty the two principal tasks were assembly
and routeing. The general management of the system lay with
the organizing manager of convoys (Paymaster-Capt. H. W.
Manisty), who worked in close coordination with the shipping
controller. In the task of routeing he was assisted by naval
officers and by a large convoy chart which showed continuously
the latest movements of submarines and convoys. This chart
was of the greatest value, for it made it possible to alter at once
the course of a convoy if a submarine was reported in its vicinity,
a system much more elastic and more exact than altering the
routes blindly every five days. The three principal ports of
assembly were Lamlash or Buncrana (Lough Swilly) in the N.,
Queenstown, Milford Haven and Falmouth in the S. Escorts
were provided by the admirals commanding these areas, and
orders for convoy were passed to them. An escort generally
consisted of six to eight destroyers for a convoy of about 25
ships. A large portion of the work at Queenstown was gradually
taken over by the U.S. navy, who worked in the closest harmony
with Vice-Adml. Sir Lewis Bailey, the local commander-in-chief.
The whole question hinged on the provision of destroyers. In
Feb. 1917 there were only 14 destroyers at Devonport and 12
sloops at Queenstown available for convoy, and it was estimated
that 81 destroyers or sloops would be required to provide escort
for homeward-bound convoys, and 44 additional destroyers or
sloops for outward-bound convoys. It was here that the
aftermath of Jutland was severely felt. For the Grand Fleet
still had to be prepared to meet the German fleet again, and
insisted on a minimum margin of destroyers to enable it to do so.
The destroyer position in 1917 is shown in the table (A =
modern new destroyers and flotilla leaders; B=old destroyers).
small staff of signalmen. He took general charge of the convoy
until it met the escort, when the commodore then took his
instructions from the senior officer of the escorts. A considerable
equipment had to be provided for each convoy, including fog
buoys, masthead angle tables, station-keeping instruments, and
signalling lanterns. A convoy usually consisted of 25 to 32 ships.
They were organized in five or six columns with ships 500 yd.
and columns 800 yd. apart. The proportion at a later date was
eight destroyers to a convoy of 22 ships and six to a convoy of
less than 16.
The convoy came across by itself and was met by the escort
on approaching the submarine zone, some 300 m. out at sea, and
brought in by it. In daylight or in suspected areas or on a
submarine report the whole convoy zigzagged, an operation
which consisted in an alteration of one or two points (11 to 22)
on each side of the navigator's course (course of advance) for
some 10 minutes. These alterations of course were intended to
make it more difficult for the enemy to estimate the exact course
of the ship, a necessary factor in adjusting the sights for firing a
torpedo. Another protective element was the system of camou-
flaging ships, which rendered it more difficult to distinguish the
fore and aft line of a vessel, a necessary preliminary in estimating
its course (see CAMOUFLAGE : Naval).
The first convoys in May 1917 were all homeward-bound to
Great Britain, but by Aug. outward-bound convoys were run-
ning too. The main designation of convoys was into H. and O.
(homeward and outward), with subsidiary letters indicating
the port of departure and a series number for each convoy.
The principal convoys were as follows:
Homeward (H.)
Outward (O.)
H.H.
H.N.
H.B.
H.X.
H.S.
H.E.
H.G.
H.J.D.
Hampton Roads
New York
to Brest
to Liverpool
Sydney (N.S.) and Halifax
Port Said (Eastern)
Gibraltar
Rio de Janeiro, Dakar
O.K. Buncrana
O.M. Milford Haven
O.Q. Queenstown
O.K. Falmouth
O.D. Devonport
O.L. Liverpool
By the end of Oct. 1917, 99 homeward convoys had come in
comprising 1,502 steamers with a loss of 10 vessels sunk in
convoy and 14 after dispersion, giving a total loss of 24 or 1-57
per cent. By the end of Nov., 77 out ward convoys had goneout,
with a loss of 0-57 per cent.
The time lost by fast ships remained a distinct disadvantage
of the convoy system. In a voyage of 3,200 m. the time lost in
waiting at ports of assembly (24 hours) and through slow
travelling (133 hours) amounted to 157 hours or six and a half
Destroyer State, 1917.
Convoys
Jan. 1917
Destroyers A
B
Grand
Fleet
Scapa
Harwich
Dover
Nore
Ports-
mouth
Devon-
port
Queens-
stown
Bun-
crana
(Scandin.)
Humber
Medir.
107
IS
47
21
ii
9
13
16
u
6
.
9
29
8
June 1917
A
B
105
ii
26
33
10
7
\l
38
5
32
4
5
29
29
8
Nov. 1917
A
B
112
II
28
32
IO
12
9
8
37
4
35
29
4
30
32
8
Summary:
Grand Fleet and Harwich
Dover, Nore, Portsmouth
Convoys ....
It was not sufficiently appreciated that the adoption by the
Germans of the strategy of the guerre de course would mean their
abandonment of fleet operations on a large scale, and that the
protection of Allied merchant shipping was now just as important
as the defeat of the enemy's fleet. The command of the convoy
at sea was vested in a " commodore of convoys," usually a
captain or commander R.N. or R.N.R., who hoisted his broad
pennant in the largest ship of the convoy and was attended by a
Jan. June Nov.
172 142 151
70 81 71
29 113 139
days, for a steamer of 5,000 tons. This was eventually diminished
by the institution of fast and slow convoys, but on the other
hand there were certain advantages which tended to compensate
for the delay. Ships did not have to call anywhere- for orders,
and they were not affected by suspension of traffic, which often
held up independent sailings.
The introduction of the convoy system had the effect of
forcing the German submarines to attack nearer the shore. In
CONVOY
743
the early months of the year the crosses indicating ships sunk
had been scattered all over the seas W. and S.W. of Ireland.
They were now confined to coastal areas, which greatly facili-
tated the work of rescue and salvage. From Sept. to Dec. 1917,
only six ships were lost over 50 m. from land, which meant a
great reduction in casualties, with corresponding increase of
confidence in convoyed ships. The homeward-bound convoys
were also given what were called ocean escorts of armoured
cruisers or armed merchantmen, who accompanied them the
whole way. By Sept. 1917, Atlantic convoys were in regular
operation with about 150 vessels coming in and the same
number going out weekly. The destroyers which took the
outward-bound convoy out, met the homeward-bound convoy
and brought it in, though this procedure often led to delays and
difficulties in bad weather, darkness and fog. The bulk of the
Atlantic work in European waters was done by British craft,
Great Britain providing 70% of the destroyers for convoy and
the United States 27 per cent.
| T.B.D.
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Convoy of 25
Ships
with
6 Destroyers
Escort
On the E. coast of Great Britain, matters followed a rather
different course. A conference had been held at Longhope
(Scapa Flow, Orkneys) on April 4 1917, under the vice-adml.
of the Orkneys and Shetland (Sir Frederick Brock), and it had
been decided to convoy Scandinavian ships, on whom Great
Britain was dependent for much of its imported wood pulp.
They came up from Hull to Lerwick, where an escort of two
destroyers and four to six trawlers took them across. This route
was much more exposed to attack by surface craft than the
Atlantic route, for it was only some 350 m. from Horns Reef, a
distance which could easily be covered by a fast cruiser in 15
hours of darkness. Such attacks were the natural counterstroke
to a convoy system, and it was one of the principal functions
of the fleet to screen convoys from them. The first attack of
this sort took place on Oct. 17 1917, when the " Brummer " and
" Bremse," two fast German cruisers, originally designed as
minelayers for the Russian navy, attacked a Scandinavian
convoy of 12 ships, and sank the two destroyer escorts, the
" Mary Rose " and " Strongbow," and all but three of the
convoy. A considerable force of light cruisers (comprising
some 16 vessels) was in the vicinity, but as it was not close to
the convoy, and the wireless installation of the escorts was
destroyed by the first salvo, the enemy got away.
This was a severe blow to the E. coast convoy system and as a
remedy it was proposed to provide a stronger covering force
from the Grand Fleet. This entailed the reduction of convoys
to three a week, the use of the Tyne instead of Humber as an
assembly port, and the provision of nine modern destroyers.
The commander-in-chief of the Grand Fleet demurred at the
provision of destroyers, and at a conference on Dec. 10 1917 it
was decided to use Methil, a small port on the Fifeshire coast
of the Firth of Forth, as an assembly port. The decision had
hardly been reached when two clays later, on Dec. 1 2, the convoys
were again attacked. The German attack was made on this
occasion by two half torpedo flotillas (five boats each). The
third half flotilla went N., and meeting heavy weather made
Udsire on the Norwegian coast at 7 A.M. on the I3th. Steaming
down the coast, the flotilla sighted at 12:30 P.M. a convoy of six
steamers from Lerwick to Norway, escorted by the destroyers
" Pellew " and " Partridge " and four armed trawlers. The
" Partridge " received a shot in her main steam pipe, and
after hitting a German destroyer, Vioo, with a torpedo which
did not explode, was sunk. The " Pellew " escaped. The
convoy was sunk, and the half flotilla returned home round the
Skaw. Two armoured cruisers, the " Shannon " and " Mino-
taur," were acting as a covering force, but were again too far
off, and though they hurried to the spot on receipt of a wireless
message arrived too late. Here can be seen a distinct divergence
of opinion and method between the conduct of the Atlantic and
Scandinavian convoys. An escort against surface craft should
be at least within sight of a convoy, and a covering force against
an attack in force is of little use if it is not within reenforcing
distance. At the root of the insufficient protection accorded to
the Scandinavian convoys was the policy prevailing both at
Whitehall and at sea that the Grand Fleet must be ready at any
moment to sail for the Bight and bring the enemy to action.
This naturally led to convoy work being regarded as an entirely
subsidiary task. In April 1918, the German admiral Scheer
made a bold sortie in force against the convoy. The whole fleet
put to sea on April 23 for the Norwegian coast. In front was
Adml. von Hipper with the battle cruisers of the first scouting
division, and Scheer followed with the battlefleet. The time
was ill-chosen. One convoy of 34 ships was just entering the
Forth and another of 47 ships leaving it, while the British 2nd
Battle Cruiser Squadron and 7th Light Cruiser Squadron were
at sea covering them. This was not the only misfortune for the
Germans. The " Moltke " at 8 A.M., about 40 m. S.W. of
Stavanger, met with a serious accident and had to be towed home,
being torpedoed by 42 on her way back. This was the last
sortie of the German fleet, and it is interesting to note that it
was directed against the convoy system. It led on the British
side to the convoy route being shifted to the northward, so as to
remove it farther from the source of attack and increase the
chance of striking a counter-blow.
The possibility of an attack by surface raiders in the Atlantic
had not been lost sight of. The commander-in-chief of the
Grand Fleet was kept informed of the approximate position of
convoys so as to be in a position to appreciate the situation at
once if a raider got out. In Dec. 1917 the two armoured cruisers
H.M.S. " Leviathan " and "King Alfred " were attached to
convoys, and in 1918 a U.S. pre-dreadnought battleship was
added. The possibility of an attack by battle cruisers was met
by a U.S. dreadnought force being stationed at Bere Haven in
Sept. 1918 to be available to meet convoys coming in, and in
Oct. 1918 it actually put to sea for this purpose. Convoy was
gradually extended to other routes, and by the end of the war
the grand total of ships convoyed reached 88,000, with a loss of
436 ships or approximately 0-5 per cent.
The Mediterranean had always been a difficult area, and the
institution of convoys in that sea followed a somewhat different
course. Operations in that sea were greatly influenced by the
fact that the Mediterranean outside the Adriatic was under
French naval control, and the French commander-in-chief,
Vice-Adml. Gauchet, would have assumed command in the
event of the Austrian fleet breaking out. However, with the con-
sent of the French and Italian naval authorities, a British
commander-in-chief, Vice-Adml. Sir Somerset Gough-Calthorpe,
was appointed in Aug. 1917 with the special charge of arrange-
ments for the protection of trade and anti-submarine operations.
The divided control, and the different patrol areas under differ-
ent nationalities, did not make for efficiency, but the general
arrangements were settled by a conference of Allied officers at
Malta (Commission de Malte), with delegates from France, Italy
and Japan. In the Mediterranean, as at home, the question
hinged on destroyers. The Italians preferred to retain their
destroyer forces in the Adriatic and on their own coastal routes,
just as the British commander-in-chief wanted to retain them
with the Grand Fleet. Of the British destroyers available
(about 36), some eight were required to watch the Dardanelles
744
CONVOY
and the Aegean, and operations on the Syrian coast engaged the
services of a few more. The Japanese cooperated heartily;
their 14 destroyers did yeoman service, and during 1918 the
system was entirely dependent on them for the escort of troop
transports. The general allocation of British escorting craft in
that area in Oct. 1917 was as follows: -
Destroyers
Sloops
Armed
Trawlers
Yachts
Gunboat
Aegean
Malta
Egypt
Gibraltar .
8
6
2
6
ii
ii
5
6
35
28
i
i
3
i
It will be seen that sloops played an important part in the
convoy system in the Mediterranean, and as they could not make
the voyage from Gibraltar to Port Said without refuelling, it
was necessary to provide complete reliefs for the escorts of O.E.
and H.E. convoys as they passed Malta. This involved a
severe strain on the convoy system, though it was eased later by
the addition of some patrol gunboats.
The control of the escorts was at first under a British admiral
of patrols, with patrol commanders acting for him at the various
ports, who arranged for the formation of convoys and issued
route instructions and sailing orders. The principal convoys
were the Bizerta-Alexandria (British), Bizerta to Malta (Brit-
ish) , Marseilles to Bizerta (French) , Marseilles to Algiers (French) ,
Milo (Aegean) to Alexandria (Br. and Fr.), with fast through
convoys between the United Kingdom and Port Said under
British escort. The system of patrols was retained by the
French for a time on the Algerian coast, and the losses there were
heavy. The defects which had existed at British home ports
exhibited themselves abroad. The staff work was defective;
intelligence was not freely and quickly distributed, and action
was not taken on it. This led on March 20 1918 to a convoy
running right into an area N. of Alexandria where warning had
been given of the presence of a submarine waiting for it, with
the result that four ships of the convoy were lost.
The Mediterranean remained one of the worst areas for
losses. For instance, in Nov. 1917 out of 41 British ships lost,
14 had gone down in the Channel and ii in the Mediterranean.
The losses in the Channel had been stopped by the Dover barrage
and Rear-Adml. Roger Keyes; and the First Lord (Sir Eric
Geddes) and the Director of Naval Intelligence now proceeded
in person to the Mediterranean to consult with the commander-
in-chief there and make arrangements for a complete reorgani-
zation of his staff. The admiral of patrols was abolished, and a
director of shipping movements instituted. Wireless directional
stations were established at suitable points, and the losses were
reduced to a reasonable figure. In Nov. 1917, 381 sailed in
convoy in the Mediterranean, with a loss of nine or 2-35 per
cent. In Sept. 1918, 979 ships sailed in convoy with a loss of
eight or 0-82 per cent.
Troop movements were one of the most important branches
of the convoy system, and it is interesting in this connexion
to note the total numbers moved by sea during the war,
which amounted to 22,114,0x30 from Aug. 9 1914 to Sept. 28
1918, made up as follows:
Troops moved by sea, Aug. 1914 to Oct. 1918,
Cross Channel to France 15,576,107
From U.K. to Medit., India, Persian Gulf, Russia . . 938,562
From North America i, 334, 173
From Australia 391.043
In Mediterranean, less 560,000 included above . . 1,363,976
Between India and Egypt 1,500,204
Various 1,010,694
22,114,759
In the English Channel most of the work in 1917 was being
done by small fast packet-boats, of which there were 16 on the
Southampton-Havre route and eight on the Folkestone to Bou-
logne. During 1915 the average daily number of transports
from Southampton was three to four, and the daily average
requiring escorts was five to six in 1918. Of loaded troop and
ambulance transports only two were sunk, the " Donegal " on
April 17 1917, from Southampton to Havre, with 600 troops and
38 casualties, and the ambulance transport " Warilda " on
Aug. 3 1918, from Havre to Southampton, with 125 casualties.
The Folkestone to Boulogne route was controlled by the vice-
admiral at Dover. Here the principal danger was mines.
Vessels crossed only in daylight, and from two hours after to
three hours before high-water. The average daily number of
transports in the latter part of 1917 and 1918 was some half-
dozen in each direction. In the last five months of the war the
average daily troop traffic in the Channel was 11,254, viz. 5,500
at Southampton, 3,700 at Folkestone and 2,500 at Dover.
The number of troops moved by fast steam-packet vessels in the
Channel was enormous, and cannot have been much less than
12 millions, with casualties of less than 1,000. At Dover in the
latter part of 1917 three to four destroyers and three to four P.
boats were usually employed in cross-Channel escort work.
On the Atlantic route fast troop convoys came into use in
April 1918, and during 1918 (up to Nov.) 1,037,000 men came
over in them. Three large transports, the " Olympic " (23
knots), " Mauretania " (25 knots), and " Aquitania " (24 knots),
also worked singly and independently, with escorts of three or
four destroyers to bring them in and take them out. The
" Olympic " was attacked on several occasions, but never
successfully, and in May 1918 it rammed and sank a submarine
(UiO3). Only three transports were lost on the Atlantic route,
the " Tuscania " with 2,400 U.S. troops, torpedoed and sunk
seven m. N. of Rathlin Is. on May 2 1918 with a loss of 211
troops, the armed merchant steamer " Moldavia," escorting
HCi and carrying troops, torpedoed and sunk in the English
Channel on May 23 1918 with a loss of 64 .troops, and the
" Otranto," escort to HXso, wrecked on the coast of Islay after
collision on Oct. 6 1918, with a loss of 362 troops. The total loss
of troops was 537. The losses in the Mediterranean were much
heavier, and three-fourths of the troopships sunk went down
there though only 10% of troop movements took place in that
sea. Submarines worked there under specially favourable
circumstances, while the narrow waters gave little opportunity
of altering the routes to any great extent. In 1915 some 330,000
troops were conveyed in 242 transports, all of which arrived safely
except three the " Royal Edward," torpedoed and sunk on
13/8/15 in the Aegean with a loss of 865 troops, the " Ramazan "
in the Aegean on 19/9/15 with a loss of ii troops, the " Mar-
quette " approaching Salonika on 23/10/15 with a loss of 128
troops. In 1916, 220,000 troops were conveyed in 143 transports,
all of which arrived safely.
During 1917 and 1918 the troop movements were principally
to Salonika, Egypt and Syria, and 14 transports were lost as
follows:
Losses.
1917: "Ivernia," Marseilles'to Egypt, 1/1/17, off C. Mata-
pan 120
" Georgian," Alex, to Salonika, 8/3/17, off C. Sidero 53
" Cameronian," Marseilles to Basra, 15/4/17, 150 m.
E. of Malta 223
" Arcadian," Sal. to Egypt, 15/4/17, off Milo. . . 279
" Transylvanian," Mars, to Egypt, 4/5/17, Gulf of
Genoa 434
" Cameronian," (French service), 2/6/17, ff Alexan-
dria 63
" Aragon," Mars, to Egypt, 30/12/17, off Alexandria . 426
" Osmanieh," Taranto to Alex., 31/12/17, off Alexan-
dria 225
1918: " Kingstonian," Alex, to Mars., 11/4/18 . 9
" Omrah," 12/5/18, off C. Spartivento . I
" Leasowe Castle," 26/5/18, 104 m. from Alexandria 99
" Missir," 29/5/18, 80 m. from Alexandria 44
" Hyperia," 28/7/18, 84 m. from Port Said 52
" Anhui," 12/8/18, off Cyprus ... 4
There was thus a total loss in the Mediterranean of 17 trans-
ports and some 3,036 troops. It will be seen that the total loss
of transports was about 20, with a loss of some 4,563 troops, or
about one in 5,000, of which 60% occurred in the Mediterranean.
CONW AY COOPERATION
745
The number of vessels which sailed in British convoy from
July 1917 to Oct. 1918 were:
Outward 7,239
Homeward: North Atlantic 5.5 2 9
Gibraltar . 1,705
Dakar . . 564
Sierra Leone . 405
Rio de Janeiro 307
Medit., through 321
Medit., local 10,464
Scandinavian 10,487
E. Coast 12,541
French coal trade 37,562
Dutch 902
88,026
(A. C. D.)
CONWAY, SIR WILLIAM MARTIN (1856- ), English
traveller and man of letters (see 7.69), was elected Coalition
Unionist M.P. for the minor (grouped) English universities in
1918. In 1917 he was made director-general of the projected
Imperial War Museum, to the organization of which he devoted
his energies, with the result of a large exhibition of the collections
towards it being opened at the Crystal Palace in 1920. Amongst
his later publications were The Sport of Collecting (1914), The
Crowd in Peace and War (1915) and Mountain Memories (1920).
COOK, SIR EDWARD TYAS (1857-1919), English journalist
and man of letters, was born at Brighton May 12 1857 and
educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford. Whilst at
Oxford he was president of the Union and of the Palmerston
club and, on coming to London as secretary for the extension of
university teaching, he became a contributor to the Pall Mall
Gazette, then under the editorship of John Morley. He was later
assistant editor under W. T. Stead and editor from 1890 till
1892, when the paper passed into the hands of Mr. W. W. (after-
wards Lord) Astor and changed its politics. Cook then resigned,
but a year later became first editor of the newly founded liberal
evening paper, the Westminster Gazette. In 1896 he gave this up
to take the editorship of the Daily News, which he held til] 1901.
During the World War, conjointly with Sir Frank Swettenham,
he directed the official Press Bureau. He was knighted in 1912,
and created K.B.E. in 1917 on the inauguration of the Order of
the British Empire. He was a lover of art and of gardening.
He published Studies in Ruskin (1891), edited the works of
Ruskin (1903-7), and wrote the authoritative Life of Ruskin
(1912), also producing handbooks to the National Gallery and
the Tate Gallery, and to the Greek and Roman antiquities in the
British Museum. His book on The Rights and Wrongs of the
Transvaal War ran into several editions, and he wrote Life
of Florence Nightingale (1913) and Delane of the Times (1915),
as well as two volumes of Literary Recollections (1918 and 1919).
He died at South Stoke, Goring, Sept. 30 1919.
COOK, SIR JOSEPH (1860- ), Australian politician, was
born at Silverdale, Staffs., and at the age of nine started life in a
coal-mine. In 1885 he went to Australia and six years later
entered the N.S.W. Legislature, holding office as Postmaster-
General 1894-8 and Minister of Mines and Agriculture 1898-9.
He was elected to the Commonwealth Parliament for Parra-
matta as a Free Trader in 1901 and became Minister for Defence
under Mr. Deakin 1909-10. In 1913 he formed a Liberal Cabinet
after the defeat of the Labour party; but just before the out-
break of the World War, the governor-general decided to appeal
to the country and as a result of the elections Mr. Fisher assumed
the premiership. Cook, before vacating office, had placed the
Australian fleet units at the disposal of the British Admiralty. He
did not take office again until 1917 when he was Minister for the
Navy in Mr. Hughes's second Ministry. The following year
he was created G.C.M.G., having in 1914 been sworn of the
Privy Council.
COOLIDGE, CALVIN (1873- ), American statesman, was
born at Plymouth, Vt., July 4 1873. After graduating from Am-
herst in 1895 he studied law in an office at Northampton, Mass.
Here he began to practise in 1897 and soon became prominent in
local affairs. After serving as city clerk, city councillor, and
city solicitor ^successively, he was elected in 1907 a member of
the General Court, or House of Representatives, of Mass. He
was mayor of Northampton, 1910-1 1, and sat in the state Senate
from 1912 to 1915, being its president during his last year. He
became lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1916 and was re-
elected in 1917 and 1918. He was elected governor of Massachu-
setts in 1919 and in 1920 was reelected under circumstances
that attracted nation-wide attention. He had dealt summarily
with the striking policemen in Boston Sept. 1919, refusing to re-
instate them. In the following gubernatorial campaign this was
made an issue by his Democratic opponent, who appealed to
those in sympathy with the strikers. The results vindicated the
governor's action; he obtained a majority of 114,000 votes (out
of a total of 510,000). Already in April 1919, during a strike of
telephone operators in Boston, he had proposed that the state take
over the lines, but the trouble was soon settled. That he was
not opposed to labour was shown by his earlier support of the
bill limiting the scope of injunctions against striking employees.
In June 1919 he vetoed the bill for increasing the pay of members
of the Mass. House, arguing that their service was optional and
not a means of livelihood; it was public service and should not
be made a job. As governor he recommended that Massachusetts
ratify the woman-suffrage amendment to the Federal Constitu-
tion. In 1920 he vetoed a bill calling for censorship of moving
pictures and likewise a bill to permit the sale of " 2-75 per cent "
beer. The latter he declared would be " hypocritical legislation "
because, with a Federal law on the statute book forbidding beer
with an alcoholic content of over one-half of i %, it would still
not be possible to sell 2-75% beer in Massachusetts. At the
Republican National Convention in 1920 he received a few votes
on all ten ballots for president. When the voting for vice-
president began his victory was at once apparent and he was
nominated by acclamation. He was elected in Nov. on the ticket
with Warren G. Harding by an overwhelming vote.
Some of his speeches were published under the title Have Faith
in Massachusetts (1919).
COOPER, SIR RICHARD POWELL, IST BART. (1847-1913),
English agriculturist, was born Sept. 21 1847. He became a
member of the firm of Cooper & Nephews, chemical manufactur-
ers and exporters of pedigree live stock, and achieved a great
reputation as a breeder of shorthorn cattle and Shropshire sheep.
He rendered great service to the Argentine Republic by supplying
it with British live stock. He died at Berkhampstead July 30
1913, being succeeded as and Bart, by his son Richard (b. 1874),
M.P. for Walsall from 1910.
COOPERATION (see 7.82). The term " cooperation " covered
in 1921 a large number of forms of economic organization which
had little resemblance except that of name. In considering their
development since about 1907, it is necessary to deal with each
type separately. Cooperative organizations may be conveniently
classified under four main heads: consumers' cooperation,
industrial producers' cooperation, cooperative credit and banking,
agricultural cooperation.
Consumers' Cooperation. The British cooperative movement,
though it contains producers' societies, is in fact almost synony-
mous with consumers' cooperation. Of 1,459 societies affiliated
to the Cooperative Union in 1919, 1,357 were consumers' societies
and 95 producers' societies; the membership of the consumers'
societies was 4,131,477 and their trade over 314,000,000, while
in the producers' societies the membership was 39,331 and the
trade 7,000,000.
The growth of the movement between 1906 and 1920 was
very remarkable. The membership of retail societies rose from
2,250,000 to over 4,000,000, their capital from 33,000,000 to
nearly 80,000,000, and their sales from 63,000,000 to 198,000,-
ooo. The significance of these figures is not merely that this
vast industrial system has been built up and managed by the work-
ing classes of the United Kingdom, but also that in 1921 be-
tween one-third and one-fourth of the population of the United
Kingdom consumed commodities manufactured or distributed
under this cooperative industrial system, a system which elimi-
nates profit -making and implies democratic control of industry
746
COOPERATION
by the community of consumers. And it was now no longer true
to say that the movement flourished mainly in the industrial
districts of the North and Midlands; London, for instance, which
for long had the reputation of being a " cooperative desert,"
had become an active centre of cooperation, and the London
Cooperative Society, recently formed by an amalgamation of
two important societies, was in 1921 the largest cooperative
society in the kingdom and had a membership of nearly 100,000
and annual sales of nearly 3,500,000.
But if the expansion of the distributive side of the movement
in the local societies had been great, the growth of production
and manufacture by consumers' societies was even more re-
markable. Nearly all the retail consumers' societies are federated
in the English, Scottish, and Irish wholesale societies for the
purposes of manufacture and wholesale supply. The value of the
goods supplied by these three wholesale societies to their members
amounted in 1919 to over 115,000,000. The outstanding feature
in the history of 1910-20 was the way in which the wholesale
societies, particularly the English C.W.S., proved that the sys-
tem of consumers' cooperation can be adapted to control the
various branches of industrial production. The English C.W.S.
is one of the most important and varied industrial businesses in
the world. Its employees number about 40,000; in 1919, apart
from its activities as a wholesale supplier and distributor, it
produced or manufactured for its members commodities valued
at over 25,000,000. It was in 1921 the largest flour miller in the
United Kingdom and probably the largest timber importer at the
Manchester docks. Its factories are to be found in every large
industrial centre in England. It produces boots and shoes,
textiles and clothing, furniture, metals and hardware, soap and
candles, tobacco and groceries.
The most significant feature in the development of the productive
activities of the consumers' societies is the way in which circum-
stances have compelled the C.W.S. to obtain control over the raw
materials necessary for the production of the commodities con-
sumed by cooperators. The supply of a staple article like bread
will afford a good example of this tendency. The baking of bread
has from the earliest times been a successful cooperative industry
and large numbers of societies have their own bakeries. Cooperators,
however, soon found that baking was only the last link in a whole
chain of industries which determined the price and quality of bread.
In order that the community of consumers might really 'exercise
control over that price and quality, the movement was driven back-
wards from the baking industry to enter the milling industry.
Though the C.W.S. has become the biggest miller in the kingdom,
and the value of the products of the corn-milling industry of the
movement was nearly 13,000,000 in 1919, events at the beginning
of the World War taught cooperators the weakness of their position
unless they also had some control over the production and supply of
grain which was ground into flour in their mills. In the early days
of the World War the movement stood out against " profiteering "
in bread and flour, and there were several instances of societies which
succeeded in keeping down the price of bread in their areas by re-
fusing to enter into agreements with the other bakers to raise it.
But cooperators had no such power of influencing the price of wheat
upon which depended the price of flour, because they depended
themselves upon the private wheat-grower for their supplies. These
considerations induced the C.W.S. to acquire 10,000 ac. of wheat-
growing land in Canada.
There are other equally remarkable examples of the same
tendencies. In 1914 the C.W.S. had hardly touched agricul-
ture; in 1921 it owned nearly 35,000 ac. of land in the
United Kingdom, and in a single quarter of 1920 it started a
cattle market at Gisburn, a butter factory at Carlisle, and a fish-
curing dep6t at Fleetwood. Again, it is only since the war that the
English and Scottish wholesale societies have become really large
owners of tea estates; during 1920 they purchased no less than 32,000
ac. of tea plantations in India and Ceylon. Lastly, the same process
may be observed in the soap and candle industry, for in 1921 the
C.W.S. at its dep6ts in West Africa purchased palm kernels direct
from the natives, shipped them to its oil mills in Liverpool, which
again supplied to its soap and candle factory at Irlam the mate-
rials of another industry.
Cooperative industry, based upon a democratic organization
of consumers, spread in the decade 1910-20 from town to town
and from industry to industry throughout the economic system
of Great Britain, but perhaps one of its most interesting and
important developments was in the sphere of international trade.
In one sense the cooperative movement, as a large importer of
food, raw materials, and manufactured goods, had always en-
gaged in foreign trade, but as an importer there was nothing to
distinguish its activities from those of the ordinary private
trader or joint -stock company. But the C.W.S. has shown since
the war what great possibilities there are in the movement for
conducting international exchange of goods on a non-profit-
making, cooperative basis. Cooperative international trade
implies, of course, that there should be a direct exchange of
goods between the organized cooperative movements of the
several countries and that profit-making should be eliminated
by the payment of dividend upon purchase. The machinery
for such trade already exists, for no fewer than 19 European
countries possess cooperative wholesale societies, and these
wholesale societies can organize international trade with one
another on a strictly cooperative basis.
To some extent this kind of trade had existed for many years;
before the war, for instance, the English C.W.S. supplied tea to the
German wholesale society and imported cheese from the Swiss
wholesale society, while the German wholesale, again, supplied
goods to the Danish wholesale. But the economic situation at the
end of the war gave a great impetus to international cooperative
trade. The ordinary machinery of foreign trade had broken down as
the result of war and blockade, and it would not right itself, partly
because of the chaos in credit and the exchanges, and partly because
a great deal of the machinery was under governmental control.
In such circumstances the cooperative movements of the various
countries, resting on the broad basis of the organized consumers both
in regard to trade and credit, and with their machinery of production
and distribution intact, were not under the same disadvantages as
capitalist enterprises.
The English C.W.S. took the lead in organizing international
exchange, and it did so in three different ways. It supplied goods
direct to the cooperative organizations of France, Holland, Switzer-
land, Norway, Australia, Canada, Egypt, India, South Africa, Pales-
tine, Brazil, and China. Secondly.it gave credits amounting to nearly
1,000,000 to the Rumanian, Polish, and Belgian cooperative move-
ments, the greater part of these credits being taken in the form of
food and manufactured goods. Thirdly, it tried the experiment of
direct barter with the cooperators of South Russia, sending a cargo
of clothing, etc., to the Russians and receiving in exchange a cargo
of raw materials. This experiment in cooperative barter was not
very successful, partly owing to political difficulties, but the other
enterprises led to an international movement among cooperators to
develop cooperative foreign trade. In 1919 and 1920 there were con-
ferences of the wholesale societies of the various countries, and a
scheme was agreed upon under which each wholesale society would
organize an export department, there would be joint purchasing
arrangements between the various societies, and there would be a
central bureau of statistics for the collection of information regarding
goods which each wholesale society either demands or can supply.
Two other developments of the cooperative movement deserve
notice. The first is insurance. The Cooperative Insurance Society,
which is a joint insurance department of the English and Scottish
wholesale societies, now undertakes life, fire, accident, and em-
ployers' liability insurance. In all these departments there has been
a rapid development in recent years. The most interesting feature
is the collective life assurance business, under which a cooperative
society collectively insures the lives of all its members: under this
system there is a great saving in cost, for there is no collection of
premiums from individuals, the premiums being paid in a lump sum
by the society and recovered from the dividend payable to members.
In 1919 there were 817 societies assured in this way, and the number
of members in these societies was 2 J millions. This insurance business
is conducted on strictly cooperative principles; thus out of the profits
on fire insurance, after the usual rate of 5% on capital was paid,
a dividend of 2s. in the to members and is. to non-members upon
their fire insurance policies was declared in 1918. The progress of
cooperative insurance may be seen in the fact that the income from
life, fire, and accident premiums rose from 104,615 in 1909 to 924,-
066 in 1919, an increase of 783 per cent. The C.W.S. banking
activities have made equal progress. The C.W.S. Bank has (1921)
two branches, one in London and the other in Manchester. It
accepts current accounts from cooperative societies, trade unions
and friendly societies, clubs and other mutual organizations. In
1920 the number of current accounts with the bank was as follows:
cooperative societies 1,016, trade unions and friendly societies
3,347, clubs, etc., 1,391. The deposits and withdrawals in the
half year ending June 1920, amounted to 314,000,000, showing an
increase of over 26% on the corresponding period of 1919. The
C.W.S. banking is, again, conducted on a strictly non-profit-mak-
ing, cooperative basis, the profits being returned to customers in the
form of a dividend upon their balances.
The facts and figures given above show the tremendous growth
of the cooperative movement. The Increase in its membership
and the great extension in the area of its operations have brought
new problems and created new tendencies. Up to the end of the
COOPERATION
747
igth century the movement was content to proceed on its way
of steady development in a certain amount of obscurity. This is
no longer the case: cooperators have begun to claim the place
to which their numbers and operations entitle them in the econom-
ic life of their country. These claims can be stated shortly
as follows: Consumers' cooperation is a system which ensures
a democratic control of industry by the community organized
as consumers. Every consumer can join a society and every
member has one vote and can, if he cares to do so, -exercise an
equal power of control over the conduct of industry. The dividend
on purchase ensures that commodities are supplied to consumers
at cost price and that, therefore, profit is eliminated. Under
cooperation production and the various spheres of industry
from banking to insurance, from the production of raw materials
to the distribution of manufactured articles across the counter
of the shop or store, are all carried on for use and not for profit.
This system has already shown that it can adapt itself to one
economic sphere after another and there is no reason to suppose
that the scope and range of cooperative industry are not capable
of almost indefinite extension. The movement, with its 4
million members, already represents from 12 to 15 million con-
sumers or more than one-quarter of the population, and con-
sumers' cooperation is now, in fact, an alternative to the ordinary
capitalist system of controlling industry.
These claims and ideals are being put forward and are un-
doubtedly having an effect upon the development of the move-
ment. They are not held consciously by the vast mass of the
4 million members, but they are slowly penetrating the move-
ment, largely owing to the educational work of the societies and
the Cooperative Union and also of a very active and influential
cooperative organization, the Women's Cooperative Guild,
which has a membership of nearly 50,000 women members of
cooperative societies.
The increase in cooperative activity and in the consciousness
among cooperators of the importance and capacities of their
movement are partly the effects of the war. It might have been
expected that the dislocation in the economic life of the country
and the difficulties of food supply would have had an adverse
effect upon a working-class movement like the cooperative move-
ment. The facts show that the reverse was the case. The mem-
bership of retail societies, for instance, rose from 3,054,000
in 1914 to 4,131,000 in 1919, an increase of 35%, while the in-
crease from 1909 to 1914 was only 24%. This increased rate of
growth was partly due to the rise in prices and the popular
irritation against " profiteering," for the elimination of profit-
making and the dividend on purchase tend to keep prices down
in the cooperative store and make " profiteering " impossible.
Reference has also been made above to the way in which cir-
cumstances connected with the war led to an extension of the
productive and distributive activities of the C.W.S. But the
war had another effect upon British cooperators: rightly or
wrongly there grew up in the movement a widespread conviction
that it was being victimized in the interests of private traders.
Definite complaints were made of unfair treatment of cooperative
societies and their staffs by military service tribunals and of
discrimination against cooperative .organizations in the allocation
of Government-controlled supplies. The decision of the British
Government to tax cooperative societies by means of the Cor-
poration Profits Tax brought the dissatisfaction of cooperators
to a head. The argument was freely used that the movement,
in order to protect itself against political action, must " enter
politics." In 1917 the whole question was discussed at the
Cooperative Congress, and a resolution was passed that the
movement should enter politics and nominate candidates in
constituencies as an independent unit, but that it might work
with other organizations having similar aims and objects. Sev-
eral cooperative candidates stood in the general election of 1918
and one was elected. The Cooperative party was still in its
infancy in 1921 and any estimate of its future was impossible.
One feature of the tendency which it represented must, however,
be noted. There was a considerable body of feeling in the move-
ment which held that the Cooperative party should unite with
the Labour party and trades union movement to form a " Labour
and Cooperative Political Alliance." On the other hand a large
number of cooperators were not prepared to accept this proposal.
The whole scheme for such an alliance was in 1921 still under
discussion in the movement.
Another problem - which has assumed great importance in
recent years for cooperators is their relations to their employees.
In 1919 the consumers' societies employed about 17 5,000 persons,
of whom about four-sevenths were employed in distribution and
three-sevenths in production; the wages and salaries paid to these
employees amounted to about 20,000,000 a year. The relations
between the movement and its employees have been complicated
until recent years by a misunderstanding as to the nature of
consumers' cooperation. Cooperators themselves did not dis-
tinguish clearly between the control of industry by the com-
munity organized as consumers for use and not for profit (con-
sumers' cooperation) and the control of industry by the workers
or producers in self-governing workshops or factories in which
the profits were divided among the workers (producers' co-
operation). Hence arose a certain school within the consumers'
movement which held that the employees of consumers' societies
should share in the " profits," although the dividend on purchase
eliminates " profits " in the sense in which a joint stock company
or a self-governing workshop makes a profit. The illogicality
of this position was, however, gradually realized, and in 1921
very few societies paid the bonus on wages by which the cooper-
ative employee was given a " share in profits."
The cooperative employee was therefore recognized to be
merely a wage-earning employee of the democracy of consumers.
But the movement, as a large employer of labour, was brought
face to face with many new problems. As an employer it stood
in a peculiar position. It was composed mainly of the manual
wage-earning class, and a very large number of its members were
naturally trade unionists. It always professed to pay good wages
and to give the best possible conditions of employment. But
it was competing with the businesses and factories of the ordinary
capitalist type, and competition was so severe that cooperative
trade and industry would soon be killed out if wages and con-
ditions of employment within the movement were such as to
raise the cost of production substantially above that of its rivals.
Most people agree that on the whole the conditions of the co-
operative employee compared very favourably with those of
employees of private firms and companies, although there were
still societies in which wages, etc., were bad. The movement had,
however, increasing difficulties with organized labour.
Up to 1920 large numbers of cooperative employees were
organized in a special trade union, the Amalgamated Union of
Cooperative Employees (membership in 1920, 90,000). This
union was founded in 1891, and it throws some light upon its
original relations with the cooperative employer that in the
original rules there was no provision for strikes. But this happy
situation could not and did not continue. The presence of large
numbers of trade unionists within the movement means that
any demand for increased wages will probably receive some sup-
port within a society. There is no doubt that organized labour to
some extent took advantage of this fact: a demand for increased
wages or shorter hours was often first made upon cooperative
societies, with the intention that, when the cooperators had
given way, labour could then go to non-cooperative employers
and demand that they should pay the same wages or give the
same conditions as cooperators.
These facts and conditions gradually led to strained relations
between the movement and its organized employees. As a whole
the movement stood as strongly for trade union recognition and
for the payment of trade union rates of wages as the trade unions
themselves, indeed several societies insisted that their employees
should be members of their unions. There had also been for long
in existence joint machinery of the movement and the unions for
settling industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration; but
for various reasons this machinery did not work satisfactorily,
and in 1911 the Amalgamated Union of Cooperative Employees
began a more militant policy and made provision for a strike
748
COOPERATION
fund. Since that time there have been several strikes against
cooperative societies. The whole question of the relation be-
tween the cooperative democracy and its employees has been
raised by these events, and in 1921 it remained unsettled. It was
complicated by the demand among certain sections of labour for
workers' control of industry. Many cooperators believed that
the workers should be given some share in control, i.e. that they
should share with the consumer in the determination of rates of
wages and conditions of employment. On the other hand it is
obvious that the whole principle of consumers' cooperation,
control of industry by the community of consumers for the use
of the community, is inconsistent with the complete control
either of individual factories and workshops or of whole indus-
tries by the organized workers, the principle of producers' co-
operation, syndicalism, and guild socialism.
Foreign Countries. The consumers' movements outside England
owe their origin directly to the British movement, and all of them
were many years behind it in development. But the history of
their progress has been almost precisely similar to that of the British
movement. In 1921 there was hardly a single European country
without consumers' societies. Nearly all of these foreign movements
showed a considerable increase in membership and trade during
1910-20; the war, both in belligerent and neutral countries, had a
marked effect in increasing the number of cooperators and in ex-
tending the development and scope of cooperative industry. The
following figures show the growth of some of the Continental
movements after 1914:
Country.
Total Membership.
Total Turnover.
1914-
IQIQ.
1914.
1919.
Denmark
France
Germany
Norway
Sweden
Switzerland
244,000
88o,ooo>
1,717,519
31,000
111,293
276,431
317,000
1 ,3OO,OOO
2,308,407
8o,OOO
225,423
353.8II
Kr. 103,000,000
Frs. 321,800,000'
Marks 4g2,g8o,5ig
Kr. 10,019,600
Kr. ' 39,466,473
Frs. 143,650,971
Kr. 150,000,000
Frs. 1,000,000,000
Marks 1,075,581,269
Kr. 71,215,200
Kr. 216,118,000
Frs. 289,666,373
1 Estimated.
Though the Continental movements were not so advanced,
particularly on the productive side, as the British movement, there
is evidence that most of them were firmly established in 1921 and
were rapidly following the same path of successful development.
The German movement, the largest and most successful on the
Continent, had in fact reached the same stage as the British; its
membership increased while the number of societies was stationary
or decreased ; it had a highly developed wholesale society, the Gross-
einkaufsgesellschaft Deutscher Konsumvereine, whose productive act-
ivities included tobacco, soap, matches, textiles and clothing, and
confectionery. The majority of the other Continental movements
were still in that stage of structural consolidation which in England
had been largely completed before 1900. Its most marked feature
is federation or amalgamation of small, and often competing societies,
so that an increase in the number of cooperators may be accompanied
by a decrease in the number of societies. Examples may be found
in the recent developments in Denmark and France. In Denmark,
although agricultural cooperation had reached a very high state of
development, consumers' cooperation in the towns only began about
the beginning of this century. Its progress was slow until 1910.
Then there was a rapid increase in the number of societies, members,
and turnover; this was followed by a period of consolidation, in
which there was extensive amalgamation among the Copenhagen
societies while the membership and turnover continued to increase.
This process, typical of the development of a consumers' movement,
can be seen in the following statistics of Danish urban cooperative
societies :
Year.
Number of
Societies.
Number of
Members.
Turnover
Kr.
1910
1914
1919
44
92
79
I5.7io
39,698
64,187
4,876,000
14,378,000
23,648,000
The same tendency is at work in France, where since 1914 has
been seen the establishment of large district societies which absorbed
the small local societies.
Another feature of foreign cooperation, which should be noted, is
the development of wholesale societies. The development of a
consumers' movement into a large industrial system depends upon
the growth of a strong wholesale society which shall eventually be
capable of undertaking a great variety of productive enterprises. It
is significant that in 1919 no less than 19 European movements had
wholesale societies. It is true that many of them were still in the
stage of wholesale dealing for the supply of the local distributive
societies, but the history of the British movement shows that this
stage must precede any large development in manufacturing enter-
prise, and many foreign wholesale societies, e.g. the French, German,
and Swiss, have greatly extended their productive activities.
Lastly, it should be remarked that in 1910-20 consumers' co-
operation established itself in many countries outside Europe. For
instance, up to very recent times consumers' cooperation could hard-
ly be said to have existed in the United States, but latterly, partly
owing to the educational work of the Cooperative League of America,
a vigorous movement and some 2,000 societies had come into exist-
ence. Cooperation had also established itself and was making prog-
ress in Armenia, some of the British dominions, e.g. Canada, South
Africa, and India.
Industrial Producers' Cooperation. The typical example of
producers' " cooperation is the workers' society in which the
workers own and manage the factory and divide the profits
of the enterprise among themselves. But many distinct types
of industrial organization are ordinarily included under the term
producers' or workers' cooperation, types differing as widely
from one another as the ordinary business or joint stock company
which gives its employees a share in the profits, and the self-
governing workshop. Here we shall deal only with producers'
cooperation in the strict sense, i.e. societies or enterprises in
which the instruments of production are owned and control
exercised by the workers or producers.
There was little change in the position of producers' coopera-
tion during 1910-20. There was no marked extension in the
number of enterprises or in the sphere of their operations either
in Great Britain or abroad. Thus the number of productive
societies in the Cooperative Union actually declined from 108 in
1913 to 95 in 1919, while the number of members rose from 34,662
to 39>33i- It is true that their annual sales during the period
rose from 3,710,234 to 7,047,147, but the rise in prices would
more than account for this increase. The history of the workers'
society from 1907 to 1921 is, in fact, a repetition of its previous
history. This form of industrial organization is liable to peculiar
difficulties. A small self-governing workshop is easily started and
a small workers' cooperative society easily formed. But the
problem of internal wganization and discipline is extremely
difficult, if full democratic control is exercised by the workers.
Hence in Britain, France and Italy workers' societies are con-
tinually coming into existence, but, with a few exceptions, their
lives are short. And, since the larger and more highly organized
the enterprise the more acute become the difficulties of organiza-
tion, control, and discipline, the workers' society, where success-
ful, has practically always remained a small and simple indus-
trial unit. These facts account for the lack of development in
producers' cooperation and its failure hitherto to adapt itself
to the large-scale, complex organization of modern industry.
It should be noticed, however, that both syndicalism and guild
socialism advocate forms of industrial organization which would in
effect be developments of producers' cooperation. The workers'
society takes the workshop or the factory as the unit of industrial
organization and places the control of industry in the hands of the
workers organized in factory or workshop; the syndicalist or guild
socialist would make each industry, e.g. mining, railway transport
or building, the unit of organization and would give control to the
workers organized in these larger units. But, although experiments
in guild socialism have already been made in England in the build-
ing trade, and although the Works Councils Act in Germany and
legislation in Italy, following the seizure of factories by the workers
in 1920, made some approach to a syndicalist control by workers,
both syndicalism and guild socialism still remained in 1921 in the
theoretical stage. They had, however, as theories and ideals of
industrial organization, taken the place which previously workers'
cooperation, in the strict sense, occupied with many people.
Cooperative Credit and Banking. If the consumers' cooperative
movements of the world owe their origin to the British move-
ment, Germany can claim to be the pioneer of cooperative credit
and banking. Two well-known types of credit societies are dis-
tinguished in Germany, the Schuke-Delitzsch and the Raiffeisen.
Apart from their differences in constitution and structure, these
two types are characteristic of a difference in function which
runs through the whole of cooperative credit in every country.
The Schulze-Delitzsch bank supplies credit or loans to the small
industrialist in towns; the Raiffeisen bank supplies credit to
farmers and agriculturists. This distinction of function is fun-
damental, and therefore it is not surprising that the history of
the spread and development of urban and rural cooperative
credit has not followed the same course.
COOPERATION
749
It is obvious that neither large scale capitalist industry nor con-
sumers, cooperation is favourable for the development of urban
cooperative banks. The people whom Schulze-Delitzsch desired to
help were townsmen, especially the small craftsmen working on their
own account, the joiners, shoemakers and so forth; and his ideal
was to do this by stimulating their thrift. The idea was -to gather
together into a society a number of persons, each individually weak
economically, but whose combined capital, savings, and deposits
would be sufficient to provide the credit upon which the bank might
borrow money and lend it to its members. The membership of such
an urban bank is always found to consist mainly of small craftsmen,
shopkeepers, and small professional men. It follows that this kind
of cooperative credit will only establish itself where the small
independent hand worker still exists or where the small shopkeeper
has an instinct for cooperation. But these conditions are not ful-
filled in many European countries. Hence the success of urban
cooperative credit has not been nearly so widespread as that of some
other forms of cooperation. In Germany itself the movement was a
great success during the first 50 years of its. existence, but during
1910-21 it had not made much progress. Thus between 1859 and
1905 the number of Schulze-Delitzsch banks rose from 80 with a
jnembership of just under 19,000 to about 1,000 with a membership
of about 590,000: in 1921 the number of Schulze-Delitzsch credit
societies organized in the general union remained about 1,000 with
a membership of 600,000. Outside Germany the urban bank has
established itself mainly in Italy, though it also exists on a small
scale in France, Belgium and Switzerland. Its greatest success
has been in Italy, where Signor Luzzatti was able to adapt the
Schulze-Delitzsch model to the requirements of his own countrymen.
As in Germany, so in Italy, the statistics of recent years pointed in
1921 to a very considerable slowing down in the growth of the move-
ment. It should also be remarked that there is a tendency for the
urban popular banks if they are financially successful, to lose their
original object and function, i.e. they tend to neglect the small man
for the big man, though there is probably some truth in the con-
tention that this often results from the fact that the bank itself has
helped its members to change from small men to big men.
The movement for rural cooperative credit associations has not
been subject to the same limitations as the urban movement. In
many Continental countries the peasant or small farmer exists in
large numbers, and more often than not they are burdened by debt
contracted with money lenders on usurious terms. In all these
countries the scope for cooperative associations for providing
credit to the small agriculturist is very great, and there has in fact
been a considerable extension and development of this kind of co-
operation. It has usually accompanied a development of other forms
of agricultural cooperation, but one of the most curious character-
istics of rural cooperative credit is that its development has been
most erratic. Thus in Germany the whole of agricultural coopera-
tion has developed from the Raiffeisen rural banks, and the credit
associations remain the pivot of the whole movement. But at the
other end of the scale are Denmark and Ireland. In no country in
the world has agricultural cooperation been more successful than in
Denmark, yet in 1921 rural credit societies or banks scarcely existed
there. The growth of the Danish agricultural movement was
singularly spontaneous, while Irish agricultural cooperation has
been the result of intensive and prolonged propaganda. Yet the
same fact with regard to cooperative credit is observable in Ireland :
in some districts the rural credit societies have performed useful
functions, but, taking the country as a whole, they have declined
while agricultural cooperation has made great progress; this is shown
by the fact that the number of agricultural credit societies declined
from 267 in 1908 to 136 in 1920, while the number of agricultural
societies and creameries rose from 458 in 1908 to 705 in 1918.
Between Germany at one end of the scale and Denmark and
Sweden at the other, the different countries of Europe show great
differences in the degree and manner in which they have accepted
the rural credit movement. In Italy, Hungary, Finland and France,
for instance, rural cooperative credit societies or banks have all
proved successful, but as soon as the organization of the movement is
investigated in the four countries, marked differences of develop-
ment become apparent. One of the most important of these differ-
ences is the degree in which the movement does or does not rely
upon State aid. Thus the Finnish banks are essentially voluntary
associations which rely for their working capital mainly upon the
Rural Banks' Central Credit Institute, while this central institute
obtains its working capital very largely from Government loans.
The Hungarian local credit societies in 1912 numbered 2,500 with a
membership of between 600,000 and 700,000, and their capital
voluntarily subscribed amounted to about 3,000,000, and deposits
to about 8,000,000. For many years they relied in no way upon
Government aid, but after the beginning of the century they re-
ceived loans from a central credit organization financed almost
entirely by the State. But it is in France that the reliance of agri-
cultural credit upon the State is most marked. The French rural
credit societies are grouped under a district bank to which a society
wanting a loan applies; the district bank forwards the application
through the Prefet to the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry,
if it approves, makes the loan to the district bank. The system is
therefore little more than a system of State aid to agriculture and
has scarcely any of the characteristics of voluntary cooperation.
Agricultural Cooperation. Voluntary association among farm-
ers, peasants, or agriculturists can and does take place for many
different objects. In addition to the rural cooperative bank or
credit society, already dealt with, the chief forms of agricultural
cooperative organization may be classified as follows: (i)
societies or associations for cooperative supply of the instruments
and means of production; (2) societies or associations for cooper-
ative production, e.g. creameries, dairies; (3) societies or associa-
tions for cooperative marketing; (4) societies or associations
having a variety of miscellaneous cooperative objects, e.g. co-
operative insurance. It should be noted, however, that there is no
rigid separation of function in the societies actually existing:
a single society may and often does perform two distinct func-
tions; it may for instance, as in the case of a dairy, perform both
the function of production and that of marketing.
There was a great and widespread development of agricultural
cooperation in Europe, and indeed throughout the world, during
1905-20. Unlike consumers' cooperation, however, there was
very little uniformity in the development of agricultural co-
operation in the various nations. As was pointed out above,
in one country the whole of agricultural cooperation will centre
in the organization of agricultural cooperative credit, while in
another country, like Denmark, a no less highly developed
system of agricultural cooperation will exist with little or no
organization of cooperative credit. But this lack of uniformity
is not confined to agricultural banking; it will be found that in
one country agricultural cooperation has developed principally
along the lines of cooperative supply, in another of cooperative
production, and in another of cooperative marketing. It is not
possible, therefore, to give a general account of the progress of
agricultural cooperation which would be applicable to every
country in which it has proved successful; all that is possible
is to show the range of its development and to give one or two
typical examples.
In 1907 a fully developed agricultural cooperative system existed
already in Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, France, Italy, and
Belgium, and a real beginning had been made in Ireland. Up to the
outbreak of the Worla War the old established systems continued
to maintain themselves, but such statistics as are available seem to
indicate that agricultural cooperation was more adversely affected
by the war than the consumers' movements. But the most notable
feature of the decade 1910-20 was the spread of agricultural coopera-
tion and its progress in countries where before it was non-existent
or only feebly established. The best examples of this development
are to be found in the United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Finland,
and Siberia.
Agricultural cooperation in the United Kingdom nowhere de-
veloped spontaneously. Its greatest successes have been obtained
in Ireland, where the whole movement was created by the Irish
Agricultural Organization Society, founded in 1894. Thanks to the
educational work of this organization a considerable number of
societies for supply, production, and marketing were formed on the
model of Danish societies. The most successful societies were supply
societies, dairies or creameries, and egg and poultry societies. By
1908 there were 292 creameries and 1 66 supply societies. In the
next decade there was continuous progress, and by 1920 there were
334 creameries and 371 supply societies. The membership of the
creameries rose from 42,404 in 1908 to 50,052 in 1917, and the turn-
over from 1,700,000 in 1908 to 5,200,000 in 1917, while the
membership and turnover of the supply societies rose from 12,999
and 87,000 in 1908 to 31,200 and 691,000 in 1917. These figures
indicate the trend of development in Irish agricultural cooperation.
It contains two main features. The creameries are productive
societies mainly occupied in the cooperative manufacture of dairy
products, principally butter and cheese. In the early years of the
movement cooperative production was for the most part confined to
butter, but the war adversely affected the butter trade, and from
1914 to 1918 there was a big fall in the quantity of butter and a big
rise in the quantity of cheese manufactured. The creameries and
the Irish Cooperative Agency Society, which is a federation of
creameries, also perform the function of cooperative marketing
for their members. In recent years the development of the productive
side of the movement in the creameries has slackened, and after
1919 conditions in Ireland led to great destruction of property and
heavy losses for the creameries. The second feature of Irish co-
operation is the rapid development in recent years of the " Agri-
cultural Societies," which are supply societies providing the farmer
with every kind of requirement at wholesale prices. They have had
750
COPPER
a marked effect upon Irish agriculture, for the supply of such things
as fertilizers and feeding stuffs at reasonable prices has created
demand for them. The supply associations also perform an impor-
tant function in providing agricultural machinery which the individ-
ual farmer could not possibly afford.
The example and success of the Irish Agricultural Organization
Society led to the creation of similar movements and kindred so-
cieties in England and Scotland. In 1918 there were in England 237
supply societies with a membership of nearly 40,000 and a turnover
of 4,670,000, and 39 dairies with a membership of over 5,000 and a
turnover of nearly 1,500,000. In 1918 the total number of all
societies in Scotland was 170 and the membership over 8,000.
In Sweden, Norway, and Finland the development of agricultural
cooperation has been very rapid. In Sweden organized cooperation
dates from 1906 when the " National Union of Swedish Agricultur-
ists " was formed. This union acts both as a supply and a marketing
organization. By 1910 the union had 42,000 members and a turn-
over of over 1,000,000, while there were 19 provincial and 940
local associations for supply and marketing; there were also 477
cooperative dairies. The development in Norway has been as great
and even greater, and in 1913 there were 660 cooperative dairies and
1,344 'oca' supply societies. Norwegian agricultural cooperation
is remarkable for the highly organized system of federation among
both productive and supply societies. Norway and Sweden re-
semble Denmark in the fact that agricultural cooperation has de-
veloped and succeeded with little or no reliance upon cooperative
credit. Finnish agricultural cooperation is remarkable for the way in
which the various forms of cooperation, credit, supply, production,
and marketing have developed. This can be seen from the increase
in the turnover of the various types of societies from 1903-13:
Dairies
Banks
Supply
1903
>t*
1913
it*
140,000
8,000
80,000
1,480,000
356,000
480,000
The success of agricultural cooperation in Siberia has also been
extraordinarily rapid. Cooperative butter-making associations were
first started about 1900, and in 1908 the Union of Siberian Creamery
Associations was established with 12 affiliated societies for the
purpose of both marketing and supply. By 1914 the union had over
1,000 affiliated societies and a turnover of about 1,000,000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, GENERAL. C. R. Fay, Cooperation at Home and
Abroad (1920); L. Smith-Gordon and C. Obrien, Cooperation in
Many Lands (1919).
CONSUMERS' COOPERATION. E. Aves, Cooperative Industry
(1907); G. J. Holyoake, History of Cooperation (1875-9, new ed".
1906); History of the Rochdale Pioneers (1893, new ed. 1900); Co-
operative Movement of To-day (1891, new ed. 1896); P. Redfern,
The Story of the C. W. S. (1913); The Consumers' Place in Industry
(1920); Catherine Webb, Industrial Cooperation (1904); Mrs.
Sidney Webb (Beatrice Potter), Cooperative Movement in Great
Britain (1891, 1893, 1904); Leonard Woolf, Cooperation and the
Future of Industry (1918, 1919, 1921); Socialism and Cooperation
(1921). See also the reports and publications of the Cooperative
Union and Cooperative Wholesale Society.
PRODUCERS' COOPERATION Benjamin Jones, Cooperative Pro-
duction (1894); C. R. Fay, Copartnership in Industry (1913); Berna-
dot, Le Familistere de Guise (1892); Dallet-Fabre-Prudhommeaux,
Le Familistere illustre (1901).
COOPERATIVE CREDIT. Morman, The Principles of Rural Credit
(1915) ; H. W. Wolff, People's Banks (4th ed. 1919).
AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION. G. Radford, Agricultural Co-
operation and Organization (1917); L. Smith-Gordon, Cooperation
for Farmers (1918); H. W. Wolff, Cooperation in Agriculture (1912).
(L. W.*)
COPPER (see 7.102). The industrial history of copper after
1910 was more important, both technically and economically,
than for many decades previously. A very large part of the
world's supply of the metal came after that date from deposits so
low in grade that they could not be worked under the conditions of
1905. The major developments in this progress were the enlarge-
ment of the scale of operations in individual units of stupendous
capacity; immense reductions in the cost of mining by the in-
troduction of the caving system and steam shovelling; reduction
in the cost of milling and increase in the extraction of mineral by
the introduction of the flotation process; reduction in the cost
of smelting by the application of coal-dust firing to reverberatory
furnaces and the successful operation of basic-lined converters,
and finally the development of processes for the hydrometal-
lurgical treatment of certain ores and the direct production of
refined electrolytic copper.
These developments were to a large extent both the inspira-
tion toward the exploitation of the " porphyry " deposits, and the
consequences thereof. The porphyry deposits are more correct-
ly described as fine disseminations of copper minerals through
large masses of igneous rock. The economic characteristics of
these deposits were mainly their large size and their occurrence
at or near the surface in substantially horizontal positions.
Fine disseminations of copper had been exploited for many
years in the Lake Superior region, but there the copper occurred
in its native form and the mineralization was in lodes dipping
steeply. Previous to 1905 the occurrence of immense masses
of rock, containing about 2 % of copper in sulphide form, was
known in Bingham Canyon, Utah, at Ely, Nev., and else-
where, but it was not believed to be possible to exploit them
profitably. The conception of profitable exploitation by taking
advantage of improved methods in mining and the prosecution
of operations on a previously unparalleled scale, was due especial-
ly to Daniel C. Jackling (b. 1869) of San Francisco. The provis-
ion of plant and equipment for carrying out that conception called
for immense ventures of capital ($10,000,000 for single enter-'
prises), and this at a time when success was problematical.
Production by this new group of mines began about 1907, but
it was not until about 1910 that it assumed large proportions
and the success of the new enterprises began to be clearly recog-
nized. The idea at that time was to work sulphide ores con-
taining about 2% of copper, but in the short space of the 10
years following it became possible to work ores containing but
little more than i% of copper. The brilliant success of the
porphyry copper mines and their ability to produce the metal
at a very low figure stimulated the operators of lode mines,
most notably the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., at Butte,
Mont., toward improvements in methods in order to permit
them to meet the competition of the porphyries.
Mining Processes. The following are the major advances made
during 1910-20 in the arts of mining and metallurgy:
Steam Shovelling. No detailed description is necessary, for the
steam shovels and general methods are substantially the same as are
used in any excavation work. In their application to the mining of
copper-bearing ore, the latter is broken down in benches, a line of
holes being churn-drilled back of the face, charged heavily with an
explosive, and the ore blasted down in quantities of many thousands
of tons. The steam shovel is moved along a track at the bottom
of the bench and picks up the broken ore, transferring it to cars
alongside. Excessively large boulders are broken up by block-holing
and blasting, but the steam shovel can pick up very large pieces, its
dipper being as much as 8 cub. yd. in capacity. The largest steam
shovels weigh 325 tons and dig 300 cub. yd. (place measure) per
hour. This method of mining is so cheap per ton of ore that it can
be applied economically even when it is necessary' to shovel away
IOO or 200 ft. of worthless overburden in order to uncover 100
vertical ft. of ore. The process of removing the overburden, tech-
nically known as stripping, necessarily precedes the actual min-
ing. The laying out of plans for the working of a mine in this way and
the figuring of the various factors furnish complicated engineering
problems.
Caving. When the overburden is too thick, or is too thick with
relation to the thickness of the ore deposit, mining by the caving
system is adopted. In essence this system consists in opening
permanent galleries under the ore body. Raises to the ore body are
then made, and sub-galleries of relatively small size are driven into
it, with the purpose of so undercutting the ore body that its support
by rock pillars is reduced to the minimum. Finally the pillars are
blasted out, causing the superincumbent ore to settle in a great
crushed mass. The crushed ore is then drawn off through chutes,
previously prepared, into cars in the main galleries. This operation
proceeds through the ore body section by section, the natural surface
over the mines settling as the ore is drawn off. There are many
modifications of this system of mining, but its application to large
lat-lying ore deposits is substantially as described. Modifications
of the caving system of mining are also applicable in many lode
nines, when the lodes are of large size. It is a very economical sys-
:em of mining owing to its reduced requirements for labour, ex-
plosives, timber, etc.
The Flotation Process. Copper ore as mined at the present time
:ontains generally only a small percentage of copper mineral, which
s obtained by crushing the ore to such fineness as to liberate the min-
eral particles and by separating these from the worthless gangue by
mechanical processes, commonly performed by washing, in which
advantage is taken of the difference in specific gravities. Although
ihere had been great improvements in the processes of ore dressing,
the losses of valuable mineral continued relatively high up to 10
.'ears ago. In the flotation process advantage was taken of the dis-
covery that when ore suspended in water was mixed with a small
COPPER
75i
quantity of certain oils or other agents (the addition of oil being
perhaps only 2 Ib. per ton of ore), and was then subjected to violent
agitation, the copper minerals (if sulphides) would rise to the
surface in the form of a froth, while the worthless gangue would
settle to the bottom. Separation in this way was possible at rela-
tively low cost and yielded a far higher percentage of the mineral
than the older processes. The improvement might be general-
ized by indicating an extraction of 90 %, compared with 65 to 75 %
previously.
Metallurgy. Previous to 1910 the blast furnace and the rever-
beratpry furnace were frequently competitive choices for the
smelting of copper ore. At one time one would be in the lead and
then improvements would cause preference to be given to the other.
With the increasing fineness of the ore to be smelted, the leaning
began to be definitely in favour of the reverberatory furnace, but
with the advent of the Dwight-Lloyd sinterer, which enables fine
ores to be agglomerated cheaply and efficiently, the blast furnace
gained a new prestige. With the successful application of coal-
dust firing, however, which was due especially to the work of David
H. Browne at Copper Cliff, Ont., the reverberatory furnace ob-
tained an unquestionable predominance, which it is likely to hold. The
modern copper-smelting plant designed for the treatment of fine
ore comprises roasting furnaces of the MacDugall type and rever-
beratory smelting furnaces of very large size. Pr rvious to the in-
troduction of coal-dust firing, a furnace at Anaconda, Mont., igx 1 12
ft., smelted 240 tons of charge with one ton of coal per 4i tons of
charge. By the new method a furnace 25 x 144 ft. smelted 650 tons,
and one ton of coal smelted seven tons of charge. For the smelting
of coarse ore, and especially of heavy sulphide, the blast furnace
operated on the pyritic or the semi-pyritic principle still held its
place in 1920. These furnaces also were constructed of very large
size. The Anaconda Co. attained dimensions of 72 x 1,044 in. at
the tuyeres, but this was exceptional, the blast furnaces at most
American works being something like 72 x 280 inches.
The converting of copper matte in a basic-lined vessel, which had
long been a hope of copper metallurgists, was carried to success by
W. H. Pierce and E. A. Cappelen-Smith at the works of the Balti-
more Copper Smelting and Rolling Co., just previous to 1910, and
early in 1910 the process was introduced in the works of the Garfield
Smelting Co. in Utah. Subsequently it was found that the process
was not limited to the Pierce-Smith horizontal converters, but could
be applied to other forms of converters, both horizontal and upright.
The main advantages of the basic over the acid converter are the
decreased cost of lining (one basic lining for 2,500 tons of copper
compared with one'acid lining for 10 tons), greater air efficiency,
ability to convert low-grade matte with a mixture of silicious ore,
reduction of intermediate products, neatness and cleanliness of
plant, and decrease in danger from accidents. The basic converters
are lined with magnesite. Their use became general. They reduced
the cost of converting copper matte to less than 50 % of what it used
to be with the converters lined with acid (silicious) material.
The existence of immense ore deposits of the porphyry type, but
with the copper occurring as oxide or chloride, which rendered the
ore unamenable to mechanical concentration, directed renewed
attention to the hydrometallurgical extraction of the copper of such
ore. At Chuquicamata, Chile, lies the world's greatest known de-
posit of copper, its development being estimated at about 700,000,000
tons assaying about 2 % copper. Exploitation of this was under-
taken by the Chile Copper Co., an American corporation. The cop-
per occurs in the ore as brochantite contaminated with chlorides.
E. A. Cappelen-Smith devised a process for the leaching of this ore
with sulphuric acid, purification of the solution and deposition of the
copper by electrolysis, using magnetite anodes, but in practice
anodes of ferro-silicon have been substituted. The copper cathodes
are melted and cast into bars of grade equivalent to standard
electrolytically refined copper. Production in 1920 was at the
rate of 100,000,000 Ib. per annum. At Ajo, Ariz., the New Cornelia
Copper Co. also produced electrolytic copper directly from ore, from
which the copper was first leached by sulphuric acid. Hydrometal-
lurgical extraction of copper was also applied on a large scale for the
treatment of tailings, e.g.. by the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., and
by the Calumet & Hecla Mining Co., the latter extracting the na-
tive copper by means of ammonia, and precipitating the copper as
oxide by distillation, with recovery of the ammonia. A similar
process was employed for ore treatment at the Kennecott mine, in
Alaska.
General Economic Conditions. A large part of the world's
copper production was in 1920 derived from immense units.
Thus in 1918 Anaconda produced 273,000,000 Ib. of copper. This,
however, was derived from a group of mines. The Utah Cop-
per Co. produced 12,500,000 tons of ore in 1917, yielding 196,-
000,000 Ib. of copper from a single mine. Previous to the World
War about 15 cents per Ib. was regarded as a market price reason-
ably to be expected on the average. The cost of production
to the largest producers was about 10 cents per Ib. The immense
demand for copper for military purposes that began in 1915
temporarily outran the ability of the producers to meet it, and
the price ran up to about 32 cents per Ib. at the end of 1916 ; but the
increased production began to show its effect in 1917 and the
market declined materially during that year. In the latter part
of 19 1 7 the American Government fixed the price at 235 cents. Min-
ing, smelting and refining capacities were rapidly increased and
in 1917 American electrolytic refiners attained a capacity for the
production of 2,800,000,000 Ib. of copper per annum. With the
termination of the war it was found that all of the Allied and
Associated Powers had overbought their requirements, and pro-
ducers were unable to curtail their scale of operations quickly.
This led to the greatest accumulation of unsold copper in the
history of the metal, and combined with the greatly increased
cost of operation, a bad economic situation developed in the in-
dustry which continued into 1921. At the end of 1920 the price
for copper was about 125 cents per Ib. Statistics of the world's
production of copper are given in the accompanying table.
Previous to the World War the world's production of copper
had risen to an annual rate of about 1,000,000 metric tons. In
1916-8 there was an annual production of about 1,400,000
tons. In 1919 it was curtailed to slightly less than the pre-war
rate. In April 1921 a general closing of copper mines became
necessary on account of the economic situation, and the world's
production was thus curtailed to about one-third of the pre-war
rate. American interests control (1921) the major part of the
copper production of Chile and Peru, and in fact control up-
ward of 80% of the world's production. Outside of this control
the production of Japan, Spain, Portugal, Australia and Africa
is the most important, but of those countries Japan is the only
one whose output has exceeded 100,000 tons per annum.
The best record of progress in the mining and metallurgy of cop-
per, economic conditions, etc., is to be found in the file of the En-
gineering and Mining Journal, New York. Important technical
Country.
United States .
Mexico
Canada
Cuba
Bolivia
Chile
Peru
Austria-Hungary
Germany
Norway . . .
Russia
Spain and Portugal
Sweden
Serbia
Japan
Australasia
Africa
Other countries
Totals
WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF COPPER
In metric tons
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
491,600
563,300
557,400
525,529
646,212
881,237
872,065
879,026
548,677
576,450
61,900
73,7co
52,800
36,337
30,969
55,128
47,503
75,529
60,491
50,480
25,300
35-300
34,9oo
34-027
47,202
47,985
50,626
52,693
36,106
35,500
3,800
4,400
3,400
6,251
8,836
7,816
10,313
12,337
9,974
6,485
2,600
3,7oo
3,700
3,874
5,868
5-150
6,400
6,000
7,000
9,900
36,420
4!,647
42,263
44,665
52,341
71,288
102,527
96,565
63,930
94-531
27,735
26,969
27,776
27,090
34.727
43,078
45,176
44,4H
39.470
31,276
2,600
4.000
4,100
3,5oo
3,500
3,500
3,5oo
2,500
1,000
1,000
22,400
25,600
25,300
25,000
25,539
24,796
28,632
15,101
15,775
17,255
1,565
2,130
2,741
2,859
2,826
1,614
1,810
2,856
i, 800
1,400
25,700
33,500
33,900
31,938
25,881
20,887
16,000
51,800
59,9oo
54,700
37,099
46,200
42,000
42,000
41,000
40,000
25,000
3,221
3,957
4,215
4,692
4,56i
3,i8i
4,423
2,956
3,558
3.500
7,000
7,400
6,400
4-443
3,200
5,000
11,200
6,000
1,209
2,436
53,402
62,423
66,500
70,463
75,416
100,635
108,038
90,323
81 ,865
65,554
45,979
46,343
45,647
38,667
37,709
39,855
36,564
44-722
16,441
26,486
17-300
16,600
22,900
27,033
31,300
39,8i5
42,656
31,064
3 1.350
32,230
6,300
5,300
3,800
5,ooo
5,000
5,000
5,000
5.000
5,000
5,000
886,622 1,016,169 992442 928,467 1,087,287 1,397,965 1,434,433 1,408,086 963,646 984,483
752
CORDONNIER CORNELL UNIVERSITY
treatises are H. O. Hofman, Metallurgy of Copper (1914); J. R.
Finlay, Cost of Mining (1920) ; Robert Marsh, Jr., Steam Shovel
Mining (1920); Herbert A. McGraw, The Flotation Process (1918);
E. D. Peters, Practice of Copper Smelting (1911); and D. M. Levy,
Modern Copper Smelting (1912). (W. R. I.)
CORDONNIER, VICTOR LOUIS EMILIEN (1858- ), French
general, was born at Surgy (Nievre) March 23 1858, and after
passing through the military college of St. Cyr entered the
infantry as sub-lieutenant in 1879. Eight years later he gradu-
ated from the Ecole de Guerre, and thereafter staff and regi-
mental service (including tours of duty in the Alps and in Algeria)
alternated till in 1905 he was appointed an instructor at the Ecole
de Guerre. He had already served as commander of the cadet
battalion and director of studies at St. Cyr, and from this time
till 1910 his work was wholly instructional. In this period he
wrote his work Les Japonais en Mandchourie (published 1911),
a study which soon took rank as the most important critical
work on the Russo-Japanese War and was translated into several
languages (English translation, The Japanese in Manchuria,
Part I. 1912, Part II. 1914). In 1910 on promotion to colonel he
took command of an infantry regiment and in 1913 he was
promoted general of brigade and appointed to command the new
87th Brigade, forming part of the reenforced couverture created
by the Three Years' Service Act.
In command of this brigade, Cordonnier played a distinguished
part in the successful action of Mangiennes on Aug. 10 1914, and
in the heavy fighting of the IV. Army in the Ardennes. Before
the battle of the Marne he had been advanced to the command
of the 3rd Division, and he led this formation in that battle and
in the advance to Ste. Menehould and the Argonne which
followed. On Sept. 15 he was severely wounded, and though he
resumed his command in October, he had again to be invalided.
In December, having meantime become general of division and
an officer of the Legion of Honour, he commanded his division
in the bitter trench-warfare fighting in the Argonne, and in
Jan. 1915 he was in charge of a group of divisions in Alsace.
From May 1915 he commanded the VIII. Corps in the St.
Mihiel sector. In July 1916, having been meantime awarded
the grade of commander in the Legion of Honour, he was
appointed to command the French contingent of the Salonika
armies grouped under Sarrail, which became the " Armee
francaise d'Orient."
In general charge of the Allied left wing in Sarrail's autumn
offensive he fought the actions of Ostrovo, Fiorina, Armenohor
and Kenali, but owing to acute differences with Sarrail, which
are discussed elsewhere, he returned to France just before the
battle at Monastir which his movements and combats had
prepared. He was already gravely ill, and immediately on land-
ing in France was sent into hospital, where he underwent an
operation for cancer. A command on the French front had been
promised to him but he was never fit to take it up, and soon
after the end of the World War he was placed on the retired list.
He then devoted himself to historical and critical work on the
war. In 1921 he published an account of the operations of the
87th Brigade under the title Une Brigade au feu; Potins de
Guerre.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY (see 7.169). The total enrolment
of regular students in 1920 was 5,765 (including 1,127 women),
divided as follows: graduate school, 407; college of arts and
sciences, 1,812; college of law, 178; medical college, 312 in New
York city and 37 taking freshman work in the Ithaca division of
the college; New York state veterinary college, 103; New York
state college of agriculture, 1,283; college of architecture, 130;
college of civil engineering, 403; Sibley College of mechanical
engineering, 1,210; duplicate enrolment, no. In addition 2,171
students were enrolled in the 1919 summer session (especially
for teachers) and 396 in the short winter course in agriculture in
1920. The students came from nearly all the states, territories,
and insular possessions of the United States and from 38 foreign
countries e.g. there were 50 students from China, 30 from
Europe, 25 from South America, 16 from Cuba, 7 from South
Africa, 6 from Japan, 3 from Australia, etc.
In 1919-20 new endowment was pledged to the amount of
$5,700,000 to increase teachers' salaries. The same year an anony-
mous gift was received of $1,500,000 to build and equip a new
laboratory of chemistry; $500,000 from August Heckscherof New
York for the endowment of research, and from other sources
special gifts aggregating $708,000. Under the will of Goldwin
Smith, $683,000 was received in 1911 for the promotion of liberal
studies, and from Jacob H. Schiff, in 1912, $100,000 for the pro-
motion of studies in German culture; in 1918 at Mr. SchifPs
request the purpose was changed to the promotion of studies
in human civilization, and in the same year Baron Charnwood
gave 1 5 lectures on this foundation.
During the decade 1911-20 the university's physical growth
continued; the state added 10 large buildings to the equip-
ment of the two state colleges and built a new armoury for the
department of military science; gifts of $350,000 from George
F. Baker, a New York banker, and $300,000 from Mrs. Russell
Sage provided four residential halls for students; Mrs. Florence
Rand Lang of Montclair, New Jersey, added Rand Hall (ma-
chine-shop and electrical laboratory) to Sibley College. In
1919 the university's invested funds amounted to $14,976,500,
yielding in the fiscal year 1919-20 an income of $738,100; the
income from state and nation was $1,397,800, and from tuition
fees $975,000. The grounds, buildings, and equipment were
valued at about $7,637,400. The area of the campus was 359
ac. and that of the experimental farms (adjoining the campus)
was about 1,100 acres. The appropriation made by the state to
the College of Agriculture for the fiscal year 1920 was $1,800,588;
in 1910 it was $412,000. The regular annual tuition fee in 1921
was $200, but in medicine it was $300; tuition in the two state
colleges was free to residents of New York state. The univer-
sity library in 1920 contained about 630,000 volumes. Among
the important recent accessions were the Charles W. Wason
collection of works relating to China and the Chinese, 9,399
volumes, presented in 1918; the James Verner Scaife collection
of books relating to the American Civil War; and the engineering
library of the late Emil Kuichling, 2,093 volumes, presented by
Mrs. Kuichling in 1919. The Willard Fiske bequests have been
described in three important bibliographies: Catalogue of the
Icelandic Collection (1914), Catalogue of Runic Literature (1918),
both compiled by H. Hermannsson, and Catalogue' of the Pe-
trarch Collection (1916), compiled by Mary Fowler. The results
of the Cornell expedition to Asia Minor and the Assyro-Baby-
lonian Orient were published in 1911. In 1920 appeared the
fifth volume of the Cornell Studies in English, founded in 1916.
Several volumes have also been added to the Cornell Studies
in Classical Philology, the Cornell Studies in History and Polit-
ical Science, and the Cornell Studies in Philosophy. The valu-
able law library numbered about 53,200 volumes. The law
school publishes The Cornell Law Quarterly (established 1915).
Since 1909 the governor of New York state has appointed five
members of the university's board of 40 trustees; 15 are coopted,
and the alumni elect ten; others are ex-officio members. Since
1916 the faculty has sent three representatives to the board who
sit as trustees, but without a vote. Andrew Dickson White
(q.v.), who, at the request of Ezra Cornell, drew up the
original plans for organizing the university and served as its
first president, died at Ithaca Nov. 4 1918. Pres. Jacob Gould
Schurman (q.v.) resigned in June 1920, and Prof. A. W. Smith,
dean of Sibley College, was elected acting-president. Of the
21,445 degrees granted since the founding of the university,
18,992, or more than seven-eighths, were granted during Presi-
dent Schurman's 28 years of service. He was appointed U.S.
minister to China by President Harding in 1921. Dr. Living-
ston Farrand (q.v.) was elected president in June 1921. Dr.
Farrand, formerly a professor in Columbia University, was
president of the university of Colorado from 1914 to 1919,
and was then appointed chairman of the Central Committee
of the American Red Cross. For two years he directed the
work against tuberculosis in France under the auspices of the
International Health Board of the Rockefeller Foundation.
During the World War the university, in cooperation with the
CORONEL
753
War Department, conducted at Ithaca a school of military
aeronautics, a school of aerial photography, a school for mili-
tary artisans, and a unit of the Students' Army Training Corps,
and, at the medical college in New York, a school of rontgen-
ology for officers of the U.S. Army Medical Corps. Many mem-
bers of the faculty gave professional or technical service to the
Government. About 7,000 students and former students of
the university were in uniform; 1,500 of these were in officers'
training organizations when hostilities ceased; of the others,
3,300, or 60%, were commissioned officers; 216 died in the
service; 147 were decorated for distinguished services or gallan-
try in action. (W. P.)
CORONEL (German, Santa Maria), the name given to the
naval battle fought on Nov. i 1914 about 40 m. to the W. of
Coronel (Chile), between a British cruiser squadron under
Rear-Adml. Sir Christopher Cradock and the German East
Asiatic Squadron under Adml. Graf von Spec.
The British squadron consisted of the armoured cruisers
" Good Hope " (flag., Capt. Philip Francklin: 1902, 14, 200 tons,
2 9-2-in., 16 6-in., 21 knots) and " Monmouth " (Capt. Frank
Brandt: 1903, 9,800 tons, 14 6-in., 22-3 knots), the light cruiser
" Glasgow " (Capt. John Luce: 1910, 4,800 tons, 2 6-in., 10
4-in., 25 knots), and the armed merchant cruiser " Otranto-"
(Capt. Herbert M. Edwards: 16 knots, 4 4-7-in.). In the case
of the first three ships the full sea-going speed is given. The
German squadron consisted of the armoured cruisers " Scharn-
horst " (flag) and " Gneisenau " (both 1908, 11,420 tons, 8
8-in., 6 5'9-in., 205 knots) and the light cruisers " Leipzig "
(1906, 3,200 tons, 10 4-i-in., 20 knots), " NUrnberg " (1908,
3,396 tons, 10 4-i-in., 22 knots) and "Dresden" (1908, 3,544
tons, 12 4-i-in., 25 knots). The figures, even as they stand,
are sufficient to establish a definite German superiority, but
they were accentuated by other circumstances. In the heavy
weather prevailing at the time the " Good Hope " and " Mon-
mouth " could not fight their main-deck guns, and their broad-
side discharge (including " Glasgow ") was reduced to 2 9-2-in.
and 12 6-in. with a weight of 1,960 Ib. against the German 12
8-2-in. with a weight of 2,904 pounds. The Germans in addition
had the inestimable advantage of having been in commission
over two years and being in a state of prime gunnery efficiency,
whereas the " Good Hope " and " Monmouth " were both
3rd Fleet ships, which had been lying idle in the dockyards,
manned entirely with reserve men on the outbreak of war.
The " Canopus " (Capt. Heathcoat Grant), another 3rd Fleet
ship (with 4 i2-in. and 12 6-in. guns), had been relegated by
Rear-Adml. Cradock to purposes of convoy, as she could steam
only 12 knots, and was 300 m. to the S. escorting two colliers
when the action began. There can be little doubt that neither
in guns nor in gunnery was the British squadron capable of
meeting the enemy, and long before the fatal day it should have
been reinforced by at least two cruisers of the'ist Cruiser Squad-
ron, all of which were ships in long commission with good arma-
ment. ("Defence" carried 4 9-2-in., "Warrior," "Black
Prince," "Duke of Edinburgh," 6 9-2-in.) This measure had
been suggested, and even ordered in the case of the " Defence,"
but had never reached fulfilment. The " Black Prince " and
" Duke of Edinburgh " were doing convoy work in the Red Sea
and Indian Ocean, and the " Warrior " was at Port Said, while
the " Defence " was with Rear-Adml. Stoddart on the east
coast of South America.
Cradock left VaUenar (Chonos, Chile) with the " Monmouth "
on Oct. 30 and proceeded N., leaving the " Canopus " to remedy
engine defects and bring on colliers. The " Glasgow " had
been sent on to Coronel (Concepcion) to send and receive
telegrams, and a rendezvous had been arranged with her 50 m.
W. of Coronel for Nov. i. The junction took place at i P.M.,
and as the sea was too heavy for boats, the mail was floated to
the " Good Hope." It had scarcely been opened, and the rear-
admiral was probably just reading his telegrams, when at i -.50
P.M. German wireless sounded loud and clear.
Von Spee had come from Mas-a-Fuera, the last anchorage in
his long Pacific trip. On Oct. 30 he had sighted the lofty ranges
of the Andes, and the " Prinz Eitel Friedrich," an armed mer-
chantman, had been sent into Valparaiso to coal, while the
squadron cruised at slow speed out of sight of the port. At
3 A.M. on Nov. i she sent news of the " Glasgow's " visit to
Coronel on Oct. 31 and the German admiral steered S. to
intercept her.
Cradock, when the report of German wireless came in, had
made a signal to spread 15 m. on a line of bearing N.E. by E.
(in the order from westward " Good Hope," " Monmouth,"
" Otranto " and " Glasgow "), course N.W. by N., 10 knots, to
get in touch with the enemy. At 4:20 P.M. the line was not yet
completely formed when the " Glasgow," to the E., sighted
smoke and altered course N. 80 E. to get in touch with it. At
4:40 P.M. she reported the " Scharnhorst " and " Gneisenau "
steering between S.E. and S. She turned at once to S. 65 W.,
closing at full speed on the " Good Hope," and the whole
line began to close rapidly on the flagship. The " Canopus J>
was 300 m. to the S., toiling with her colliers in a heavy sea.
Von Spee had been steering S. at 14 knots. The " Nurn-
berg " and " Dresden " had been detached to examine passing
ships, and the former was 25 m., the latter 12 m. in rear. About
OTRANTOx^
GLASGOW^
CORONEL
Nov.l'J 1914.
(not to scale t
JVIONMOUTH
V -*GOOD HOPE
.5.55
BRITISH
GLASGOW < ...
OTRANTO
.^'5.55
/' GERMAN
f J NURNBERG
' J DRESDEN
' J. LEIPZIG
/ ^. GNEISENAU
SCHARNHORST
open flre Lat.37'40S
Long 73"58W
; MON
9.25
8pm.
)809
'--> CORONEL
30 miles
4:15 P.M. von Spee was about 40 m. N. of Arauco Bay when
the " Glasgow " was sighted to the W., and he turned and
followed, working up to full speed. It had been blowing hard
from the S.E. (von Spee says S.), and a heavy sea was running,
hurling sheets of spray right over the conning towers; the sun
was setting in the south-west. When the " Glasgow " sighted the
enemy the " Good Hope " was some 26 m. to W. of her, and
turned to the E. to join her squadron, as they came closing in.
By 5 =50 P.M. the British squadron was in line, with the " Good
Hope " leading and the " Monmouth," " Glasgow " and
"Otranto" behind, on an easterly course. The enemy were
about ii m. away to the E., steering south-westward (see map).
Both squadrons now altered course to the S., and by 6:4 P.M.
were steering approximately parallel courses at a range of about
I4i765 yards. Cradock then seems to have tried to close in order
to force an action while the sun was still high enough to dazzle
the enemy, but von Spee turned away and Cradock resumed
his southerly course. Had he not been hampered by the:
754
CORSON COSTA RICA
" Otranto," which could only go 16 knots, it is possible that
he might have attempted to fall back on the " Canopus," for
the rest of his squadron was faster than von Spee's and he
could have slipped away to the S. during the night and picked
up the " Canopus " next morning. But this would have meant
forsaking one of his ships, and Cradock was not the man to take
this course. He decided to fight, and sent the " Canopus " a
message to this effect at 6:18 P.M. At 6:20 P.M. he turned towards
the enemy, but von Spec turned away an equal amount. He
was now about two points before Cradock 's beam, biding his
time and waiting for the sun to set.
The " Otranto " asked if she was to keep out of range, and
not getting a clear reply drew out of line on the " Glasgow's "
starboard quarter, a potent reminder that a ship that has no
guns to fight and no speed to run away is a delusion and a
snare. The sun was setting (sunset at 6:45 P.M.), and as soon
as it dipped beneath the horizon (just before 7 P.M.) the English
ships were silhouetted sharply against the red glow of the
western sky, whilst the Germans were scarcely discernible
against the gathering night clouds in the east. About 7 14 P.M.
von Spec turned one point towards the enemy to clear the
smoke, and opened fire at a gun range of 11,373 yards. The
conditions were rendered difficult by spray, heavy sea and smoke
driving down the line, but the shot fell only 500 yd. short.
The third salvo hit the " Good Hope " forward at about 7:9
P.M. and sent up a burst of flame. The rest of the German
squadron joined in, the " Scharnhorst " engaging the " Good
Hope," the " Gneisenau " the " Monmouth," and the " Leip-
zig " the " Glasgow." The " Good Hope " had now opened
fire, but in the failing light the splashes could not be seen and
her firing was poor and ineffective. In the next quarter of an
hour the German gunners found the target again and again, and
by half-past seven the British cruisers were obviously in dis-
tress. The roof of the " Monmouth's " fore 6-in. turret had been
blown off and the turret was blazing. She had sheered off to
starboard about 7:15 P.M., and the " Glasgow," which continued
to follow in the wake of the " Good Hope," had to ease down
to avoid masking her fire. A fierce fire had broken out amid-
ships in the " Good Hope " and was increasing in brilliance.
It was almost dark. Though the moon had risen about 6:30
P.M. it was still low, but the glare of the fires kindled in the
British cruisers offered a sufficient target. At 7:45 P.M. the
" Good Hope " was losing speed; the range had closed to
about 5,000 yards. About 7:51 P.M. two shells struck her
between the mainmast and after funnel, and a vast column
of smoke and fire rose into the air. When it subsided the ship
was still afloat, but she was nothing but a gutted hull lighted
by a dying glare, and she fired no more. Thirty-five hits had
been counted on her by the " Scharnhorst's " gunners. By
8 P.M. the fire had died down, quenched by the sea. The " Mon-
mouth " had ceased fire and turned away to the W., followed
by the " Glasgow," who had been heavily engaged by the
" Leipzig " and " Dresden " and had received five hits. The
rising moon shone fitfully through the clouds, and the " Glas-
gow " continued to fire at any ship that showed up, but as this
only betrayed her position she ceased fire at 8:5 P.M. The
" Monmouth," badly down by the bows and listing to port,
turned N. at 8:15 P.M. to get stern to sea. But von Spee had
now launched his light cruisers to attack and they were hot
upon the trail. The " Glasgow " could only leave the stricken
field, and she lost sight of the enemy at 8:50 P.M.
It was the " Niirnberg," which had been making frantic
efforts to overtake her squadron, that found the unfortunate
" Monmouth." She missed her with a torpedo and opened fire
at 800 yards. The " Monmouth " was listing so badly that
she could not use her port guns. The " Niirnberg " ceased firing
for several minutes to allow her to surrender, then gave her a
final broadside, and she went down at half-past nine with
flag flying. The " Otranto " had fallen out and was now work-
ing gradually round to the S. towards Magellan Straits.
The British shooting was poor. The " Scharnhorst " was
hit twice with little injury; the " Gneisenau " received three
hits, one of which bent the flap of the after turret, an injury
of little moment. This deficiency must be attributed partly to
failing light and an inferior horizon but also to the fact that the
ships had had scant opportunity for training and their fire-
control equipment was poor. The squadron was weak in guns
and gunnery. When the German squadron was sighted it would
have been possible to fall back on the " Canopus," but this would
have entailed the destruction of the " Otranto," which would
have been overtaken by the enemy in two or three hours.
Cradock preferred to fight and take the chance of inflicting
injury on the German squadron, which was far from any base
of refitment and repair. He fought a brave fight, checked von
Spee in his onward career, and he and his men take their place
in the great roll of naval heroes. His foe was a worthy antagonist.
When the Germans at Valparaiso acclaimed him a naval hero,
he shook his head. The wide spaces of the Pacific lay behind
him, he had fought a famous battle, but the southern waters
of the world lay before him, behind loomed the Atlantic, and
he knew that Britain's arm stretched far. He found the sequel
of his victory at the Falklands (see FALKLAND ISLANDS BATTLE).
(A. C. D.)
CORSON, HIRAM (1828-1911), American scholar (see 7.204),
died in Ithaca, N. Y., June 15 1911.
COSTA RICA (see 7.219). The internal history of Costa Rica
is almost continuously concerned with the transmission of the
presidential office. In 1889 the first comparatively free election
seated Jose Juaquin Rodriguez, a clerical Conservative. He
ruled practically without assistance from the legislature until
he made use of it to seat Rafael Yglesias as his successor. Ygle-
sias was reelected in 1898, but gave over the power in 1902 to
Asuncion Esquivel, after which time serious political revolts
were infrequent. Fair liberty of the press was enjoyed, and
elections were not abnormally corrupt. Cleto Gonzalez Viquez
was chosen president in 1906, and Ricardo Jimenez in 1910, both
by popular vote. Alfredo Gonzalez was named in 1914 by the
legislature after the popular vote had failed to indicate a choice.
The radical programme of Gonzalez led to his forced removal
by Federico Tinoco, who was elected to the presidency after
his coup in 1917. Tinoco 's power was minimized by his fail-
ure to obtain recognition from the U.S. Government. He was
obliged to put down revolts in 1918; in 1919 a popular move-
ment led by Julio Acosta drove him out of the country. Acosta,
at first provisional president, was elected and inaugurated in
May 1920. Costa Rica prospered under its recent rulers, who
promoted public improvements, effected desirable sanitary
measures, and promoted education. The landowners, professional
men, and habitual politicians controlled the country, their poli-
tics being animated by clique and family considerations rather
than by genuine differences in policy.
After 1913, the president, members of Congress, and the city
officials were popularly elected. The president had large political
patronage, dominating Congress. The judiciary was practically
independent; its head was the Supreme Court, chosen by Congress.
The central Government had more control over local affairs than
was usual in Central America. Manhood suffrage was legalized in
1920, and the suffrage was extended to women also. During
the World War Costa Rica was among the first of the Hispanic-
American countries to evince sympathy with the Allied cause,
although the German colony and German influence were strong.
On Sept. 21 1917 the Government severed relations with
Germany, and on May 23 1918 declared war on Germany.
The pact for the Central American Union was signed in Jan.
1921 by Costa Rica, but was later rejected by the National
Assembly. For boundary dispute, see PANAMA.
Finance and Economics. During the period 191020 Costa
Rican coffee was high-priced and a source of national prosperity.
There was not, however, a large class of rich native landowners.
On the plateau the small peasantry was prosperous and industrious.
Foreigners controlled the mines, banks and commerce. The United
Fruit Co. settled numbers of English-speaking people along
the E. shore in the banana lands. From 1911 to 1918 the coffee
crop ranged from 248,000 to 385,000 sacks, valued at from 8,221 ,000
to 14,789,000 colones (the colon equals $0.4653). In
export was valued at
1920 the coffee
,744,000. In 1918 the banana exportation
COST OF LIVING
755
was worth 7,129,655 colones. The exportation of the principal
variety, musa sapientium, is about 11,000,000 bunches per annum.
In 1912 the foreign trade was $20,043,311. In 1917 the imports
were $5,595,240 and the exports $11,382,166. In 1917 the national
debt was $20,254,000. The national budget, approved by the Presi-
dent Jan. 7 for the fiscal year 1920, estimated the expenditure at
12,866,553 colones and the revenues at 13,006,000 colones, leaving a
probable surplus of 139,447 colones. The estimated pop. in 1919 was
454,995 ; the area of the republic being about 23,000 sq. miles.
(H. I. P.)
COST OF LIVING. Till recent years the phrase " Cost of
Living " was only used loosely by economists when the balance
between movements of wages and prices was in question, but
from 1914 onwards during the World War the need of a measure-
ment of the rise of prices gradually resulted in making the ex-
pression prominent in industrial and statistical discussions. In
popular parlance it has since become a recognized economic
problem. It has frequently been assumed that the term " Cost
of Living " (or " High Cost of Living " sometimes abbre-
viated to " H. C. L.") has a unique and definite meaning, and
that accurate measurements can be applied to it, but in fact
the meaning is vague and the statistical methods appropriate
to it are complex and lead to results whose precision is not of a
high order.
The phrase may be regarded as an abbreviation for " the
cost in a defined region to persons typical of a defined social
or industrial class of goods of a kind usually purchased at
frequent intervals, by the consumption of which a certain
standard of economic welfare is reached." We may usefully
distinguish four cases: (a) where the standard is a physiological
minimum; (b) where some conventional or average budget of
expenditure is taken and the cost of the items in it is measured
at different times or places; (c) where the items are varied but
the whole contents of the budget result in an unchanged stand-
ard of welfare; (d) where both the contents of the budget are
modified and the standard is raised or lowered. Case (b ) is
that which has in recent years been the subject of measure-
ment, but case (c) is that which is in reality appropriate to the
problem of measuring or adjusting real wages.
Case (a). Prior to the World War attention was directed
by Mr. Seebohm Rowiitree (Poverty, A Study of Town Life,
2nd ed. 1902) to the cost of obtaining in York (England) and
elsewhere food, clothing, heat, light and shelter sufficient for a
family to maintain itself in health and efficiency for work, when
all possible economy was practised, subject to the availability
of commodities and the legal requirements for housing, decency,
etc. The minimum of food was computed in relation to the
quantity of calories, carbohydrates and protein calculated by
Atwater and others as necessary for maintaining health and
vigour under various conditions of life, and dietaries were
drawn up which contained the necessary constituents at the
minimum aggregate cost; to this cost was added the expenditure
on clothing, fuel, cleansing materials, etc., and rent, which was
found to be customary among persons in regular work at the
lowest rates of wages of adult men. The most natural meaning
of the cost of living is perhaps the cost of maintaining the
minimum standard thus described. The standard is, however,
not scientifically definite; apart from questions as to the validity
and applicability of the measurement by calories, it is clear that
there must be a great difference between the amount of food
necessary for work of low and of high efficiency; the Indian,
Chinese and Japanese peasants live on a sparser diet and produce
a lower output than the English or Americans; definable points
are where efficiency is a maximum (which needs a more liberal
diet than that considered by Mr. Rowntree) and where the value
of additional efficiency exactly equals the cost of the additional
food, etc., necessary (for whose ascertainment there are no
observations) ; and Atwater's standard is in fact conventional
(see Bowley, Measuremenl of Social Phenomena, chap, viii.,
1915). If we drop the word "minimum " and speak of Mr.
Rowntree's conventional standard for demarcating poverty,
'we can properly measure the change in the cost of living at this
standard (if the facts are ascertainable) . The varying cost of
the official civilian rations, computed in Germany circa 1919,
gave a measurement similar to that described. The cost of Mr.
Rowntree's standard, and one modified in the direction of
ordinary purchasers by Bowley, was worked out for certain
English towns in 1913 (Livelihood and Poverty, 1915). A legal
minimum wage could be based on a standard thus defined, but
in fact it is generally related to a higher conventional standard.
Case (b). The usual method of measuring the change of
the cost of living during and since the war has been as follows.
Detailed statements of expenditure having been obtained from
a number of working-class households (in most countries at
some date prior to 1914), an average budget is formed showing
so many pounds of meat, bread, etc., with the prices and expen-
diture in considerable detail. The average prices of the same
foods are ascertained from time to time, and the expenditure
necessary to purchase the former quantities at the new prices
is computed. The cost of living (so far as food is concerned) is
then taken as having increased or decreased in the same ratio
as this standard budget. In many countries a standard of the
same kind is established for clothing, fuel, light, rent, cleansing
materials and some other articles, and the cost of the aggregate,
including food, is computed from time to time. The result ob-
tained (if the process were complete) would be the relative cost
of maintaining a defined standard constant in every detail. It
is generally expressed as a percentage; thus if the costs were 255.
and 305. at the two dates, the ratio is 100: 120, the index number
at the second date is 120 and the percentage increase 20.
This method cannot be carried out in its entirety for two
reasons, namely, lack of information and change of quality of
the commodities in the market. In most countries data of
expenditure and prices are only obtained for principal com-
modities (meat, bread, etc.) and not for those on which little is
spent (currants, pepper, etc.) ; unless owing to shortage of sup-
plies there is a run on the articles not included, these omissions
cannot affect the result significantly. In some countries ex-
penditure is not known, but only prices, and then the resulting
calculation is generally valueless; and in others currency is so
variable that the computation is meaningless. In nearly all
cases there is no sufficient knowledge of expenditure on clothing
either in total or in detail, and it is often difficult to obtain
adequate data for fuel and light or for miscellaneous items.
The sums included in the calculations, in fact, account for only
a part of ordinary household expenditure, but where most care
has been given to the question the part is a large proportion of
the whole. Classes of expenditure that are not strictly necessary,
such as amusements, tobacco, alcohol, etc., are generally omitted,
as are occasional expenses (doctors, purchase of furniture,
etc.), but in some cases subscriptions to trade unions, etc.,
insurance payments and travelling to work are included. The
miscellaneous expenses omitted become a large proportion of
total expenditure as we go up the scale of incomes. The
difficulty due to the change of quality of goods which has been
so marked since 1914 is even more fundamental. Over any long
period the actual constituents and quality of a pound of bread,
a cut of meat, a pair of boots, change considerably, but from some
points of view these gradual changes are not important. During
the war, however, substitution of one commodity or ingredient
for another was sudden and common, and the pre-war quality
was unobtainable at any price, or if obtainable had a quite
altered position in domestic economy. Consequently the prices
included in the calculations were frequently not for the same
things at different dates and the precision of the measurement
was greatly diminished. After the Armistice there was some
return to former qualities, but the change has been sufficient
to undermine the foundation of the numbers, and a new basis
is necessary, as discussed in the following sections.
It should be added that separate budgets ought to be formed
(and in some countries have been formed) for different grades
of income and for different classes of occupation, and also for
single persons and for married persons with dependents.
The structure of the index numbers of the cost of living is shown
most clearly by algebraic symbols.' If Qi, Qi, Qi . are the number
756
COST OF LIVING
of units of the commodities in the standard budget, and PI, P 2 , P 3
. . . the prices per unit at the date taken as starting point, and we
writeQiXPi = Ei, Q 2 XP2 = E 2 . . .. where Ei, E 2 , E 3 . . . aretheex-
penditures on the commodities, then E = Ei+E 2 . . .=QiPi+Q 2 P2
... is the whole expenditure at the first date on the standard
budget. Let pi, pi, pi . . . be the prices per unit at a subsequent
date; then QiXpi=ei, Q 2 Xp 2 = e 2 . . . are the presumed expendi-
tures, and 6=61+62+ . . . = Qipi+Q 2 pz + ... is the whole ex-
penditure. The ratio of the cost of the standard budget at the second
date to that at the first, is =
where n =pi/Pi (the price ratio for the first-named commodity at the
two dates), r2 = p2/P 2 .... The last expression shows that by this
method the ratio of the costs of living is a weighted average in which
the price ratios are weighted by the expenditures at the first date;
hence we only need to know these expenditures and ratios, and not
the actual quantities nor prices. In the official measurement in the
United Kingdom only the quantities E and r are in fact used; this
method is very convenient in dealing with rent (for which there is no
natural unit of quantity) and with clothing (for which a general
price ratio is obtained without any definition of unit). The general
theory of weighted averages shows that a considerable roughness in
the estimation of the smaller expenditures is smoothed out in the
process of averaging, but that it is important to obtain precision
in the case of large items, such as clothing, treated in a single entry,
and rent. It is important, however, that the r's should be accurately
known when they differ much from one another, and the quality
of the commodities that are priced should be the same at both dates.
The index number for the second date is ^ Xioo, and the per-
centage increase is
I j
Xioo.
Case'(c). It must be granted that when the cost of living is
compared at two places or at two dates we ought not to assume
that precisely the same quantities of the same commodities are
purchasable in both cases, and in order to make a strict numerical
comparison we need a test of equality of standard if not a means
of comparing two standards. The problem so stated has not yet
been completely solved. A measurement could be made on a
strictly nutritive basis and the cost of purchasing in the most
economic way the amount of calories (including the necessary
protein) considered proper to health and efficiency could be
ascertained in both countries or at both periods; but this would
only give a theoretic solution, since it ignores the influence of
custom and taste in diet, and, in fact, in developed countries
relatively few people have been compelled to purchase their
nutriment in the cheapest possible way. The actual practical
question in England in 1921 was what was the cost of maintaining
the pre-war standard of living in nutritive power and satisfaction
or pleasure derived from food and clothing, allowance being
made for changes in prices and available qualities. This state-
ment introduces the vague word satisfaction, which it is not
practicable to define exactly, though some mathematical methods
based on economic principles have been suggested for ascertain-
ing its equality in two cases.
It has been suggested (Bowley, " Measurement of Cost of Liv-
ing," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, May 1919, p. 354, and
" Cost of Living and Wage Determination," Economic Journal,
March 1920, p. 117) that an approximation could be reached by
devising ' a diet, based on available supplies, as nutritious, digestible "
and not less attractive than the pre-war diet, and estimate at what
price it could now be obtained," or "to frame a new budget of
goods obtainable, and, in fact, purchased, by housekeepers with the
same skill of adjusting purchases to desires as in the case of the earlier
budgets. Instead of measuring satisfaction by formula, we may
recognize that it is subjective and a matter of opinion, and obtain
from representative working-class women a budget which in their
opinion would now give the same variety and pleasure as a selected
budget of 1914, care being taken that the energy value is the same.
The result would give a new conventional budget, the ratio of whose
cost to (that of) the pre-war budget would give a rough measure of
the change of ... the cost of living." It should be added that this
solution would only be definite if the " satisfaction " was obtained
as cheaply as possible, it being assumed that before the war given
sums of money were laid out to the best advantage. This method
would only be satisfactory if fairly close agreement was obtained as
to the equality of the new with the old standard.
Another method has been used in the case of comparison of the
cost of living in two places. In 1905 the Labour Department of the
Board of Trade (United Kingdom) initiated inquiries about the cost
of living in the United Kingdom, United States, France, Belgium
and Germany, and obtained budgets of expenditure in each country;
the results are published in the official papers Cd.3864, Cd.s6O9,
Cd-4512, Cd.5o65 and Cd.4O32. A comparison was made between
the cost of living in the United Kingdom and in each other country
on a double basis, as follows: it was found that an English house-
wife purchasing in 1909 in the United States a week's supply of
food as customary in England would have spent 38% more in the
first-named country, the ratio of the costs of living being on this basis
loo: 138; on the other hand, an American housewife purchasing in
England a week's supply of food as customary in America would
have found her expenses reduced in the ratio 125: 100 (Cd.s6o9, pp.
Ixvi., Ixvii.). If these ratios had been reciprocate, either would meas-
ure the difference in the cost of living (so far as food is concerned) ;
as it is, their divergence illustrates the want of definiteness in the
Croblem. Now it is quite possible to obtain in any country a current
udget to be compared with a pre-war budget and the method just
described can be applied. Thus, in the Journal of the Royal Statistical
Society, May 1919, p. 344, details are given of the standard pre-war
British budget and of the average of budgets collected by an official
committee on the cost of living in the last year of the war, in which
the standard of living had been modified and had fallen somewhat.
A housewife purchasing in 1918 the same qualities and quantities
of food as in 1914 would have increased her expenditure in the ratio
100:212, while if she had purchased in 1914 the same qualities and
quantities as in 1918 the ratio of the earlier to the later expenditure
would have been 100:202. Both these are possible measurements
(the first being identical with case a above), and where the difference
between them is so moderate an intermediate number, such as the
arithmetic or geometric mean (which are nearly coincident), 100:207
makes a plausible measurement of the change.
Another method, allied to that just described, gives perhaps the
most practical solution, though its adequacy can hardly be proved
from theoretic conditions. Obtain typical budgets of expenditure
at two dates; compile a new or mean standard of quantities which
item by item are the averages of the entries in the budgets; thus, if
in one the consumption of 33 Ib. of bread is stated, in the other 35
lb., enter 34 Ib. in the mean standard; now find the cost of the mean
standard at each date and take the ratio of these costs as the meas-
urement of the change in the cost of living. In the example just
used this ratio was found to be 100:204. (On the methods formerly
used for this problem, see Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy,
vol. iii., article "Wages, Nominal and Real," p. 640.)
If all prices rose in the same ratio the methods now described
would necessarily yield the same result; the need for choice
arises from inequalities of increase, including the case where the
goods are no longer in the market as one where the price is
indefinitely great. Now if at one date purchases are made so as
to maximize the satisfaction in the outlay of the week's house-
keeping allowance, as we may reasonably assume, and prices
rise irregularly, it is evident that somewhat less will be bought
of the commodities which have risen most and more of those
which have risen least if a maximum is still obtained, and that
consequently the increase in the expenditure necessary to obtain
the same satisfaction as before is less than the increase if exactly
the same quantities had been purchased. For example, if oranges
are doubled in price and bananas increased only by one-half,
more bananas and fewer oranges will be purchased.
If with the notation used above we also write qi, q 2 , qs . . . for
the quantities purchased at the second date, the measurement ob-
tained by using these quantities is q '%' , q *S*' , ' ' ' = I 2
qiPi +q2P 2 ,+ ... 100
(say) instead of
' ' ' ' ( as above > =
small letters refer to a second place (instead of date), then as between
England and America Ii = l38 in the illustration I 2 = l2;j. For two
dates the method illustrated from expenditure on food in England
gives Ii=2i2 and I 2 =2O2, and the suggested index number is
l3 = J(Ii + '2)=2O7. The other method recommended is to take
l " XIO - II iseasilv shown
+ ...
that Ii is always intermediate between Ii and I 2 , and by a more trouble-
some analysis that It is less than h when prices in general are ris-
ing and quantities consumed of individual goods have increased or
diminished according as their prices have risen more or less than
the average as measured by Ii ; in fact
I T _ OT (Pi ~r P.) (Qi - qi) + (P2 - rP 2 ) (& - q) + . . .
where lopr = Ii, and the factors in each term of the numerator are
both positive or both negative under the conditions named. Hence,
U satisfies many of the fundamental conditions of the measure-
ment required. Bowley (Stat. Journal, loc. cit., p. 351) suggests as
COST OF LIVING
757
a measurement of the loss of satisfaction in the case of a falling
standard the expression
the ratio of the cost of the decrease in quantity to that of the quanti-
ties at the first date, both valued at the prices of the first date ; this
method leads to I 2 as the index of the increase of cost of living, but
it is not of general application for it does not give equal importance
to the distribution of expenditure at both dates since I 2 does not
involve Qi, Qa
T. L. Bennett (" Theory of Measurement of Changes in Cost of
Living," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, May 1920) carries
the argument further by important steps. With the notation al-
ready used, he supposes that a housekeeper gradually changes her
purchases from quantities Qi,Q 2 . . . at prices PI, P 2 . . . to quanti-
ties qi, q . . . at prices pi . p 2 . . ., the quantity of each commodity
bought being related to its price by a law of demand. He then
shows that the increase of expenditure, when the final is compared
with the initial date. viz. e E, is algebraically equal to X+L, where
X = J(Qi+qi) (pi-PO + KQs + qz) (p> -Ps)+ - -
and L = |(q, - Qi) (pi +Pi) + i (q 2 - Qa) (pj + P 2 ) + . . . and he iden-
tifies X as measuring the increased expenditure necessary to pre-
serve the former standard of living and L as measuring increased
satisfaction from increased consumption (or if L is negative a de-
crease).
This method gives a useful and simple test of the equivalence (as
measured by satisfaction) of two budgets at different dates in the
same country, for L should be zero, that is qrj(pi + Pi)+q2-i
(pj+Pz)+ should equal Qi-|(pi+Pi)+Q 2 -i(p 2 +P 2 )+ . . . .
This test should be applied if the suggestion made above of construct-
ing an equivalent budget for comparison is carried out.
If L is negative it would be necessary to add to expenditure e to
make it equivalent to the earlier expenditure E, and Bennett, having
regard to the changed purchasing power of money, suggests a some-
what complex and indefinite method of ascertaining the necessary
amount; the index number for the cost of living may be written
approximately 100 X (e+LV 100 ) / E, where I is chosen as one of the
index numbers already written.
Case (d). The problem with which many countries were faced
in 1920 and 1921 was in reality not that of preserving a standard
of living on the level of 1914, but of adapting themselves to a
lower average standard, whatever the fortunes of favoured
classes. This may be illustrated by the arrangement of the
salaries of civil servants in England in Feb. 1920. At that date
the official measurement (on method b) of the increase in the
cost of living over 1914 was 130%. The full increase of 130%
was awarded to persons with a wage of 353. weekly (91 53.
per annum), 60% was added to the residue of salaries up to
200, and 45 % to the residue of the salary. Thus a man whose
salary was 400 on the pre-war basis received an addition of
273^ (130% on 91 5s. = n8|,_6o% on 108 i5s. = 6sJ,
45% on 200 =90), about 68% in all. This increment was
increased or decreased by one twerity-sixth part for every com-
plete movement of 5 points in the official index number averaged
over certain periods. It appears to have been assumed on the
be regarded as the cost of maintaining the standard customary
to the social or occupational class concerned at a given time
and place. In this sense the cost of living of Chinese labourers
is lower than that of the Americans, though they pay the same
prices for commodities. When " cost of living " is used in
this sense it should always be accompanied by a reference
to the standard attained. Thus the British Committee on the
Cost of Living in 1918 estimated the average expenditure of
working-class families in 1914 and 1918 and at the same time
reported on the change of standard. In some of the statistics
quoted below a conception of this kind is involved in the figure.
UNITED KINGDOM
(a) Cost of Food. In the United Kingdom the basis of the
official measurement of the cost of living is that of finding the
cost of a standard budget of expenditure at various dates (see
Labour Gazelle, March 1920, p. 118, and Report on Working-
Class Rents and Retail Prices, Cd.6g55 of 1913, pp. 299 seq.).
The standard budget was obtained from a collection of 1,944
records of weekly expenditure made in 1904; the average weekly
family expenditure was 363. iod., of this 223. 6d. was spent on
food, and of the food 183. 6d. is accounted for in the standard
used prior to the war. A somewhat altered basis was taken in
1914. Rice, tapioca, oatmeal, pork, coffee, cocoa, jam, treacle,
marmalade, currants and raisins (the expenditure on all of which
was about 2s. id. in 1904) were omitted and fish and margarine
added (an addition equivalent to 6d. in each case). It was
assumed that, though prices had increased between 1904 and
1914, the relative expenditure (which alone enters into the
computation) on the different commodities was unchanged;
this assumption is too rigid but not unreasonable, and the
facts otherwise known about price movements and consumption
show that the error introduced is insignificant.
Relative importance being determined, the next step was to
ascertain the movement of prices. Prior to 1914 the records
were obtained exclusively for London, but it was shown (Cd.
6955, pp. 299 and 306) that from 1907 to 1912 the average move-
ment was very nearly the same in provincial towns as in
London. From Aug. 1914 statements of prices were obtained for
650 towns and villages.
The index numbers of the cost of living, so far as food is
concerned, were then obtained by the method b described
above; prior to 1914, the year 1900 was taken as base and the
prices then equated to 100; from the beginning of the war
July 1914 was taken as base.
The index number is in the form 100 X (Eiri+E 2 r 2 + . . ,)-5-
(Ei+E 2 + . . . ) where EI, E 2 . . . are the expenditures on the
separate commodities in the standard budget and n, r 2 . . . are the
ratios of the prices at any particular time to the prices at the basic
date. The values actually taken for the E's were as in Table I. , being
proportional to the expenditure.
TABLE I.
Bread . . . 50
British meat:
Milk 25
Tea 22
Sugar 19
Flour .20
Beef 24
Butter 41
Coffee* 2
Jam* 4
Rice* 3
Mutton 12
Eggs . . . . 19
Cocoa* 4
Treacle* 2
Pork* 15
Cheese. 10
Marmalade* . 4
Oatmeal* 5
Imported meat:
Margarine f 10
Currants* 3
Potatoes 1 8
Beef 24
Raisins* 2
Mutton 12
Bacon 19
Fish f 9
Totals prior to 1914. . .97
1914 and onwards ... .88
1 06
IOO
~95
105
"28
22
"34
19
'Omitted after 1914. f Omitted prior to 1914.
one hand that the expenses of the middle class had not increased
so much as indicated by the index number based on working-
class expenditure, and on the other that the standard of living
must be lowered the higher the income the greater the fall.
A similar scale was adopted at nearly the same date for railway
officials. We are thus led to consider a conventional standard of
living which changes from time to time. When there is no
reference to a physiological minimum, the cost of living may
Grand totals: before 1914, 360; after, 334.
There are certain weaknesses in the method. It is assumed
without explicit evidence that expenditure on meat was in the
proportion 23. on beef to is. on mutton, and that British and
foreign meat were of equal importance, and the price ratios
taken for meat are for four selected joints only; during the
period 1915 to 1919, when the relative quantities available
varied and relative prices were altered, this assumption affects
the index numbers. The weight assigned to margarine is ar-
758
COST OF LIVING
bitrary. The number of eggs consumed (about 12 per house-
hold per week) is based on summer records and is no doubt
higher than the average for the year.
The resulting index numbers were as in Table II :
TABLE II.
Index numbers of retail food prices in United Kingdom. (London
only prior to 1914.) Average for year unless otherwise stated.
1903 .
1904 .
. 92
92
1909 . .
1910 . .
96
98
98
1914 (Aug. to Dec.) .
1915
112
131
1 60
1906
Q2
TQI2
101
1917
. 198
IOO7
QA
TOT -1
ICM
1918 ....'.
215
1908 .
. 9 6
1914
Jan. to
July
IOO
1919
1920
1921 (Jan. to April) .
May ....
June ....
. 219
. 256
- 257
. 232
. 218
For the monthly figures from Aug. 1914, see the article PRICES.
During the war the validity of these figures was much weak-
ened by the failure of the supplies necessary for the budget to
be realized. In 1918 a committee on the cost of living (Cd.6q8o)
collected 1,400 budgets from the urban working-class of a kind
comparable with the standard budget already named. Among
the differences found were the following (Table III):
TABLE III.
Weekly Consumption of a Standard Family.
1914 1918
Bread and flour Ib. 33.5 34.5
Meat Ib. 6.8 4.4
Bacon Ib. 1.2 2.55
Eggs (number) 13.0 9.1
Cheese Ib. .84 .41
Butter Ib. 1.7 .79
Margarine Ib. .42 .91
Sugar ' . . Ib. 5.9 2.83
Potatoes Ib. 15.6 20.0
The consumption in 1918 practically exhausted the supply, and
the calculation of what the 1914 budget would have cost if the
quantities had been available at the prices of 1918 was purely
theoretical. The committee found that in fact expenditure on
food was 90% higher than in 1914 at a date when the above
index number showed an increase of 108%. The committee
estimated that the nutritive value (measured in calories) of
the 1918 budget was only 3% lower than that of 1914. Similarly
a committee on the financial results of the occupation of
agricultural land and the cost of living of rural workers
(Cmd.76 of 1919) reported (p. 43) that the expenditure on food
of agricultural labourers had increased 84% since 1914 at a date
when the index numbers showed an increase of 108%, and
that the nutritive value had fallen 3 % as in the towns. Possible
methods of measuring the change of the cost of living under
such circumstances have been discussed above; here it is only
necessary to say that the official index number is not valid.
After the Armistice supplies tended to return to their pre-war
level except in the cases of sugar, eggs, butter and cheese;
margarine of an improved quality took the place of butter
to a considerable extent. The increase of prices over 1914,
however, varied greatly from commodity to commodity; thus
in March 1921 British beef and mutton were respectively
about 161 and 176%, while imported beef and mutton were only
about 109 and 100% above the level of 1914; sugar had risen
310%, butter 145%, eggs 200%, tea only 74% and margarine
67%. With this variation it is certain that an unchanged
standard would not be composed of unchanged constituents and
that (as argued above) the cost of living had risen less than the
index numbers show, unless expensive substitutes had taken
the place (e.g.) of sugar. There had been no information
obtained, however, as to new arrangement of consumption up
to the summer of 1921.
(6) Other Commodities. Next in importance to food comes
rent. The figure included in the index number allows for such
increases for rates, repairs, etc., as are legally permissible and
is accurate for persons who by remaining in the same house since
1914 have the benefit of the Rents Restriction Acts; the in-
crease for those who have moved must have been very variable
and for it no estimate is available.
The cost of clothing, which ranks next to rent in expenditure,
is always very difficult to measure owing to the difficulty of
defining the garments or stuffs purchased, and of assigning their
relative importance in the budget, and also there was great
variability in the qualities in the shops during 1914 to 1921.
The difficulties can be understood by comparing the estimates
and method of the Cost of Living Committee (loc. cit., pp.
21-3) with those of the official index number described in the
Labour Gazette, April 1921, pp. 178-9; the former found an in-
crease of 96% between July 1914 and the summer of 1918, the
latter reaches increases of 210% in June and 240% in Sept.
1918. The differences are partly attributable to the great
variability of the increases among the articles in consequence
of which the relative importance given to each has great effect,
and in this respect the committee's measurement is the more
systematic; and partly due to the difficulty of obtaining quota-
tions for the same qualities of goods or in allowing for sub-
stitution. The question is too intricate to discuss here; it can
only be suggested that the results have little precision, and that
the process of obtaining an estimate based on a new budget in
which modifications of custom are allowed for is even more
necessary than in the case of food.
Fuel and Light present little difficulty when a general average
for the country is in question since the retail prices of coal and
of gas are ascertainable. The variation from north to south
in price and consumption and that between winter and sum-
mer is not very important, since where coal is dear, gas is used for
cooking, and in working-class households one fire is necessary
throughout the year for cooking and this also provides heat.
The official index number allows only one-twelfth of the
weekly expenditure for all items not already included, or about
is. 6d. per household in 1914. This sum is exhausted by cleans-
ing materials with a very small margin for tobacco, newspapers,
household replacements, and fares. Insurance and trade-union
subscriptions are not included, nor is alcohol.
The five classes of expenditure now named are combined in the
following proportions, stated for clearness on the basis of a
pre-war urban weekly expenditure of 375. 6d. Foorf 225. 6d.,
rent (including rates) 6s., clothing 45. 6d., fuel and light 33.,
sundries is. 6d. Here the proportions on food, rent and light
rest on good evidence; that on clothing, for which the expend-
iture varies greatly according to the income and personnel
of the family and for which there has never been a satisfactory
investigation, is little more 4han a guess based on vague es-
timates; that on sundries is the residuum when other expenses
are met and is probably too low.
The results are tabulated in Table IV:
TABLE IV.
Official Measurement of Cost of Living in the United Kingdom.
Food
Rent
Cloth-
ing
Fuel &
Light
Sun-
dries
All
combined
Relative im-
portances
60
16
12
8
4
IOO
July 1914
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
Dec. 1914
116
*
no (approx.)
June 1915
132
125
125
Dec. 1915
144
135
135
June 1916
159
155
H5
Dec. 1916
184
1 80
J65
June 1917
202
2OO
1 80
Dec. 1917
205
240
185
June 1918
208
*
310
200
Dec. 1918
229
*
360
2 2O
June 1919
204
105
360
*
205
Dec. 1919
234
H7
37
185
225
June 1920
255
"7
325
230
220
250
Dec. 1920
282
142
305
240
230
269
June 1921
278
145
3OO
255
2IO
219
The statistics are for the beginning of each month.
* Not stated separately at these dates!
COST OF LIVING
759
The numerical importance of the criticisms indicated may
be seen by computing the number for Dec. 1920 with the follow-
ing alterations: suppose that the modification of diet (marga-
rine instead of butter, decrease of sugar and eggs and increase
of other foods) reduces the food index to 260, that the increase
in clothing cost is half that shown (as indicated by the Cost of
Living Committee for 1918) and the index is 200 instead of 305,
and that rent accounts for 20% of all expenditure, food for
50% and sundries for 10 %, instead of 16, 60 and 4% respectively,
then the index number would be 225 instead of 269. This is,
perhaps, an extreme hypothesis, but it has been suggested
(Bowley, Prices and Wages in the United Kingdom, 1914-1920,
p. 75) that a standard equivalent on the whole to, but modified
in detail from, that of 1914 might have been attained throughout
by an increase of expenditure equal to four-fifths of that offi-
cially stated (100+4/5 of 169=235 in Dec. 1920).
OTHER COUNTRIES
(a) Cost of Food. The experience of other countries has been
similar to that of the United Kingdom both in the dates of in-
crease and in the difficulties of satisfactory measurement.
Table V contains in summary form the index numbers showing
the movement of food prices in all the countries which are
known to publish official figures based on 1914 prices. Except
in Belgium, where the index numbers are the simple average
of prices of selected commodities, the measurement is made on
the same method as in the United Kingdom and based on the
expenditure found from a collection of working-class budgets,
though in some countries the number of such budgets is very
small. In some cases, noted in the sequel, some changes in
commodities are introduced, and in others alternative mea-
surements based on actual expenditure at different dates are
given. These numbers are summarized from time to time in
the Labour Gazette (London), the Labor Renew (Washington),
in the International Labour Review (Geneva), and in the Monthly
Bulletin of the Supreme Economic Council; they are of course
also to be found in the official publications of each country.
Though the movements are by no means uniform, the rise
is universal, and, except for a temporary break after the Armis-
tice, continuous in nearly all countries till at least July 1920.
The break in the rise occurred at various dates after June
1920, as shown by figures in Table VI.
TABLE VI.
Index Numbers of Retail Prices of Food.
(The level of 1914 is taken as 100.)
a "i
4
Si, S ~
til
jj
g
S
rt
1920
Z oj
33
pa!
CJ
III
s
III
I
SB
4-3
1
1
C/D
II
}une
215
228
258
369
228
325
204
3"
294
187
194
uly
215
227
262
373
235
318
2IO
319
297
194
197
Aug.
203
221
267
373
239
322
212
333
38
194
196
Sept.
199
215
270
407
238
324
217
336
307
197
195
Oct.
194
214
291
420
247
341
218
339
306
192
197
Nov.
189
2O6
282
426
246
22O
342
303
1 86
196
Dec.
175
2OO
2 7 8
424
235
375
208
342
294
184
1 88
1921
Jan.
169
195
263
410
367
199
334
283
172
Feb.
155
I9O
249
382
376
199
308
262
165
March
153
I 7 8
238
359
386
199
300
253
LSI
1 60
April
149
172
232
328
432
1 88
300
247
156
May
142
155
218
292
237
*Figures for beginning of following month.
The prices are of course strongly affected by the relative
value of the currency in the countries, and some indication
of the effect may be seen (Table VII) by converting them to
a gold basis by means of the exchange on New York. July
1920 is taken as being near the date of maximum prices. Cor-
responding figures are also given for Jan. 1921.
TABLE VII.
July IQ2O
Jan. ipai
Food in-
dex num-
ber
Exchange on New
York as percentage
of parity
Deduced
index
number
Deduced
index
number
London
Paris . .
Rome . . . .
Amsterdam
Stockholm .
Switzerland
Australia
United States
258
373
3i8
210
297
235
194
215
76.6
39-4
27.6
85.5
79*
88*
77 (approx.)
IOO
198*
146
88
1 80
235
207
149
215
2IO
151
71
1 68
230
193
142
169
*Obtained by
100 = 198.
converting through London, thus: 258 X 76.6-
Thus if an American had come to London with $198 in July
1920 he could have converted them into as many currency as
would buy as much food as $ too would have purchased in July
1914. In Rome he would have needed only $88.
TABLE V.
Index Numbers of Retail Prices of Food (based on the official statistics of the various countries).
(In every case the prices used are in the currency of the countries in question.)
1914
July
1915
July
1916
July
1917
July
1918
July
IS
Jan.
19
Julv
it
Jan.
20
July
1921
Jan.
United Kingdom*
IOO
132
161
204
2IO
230
217
235
262
263
France (Paris)
IOO
122
132
183
2O6
261
290
373
410 .
France (other towns)
IOO
123
142
184
244
248
293
380*
429
Italy (Rome)
IOO
95
III
137
203
259
206
2/5
3i8
367
Italy (Milan)
IOO
325
309
310
412
445
573
Switzerland* . . .
IOO
119
141
178
222
250
232
Belgium ....
IOO*
396
459
493
Netherlands (Amsterdam)
IOO*
114
117
146
I 7 6
189
204
197
2IO*
199
Denmark ....
IOO
128
146
1 66
I8 7
1 86
212
251
253
276
Sweden ....
IOO
124
142
181
268
339
310
298
297
.283
Norway ....
IOO
160
2M
279
279
289
295
319
334
Spain* ....
IOO
107
114
136
162
1 68
1 80
!93
United States
IOO
98
109
143
165
181
1 86
197
215
169
Canada ....
IOO
105
114
157
175
1 86
1 86
206
227
195
British India (Calcutta)
IOO
1 08
no
116
121
155
153
170
South Africa
IOO*
106*
114*
127*
129*
135
139
177
197
172
Australia ....
IOO
131
130
126
132
140
!47
.160
194
iSi(March)
New Zealand
IOO
112
119
127
139
I4.S
'44
158
171
174 (Feb.)
NOTES. United Kingdom. The figures relate to the first day of the month following that named.
France, other towns. The figures include fuel and light; the number 380 relates to June not July 1920.
Switzerland. The numbers relate to June not July in each year.
Belgium. The base is April 1914.
Netherlands. In some accounts 217 is stated for July 1920 instead of 210; the basis in 1914 is the average for the year, not the month
of July.
Spain. The July figures are for the average April to Sept. and the Jan. figures the average Oct. to March each year.
South Africa. The figures for 1914 to 1918 are the averages for the years, not July only.
760
COST OF LIVING
It is evident that neither the currency reckoning nor a con-
version to a gold basis show the real meaning of the increase
of prices; we need also to know the change of income accruing
to purchasers, on which some information is given below.
In Germany a calculation of a standard food budget based on
official maximum prices in 200 localities was made monthly
for the years 1914-9 (Deutscher Reichsanzeiger , Dec. 19 1919).
Since the foods could not generally be obtained and there was
much evasion of regulations the numbers have hardly even
academic interest, and the more important information is that
given below under cost of living. The numbers in question yield
the following figures (Table VIII):
TABLE VIII.
Index Number for Standard German Budget.
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
Jan.
uly
1 02
IOO
118
152
161
213
214
220
225
231
253
328 .
In Finland (Abo Underrdttelser, Feb. 25 1920) it appears
that the cost of i litre of milk, 5 litres of potatoes and i kilo,
each of butter, flour, bread, meat, bacon, sugar and coffee
rose from n.68 to 106.23 Finnish marks between 1914 and the
beginning of 1920, an increase in the ratio 100:909.
For Japan a correspondent of the London Economist (Aug.
9 1919) gave details showing that the expenditure on food of
an ordinary family had doubled in Tokyo between the first
quarters of 1916 and 1919.
(b) Other Commodities. The preceding tables relate (with
certain exceptions) to food only. In many countries index
numbers of the cost of living including other expenditure are
published with more or less regularity. The relative importance
given to classes of expenditure in pre-war budgets is as shown
in Table IX, each expenditure being expressed as a percentage
of that allotted to food:
TABLE IX.
Hi
l|
$$
it
J
1
i J4
J-"O
1
i
&
a
i
s
1
u
1
|1
ZN
2
ss
Food .
Rent. .
Fuel& .
Light .
Clothing
Other .
items .
IOO
27
13
20
7
IOO
35
14
43
69"
IOO
33
9
26
4 o>
IOO
34
it
25
58'
IOO
35
ii
28
36
IOO
35
14
28
43"
IOO
21
12
16
II
IOO
18
7
19
16
IOO
66
J9
IOO
33
ii
26
39'
too
77
56
50
a including 13 for furniture; b including 3 for taxes; c including
14 for taxes; d including 2 for taxes; e including 3 for taxes; / fuel
and light included in other items.
It is clear that the methods of establishing the original
budgets varied greatly from country to country. Since rent
has increased little for those who have not moved and clothing
has increased greatly in expense a good deal depends on the
relative importance allotted to these items.
The various countries have collected information about the
cost of living at different dates in rather sporadic ways. Only
the United Kingdom has computed a monthly index from the
beginning of the war on a uniform system. No doubt the
difficulties of measurement and of obtaining data described above
have been experienced in all countries and it would require very
detailed criticism to ascertain whether the basis of collection
was sufficiently wide and whether the prices were typical. The
numbers in Table X must only be regarded as approximate
both in respect of amount and of date, but they indicate the
periods of increase and show in which countries it has been most
rapid. In most countries there has been a shortage of houses
and a legal restriction on rent; the figures are based in general
on rents which have been hindered from rising. Whether the
index number of food exhibited in the previous table or that
of the cost of living has increased most depends mainly on a
balance between rent and the cost of clothing, and the latter
must have been uncertain in all countries.
In general the index numbers show a nearly regular increase
from 1914 to the end of 1918, stationariness in 1919 and a rapid
rise to a maximum at the end of 1920.
Many of the figures have been given from time to time in the
Labour Gazette (London) and the Labor Review (Washington) and
in similar publications in other countries. For Table X they have
been extracted from the originals in the country to which they re-
late as far as possible.
TABLE X.
Index Numbers of Working-Class Cost of Living at a Fixed Standard:
in Various Countries (Food, Rent, Fuel, Clothing, etc.).
it
m
|s
"S
Pen
Canada
>>
Z
Sweden
Amsterdam
Denmark
O
O
&
d
_rt
1914 July
Dec.
1915 July
Dec.
IOO
125
135
IOO*
103
104
IOO
97
IOO
IOO
ioof
IOO
116
IOO
IOO
1916
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
135
140
150
1 60
165
175
1 80
185
118
1 02
139
136
1917
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
144
130
185
219
152
1 66
123
132
155
1918
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
190
195
2IO
22O
174
146
235
260
264
192
203
219
242
153
170
165
1 66
182
229
311
346
1919
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
220
2IO
215
225
177
199
156
263
262
258
301
267
265
257
257
171
181
179
191
190
211
236
219
206
238
352
309
290
342
1920
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
230
240
255
270
217
2OI
177
190
181
288
295
331
34i
259
265
270
281
199
202
207
242
262
284
312
318
365
378
426
453
513
1921
First quarter
Second quarter
250
176
3"
271
249
26 5
379
568
*Average for 1913. fThe original figures for Amsterdam are
based on a calculation for 1910-1 ; it is estimated from other data
that prices rose 7% between 1910 and 1914 and the numbers are
adjusted on this assumption, but they can only be regarded as ap-
proximate when 1914 is compared with other years; for the sequence
beginning 1917 the relative numbers are correct.
In some other countries there have been occasional cal-
culations on a similar basis. In Uruguay (Boletin de la Oficina.
Nacional del Trabajo, Montevideo, May-Aug. 1919) the in-
crease in necessary expenditure from 1913 to 1919 is given as-
44% for an unmarried and 36 or 37% for a married labourer.
In Argentina (Revista de Economia Argentina, May 1920) the
increases in food, rent and other expenses are stated as 32, i&
and 165% respectively from 1914 to 1918 and as 45, 50 and
150% from 1914 to 1919. For Hungary (Labour Gazette, April
1921) a statement is quoted that whole family expenditure was-
in Jan. 1921 47 times as great in currency as before the war; rent
had only increased 67%. For Germany an estimate is given
(International Financial Conference, Brussels, 1920, Paper vii.,
statistics of retail prices) that the index number for food, cloth-
ing, rent, fuel, etc., in 28 towns was 373 in April 1919 compared
with loo in Jan. 1914, and if 373 is taken for Frankfort-on-Main
in April 1919 subsequent numbers for that town are: Sept.
1919 433, Nov. 1919 466, Jan. 1920 630 and March 1920 740.
COST OF LIVING
761
CHANGE OF STANDARD OF EXPENDITURE
In all the tables so far given the index numbers are intended
to measure the change in cost of an unchanged and unmodified
standard, except that in Denmark there has been a slight change
in the relative quantities of butter and other fatty substances.
In a few countries, however, the actual change in expenditure
(ioo2qp-^2QP in the notation described above, instead of
iooSQp-^SQP, the formula for unchanged standard), and in
Amsterdam the index number, has also been calculated by
using quantities currently bought instead of the original stand-
ard (ioo2qp-^2qP).
For the United Kingdom the Cost of Living Committee
of 1918 (Cd.SgSo) compared the expenditure of a standard
artisan family in 1914 and the summer of 1918, and found the
increase to be 74% to June 1918 and 80% to Sept. 1918, when
the increase on the standard budget was too and 110%; the
difference was partly due to the methods of treating clothing;
for food alone in June 1918 the increase in expenditure was 90%
and in the cost of the standard budget 108%. The Ministry of
Food also made a computation of the change in the cost of the
average quantities of some principal foods consumed in the
United Kingdom from time to time, yielding the comparison
shown in Table XI:
TABLE XI.
Expenditure on
Principal Foods*
Index Number for
Standard Budget
July 1914 ....
Feb. 1918 ....
June 1918 ....
Sept. 1918'.
March 1919
Jan. 1920 ....
IOO
144
i8if
197
181
215
IOO
208
208
216
220
236
*The figures in this column are those stated in the Labour Gazette
for two months later, but it is known that the computation was in
.arrear of the facts, at least at the earlier dates.
if all the foods of the standard budget were included.
The differences point to important modifications of diet under
rationing and control of prices; the Cost of Living Committee
found that the nutritive value had fallen very little.
In Switzerland an estimate was made by Dr. Jenny (Journal
de Statistique el Revue economique suisse, 1918 fascicule i.,
pp. 76 seq.) of what he calls the " nominal " and the " effec-
tive " increase of cost. The nominal increase, viz. that of an
.unchanged standard of food, was 92% between 1912 and
March 1917; the effective increase, viz. the increase of ex-
penditure when allowance was made for the known or estimated
diminution in the consumption of bread, meat and the increase
in that of potatoes, was only 56.5%.
In Milan the cost of the food actually consumed has been
estimated from time to time, and added to the cost of housing,
fuel, clothing, etc., these being taken as an unchanged standard
.after July 1918. Some of the results are shown in Table XII.
TABLE XII.
Index Numbers Based on:
Actual Expenditure
Cost of pre-war
Standard
1914 Jan. to June
1918 Jan
July . . . .
Dec
1919 July ....
Dec. . . . .
1920 July ....
Dec
IOO
162
205
259
265
, 287
376
441
IOO
286
35i
280
352
441
534
In Holland (Amsterdam) a more elaborate method is used,
for not only has the expenditure been ascertained at frequent
intervals (unfortunately of only a very small number of families)
but it has been computed (see Table XIII) what the quantities
actually bought would have cost at pre-war prices.
TABLE XIII.
Index Numbers.
Actual expenditure
on food, rent, cloth-
ing, etc., at selected
Cost of actual
quantities at pre-
Cost of
pre-war
budget at
dates
war prices
current
prices
1910-1
100
IOO
IOO
1917 Feb. March
113
128
132
Aug.
138
142
1918 Feb. March
1 20
146
165
Aug. Sept.
135
1 66
183
Nov. Dec.
12-8
I6i|
177
1919 March
136
1 66
184
June
152
1 80
195
Sept . .
164
183
193
Dec.
173
200
205
1920 March
195
214
214
June
194
215
217
Sept.
222
223
Table XIII may be thus explained. Expenditure in 1914 was
5.78 fl. (2QP) weekly, in Dec. 1919 10.00 fl. (2qp), an increase of
73 % (first column). If the same quantities had been bought in 1919
as in 1914 they would have cost 11.85 fl- (2Qp), an increase of 105 %
(third column); but if the 1919 quantities had been bought in 1914
they would have cost 5.00 fl. (2qP) , and the ratio of the actual cost to
this is 2, which multiplied by IOO gives the number in the second
column. Thus the third column gives the index number loo2Qp-r-
SQP, the usual type, and the second gives lOOSqp-f-ZqP (where q is
changed at each date). It is argued above that the true measure of
the cost of living lies between the numbers in the second and third
columns. It can be seen that considerable modifications of diet took
place between 1914 and 1918-9, but that either they had been re-
versed or that their effect on cost was nil by 1920.'
(A similar computation of the budgets in 1914 and 1918 in the
United Kingdom gives loo2qp-=-2QP = i85, loo2qp-f-2qP=2O2
and loo2Qp-=-ZQP = 2i2, for food only, numbers corresponding in
order to the three columns just discussed.)
In Sweden an elaborate investigation (involving about 600
household budgets each kept for three periods of four weeks)
was made in 1916, 1917, 1918. Besides calculating actual ex-
penditure (2qp) and the cost of a standard budget (2Qp)
the food value in calories is computed (see Table XIV).
TABLE XIV.
Index Numbers.
July
Actual
expenditure
on food
Cost of pre-
war budget
at current
prices
Calories
in food
consumed
Cost of
10,000
calories
1914
1916
1917
1918
IOO
124
155
233
IOO
130
173
267
IOO
102
90
86
IOO
121
172
271
Expenditure thus increased less than the cost of a standard
budget, but whereas in 1916 the nutritive value of the diet had
increased, owing to some change from meat to cereals which
afford more nourishment for the same price, in 1917 and 1918
the dietary was inferior owing to actual dearth and the cost of
equal nourishment rose as rapidly as the food index number on
the ordinary basis.
In Egypt it was estimated by its statistical department
that the cost of living measured by the standard reached in
March 1920 was for clerks 138% and for artisans 149% greater
than that of the same standard in 1914 (2qp:2qP). For
food, fuel and soap only the increases for artisans and labourers
on the same basis were to March, July, Aug., Sept., Oct., and
Nov. 1920 respectively 180, 181, 180, 180, 185 and 193% in
Cairo; in parts of Egypt there was a fall in Nov. 1920.
REACTIONS OF PRICES AND WAGES
Prior to the war there was in the United Kingdom no direct
reaction of retail prices on wages, for wage rates were deter-
1 The double estimate is now given up and the index number is
now^computed on the standard of March 1920.
762
COST OF LIVING
mined by the relation of the demand for and supply of labour,
the exact rates being settled by the bargaining strength of
employers and employed; since, however, real wages (wages
expressed in commodities) were believed to be falling in the
period 1900 to 1914 the determination of wage-earners to obtain
higher money wages was strengthened and supported by a
considerable body of public opinion and this no doubt im-
proved their position in negotiations. On the other hand,
whatever were the causes that brought about the general 'rise
in prices that began about 1895, under the ordinary play of
economic forces the rise, first apparent in wholesale prices,
was followed after no long interval by increases in 'retail prices
and in wages, and in general money wages may be expected to
change in fairly close accordance with a gradual change in the
price level. The immediate effect of rising prices in normal
times is to stimulate commercial activity, increase employ-
ment (so that earnings rise before wages), and then to increase
wage rates.
During the World War a new group of causes had effect. The
connexion of currency with gold was broken, new purchasing
power was obtained by the sale of securities held abroad, and
the British Government was able to increase the amount of
currency at will, by ordering goods and issuing new notes with
which to pay for them. There was, for example, nothing to
prevent the Government paying every week a i currency note
to every wage-earner who liked to apply for it, and something
of this kind was in fact done in the unemployment benefit after
the Armistice.
The actual sequence of events appears to have been as
follows. The increased demand for labour, due to the simul-
taneous need for munitions and equipment and the withdrawal
of men from civilian occupations, soon resulted in full em-
ployment for nearly all persons capable of work; during the
first year of the war this complete employment and the patriotic
desire not to hinder the successful prosecution of the war (to-
gether with the opinion that the disturbance was temporary)
deterred wage-earners from pressing for increased rates of
wages in spite of the acuteness of the demand for labour. During
1915 it became apparent that retail prices had definitely risen
and that there was no immediate prospect of a fall, and that
real rates of wages had so far fallen that persons whose hours
of work had not increased had suffered a serious fall in the
standard of living, and that in thecase of unskilled labourers
wages were insufficient to purchase necessary food. The ordinary
methods of bargaining were to a great extent suspended, partly
because the Government was already a very important em-
ployer of labour and was provided with a bottomless purse
by the printing press.
The first stage was to give a war bonus in many industries,
either at a flat rate to all operatives on the ground that all
persons required the same minimum ration of food, or on a
slightly greater scale to the lowest-paid men on the ground that
the better-paid could make more economies. The price of all
goods rose to the extent that the wages affected were an element
in their cost, with some exceptions, as in the case of railway
services, in which the Government bore any loss. Prices of
food which depended to a great extent on the world market
prices were not directly affected to any great extent, being
paid for by the realization of foreign securities, by the export
of gold and by loans, but they nevertheless continued to rise.
The second stage was marked b^ an effort of wage-earners to
obtain further increases commensurate with the increased cost
of living and in many cases the acuteness of the demand for
labour would have resulted in a great rise in wages; but the
Government, by its growing importance as a purchaser of goods
and its increasing direct control of industries, was in a position
to dictate terms in so wide a sphere as to dominate all wages,
and it was not strictly bound by the conditions that deter-
mined wages before the war. Courts of arbitration were estab-
lished and by these and other methods wage changes were
officially regulated. In determining wages the dominant con-
sideration appears to have been the change in the cost of living
(as determined by the official measurement described above),
though the increases awarded were not in strict proportion, as
indeed they could not be.
The series of increases in the middle and latter period of the
war had a more direct reaction on retail prices than the earlier
changes, for two reasons. The cost of coal rose with miners'
wages, and this, together with the increased wage cost of food
manufacturing processes and of wholesale and retail distribution
and the increase of the farmers' wage bill (especially dairy
farmers'), raised the price of many of the commodities ordinarily
purchased by the working classes. Secondly, by the end of 1917
the supply of the majority of goods was limited by dearth,
control of shipping or rationing, and was no longer sensitive to
price; wages tended to be so raised as to command the pur-
chase of nearly the same quantities of goods as in 1914 at the
prices of 1917, but when they came to be spent the goods were
not available in these quantities and competition raised the
prices; in the case of the principal foods and of coal, prices were
controlled and the amount purchasable rationed (except that
of bread, which was sold at a loss made good by a Govern-
ment subsidy); the surplus of wages was then expended on less
necessary and unrationed goods whose prices rose enormously
(eggs and pianos supply instances of this). If prices had not been
controlled and wages had moved with the cost-of -living index
number, an endless sequence would have been established,
in which each increase of wages caused a rise of prices which
was followed by a further enhancement of wages, the whole
being financed by the issue of paper money, while the quantity
of goods purchased was limited throughout to the same total,
namely the goods available in the country. Actually the process
was checked by the complete control (independent of home
cost of production) of many of the foods included in the budget
which determined the cost-of-living index number (e.g. of bread,
flour, imported meat, cheese, tea, sugar), and by the partial
and less successful control of foods influenced by the cost of
home labour (potatoes, home-produced meat, fish, milk, butter);
of the remaining articles, the supply of bacon of inferior quality
was sufficient to make effective control unnecessary, margarine
was manufactured by the Government and the price success-
fully kept low, and eggs (though nominally controlled) rose in
price in accordance with the demand for them, coal was both
rationed and controlled in price, and rent was restricted. Nearly
the full force of the demand accentuated by surplus wages was
felt in the price of clothes, and no doubt this had its effect on
the increases of the cost of living and of wages during 1917-9
(see WAGES, for the " Cost-of-Living Wage ").
After the Armistice, control was progressively relaxed as
free supplies became available and the Government's im-
portance as an employer was diminished. The close connexion
between wages and the index number of the cost of living was
maintained and extended, but the demand of labour was for
an increase of wages above the level of 1914 more than propor-
tional to the increase of prices in fact, for a higher standard
of living, and at the same time for a reduction of the hours in a
normal week's work. There was a gradual return to pre-war
conditions and the freer play of economic forces; wages had to be
found by employers without direct reference to the Govern-
ment's printing press, supplies of most goods became again
sensitive to prices, imports had to be paid for by exports and
the increased cost of the latter at once reacted (as indicated
by the movements of exchange) on the former; so far as cost
of labour is a constituent of price, prices of all goods (whether
home-produced or imported) rose with that cost. The sequence
of prices following wages and wages .following prices must have
a limit, and this limit appeared to have been reached with the
break in prices in 1920 and the unemployment of 1921, but the
date and manner of the climax were determined rather by
world conditions than by the British labour policy.
How far wages kept pace with prices is shown approximately
from the statistics given above and in the separate articles on
WAGES and on PRICES.
Prior to the war the movements are indicated by Table XV.
COST OF LIVING
763
TABLE XV.
General Course of
Rates of Wages
Retail Prices of
Food in London
1902
93
91
1903
92
92
1904
92
92
1905
92
92
1906
94
92
1907
97
94
1908
96
96
1909
95
96
1910
95
98
1911
95
98
1912
98
103
1913
100
IOO
1914 (Jan. to July)
IOO
IOO
Both sets of figures in Table XV are computed from the
XVIIth Abstract of Labour Statistics, except that the level
of wages in 1914 is equated to that in 1913 on the ground of
other information as to the absence of any important change.
The basis of the computation of wages is not sufficiently wide
to ensure minute accuracy, and since it depends only on changes
of rates it does not allow for the slow but progressive increase
of the average earnings of all workers due to the relative in-
crease of the numbers in the better-paid occupations. The
inclusion of fuel among retail prices hardly affects the numbers.
Rent, however, is known (Cd.6955, p. xxviii) to have increased
on the whole less than food prices between 1905 and 1912.
The conclusion is that money wages increased nearly step by
step with the cost of living in the 13 years in question.
No official index number of average wages had been published
up to 1921 since 1913, but there is enough information to lead
to a rough estimate (see Table XVI). It should be realized that
the figures have not the necessary precision to allow minute
calculations to be based on them (Bowley, Prices and Wages
in the United Kingdom 1914-1920, p. 105).
TABLE XVI.
General Course of Rates
of Wages
Official Cost-of-
Living Index
Number
1914 July
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
IOO
105 to no
115 to 120
135 to 140
175 to 180
2IO to 215
260
IOO
125
H5
1 80
205
2IO
25O
The wage figures depend throughout on wages for a normal
week (reduced in 1918 and 1919) or on changes in piece rates.
During the war-years earnings increased so much more rapidly
than wages, owing to various facilities for making additional
money, that it is probable that an index number for earnings
would show as high figures as those in the second column except
in 1917. If, however, we pay attention only to rates for nominally
the same work, it is seen that prices rose before wages from 1914
for at least three years. If the view is accepted, as argued
above, that the official index number tends to show too great
a rate of increase, then by July 1918 wages had caught up with
prices, and, while in 1919 and 1920 they had slightly passed the
official measurement of prices, in fact real wages increased in
these years. In 1921 it was too early to trace the effect on wages
of the fall of prices that began in the winter of 1920-1; apart
from those cases where wages were bound to the cost-of-living
figures by a formula, the first influence was felt in unemploy-
ment and consequently diminished average earnings, not on
rates of wages.
Some examples of the formulae connecting wages with prices
are given in the article on WAGES, and that governing civil
service and salaries is stated above. The general effect was to
increase or decrease weekly rates in a lower proportion than
prices, but where the proportion was applied to a standard
wage higher than that in 1914 the whole increase over that
date was at some periods greater than that of prices. Thus the
wages arranged in Jan. 1920 for a porter on the lowest scale
were as follows:
Rate of wages
Moneywages
in relation to
pre-war rate
Cost-of-
living
number
Real wages
in relation to
pre-war rate
22S.
405.
463.
5 ls.
56s.
6ls.
I2IS.
)re-war rate
lew standard rate
Sliding scale rates
IOO
182
209
232
255
277
550
IOO
H5
175
200
225
250
550
IOO
125
119
116
"3
in
IOO
If then the cost-of-living index really measures the value of
money the porter is better off when prices fall. Where such an
arrangement took effect a slight check was put on the circular
influence of prices on wages and wages on prices.
So far we have considered the interaction of wages and the
prices that enter into working-class expenditure. There is still
the question how wages have affected the cost of the unit of
output. A bricklayer and his labourer averaged about H^d.
an hour between them in the summer of 1914 and 4sd. in the
summer of 1920, i.e. three times as much as in 1914; owing to
the reduction of hours their weekly rates were only z\ times
the former rate. In industries in general the reduction of hours
was rather less, probably about one-tenth on the average, and
while the index number for weekly wages was 255 in July 1920
that for hourly wages would be about 285 (July 1914=100).
There is no certain information by which to connect the change
in the cost of an hour's labour with the cost of a unit of output.
On the one side it was generally alleged that the pace of work
had been more or less intentionally reduced, though this is not
substantiated by such figures for piece earnings as are available;
and, though in factories there is some diminution of overhead
expenses and waste time when the day's work is done in two
instead of in three shifts, the general expense of salaries, interest
on capital, rents, rates, etc., has to be met out of the diminished
hours of work. No doubt the potential energy of the workman
per hour is greater in a 48-hour than a 54-hour week, but the
increase appears not to have been realized in 1919-20. On the
other hand the high cost of labour and of materials (especially
coal) stimulates employers to economize their use. In engi-
neering especially many improvements in machinery were made
during the war, the use of oil and petrol having replaced in
some cases that of coal; in agriculture labour is saved by the
use of oil-driven tractors. It is not possible to estimate the net
influence of these factors, nor to state numerically in general
how far the increase of wages has affected the cost of the product
to the purchaser. In the article on WAGES are shown the scanty
data relating to the general movement of wages in other coun-
tries than the United Kingdom, and these can be brought into
relation with the index numbers of food and of the cost of
living given above.
In Norway wages in the summer of 1918 were about 90%
and the cost of living about 160% above the levels of 1914.
In April 1919 various rates of wages were from 130 to 210%
and the average had probably increased to 180% above 1914,
while the cost of living was the same as in the previous year.
In spite of reduction of hours weekly wages appear to have gained
on the cost of living during the year May 1919 to May 1920.
In Denmark a more detailed table (see Table XVII) can be
given:
TABLE XVII.
Hourly earnings
Cost of living
1914
1918 Aug.
1919 Feb.
Aug.
1920 Feb.
Aug.
IOO
200
224
338
358
396
IOO
182
190
211
242
Hours were reduced in 1919 till at the end of the year an 8-
hour day was usual as compared with 10 hours before the war.
Real weekly earnings had evidently increased considerably be-
764
COTTON
fore 1920, and in April of that year it was agreed that future
increases should be proportioned to the cost of living.
In Germany we have the computation shown in Table XVIII.
(Labour Overseas, Ministry of Labour, London, Oct.-Jan. 1920,
P-5 1 ):
TABLE XVIII.
Date
Average
weekly earn-
ings of male
adult
Weekly >
minimum
cost of living
(four per-
sons)
Earnings in
proportion to
cost of living
Aug. 1913 to July 1914
Aug. 1919
Feb. 1920
Nov. 1920
Marks
35
IOO
170
2IO
Marks
29
130
254
316
I-2I
' -77
67
76
The Official Year Book of New Zealand (1919) gives figures
which are shown in Table XIX. :
TABLE XIX.
Year
Average
minimum
hourly
Weekly
hours
Weekly
rates
Retail
food
rates
prices
1911
IOOO
IOOO
IOOO
IOOO
1912
1006
IOOO
1006
1035
1913
1036
998
1034
1055
1914
1087
986
1072
1 102
1915
1094
985
1078
1218
1916
1152
983
1132
I2OX)
1917
1200
982
1178
1384
. 1918
1258
982
1135
1513
1919
1418
979
1288
1537
More than the minimum may have been paid in skilled trades
and other items of expenditure may have risen less than food.
Table XX. shows how earnings (as distinguished from rates
of wages) moved in New York state in relation to the cost of
living:
TABLE XX.
Average weekly
earnings in
factories in New
York state
Cost of living index
number for the United
States
1914 Dec.
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919 J
1920 May
IOO
107
123
140
185
209
224
IOO
101
US
139
170
193
June 210
(A. L. Bo.)
COTTON, SIR HENRY JOHN STEDMAN (1845-1915), Anglo-
Indian administrator (see 7.254), lost his seat in Parliament
in 1910. He died in London Oct. 23 1915.
COTTON, JAMES SUTHERLAND (1847-1918), British man of
letters (see 7.255), died at Salisbury July 10 1918. He contributed
articles on Indian subjects to the E.B. and spent the later years
of his life cataloguing European MSS. relating to India in the
India Office library.
COTTON, AND COTTON INDUSTRY (see 7.256, 281). The
chief problems which faced the cotton industry after the begin-
ning of the 2oth century centred in the question of the supply
of the raw material. Up to the outbreak of the World War the
outstanding feature was the steady increase of the demand.
The industry is unique in possessing fairly reliable statistics of
the consumption throughout the world, these having been com-
piled with increasing completeness by the International Federa-
tion of Master Cotton Spinners' and Manufacturers' Associations
since 1904. The last issue before the war (March i 1914) con-
tained actual returns from the owners of 132 million spindles-
out of an estimated world's total of 145 millions, or 91 % of the
world's total mill capacity. These figures do not, of course,
include domestic spinning, which in many countries, especially
India and China, accounts for a large part of the local con-
sumption, so that they must always be incomplete; but this does
not greatly affect comparative statistics from year to year.
The possession of such statistics offered an opportunity to
attempt a balance sheet of the world's production and con-
sumption such as is given in Table A. During the war it was
impossible to continue the world statistics of consumption of
cotton of all kinds, but other figures for the American crop
alone are available to bring the table down to date as far as
was possible in 1921.
The causes of the increase of consumption may be briefly
tabulated as follows:
(1) The increasing wealth of the world, especially of those
tropical and subtropical countries whose products are largely
raw materials such as cotton, and which for climatic reasons
happen to be also the largest cotton-using countries in the world.
(2) Improved methods of manufacture, and the discovery
of new processes which made it possible to produce cotton fab-
rics of an entirely different character, quality and finish from
those previously known. The old process of " mercerising,"
reapplied with new success, produced cotton fabrics with a finish
and appearance closely resembling silk, while the additional
process known as " schreinering " produced a surface like satin.
(3) Similar developments enabled cotton to be used not
merely as an adulterant of, but as a really satisfactory substitute
for, fabrics made from other textile materials, such as wool and
linen, e.g. the raising process made it possible to produce cotton
goods as much superior to the early attempts at woollen imita-
tions as these were inferior to the real article. Cotton " dam-
ask " was also taking the place of the original linen.
TABLE A.. Balance of the World's Production and Consumption, 1904-20.
World's Commercial Crops and Mill Consumption. 1
American Crop and World's Consumption thereof.
Mean
Crops.
Mean
Con-
sumption.
Balance.
Average
Price of
American,
Indian and
Egyptian.
Commercial
Crop. 2
Consump-
tion. 2
Balance.
Average
Price
American
Middling.
Bales (ooo's omitted).
Pence per Ib.
Bales (ooo's omitted).
Pence per Ib.
1904-1905 .
19,648
17,726
+ 1,922
5-66
13,656
12,664
+ 992
4-93
1905-1906 .
17,266
18,214
- 948
6-73
n,443
12,081
- 638
5-94
1906-1907 .
20,815
19,523
+ 1,292
7-21
13,735
13,203
+ 532
6-38
1907-1908 .
17,564
19,393
-1,829
6-68
ii,456
12,112
- 656
6-19
1908-1909 .
20,229
19,828
+ 401
6-29
13,831
13,157
+ 674
5-50
1909-1910 .
17,216
19,148
-1,932
9-10
10,592
n,754
1,162
7-86
1910-1911 .
18,854
20,222
-1,368
8-54
11,986
12,054
- 68
7.84
1911-1912 .
22,157
21,495
+ 662
7-09
16,108
14,515
+ 1,593
6-09
1912-1913 .
21,503
22,302
- 799
7-57
14,106
14,715
609
6-76
1913-1914 .
23,309
22,296
+ 1,013
7-52
14,882
15,541
+ 341
7-26
1914-1915 .
15,108
13,834
+ 1,274
5-22
1915-1916 .
12,038
14,812
-1,874
7-51
1916-1917 .
1917-1918 .
Complete statistics not available.
12,941
11,907
13,906
12,282
- 965
- 375
12-33
21-68
1918-1919 .
11,640
10,600
+ i ,040
19-73
1919-1920 .
1 2,443
12,735
- 292
25-31
'For details see " The World's Cotton Crops," Appendix B.
'Hester's figures. (New Orleans Cotton Exchange.)
COTTON, AND GOTTON INDUSTRY
765
(4) Many entirely new uses were being discovered for cotton,
of which two only need be mentioned on account of the enor-
mous importance they acquired during the war, namely aero-
plane cloth and motor-car tire fabric. At the same time the
possibilities of cotton in entirely new forms of fabric were being
worked out, e.g. in the hosiery trade, where their first use in
cheap cotton hose has led to the evolution of entirely new
classes of knitted garments and now even knitted piece goods,
which is perhaps the most promising future development of all.
Table B shows the three chief crops, namely American,
Indian, and Egyptian:
wages; and second, the annual loss of an increasing percentage
of the crop owing to the steady progress of the boll weevil
eastward and northward throughout the belt, thus reducing the
average yield per acre.
The position before the World War therefore was that the
cotton world was faced with a striking application of the eco-
nomic law of diminishing return. The greater the quantity of
raw cotton they demanded from the world's producers, the higher
its cost of production was going, with the result that the price
was on the whole rising steadily, and more rapidly than the
general level of prices as shown by the index numbers.
TABLE B. -Area, Yield and Prices of the World's Chief Crops, 1911-21.
Season
Area
Crop
Yield oer sere
Liverpool prices (pence per Ib.)
Lowest
Highest
Average
American
Acres
Bales
(500 Ib.
Bales
approx.)
Middling
1911-12
36,045
16,043
45
4-92
7-53
6-09
1912-13
34.283
14,129
41
6-05
7-19
6-76
1913-14
37,089
14,610
39
6-2O
7-96
7-27
1914-15
36,832
15,067
41
4-25
6-50
5-22
1915-16
31-412
12,953
41
5-34
8-74
7-51
1916-17
34-985
12,976
37
8-12
19-45
12-33
1917-18
33,841
11,912
35
16-90
24-97
21-68
1918-19
36,008
11,603
32
15-24
24-77
19-73
1919-20
33-566
12,218
36
17-85
30-51
25-31
1920-21
35-878
13,500
38
6-38
27-10
1921-22
26,519
Indian
Acres
Bales (400 Ib.)
Lb.
Fine M. G. Broach
1911-12
21,615
3,288
62
4-68
6-06
5-3i|
1912-13
22,028
4,610
84
5-44
6-12
5-84!
1913-14
25,020
5,065
81
4-69
6-25
5-561
1914-15
24,595
5,209
85
4-15
5-75
4-90
1915-16
17-746
3,738
84
5-15
8-40
7-19
1916-17
21,745
4,502
83
7-95
18-80
11-83
1917-18
25,188
4,000
64
16-70
22-90
20-81
1918-19
20,497
3,671
72
14-71
25-50
19-01
1919-20
23-353
5.796
99
17-55
25-35
21-70
1920-21
21,016
3,556
68
6-90
20-60
1921-22
Egyptian
Feddans*
Kantars*
Lb.
F. G. F. Brown
1911-12
1,711
7,424
433
8-87
10-50
9-56
1912-13
1,722
7,533
437
9-56
10-15
9-82
1913-14
1.723
7,684
444
8-15
10-45
9-44
1914-15
1,755
6,490
369
6-30
8-30
7-34
1915-16
1,186
4,806
406
7-50
11-90
10-42
1916-17
1,656
5,iii
310
1 1 -60
3I-50
21-56
1917-18
1,677
6,308
375
28- 5 6f
35-50
30-97
1918-19
1,361
4,821
354
26-59f
30-19
27-85
1919-20
1,574
5,572
354
29-5of
99-00
60-34
1920-21
1,828
6,035
330
13-oof
71-00
1921-22
1,286
The figures in italics are estimates. *A feddan is practically an acre, and a kantar 100 Ib. fSakel. JGood Bhownuggar.
From this table it will be seen that the American crop still in
1920 dominated the world's supply, forming about 60% of the
whole, so that the fluctuations in the world's total were practi-
cally the same as those of the American crop. These latter
fluctuations therefore acquired special importance, and a closer
study of them revealed the fact that they were not merely
accidental, but seemed to follow a certain rule. They presented
an almost regular see-saw movement of area, crop and prices
which may be summarized as follows: A large American crop
tended to produce a lower level of prices; but owing to the rising
cost of production in America, and the fact that the price was
barely sufficient to remunerate many of the growers, such a fall
in price meant a reduction in the acreage planted the following
season. This, other things being equal, produced a smaller
crop, which meant an inadequate supply and a rise of price
again, followed by a return to larger acreage, and so the circle
went on. Thus the price of American cotton was constantly
fluctuating in a way which was injurious alike to consumers and
producers.
The crucial fact of the cotton situation lay in the increasing
cost of production in America, which was due to several factors
first, the increased cost of everything used by the planter, and
especially the rising labour cost of the crop owing to increased
The Effects of the War. The first effect of the war was a tre-
mendous slump in the price of cotton, because the expected
cessation of demand happened to coincide with the largest
American crop on record. All the exchanges were closed and
nominal prices fixed. Under these conditions a difficulty very
quickly arose with regard to the position of cotton as contraband.
In view of its use for munitions as well as for many other semi-
military purposes, it should in the interests of the Allies have been
placed under embargo at once; but to do so under the then
existing market conditions would have produced utter demorali-
zation, and probably a serious dispute with America. It was not
for about six months that the question was finally settled by a
compromise under which a modified embargo was laid upon
cotton; but this was converted into a formal declaration of
contraband some months later. In the meantime prices had
begun to recover, but not sufficiently to prevent the expected
serious reduction of acreage throughout the world for the 1915
crops, which were the smallest on record for many years. In
1916 the American and Egyptian acreages were almost back to
pre-war figures, but the average yield that year was poor, with
the result that the crops were again much below pre-war normal.
During 1916 prices rose sharply as the industry began to realize
that demand was recovering in an unexpected way, and that the
y66
COTTON, AND COTTON INDUSTRY
huge surplus of the 1914 crop was rapidly being exhausted. It
was not till the early summer of 1917, however, that matters
came to a head, when the intensive submarine campaign made
it impossible to maintain adequate imports of cotton. The
Cotton Control Board was set up in Liverpool to ration the
limited supplies available, 1 and at a later stage the British and
Egyptian Governments set up a control scheme in Egypt to
handle the 1918 crop by purchase.
Up to the end of the war, therefore, the supplies actually
available remained very limited, and it was only due to the
compulsory restriction of the consumption of the Central Powers
that the supply was able to meet the demand at all. Unfortu-
nately the Armistice was followed by a temporary period of
hesitation and delay in getting things going again, which
resulted in a serious fall in the price of cotton. This immediately
reacted in a reduction of the acreage again in 1919 in America,
and as this happened to coincide with another disastrous season,
the 1919 supply was again extremely short. When on the top
of this came the great post-war boom of 1919-20, in which the
real needs of the world were exaggerated by the speculative
hopes of those who saw fortunes in the reopening of the world's
markets, prices simply broke all bounds and rose to figures which
have perhaps never been equalled in the history of the trade.
American cotton was over 2s. 8d. a lb., while the best Egyptian
was over jos. a lb. Indeed one of the features of the period was
the extraordinary premiums paid for good staple cotton. This
was largely due to the sudden rise of the motor trade in America.
When it came out that at the beginning of 1919 there were over
six million motor-cars in the United States (since increased to
ten millions), it was obvious that the demand for that class of
cotton would be large, and the Egyptian varieties were the most
desirable for the purpose. The result was practically a corner
in Egyptian, which drove the price up to $200 per kantar
(100 lb.) in Alexandria, against an average of less than $20 before
the war.
The subsequent slump in cotton was as dramatic as had
been its rise. Within almost twelve months from the very top
prices in Feb. 1920, American cotton had again fallen below
pre-war prices, while Egyptian, which had so much farther to
fall, reached almost the same point. The inevitable effect again
was a movement for the reduction of acreage, which once more
brought the world's crops for 1921 far below pre-war records.
"See History of the Cotton Control Board by H. D. Henderson (the
Secretary) 1921.
In the meantime the world's trade had been brought almost to
a standstill by the slump in demand everywhere. The extent
of this is shown by the Federation statistics (Table C), which
were resumed on July 31 1920 (the date of the cotton "season"
having been in the meantime advanced by a month).
In their figures as at Jan. 31 1921, shown in the above table,
it was possible to compare the consumption during the height
of the boom with that of the pre-war year, and also with that
of the first six months of the slump. The fact that the con-
sumption even during the boom was not equal to the pre-war
consumption is due, first, to the destruction of textile machinery
in the devastated districts of France and Belgium; and, second,
to the reduction of the hours of labour throughout most parts
of the cotton world, which came into vogue immediately after
the war. In 1919 the makers of textile machinery were utterly
unable to cope with the demand for new machinery to replace
that which had been destroyed during the war, or to make up
the arrears of renewals which had fallen behind during the war.
New machinery outside of these privileged requirements was
practically unobtainable, with the result that the trade was
unable to take full advantage of the boom in the demand by
increasing its output. The high prices were therefore due not
merely (if at all) to the shortage of the raw material, except
perhaps in the case of Egyptian and other staple cottons, but
rather to a shortage of cotton goods.
Prospects in 1921. It may seem paradoxical to speak of
possible scarcity at a time (Aug. 1921) when the actual de-
mand for cotton goods seemed almost at a standstill, and the
world was apparently over-stocked not only with cotton goods,
but also with the raw material. Yet there could be no practical
doubt that the world would ere long be seriously short of
cotton again; because it could only be a question of time till a
return to something like normal conditions of demand would
again lead to a consumption of cotton substantially in excess of
what the world was producing. The abnormally large carry-
over which was accumulated during the slump might prevent
any scarcity arising within the immediate future, but it could
hardly be doubted, unless the world wa~s to face a prolonged
period of practical starvation, that the consumption of cotton,
which is the cheapest textile in the world for many other pur-
poses besides clothing, could not permanently remain at the
low level of 1921. The question was whether, when the demand
came again, the supply would be as quick to respond as it was
to contract when prices fell. It was extremely unlikely that pre-
TABLE C. World's Consumption of Cotton by Countries and Varieties.
(Calculated from the statistics of the International Cotton Federation.)
(ooo's omitted throughout.)
Country.
Year to Aug. 31 1913.
Year to July 31 1920.
Half-year to Jan. 31 1921.
|
ll
P'S,
He/)
Consumption.
</>
D
o
I!
o a
<e/>
Consumption.
Active
Spindles.
Consumption.
i
<
d
a
1
c.
5
U
Sundries.
|
o
H
jj
<
Indian.
a
a
c/J
.
*Q
a
e
3
C/}
"t3
1
10
<
c
a
1
tl
i.
So-
ld
152
9
25
i
2
I
2
12
7
i
9
221
Sundries.
jj
*-
I
Great Britain
Germany .
France .
Russia
Poland and Finland
Austria .
Czechoslovakia
Italy
Spam
Belgium .
Switzerland .
Other European .
Total European
U.S.A.
India
Japan
Canada - .
Others ' ' .
i. Total Non-European .
WORLD'S TOTAL .
55,653
11,186
7,400
9,213
4.909
4,600
2,000
1,492
1.398
1,658
3.667
1.355
806
487
(Inclu<
627
[Incluc
571
285
171
65
272
188
95
21
led u
154
ed un
>75
34
82
3
17
392
no
80
87
ider ]
, 3 1
der A
19
20
i
29
i
H.I
47
29
I.9I.3
Russia
23
ustna
25
19
3
i
24
4,274
1,700
1,010
2,508
837
790
358
257
98
314
56,900
5,620
7.36o
989
1,603
4,340
1, 800
1,467
1,460
1,815
2,891
382
671
&
61
a
86
549
305
159
57
272
56
79
r 57
Iowa
12
"Josta
8
147
40
73
6
24
429
16
79
tisti'
tisti
I
36
25
2
2O
137
44
"L 24
^
20
I
I
15
3,513
521
822
73
98
740
390
235
84
3U
56,352
6,561
7,000
750
1,418
1,140
3,584
4,506
1, 806
1,591
1,531
1,844
1,091
272
314
44
21
89
302
138
70
29
133
23
102
34
6
21
17
III
34
56
4
15
46
20
22
673
6
I
2
4
i
I
33
I,3'2
43
395
674
58
44
no
429
1 80
128
42
181
99,509
8,306
823
772
2,245
12,146
83,354
5,433
502
599
253
6,787
88,083
2,503
423
809
3,956
3L505
6,084
2,300
855
3,200
5.553
94
425
"3
16
2,081
993
20 1
i
16
14
32
i
155
1,091
5.786
2,177
1.589
"3
1,121
35499
6,420
3,155
68 1
4,170
6,010
o-S
709
118
12
2,032
1,150
243
4
'21
268
160
10
204
1,480
6,425
2,046
2,084
118
1,480
36,051
6,763
3,804
1,100
*2,470
2,221
I
337
78
5
5
1,109
723
2
58
2
7
2
39
1 08
36
2
46
369
2,320
1,114
1,113
80
4'5
43.944
6,201
3.074
232
1,279
10,786
49.925
6,837
3.194
1.854
12,153
50,188
2,642
1,839
453
5,042
143.453
14.507
3. 8 97
i ,004
3,524
22,932
133.279
12,270
3.696
867
2,107
lS,<)40
138,271
5,145
2,262
329
1,262
8,998
*No statistics for China. Estimated total spindles, over 1,600,000; consumption in 1920, 690,000 bales of sundries.
COTTON, AND COTTON INDUSTRY
767
war conditions would ever again be reproduced in America.
Then the crop was increasing slowly, but on the whole steadily,
and in 1914 the actual growth was probably not less than 17
million bales, though this record total never came " into sight "
during the season. It was clear that, at anything like the 1921
level of prices, and indeed under almost any conditions which
could then be visualized as possible, the world could not look to
America to equal that figure again or to resume the pre-war rate
of increase. The difficulties in America were the extremely
variable climate, the scarcity and high cost of labour, and the
reduction of the average yield owing to the spread of the boll
weevil; and although the cost of production would probably be
substantially reduced again, it would take a price very much
higher than the 1921 level to tempt the growers back again from
the policy of diversification, which they had been taught since
the war, to their old policy of cotton and nothing else.
The basic fact of the situation in 1921 was that prices were
substantially below the cost of production, and this was a state
of affairs which could not continue. It is true that where so
much of the labour and cotton is essentially a cheap-labour
crop is supplied by the grower himself and his family, they may
for a time submit to a reduction of price which will not cover
an adequate wage for their labour; but even where mobility of
labour is low, as it is in the American cotton belt, such a state
of affairs is bound in course of time to have its effect. It did so
very strongly during the war when a large quantity of labour
left agriculture in the cotton belt for the more highly paid
industries in the Southern towns or in the industrial North;
and while the subsequent slump had, for the time being reversed
this tendency, it was extremely improbable that the South
would again become resigned to a permanent lowering of its
standard of living, especially as the policy of diversification in
itself enabled them to meet this difficulty by supplying many of
their requirements from their own land, instead of putting it all
under cotton. The probability was, therefore, that it would
require a substantially higher price than in pre-war times to
induce America to return to her pre-war acreage.
A further point of detail may be noted. Part of the American
crop before the war, the Sea Island crop, grown in Florida and
Georgia, and on the so-called " Islands " off the coast of South
Carolina, was the best cotton in the world, because its staple
was the longest and finest; but this crop had by 1920 been
virtually wiped out by the advent of the boll weevil in these
districts, and the gap thus created would be extremely difficult
to fill. The only supply of a similar kind which America could
offer was the small crop of excellent cotton of Egyptian charac-
ter which had for some years been growing in Arizona and Cali-
fornia, especially in the Salt River Valley in the former state.
The crop amounted in 1920 to 92,000 bales grown upon a total
area of about 256,000 acres; but that was largely due to the high
prices of 1919-20 and was not likely to be repeated. For the very
best cotton, therefore, the world was entirely dependent on the
West Indian Sea Island crop, which, however, was only about
7,000 bales, against the pre-war figure of about 100,000 from
Florida and Georgia.
The supply of fine cotton was still further diminished by the
serious reduction of the Egyptian crop, due to several causes, of
which the most controversial was the view that drainage had not
kept pace with irrigation, leading to a rising " water table " and
partial water-logging of the lower zones in the Delta. The
ravages of the pink boll worm in recent years had also contributed
to the reduction of the average yield, which had become serious
even before the war, and still more so since 1914. To counteract
this reduction would require very heavy expenditure; and the fur-
ther development of the Egyptian area was apparently depend-
ent on the execution of large irrigation works, the chief of which,
the White Nile Dam, above Khartum, had been begun, though
work was suspended in the meantime through lack of funds. The
most striking development in Egypt, however, had been the
replacing of the original Delta type of cotton (Afifi) by the new
longer-stapled variety Sakelarides, the best of which has to some
extent taken the place of the lost Sea Island.
In view of the reduction of the Egyptian crop the possible
development of the Sudan became of the greatest importance.
The Gezira scheme, which was expected to provide the larger
part of the crop, was also dependent on large irrigation works
on the Blue Nile, in course of construction in 1921. Other parts
of the Sudan, such as Tokar, Kassala and certain areas on the
Nile north of Khartum, were of considerable promise, but
large expenditure on transport and irrigation was still required
there, especially for the Tokar and Kassala districts.
Great hopes have been entertained of the development of
cotton of the ordinary American inch-staple in India, where it
is regarded as relatively long-stapled in comparison with the f
in. to f in. staple cotton which forms the bulk of the Indian
crop. This development has had the active support of the
Government, who in 1917 appointed a special commission to
make a survey of the whole position (see Report of the Indian
Cotton Committee, 1919). For many years to come, however,
these improved cottons could not hope to form a large part of
the total Indian crop. Since the formation of the -British
Cotton-Growing Association in 1902 attention had therefore
been directed to other parts of the Empire, and much pioneer
work had been done in proving the possibilities of many districts,
especially in Africa. Distinct success has been achieved in West
Africa, where the best cotton is of a good American type, and in
Uganda and Nyasaland, where varieties akin to the American
long-stapled upland have been produced. The development of
all these districts was, of course, seriously checked by the war,
and subsequently by the high cost of the necessary development
works, such as transport. The war also left a great gap in the
supply of skilled men of all kinds, whose services were everywhere
required for the development of new cotton-fields. Everything
depends in the first place on the maintenance of an adequate seed
supply, which involves not only the finding of a suitable variety,
but also the maintenance of a pure supply. Much had also been
done in promoting improved methods of agriculture, in provid-
ing the necessary facilities for the ginning, baling, and handling
of the crop, and for its marketing at adequate prices, especially
in the case of superior varieties. In South Africa also excellent
cotton had been grown in small quantities, but the necessary
organization of the trade had still to be provided before it
could be a success on a large scale. Other foreign Powers with
colonies in Africa had also done a great deal for the develop-
ment of cotton, but 'up to 1920 the total quantity produced in
all these new areas in Africa (outside of Egypt) was relatively
small, and the time when Africa could produce a million bales of
cotton was still far distant (see Report of the Empire Cotton-
Growing Committee of the Board of Trade, Cmd. 523, 1920).
In Australia there was little doubt that cotton could be
successfully grown, either by rainfall or under irrigation; but
there were problems to be faced with regard to the labour supply
as well as the ordinary difficulties of organization.
There are many other countries which could provide large
additions to the world's cotton supply if all the necessary con-
ditions of the successful organization of the industry could be
secured. Brazil, for example, could undoubtedly yield a very
much larger crop than it has ever done (500,000 bales); but
political as well as labour and other economic difficulties are
apparently serious. The Argentine is also a country >where
excellent staple cotton has been grown, but labour seems to be
the chief obstacle to its development on a large scale. Many
of the other Latin-American countries, especially Mexico, also
have great possibilities for cotton-growing. Peru produced a
small crop (about 200,000 bales) of excellent staple cotton, a
little below Egyptian in value, but much of it better than the
staple American upland. The supply of the latter from America
itself suffered a severe loss when the boll weevil appeared in the
the Mississippi Valley and drove out the old i% in. long-staple
cotton that used to be produced there. Subsequently, however,
a great development took place in the production of new staple
upland varieties of about ij in. staple in southern Carolina, the
Mississippi Valley and northern Texas; but their total supply
probably did not exceed 250,000 bales per annum.
768
COTTON, AND COTTON INDUSTRY
In Asia the chief crops before the war, apart from India, were
in China and Asiatic Russia, including Transcaucasia. Sta-
tistically, the Chinese crop has always been a mystery, and its
amount can only be guessed at about two million bales. The
Russian crop had before the war risen rapidly to nearly i| million
bales, part of which was of indigenous varieties similar to the
Indian, and the remainder of good American quality; but this
crop had been almost wiped out by the war, and it was not
likely to recover as long as Russia remained in chaos.
The Cotton Industry. The growth of the cotton industry
throughout the world has already been indicated by the figures
of spindleage given in the appended tables. Perhaps the most
interesting feature up to 1921 had been the development of the
American, Japanese and Indian sections of the trade. The first
was largely due to the growth of the Southern mills, which had
increased from ten million spindles in 1910 to 15 millions in
1920. In Japan the percentage increase of spindles had probably
been greater than in any other country, though the total in
1921 was still comparatively small. The output of the Indian
mills had also advanced in recent years, both in quality and
quantity; but this unfortunately raised bitter controversy with
regard to the Excise duties, which were imposed on the product
of Indian mills in 1896 to balance the 35% Customs duty 1
imposed for Revenue purposes on cotton goods imported into
India. In 1917 the import duty was raised to 75% without a
corresponding increase in the Excise duty; and in 1921 the
differentiation was still further increased by an addition of 35 %
to the import duty. Table D shows the growth of the Indian
cotton industry since 1911.
The facts with regard to the foreign trade of Great Britain
in cotton and cotton goods are shown in Table B(See p. 769).
Number of Operatives. In Table F are given the latest figures
obtainable in 1921 as to the number of British operatives
engaged in the cotton trade since the date of the Census of
Production in 1907:
TABLE F. Numbers employed (in thousands).
Date.
Males.
Females.
Total.
1907
July 1914 ....
Nov. 1918 ....
July 1920 ....
Nov. 1920 ....
218
274
144
218
211
359
415
349
396
376
577
689
493
614
587
The controversial question of the employment of half-timers
in the trade moved a step forward in England by the Education
Act of 1918, which provided for their gradual abolition.
Wages. With regard to wages, the outstanding feature of
the British cotton industry was for many years the excellent
organization both of masters and men, as the result of which
wage disputes in the trade have, ever since the famous Brook-
lands Agreement of 1893, been reduced to a minimum. It is
1 Both duties were originally 5% in 1894.
perhaps also due to this organization that, as a class, the cotton
operatives of Lancashire are the most highly skilled, and enjoy
the highest standard of living, of any section of the industry
throughout the world.
In the Report (1909) by the Board of Trade in England into
the Earnings and Hours of Labour of workpeople in the Textile
Trades in 1906 (Cd. 4545) the average wages earned in the
cotton trade for a full working-week were given as follows:
Men.
Lads and
Boys.
Women.
Girls.
All
Workpeople.
26s gd
ns6d
i8s8d
losid
igs7d
The total wages bill for a full week at that time was 512,000
and the total number of operatives employed 523,030. It was
also calculated that in 1906 the average annual earnings per
head in the cotton trade were about 48. The number of hours
constituting a full working-week at that time was 555. Wages
in the cotton trade in the United Kingdom are calculated on the
basis of certain standard lists, the chief of which are known as
the Bolton List and the Oldham List for cotton-spinning, and
the Uniform List for cotton-weaving. In 1906 the wages actually
paid were 5% above list prices for the Bolton and Oldham
Lists and list prices for the Uniform List. Table G shows the
changes since that date:
TABLE G. Changes in Wages of Cotton Operatives, 1906-21.
Dates.
Cotton Spinning.
Cotton
Weaving.
Bolton List.
Oldham List.
Uniform List.
List Prices.
List Prices.
List Prices.
End of 1906
+ 5
+ 5
1907 and 1908
+ 10
+ 10
1909 to 1911
+ 5
+ 5
1912 and 1913
+ 5
+ 5
+ 5
July 1914
+ 5
+ 5
+ 5
June 1915
+ 10
+ 10
+ 5
Jan. 1916
+ 10
+ 10
+ 10
June 1916
+ 15
+ i5
+ 10
Jan. 1917
+ 15
. + 15
+ 15
Feb. 1917
+ 25
+ 25
+ 15
July 1917
Dec. 1917
-r- 25
+ 40
+ 25
+ 40
+ 25
+ 40
Tune 1918*
+ 65
+ 65
+ 65
Dec. 1918
+ "5
+ H5
+ "5
July I9i9f
May 1920
+ H5
+215
+ H5
+215
+ 145
+215
June 1921
+ 155
+ 155
+ 155
Dec. 1921
+ 145
+ 145
+ 145
*From June 10 to Aug. 3 1918 the bulk of the operatives were
working 40 hours, and from Aug. 3 to Oct. 26 453 hours, in place
of the normal 55} hours per week.
f In July 1919 the week was reduced from 55, hours to 48.
The changes made in wages during the war and since are
described in Henderson's History of the Cotton Control Board
above cited, from which the figures in the above lists since July
1914 have been taken.
TABLE D. Indian Cotton Industry, 1911-21.
1911-2
1912-3
I9I3-4
I9I4-5
I9I5-6
I9I6-7
1917-8
1918-9
1919-20
1920-1
Number of Mills
258
266
264
255
267
267
269
264
Number of Spindles _ 1
6,427
6,495
6,621
6,598
6,676
6,670
6,614
6,591
Number of Looms . \ thousands <
87-6
91-6
96-7
103-3
108-4
no-8
114-8
116-1
Number of Employees J
237
259
261
260
292
277
284
290
Cotton consumed : bales
2,050
2,096
2,143
2,103
2,198
2,198
2,086
2,044
Yarn produced : Ib. \
625
688
683
652
722
68 1
66 1
6i5
636
660
Goods produced : Ib.
267
285
274
277
352
378
38i
350
384
367
Yarn exports: Ib. . > millions {
151
204
198
J34
1 6O
169
122
64
152
83
Piece goods exports: yd.
81
87
89
67
H3
264
189
H9
197
Piece goods imports: yd. '
2,428
2,986
3,159
2-4'9
2,118
1,892
1,523
1,097
1,064
1,491
Classification of Yarns spun in India.
Nos. I to 25 ] [ . .
617
59'
66 1
608
578
538
564
592
Nos. 26 to 40 > million Ib. j
62-7
58-4
59-2
68-5
76-3
72-0
67-9
65-6
Nos. over 40 {
3'4
2-2
2-0
4-6
5-8
4-8
3-6
2-1
Classification of Yarns imported.
Nos. i to 25 1 [ . .
2-1
1-9
0-7
8-5
0-8
8-0
Nos. 26 to 40 \ million Ib. !
27-3
17-4
10-6
18-8
7-5
26-6
Nos. over 40 J [
7-9
4-9
3'6
6-7
3-6
5-o
Customs Duty \ . / .
Excise Duty L~!!iSLL
1,041
325
1,282
374
1,420
363
I,O24
329
902
328
1,194
297
2,556
508
COTTON, AND COTTON INDUSTRY
769
TABLE E. Foreign Trade, 1911-20.
Raw Cotton Imports, (million Ib.)
American ....
Egyptian
Indian
Other British ....
Peru
Brazil
Other foreign ....
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1,682-4
364-3
79-4
14-6
22-7
25-6
18-1
2,164-9
491-3
56-6
2I-I
29-1
25-8
17-0
1,584-8
402-7
51-3
2O-6
38-4
61-8
14-7
1,284-4
336-I
104-3
23-6
37-o
54-7
24-0
2,022-4
448-5
94-0
24-4
38-4
8-7
II-2
1,646-9
356-7
80- 1
18-9
44-6
i-3
22-5
1,186-2
277-9
76-0
22-8
23-6
10-3
26-3
976-0
388-5
59-5
14-1
41-2
3-2
66-6
1-370-7
416-9
63-6
24-1
46-5
5-1
3i-3
TOTAL
Values (million .)...
2,207-1
71-2
2,805-8
80-2
2,174-3
70-6
1,864-1
55-4
2,647-6
64-7
2,171-0
84-7
1,623-2
110-6
1,489-1
I50-3
i,958-3
190-8
-Re-exports
Values (million .)
291-2
10-7
323-8
10-6
257-6
9-1
216-3
7-4
343-6
0-6
237-5
9-8
111-4
7-7
0-4
O-O2
121-1
ii-4
Yarns Exports, (million Ib.)
Germany
Holland
Switzerland ....
Rumania ....
Turkey
France
Others
54-5
43-2
7-2
10-3
9-2
4-6
28-1
54-8
45-1
7-9
IO-I
13-6
4-9
30-4
51-9
39-3
9-5
7-1
9-8
5-o
19-1
32-4
43-1
6-1
6-5
5-9
3-5
17-2
59-7
9-3
2-2
o-3
3 8-I
I 5 -6
64-2
6-4
0-06
O-OI
26-5
19-7
3'-7
6-0
0-3
0-03
33-7
13-6
O-OO7
6-9
0-08
66-5
3-3
3-o
40-8
8-9
4-2
5-4
49-9
27-4
TOTAL EUROPE ....
I57-I
166-8
141-7
114-7
125-2
116-9
85-3
76-8
139-6
India, etc .......
39-3
8-1
44-8
IO-I
40-5
9-0
39-9
7-4
39-6
7-4
28-9
7-4
19-8
7-2
9-6
3-8
IO-I
3-6
Other British
TOTAL EMPIRE ....
47-4
54-9
49-5
47-3
47-0
36-3
27-0
13-4
13-7
U.S.A.
Other foreign
5-8
13-5
6-0
16-1
5-4
13-5
5-8
10-7
6-1
9-9
8-7
10-3
10-3
10-5
4-0
7-5
3-9
5-4
GRAND TOTAL
223-8
243-8
2IO-I
178-5
188-2
172-2
I33-I
101-7
162-6
Values (million .)
'5-7
16-2
15-0
I2-O.
10-3
13-4
16-7
21-4
33-9
Piece Goods Exports, (million yards.)
Germany
Holland
Turkey (including Asiatic) .
Switzerland
France
Others
92-7
58-9
467-7
83-2
13-9
229-7
88-7
70-7
394-4
81-7
14-1
237-4
76-4
84-3
360-7
80-0
12-8
188-7
42-2
59-3
270-8
5i-3
17-8
208-4
48-1
IO-I
60-8
220-4
170-7
69-8
12-2
70-2
I2O-2
169-3
26-0
3i-4
82-0
123-6
143-9
I-O
38-5
75-2
I83-5
78-3
52-3
58-5
332-7
116-6
90-2
558-9
TOTAL EUROPE ....
946-1
887-0
802-9
649-8
510-1
441-7
406-9
376-5
1209-2
Egypt
British Africa
German Africa
Belgian Africa
French Africa
Portuguese Africa
Other African
326-6
205-5
13-7
9-5
67-8
25-7
119-4
263-6
236-1
13-2
10-8
65-2
21-6
152-3
266-6
235-6
9-6
6-8
75-2
21-4
95-6
202-3
202-5
5-6
3-4
53-6
15-8
99-7
243-1
24I-5
0-7
, 6 ' 5
62-9
9-0
129-0
289-7
292-5
7-1
15-5
126-1
20-5
139-4
3I9-5
290-3
6-9
31-4
119-8
17-6 .
124-0
361-6
297-3
5-4
16-3
149-6
16-2
129-1
183-2
159-6
5-4
9.4
63-7
IO-2
83-2
TOTAL AFRICA
768-2
762-8
710-8
582-9
692-7
890-8
909-5
975-5
5H-7
EAST
East Indies
China
Japan
Persia
India (British Possessions) .
410-9
564-9
94-9
51-3
2,543-o
452-7
427-8
82-5
61-0
2,944-4
497-2
573-5
56-7
40-6
3,247-9
406-7
469-9
29-2
39-8
2,761-4
355-8
318-8
20-1
47-2
1,992-1
448-9
289-9
17-5
24-9
2,055-3
425-9
248-3
12-7
33-2
2,001-6
329-4
170-0
I I'D
24-5
1,009-7
202-3
259-7
10-7
15-9
826-3
TOTAL ASIA
3,665-0
3,968-4
4,4'5-9
3,707-o
2,734-0
2,836-5
2,721-7
1,544-6
1,314-9
Australasia
Other British
Other Foreign
223-6
13-0
23-3
224-1
13-5
23-8
212-4
12-5
19-3
219-8
22-4
14-4
247-2
20-9
6-0
295-4
17-0
8-4
191-2
14-4
5-4
208-5
12-2
5-9
97-2
7-9
7-6
TOTAL AUSTRALASIA, etc. .
259-9
261-4
244-2
256-6
274-1
320-8
2II-O
226-6
112-7
U.S.A.
Canada
West Indies
Latin America
57-i
78-2
127-0
752-2
48-1
89-6
I5I-9
743-7
44-4
II2-6
107-0
637-4
59-9
76-7
85-3
3I7-5
47-1
67-1
96-4
327-0
66-3
78-0
84-5
535-6
67-7
73-2
83-2
505-0
29-3
35-1
57-3
454-3
40-8
22-9
31-7
276-8
TOTAL AMERICA ....
1,014-5
1,033-3
901-4
539-4
537-6
764-4
729-1
576-0
372-2
GRAND TOTAL
6,653-7
6,912-9
7,075-2
5,735-7
4,748-5
5,254-2
4,978-2
3,699-2
3,253-7
VALUES (million .) .
90-5
91-6
97-8
79-2
64-7
88-9
II2-8
138-5
179-1
Other Cotton Goods ....
12-4
13-0
12-8
n-i
IO-I
14-8
15-7
19-5
25-1
TOTAL VALUES (million .) .
102-9
104-6
no-6
90-3
74-8
103-7
128-5
158-0
194-2
Capital. Much attention was attracted to the great move-
ment in 1919-20 for the recapitalization of the British industry,
which was to some extent inevitable. Owing to the demand for
machinery and the high cost of production during the war,
the book values of the mills represented only a fraction of the
actual market value to which they had risen. The process of
writing up the nominal capital of the companies to something
approaching the actual market value of the plant was in itself
harmless; but when the inevitable reaction came, those who had
invested in the industry at the top of the wave seemed likely in
1921 to find it difficult to secure a normal rate of dividend on
what had come again to be regarded as inflated values. The
table on next page, founded upon Mr. F. W. Tattersall's list of
100 typical joint-stock companies in the Lancashire industry,
gives an interesting indication of the earnings of the trade.
It is obvious that the later dividends, and especially in 1919-
20, were extraordinarily high, even after allowing for Excess
Profits Duty, but in 1921 the reaction was in full swing.
Cotton-seed. Since 1910 a great change has come over the
relative position of cotton-seed among the innumerable com-
modities which contribute to the supply of the vegetable and
animal oils and fats. Until then oils were classified pretty
rigorously, on the one hand as soft and hard, and on the other
as edible and non-edible. Soft or liquid oils, such as linseed,
770
COUPERUS COWDRAY
TABLE H. Earnings of the Cotton Industry, 1907-20.
Year.
No. of
Companies.
Capital.
Profit.
-ooc
Loss
>'s
Average
Dividend
Share. | Loan.
-ooo's
1907
I(H>
3,723
2,265
1,321
1908
IOO
3,660
2,351 587
ni
1909
IOO
3,427
2,010
272
7]
1910
IOO
3,543
2,254
368
1911
IOO
3,728
2,442
30
4]
1912
IOO
3,649
2,211
558
7:
1913
IOO
3,692
2,225
537
7:
1914
loo 3,569
2,416
53
6J
1915
IOO
3,6i3
2,500
15
5
1916
IOO
3-503 2,570
400
6
1917
90
3,602 2,250
516
7
1918
40 1,678
953
577
L
1919
23
946
370
340
31
1920
IOO
2.261*
JVV
*Amount paid in dividends only.
cotton-seed, rape, whale oil, etc., could not be used, e.g. for the
manufacture of margarine or soap, without a certain proportion
of hard fat or solid oil, such as lard, coconut or palm oil. But
the discovery of a new hardening process made it possible, by
the removal of certain constituents from the soft oils, to convert
them into a hard stearine, more solid even than tallow, and
which could therefore be used for all purposes for which hard
fats only had hitherto been employed.
Again, only American cotton-seed had till then been regarded
as capable of producing an edible oil. This was due not so
much to anything in the seed itself, but to the processes used in
manufacture. American cotton-seed, being " white " or " fuzzy,"
had to be decorticated before crushing, i.e. the whole of the
husk or hull, with the short fuzz adhering thereto, was sep-
arated from the meat or kernel, and the latter alone was
crushed. In the case of the black Egyptian seed, however,
which has practically no fuzz, and to a certain extent also Bom-
bay or Indian cotton-seed, which has only a short fuzz, the whole
seed was crushed, including the black hull; but the latter gave
the oil a very dark colour, and in order to remove this certain
chemicals had to be employed which left a distinct flavour in
the refined oil, and this was thought to debar it entirely from
use for edible purposes. Many other vegetable oils for other
reasons were in a similar position; but the discovery of a process
of deodorizing oils by blowing superheated steam through them
made it possible to remove all objectionable flavour from almost
any kind of vegetable oil.
The adoption of these two processes has gone far to revolu-
tionize the relative values of the different vegetable-oil seeds, as
now practically any kind of vegetable oil can be adapted for
almost any purpose, either for culinary purposes or as a hard
fat. They have also made it possible to use oils which hitherto
had not been usable at all for either of these purposes.
During the same period considerable further knowledge has
been gained as to the use of cotton-seed meal and cake for feed-
ing purposes. A great deal has been done, by the combined use of
different cakes possessing counteracting qualities, to make it
possible to use certain cakes, such as Bombay, for purposes for
which it had not formerly been thought suitable, e.g. Bombay
or Indian cotton-seed cake was thought to be too astringent for
cattle if used alone, but if given along with linseed or turnips,
which possess laxative qualities, a good result can be obtained
from the combination. Again, much has been learned as to the
advantages of using particular cakes for special purposes; thus
linseed cake was found to be the best for feeding cattle for the
butcher, while Egyptian cotton-seed cake was looked upon as
better than Bombay for dairy cattle.
Further future developments arc indicated by the invention
of a new method of removing from white cotton-seed, such as
American, after the ordinary process of delinting, an additional
supply of short fuzz in such a condition that it can be advanta-
geously used for many purposes, such as paper-making, guncot-
ton, artificial silk, etc. Indeed, this process of economizing by-
products has gone still further, for a plant has within recent
years been erected in America which, by a similar process,
removes the final remaining short fuzz from the cracked hulls
after decortiration, and even these have been put to good use
for similar purposes. (J. A. T.*)
COUPERUS, LOUIS (1863- ), Dutch writer, was born
at The Hague June 10 1863, a member of a family of Scottish
origin, banished from Scotland for political reasons in the i6th
century. His early boyhood was spent in the Dutch East
Indies, where his father was a prominent Government official.
His first novel Eline Vere, written under the influence of
Tolstoy, appeared in 1889 and was followed by Noodlot (The
Footsteps of Fate) in 1894 and Exlaze, the first of his novels to be
translated into English (1892). He next produced certain imag-
inative and idealistic works, such as Majesteil (1895) and several
volumes of prose poems. But the work by which he is best known
in the English-speaking world is the series of " Books of the
Small Souls, " four novels entitled Die Kleine Zielen (The
Small Souls), Het Late Leven (The Later Life), Zielenschemering
(The Twilight of the Soul), Het Hclge Wctcn (Eng. version
Dr. Adriaan) which, together with Van Oude Menschen, de
dingen de worbijgaan (Old People aitd the Things that Pass,
Eng. version 1919) raised him to the first rank of European
novelists. In this record of an ancient crime, buried deep in the
hearts of the aged pair of lovers who committed it, and yet poison-
ing the lives of their descendants to the third and fourth genera-
tion, there is the austerity and inevitability of Aeschylean trag-
edy. Couperus travelled much in Greece and Italy and embodied
his classical researches in historical romances such as De Berg
nan Licht (The Mountain Light) and its successor De Komedian-
tcn (The Comedians), and mythological romances such as Dio-
nysos (1905) and Herakles (1913), as well as volumes of essays,
sketches and short stories. The greater part of his work has
been rendered into English by A. Teixeira de Mattos. His his-
torical novel Iskandcr (concerning Alexander the Great) appeared
in 1020.
COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN . (1842-1917) (see 7.327),
died at Wadhurst, Sussex, April 10 1917. He published a selec-
tion from Martial's Epigrams in 1914, and a volume of verse,
The Country Town and other Poems, with a prefatory Memoir
of him by A. O. Prickard, appeared in 1920.
See also J. \V. Mackail, W. J. Courtlwpe (1919).
COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY, BARON (1832-
1918) (see 7.328), died in London on May n 1918. His brother,
WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY, died in London Nov. 14 1913.
COURTRAI, BATTLE OF (1918): see YPRES and YSER BATTLES.
COVENTRY, ENGLAND (see 7.342). Pop. (1911) 106,349,
showing an extremely rapid increase of 52% over that
of 1901. The normal engineering industries of Coventry were
almost entirely transformed during the World War to munition
production, which was carried on on a vast scale, and to the
construction of aeroplanes, tanks, and guns. Among special
industries newly established are the making of artificial silk
and of telephone and other electrical apparatus. In order to meet
the needs of an unusually rapid development, parliamentary
powers were obtained in 1920 for the widening of several narrow
streets and for the construction of two new arterial roads in the
centre of the city. A new council house costing 100,000 was
completed in 1917 and officially opened in 1920, and three branch
public libraries were opened in 1913. The I4th century tower
of Holy Trinity church was restored at a cost of 9,000 in 1918-
20, and the I4th century Guildhall was in process of restoration
in 1921. Coventry was created a separate diocese in 1918, the
church of St. Michael being constituted into a cathedral.
COWDRAY, WEETMAN DICKINSON PEARSON, IST VIS-
COUNT (1856- ), was born at Shelley Woodhouse, Yorks.,
July 15 1856, and educated privately at Harrogate. He
entered the family firm of S. Pearson & Co., contractors,
ultimately becoming its head. Under him the firm greatly
extended, undertaking many important contracts and acquir-
ing large interests in Mexico and South America. In 1892
he unsuccessfully contested Colchester in the Liberal interest,
but in 1895 was elected for the same seat, which he held until
COX CRAM
771
1910. In 1894 he was created a baronet, and in 1910 was raised
to the peerage. He was in 1917 made president of the Air Board,
and the same year was created a viscount. He was elected Lord
Rector of Aberdeen University in 1918.
COX, JAMES MIDDLETON (1870- ), American politician,
was born near Jacksonburg, O., March 31 1870. He was edu-
cated in the common schools, worked in a newspaper office,
for a short time was a country school teacher, and later be-
came a reporter on the Cincinnati Enquirer. Afterwards he
went to Washington as secretary to Congressman Paul Sorg,
of Ohio. On the latter's retirement he decided to enter again the
newspaper field. In 1898 he purchased the Dayton News and
five years later the Springfield Press- Republic, subsequently
named the Daily News, these papers being known thereafter as
the Newspaper League of Ohio. From 1909 to 1913 he was a
member of Congress from the Dayton district and served on the
Appropriations Committee. He was an active opponent of the
Payne-Aldrich tariff measure. He was elected governor of Ohio
for the term 1913-15, was defeated for the following term,
then was reelected twice in succession (1917-21). At the
time of his third election he was the only Democrat to be returned
to state office, even the lieutenant-governor being Republican,
and two-thirds of the congressional districts went Republican.
In 1916 he was delegate-at-large to the Democratic National
Convention. His career as governor was notable. Among the
many reforms introduced under his guidance were a workmen's
compensation law; a survey of occupational diseases with recom-
mendations for health insurance; the elimination of the sweat-
shop; the establishment of a state industrial commission for
dealing with questions of labour and capital; the provision of a
minimum wage and a nine-hour day for women; mothers'
pensions; ratification of the proposed woman suffrage amend-
ment; the budget system for state expenditures; pure food laws;
a " blue sky " law for protecting investors from unscrupulous
promoters; the initiative and referendum; a Corrupt Practices
Act; the indeterminate sentence for convicts; improvement of
rural schools; the establishment of a state tuberculosis hospital
and the extension of safety devices on railways and in mines.
Many of these reforms were followed as models by other states.
He was energetic in suppressing violence in connexion with strikes,
his general policy being to hold local authorities responsible
without recourse to the state militia. In at least one case he
removed a mayor who had called for state troops. He favoured
abolishing the Federal inheritance tax, believing that the state
alone should have jurisdiction over inheritances. He opposed
the excess profits tax but maintained that a small tax should be
laid " on the volume of business of a going concern." He was a
strong supporter of President Wilson's policies and especially
of the League of Nations. He was often charged with opposing
prohibition but repeatedly declared that all laws must be en-
forced. At the Democratic National Convention in 1020 he had
from the beginning strong support for the presidential nomina-
tion. On the first ballot he stood third (with 134 votes); on the
seventh ballot second (with 2955 votes); on the twelfth ballot
first (with 404 votes); on the thirtieth ballot he dropped to
second (with 4005 votes); on the thirty-ninth vote he again
stood first (with 468 j votes) ; and continued to gain thereafter
until he was nominated on the forty-fourth ballot. Following
his nomination he " stumped " the country, making the League
of Nations the prominent issue but was overwhelmingly defeated
by Warren G. Harding, the Republican nominee. The electoral
vote was 404 for Harding and 127 for Cox. The popular vote
was 16,138,900 for Harding and 9,142,000 for Cox. The vote in
Ohio, the home state of both candidates, was 1,182,000 for
Harding and 780,000 for Cox. The magnitude of the defeat,
unprecedented in American history, was generally considered
as due in part to the unwarranted character of the charges made
by Cox himself during the campaign, but chiefly to a widespread
revolt against the recent course of President Wilson, whose
policies Cox upheld.
COX, KENYON (1856-1919), American painter (see 7.353),
died in New York, March 17 1919. In 1910 he was awarded the
medal of honour for mural painting by the Architectural League.
In 1911 he published The Classic Point of View, being lectures
delivered that year before the Chicago Art Institute. Other
works are Artist and Public (1914, largely reprints from period-
icals); Window Homer (1914) and Concerning Painting (1917).
COZENS-HARDY, HERBERT HARDY COZENS-HARDY, isx
BARON (1838-1920), English lawyer and Master of the Rolls, was
born at Letheringsett Hall, Dereham, Norfolk, Nov. 22 1838,
the son of William Cozens-Hardy, a Nonconformist solicitor in
large practice at Norwich. He was educated at Amersham school
and afterwards at London University, where he took his degree
in 1858. He was called to the bar in 1862, and built up a large and
very successful connexion, chiefly in Nonconformist and Liberal
circles. He became a Q.C. in 1882, and was raised to the bench
in 1899. In 1885 he was returned as Liberal member for Nor-
folk, retaining the seat until 1899. In 1901 he was made a lord
of appeal, and in 1907 Master of the Rolls. In August 1913 he
was appointed one of the three commissioners of the great seal
during the absence of Lord Chancellor Haldane in Canada.
In 1914 he was raised to the peerage, and in 1918 resigned the
office of Master of the Rolls, being succeeded by Lord Swinfen.
He died at Letheringsett Hall June 18 1920.
CRACKANTHORPE, MONTAGU HUGHES (1832-1913), Eng-
lish lawyer, was born at Nowers, Som., Feb. 24 1832, the son of
Christopher Cookson of Nowers. The name of Crackanthorpe
was assumed by him in 1888 on succeeding to the estate of New-
biggin, Westmoreland. He was educated at Merchant Taylors'
school and St. John's College, Oxford, when he took his degree
in classics in 1854, winning the Eldon law and University mathe-
matical scholarships. He was called to the bar in 1859, and soon
became well known not only as a barrister but as a keen student
of criminology. He became a Q.C. in 1875, and from 1893 to
1899 was standing counsel to Oxford University. He took much
interest in eugenics, and was president of the Eugenics Education
Society from 1909 to 1911. He published Population and Prog-
ress (1907). He died in London Nov. 16 1913.
CRADOCK, SIR CHRISTOPHER GEORGE FRANCIS MAU-
RICE (1862-1914), British admiral, was born at Hartforth,
Yorks., July 2 1862, the son of Christopher Cradock. He entered
the navy at the age of 13 and saw service in Egypt both in 1882
and again in the Soudanese expedition of 1891. He commanded
the British Naval Brigade at the capture of the Taku forts and
the relief of Peking (1900). He more than once performed person-
al feats of gallantry in saving life at sea and showed himself
a bold and fearless leader in action. He was promoted captain
after Taku, and rear-admiral in 1910. In 1912 he was granted the
K.C.V.O. He published Sporting Notes in the Far East (1889);
Wrinkles in Seamanship (1894) and Whispers from the Fleet
(1907). Early in the World War he was given command of a
British squadron in the Pacific consisting of the cruisers " Good
Hope " (flagship) and " Monmouth," the armed merchantman
" Otranto " and the light cruiser " Glasgow." His squadron
was attacked off the coast of Chile (Nov. i 1914) by five Ger-
man warships, the " Scharnhorst," " Gneisenau," " Leipzig,"
" Dresden " and " Niirnberg." Thqjigh inferior in speed and gun-
power he decided to attack. The " Monmouth " was sunk and
the " Good Hope " was blown up whilst making for shore,
Admiral Cradock going down with the ship.
CRAM, RALPH ADAMS (1863- ), American architect,
was born at Hampton Falls, N.H., Dec. 16 1863. He was edu-
cated at the Westford (Mass.) Academy and the Exeter (N.H.)
high school. He studied architecture in a Boston office, was for a
time art critic on the Boston Transcript and in 1889 opened an
architect's office in Boston. He had a profound knowledge of
mediaeval architecture and was an able advocate of the Gothic
style, employed by him in many church and college buildings.
Examples of his successful ecclesiastical work include St. Thomas's
church, New York; Calvary church, Pittsburgh; St. Paul's
cathedral, Detroit; the Fourth Presbyterian church, Chicago;'
and St. Alban's cathedral, Toronto. He was consulting architect
for the cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York. He designed
buildings for the Princeton graduate school, Sweet Briar College
772
CRAMP CROCE
(Va.), the Rice Institute (Texas), Williams College, Williams-
town, Mass., and Phillips Academy at Exeter, N.H. In 1903
his plans were accepted for remodelling the U.S. Military Acad-
emy. In 1914 he was appointed professor of Architecture at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
His numerous writings include Church Building (1901); The
Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain (1905); Impressions of Japanese
Architecture and the Allied Arts (1906); the Gothic Quest (1907);
The Ministry of Art (1914); Heart of Europe (1915); The Substance
of Gothic (1916, Lowell lectures); The Nemesis of Mediocrity (1918);
The Great Thousand Years (1918); The Sins of the Fathers (1919);
Walled Towns (1919) and Gold, Frankincense, and Myrrh (1919).
CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY (1828-1913), American ship-
builder (see 7.363), died in Philadelphia June 6 1913.
CRAMP, CONCEMORE THOMAS (1876- ), British Labour
politician, was born at Staplehurst, Kent, on March 19 1876.
He left school at the age of 12, and worked as a boy gardener
to the local squire. At the age of 18 he left his native village
and obtained employment as a gardener outside Portsmouth.
In 1896 at the age of 21 he joined the service of the Midland
Railway at Shipley, near Bradford, as a porter at i6s. a
week of seven days of 12 hours each. He was later transferred
to Masboro', then to Sheffield, and promoted to a passenger
guard. He joined the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants
and first appeared as a delegate at its Birmingham all grades
conference, 1907. Later he became delegate to the annual general
meeting of the A.S.R.S. and in 1911 was elected to represent his
district on the executive committee. He was elected president
of the National Union of Railwaymen at the 1917 annual general
meeting. During the World War he became a member of several
Government committees including the Port and Transit Execu-
tive Committee, Committee on Adult Education, Consumers'
Council, and Railway Advisory Committee. He stood for
Parliament unsuccessfully as Labour candidate for Middles-
borough at the general election in 1918. He was appointed
Industrial General Secretary of the National Union of Railway-
men on Jan. i 1920 and became a member of the Executive
Committee of the Labour party.
CRANE, WALTER (1845-1915), English artist (see 7.366),
died at Horsham March 14 1915.
CRAWFORD AND BALCARRES, 26TH EARL OF (1847-1913),
British astronomer and orientalist (see 7.385), died in London
Jan. 31 1913. He was succeeded as 27th earl by his son David
Alexander Edward Lindsay (b. 1871), well known under his
former title of Lord Balcarres as an art critic and connoisseur.
He was appointed a trustee of the National Portrait Gallery,
and has published Donatella (1903), and The Evolution of
Italian Sculpture (1910). In 1916 he was included in Mr. Lloyd
George's Cabinet as President of the Board of Agriculture and
in 1921 became Lord President of the Council.
CREWE, ROBERT OFFLEY ASHBURTON CREWE-MILNES,
IST MARQUESS or, English statesman and writer (see 7.432),
remained leader of the House of Lords through Mr. Asquith's
first administration, and during the Coalition Government of
1915-6. Though he was npt Lord Granville's equal in the
difficult and delicate task of endeavouring to win the peers'
assent to a succession of unpalatable measures of Radical reform,
he contrived, by his courtesy and charm, to retain their liking
and respect throughout the critical period beginning with the
budget of 1909. He succeeded Lord Morley at the India Office
in Nov. 1910, and attended, as Secretary of State, the King
and Queen on their visit to India in the winter of 1911-2.
He was responsible for the high acts of policy announced at the
Delhi Durbar; the removal of the capital of India from Calcutta
to Delhi, and the reunion of the two Bengals under a Governor-
in-Council. At the coronation of King George he was promoted
to a marquessate. In the first Coalition Government he was
Lord President of the Council. He followed Mr. Asquith in
declining to take office under Mr. Lloyd George; and after his
resignation he continued to lead the independent Liberal op-
position in the Lords.
CRICKET: see SPORTS AND GAMES.
CRILE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1864- ), American
surgeon, was born at Chili, O., Nov. n 1864. After grad-
uating from Ohio Northern University (1884), he studied
medicine at Wooster University (M.D. 1887) and later at
Vienna, London and Paris. He taught at Wooster from 1889
to 1900. He was professor of Clinical Medicine at Western
Reserve University from 1900 to 1911, and was then made
professor of Surgery. During the Spanish-American War he was
made a member of the Medical Reserve Corps and served in
Porto Rico (1898). He was made an hon. F.R.C.S. (Lon-
don) in 1913. After America entered the World War he
became major in the medical O.T.C., and professional director
(1917-8). He served with the B.E.F. in France and was
senior consultant in surgical research (1918-9). He was
made lieutenant-colonel in June 1918 and colonel later in the
year. He made important contributions to the study of blood
pressure and of shock in operations. Realizing that any strong
emotion, such as fear before operation, produced shock, he
attempted to allay dread by psychic suggestion, also endeavour-
ing to prevent the subjective shock which affects the patient,
even when under general anaesthesia, by first anaesthetizing the
operative region with cocaine for several days, if necessary,
before operating. Thus nerve communication between the
affected part and the brain was already obstructed when the
general anaesthetic was administered (see Anoci- Association,
1914, with Dr. Wm. E. Lower). For his work in shockless surgery
he received a gold medal from the National Institute of Social
Sciences in 1914.
Among his works are: Surgical Shock (1897) ; On the Blood Pres-
sure in Surgery (1903) ; Hemorrhage and Transfusion (1909) ; Surgical
Anemia and Resuscitation (1914); The Origin and Nature of the
Emotions (1915); Man an Adaptive Mechanism (1916); A Mecha-
nistic View of War and Peace (1916) and The Fallacy of the German
State Philosophy (1918).
CROCE, BENEDETTO (1866- ), Italian philosopher and
statesman, was born at Pescasseroli, in the province of Aquila,
Italy, Feb. 25 1866. He came of a family that counted among
its members several jurists and magistrates. Born in the
part of Italy formerly known as Greater Greece, it may be
said of him without paradox that the development of his
mind and character represented a modern incarnation of all
that was subtle and profound in the Hellenic genius, linked with
the best and wisest tradition of Roman civilization and of the
Christianity that came to take its place. From the remote
township of his birth, however, the branch of the family to which
the philosopher belonged transferred itself soon afterwards to
Naples, so that, like his predecessor Vico, Benedetto Croce may
be correctly described as a Neapolitan. He studied at Rome and
in Naples, afterwards adopting the life of an independent student
and occupying himself especially with literary and with Neapoli-
tan history. Much of his work that bears upon that period of
youth is to be found in the volumes: La Rivoluzione Napolctana
del 1799; Saggi sulla letteratura italiana del Seicento; La Spagna
nclla vita italiana duranle la rinascenza; Storie e leggende na-
poletane. But Croce did not altogether neglect philosophy at
this period. Towards his thirtieth year the study of philosophy
and of history together occupied most of his attention. His
principal works are contained in four volumes comprised under
the general title Filosojia dello spirito: (i) Esteiica come scienza
dell' espressione e linguistica generate, (2) Logica come scienza
del concetto puro, (3) Filosofia della practica: economia ed etica
and (4) Teoria e storia della storiografia. These were pub-
lished between 1902 and 1913. With these may be mentioned
certain volumes of essays, among which are to be noted those
upon Historical Materialism and Marxist Economy (1896-1900);
upon Hegel (1905); upon Vico (1910); and the New Essays
upon Aesthetic (1920), which complete and carry further the
first Aesthetic.
Croce only took part in the administrative work of Naples
upon rare occasions and in moments of crisis. Daring the World
War he developed a polemic directed against democratic-
humanitarian conceptions and particularly those of President
CROCKETT CROMARTY
773
Wilson, whose influence on the peace settlement was regarded
by him as injurious to Italy. His writings on this subject have
been collected in a volume entitled Pagine sulla guerra (Naples,
1919). In June 1920, when the Giolitti Government was formed
with the programme of a reconstitution of the Italian State and
of radical reforms, Croce (who had bgen a senator of the Kingdom
of Italy since 1920) was asked to accept the office of Minister
of Public Instruction. He agreed conditionally upon his pro-
gramme being carried out. This programme was based upon
the idea of a liberal reconstruction: he aimed at the reduction
and simplification of the State schools combined with a more
rigorous method of teaching, and at affording all facilities to,
and indeed inviting the competition of, private instruction,
fearless of the confessional school, which in his view would be
compelled to modernize itself in order to maintain competition
with the State school. In 1921 he retired from office on the
resignation of the Giolitti Ministry.
It may be said of the philosophy of Benedetto Croce that it
has formulated the truth of the unity of the spirit in the form most
acceptable to the Western world. Its fundamental motive is the
serious consideration, in a continuous and concrete manner, of that
union of philosophy and history which had been glimpsed by earlier
thinkers, but had hitherto been pursued in a manner more or less
capricious. For Croce, the only knowledge is knowledge of the his-
tory, in its widest sense, both of men and of what is called nature,
or the history of the spirit. This knowledge, however, is by no
means positivistic or empirical, but on the contrary it is dialectical
and a priori synthetic, brought about by the spiritual categories; and
from it there constantly arise new problems, an ever new position
of the fundamental categories. The treatment and solution of these
problems is what is called " philosophy " in the strict sense of the
word, which for that reason coincides with methodology specu-
latively understood. In the treatment of the spiritual categories,
Croce laid special stress upon those which had been least elaborated
and least studied.
A vivid new light is shed by him upon certain problems, such for
instance as those of the imagination or intuition, the source of Art
and the theme of the Aesthetic, upon pure will, the source of Eco-
nomic of Rights and of Politics, treated by Economic. The more
precise determination and configuration of the categories and their
mode of acting, by means of which is negated and solved the con-
cept of an external reality and of nature placed outside the spirit and
opposed to it, led Croce to an absolute spiritualism, widely different
from the pan-logicism of Hegel and his school, which only seemed
to solve the dualism of spirit and nature and really opened the door
to the notion of a transcendental God, as became clear in the de-
velopment of Hegel's theory at the hands of the right wing of his
school. In the Philosophy of the Practical, but more especially in
the work entitled What is living and what is dead of the Philosophy
of Hegel Croce criticizes the erroneous treatment of the opposites,
and shows that on the contrary every opposition has at bottom a
distinction from which it arises, and that therefore the true unity is
unity-distinction, which is development and, as such, opposition
that is continuously surpassed and continually re-appearing to be
again surpassed. Another important conception connected with the
preceding is the infinity of philosophy, which arises out of history
and is as it were a reflection from history, varying at every moment
and always solving a problem by placing alongside its solution the
premise of a new history and therefore of a new problem and a new
philosophy. Croce's substitutes for the old formula " system "
the new formula " systematization." He thus admits that to
philosophize is to systematize, but holds that every systematization
is narrowly circumscribed, and is therefore to be solved and com-
pleted with ever new systematization. Thus scepticism and rela-
tivism are superseded by a historical philosophy, and the absoluteness
of truth is affirmed, but the notion of a definite truth is at the same
time both negated and satirized.
The philosophers from whom Croce learned most are Vico,
the author of the Scienza nuova, and Hegel, but the thought of all
other thinkers flows in his writings, in conformity with its historical
character, and for this reason may, for instance, be found in it traces
of some of Hegel's most active opponents, such as Herbart.
But the origin of the philosophy of Croce is the need, so keenly
felt in our time, of a philosophy that shall be both realistic and ideal-
istic, in which the fact will not drive out thought and thought will
not go beyond the fact: in short, of a philosophy of immanence.
The religious feature of this philosophy, against which has often
been brought the accusation of excluding religion, resides in the
consciousness of the unity of all and of the perpetual creation of the
world by the spirit, as though it were a poem that the spirit is
eternally composing, to which each individual contributes his
strophe, or it may be only his line or his word : this poem has its
end in itself and in its rhythm has beauty and joy, as well as labour
and sorrow. This conception sets us free from the antithesis of
optimism and pessimism.
Croce has elaborated the various philosophic sciences in treating
of the various theories to which they give rise, and he has completed
the doctrines with their history, either, as in the case of the Aesthetic,
with a masterly historical survey of previous speculation on the
subject, or in a more modest form in appendices. It is only possible
to allude briefly here to the different conclusions that he has at-
tained in treating the various problems, as for example in Aesthetic,
the unity of art and language, of intuition and expression, the
negation of particular arts, the refutation of literary and artistic
classes, the criticism of rhetoric, of grammar and so forth; and in
the Philosophy of the Practical or of Practice, the conciliation of the
antitheses of utilitarianism and moralism, the critique of precepts,
of laws and of casuistry, the new conception of judgments of value,
the constitution of a philosophic economy side by side with the
science of Economy, the resolution of the Philosophy of rights in the
Philosophy of economic, and so forth. It is important to note that
in conceiving philosophic studies to be all one with historical studies
and attaining to this unity in himself, he cultivated historical studies
to an equal extent with purely theoretical and speculative studies,
concentrating especially upon the history of thought and poetry.
Among his principal works upon these subjects may be noted the
four volumes of Letteratura delta nuova Italia (1860-1910) ; his essays
upon Goethe, Ariosto, Shakespeare, Corneille, and the Poetry of
Dante; his two volumes Storia della storiografia italiana del secolo
XIX and the collection of essays entitled Una famiglia di patrioti.
Croce, occupied with such studies as those mentioned, also
found time to edit numerous texts and miscellaneous collections and
composed many bibliographies, in addition to editing the Critica,
in many respects the profoundest and widest in scope of all the
European literary and philosophical reviews. In the work of this
review his chief collaborator was Giovanni Gentile, but Croce
contributed most of the literary and much of the philosophic
criticisms.
The works of Croce have been translated into many languages.
Douglas Ainslie was the first in Great Britain to draw attention to
his importance as one of the leaders of European thought, and made
him known in many articles and lectures both in Great Britain and
in America. He also translated and published the complete Philos-
ophy of the Spirit in four volumes (the Aesthetic, the Logic, the
Practical, with Macmillan; the Theory and History of Historio-
graphy, with Harrap). The work on Vico has been translated by
R. G. Collingwood, and that on Historical Materialism and Marxism
by C. M. Meredith, the What is living and what is dead of the Philos-
ophy of Hegel (Macmillan), and the Breviary of Aesthetic (Rice
Institute, Texas), the volume Shakespeare, Ariosto and Corneille
(Henry Holt & Co., New York), and the Poetry of Dante by Douglas
Ainslie.
Among the numerous studies of Croce may be mentioned Dr.
H. Wildon Carr's work The Philosophy of Benedetto Croce (Macmil-
lan), and the further development of the same in his essay Time and
History, where will be found a parallel and a distinction between
Croce and Bergson (Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. viii.);
and the very full and complete bibliography by G. Castellano,
Intrpduzione allo studio delle opere di B. Croce: Note bibliografiche e
critiche (Bari, Laterza, 1920).
Croce has himself composed a mental autobiography: Con-
tributo alia critica di me stesso (Naples, 1918, limited to one hundred
numbered copies for private circulation), and also a brief history of
his native place and of his family (Montenerodomo, storia di un co-
mune e di due famiglie, Bari, 1919), and another opuscule upon the
house in which he lives: Un angolo di Napoli (Naples, 1912).
(D. A.;G. C.)
CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD (1860-1914), Scottish
novelist (see 7.477), died at Avignon April 20 1914.
CROMARTY (see 7.483). Before the outbreak of the World
War the Cromarty Firth was surveyed as an advanced base
for the main battle fleet in the event of a war with Germany,
and the erection of defences at Cromarty was begun in 1912 and
had made considerable progress by the outbreak of war. When
the war began, Scapa Flow (see SCAPA FLOW) was adopted as the
chief naval base because of the more restricted space of the
Cromarty Firth and in view of the unsuitability of the narrow
single entrance to the firth for sweeps into the North Sea and for
the guarding of the northern exits. The existence of an anti-
submarine defence made Cromarty important in the early
months of the war. It was used throughout the war as a coaling
station and was one of the nine " Trawler Stations " under the
control of the Admiral of Patrols. Cruiser squadrons, with their
destroyer flotillas, used Cromarty as their base, and it was from
Cromarty that the " Invincible " and " Inflexible " started for
the battle of the Falklands. One of the most serious naval
disasters of the war occurred in the harbour of Cromarty on
Dec. 30 191 5, when the armoured cruiser " Natal " was destroyed
by an accidental explosion.
774
CROMER CROZIER
CROMER, EVELYN BARING, IST EARL OF (1841-1917),
British statesman and diplomatist (sec 7.484). Lord Cromer's
life was prolonged for nearly ten years after his return from
Egypt; and, in spite of enfeebled health, culminating in a serious
illness in 1914 from which he never completely recovered, he took
an important share in political, social and literary movements at
home. He was constant in his attendance in the House of Lords,
and indefatigable in the work of its committees; he was a leading
member of the free trade section of the Unionist party; he was
active in opposition to female suffrage, and in combating anti-
vivisection propaganda. Besides publishing his two volumes of
Modern Egypt, he composed several addresses and pamphlets,
wrote frequently for the periodicals, and from 1312 onwards was
a regular contributor of signed articles and reviews of books to the
Spectator his vigorous and informed writing becoming an
attractive feature of the paper. When the British Protectorate of
Egypt was proclaimed, he completed his history of the modern
development of that country in afemall volume entitled A bbas II. ,
containing matter which it would have been indiscreet to publish
so long as Abbas remained Khedive. While he was forward in
promoting the study of Oriental languages, his strongest affec-
tion was for the Greek and Latin classics with which he had only
become acquainted in mature life; he became president of the
Classical Society, and endowed a Greek prize for the British
Academy. In the critical period of which the main features were
the budget of 1909 and the Parliament bill of 1911, Lord Cromer
played an energetic part. He failed to prevent the rejection of
the budget by the House of Lords; but he was successful in his
untiring efforts to persuade moderate Unionist and cross-bench
peers to counter the " Die-hard " movement, and to vote for
the Parliament bill rather than force the Government to swamp
the House by an unlimited creation. It was in the performance
of another patriotic duty, during the World War, that he met
his death. In spite of age and indifferent health he accepted the
laborious and invidious task of chairman of the special com-
mission to inquire into the abortive Dardanelles operations.
The sittings occupied the autumn of 1916, and while engaged
on the draft report he was seized in Dec. with an attack of
influenza. Before he had recovered, he resumed the work of the
commission, which completely broke him down. He died a few
weeks after the beginning of the new year. Seldom has there
been a life more singly and successfully devoted to the good of
his country.
See Lord Sanderson's Memoir of Evelvn, Earl of Cromer (1917).
(G. E. B.)
CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS (1840-1911), Boer general (see
7.501), died at Klerksdorp. Transvaal, Feb. 4 1911
CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM (1832-1919), English chemist
and physicist (see 7.501), died in London April 4 1919. He was
given the O.M. in 1910.
CROOKS, WILLIAM (1852-1921), British Labour politician,
was born at Poplar April 6 1852. After spending his early
years in the workhouse of which he afterwards became chair-
man of the Board of Guardians, he started work at the age
of 14 as a cooper's apprentice, and soon became an ardent trade
unionist. His long career of public work began in 1882, when he
was made trustee of the parish of Poplar and Library Com-
missioner. In 1802 he became a member of the L.C.C., on which
he worked continuously for 28 years. From 1898 to 1906 he was
chairman of the Poplar Board of Guardians, and in 1901 mayor
of Poplar. In 1903 he entered Parliament for Woolwich, and,
except for one short interval in 1910, continued to represent that
constituency until his resignation in 1921. On the outbreak of
the World War he entered wholeheartedly into the work of
recruiting and in 1916 he was made a Privy Councillor. Con-
tinued ill-health compelled his retirement from politics in
Feb. 1921, and he died in Poplar hospital on June ^ 1921.
CROTHERS, SAMUEL McCHORD (1857- ), American cler-
gyman and author, was born at Oswego, 111., June 7 1857.
He was educated at Princeton (A.B. 1874), Union Theological
Seminary (1874-7), and the Harvard Divinity School (1881-2).
Ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1877 he was a pastor
in Nebraska, Nevada, and California (1877-81). He became a
Unitarian minister in 1882, called to Brattleboro, Vt. (1882-6),
St. Paul, Minn. (1886-94), and Cambridge, Mass, (since 1894).
An inspiring preacher and a very popular puBlic speaker, he
won a still wider audience by his essays, which recall the quaint
humour of Charles Lamb.
Among his best known volumes are: The Gentle Reader (1903);
The Understanding Heart (1903); The Pardoner's Wallet (1905);
The Endless Life (1905); By the Christmas Fire (1908); Oliver
Wendell Holmes and His Fellow Boarders (1909); Among Friends
(1910); Humanly Speaking (1912); Three Lords of Destiny (1913);
Meditations on Votes for Women (1914) and Pleasures of an Absentee
Landlord (1916).
CROWDER, ENOCH HERBERT (1859- ), American sol-
dier, was born in Missouri April n 1859. He graduated from
the U.S. Military Academy in 1881 and while detailed as
commandant at the university of Missouri won in 1886 the de-
gree of LL.B. in the law school. He was appointed major judge-
advocate in 1895. He served in the Philippine Islands (1898-
1901), was observer with the Japanese army in Manchuria
(1904-5), and was in Cuba as Secretary of State and Justice
(1906-8). He was provost-marshal general from May 1917 to
July 1919, and as such had full control of the U.S. machinery of
conscription in the World War, which he conducted witn
much success. He was reappointed judge-advocate general in
1919, and the same year invited by the Government of Cuba to
advise in connexion with changes in the election legislation
there. General Crowder was recognized as an exceptionally
authoritative legal adviser in military affairs. In his book
The Spirit of the Selective Service (1920), he described the
method whereby within 18 months after America had entered
the World War 2,000,000 men were in France, almost as many
more were in cantonments, and altogether no fewer than 24,000,-
ooo had been registered and classified.
CROZIER, JOHN BAPTIST (1853-1920), Protestant Arch-
bishop of Armagh, was born at Ballyhaise, co. Cavan, Ireland,
April 8 1853. After a distinguished career at Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, where he took his degree in 1872, he was or-
dained in 1876. From 1885 to 1897 he was vicar of Holywood,
co. Down. In 1896 he became honourable secretary of the General
Synod of the Church of Ireland, becoming in the same year a
canon of St. Patrick's cathedral. In 1897 he was elected Bishop
of Ossory, was translated in 1907 to the see of Down, and in 1911
succeeded Dr. Alexander as Archbishop of Armagh and Primate
of All Ireland. In 1912 he took a conspicuous part in the agita-
tion against the Home Rule bill, and presided over the monster
meeting of Unionists held at Balmoral, Belfast, on Easter Tues-
day. In the Irish Convention of 1917-8, he and Dr. J. H.
Bernard (then Archbishop of Dublin), represented the Church
of Ireland. At the close of the Convention the Archbishop
joined Dr. Mahaffy, the provost of Trinity, in presenting a mi-
nority report advocating a solution of the Irish question on the
lines of the Swiss federalism. He died at Armagh April i 1920.
CROZIER, JOHN BEATTIE (1840-1921), British philosopher,
was born at Gait, Can., of Scottish parentage April 23 1849.
He was educated at the local grammar school, where he won
a scholarship to Toronto University, which he was, however,
obliged soon to surrender owing to ill-health. He returned to
the university four years later and took a course in medicine,
graduating in 1.872. He then came to England, bought a prac-
tice in London, and began a systematic study of philosophy
and economics. His first publication, The Religion of the Future
(1880), attracted little attention; but Civilisation and Progress
(1885) reached a 4th edition and was translated into Japanese.
His History of Intellectual Development (1897-1901) was followed
by the grant of a Civil List pension, some compensation for
failing eyesight and the loss of his medical practice. His further
publications included My Inner Life, an autobiography (1898)^
The Wheel of Wealth (1906); Sociology applied to Practical
Politics (1911) and Last Wora"s on Great Issiws (1917). He died
in London Jan. 8 1921.
CROZIER CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
775
CROZIER, WILLIAM (1855- ), American soldier (see
7.520), was detailed in 1912 as president of the Army War
College and the following year was reappointed chief of ordnance
with the rank of brigadier-general. He was made major-general,
chief of ordnance, U.S.A., in 1017, and the provision of muni-
tions in the World War was under his charge until Dec. 1917.
He was then made a member of the War Council, and in the
discharge of this office was in France and Italy for the first
half of 1918. For the remainder of the year he was commandant
of the N.E. Department, U.S.A., retiring from active service in
December.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY (sec 7.569). The geometry of the ex-
ternal forms of crystals may be said to have been completely
worked out. The 32 crystal-classes differing from one another
in their type and degree of symmetry and the six crystal-systems
into which these classes can be grouped are now well established.
The same is also true of the geometrical conceptions of the in-
ternal structure of crystals (though a good general account is
still wanting). It is known that there are 230 possible types of
homogeneous point-systems and that these are referable to 14
kinds of space-lattices. Recent work has been in the direction of
attempting to trace a connexion between the internal structure
of crystals and their chemical constitution. Here there is ample
scope for speculation; but since 1912, when X rays provided a
new method of investigation, some real advance has been made.
By this method it is possible not only to determine the internal
structure of crystals, but also actually to measure the distance
between the atoms.
Crystals consist of a homogeneous assemblage of particles,
and these particles are marshalled in certain definite ways. The
grouping around any one particle (except those on the bounda-
ries of the crystal) is the same as that around every other par-
ticle of the same kind. Further, the particles are arranged at
regular intervals along straight lines. Throughout the structure
there are several parallel sets of such lines, and these lie in several
parallel sets of planes also at regular intervals apart.
An example of such a structure is the simple cubic space-lattice
represented in fig. I. Here the particles (all of the same kind) are
placed at equal distances, say a, along parallel lines in three sets at
right angles; the distance between the parallel lines in each plane
and between the parallel planes of lines being also a. That is, the
particles are situated at the points of intersection of a system of
lines that form a square network or lattice in three dimensions. Or
the structure may be regarded as a stack of small cubes each with a
quarter of a particle at every corner; the four adjoining cubes at each
corner then providing the whole particle. In this grouping, any one
particle is surrounded by a set of 6 similar particles at distance a;
further, it is surrounded by 12 particles at distance V2<i (i.e. the
diagonal of the square); and by 8 other particles at distance V3<i
(i.e. the diagonal of the cube).
It is clear from fig. I that the three sets of lines are parallel to
the edges of the cube, and that they lie in planes parallel to the faces
of the cube. But it is to be noticed that the particles also lie in other
sets of parallel lines, and that these lines fall in other sets of parallel
planes. Certain of these additional lines and planes of particles are
represented more prominently in fig. 2, which is drawn on a smaller
scale with a larger number of particles (but to avoid confusion only
those on the surface of the solid are marked). In this figure the three
front edges of a portion of the main cube are truncated by planes
of the rhombic-dodecahedron, and one corner has been cut off
symmetrically by a face of the octahedron. (Since the octahedron
face intersects both the cube and the rhombic-dodecahedron faces,
its outline is hexagonal.) It will be seen that the several layers of
particles parallel to any one of these faces are continuous over the
other faces, although the particles themselves are ranged along lines
of different directions. Hundreds of different planes of particles
can, in fact, be traced out in such a structure; and it is important to
remember that these structure planes are parallel to possible external
faces on the crystal. A close relation exists between the Millerian
indices of these faces and the number of particles along certain
lines in the corresponding planes. The dotted lines on the front cube
face in fig. 2 represent the intersections or traces of such planes with
the indices: (ill), (2ii),_(3ii), etc.; (221), (321), etc.; (331), (431),
etc. ; respectively for the lines from right to left. The seven planes of
which the indices have just been given necessitate by symmetrical
repetition the presence of 93 other structure planes, or, in all, 200
external crystal faces.
It will be further seen from a study of fig. 2 that the spacing
between the particles is not the same on each of the faces (allowance
being made for foreshortening in the drawing: only on the front
cube face are the particles represented at their true distance apart).
On the cube faces the distances each way are, of course, a. On the
faces of the rhombic-dodecahedron they are spaced at distance a
in one direction, but along the second direction at right angles at
distance V2a. On the octahedral face there is, instead of a rec-
tangular grouping, a triangular and hexagonal pattern with the
particles spaced at distances V2a in three directions. It follows
therefore that the number of particles on each of the faces is not the
same for equal areas. The network of particles is closer on the cube
face than on the rhombic-dodecahedron, and more open on the
octahedron. This " reticular density " of the different faces is a
question of importance and is closely related to the cleavage of
crystals. Minerals with cubic cleavage (e.g. rock-salt and galena)
would be expected to be of this structure.
In addition to the spacing of the particles in the planes, there is
also to be considered the distances between the planes themselves.
This is represented in fig. 3 by mea-ns of vertical sections through the
structure (fig. 2) perpendicular to the respective planes. In fig. 33
the spaces between the cube planes is, of course, a, and the particles
are also spaced at distance a; the pattern being, in fact, that on a
cube face perpendicular to the first. In fig. 3b the distance be-
tween the rhombic-dodecahedron planes is given by half the diagonal
of the cube face, namely a / V2, and the particles are at distances a
apart. Here, however, the section-plane intersects lines of particles
only in alternate rhombic-dodecahedron planes. In fig. 3c the
distance between octahedron planes is given by one-third the
diagonal of the cube, namely a / V3 ; and the particles are at distance
V6a apart along the traces of the octahedron planes, though only at
distances a or V2a across these planes. (In figs. 3b and 3c the sec-
tion-plane is the same, since it is perpendicular to both the rhombic-
dodecahedron and the octahedron, and the particles intersected are
also the same; but to avoid confusion in the drawing the two sets of
planes are separated in the two figures.) Other section-planes could,
of course, be drawn perpendicular to the planes in question, but,
whilst the distances between the planes would be the same, the
spacing of the particles would be different.
In addition to the simplest type of cubic lattice discussed in some
detail above, there are two other types. The three are represented
together for comparison in fig. 4. In fig. 4b there is an additional
point at the centre of each cube this may be called the centred
cubic lattice; and in fig. 4c there are additional points at the centre
of each face, giving the face-centred cubic lattice. The different
relations afforded by these types need not be discussed here. But it
may be pointed out that in the centred cubic lattice the greatest
reticular density is in the rhombic-dodecahedron planes, whilst in
the face-centred cubic lattice the particles are most closely packed
in the octahedron planes. These would be expected to correspond
to cubic crystals showing rhombic-dodecahedral and octahedral
cleavage (e.g. zinc-blende and fluor-spar) respectively.
Types of lattices other than the cubic are deduced by varying the
distances of the particles along the different axes and by varying the
angles between these axes, in a manner similar to that in which the
six crystal-systems are deduced. In fact the elements of the ele-
mentary cells of the lattice, namely the lengths and inclination of
their edges, are identical (except in certain cases) with the para-
meters a:b:c and the axial angles a, /3 and 7 deduced from the ex-
ternal crystal faces.
The " particles " referred to above may be crystal molecules,
chemical molecules, or even atoms. They are represented in the
diagrams as spots without committing ourselves as to their shape or
size (in relation to their distance apart). Some authors represent
them as spheres in contact with one another, regarding these as
the spheres of influence of each atom. If the spheres are of equal
size, the number of points of contact and the closeness of the packing
will vary with the type of lattice. Or again, we may regard the par-
ticles (all of the same size) as completely filling space. In this
case the particles in the simple cubic lattice will be cubes, each
in contact with six other cubes; in the centred cubic lattice they are
cubp-octahedra with 14 surfaces of contact ; and in the face-centred
cubic lattice they are rhombic-dodecahedra with 12 surfaces of
contact.
The above outline of the geometrical structure of crystals
has been necessary for the purpose of introducing the new X-ray
methods of investigating the internal structure of crystals.
X rays, or Rb'ntgen rays, are propagated as waves in the same
manner as rays of ordinary light, but they are of much smaller
wave-length. The wave-length of yellow (sodium) light is
0-0000589 cm. (i.e. of the order io~ b cm.), whilst the wave-
lengths of X rays are of the order to' 8 or io- 9 cm., or one thou-
sand to ten thousand times smaller. The very fine rulings of
parallel lines (about 7,000 to a cm.) of diffraction gratings being
of a magnitude (io- 4 cm.) comparable with the wave-lengths
of light, they produce well-known diffraction effects. It would
be impossible to produce mechanically a grating which would
77 6
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
be fine enough to diffract the much shorter X rays. But it
occurred to Dr. Max Laue, of Zurich, that the reticular structure
of crystals would supply the necessary grating, since the distances
between the atoms in the space-lattices are of the order icr 8 cm.
When, in 1912, this idea was put to the test a very surprising
result was obtained. Plates cut from crystals parallel to certain
faces were placed perpendicularly in the path of a thin pencil
of X rays, and beyond a photographic plate was exposed. The
resulting photograph (known as a Laue photograph or radiogram,
Rontgenogram or Rontgen pattern, or spot photograph) shows a
larger central spot representing the direct rays, whilst surrounding
it is a symmetrical pattern of smaller spots. The spots may also
be shown directly by projection on a screen of fluorescent mate-
rial. This pattern shows the same degree of symmetry as that on
the crystal face. Thus a plate from a hexagonal crystal of beryl
cut parallel to the basal plane (i.e. perpendicular to the principal
axis) shows a six-fold arrangement of spots symmetrical about
six radial lines at 30; whilst when the plate is cut parallel to a
prism face of the same crystal the spots are symmetrical about
two lines at right angles. Fig. 5 is a reproduction of an actual
photograph obtained by passing a pencil of X rays through a
basal cleavage plate, 0-81 mm. in thickness, of the pseudo-
rhombohedral chlorite, penninite. This photograph (after
H. Haga and F. M. Jaeger, 1915) is selected on account of its
comparative simplicity and the obvious three-fold arrangement
of the spots.
The results obtained with these Laue photographs were at first
explained as due to diffraction, but the problem is much more
complex than diffraction by a single system of parallel lines in one
plane, since we are here dealing with a lattice in three dimensions in
which there are many series of lines in many planes. As explained
by Sir William Bragg and his son Prof. W. L. Bragg in their
book (X-rays and Crystal Structure, London, 1915; 3rd ed., 1918) it
is due to the amplification of waves reflected from successive layers
of atoms within the crystal. In fig. 6 a beam of X rays AB, A'B',
A"B", all of the same wave-length X, strikes at a glancing angle
the planes of particles, the distances between which are d (cf. fig. 3).
They are reflected by successive planes as a single ray BC. Produce
A'B' to D (then BD is perpendicular to the planes) and draw B N
perpendicular to A'D. Then, since B'B=B'D and AB=A'N, the
length of path of the ray A'B'C is greater than that of the ray ABC
by the distance ND=2d sin 6. Similarly, A "B"C is longer than
A'B'C by the same amount. If, now, this distance is equal to the
wave-length of the rays, namely, if \ = 2d sin d, the rays reflected
by successive layers of particles will be vibrating in the same phase
and their amplitudes will be added together. If the glancing angle 9
be varied but slightly the reflections from the millions of layers will
vary in phase and they will mutually interfere. But at certain other
glancing angles 2 , 3 when 2\ = 2d sin 2 or 3\= 2d sin 03, there will
again be an accumulative effect, giving reflections of the second and
third orders. (See fig. 6.)
In the Bragg apparatus, called an X-ray spectrometer, homogene-
ous (" monochromatic ") rays from an X-ray tube emerge through a
narrow slit in a leaden screen and strike at a glancing angle the
crystal plate mounted on a goniometer. The reflected beam enters
an ionization chamber containing sulphur dioxide or methyl bromide
and connected with an electroscope. The crystal is slowly turned on
the goniometer until a maximum effect is noted in the electroscope,
when the angle is read. Plotting the readings of the electroscope
against those of the goniometer, a curve (X-ray " spectrum )
is obtained which shows a series of sharply defined maxima or
peaks corresponding to reflections of the first, second, and other
orders. Knowing the wave-length of the rays, the distance between
the planes of particles can then be calculated from the above funda-
mental equation; or alternatively, knowing the spacing of the
planes, the wave-length of the rays can be determined. As an ex-
ample, rays from a palladium anticathode (" palladium rays ")
were strongly reflected from the cube face of rock-salt when the
angle was 5-9, 11-85, and 18-15. Taking the spacing d between
the cube planes of rock-salt as 2-81 Xio- 8 cm., the wave-length X
is found to be 2X2-81 Xio- 8 sin 5-9 = 0-578X10-* cm., or 2\ =
2X2-81 Xio' 8 sin i-i85 = i-i54Xio- 8 cm.
To return now to an explanation of the spots shown by the
Laue photographs. Here, instead of homogeneous rays, the rays
employed are of mixed wave-lengths (as in white light). For such
a bundle of rays reflected by a certain set of parallel planes (as ex-
plained in fig. 6) there will be some of wave-length that will satisfy
the equation X = 2d sin 0, or at jeast n\ = zd sin n . There will then
be a reinforcement in the reflection of these rays from the particular
set of planes. Let fig. 7 represent a plate of beryl cut perpendicular
to the principal axis of the crystal, the upper and lower boundaries
in the figure being then parallel to the basal plane. The rows of
particles lie in the traces of two sets of planes respectively parallel to
two possible pyramidal faces of the crystal. Reflection from these
will yield two spots on the photographic plate. Now, according to
the hexagonal degree of symmetry possessed by beryl, there will
be 6 (or 12) similar sets of planes equally inclined to the vertical
axis, and corresponding to a hexagonal (or dihexagonal) pyramid;
consequently 6 (or 12) similar spots will appear on the photograph
equally distant from the centre. For other sets of 6 (or 12) planes
inclined at other angles to the vertical axis of the crystal, and parallel
to possible faces of hexagonal or dihexagonal pyramids, intensified
reflections will take place for rays of other wave-lengths. The result
will be a large number of spots on the photographic plate, but all of
them in sets of 6 (or 12) symmetrically grouped around the centre.
Some of these Laue photographs are highly complex in appearance,
but by analysis they can be reduced to simple crystallographic re-
lations. Since each spot represents a structural plane in the crystal
and also a possible external crystal-face, the series of spots lie in
zones and their Millerian indices can be deduced. Further, it will
be seen from fig. 7 that the distances of the spots from the centre
are in direct relation to the inclinations of the various planes. Fig. 8
(after H. Haga and F. M.Jaeger, 1915) shows plotted on a stereo-
graphic projection the series of spots of a Laue photograph on the
face (oio) of anhydrite. The spots are here symmetrical with
respect to two lines at right angles, corresponding with the ortho-
rhombic symmetry of the crystal. The zone-circles are drawn in
one-half of the diagram and the indices of the planes are given in
one-quarter. It is thus possible to deduce from the Laue photo-
graphs not only the zonal relations and indices of possible faces
(many of which have not been observed as actual faces), but also
the angles between these faces and the fundamental elements of the
crystal. This information can even be obtained from an irregular
fragment showing no external faces and of unknown orientation.
Such a fragment is mounted on a two-circle goniometer and a series
of Laue photographs taken in various positions; and a special
instrument is provided for the analysis of the series of photographs.
A further point to be noticed in the Laue photographs (figs. 5
and 8) is that the spots are of different sizes and intensities (though
spots repeated by the symmetry are, of course, identical). The
stronger reflections are from planes of greater reticular density and
indicate at once the important structural planes and the prominent
faces of the crystal.
A third method of investigation has been devised by P. Debye
and P. Scherrer in Germany in 1916, and independently by A. W.
Hull in the United States in 1917. Here a beam of homogeneous
(" monochromatic ") X rays of known wave-length is transmitted
through the finely powdered crystalline material, and the reflections
received on a photographic film. The tiny crystal fragments are in
all manner of orientations; and to further ensure all possible orien-
tations in the aggregate, the tube containing the small amount of
powder is rotated during the exposure. For structural planes with
the spacing d there are bound to be some of the particles in the posi-
tion shown in fig. 6 in which the equation \=2d sin is satisfied:
but these will be lying in all azimuths, i.e. sloping away in all direc-
tions at the angle from the axis of the rays. The reflected rays will
consequently lie on the surface of a cone, the angle of which is 40;
and, instead of a single spot, a continuous series of spots forming a
circle will appear in the photograph. Similarly, in other fragments
the same set of planes with spacing d may be inclined at angle 0j
giving a second order reflection as required by the equation 2\ = 2d
sin 02, and producing a wider-angled cone concentric with the
first. Further, other structural planes with spacing di and inclined
at other values of will be provided by other fragments, giving still
other conical reflections. Since, however, the experiment is per-
formed with rays of one wave-length, it is only certain values of d
that will satisfy the equation, so that the number of reflections is
really limited. Even with this limited number, there would appear
to be some difficulty in sorting out the -reflections of the different
orders and those from different structural planes. Since it is only the
angles of divergence of the concentric conical sheaths that are to be
measured, all that need be photographed is a narrow strip through
the centre. This strip is made semicircular, in order to embrace a
wide field of reflected cones. Knowing and X, the equation gives,
as in the Bragg method, the spacing d between the structural
planes of the crystal.
Although the Debye-Scherrer method may be regarded as a
modification of the Laue method, yet the results it gives are the
same as those given by the Bragg method, namely the spacing be-
tween the structural planes of the crystal. The Laue method gives
other supplementary information, but it is mainly on the spacing
between the planes of particles that ideas of structure arc built up.
A large amount of experimental work on crystals of different sub-
stances has been done in this direction, and deductions have been
drawn as to their probable atomic arrangement. In this place only
one or two examples can be briefly considered.
Rock-salt (sodium chloride) crystallizes in cubes and possesses a
perfect cleavage parallel to the faces of the cube. Plates cut parallel
to the faces of the cube (loo), the rhombic-dodecahedron (no), and
the octahedron (in) respectively give by the Bragg method
values for the spacing between the planes of particles in the ratio
of I : I/ V3 : 1/V 3. These ratios are the same as those ment ioned above
for the simple cubic space-lattice (figs. 1-3), and the conclusion
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
FlG. I. Simple Cubic Space-Lattice.
FIG. 2. Arrangement of Points on the Surface
of a Cubic Crystal. (Simple cubic lattice.)
FIG. 3. Vertical Sections Through the Structure (fig.j), showing:-
(a) Distance between cube planes.
(b) Distance between rhombic dodecahedron planes.
(c) Distance between octahedron planes.
FIG. 4. (a) Simple Cubic
Lattice.
(b) Centred Cubic
Lattice.
(c) Face-centred
Cubic Lattice.
FIG. 5. Laue X-ray Photograph Through the Basal
Plane of Penninite.
FIG. 8. Stereogram of Laue Photograph of Anhydrite on the Face (oio).
FIG. 6. Reflection of X Rays
by Planes of Particles.
FIG. 7. Reflection of X Rays by Planes
of Particles: production of spots
in the Laue photographs.
Kic. g. Structure of Rock-
salt (sodium and chlorine
atoms i n simple cubic space-
lattice) : or of Galena
(PbS>.
FIG. 10. "Diamond Lat-
tice "representing Diamond
when the atoms are all of the
same kind, or Zinc-blende
when of two kinds.
CSAKY CUBA
777
may be drawn that this represents the structure of rock-salt. The
two kinds of atoms, sodium and chlorine, may be placed alternately
along the three directions, as shown in fig. 9. As so represented the
structure may also be regarded as an interpenetration of two space-
lattices of the face-centred cubic type (fig. 40), with the sodium
atoms on one lattice and the chlorine atoms on the other. One
lattice can be brought into the position occupied by the other by a
parallel shift along a cube edge through the distance between two
consecutive planes. The actual distance between the cube planes,
and consequently also between the atomic centres, has been deter-
mined to be 2-81 X lo- 8 cm., or rather more than a hundred-millionth
of an inch. In the drawings, the scale of the lattice is enormously
enlarged and only an infinitesimal portion of the crystal is repre-
sented. Some idea of this may be conveyed by saying that if we
took a cubic inch of rock-salt and represented the whole of the
structure on the same scale as in fig. 9 the drawing would be rather
more than a thousand miles across. The same structure is also shown
by galena (lead sulphide, PbS), the crystals of which also possess a
perfect cubic cleavage : the two kinds of atoms shown in fig. 9 here
represent lead and sulphur. Other examples are potassium chloride,
potassium bromide, etc.
Examples of crystals with the structure of the centred cubic lat-
tice (fig. 4b) are those of the metals iron, sodium, tungsten, etc.
The face-centred cubic lattice (fig. 4c) is represented by crystals of
the metals copper, silver, gold, platinum, etc.
A special type of cubic lattice, known as the " diamond lattice,"
consists of another kind of interpenetration of two face-centred
lattices. In fig. 10, to avoid confusion, only one such lattice is
represented in detail the white particles clearly having positions
shown in fig. 4c. Four black particles belonging to the other lattice
are placed each at a centre of alternate sub-cubes in the first lattice.
Through the whole structure there are, of course, equal numbers of
the white and black particles. The positions of two more black par-
ticles are indicated in the next storey above of the white-particle
lattice. Now it will be seen that around each black particle there is
a tetrahedral arrangement of four white particles; and around each
white particle a tetrahedral arrangement of four black particles
(but, conversely, it is only alternate tetrahedral groups of each kind
that have a particle of the other kind at their centre). The front out-
lines of two of these tetrahedra are indicated in the figure. The
upper tetrahedron of four black particles has at its centre the white
particle in the centre of the top cube face; and one of these same
black particles is at the centre of the tetrahedron of white particles
at alternate corners of the upper, front, right-hand sub-cube. The
first tetrahedron can be brought into coincident position with the
second by sliding it downwards and forwards along one-quarter of
the diagonal of the cube, and then rotating it through 90 about a
cube edge. The same is also true of the whole lattice; i.e. one lattice
can be brought into exactly the position of the other by these two
successive operations. The symmetry of the whole model is that
of the tetrahedral class of the cubic system; but, in addition, the
two sets of particles are directed towards different directions.
Regarding the particles as spheres of equal size and in contact with
one another, then each one is touched by only four others, the latter
with a tetrahedral arrangement; much of the space is thus vacant,
and more spheres of the same size could be dropped into the larger
interspaces. Or again, if the particles (all of the same size) entirely
fill X space, they will have the form of regular tetrahedra the four
corners of which are each replaced by three faces of the rhombic-
dodecahedron (much as in fig. 33, vol. 7, p. 575, but with the faces
of the tetrahedron cut off to regular hexagons).
This type of structure is shown by diamond, silicon, grey tin, and
zinc-blende, and also by copper-pyrites (a tetragonal mineral, but
with very nearly cubic angles). In the first three, being chemical
elements, the atoms on the two lattices are of the same kind. In
diamond each carbon atom is surrounded tetrahedrally by four
others at a distance, between the centres, of 1-53 Xio- 8 cm. In
zinc-blende (ZnS) the, zinc atoms lie on one lattice, whilst the
sulphur atoms lie on the other. Since the two lattices are identical
and superposable, it is immaterial whether the black particles
represent sulphur or zinc atoms. In copper-pyrites (CuFeS2)
the sulphur atoms are said to lie on one lattice and the copper and
iron on the other; the copper and iron atoms being in alternate
horizontal layers perpendicular to the principal axis of the crystal.
It is, however, to be remarked that these three minerals, to which
the same type of structure is ascribed, exhibit marked differences in
their cleavages. Diamond has a perfect octahedral cleavage, zinc-
blende a perfect rhombic-dodecahedral cleavage, whilst copper-
pyrites has none. Again, the high density and the extreme hardness
of diamond would seem to suggest that there should be less un-
occupied space in the structure.
A fuller account is given in Bragg's book quoted above. A series
of excellent summaries of this and other matters relating to chemical
crystallography are given by T. V. Barker in the Annual Reports
of Progress of the Chemical Society (London, 1913 et seq.). In the
latter will also be found the best available account of the extraor-
dinary work of the Russian crystallographer, E. S. Fedorov, who
perished in Petrograd in 1919.
REFERENCES. A comprehensive and general treatise is A. E. H.
Tutton's Crystallography and Practical Crystal Measurement (London.
191 1 ; 2nd ed. 1921). A popular work of the same author is Crystals
(International Scientific Series, London 1911). Structure theories
are discussed by P. Niggli, Geometrische Krystallographie des Diskon-
tinuums (Berlin 1918); F. M. Jaeger, Lectures on the Principle oj
Symmetry (Amsterdam 1917; 2nd ed. 1920); J. Beckenkamp,
Statische und kinetische Kristalltheorien (Berlin 1915); see also
Bragg and Barker quoted above. Elementary text-books are:
T. L. Walker, Crystallography, an Outline of the Geometrical Proper-
ties of Crystals (New York 1914) in which the subject is treated
from the point of view of two-circle goniometry; Sir Wm. P. Beale,
An Amateur's Introduction to Crystallography from Morphological
Observations (London 1915); P. Groth, Elemenle der physikalischen
und chemischen Krystallographie (Munich 1921); J. Beckenkamp,
Leilfaden der Kristallographie (Berlin 1919). A collection of thou-
sands of drawings of crystals with critical lists of forms is given by
V. Goldschmidt, Atlas der Krystallformen (several 4to vols., in
progress, Heidelberg 1913, etc.). New crystal-forms together with
other crystallographic constants are listed in the international
Tables annuelles de constantes et donnees numeriques (4 vols., Paris
1912, etc.). An historical sketch of the early development of crystallog-
raphy is given by Helene Metzger, La genese de la science des cris-
taux (Paris 1918). (L. J. S.)
CSAKY, ALBIN, COUNT (1841-1912), Hungarian statesman,
was born on April 18 1841 at Krompach, in the county of Szepes,
and studied law at Kassa (Kaschau) and Budapest. Deputy
in 1865, he was from 1868 to 1880 Obergespan (lord-lieutenant),
in which capacity he gained the reputation of an excellent ad-
ministrator. In 1884 he pleaded eloquently in the House of
Magnates for the establishment of civil marriage, and in 1888
was Minister of Education in the Cabinet of Koloman Tisza.
Together with Szilagyi, the Minister of Justice, Csaky was one
of the most decided champions of obligatory civil marriage and
of the rights of the Jews. He resigned in 1894, and in 1900 was
appointed president of the House of Magnates, an office which he
resigned on the fall of the Liberal party in 1906. Under the
Khuen-Hedvary Government he became on June 18 1910 once
more president of the House of Magnates.
CUBA (see 7.594*). From 1909, when for the second time the
management of Cuban affairs was turned over by the United
States to the Cuban Government, until the end of 1920, there
was a steady growth in Cuba's prosperity. This growth was
greatly accelerated during the first half of the year last mentioned,
but suffered a serious reverse toward the end of the year.
The census of 1919 showed a pop. of 2,898,905 (1907, 2,048,980),
an average of 65-56 per sq. mile. The total immigration was in
1914, 24,420; in 1918, 37,320; and in 1919, 80,485. Of immigrants
in 1919, 39,573 were from Spain. The immigrants from Jamaica,
who numbered only 995 in 1914 and 9,184 in 1918, increased
to 24,187 in 1919. It is stated that probably 75% of the im-
migrants return to the country of origin within the course of a
year, coming to Cuba only for the high wages paid during the
cane cutting and grinding season.
The Sugar Industry. Sugar is the basis of Cuba's prosperity.
The climate and fertile soil are admirably adapted to the growth of
sugar cane, and the island has come to be recognized as the " sugar
bowl of the world." The high prices that prevailed in 1919-20
enabled the sugar industry to put more of the soil under cane than
ever before and to construct many of the most modern and efficient
sugar mills in the world. The sugar crop, which in 1910-1 totalled
I>379t6o9 long tons, steadily increased, except for a slight decline
in 1914-5. In 1918-9 the production reached 3,720,000 tons or
61 % of the total cane sugar produced by the western hemisphere,
34% of the world's cane sugar production, and 25% of the world's
total sugar production, as against an average of 1 1 % in the decade
preceding the World War. Production increased more than 50%
during the five years 1913-4.10 1918-9. During the period 1909-14,
approximately 95% of Cuba's crop went to the United States (al-
most half of that country's supply), the remaining 5% being used
for home consumption. In 1917-8 the entire crop, except that used
for home consumption, was purchased by the United States and
the Allies, two-thirds for the former, one-third for the latter. The
1918-9 crop was similarly contracted for, but part of the share of the
United States was later diverted to other countries. The crop for
1919-20 was 3,730,077 tons. The price, which had been from two to
three cents a pound before the war, advanced slowly but steadily
during the war. The crop for 1917-8 was sold to the United States
at 4-6 cents f. o. b. Cuban ports, and that for 1918-9 at 5^ cents.
But the next year the world's shortage (nearly 2,000,000 tons com-
pared with 1913-4), the increased consumption in the United States
and the failure of the latter to purchase the 1919-20 crop, although
it was offered and could probably have been obtained at about
6J cents a pound, caused a keen competition for the Cuban supplies,
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
778
CUBA
opened the way for wild speculation and led to an unprecedented
rise in price. In the early part of the year the price was about 1 1
cents a pound, but rose rapidly until a peak of 22\ cents was reached
in May, when the market broke. Thereafter, the price declined
almost as rapidly as it had risen, reaching at the end of Nov. about
3i cents, near which it continued for several months. To prevent a
further decline and, if possible, force an upward reaction, a price-
fixing commission was in Feb. 1921 appointed by the president of
Cuba and given power to control the sale and exportation of the
entire 1920-1 crop.
Other Industries. Q{ the island's agricultural products, tobacco
ranks next to sugar in importance, the total value of the crop rang-
ing from 40 to 50 million dollars per annum. A high import duty
recently placed upon coffee had the effect of stimulating that in-
dustry, but the production in 1919 was still far below the require-
ments of the population. The culture of henequin or " sisal "
promised to become important, as did also the production of jute.
Cotton was being cultivated experimentally. The cultivation of
fruit and vegetables for winter consumption in the United States
was quite an extensive industry, the soil and climate lending them-
selves easily to the production of citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples,
coconuts and various garden vegetables. Cuba produced an ap-
preciable portion of the world's supply of sponges. The average out-
put of Batabano, where 25 % of the male population were engaged
in this industry, is said to approximate half a million dollars a year.
There was a considerable and growing interest in the cattle in-
dustry, and hides and skins were exported in increasing quantities.
In 191 1 a commission was sent to the United States to purchase
thoroughbred stock for breeding purposes at the six Government
experiment stations. There were, in 1919, about 4,000,000 head of
cattle, 780,000 horses, and 64,570 mules. The manufacture of tur-
pentine was a new industry, begun after an investigation of pine
trees in the Isle of Pines. Of mineral products, iron continued to be
the most important, though mines of manganese, copper and
asphalt were important. The iron deposits in the province of
Oriente near Santiago de Cuba, in spite of active mining since 1908,
can be said to be hardly touched. The iron mines in this district
employed over 4,000 workmen and supplied an average of 50,000
tons of ore per month to the United States. Exploitation for petro-
leum has been going on for several years, but no proof has been
found of cil deixjsits of commercial importance.
Commerce. Cuba is an intensely commercial country, exporting
most of what she produces and importing nearly everything that she
consumes. Metals and manufactures thereof constitute about 7%
of her total imports; drugs and chemicals 7%; textiles and manu-
factures 13 %; paper 2 %; wood and manufactures 3 %; animals and
their products 5 %; machinery and instruments 12 to 13 % and foods
35 to 40%; the balance being made up of miscellaneous articles. Of
exports, sugar constitutes about 85 %, tobacco 8 to 10 %, fruits about
2 , minerals and ores 3%. During the fiscal year 1913-4, the last
normal year before the war, the total commerce of the island was
valued at $304,805,000, with imports valued at $134,008,000 and
exports $170,797,000, imports from the United States representing
53-2% and exports to the United States 80% of the total. Sugar
represented 70% and tobacco 20% of the exports, whereas from
1904-7 they had represented 60-3 and 27-3 % respectively. Cuba
enjoys a preferential duty of 20 % on exports to the United States
and grants reciprocal concessions of 20 to 40% on all merchandise
imported from the United States. This accounts for the dominant
position of the United States. During the fiscal years 1912-3 to
1915-6, the United States received on an average 80-6 % of the total
exports from Cuba. For the years 1916-7 and 1917-8 the average
was 71-86%, this reduction in percentage being due to shipments of
sugar to the Allies in Europe where production of beet sugar had
been lowered by the war. Cuba's international trade for the fiscal
year 1918-9 was $794,000,000, exports totalling $477,000,000 and
imports $316,000,000.
The United States supplied 74-5 % of the imports and received
73-2%of theexports. The import item of greatest value was foodstuffs
worth $115,000,000. Exports of sugar and its products amounted to
$409,629,000, representing 85-6 % of the total, while exports of
tobacco and its products amounted to $40,837,000, or 8i% of the
total exports. Cuba's total foreign trade during the fiscal year
1919-20 amounted to $480 per capita, about four times as much as
that of the United States during 1920 and probably more than that
i if any other country for any year. During 1920 the trade of the
United States with Cuba was greater than the combined trade with
the three next most important Latin-American customers Ar-
gentina, Brazil, and Mexico; and United States trade with Cuba for
the same year was only slightly (a little under 10%) less than with
all South America. The total value of imports from the United
States in 1918-9 was $235,727,000, compared with $228,102,000
in 1917-8. Imports from Great Britain in 1918-9 amounted to $9,-
34^9,000; from Spain $13,332,000; from France $8,265,000 compared
with $12,508,000, $n, 695,000 and $6,875,000 respectively in 1917-8.
Exports from Cuba to the United States in 1918-9 were $350,316,-
ooo; to Great Britain $96,814,000; to Spain $6,057,000; to France
$11,324,000. Exports to these countries in 1917-8 were $278,704,-
ooo, $76,722,000, $4,199,000 and $8,965,000 respectively. During
the calendar year 1919, imports from the United States amounted
to $278,371,222, and exports to United States $418,610,263. For
the calendar year 1920, imports from the United States amounted
to $515,082,549 and exports to the United States $721,695,905.
Thus, the total trade between the United States and Cuba was
almost twice as great in 1920 as for the fiscal year 1918-9.
Port Congestion. When, early in 1920, fabulous prices for sugar
prevailed, and all kinds of merchandise sold readily at high prices,
goods were ordered abroad more rapidly than they could be cleared
through the customs house. This condition grew steadily worse
until near the end of the year when, after the appointment of a
special supervisor charged with the duty of clearing the ports,
recommendations made by a joint Cuban-American Port Congestion
Commission which had sat at Havana in Aug. were put into opera-
tion. Thereafter, improvement though slow was steady. The
situation was aggravated by the desire of many importers to cancel
their orders for high-priced merchandise when the general decline
in prices held out a prospect of obtaining cheaper goods. In the
case of rice, the concerted efforts at cancellation became so general
that the Government placed a temporary embargo on further im-
portations of rice except on special licence. The port congestion
and the cancellation movement were both intensified by the declar-
ation of a moratorium in October.
Communications. Cuba had in 1920 four principal railway sys-
tems which together extended their lines from one end of the island
to the other, namely, the United Railways of Havana, the Cuba
Railroad, the Cuban Central Railways, and the Western Railway of
Havana. These systems, together with the private lines connecting
the larger sugar estates with them, constituted 3,200 m. of railway
in 1919 as against 2,329-8 m. in 1908. Considerable attention has
been paid in recent years to the construction of good roads, and
large sums of money have been voted. In 1919 there were said to
be over 1,400 m. of splendid roads for automobiles. A car ferry
service between Key West and Havana inaugurated in 1915 greatly
facilitated the movement of freight between Cuba and the United
States. Direct steamship connexion existed with many of the ports
of the United States as well as with Europe and Mexico. Frequent
service was maintained to New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Galves-
ton, New Orleans, Mobile, Tampa and Key West, and in 1920
regular passenger and freight service was inaugurated by the Miami
Steamship Co. between Jacksonville, Fla., and Havana, with sail-
ings every five days. Air mail service was started late in 1920 be-
tween Key West and Havana with two seaplanes, each having a
capacity of 1,000 Ib. of mail, 12 passengers and 400 Ib. of luggage.
Education. Educational affairs were given increasing attention
after 1908. Considerable sums of money were appropriated and
many new schools established, among them normal schools in the
several provinces, numerous day schools, several night schools, and
agricultural experiment schools in Havana. A national military
academy was established in 1912. A bill was passed in 1916 granting
to rural public-school teachers an increase in salaries aggregating
more than $1,000,000 per year. This raised individual salaries of
$45 and $50 per month to $75 and $80. On Nov. 30 1919 there
were 5,877 teachers and 334,671 pupils in the elementary schools.
In " Institutes of Secondary Instruction" there were 2,087 students
in 1915-6. The university of Havana was said to have, in 1919,
nearly 1,600 students.
Finance. Until recent years Cuba had no money of its own issue,
mainly Spanish gold and various other foreign coins having been the
medium of exchange; but in 1915, by virtue of an Act passed during
the preceding year, a new coinage was put into operation. The
monetary unit is the gold peso of the same weight and fineness as
the American dollar. Gold coins, of which the issue is unlimited,
are I, 2, 4, 5, 10 and 20 peso pieces, the last three of the same shape,
weight and value as corresponding U.S. coins, and the others
proportionate; silver coins, of which the issue is limited to 12,000,000
pesos, are 10, 20 and 40 centavo pieces and the peso; nickel coins,
limited by executive discretion only, are I, 2 and 5 centavo pieces.
United States coins and paper currency ate also legal tender, but
not those of other foreign countries unless such payments are
specifically contracted for. The revenues of the Government, which
in 1912-3 amounted to about 37-9 million dollars, rose to 64-5
millions in 1918-9, and 79 millions in 1919-20. More than half of the
revenue is derived from customs duties. Cuba had in 1920 a foreign
debt of about $51,000,000, floated through banking houses in the
United States, also a domestic debt of about $39,000,000.
The Moratorium. The enormous profits derived from the sale
of high-priced sugar during the first half of 1920, instead of being
conserved in the form of liquid assets were invested in enlarging the
facilities for producing and grinding sugar, in building fine homes
and in purchasing luxuries. When, about midsummer, the price
of sugar began to decline, an effort was made to check the tendency
by refraining from selling the remaining portions of the preceding
crop. To continue operations and prepare for harvesting the new
crop, large amounts of money were borrowed from the banks, the
unsold sugar being pledged as security on what was at the time
regarded as a safe basis of 15 or 16 cents per pound. The experiment
was unsuccessful. The rapid decline soon carried prices far below
the point at which the banks had accepted the sugar as security.
Thereupon, it ceased to be an asset and became a liability. Early
in Oct. there occurred a run on one of the largest banking institu-
CUMMINGS CUNNINGHAME-GRAHAM
779
tioiis in Havana, which had many branches throughout the island.
In order to prevent the collapse of this bank, and the extension of
the panic to others, a moratorium was declared on Oct. 10 to last for
50 days. On Dec. I it was extended until Dec. 31, and again until
the end of Jan. 1921. Just before the last date, a Congressional Act
provided for the gradual lifting of the moratorium, requiring partial
payments running through 105 days for ordinary commercial ob-
ligations, and 135 days for banking obligations. A law was simul-
taneously promulgated providing for the liquidation of insolvent
banks under Government supervision ; and provision was also made
for a reform in banking laws with a view to preventing a recurrence
of such a condition.
Political Conditions. The administration of President Jose
Miguel Gomez and Vice-President Alfredo Zayas of the Liberal
party continued from Jan. 28 1909 (at which time the administra-
tion of the American Provisional Government ceased) until
May 20 1913. During this period there were internal troubles
which threatened to assume a revolutionary character. A serious
revolt of negroes in May 1912 was followed shortly afterwards
by the concentration of a U.S. fleet of battleships at Key West.
President Taft assured the Cuban Government that this was not
due to a purpose of intervention, but to a desire to act promptly
in case it became necessary to protect American life and property.
By the middle of the summer the rebellion was suppressed.
On Nov. i 1912, Gen. Mario G. Menocal and Enrique Jose
Varona, Conservative candidates, were elected president and
vice-president, respectively, and were inaugurated on May 20
1913. The administration proved to be efficient. The Govern-
ment's progressive policy was evidenced by the attention given to
educational affairs, by the enactment of comprehensive health
laws and by large expenditures for the development of the re-
sources of the country and for public works. During 1015 there
was considerable political activity looking toward the elections
of Nov. i 1916, the Conservatives supporting Menocal for re-
election while the Liberals, under the leadership of Alfredo Zayas,
a former vice-president under Gomez, were trying to secure con-
trol. Menocal's reelection was declared Nov. 5, but was con-
tested, and not until May 7 1917 was it finally proclaimed by the
Cuban Congress. This contesting of the election occasioned a
revolt by the Liberals under the leadership of ex-President
Gomez, which assumed serious proportions; but by May 20 the
revolt had subsided and Gen. Menocal took the oath of office for
a second term. On April 7 1917, Cuba declared war on Germany.
The president of the republic was authorized to dispose of the
land and naval forces and the economic resources of the nation
in whatever manner necessity required. Several revenue meas-
ures were announced, including normal and extraordinary war
taxes on sugar, and taxes on net profits of mining and insurance
companies. A bond issue of $13,000,000 was authorized for a
war loan beginning July i. In 1918 an obligatory military service
law was put in force and a Food Administration with extensive
powers was established. Diplomatic relations with Germany
were renewed on Oct. 27 1920. A new electoral law was passed
in Aug. 1919. This new code was compiled with the assistance
of Maj.-Gen. Enoch H. Crowder of the U.S. army. It was he
who, while serving with the American army of occupation in
Cuba, had formulated the existing laws and had supervised the
first presidential election. The new law provided for recognition
of all political parties and for public counting of ballots. This new
law was put to the test on Nov. i 1920, which marked the end
of the most bitter political campaign since Cuban independence.
Jose Miguel Gomez (1856-1921) was the Liberal candidate,
and Dr. Alfredo Zayas was the candidate of the National League
or Coalition party, the latter having broken away from the
Liberal party and, backed by the Menocal administration, parted
company with Gomez. The result of the election was doubtful.
Charges of unfair practices made investigations necessary. In-
correct interpretations placed upon the new election laws brought
about a complete deadlock. Early in Jan. 1921 Gen. Crowder
was sent to Cuba as the personal representative of President
Wilson. As a result of his interpretation, means were found for
facilitating the procedure of the courts in the contested election
cases, and supplementary elections were held in March.
(W. R. MA.)
CUMMINGS, WILLIAM HAYMAN (1831-1915), English
musician, was born at Sidbury, Devon., Aug. 22 1831, the
eldest son of Edward Manley Cummings. He became a chorister
at St. Paul's cathedral and the Temple church, and was subse-
quently appointed organist of Waltham Abbey. Later he was
appointed tenor at Westminster Abbey, the Temple church
and the chapels royal, being well known for many years as an
oratorio singer. From 1879 to 1896 he was professor 'of sing-
ing at the Royal Academy of Music, and from 1896 to 1910
principal of the Guildhall School of Music. In 1900 he received
the degree of Mus. Doc. from Dublin University. Cummings was
the author of many works on music, including Lives of Purcell
(1881) and Handel (1904), and The Origin and History of " God
Save tkc King" (1902). He was also an authority on ancient
music, and left a fine collection of old MSS. and early editions.
He died at Dulwich June 6 1915.
CUMMINS, ALBERT BAIRD (1850- ), American politi-
cian, was born at Carmichaels, Pa., Feb. 15 1850. After leaving
Waynesburg (Pa.) College he studied surveying and became
assistant chief engineer for a railway. He next studied law,
was admitted to the bar in 1875, and for three years practised
in Chicago. In 1878 he went to Des Moines and ten years later
was a member of the Iowa House of Representatives. He was
chairman of the Republican State Committee (1802, 1896), can-
didate for the U.S. Senate (1894, 1900), member of the Re-
publican National Committee (1896, 1900), and a delegate to the
Republican National Convention on four occasions. He was
elected governor of Iowa in 1902 and reelected for two succeed-
ing terms. He filled the unexpired term of Senator Allison in
1908, and was reelected to the U.S. Senate in 1909 and 1915.
He opposed the nomination of Mr. Taft in 1912, but did not
bolt his party. He was specially identified with measures con-
cerning trusts and railways, and had a leading part in drafting
the so-called Esch-Cummins bill under which the Government in
1920 handed back to private control the railways of the United
States.
CUNLIFFE, WALTER, IST BARON (1855-1920), English
banker, was born in London Dec. 4 1855, the son of Roger
Cunliffe, a banker of the City of London. He was educated at
Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, and entered upon his
banking career in the City in 1880, establishing ten years later
the merchant banking business of Cunliffe Bros. He became a
director of the Bank of England in 1895, was elected deputy-
governor in 1911 and governor in 1913. He was, therefore, in
office as governor when the World War broke out, and, after
being raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Cunliffe of
Headley in Dec. 1914, he was continued as such by successive re-
elections until 1918, a longer period than had ever been served
before. During the whole of this period the deputy-governor was
Mr. Brien Cokayne, who was knighted in 1917, and who, after
succeeding Lord Cunliffe as governor, was created Lord Cullen of
Ashbourne on his retirement in 1920. Lord Cunliffe was associ-
ated with the working out of all the chief financial problems
during the war, and in 1917 accompanied Mr. Balfour on
his financial mission to the United States. He died suddenly at
Epsom Jan. 6 1920.
CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (1849-1919), English economist
(see 7.633), died at Cambridge June 10 1919.
CUNNINGHAME-GRAHAM, ROBERT BONTINE (1852- ),
British author and traveller, was born in 1852, the son of
William Cunninghame-Graham Bontine of Ardoch and Gart-
more, and was educated at Harrow. He sat in the House of
Commons for North Lanarkshire from 1886 to 1892, and during
this period became known as an extreme Socialist, taking part
with H. M. Hyndman and others in Socialist meetings and pro-
cessions in London to demand work for the unemployed. He
travelled much in North Africa, Mexico and South America,
and wrote a number of short stories and vivid studies of life in
those regions. Among his books may be mentioned Mogreb-el-
Acksa: a Journey in Morocco (1898); The Ipane (1899); A
Vanished Arcadia (1901); Faith (1909); Hope (1910); Charily
(1912); A Life of Bernal Diaz del Castillo (1915); A Brazilian
y8o
CURRIE CYTOLOGY
Mystic (1920) ; Cartagena and the Books of the Sinu (1920). Early
in the World War he went to South America to buy horses for
the British army, and carried out his mission with success.
CURRIE, SIR ARTHUR (1875- ), Canadian general
and administrator, was born at Napperton, Ont., Dec. 5 1875.
On the outbreak of the World War his natural bent for military
affairs quickly brought him to the front. He commanded the ist
Canadian Div. 1914-7, and the Canadian Corps in France 1917-9.
He gained the confidence of the English military authorities in
the field, and when Lord Byng resigned his command of the
Canadian troops Sir Arthur Currie was the one Canadian to
whom it was felt by the British Headquarters that the command
could be entrusted. The manner in which he carried out his
command marked him by common consent a military leader of
unusual distinction. In the concluding phases of the war the
Canadian forces under his command played a notable part.
Currie was given the C.B. in 1915, K.C.M.G. i9i7,K.C.B. 1918
and G.C.M.G. 1919; he was awarded the French Legion of
Honour and the Croix de Guerre both of France and of Belgium,
and was created Grand Officer of the Belgian Ordre de la Cou-
ronne. In 1920, after Sir Auckland Geddes had finally declined
the nomination to the principalship of McGill University,
Montreal, on his appointment as British ambassador to Washing-
ton, Sir Arthur Currie was elected to the post.
CURTIS, CYRUS HERMANN KOTZSCHMAR (1850- ),
American publisher, was born at Portland, Me., June 18 1850.
He was educated in the public schools of Portland, sold news-
papers when a boy, and in 1870 joined a Boston paper as adver-
tising solicitor. In 1876 he went to Philadelphia and became a
publisher of the* Tribune and Farmer, a weekly paper. In 1883
he established the Ladies' Home Journal, and in 1891 organized
the Curtis Publishing Company. In 1897 he purchased the Satur-
day Evening Post, which was a direct continuation of the Penn-
sylvania Gazette, founded in 1728 by Benjamin Franklin, and in
1911 he bought the Country Gentleman. The Ladies' Home
Journal and the Saturday Evening Post attained a circulation of
2,000,000 each, and probably carried more paid advertising than
any other publications in the world. For this reason, although
the cost of producing a copy of the Saturday Evening Post was
many times its selling price to the public (5 cents), this magazine
was highly profitable to the publisher. In 1913 he purchased
the Philadelphia Public Ledger.
CURZON OF KEDLESTON, GEORGE NATHANIEL CURZON,
IST MARQUESS (1859- ), English statesman (see 7.665),
received an earldom (along with the viscountcy of Scarsdale
and the barony of Ravensdale) as one of the coronation honours
in 1911. He was conspicuous in that year first by his strong
denunciation of the Parliament bill and the whole Liberal attack
on the Lords, and then by the leading share which he took, in the
final stage, in persuading the bulk of the Unionist peers to ab-
stain from voting in the crucial division and so to permit the
bill to pass rather than have their House swamped by hundreds
of creations ad hoc. During the vehement party conflicts of the
next two or three years before the World War he established his
position as the chief lieutenant of Lord Lansdowne in the Lords.
But much of his time and attention during the period of opposi-
tion were given to the affairs of Oxford University, of which he
had become chancellor; and he promoted the cause of reform
there by personal effort and by publishing a detailed memoran-
dum on the subject. With other Unionist leaders he joined Mr.
Asquith's Coalition Cabinet in the summer of 1915, as Lord
Privy Seal; and in that capacity he introduced the bill constitut-
ing the new Ministry of Munitions under Mr. Lloyd George,
and took charge in the Lords of the Munitions of War bill which
was to furnish that Ministry with its weapons. In these and
other ways he gave proof of a determination to prosecute the
war with zeal and energy. He accepted the presidency of the
Air Board in May 1916, and in July became a permanent member
of the War Committee of the Cabinet. When Mr. Lloyd George
formed his Ministry in Dec., he was accorded a still more
prominent position. Lord Lansdowne and Lord Crewe the two
leaders of parties in the Lords both retired, and Lord Curzon
became the leader of the House with the office of President of the
Council. He was chosen also to be one of the four ministers
(the others being the Prime Minister, Lord Milner, and Mr.
Henderson) who constituted the War Cabinet, and were charged
with the permanent daily conduct of the war. After the Paris
Conference he took over the Foreign Office from Mr. Balfour,
retaining his leadership in the Lords. As leader, though not able
to claim the sympathetic touch and close familiarity with their
lordships' idiosyncrasies possessed by some of his predecessors,
he exhibited remarkable intellectual powers and oratorical
capacity, and gradually established his ascendancy in the House.
In the Foreign Office he found a specially congenial sphere, as he
had throughout his life made a study of the external relations of
the country, and had travelled extensively. But foreign affairs
in the years immediately following the war were still dominated
by the Prime Minister, and by the Supreme Council.
Lord Curzon's first wife, by whom he had three daughters,
died in 1906, and in 1917 he married, as his second wife, Grace
Elvina, widow of Alfred Duggan, of Buenos Aires, and daughter
of J. Munroe Hinds, U.S. minister in Brazil. He succeeded to
the barony of Scarsdale on his father's death in 1916, and be-
came a K.G. in the same year. He was created a marquess on
the King's birthday in 1921.
CUSHING, HARVEY (1869- ), American surgeon, was
born at Cleveland, O., April 8 1869. He graduated from Yale in
1891 and from the Harvard Medical School in 1895. After doing
exceptional cerebral surgery abroad under Kocher at Berne and
Sherrington at Liverpool he began private practice in Baltimore.
Here at the age of 32 he was made associate professor of surgery
at Johns Hopkins University, and at the hospital was placed in
full charge of cases of surgery of the central nervous system.
Yet he found time to write numerous monographs on surgery of
the brain and spinal column and to make important contribu-
tions to bacteriology. He made (with Kocher) a study of intra-
cerebral pressure and (with Sherrington) contributed much to
the localization of the cerebral centres. In Baltimore he developed
the method of operating with local anaesthesia, and his paper
on its use in hernia gave him a European reputation. He has also
made important contributions to the study of blood pressure in
surgery. In 1911 he was appointed professor of surgery in the
Harvard Medical School and surgeon-in-chief at the Peter Bent
Brigham hospital in Boston. In 1913 he was made an hon.
F.R.C.S. (London). In 1915, before the Clinical Congress of
Surgeons in Boston, he showed the possibility of influencing
stature by operating on the pituitary gland. During 1917-9 he
was director of a U.S. base hospital attached to the B.E.F. in
France. In 1918 he was made senior consultant in neurological
surgery for the A.E.F. He held the rank of colonel in the
Medical Corps of the U.S. army.
CUST, HENRY JOHN COCKAYNE (1861-1917), English
journalist, was born in London Oct. 10 1861. Educated at
Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he entered the House of
Commons as Unionist member for Stamford in 1890, but lost the
seat in 1895. He was returned for Bermondsey in 1900 and
sat till 1906. In 1892 Mr. (afterwards Lord) Astor made him
editor of the Pall Mall Gazette, and for four years he held that
post with distinction, gathering round him a brilliant staff (see
19.561). In politics and society his personal charm and esprit
always gave promise of more than he ever achieved in the way
of public life. But in Aug. 1914, at the outbreak of the World
War, he founded the Central Committee for National Patriotic
Organizations, and a Cust annual lecture " on some important
current topic relating to the British Empire " was endowed in
Nottingham University to commemorate his work. His Occa-
sional Poems appeared in 1918, printed in Jerusalem. He was
heir to the barony of Brownlow, a position which at his death
fell to his brother, Adelbert Salusbury Cust (b. 1867). He died
in London March 2 1917.
CYTOLOGY (see 7.710). The effect of the work done in
cytology up to 1910 may be summarized as follows.
The bodies of animals and plants are made up of units termed
cells, which may be compared to the bricks in a brick wall. Each cell
CYTOLOGY
781
is composed of a viscid semi-fluid material termed protoplasm, sur-
rounded by an elastic membrane termed a cell wall. This wall is
composed of cellulose in the case of the vegetable cell and may ac-
quire considerable thickness and firmness; in the animal cell it is
almost always very thin, and never consists of cellulose: but ap-
pears to agree in composition with the protoplasm, of which it may
be considered a condensation. There is reason to believe that in
most if not all cases the cell wall is porous, and that adjacent cells
are connected with one another by bridges of protoplasm.
The activities of living cells are manifested in four ways, viz. :
(1) By movement, which takes the form of alternate contraction
and expansion.
(2) By secretion, i.e. by the production of definite substances
which accumulate in the protoplasm, but which are finally extruded
from the cell.
(3) By the transmission of stimuli, so that shocks or stimuli of
various kinds applied to one cell result in movement or secretion in a
different cell.
(4) By reproduction, which takes the form of the division of the
cell into two daughter cells.
All these activities are dependent for their continuance on the
consumption of a certain portion of the protoplasm ; and if life is to
persist and if the cells are to increase in number this waste must be
repaired. This is effected by the taking in and assimilation of food ;
and this assimilation can only be carried out if there exists in the
protoplasm a specially differentiated portion termed the "nucleus,"
which appears to be of rather different composition from the rest.
For this reason it is customary to use the term "cytoplasm" for
the extra-nuclear protoplasm.
Cells may be specialized for rapid movement or for the reception
and transmission of stimuli or for secretion. Locomotor cells may
be provided with freely projecting filaments, termed "cilia" or
" flagella," which are capable of rapid vibration, and act the part of
oars in propelling the animal, or their cytoplasm may contain
threads termed " myonemes"or" muscular fibrils," which are capable
of thickening and contracting; and these threads may be simple or
cross-striped i.e. composed of alternate discs of singly and doubly
refracting material; cells provided with these threads are termed
" muscle cells."
Cells devoted to the reception and transmission of stimuli are
known as " nerve cells " or " neurones." Those which are situated
at the free surface of the animal, and which are provided with stiff
processes of various kinds which are easily affected by stimuli, are
known as " sense cells." Those which are more deeply situated have,
in place of the stiff processes, one or more root-like branching pro-
cesses known as "receptive dendrites " Stimuli when received are
transmitted by outgrowths of the neurone known as "axons," and
these axons, after preservation by fixing fluids, are seen to consist of
a series of delicate fibres, the " neuro fibrillae." The axon ends in a
brush of root-like processes called "terminal dendrites"; these den-
drites are in contact either with the receptive dendrites of another
neurone to which they hand on the stimulus, or with a muscle
cell in which they cause contraction, or with a secretory cell in
which they initiate secretion.
In the case of secretory cells the secretion may be fluid and poured
forth at a free surface only, from which it is washed away by the
currents of the circumambient medium. Of this type are the mu-
cous cells which give rise to the slime which lubricates the skin of
earthworms, or the similar cells which produce the mucus inside
the human mouth cavity. On the other hand the secretion may
take the form of fibres or another form of solid material and may be
extruded from the entire surface of each cell so that the cell becomes
in this way separated from its neighbours by masses of the secretion
or, as it is now termed, the "intercellular substance." Cells of this
kind are known as "connective tissue cells" and give rise to the
various supporting tissues such as fibrous tissue, cartilage and bone.
The reproductive cells or "germ cells" are, as their name implies,
cells which have the capacity of giving rise to a mass of cells out of
which the body of a new individual is built up. They occur in many
forms amongst the lowest grades of animals, i.e. the Protozoa, but
amongst the higher animals, or Metazoa, they are remarkably con-
stant in general characters, exhibiting practically the same forms
throughout the whole range of animals from the sponges to the
human race. They appear under two types, viz.: (l) a small
motile male cell, which consists mainly of a head which is a con-
densed nucleus, to which is added a vibratile flagellum termed the
tail ; and (2) a much larger motionless female cell or egg, in the cyto-
plasm of which there are deposits of food material known as yolk.
Normally a male cell must unite with a female cell before develop-
ment can be initiated, but the eggs of many animals can develop
without this union and are then termed " parthenogenetic." In
other cases where union with a male cell normally takes place eggs
can be stimulated to develop without previous union with a male
cell, and these cases are termed "artificial parthenogenesis."
Turning now to the consideration of the nucleus, we find that this
is frequently invisible in the living cell, but when it can be made out
it appears either as a clear vesicle (as in many eggs) or as a slightly
more granular portion of the protoplasm (as in Amoeba). When,
however, it is fixed and stained it exhibits a characteristic structure.
It then appears as a vesicle containing a fluid termed the " nuclear
sap," and bounded by a membrane termed the " nuclear wall." The
sap is traversed by a network of threads known as "linin fibres,"
and adhering to these fibres suggesting the arrangement of beads
on a necklace are a number of granules termed "chromatin" be-
cause they attract and retain the colouring matter of the staining
fluid so strongly. In addition there are usually one or two rounded
bodies termed " nucleoli," which also attract stain strongly, but
these are apparently not composed of exactly the same chemical
substances as the chromatin granules and it is possible by the use
of certain stains to colour them differently from the tint assumed by
the chromatin.
We have already seen that assimilation or the building-up of
fresh protoplasm is impossible in the absence of a nucleus. This is
proved by dividing a uninucleate amoeba into two, when it is seen
that the non-nucleate piece, though capable of movement, cannot
digest or assimilate food and, after a short period of activity, dies.
The division of the nucleus always precedes the division of the cell
and this division is occasionally direct, i.e. by the process of simple
constriction into two, or much more frequently indirect by the pro-
cess termed " karyokinesis " or " mitosis." In this method the chroma-
tin grains were believed to become aggregated into a continuous
spirally-coiled thread termed the "spireme," which then became
segmented into a definite number of segments called " chromosomes."
The chromosomes always appear in the same number in the same
species at every division of the nucleus. Meanwhile the nucleolus
or nucleoli disappear, apparently dissolved in the cell-sap; and the
nuclear membrane becomes dissolved so that the cell sap is mingled
with the cytoplasm; and then a small body termed the "centro-
some," lying at the side of the nucleus in the cytoplasm, becomes
discernible. The centrosome can occasionally be demonstrated lying
at the side of the resting nucleus, but when it becomes visible in the
process of mitosis it is seen to be in process of division into two.
The chromosomes at the same time appear to be split longitudinally,
whilst from the daughter centrosomes as they move apart a series
of filamentous rays are developed, some of which ("astral fibres")
extend out to the periphery of the cell, whilst others (" mantle
fibres ") become attached to the halves of the split chromosomes, one
fibre from each centrosome going to a corresponding half of the
chromosome. When the centrosomes have reached positions at
opposite ends of the nucleus the mantle fibres proceeding from them
have constituted the mitotic spindle: certain other fibres appear
running directly from one centrosome to another in the axis of the
spindle, which are termed " spindle fibres," whilst the split chromo-
somes, under apparent tension of the mantle fibres, have assumed
positions lying at right angles to the axis of the spindle, and con-
stituted what is called the " equatorial plate."
By a continuance of the apparent tension of the mantle fibres
the two halves of each chromosome are dragged apart from one
another, and eventually one set of half-chromosomes becomes
massed together in the vicinity of each pole of the spindle, that is,
close to each daughter centrosome. Each of such sets of chromosomes
constitutes a daughter nucleus. The chromosomes become longer
and thinner and more entangled with one another until the initial
stage of a linin network with adhering chromatin granules is re-
established, and round this a new nuclear wall is formed. The
stages leading to the segmentation of the spireme thread and the
solution of the nuclear membranes are termed the " prophases of
mitosis"; those leading to the establishment of the equatorial plafe
are termed the " metaphase." The stage involving the separation
of the halves of the chromosomes is termed the " anaphase," whilst
the steps leading to the reconstitution of the daughter nuclei are
termed the "telophases" of mitosis.
In the fertilization of the egg it is penetrated by the head of the
spermatozoon which carries with it a segment of the tail termed the
middle-piece. The middle-piece is distinguished by its diameter
from the thinner more distal part of the tail and it includes a centro-
some which has been derived from the centrosome active at the
last division of the sperm mother cell. Sometimes the distal part
of the tail is left behind at the surface of the egg sometimes it
penetrates with the rest of the spermatozoon. In the latter case it
remains passive in one cell of the embryo and is absorbed and is
without .influence on the hereditary potencies of the embryo, since
it is never distributed to any but the one cell. All the paternal in-
fluence must be carried by the head, which is a condensed mass of
chromatin: hence is derived the strong belief that not only is the
nucleus the bearer of hereditary powers but that the chromatin is
the element of the nucleus in which they are concentrated.
The spermatozoon head, once immersed in the egg, swells up and
assumes the characteristic structure of a nucleus: it acquires nu-
clear sap and a nuclear wall and its chromatin becomes resolved
into the same number of chromosomes as are present in the egg
nucleus. It is then known as the " male pro-nucleus," whilst the egg
nucleus is termed the " female pro-nucleus." The centrosome derived
from the middle piece gives rise to an enormous aster with radiating
rays which is termed the " sperm-aster " ; the two nuclei approach each
other, and the sperm-aster then becomes changed into a spindle,
and the chromosomes of both nuclei are arranged side by side on
the equatorial plate of this spindle: so that when the compound or
" zygote " nucleus divides equal portions of maternal and paternal
chromatin are distributed to the first two cells of the embryo and
7 82
CYTOLOGY
the same thing follows at every subsequent division of the growing
embryo, so that paternal and maternal chromatin is distributed in
equal amounts to every cell of the body.
The ripe germ cell consequently possesses only one-half the num-
ber of chromosomes which the ordinary body cell possesses, and
therefore at some time in its history a reduction of chromosomes
must take place. The older view was that this occurred at one of the
ripening divisions in consequence of the spireme becoming segmented
into half the usual number of pieces: each of these pieces then
exhibited a transverse split which was regarded as an indication of
the belated appearance of the full number: at the first maturation
division these halves were, however, supposed to be distributed
to different cells, so that each daughter cell received only half the
original number of chromosomes this division was known as the
" reduction division," or " meiotic division."
Since the chromosomes are usually invisible during the resting
stage of the nucleus the question has been raised whether they re-
tained their individuality throughout the whole growth cycle.
Various considerations lead to the conclusion that their individuality
is retained. In some cases where the number is very small, as in the
cells of the nematode worm Ascaris, the chromosomes or at least
their ends can be detected in the resting nucleus: moreover the
chromosomes are not all alike, but differ in size and shape from one
another, and to each paternal one there is a corresponding maternal
one of similar size and shape, and it seems unlikely that, if they van-
ished in the resting stage, they should reappear in exactly the same
form at the subsequent mitosis. It has been surmised that this in-
dividuality in form and size was an indication of a difference- in
function in distributing the hereditary qualities and Boveri's '
discovery that, when an echinoderm egg was entered by two sperma-
tozoa, one alone fused with the female pro-nucleus whilst the other
acted as an independent nucleus, so that at the first division the egg
was divided into four cells led to the same conclusion. For Boveri
showed that under these circumstances an abnormal spindle was
formed connecting all four daughter nuclei, and on this spindle the
chromosomes were irregularly distributed: and that if the four
resulting cells were separated and allowed to develop separately they
developed abnormally; whereas Driesch 2 had proved that it was
possible to rear any of the first four cells into which a normally
fertilized egg divides into a perfect larva of diminished size. Since
an unfertilized egg has also been induced by appropriate stimuli
(see EMBRYOLOGY) to develop into a perfect larva, the conclusion
is inevitable that one complete set of chromosomes (maternal or
paternal) is essential to the normal development, and that cells
receiving fewer chromosomes than these cannot grow into normal
embryos; hence every kind of chromosome has its appropriate
function to play in growth.
Progress since 1910: the Cytoplasm. If we now turn to the
great advances in our knowledge of the cell which were made
in the 15 or 20 years ending in 1921, we may direct our atten-
tion first of all to the cytoplasm.
About 1899 Hardy published his first paper 3 in which he
showed that the effect of the usual preservatives used in killing
cells was to produce fibrous networks which had no counter-
part in the living protoplasm, for exactly the same effect could
be produced by the use of these same fluids on dead proteid:
that in fact all colloid solutions, which he termed " sols,"
could be easily induced to pass into a semi-solid or " gel " phase-
in which the molecules were arranged in strings. From such
networks the intervening fluid could be easily forced out, but by
gently heating colloid solutions a different form of " gel " was
produced, from which a pressure of several atmospheres failed
to force the fluid out. In the first case the fluid contents were
called the continuous phase and the fibres the disperse phase
but in the second case the fluid is locked up in tiny droplets in-
side the semi-solid gelatine and then the fluid was the disperse
phase and the gelatine the continuous phase.
This discovery led to great scepticism as to the existence in
life of the various structures seen in stained protoplasm. Fresh
attention was given to the study of protoplasm in the living
state and a most ingenious instrument designed by Kite 4 was
used with effect by Chambers 5 for this purpose. This was an
1 Th. Boveri, " Die Entwicklung dispermer Seeigeleier," Zel-
lenstudien, No. 6 (Jena 1907).
2 H. Driesch, " Die isolirten Blastomeren des Echiniderkeimcs,"
Archiv f. Entwicklungsmechanik, vol. x. (1900).
3 W. A. Hardy, " Structure of Cell Protoplasm," Journal of
Physiology, vol. xxiv. (1899).
4 G. L. Kite and R. Chambers, " Vital Staining of the Chro-
mosomes and the Function and Structure of the Nucleus," Science,
vol. xxxvi. (1912).
' R. Chambers, " Microdissection Studies: II. The Cell Aster,"
Jour. Exp. Zool., vol. xxiii. (1917).
excessively fine needle point of hard glass, bent at right angles
to the glass tube from which it was drawn, fixed so that the
point projected into a glass cell from the roof of which in a hang-
ing drop was suspended the living cell or cells it was desired
to explore. The needle could be manipulated by screws and the
glass cell was mounted on the stage of a microscope. It was
discovered that, generally speaking, the cytoplasm of a cell
was a sol which was sometimes very thick and viscid and some-
times more fluid, but that the outer layer next the cell wall
was a gel, of which indeed the cell wall might be regarded as an
intensification. The various inclusions contained in the central
cytoplasm, such as coloured granules, oil drops, etc. could be
freely pushed about by the needle. When, however, the nucleus
of the cell approached mitosis, a change took place, and the
astral rays were found to be strings of semi-solid material, as
were also the mantle fibres of the mitotic spindle: the astral
rays became connected with the peripheral gel surrounding
the cell. On the other hand no centrosome could be detected
in the living cytoplasm, but the sphere surrounding the centro-
some was found to consist of fluid material which Chambers sup-
posed to be squeezed out from the cytoplasm during the process
of gclatinization of the astral rays, and from it proceeded
fluid rays visible as clear streaks in the living cell which alter-
nated with the astral rays. When the spindle divided, the
mantle fibres passed again in the centre into the sol state, and
this change propagated itself towards the poles as the two
daughter cells separated from one another.
Examined in the same way, the cross-striped myonemc's
characteristic of the muscle cells of arthropods and vertebrates
turned out to be composed of alternate discs of gels of different
consistencies 6 ; but no trace could be made out of neuro fibrillae
in the living nerve fibre and the nerve cell, i.e. the body of the
neuron containing the nucleus when examined in the living
condition exhibited Brownian movement i.e. the granules
pulsated under the impact of freely rolling molecules^a cir-
cumstance which proves it to be in the sol condition. 7 On
the other hand it should be recorded that Chambers 8 found
that the cytoplasm of the ganglion cells from the central nerve-
cord of the lobster was a very viscid substance which could be
pulled out into long threads without undergoing essential
change. When pulled away from the nucleus a clear empty
space appeared on the side of the nucleus in the direction of the
pull, which was only slowly filled by inflow of the plasma from
the two sides.
It will be observed that in living protoplasm the change
from the sol to the gel condition is reversible and very frequently
takes place, and many of the phenomena exhibited by living
cells will find their explanation in this circumstance. Dr. Gates,
professor of botany in King's College, London, has described
to the present writer a beautiful demonstration once shown
him by Chambers. It consisted of living spermatogorria (im-
mature male germ cells) from the testis of an insect ; these when
stimulated by the needle could be induced to undergo mitotic
division; the chromosomes could be seen like bunches of grapes
of a slightly more granular consistency than the rest of the
cytoplasm moving along the mantle fibres.
The Brownian movement affords a criterion of whether
protoplasm is in the condition of a sol or a gel, although not
an absolute one, for Chambers has shown that a sol may be so
thick as to prevent this movement and yet it may be possible
to move particles in it freely by means of the glass needle.
Bayliss 9 has shown that the actively moving pseudopodia of
amoeba show a vigorous Brownian movement, but that when
6 G. L. Kite, " Studies on the Physical Properties of Protoplasm,"
American Jour. Physiology, vol. xxxii., No. 2 (1913).
7 F. W. Mott, " The Bio-physics and Bio-chemistry of the Neu-
rone," Brit. Med. Jour., Sept. 1912.
8 R. Chaml>ers, " Report on Results obtained from the Micro-
dissection of Certain Cells," Trans. Roy. Soc. (Canada), vol. xii.,
Series 3, 1918.
"W. Bayliss, "The Properties of Colloidal Systems: IV. Re-
versible Gelation in Living Protoplasm," Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
Series B, vol. xci. (1920).
CYTOLOGY
783
they arc caused to retract by electric shocks the movement
ends, showing the conversion of the material into a gel.
Side by side with these observations on living protoplasm
have gone renewed observations on its structure by means of
more refined fixatives and stains. It has been shown that
many of the older preserving fluids which were used to dif-
ferentiate the nucleus and especially the chromatin of the
nucleus from the cytoplasm, had a destructive effect in dis-
solving out many of the constituents of the cytoplasm.
A more refined technique has demonstrated the existence of
bodies in the cytoplasm termed " mitochondria," which take the
form of fibres or. less frequently, of small oval granules. What their
function in the life of the cell is has not been determined. Meves '
supposed them to be bearers of heredity like the chromosomes and
described them as dividing into two at the division of the cell,
the halves being distributed to the two daughter cells. Later re-
searches by Gatenby 2 have failed to confirm this. He finds that
the mitochondria are irregularly distributed at all divisions. Be-
sides the mitochondria another element of the cytoplasm known as
the " Golgi apparatus " has come to light. It is so called because
it can be demonstrated only by the Golgi method of preservation and
a staining, a method which involves the use of preserving fluids
which contain osmic acid, followed by treatment with salts of silver.
In young cells this apparatus takes the form of a wreath surrounding
the centrosphere or area of clear cytoplasm which envelops the
centrosome in the young cell i.e. in the cell just after it has or-
iginated by division of the mother cell. During the growth of the
cell this wreath dissolves into smaller elements which become scat-
tered throughout the cytoplasm interspersed amongst the mito-
rhondria. These elements in their typical form consist of disc-like
bodies made up of a substance which stains faintly, edged for half
their circumference by a rim of stains intensely black with the re-
agents which are used to differentiate the Golgi apparatus. The
earlier observers failed to note the disc-like form of these elements
and fixed their attention solely on the deeply staining rim, which
they regarded as a rod and to which they gave the name " dicty-
some," but Bowen 3 has brought out clearly the real structure of
these bodies. The fact that the Golgi apparatus reacts strongly
with osmic acid has been held to prove that it must be partially made
up of a substance allied to lecithin, which contains a fat group
in the molecule.
The most interesting fact about both mitochondria and the Golgi
apparatus is that the elements of both increase in number by trans-
verse division, and hence they cannot be regarded as food reserves,
or temporary deposits of excreta, but are in some sense elements of
the living cytoplasm. What relation they have to the general
metabolism of the cell is not yet clear. Efforts have been made to
show that in certain cells they are the centres of fat formation,
and in pancreatic cells of the characteristic pancreatic secretion
but these endeavours have not yet carried conviction to the minds
of cytologists. Much further work on these lines is needed before
certainty can be obtained. In the formation of the spermatozoa
of insects and mollusca the mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus
play a very definite part which has been elucidated by Gatenby. 4
The former give rise to a sheath surrounding the base of the tail
which forms the middle-piece of the spermatozoon; the latter be-
comes largely metamorphosed into the " acrosome " or pointed
structure which is attached to the front of the head of the sperma-
tozoon, and plays the part of a spear-head when the spermatozoon
reaches and penetrates an egg. The remnant of the Golgi apparatus
migrates round the head and eventually forms a bead projecting
from the tail which is eventually rubbed off. The middle-piece
penetrates the egg, but undergoes no growth there: it remains
embedded in one cell of the embryo and is eventually absorbed so
that the mitochondria can have no function as bearers of heredity.
In living cells particles resembling mitochondria 6 and Golgi discs 6
in their shape have been observed, oscillating in the typical Brown-
ian manner, whence it is inferred that these bodies really exist as
1 F. Meves and J. Duesberg, " Die Spermatozytenteilungen bei
der Hornisse," Archiv f. Mikroskopische Anatomic, vol. Ixxi. (1908);
F. Meves, " Die Chondrisomen als Trager erblicher Anlagen,"
ibid., vol. Ixxii. (1908).
2 J. Bronte Gatenby, " The Cytoplasmic Inclusions of the Germ
Cells," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc., vol. Ixii. (1917).
3 R. H. Bowen, "Studies on Insect Spermatogenesis: I. The
History of the Cytoplasmic Contents of the Sperm in Hemiptera,"
Biol. Bulletin, vol. xxxix. (1920).
4 J. B. Gatenby, loc. cit. ; " On the Origin of the Golgi Apparatus
on the Middlepiece of the Ripe Sperm of Cavia, etc.," Quart. Jour.
Micr. Sc., vol. Ixv. (1921).
6 M. R. Lewis and W. H. Lewis, " Mitochondria in Tissue Cul-
ture," American Jour. Anal., vol. xvii. (1915).
6 J. B. Gatenby, "The Cytoplasmic Inclusions of Germ Cells:
VII. Modern Technique of Cytology," Quart. Jour. Micr. Sc.,
vol. Ixiv. (1920).
such in living protoplasm and are not merely artefacts produced by
preserving reagents.
Nuclear Structure. As regards advances in our knowledge
of nuclear structure, we may note especially the demonstration of
the presence of sex chromosomes in many animals. Already before
1915 the fact was known that in certain cases an odd chromosome
was present in the ripening germ cells, that is, a chromosome which
in one of the ripening divisions of the germ cells passed without
dividing to one pole of the mitotic spindle. But Wilson 7 showed
that not only are such odd chromosomes found in the developing
sperm cells of many insects but that their presence is related to the
determination of sex. The odd chromosome sometimes divides like
the rest at the first maturation division, but at the second passes
undivided to one pole of the spindle. Sometimes it migrates to one
pole in the first division and divides like the other chromosomes at
the second: in either case its presence causes the formation of two
types of germ cell, one possessing one more chromosome than the
other. In the case of these insects the ripening eggs are all found to
possess the same number of chromosomes: and this number is
equal to that found in the sperm cells which have the larger number.
It is clear, therefore, that when the eggs are fertilized with the sperm,
two types of fertilized egg should be found; one characterized by
having one more chromosome than the other, and these eggs should
give rise to animals all of whose cells should have nuclei with a
number of chromosomes equal to those found in the fertilized egg
from which each one arose. If we now examine the cells of the
males, it is discovered that they have nuclei with the smaller num-
ber of chromosomes, whereas the cells of the female enclose nuclei
with the larger number of chromosomes. Therefore it is clear that
the male has been produced by the fertilization of an egg by a
spermatozoon devoid of the odd chromosome: whereas a female
arises when an egg is fertilized by a spermatozoon containing this
chromosome.
Wilson showed further that sometimes the odd chromosome
has a mate with which it pairs but which is much smaller than
itself. This mate is denominated by Wilson the Y chromosome,
whereas the large one which alone is present in the case of many
insects is termed the X chromosome. The male germ cell which
receives the Y chromosome gives rise to a male when it fertilizes an
egg. Still other modifications, which lack of space prevent us enter-
ing into, are recorded by Wilson. There has been a diligent search
for these six chromosomes in the germ cells of other animals, and
enthusiastic investigators have announced their discovery in the
spermatids of echinoderms, vertebrates and even of man himself.
These cases cannot yet be taken as fully proved, mainly owing to
the fact that the number of chromosomes in the nuclei of these
spermatids is large, and accuracy of count is difficult.
The earlier conception of the preparation for the mitotic division
of the nucleus has been that the chromosomes became arranged in a
continuous thread termed the spireme, which then became trans-
versely segmented into the characteristic number of chromosomes.
This conception has gradually been superseded by a much simpler
one, viz. that the chromosomes persist as long looped threads during
the resting stage of the nucleus and that these long U-shaped
filaments become shorter and thicker as mitosis approaches. To
this change of view many workers have contributed, amongst whom
we may specially mention Agar 8 and Hogben. 9 The free ends of
these U's are attached to a spot on the nuclear wall immediately
outside which lies the centrosome. In the preparation for the reduc-
ing division of the germ cells, when the chromosomes first become
distinguishable they are said to be in the " leptotene " stage. These
leptotene threads then approach one another in pairs, and these
pairs are termed " zygotene " threads. Each pair fuses to form a
single thicker thread known as " pachytene," and in this u-ay the
number of chromosomes becomes reduced to one half. Though formerly
an end-to-end fusion of corresponding chromosomes was strongly
believed in, there is to-day no unequivocal evidence that such an
end-to-end unison (known as " metasyndesis ") ever takes place.
On the contrary, in a continually increasing number of cases a side-
by-side union (" parasyndesis ") has been demonstrated. 10 Lately
Hogben has shown that parasyndesis takes place in the cockroach,
an insect which has formerly been regarded as presenting the
typical case of end-to-end union.
7 E. B. Wilson, "Studies of Chromosomes: I. The Behaviour
of the Idiochromosomes in Hemiptera," Jour. Exp. Zoo/., vol. ii.
(1905); "Studies of Chromosomes: II. The Paired Micro-chro-
mosomes, Idiochromosomes, etc., in Hemiptera," ibid., vol. ii. (1905);
" Studies of Chromosomes: III. The Sexual Differences of the
Chromosome Groups in Hemiptera," ibid., vol. iii. (1906).
8 W. Agar, "The Spermatogenesis of Lepidosiren Paradora,"
Quart. Jour. Micr. Sc., vol. Ivii. (1911).
9 L. T. Hogben, " Studies on Synapsis: II. Parallel Conjugation
and the Prophase Complex in Periplaneta," Proc. Roy. Soc., Series
B, vol. xci. (1920).
10 The union of two sister chromosomes in the prophases of the
reducing division is frequently termed " synapsis." We have avoided
this term because it has also been used to denote the bouquet con-
traction of the chromosomes (see below).
CYTOLOGY
The pachytene stage is characterized by a great contraction of the
chromosomes, which leads to their being gathered up in a charac-
teristic " bouquet " at one side of the nucleus of course that side
adjacent to the centrosome. Then the nuclear wall is dissolved and
the chromosomes separate as if repelled from one another: this
process is known as " diakinesis." During this process the line
dividing the sister chromosomes which paired may reappear, and
according to Agar in Lepidosiren these chromosomes may entirely
separate from one another, only to pair again at a slightly later
stage in mitosis. In most cases, however, this complete separation
does not take place, but only a partial separation, which leads to
the compound chromosome assuming the form of a ring or loop.
Each half of the ring corresponds to one of the two original chromo-
somes, and these halves are dragged apart in the ensuing mitotic
division. Most frequently each half shows a constriction in the
middle of its length, which was formerly interpreted as a precocious
appearance of the longitudinal division of the chromosome which is
consummated in the second maturation division. For this reason
the name " tetrad " has been bestowed on the shortened, thickened
and partially split chromosome. Agar 1 has shown, however, that
in the vast majority of cases this constriction has no relation what-
ever to the splitting of the chromosome in the second maturation
division.
Modern theories of heredity assume that a chromosome consists
of a linear series of rudiments, each of which has its particular part
to play in the up-building of the embryo. A side-by-side pairing
enables us to see how corresponding rudiments belonging to maternal
and paternal chromosomes are brought together: an end-to-end
pairing would of course render such a process impossible.
But the side-by-side union of homologous chromosomes does not
always take place in a straight line. In the germ cells of the newt
Balrachoseps Janssens 2 has shown that one filament becomes
spirally wrapped round the other. He believes that he has demon-
strated that each filament likewise becomes split longitudinally and
that when the two chromosomes separate the now separated chro-
mosomes are no longer the same as those which became united with
one another but each has appropriated one strand of the other.
Janssens' theory in its extreme form is not accepted by other cytolo-
gists; but he certainly has demonstrated cross connexions between
the pairing chromosomes, and if the chromosomes are the actual
bearers of the hereditary qualities, as seems to be proved from the
fact that they alone constitute the head of the spermatozoon, then
there are a good many facts (see GENETICS) which seem to require
for their explanation an interchange of substance between the two
paired chromosomes. This is termed by Morgan the " cross-over."
In the ripening of the egg very peculiar phenomena occur which
have only recently received an explanation. The unripe female germ
cells or oogonia show nothing peculiar in their mitosis, but during
the prophases of the first ripening division an enormous increase in
size of the egg cell takes place. The leptotene threads are at first
clearly visible and can be seen to pass into the pachytene stage, but
then they fade from view. The nucleus becomes very large and
gorged with nuclear sap, from which circumstance is derived the
name, " germinal vesicle," which the' older authors bestowed upon
it. The nucleolus becomes large and conspicuous. At the close of
the growth period the nucleolus has been completely dissolved ; the
nuclear wall disappears and the nuclear sap mingles with the cyto-
plasm: then the chromosomes can again be detected as minute
tetrads which begin to arrange themselves on the mitotic spindle of
the first ripening division. Now by the examination of specially
favourable cases it has been shown that what happens during this
episode of growth is that the chromosomes swell up, become pressed
against the nuclear wall and almost lose their capacity for absorbing
stain. It seems to be clear that a chromosome consists of at least
two substances a framework which does not stain and an embedded
material which stains intensely, and to which alone the name
chromatin is, properly speaking, applicable, and that during the
growth of the egg cell the framework swells up enormously. De
Baehr 3 has shown that in the male germ cells of the annelid Sacco-
cirrus, a similar growth period exists, though it is of very much
shorter duration than the corresponding period in the life of the
female germ cell, but, short though it is, it is long enough to cause the
chromosomes to swell up and temporarily fade from view.
The nucleolus or "germinal-spot" of the older authors, which is
so conspicuous a feature in the unripe egg, has formed the subject
of some most interesting researches. Hogben has shown that in the
cockroach Periplaneta the nucleolus becomes vacuolated and that
portions of it are extruded and that these can be recognized by their
peculiar staining properties, scattered in the nuclear sap and even
in the act of passing through the nuclear membrane. They can also
be detected in the cytoplasm outside the nucleus. There seems to
be no reasonable doubt that it is by this process of vacuolation and
emission of pieces of itself that the nucleolus ultimately disappears.
1 W. Agar, " Transverse Segmentation and Internal Differentia-
tion of Chromosomes," Quart. Jour. Micr. Sc., vol. Ixxxviii. (1912).
2 F. A. Janssens, " La Theorie de la Chiasmotyos," La Cellule,
vol. xxv. (1909).
'V. B. de Baehr, " La SpermatogenSse et 1'Ovogenese chez le
Saccocirrus Major," La Cellule, vol. xxx. (1920).
Gatenby 4 and Hogben 6 have shown that in certain cases these
emitted fragments may assume the appearance of nuclei, since they
seem to secrete round themselves both nuclear sap and a nuclear
wall. Ultimately they all disappear. Though it has not been pos-
sible to connect them directly with the formation of yolk spheres,
yet it is an interesting fact that the beginning of this emission
from the nucleolus coincides with the first appearance of yolk spheres,
and as we know by experimental evidence that the nucleus presides
over assimilation, it is a reasonable hypothesis that the absorption
of these pieces of nucleolus in the cytoplasm leads directly to the
synthesis of yolk. It has recently been asserted by Carleton 6 that
in ordinary tissue cells where the same disappearance of the nucleolus
occurs as the cell grows, this is not complete that a small kernel
remains which can be stained in certain silver salts and that this
kernel takes its place on the mitotic spindle at the next division of
the cell. This " nucleolinus," as Carleton terms it, becomes equally
divided into two and the halves pass into the two daughter cells.
If these observations should be confirmed we should have in the
nucleolinus a part of the nucleus as permanent as are any of the
chromosomes, the function of which was to form a centre for the
synthesis of a mass of chromatin which constitutes the nucleolus
and is destined to be emitted into the cytoplasm, where it no doubt
profoundly affects the metabolism and determines the formation of
cytoplasmic structures.
Parthenogenesis. We have seen that the normal history of the
egg cell is to undergo two ripening divisions, at the first of which the
chromosomes are reduced in number by one half. When the egg is
fertilized by the spermatozoon not only is the full number of chro-
mosomes restored by the addition of those brought in by the sper-
matozoon but the division of the egg is initiated by the centrosome
which is carried into the cytoplasm of the egg along with the head of
the spermatozoon. An interesting question now comes as to what
happens in the case of those eggs which develop without fertiliza-
tion or, as it is termed, "parthenogenetically."
Now parthenogenesis may be either artificially induced or it may
be a natural event in the history of the species. If we take the case
of " naturally " parthenogenetic eggs first, we find that a great
deal of light has been thrown on the subject by the investigations of
de Baehr. 7 He took for his subject the plant-louse Aphis palmae,
the eggs of which develop without the aid of the male throughout the
summer. He shows that in these eggs the preparations for the
reducing division occur. Out of the apparently irregular chromatin
network leptotene threads differentiate themselves. These pair so
as to form thicker pachytene threads but then at diakinesis these
pairs become completely dissociated from one another, and the full
number of chromosomes is thus established. Then the period of
growth supervenes and the chromosomes become indistinct, but
when they reappear in the metaphase they are in the full number
and only one maturation division takes place at which all the
chromosomes are longitudinally cleft. From these facts de Baehr
draws the conclusion that the reducing division is suppressed and
only the second maturation division takes place.
A somewhat different case is presented by the egg of the bee. The
egg if fertilized gives rise to a female but if unfertilized grows into a
male. In the latter case of course the resulting animal has in all its
nuclei only the reduced number of chromosomes. When the male
produces germ cells, the reducing division is suppressed. The
nucleus of the spermatocyte enters on the prophases of mitosis and
the cell divides, but one of the daughter cells is devoid of a nucleus
and dies. The nucleus in the other cell goes back into the resting
stage; and then like the egg in Aphis, it enters on a single maturation
division in which the chromosomes are divided longitudinally, and
the spermatozoon has therefore the same number of chromosomes
as that possessed by the nuclei of the tissue cells of the male, which
is the reduced number as compared to the number in the nuclei
of the cells of the fertilized female.
In still other cases, as in the eggs of the small crustacean Artemia,
the two ripening divisions may occur, but the first one can give
rise to a nucleus which is not extruded as a polar body but remains
in the egg and, reuniting with its sister nucleus, restores the full
number of chromosomes.
Parthenogenesis can, however, be brought about in eggs which
normally require fertilization by the application of external stimuli. 8
This stimulus in the case of the frog's egg may take the form of a
prick with a needle. Under these circumstances an immense de-
velopment of astral fibres takes place, centring on a particle lying
*J. B. Gatenby, "The Cytoplasmic Inclusion of Germ Cells:
VI. On the Origin and Probable Constitution of the Germ Cell
Determinant, etc.," Quart. Jour. Micr. Sc., vol. Ixiv. (1920).
6 L. T. Hogben, "Studies on Synapsis: III. The Nuclear Or-
ganization of the Germ Cells in Libellula Depressa," Proc. Roy.
Soc., Series B, vol. xcii. (1921).
6 H. M. Carleton, " Observations on an Intronucleolar Body in
Columnar (Male) Epithelial Cells of the Intestine," Quart. Jour.
Micr. Sc., vol. Ixiv. (1920).
7 V. B. de Baehr, " Recherches sur la Maturation des CEufs
parthenogenetiques dans 1'Aphis," La Cellule, vol. Ixxx. (1920).
8 For a full account of recent work see A. Brachet, " L'CEuf et le
Facteurs de 1'Ontogenese," Encyclopedic Scientifique (Paris 1916).
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
785
adjacent to the egg nucleus, .apparently a centrosome formed from
this nucleus. This aster is speedily transformed by division into a
short spindle with a radiating aster at each end of it. If this spindle
lies near enough to the surface of the egg to initiate a division furrow,
parthenogenetic development may begin. It is interesting to ob-
serve, however, that the mitotic spindle formed by the nucleus of the
unfertilized egg is only 4 /s of the length of the spindle formed by
the fertilized egg, so that the size of the spindle is directly related to
the number of cliromosomes.
In the sea-urchin's egg the primary stimulus, which is usually
momentary immersion in a fatty acid (such as butyric), only pro-
duces an aster on which the chromosomes are distributed but which
is unable to metamorphose itself into a spindle. If, however, the
eggs are subsequently immersed in " hypertonic " sea water that
is, sea water in which the percentage of salt is raised above the normal
amount, then one or more accessory asters are formed in the cyto-
plasm. Whence the particles arise which act as centrosomes for
these asters has never been ascertained ; that they have previously
been emitted from the nucleus is a pure assumption. If only one
accessory aster has been formed a mitotic spindle is formed between
it and the aster which arises round the egg nucleus. On to this
spindle migrate the chromosomes. A regular equatorial plate is
formed, and division of the nucleus and of the whole egg ensues
and development is initiated. As the accessory aster is usually
smaller than the primary egg aster, the two blastomeres into which
the egg divides are of unequal size, and we thus learn that the size
of the daughter cells into which a given cell divides is related to the
relative sizes of the asters at the two poles of the spindle.
Conclusion. From the foregoing sketch the reader will gather
that the science of cytology had attained in 1921 an extremely
interesting stage of development. New discoveries had poured
in, the exact significance of which was not yet fully under-
stood, and although we had glimmerings of light they serve
rather to pose than to answer questions. What, for instance, is
the significance of the mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus?
They surely must have some very important function in cell
life, for the more research is pushed the wider seems to be their
distribution. They have been recorded from Protozoa and
from tissue cells of both animals and plants, as well as from
eggs and spermatozoa, yet the only function which so far can
definitely be assigned to them is the production of transient
structures in the ripe spermatozoon. .What is the meaning of
the centrosome, and how is it related to the formation of astral
rays? It cannot be detected in the living cell and yet the study
of stained cells would lead us to regard it as a permanent cell
organ typically outside and independent of the nucleus and,
like the nucleus, handed on by division from a cell to the daugh-
ter into which it divided. Yet, as we have seen, it can be formed
de noiio in the cytoplasm by the action of hypertonic sea water
and Lillie ' has shown that it can be formed de novo from the
nucleus. In the fertilization of the eggs of the annelid Nereis
the spermatozoon penetrates the egg membrane but slowly.
Lillie centrifuged eggs in which the head had penetrated but in
which the middle-piece with the centrosome were still left
outside and he succeeded in tearing away the middle-piece
altogether. After the cessation of the centrifugal force the
mutilated head completed the penetration of the egg and
developed a new centrosome by the emission of a particle from
itself which was just as effective in forming the first spindle
as the original centrosome.
The astral rays and the mitotic spindle are formed by the
gelation of the cytoplasm; yet their formation is dependent on
the activities of the chromosomes; for an unfertilized egg re-
sponds to stimulation not only by the production of an aster
but by the resolution of its chromatin into chromosomes, and
the length of the spindle which is formed is dependent on the
number of chromosomes.
The nucleus must in some way control the growth of the
cytoplasm, and genetic experiments indicate (see GENETICS)
that each type of chromosome has a particular function to
play in the building-up of the embryo, yet the only emission
from the nucleus which has so far been detected has been that
of nucleolar material.
Finally, the constitution of living cytoplasm seems to be
normally that of a thick colloid solution, which at times changes
1 F. B. Lillie, " Studies on Fertilization in Nereis," III. and IV.,
Jour. Exp. Zool. vol. xii. (1912).
to that of the gel condition. It baffles our imagination, however,
to conceive how a solution can be the seat of internal structure
and how in particular a nerve cell, with all its inherited and
acquired aptitudes or " engrams," can be in life nothing more
than a thick syrup.
REFERENCES. W. E. Agar, Cytology, with special reference to the
Metazoan Nucleus; A. Brachet, " L'CEuf et les Facteurs de 1'Onto-
gemise," Encyclopedie Scientifique (1916); L. Doncaster, Textbook of
Cytology (1908) ; E. B. Wilson, The Cell in Development and In-
heritance (1906). (E. W. MAcB.)
CZECHOSLOVAKIA (Ciskoslovensko, Ciskoslovenskd Repub-
lika). The republic of Czechoslovakia is a new creation in
respect of its name and state-form only. Its modern history as
an independent entity begins with the dramatic collapse of the
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy at the close of the World War, and
the definitive proclamation of Czechoslovak independence on
Oct. 28 1918. Some of its constituent territories, however,
notably Bohemia and the lands of the Bohemian crown (Moravia,
Silesia, Lusatia) enjoyed, up to the year 1620, many centuries
of independent existence and played an important, sometimes
a dominating, part in the political and religious history of
central Europe.
The republic has a pop., according to the census of 1921, of
13,595,818, and an area of about 55,000 sq. m. (approximately
the size of England and Wales). It comprises three great natural
regions: (i) Bohemia, (2) Moravia and Silesia, (3) Slovakia
and Russinia (Sub-Carpathian Russia = Podkarpatskd Rus).
Bohemia, with an area of some 20,400 sq. m., has a pop. of
6,664,932; Moravia, with 8,600 sq. m., 2,660,737 inhabitants;
Silesia, 1,800 sq. m., and 670,937 inhabitants; Slovakia, 20,000
sq. m., and 2,993,479 inhabitants; Russinia, 5,000 sq. m., and
605,731 inhabitants. The whole is about 600 m. long and has
a maximum breadth of 185 miles. In respect of population it
occupies the tenth place among European countries; in respect
of size the fourteenth place; in density of population the seventh.
The frontiers were fixed by the Peace Treaties of St. Germain,
Versailles and Trianon, while a portion of the ancient princi-
pality of Tesin (Teschen) was adjudicated to it by the Paris
Conference (July 1920). On the W. and N., where it borders
upon Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia and Poland, it is enclosed by
mountains, some of them of very considerable height, which
form on those sides a natural and strategic frontier. In Bohemia
the highest peak Snezka (Schneekoppe) has an altitude of
5,216 ft., in Slovakia the summits of the Carpathians and of
the High Tatra rise to a height of between 7,000 and 8,000 ft.
South of these ranges lie fertile and well-watered plains and
lowlands extending to the borders of Austria, Hungary and
Rumania. Some 60% of the entire area of the republic is in-
cluded in the basin of the Danube, the rest being traversed
by the Labe (Elbe) and the Vltava (Moldau), the former passing
in particular through regions remarkable for their rich fertility.
Some one-third of the entire surface of the country is covered
by forests. The climate of the republic is a medium between a
maritime and continental one.
Prague, the capital (677,000 inhabitants), is picturesquely
situated on the Vltava and justly famous for its architectural
beauty. Bratislava (Pressburg), the capital of Slovakia, with
its great Danubian harbour, is the gateway of central European
trade to the East and the Balkans. Other towns of importance
in the republic are Brno (Briinn), with 200,000 inhabitants,
the capital of Moravia, and the centre of an old established and
flourishing textile industry; Plzen (Pilsen) with 100,000 inhabi-
tants, famous for its beer and as the seat of the Skoda iron works;
Kosice (Kaschau), the commercial centre of eastern Slovakia;
and Uzhorod (Ungvar), the capital of Russinia. Of German
towns in Czechoslovakia (most of them with a considerable
Czechoslovak minority), Liberec (Reichenberg), and Jablonec
(Gablonz), are important industrial centres. Carlsbad (Karlovy
Vary), and Marienbad (Marianske Lazne), are famous spas.
Czechoslovakia indeed is one of the richest states of Europe in
mineral and health-giving waters, and possesses more than 200
watering places and health resorts. Besides Carlsbad and
y86
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Marienbad, Franzensbad, Teplice (Teplitz), Podebrady (in
Bohemia), Luhacovice in Moravia, Piestany, Trencianske
Teplice, Sliac and Strbske Pleso (4,100 ft. above sea-level) in
Slovakia, are noted. At Jachymov (Joachimsthal), in North
Bohemia, radium is produced.
Ethnology. 1 The population of Czechoslovakia is ethnologi-
cally of a mixed character. The prevailing element is that of the
Czechs (7 millions), with whom the Slovaks (2^ millions) form
one people; indeed as long ago as the pth century the kingdom
of Great Moravia, with frontiers roughly identical with the
present boundaries of the Czechoslovak Republic, was the
creation of the Slav people, who occupied in common a territory
stretching from W. Bohemia to the Carpathians.
The Czechs and the Slovaks, or, to give them their united name,
the Czechoslovaks, are a branch of the great Slav family of which
the Russians are the most numerous and the most important mem-
ber and to which the Serbo-Croats with the Slovenes, the Poles,
the Bulgarians and the Wends of Germany also belong. Even after
the conquest of Slovakia by the Hungarians, which resulted in
Slovak territory being separated from Czech territory till they were
reunited in 1918, an intellectual connexion between the two branches
of the one family was always maintained, and some of the foremost
names in Czech literature are those of writers who were Slovaks by
birth. The difference between the Czech language and the language
spoken in Slovakia is merely dialectical and the struggle for inde-
pendence, culminating in the declaration of the Czechoslovak State,
has emphasized and developed the sentiment of Czechoslovak unity.
It is not without interest to note that the three principal leaders of
the movement for independence were a Moravian of Slovak descent
(Masaryk), a Slovak (Gen. Stefanik), and a Czech (Dr. Benes).
Of the non-Czechoslovak races in the republic the Germans are
the most numerous, numbering some 35 millions, chiefly dispersed
along the W. and N. frontiers of Bohemia and in Moravia and
Silesia. Their presence is largely the result, firstly of a colonization
which was favoured by the Bohemian kings and princes of the 1 2th
and 1 3th centuries, and secondly of a policy of Germanization
pursued by the Habsburg rulers from the date of the battle of the
White Mountain in 1620 (when the Czechs lost their independence)
up till the very close of the World War.
On the day following the attainment of Czechoslovak independ-
ence, Oct. 29 1918, the Germans of Bohemia and Moravia the
so-called Sudetenland Germans declared the districts where they
predominated a province of the new Austrian State, which had been
constituted some eight days previously. It was not until the Treaty
of St. Germain was concluded on Sept. 10 1919 and the Austrian
Government released the Germans from the oath of allegiance they
had taken to the new Austrian Republic, that the Germans desisted
from openly fighting against incorporation in the Czechoslovak
Republic. Their claim to self-determination was rejected by the
Peace Conference. From the mere presence of the Germans within
1 For an Austrian view of the nationality question, see the article
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE (Ed. E. B.).
the historic frontiers of the Czechoslovak State it would indeed have
been difficult, with justice, to deduce a right of self-determination,
that is to say, the right, in this case, of retaining all the fruits of
misused power. In Slovakia the Slovaks were subjected to a similar
system of Magyarization. The Hungarian census of 1910 purported
to show that in Slovakia there were 1,697,552 Slovaks and 901,793
Hungarians. The correct figures, however, were shown by the
census of 1919 to be Slovaks 2,141,000, Hungarians 665,000.
Other nationalities occupying portions of the Czechoslovak
Republic are Ruthenians 600,000 and Poles 250,000. On the other
hand there are some 500,000 Czechoslovaks in Austria, 450,000 in
Hungary, more than 200,000 in Yugoslavia and Rumania, and
over 800,000 in America.
Special provision is made in the Constitutional Charter of the
republic (in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of St. Germain)
for the protection of national, religious and racial minorities.
Difference in religious belief, confession or language, constitute
no obstacle to any citizen in regard to entry into the public services
or offices, to the attainment to any promotion or dignity, or to the
exercise of any trade or calling. In towns and districts in which
there lives a considerable section (20% or more) of citizens speaking
a language other than Czechoslovak, schools are to be provided, the
instruction to be imparted in the language of that minority. Such
a minority has also a right to a proportionate amount of the funds
set aside by the State or by the local authorities for purposes of
education, religion or philanthropy. The courts of justice and the
public offices are also required to pay due regard in respect of lan-
guage to the desires of a minority which numbers at least 20 % of
the inhabitants of the locality. Every act tending to force a citizen
to abandon his nationality in other words oppression of a citizen
on account of his race is expressly prohibited.
Creation of the Republic. When in July 1914 Austria com-
menced hostilities against Serbia, thus bringing about the World
War, this act of aggression took place against the will of the
Czechs and Slovaks, at that time subject to Austrian and
Hungarian rule respectively. Open protest or organized revolt,
however, was impossible owing to the proximity and indeed the
presence in overwhelming numbers of German and Hungarian
troops, who were expressly garrisoned among the Czech popu-
lation in order to stifle any possible outburst of national and
pro-Ally sentiment. Direct political action was equally impossi-
ble, as the Austrian Parliament was suspended. Whenever
opinions did happen to' be expressed which could be construed
as criticism of Austria or Germany the offenders were speedily
punished, and it was not long before the political leaders of the
Czechs and Slovaks found themselves in confinement, some of
them under sentence of death, while the Czech and Slovak press
was subjected to a rigorous censorship and many of its organs
prohibited from appearing. Some of the political leaders escaped
over the frontier among them Prof. Thomas Garrigue Masaryk
and Dr. Eduard Benes, who were subsequently to lead a success-
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Scale, 1:3,500,000
English Miles
10 20 3O 40 SO 60 7D M
Kilometres
W 40 60 BO
Czechoslovakia Frontier 1921
Boundary of Austria -Hungary 1914,^:;.
Provincial Boundaries
w-s \\
'WenerNeustidtfej
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
787
ful campaign abroad for the destruction of the Austrian Mon-
archy and the attainment of Czechoslovak independence.
The persecutions, sometimes revolting in their cruelty, to
which (on account of their pro-Ally sympathies) the Czechs
were subjected during the first two years of the war, had the
effect of uniting all the different political parties into one single
national block; and when the Austrian Parliament was at
length convoked in May 1917 the Czech parties made a unani-
mous declaration that it was their aim to work for the union of
Czechs and Slovaks as one people in an independent state.
As the war proceeded, further declarations of national and
anti-Austrian sentiment were made, the most notable being the
" Twelfth Night Manifesto," issued at Prague on Jan. 6 1918,
in which all the Czech deputies of the Austrian Reichsrat and
of the Diets of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia unanimously
demanded full independence and representation at the future
conference which should conclude peace in Europe.
Meanwhile the Czechs, who were as Austrian subjects obliged
to serve in ^ie Austrian army, lost no opportunity of passing
over to the Allies. Of 70,000 prisoners taken by Serbia early
in the war 35,000 were Czechs. Of these 32,000 perished during
the Serbian retreat or died of fever or cholera. The remnant,
3,000 in number, proceeded to France and there joined the
Czechoslovak legions already fighting on the French front. Of
a total of 600,000 Czech troops in the Austrian army over one-
half surrendered to the Allies. In Russia a Czechoslovak legion
was formed at the outset of the war, and later this grew into a
regular army which by 1918 numbered 100,000 men.
The activities of Prof. Masaryk in Russia, England and America,
enthusiastically supported by his compatriots living abroad,
and especially by the Czechs and Slovaks who had emigrated to
the United States, the self-sacrificing valour of the Czecho-
slovak legions on the French, Italian and Russian fronts, and the
work of the Czechoslovak Council with its headquarters at
Paris, moved the Allies to acknowledge the last-named body as
the de facto Provisional Government of the Czechoslovak State.
On July 13 1918 a Czechoslovak National Council, representing
all parties, was formed at Prague as a complement to the National
Council already existing at Paris. This was the first direct step
taken at home towards the establishment of the new State.
On Aug. 9 1918 the British Government issued the following
declaration:
" Since the beginning of the war the Czechoslovak nation has
resisted the common enemy by every means in its power. The
Czechoslovaks have constituted a considerable army, fighting on
three different battle-fields and attempting, in Russia and Siberia, to
arrest the Germanic invasion. In consideration of their efforts to
achieve independence, Great Britain regards the Czechoslovaks as an
Allied nation and recognizes the unity of the three Czechoslovak
armies as an Allied and belligerent army waging a regular warfare
against Austria-Hungary and Germany. ..."
This declaration materially helped to seal the fate of Austria,
and implicitly recognized Czechoslovak independence as an ac-
complished fact. France and Italy, by accepting the assist-
ance of Czechoslovak legions on the French and Italian fronts,
had already practically acknowledged Czechoslovakia's claims
(Briand, 1916). In the first week of Sept. 1918 the United
States of America and Japan issued declarations practically
endorsing the British declaration. On Oct. 14 1918 the Czecho-
slovak National Council was constituted as a Provisional Govern-
ment with all the attributes of sovereign and independent power.
On Oct. 17 the Austrian Emperor Charles issued a manifesto
offering the various nationalities of his empire a measure of
autonomy on the basis of an Austrian federation. The offer
was too partial and came too late. Austria's hour had struck.
The Czechs at home declined even discussion with the Vienna
Government, and declared that the question of Czechoslovakia
must be left to the Peace Conference. On the i8th the Provi-
sional Government at Paris issued a declaration of independence,
signed by Prof. Masaryk, Dr. Benes and Gen. Stefanik. On Oct.
27 the Austro-Hungarian Government recognized the rights of
the Czechoslovaks, and cabled to President Wilson at Wash-
ington a request for an armistice and peace negotiations.
Thus, on Oct. 28 1918 the Czechs regained the independence
which they had lost almost 300 years before, at the ill-fated
battle of the White Mountain on Nov. 8 1620. The National
Council at Prague issued a proclamation of independence and
took over the reins of government. In spite of the presence of
Austrian and Hungarian garrisons in Prague and other towns,
there was no bloodshed. Every consideration was shown to
the Imperial troops and the Imperial civil authorities, who were
allowed to vacate their posts without being subjected to force,
and the universal rejoicings of a liberated people were happily
marred by no scenes of violence.
On Nov. 1 6 the first representative body of the Czecho-
slovak people the National Assembly as it was called met
at Prague. Its members, 236 in number, were selected from all
the different political parties in proportion to their strength as
shown by the last parliamentary election previous to the war.
The Assembly proceeded to decide upon the form of government
to be adopted. The unanimous decision of the Assembly was
in favour of a republic, and Prof. Masaryk, at that time still
absent abroad, was unanimously chosen as first president. A
Cabinet was formed, with Dr. Kramaf, who during the war had
been sentenced to death for treason and afterwards reprieved,
as premier, and Dr. Benes as foreign minister.
Two days after the declaration of the independence of the
Czechoslovak State, which had been signed also by the repre-
sentatives of Slovakia, the Slovak National Council issued a
"Declaration of the Slovak nation," wherein it was solemnly
set forth that the Slovaks in blood, in language and civilization
form part of the Czechoslovak nation. A considerable time, how-
ever, elapsed before the Slovaks were allowed without hindrance
to unite fully with the Czechs. The Hungarians (Magyars)
declined to surrender the territories inhabited by Slovaks, and
it was necessary to call in the military help of the Czechs before
the last Hungarian troops, who had initiated a reign of terror
in Slovakia, could be driven out of the land.
In the extreme eastern corner of the Czechoslovak Republic,
there is situated a little autonomous region of Russinia (or
Sub-Carpathian Russia), which, together with Slovakia, was
part and parcel of the Hungarian Kingdom till the Treaty of St.
Germain permitted its incorporation with Czechoslovakia. The
National Central Council of the Ruthenians, which met on
May 8 1919 at Uzhorod, their capital, unanimously adopted a
resolution approving of incorporation with Czechoslovakia, on
special terms of autonomy. Thus by the express will of their
peoples, the various lands represented in the Czechoslovak Re-
public, viz. Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia and Russinia,
united to form one State with a single central Government
having its seat at Prague. The tasks, almost infinite in number,
confronting the new State were of great gravity. The country
had been brought by the Austro-Hungarian war policy to the
very brink of economic and financial ruin. A starved and deci-
mated population stood face to face with difficulties, not only
on every frontier but indeed to some extent within the borders of
the State itself. The spirit of courage and endurance which had
enabled the Czechoslovaks to achieve their independence was
now to inspire a further work of no mean significance the con-
solidation of a free, democratic and enlightened republic in the
heart of Europe, the most westerly outpost of the great Slavonic
world stretching from the banks of the Elbe and the Danube to
the Pacific Ocean, and at the same time a nation bound by ties
of gratitude and common interest to the Anglo-Saxon and Latin
races. "At home we feel sufficiently confident," said Dr. Kra-
maf, the premier, at the first session of the National Assembly, "of
being able to rely upon our own powers alone, and that with-
out injustice to others. We shall count upon the devotion of
all towards the State and we shall show that not only have we
been able to achieve our liberty but that we know how to pre-
serve it and to be really free worthy of our great past, of our
traditions and of our sufferings."
The National Assembly confirmed all the emergency meas-
ures which had been passed by the National Council between
Oct. 28 and the date of the first session of the Assembly, such for
788
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
instance, as enactments declaring the Austro-Hungarian code of
laws (with some few express exceptions) as still in force and
measures securing continuity in the executive and adminis-
trative offices of State. There was thus no appreciable break in
political, legal or local administration. The framing of a con-
stitution for the new State was early proceeded with. On
Feb. 29 1920, after a parliamentary committee had been at
work on its provisions for almost a year, a constitution of the
republic was adopted by the National Assembly.
Constitution. The framers of the constitution were largely
influenced by the American and French constitutions, and the
American principle of the division and balance of the legisla-
tive, executive and judicial powers was followed.
The actual terms of the constitution are introduced by a
preamble, which runs:
" We, the Czechoslovak nation, desiring to consolidate the perfect
unity of our people, to establish the reign of justice in the Republic,
to assure the peaceful development of our native Czechoslovak land,
to contribute. to the common welfare of all citizens of this State and
to secure the blessings of freedom to coming generations, have in
our National Assembly this 29th day of February 1920 adopted the
following Constitution for the Czechoslovak Republic; and in so
doing we declare that it will be our endeavour to see that this Con-
stitution together with all the laws of our land be carried out in the
spirit of our history as well as in the spirit of those modern prin-
ciples embodied in the idea of Self-determination, for we desire to
take our place in the Family of Nations as a member at once cultured,
peace-loving, democratic and progressive."
Legislative authority is exercised by two popularly elected
bodies, a Chamber of Deputies of 300 and a Senate of 150 mem-
bers. Of these, the Chamber of Deputies, as the more fully rep-
resentative of the popular will, possesses greater powers, being
enabled in certain cases to carry through its legislation in face
of the opposition of the Senate. The Senate was intended to
play the part of an organ of supervision, so as to act as a pre-
ventive of too hasty or too loosely drawn-up legislation. It has in
more than one instance already exercised its power as a check-
ing and restraining authority with good effects its amendments
even on substantial points having been several times accepted
by the Lower Chamber.
Suffrage is universal, both men and women who have attained
the age of 21 years being able to vote in elections to the House
of Deputies. To vote in elections to the Senate the voter must
have reached the age of twenty-six.
The president of the republic is elected in a joint session of
the two Chambers. His period of office is fixed at seven years,
and he may be ree'Iected at the end of his first term for a second
period of seven years. For a third term, however, he cannot be
elected until after the expiration of seven years from the conclu-
sion of his second term of office. This restriction does not
apply to the first president President Masaryk.
The president of the republic is not answerable at law for
his official acts. He may be impeached in one case only namely,
for high treason, on the motion of the Chamber of Deputies;
and his only punishment, if found guilty, is the loss of his office
and disability ever to hold it again. For each and all of his
State acts one minister at least is responsible.
Among other outstanding terms of the constitution are the follow-
ing: The Czechoslovak State is declared to be a democratic republic
with an elected president at its head. To make any alteration in its
frontiers a constitutional law is required a law which, as opposed
to an ordinary law, has to be passed by a three-fifths majority of
Parliament. Russinia (Sub-Carpathian Russia) is granted the
widest possible autonomy compatible with the integrity of the
Czechoslovak Republic. The Chamber of Deputies is elected for six
years, the Senate for eight. Deputies must be at least 26, senators
45 years of age. They possess immunity, but may be handed over
to the ordinary courts by resolution of the House to which they
belong. Parliament must sit twice a year. Declarations of war and
amendments to the constitution require a vote in their favour of
three-fifths of all members of both Houses. Cabinet ministers may
participate in the meetings of either House and on the request of
either House must attend its session.
Finance and army bills must be introduced first in the Lower
House, the Chamber of Deputies. A measure passed by the Chamber
of Deputies becomes law, in spite of its rejection by the Senate, if the
Chamber o^ Deputies by a vote of the majority of its entire mem-
bership repasses the measure.
During the period when Parliament is not sitting, a permanent
commission of 24 members (16 from the deputies and 8 from the
senators) sits to enact urgent measures which have temporarily the
force of law. They lose their validity unless confirmed within two
months by the Parliament which subsequently meets.
Cabinet ministers are appointed by the president ; they need not
be members of either House.
In respect of civic rights no privileges of sex, birth or vocation are
recognized. Titles may be conferred only when they refer to office
or occupation. The liberty of the press, the right of free expression
of opinion by word, writing, printed matter, etc., liberty of conscience
and religious profession are guaranteed. All religious confessions
are equal before the law.
All citizens of the republic are fully equal before the law and enjoy
equal civil and political rights whatever be their race, language or
religion; the special provisions for the protection of national and
other minorities have already been referred to. The constitutional
charter thus represents an honest effort to set up a truly democratic
republic which shall fairly meet the demands of the varied races and
religions within its borders.
Administration and Justice. The executive Government is'
placed in charge of 15 ministries concerned with the following
matters: foreign affairs, interior, finance, commeVce, labour,
food supplies, railways, health, social welfare, justice, agri-
culture, public instruction, national defence, posts and tele-
graphs, and the unification of laws. The collective responsi-
bility of this Cabinet of ministers is expressly laid down in the
charter of the constitution. The president of the republic
enjoys such executive power as is expressly assigned to him by
the constitution, and he has his own office the president's
bureau presided over by a permanent official, to conduct such
matters as fall within his competence and to facilitate communi-
cation with the rest of the executive.
For purposes of political administration the republic has been
divided into administrative subdistricts, the heads of which arc
appointed by and directly responsible to the central Govern-
ment. Local civil government is carried on by popularly elected
parish, district, urban and municipal councils.
The tribunals of the republic are the Supreme Court of Justice,
which sits at Brno and is the court of final appeal both in civil and
criminal causes, two high courts sitting at Prague and Brno respec-
tively, 33 provincial courts and 410 district courts, all of which pos-
sess jurisdiction in both civil and criminal causes. Commercial
cases are dealt with by the ordinary courts, except at Prague where
a special commercial court sits. Litigation in mining matters is con-
ducted before special benches attached to the district courts in
mining districts. In large industrial centres there are also industrial
courts to deal with disputes between employers and workpeople.
At Prague there sits also an electoral court which decides upon the
validity of disputed elections or forfeiture of seats and other ques-
tions relating to parliamentary or elected bodies. A constitutional
court decides whether laws promulgated by Parliament are in
harmony with the charter of the constitution.
Previous to 1918 the territories now composing the Czechoslovak
Republic were of course subject to the Austrian or Hungarian code
of laws respectively. On the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy the Austrian code was adopted for the lands of the
Bohemian crown and the Hungarian code for Slovakia. A special
Ministry that for " the unification of legislation and administrative
organization " has been entrusted with the unification oi the laws
for the whole republic; and two commissions of legal experts under
the control of the Ministry of Justice were in 1921 at work on a
careful revision of the old codes, which when completed would be
issued as a uniform code for the entire republic.
Foreign Policy. " Our policy," said Dr. Benes in 1921, " is
a policy of peace: in domestic affairs our programme is the logi-
cal sequel to our foreign policy, namely, social and racial order
and justice, and unremitting effort on behalf of social and politi-
cal democracy. The Great War must have taught us all that
a calm and sensible discussion of all our differences is possible."
The Czechoslovak Republic was first and foremost concerned,
while avoiding all that may smack of chauvinism or imperialism,
to maintain its integrity within the frontiers assigned to it by
the Peace Conference. To that end it insisted upon the strict
observance of the Treaties of Versailles, of St. Germain and of
Trianon. It favoured an Anglo-French entente or alliance,
seeing therein a substantial guarantee for the due carrying-out
of those pacts. An intimate collaboration with England and
France was a conditio sine qua non for Czechoslovakia. The
creation of the so-called " Little Entente," aiming at the preser-
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
789
ration of the status quo in central Europe, was the primary out-
come of Czechoslovak foreign policy. Czechoslovakia, Yugo-
slavia and Rumania became bound together in the Little Entente
by a treaty of alliance (Convention with Yugoslavia dated Aug.
13 1920, with Rumania April 23 1921), positive in so far as it
aimed at the establishment and maintenance of peace, security
and normal economic conditions in central Europe, and defen-
sive in so far as it was directed against all attempts at reaction
menacing the existence of the new states. The efficacy of the
Little Entente as a counter- reactionary alliance was mani-
fested in April 1921, and again in October 1921, when its con-
certed action helped to frustrate the two attempts of Charles of
Habsburg-Lorraine to recapture the throne of Hungary.
In respect of Austria Czechoslovakia was animated by the
desire to assist in relieving the economic situation of the country,
while opposed both to the incorporation of Austria with Germany
and to the foundation of a Danubian confederation. It was in
favour of aiding Austria on a broad basis of financial and eco-
nomic help, to be rendered generally to the states of central Eu-
rope by international agreement. It was in favour of creating in
central Europe a new political and economic system by which
permanent peace would be secured a definite understanding
between all the " Succession States " of the former Austro-
Hungarian monarchy in the matter of communications, post,
telegraphs, navigation, finance and banking, exchange of goods
and commercial treaties generally, opening up the way to a sys-
tem of unfettered economics and freer trade but at the same
time jealously guarding the economic and political sovereignty
of the Czechoslovak Republic.
In respect of Hungary Czechoslovakia was at one with Yugo-
slavia and Rumania in holding that a Habsburg restoration
would be a casus belli. These countries adopted the view laid
down by the Paris Conference on Feb. 2 1920, which declared
that " it is not within the intention nor can it be regarded as
the duty of the principal Allied Powers to intervene in the
internal affairs of Hungary or to dictate to the Hungarian people
what form of Government or of Constitution they shall adopt:
nevertheless the Powers cannot allow the restoration of the
Habsburg dynasty to be regarded as a question concerning the
Hungarian nation alone. They declare therefore that a restora-
tion of this nature would be in conflict with the very basis of the
peace settlement and would be neither recognized nor tolerated."
On the other hand Czechoslovakia was desirous of renewing
economic and political relations with Hungary, the more so as
agricultural Hungary might be regarded as the complement of
industrial Czechoslovakia, supplying her with natural products-
and providing a market for Czechoslovak manufactures.
With Poland the relations of the Czechoslovak Republic were
for a considerable time seriously troubled by the question of
Teschen, both countries laying claim to that territory. The
Paris Conference in July 1920 decided for the partition of the
disputed area; and the decision, though it signified no small
sacrifice for the Czechoslovaks and caused deep disappointment
throughout the country, was accepted loyally in the hope that
by this sacrifice the friendship of the Poles would be secured.
In the words of Dr. Benes, " the Czechoslovak Government
regards the conflict with the Poles as definitively ended and is
desirous of systematically pursuing a policy of rapprochement."
It was in this sense that the whole policy of Czechoslovakia
towards Poland was directed, and the Czechoslovaks were hope-
ful that Poland would ultimately join with the Little Entente.
Towards Russia the policy of Czechoslovakia was logically
consistent. It had always been opposed to intervention in
Russia, and insisted upon Russia desisting from any act that
might be construed as intermeddling in the affairs of Czecho-
slovakia, in particular the pursuit of Bolshevist propaganda on
Czechoslovak territory. The Czechs were animated with intense
sympathy for the real Russian people, and looked forward to
the day when they will be able to cooperate as kinsmen in the
reconstruction of a peaceful and well-ordered Russia.
In pursuance of its practical policy of rapprochement and
economic cooperation in the reconstruction of central Europe
in particular and of Europe in general, Czechoslovakia con-
cluded a series of commercial treaties with her various neigh-
bours and with the Allied Powers.
Political Parties. Not only was there in 1918-21 a sharp
contrast in policy between the Czechoslovaks and the minority
races living within the republic the Germans and the Magyars
but each nationality was split up into a multiplicity of factions.
The Czechoslovaks had 199 representatives in the House of
Deputies and 103 in the Senate, and this total of 302 members
was divided among no less than nine parties. The Germans
and the Magyars were also proportionately split up. The
strongest party in the republic was that of the Czechoslovak
Social Democrats, which up to Sept. 1920 was represented by
74 deputies and 41 senators. The left wing of the party, -22
deputies and 5 senators after a somewhat violent quarrel,
then broke away and formed an independent organization
owing allegiance to the Third (Moscow) International. This
Communist party established its own organ, the '' Rude Prdvo "
(The Red Rights), in opposition to the "Prdvo Lidu" (The
Rights of the People), the organ of the Social Democratic party.
The Social Democrats were well organized among the industrial
workers and agricultural labourers. They pursued a Marxist
programme aiming at the socialization of the State, the means
of production and consumption: they were opposed to a dicta-
torship of the proletariat, and were for evolutionary as opposed
to revolutionary methods. They supported the peace policy of
the Czechoslovak Government in foreign affairs, and were
strongly opposed to intervention in Russia. They were also in
favour of a closer cooperation with the German democratic
element in the State.
The Communists aimed at a dictatorship of the proletariat, the
creation of workmen's and military councils and a close hand-
in-hand cooperation with Soviet Russia.
The Popular party, composed of Catholics and recruited
largely from Slovakia and the country districts of Moravia,
was represented by 33 deputies and 18 senators. Its organiza-
tion was chiefly in the hands of the priests. It championed the
rights of private ownership against Socialism, and combated
the anti-Rome movement which was taking place throughout
the republic. In foreign affairs it supported the Government.
The Agrarian party numbered 42 members, and published an
important daily, the "Venkov " (Country). It was drawn from
the peasant and small-farmer class, was in favour of land reform,
private property rights and increased production all round. It
was opposed to Socialism.
The National Socialists numbered thirty-four. They pursued
a national as opposed to an international social policy, being
thus opponents of the Social Democrats and in particular antago-
nistic to Communism. They were opposed to the Soviets, but
while favouring a constitutional Russia were against any inter-
vention in that country.
The National Democrats (Liberals), whose organ was the
" Ndrodni Listy," numbered twenty-nine. They were led by
Dr. Kramaf, and, being mostly recruited from the educated,
professional and official classes, were more influential than the
numbers suggest. They were strongly represented in Prague
and other cities. They were, of course, opposed to Marxism
and Communism. In domestic politics they were strongly
Nationalist and suspicious of the Germans. They were the
champions of State authority, order and public morals.
Of the German parties the strongest was again the Social
Democratic party, originally numbering 31 deputies and 16 sena-
tors, but having subsequently lost three deputies who formed a
German Communist party acting more or less in concert with
the Czechoslovak Communists.
In 1921 the total number of Socialists of every complexion in
the House of Deputies was 141, as opposed to 137 Bourgeois
members (Czechoslovaks 199, Germans 72, Magyars 7). In the
Senate the Socialists numbered 68, as against 75 Bourgeois
members (Czechoslovaks 103, Germans 37, Magyars 3).
The composition of the Chambers sufficiently explained the
fact that up to Sept. 1921 the Government of the republic had
790
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
remained in the hands of a Coalition Cabinet, or (as at the
latter date) of a Cabinet composed of permanent officials sup-
ported by a coalition of parties.
Social Legislation. The democratic sentiment of the Czechoslovak
nation, and its maturity in social matters, resulted in the adoption
of a social policy which, while proceeding without undue haste, was
characterized by a comparatively rapid course of reform. Social
legislation first took the form of accident and sickness insurance. In
respect of the former an increase of 30% in the payments to the
insured as compared with July I 1917 was made, while at the same
time better terms were given in the insurance of miners and of rail-
waymen ; insurance against sickness was completed by extending it
to agricultural and domestic workers as well as to the families of the
insured. In addition to this, in the course of fixing the premiums to
be paid, the amount of State support was several times increased.
Sickness insurance was made to include maternity insurance. Old-
age and invalidity pensions were not universal; they were made
to apply, outside civil servants, to clerks and private officials only.
Pensions were also secured to the widows and orphans of the
assured. A universal scheme of old-age and invalidity insurance
was before Parliament in 1921. Pensions for war invalids had been
granted by special enactments. Insurance against unemployment
was originally introduced as an emergency measure, but the economic
conditions following the war necessitated the maintenance and
extension of this form of insurance, which for normal times has been
given legal sanction according to the Ghent system, by State con-
tributions to the payments made by the trade unions.
The most notable accomplishment of the youngrepublic in the field
of social-political reform has been the enactment of Dec. 19 1918
establishing an 8-hour day for industrial and agricultural workers
(with some specific exceptions). Prohibitions in respect of night
work, the work of women (especially mothers) and young persons
have been dealt with in the sense of the resolutions adopted at
international conferences.
Wages have also been the subject of legislation; special com-
missions^have been empowered to regulate the wages in the so-called
" home " industries (sweating), and an arbitration board has been
appointed to fix the salaries of clerks in the metal industry, thus
minimizing the danger of conflicts in respect of wages having to be
settled by means of strikes.
By a far-reaching policy an attempt has been made towards
solving the housing problem. A special enactment protects tenants
against arbitrary treatment at the hands of landlords in respect of
notice to quit and raising of rents. Numerous enactments have also
been passed for the encouragement of building operations. The
State grants generous support to local authorities and to cooperative
societies. These grants amounted in 1919 and 1920 to more than
625,000,000 crowns.
A vast measure of freedom, compared with their position under the
Austrian regime, has been granted to women both politically and
socially. Politically women are now the equals of men, and there is
nothing legally to prevent a woman occupying any position in the
various professions or in the administration of the State. In the two
Houses of Parliament they were represented in 1921 by 16 members.
Nationalization of the coal-mines and the great industrial con-
cerns was one of the main items on the programme of the Socialist
parties. In practice moderate discussion was still proceeding in 1921
with the view of giving a more democratic character to factories and
other undertakings and assuring a closer cooperation of the workers
in the management. In regard to the mines specialists were in
conference as to the part to be taken by the State and by public
bodies in ownership and management. A first step towards democ-
ratizing industrial undertakings was taken by an enactment touch-
ing mining councils. By this enactment it is made possible, where
more than 20 workers are employed, for an elected council to
cooperate in securing the welfare of the workers, to see to the due
execution of contracts and agreements, to settle disputes, and to take
part in the management of philanthropic institutions.
Another enactment assures to miners a 10% share of the net
profits, this sum to be employed for educative, philanthropic, or
other purposes of utility for the benefit of the miners.
On the principle of the mining councils, factory or industrial
councils were projected for all industrial undertakings.
The idea underlying these councils was to create, as it were, a
certain constitution for factories by which the workman who had
hitherto been a mere machine should become a creative factor,
closely identified with the organization of the undertaking, conscious
of responsibility, and thus making of democracy the same reality
in economic life as it had already become in political life.
Land Reform. Long before the political revolution of 1918 the
Czechoslovaks had been convinced of the necessity for a far-reaching
measure of land reform, both from a social and economic point
of view as well as from national considerations. Vast entailed
estates were the property of a small group of landlords (in Bohemia
37'7%, in Moravia 34-4o, >" Silesia 39-9% of all land belonged to
owners representing o-i % of the population), while great masses of
the people did not own a single acre of their native land. The great
majority of the landlords were nobles of foreign origin who acquired
their estates at the hands of the Habsburg conqueror from 1621
onwards, when, after the battle of the White Mountain, the lands
of the Czech nobles and yeomen were confiscated, the owners being
executed or, as adherents of the Moravian Brotherhood and other
Protestant churches, preferring to pass into exile rather than sur-
render their faith. The demand for the nationalization of the great
landed estates was thus not only supported as a social and eco-
nomic necessity in order to provide the landless population, notably
the legionaries, with land, but was, deep in the minds of the people,
regarded as a legal rectification of the wrongs suffered through the
confiscations which followed the defeat of the White Mountain.
The Act by which the great estates were sequestered was unani-
mously passed by the National Assembly on April 16 1919. It gives
the State the right to " take " (seize) and distribute estates in so far
as they exceed 150 hectares (370 ac.) of arable land or 250 hectares
(617 ac.) of land of any kind. Estates belonging to the house of
Habsburg-Lorraine, property illegally acquired, as well as the
property of persons who during the war were guilty of gross offences
against the Czechoslovak nation are taken for a compensation paid
to the Reparation Commission at Vienna. In all other cases the State
gives to the owner a proportionate compensation based on the
average prices in the years 1913-7. For the purchase and distribu-
tion of the land a " State Land Office " has been set up. A share in
the distribution may be claimed on the one hand by private persons
to the amount of 15 hectares (37 ac.) the amount suitable for
cultivation by one family; on the other hand by agricultural,
housing and cooperative societies. The lands taken over by the
State may, of course, be used for other purposes of public utility and
remain the property of the State. Even persons without means may
obtain land, an enactment enabling them to purchase on credit to
the extent of nine-tenths of the value of the land acquired. Special
protection is given to small holders. This Land Act was to be carried
out in a series of successive periods, during the first of which only
estates over 5,000 hectares (i2,35oac.) would be affected.
Tlie Army. The military forces of the republic were organized,
immediately on the attainment of independence, on a democratic
basis. The army was formed of the legionaries who had fought in
Russia, France and Italy on the side of the Allies, and of those
Czechoslovak troops who, on the collapse of Austria- Hungary,
streamed back from the various fronts. Recruits now serve for two
years, and the strength of the army is fixed at 150,000. This force,
which is in essence a militia, is designed to be something different from
a mere fighting machine. During their term of service the men are
given not only military training but also educational advantages, as
well as the opportunity of learning some handicraft. Well-organized
continuation schools and systematic courses of lectures aim at pro-
viding the young soldier with a complete adult education. The
Sokol societies, in collaboration with the army gymnastic clubs and
with the Y.M.C.A., devote themselves systematically to the physical
and moral welfare of the troops.
Education. In Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia the standard of
education elementary higher and technical is excellent, and there
are practically no illiterates a state of affairs attributable to the
interest which the Czech nation (imbued with the traditions of
Comenius) had ever taken in education. In Slovakia the situation is
different. The Slovaks under the Hungarian regime were kept in a
backward state they did not possess a single Slovak school -while
still worse conditions prevailed in Russinia, some 75 % of the
population being unable to read or write. The Czechoslovak Govern-
ment, between 1918 and 1921, set up some 2,000 additional ele-
mentary and some 40 higher schools in Slovakia and Russinia
(including 80 new German schools), so that a vast improvement in
the educational status of those countries is only a matter of time.
In the entire republic there are four universities, three Czech and
Slovak the Charles University of Prague, the Masaryk University
of Brno and the Comenius University of Bratislava and one
German (at Prague). The Masaryk and Comenius Universities are
new foundations since 1918. There are four polytechnics enjoying
university rank at Prague and Brno, two of them being Czech and
two German. At Pfibram in Bohemia there is a high school of mines,
while two other high schools have been founded at Brno, one for
veterinary science and the other for agriculture.
A high standard of physical training is set by the popular gym-
nastic organizations, known as " Sokols." In addition to the original
Sokol Society (founded in 1862) there are the special organizations
of the Labour (Socialist) and the Catholic Gymnastic Unions
(under Sokol influence). The great Sokol union has a membership
of over 300,000 in all, and the programme includes not only physical
but also moral and disciplinary training, aiming at the production of
citizens of character and patriotism. The Sokol organization and
the Sokol spirit were one of the mainsprings of the movement result-
ing, in the years 1914 to 1918, in the formation of the Czechoslovak
legions on the various European battle-fronts. The " Scout " move-
ment, too, both for boys and girls, has since 1918 developed with
much success, especially in collaboration with the other original
Czech gymnastic and sport corporations.
Religion. The religious history of the lands which now compose
the Czechoslovak Republic has a special interest for the English-
speaking world owing to the fact that the work of John Hus, the
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
791
great Czech reformer (13691-1415) was largely a result of the influ-
ence of Wyclif. At the beginning of the iyth century some 90% of
the Bohemians were Protestant, but the loss of independence and
the effects of religious persecution (the Counter-Reformation) under
the aegis of the Habsburg dynasty, caused the position to be re-
versed, and up to 1918 almost 90% of the Czechoslovak population
was entered in the official statistics as belonging to the Roman
Catholic Church. This adherence was, and still is, often only nom-
inal, for the statistics take no note of the great mass of inditferentism
ami liberalism which prevails in the ranks of the Church. Two other
tendencies were also manifest during the last few decades before the
war: a movement among the intellectual classes, and to some extent
among workers also, towards a non-ecclesiastical religious life; and
an " Away Irom Rome " movement which in one aspect helped to
recruit the ranks of Free Thought and on the other hand resulted in a
growth of the Protestant churches. Between 1918 and 1921 about
1,000,000 persons left the Roman Church, the most conspicuous
secession being that which resulted in the formation of a national
'' Czechoslovak Church." A considerable section of the priesthood
demanded some dogmatical reforms, including the abolition of
celibacy, the introduction of the vernacular into the Church services,
and a more democratic administration of Church affairs. On the
Holy See declining to meet these demands the " Czechoslovak
Church " was founded in Jan. 1920. It has a membership of some
500,000, and possesses 120 churches. Further large secessions took
place in favour of the Free Thought movement. The Protestants
number about one million, the largest body being the Evangelical
Church in Slovakia with a membership of over 400,000. In Bohemia
the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren represents a spiritual
.and historical continuity with the old Hussites. It was constituted
in 1918 by the fusion of two existing Protestant bodies, the Reformed
(Calvinist) Church and the Evangelical (Lutheran) Church. Other
Protestant denominations (Presbyterian, Congregational, Baptist)
are in smaller numbers. The Greek Church in Slovakia and Sub-
Carpathian Russia has a membership of over 500,000, while the
Jews number about 350,000.
Economics and Finance. The economic and financial posi-
tion of Czechoslovakia showed signs in 1921 of steady recovery
from the chaos which succeeded the close of the war. Rich in
natural resources and peopled by an intelligent, experienced and
frugal population, the country had every reason to look forward
to a prosperous industrial development in the future. Without
Slovakia the republic would be mainly an industrial State: with
it there is a slight preponderance in favour of agriculture, 41-5 %
of the entire population being occupied on or in connexion with
the land and 38% in industry and commerce.
In special branches of industry Czechoslovakia is prominent
among European countries, as for instance in the production of
sugar and glass. In the manufacture of alcoholic liquors it occupies
third place among European countries. It is less favourably placed
in respect of the iron and textile industries, having to rely to a large
extent upon the import of raw materials from abroad. The coal-
mines of the country are capable of producing some 15 million tons
of black coal and 24 millions of brown coal (lignite). The yield of
iron ore is almost one million tons annually, while gold, silver, tin,
graphite and salt are also mined. Iron and steel foundries exist at
Kladno near Prague, as well as in Moravia and in Slovakia. Their
blast furnaces produce 1,700,000 tons of pig-iron annually. The
output of steel amounts to 298,000 tons, iron in bars 400,000 tons,
iron girders 130,000 tons and sheet-iron 34,000 tons. Czechoslovakia
manufactures and exports agricultural machinery, plant for sugar
refineries and distilleries, locomotives, railway carriages and trucks
and other rolling-stock, motor-cars, tractors. Aeroplanes are made
at Prague and Plzen (Pilsen). In its output of graphite Czecho-
slovakia takes second place among European countries, Great
Britain being the first. Naphtha wells are working with favourable
results at Gbely in Slovakia, and researches in progress at other
points (Russinia) promise results that would make Czechoslovakia
independent of foreign sources in respect of petroleum, even if no
surplus were produced for export. Potters' clay, kaolin and felspar,
which have largely facilitated the development of the flourishing
porcelain industry, are found in various parts of the country, which
is also fortunate in possessing sand suitable for use in the manufac-
ture of the glass for which Bohemia has long been famous.
The economic importance of Czechoslovakia is strikingly shown
by a comparison with the rest of the former Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy. Previous to the war the present Czechoslovak territories
were responsible for 92 % of the sugar produced by Austria-Hungary,
for 46 % of the spirits, beer 57 %, malt 87 %, foodstuffs 50 %, chemi-
cals 75%, metals 60%, porcelain 100%, glass 90%, cotton goods
75%, woollen goods 80%, jute 90%, leather 70%, gloves 90%,
boots 75%, paper 60%. The war, of course, cut off the supply of
raw materials for the textile trade, which in 1921 was still suffering
from shortage, particularly of raw cotton.
Czechoslovakia is the only European State which can export sugar :
it is the second largest beet-sugar producer in the world, having
some 500,000 ac. of beet under cultivation. In 1920-1 some 715,000
tons of sugar were produced, 189 factories and refineries being
engaged in the industry, and'3OO,ooo tons were available for export.
Of beer 13 million hectolitres are brewed annually, of which one
million are exported. Exceptionally fine hops are grown in the
Zatec (Saaz) district of Bohemia, and of these no less than 40% are
exported. The republic has 676 breweries and 140 malt-houses.
With an area of over 10 million ac. of forest it is only natural that
Czechoslovakia exports not merely large quantities of timber but
also furniture, bent-wood furniture, toys, musical instruments, etc.
Of the bent-wood furniture 90 % is exported and finds a ready market
in England and America. Paper is also produced to the extent of
some 250,000 tons annually. Of porcelain 30,000 tons is produced
annually in 68 factories, Karlovy Vary (Carlsbad) being the chief
centre of the pottery industry.
Glass manufacture in Bohemia dates from the I5th century.
Bohemian glass enjoys a world-wide reputation, which is well de-
served: the crystal ware of Bor (Haida), the imitation jewelry and
stones of Jablonec (Gablonz), the paste and semi-precious stones of
Turnov, are exported to every part of the globe. Over 60,000 work-
people are employed in the glass industry.
Leather is among the more important manufactures of Czecho-
slovakia. Boot factories employ 40,000 workmen, glove manufac-
tories the same number. Some three-fourths of the entire output in
both these wares are exported, largely to England and to Germany.
Czechoslovakia, as already indicated, is not only an industrial
State : it possesses at the same time a highly developed agriculture
in which over 40% of the entire population is engaged, that is to
say, some 5,700,000 persons are workers in some way or other con-
nected with the land. Climate and soil are favourable: beet-root is
grown up to an altitude of 1,100 ft. and corn to 1,300 ft. above sea-
level. Only 4% of all arable land in the country is unproductive
(in Great Britain 15 %). The chief agricultural products are potatoes
and vegetables, beet-root and hops, wheat, rye, barley and oats.
The agriculture of the republic supplies the material for several
important industries, including the production of sugar, beer and
spirits, starch (120 factories), syrup, glucose, chicory, coffee sub-
stitutes from rye and barley, jams. Alcohol and spirits are distilled
in 1,100 distilleries employing 18,000 workmen and producing
annually some 380,000 hectolitres (1919-20; 1,151,000 hectolitres
before the war). Excellent wines are also made, those of Melnik in
Bohemia and the Slovakian wines being the best known.
Agriculture is encouraged by a suitable system of education.
Since it came into being the republic had by 1921 founded 13 new
agricultural schools, and in all there were 180 agricultural and
forestry schools (higher and elementary), including the so-called
" winter schools," while more than 50 periodicals appeared regularly
for the technical instruction of those engaged in agriculture. The
agricultural interests were also represented directly in the Parlia-
ment by a strong Agrarian party.
The foreign trade of Czechoslovakia was in 1921 growing steadily
in volume. Previous to the war the country's products were, of
course, classed as Austrian goods: now the description of " Made in
Czechoslovakia " was beginning to make its way in the markets of
the world. In 1919 the republic exported merchandise to the extent
of 566 million tons and imported 183 millions. In 1920 these figures
rose to 690 and 200 million tons respectively. In 1919 Czechoslovak
exports to Great Britain (exclusive of colonies) amounted to a value
of 238 million crowns, imports to 328 millions. Sugar, malt, hops,
beer, mineral waters, glass, porcelain, leather, gloves, furniture and
toys are the principal articles of export to Great Britain.
While suffering from the symptoms affecting central Europe
generally, the republic was distinctly better off as regards its fi
nancial situation than any of its neighbours. The budgets of 1919 and
1920 disclosed deficits of 5 billion and 3 billion kronen respectively,
but in that for 1921 the revenue slightly exceeded the expenditure.
Czechoslovakia was thus the only country in central Europe with
a well-balanced budget. The national debt amounted to some 40
billion crowns, against which the state itself possessed assets in the
shape of forests, coal mines, the former domains of the Habsburgs,
mineral, naphtha, radium and other sources of natural wealth, besides
the State-owned railways.
Communications. As a wholly inland nation, Czechoslovakia has
to rely in the matter of transport upon its railways and its~ water-
ways, notably the Elbe, which connects the republic with Hamburg
and the North Sea, and the Danube, which unites it with the east of
Europe and the Balkans. Under the peace treaties Czechoslovakia
acquired her own docks and warehouses in the harbour of Hamburg.
Before the war the Czechoslovak traffic on the Elbe totalled some 4
million tons annually. On the Danube the amount was 2 millions,
but this total bids fair, under normal conditions, to be easily passed,
inasmuch as the work of developing the port of Bratislava, the con-
struction of docks, warehouses and shipbuilding yards, was already
proceeding energetically. It was also proposed to link up the Elbe
and the Danube by a canal which would enable direct transport to
be effected from North and Baltic Seas to the Black Sea. A further
scheme in contemplation was that of a Danube-Oder canal.
The total length of railway track in Czechoslovakia was in 1921
a little over 8,000 m., which represents I m. of railway for every 8$
sq. m. of area. In the course of a few years this mileage was to be
792
CZERNIN
largely increased, Parliament having voted some 6,500 million crowns
for further construction and improvements. Some 4,700 m. of track
are State-owned ; the rest are in the hands of private companies, but
were gradually to be taken over by the State.
Czechoslovakia has 5,000 post-offices, some 10,000 m. of tele-
graphs, and close upon 8,000 m. of telephone communication. Aerial
posts are established with Paris, Warsaw, Berlin, Vienna and
Budapest, in addition to which there exist also cross-country serv-
ices. The republic possesses seven radio-telegraph stations.
Literature, Art and Music. The Czechs have possessed a notable
literature from the I3th century onwards. It has shared the vicis-
situdes of the nation itself and like it been in danger of extermi-
nation at the hands of fanatic foes. The names of Hus, Chelcicky
and Comenius (Komensky) are connected with the pre-Renaissance
religious periods. The revival of the Czechs after a hundred years of
torpor, due to the loss of their independence in 1620 and subsequent
oppression at the hands of the Habsburgs and the dominant Ger-
mans, gave birth, from 1780 onwards, to a literary activity which
still continues to yield rich fruit. From the modest and simple art of
the patriotic poets and novelists of the first half of the igth century,
whose work nevertheless was an influential factor in the awakening
of a national sentiment among the common people, Czech literature,
after a period characterized by the romanticism of Macha and the
critical realism of Havlicek, arrived at a school which, while it took
its inspiration from the sources of the national spirit, did not shut
itself out from foreign influences. Vrchlicky, a master of verse and
a perfect cosmopolitan, and Cech, who took the material for his
epics from Czech history, are the outstanding names of this epoch.
Among their contemporaries were Heyduk and Sladek, two poets
both belonging in form and in matter to the national school. Sladek
was, with his excellent translations, one of the first to make Czech
readers acquainted with the riches of English literature (especially
Shakespeare). Eminent among the novelists of this generation were
Nemcova, a good observer of social conditions who reproduced in
her works the charm of Bohemian peasant life; her kinswoman
Svetla, Arbes and Zeyer. Neruda, a poet of bitter irony but of
profound faith in and affection towards his nation, was also the
author of novels, notable for their original realism, and numerous
belletristic works of a high order. He marks the period of transition
to the younger generation of writers, in the forefront of whom stands
the poet and novelist Hachar, who revolutionized the conception of
Czech patriotism and is famous for his historical glosses. Jirasek, the
author of a vast series of novels and short stories, drawing their
material from Bohemian history, unites the past with the present
generation. By the healthy spirit of patriotism breathed in all his
works Jirasek contributed not a little to maintaining among the
masses of the people a national consciousness and faith in a better
national future. The youngest literary generation in Czecho-
slovakia was represented in 1921 in particular by three leading poets:
Sova, a writer of delicate lyrics; Bezruc, who sings of social and
national oppression, and Brezina, a profound visionary and pan-
theistic mystic. Among prose writers the leading contemporary
names are Svobodova, Capek, a robust realist, and Sramek, who has
also met with success as a dramatist. In Slovakia the foremost
name is that of the poet Hviezdoslay.
The Czechs were famous as musicians as far back as the I5th
century. The history of modern Czech music commences with the
creator of Czech opera, Frederick Smetana. The compositions of
Dvorak have become classics. Among contemporary composers in
1921 the foremost were Foerster, Novak, Ostrcil, and Suk; and as
executants Sevcik, Kubelik and Ondricck.
Eloquent testimony is given by the beautiful churches and pal-
aces of Prague largely Gothic and baroque in style to the archi-
tectural genius of the nation. The graceful cathedral of St. Vitus,
rising above the castle (Hrad) on the heights of the Hradcany
(Prague), is a magnificent specimen of Gothic. The beautiful church
of St. Barbara at Kutna Hora, the royal castle of Karliiv Tyn, the
Powder Tower, the church of St. Nicholas, the King Charles bridge
at Prague, are among the many objects of universal admiration which
are to be found in Bohemia.
Of modern sculptors the works of Myslbek and Sucharda are
prominent in the public monuments at Prague. The latter, as well as
others of the younger school of Czech sculptors, such as Bflek, Kafka
and Maratka, studied under Rodin at Paris.
Modern painting among the Czechs begins with Josef Manes
(1826-71) and Czermak (1831-78), and Ales. Brozik is known for
his historical canvases, among them " John Hus before the Council
of Constance," while others worth mention are the marine painter
Knuepfer, the landscape painters Slavicekand Hudecek, and Preisler
and Svabinsky as painters of portraits and allegorical subjects.
Mucha has won a name abroad for decorative work and historical
canvases. In Slovakia, Joza Uprka and his school have devoted
themselves to interpreting peasant life.
Science and Philosophy. -In the course of the new intellectual life,
by which after three hundred years of subjection the Czech nation
again entered the ranks of the living peoples of Europe, scientific
effort early resumed its due place.
At the very threshold of the Czech renaissance men of science
were among the first pioneers of national thought, as for example
Dobrovsky the philologist, and in the ensuing generation PurkynS
(Purkinje) the physiologist, and Palacky the greatest of Czech his-
torians. Scientific effort received an impetus from the establishment
of an independent Czech university at Prague in 1881, and from that
time there is hardly a branch of science in which workers of profound
and creative talent did not arise (in physics Zenger, in biology
Vejdovsky), while a whole series of eminent names as well in the
technical and mathematical as in the historical and philological
(e.g. Zubaty) sciences might be mentioned.
Philosophy was early cultivated in Bohemia. At first the influence
of German thought, German enlightenment and idealism was
apparent, particularly in Kollar (a Slovak) ; the influence of Kant was
seen in Palacky, that of Hegel and post-Kantian speculation in Aug.
Smetana, while the philosophy of Herbart had a deep influence on
educationists like Lindner, Durdik and Hostinsky. To the more
recent tendencies of contemporary philosophical thought the way
was opened up by Thomas G. Masaryk, who, as a counterpoise tot
German speculation and the intellectualism of Herbart, emphasized
the critical study of English philosophy, notably Hume, Spencer
and Mill, and the French Comte; at the same time he fully appre-
ciated the value of Kant in epistemology. Masaryk's work, Spirit
of Russia, is a close analysis of the Russian philosophy of history, and
of the Russian religious, moral and political thought. Enriched by
new ethical and religious elements, Czech philosophy manifests itself
in Masaryk's works as a new realism or humanism. A whole series
of philosophic thinkers Drtina, Foustka, Radl and Benes followed
in Masaryk's footsteps.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. F. Bailley, The Slavs of the War Zone (1916);
E. Benes, Bohemia's Case for Independence (1916, with an introduc-
tion by H. Wickham-Steed) ; Detruisez I'Autriche-Hongrie (1916);
Besteaux, Bibliographic Tcheque (1920); Alex Broz, The First Year
of the Czechoslovak Republic (1920), The Rise of the Czechoslovak
Republic (1919); Cisar, Pokorny, Selver, The Czechoslovak Republic
(1921); T. Capek, Bohemia under Habsburg Misrule (1915); The
Bohemian Biography (1918); Dedecek, La Tchecoslovaquie et les
Tchecoslovaques (1919); Louis Eisenmann, La Tchecoslovaquie, une
carte hors texte (1921); Etienne Fpurnol, De la Succession d'Autriche
(1918); Hoetzl and Joachim, The Constitution of the Czechoslovak
Republic (1920); D. Jurkovic, Slowakische Volksarbeiten (1915);
T. G. Masaryk, The New Europe (1918), The Problem of Small
Nations in the European Crisis (Council for the Study of Inter-
national Relations 1916); B. Matejka and Z. Wirth, L'Art tcheque
contemporaine (1920) ; W. S. Monroe, Bohemia and the Czechs (1910) ;
VI. Nosek, Independent Bohemia (1918); C. Pergler, The Czecho-
slovak State (1919); C. Rivet, Les Tchecoslovaques (4th ed., 1921);
P. Selver, Anthology of Modern Bohemian Poetry (1912); R. W.
Seton-Watson, German Slav and Magyar (1916), The Czechoslovak
Republic (1921); E. Stern, La legislation ouvriere tchecoslovaque
(1921) ; J. E. S. Vojan, Modern Musical History of Bohemia (1917) ;
Weiss, La Republique Tchecoslovaque (1919). (T. G. M.)
CZERNIN, OTTOKAR, COUNT (1872- ), Austro-Hungarian
statesman, a scion of an old Bohemian noble family, was born on
Sept. 27 1872. He adopted a diplomatic career, was attached in
1891 to the Paris embassy, promoted to the rank of unpaid attache
of embassy, and then, after a lengthy period of leave, sent to The
Hague in 1902. In that year, however, he retired and devoted him-
self to the management of his estates. In 1903 he was elected tc
the Bohemian Diet as a representative of the landed aristocracy.
Here he attached himself to the German party, but demanded
that every inhabitant of Bohemia should regard himself as an
Austrian first, and only second as a German or a Czech. Con-
nected by his wife, ne Kinsky, with the Czech nobility, he tried
to pave the way for a working alliance of the great landowners
supporting the existing Constitution with the Conservative group
in the Bohemian Diet, and in 1905 published a brochure with this
object. In 191 1 he published a signed essay on the measures to be
taken to preserve the union of the empire (ZurErhaltung derReichs-
einheit), which represented the views of the heir to the throne,
the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, with whom he had become
intimate. In Feb. 1912 he became a member of the Austrian
Upper House, attaching himself to the Constitutional party.
His speeches, in which he advocated a vigorous internal and
external policy, made a great sensation. Czernin at that time
was regarded as Francis Ferdinand's candidate for the office
of Foreign Minister. In Oct. he went as Austro-Hungarian
minister to Bucharest. His dispatches published in the " Red
Book " show that even at that time he was of opinion that the
secret treaty signed by King Charles with the Triple Alliance was
nothing but a " scrap of paper," and that in an international
war Rumania would only be induced to take part on the side of
the Central Powers by far-reaching concessions at the expense of
the Habsburg Monarchy. He watched with regret the growth
CZERNIN
793
of anti-Austrian sentiment in Rumania, whose attitude after
the outbreak of the World War proved the correctness of his
judgment. He now sought even at a cost to win over Rumania
to fight on the side of the Central Powers. But his efforts proved
fruitless, because the leading Hungarian statesmen would not
agree to Rumanian demands involving the cession of Hungarian
territory. For a long time Czernin succeeded in persuading
Rumania to remain neutral. When, at the end of 1916, she
finally passed over into the Entente camp Czernin returned to
Vienna. The foresight which he had shown as minister at
Bucharest, the skill and zeal displayed in his intercourse with
the Rumanian court and Government, and his good personal re-
lations with influential circles at Bucharest, decided the Emperor
Charles to entrust him with the direction of Austro-Hungarian
foreign policy in succession to Count Burian.
Czernin was, and remained, a decided advocate of the view
that the Central Powers could not obtain so crushing a victory
over the enemy in the field as to be able to dictate the conditions
of peace. Therefore, from the day of his taking office down to his
resignation he consistently maintained that, even at some sacri-
fice, they ought to seek the conclusion of a peace which should
preserve to them their position as great Powers. Czernin did
not indeed contemplate the conclusion of a separate peace with
the enemy, but as against German statesmen he insisted that
Germany also, especially in the questions of Belgium and Alsace-
Lorraine, would have to reconcile herself to concessions. By
gloomily painted pictures of the military, political and economic
situation of Austria-Hungary he sought to influence the German
Emperor and the German higher command, and succeeded in
awakening sympathy with his peace ideas among the members
of the German Reichstag. Czernin was not only cognizant of the
peace negotiations which the Emperor Charles opened with
England and France through his brother-in-law, Prince Sixtus
of Parma, but he approved of them. He knew nothing, how-
ever, of the contents of the letter of March 24 1917, in which
the Emperor Charles spoke of his willingness to support the
" just demand " of France for the return of Alsace-Lorraine by
any means and by the use of his whole personal influence with
his ally. But he himself was simultaneously engaged in trying
to influence German statesmen in the same sense, promising in
the event of their making sacrifices in the west to compensate
them in the east, chiefly by the acquisition of Polish territory.
But his efforts, then and later, broke down on the determination
of the German army leaders to obtain a military decision. These
men saw in Czernin a danger to the political and military in-
terests of the Alliance, and attacked him violently. During the
negotiations at Brest-Litovsk from Dec. 1917 to March 1918,
the opposition between the views of the Austro-Hungarian
delegation led by Czernin and the German delegation became
strikingly manifest. In the negotiations leading up to the con-
vention between Russia and the Quadruple Alliance, signed
on March 4 1918, Czernin took a conspicuous part. A few
weeks earlier peace had been concluded at Brest-Litovsk with
the newly founded republic of the Ukraine. The fact that
Czernin, in order to secure this " bread peace," had ceded to
Ukraine the district of Chclm, to which the Poles laid claim,
aroused the most violent resentment among the Poles, and led
to unsparing attacks upon him by the Austrian Poles. In the be-
ginning of April 1918 his position was no longer tenable. The
immediate cause of his resignation on April 14 1918 was
the conflict between him and the Emperor Charles over the
" Sixtus letter." Czernin was one of the few active statesmen
among the Austrian nobility who sought to continue their
political activity under the Austrian Republic. At the end of
1920 he became the representative of the Liberal bourgeois
party of central Vienna in the National Parliament.
For Czernin's activity in Bucharest and in the World War see
his Im Weltkriege (1919). His despatches from Bucharest are
printed in the Austro-Hungarian Red Book, Diplomatische Akten-
stiicke betreffend die Beziehungen Oesterreich-Ungarns zu Rumanien,
22 Juli 1914 bis 27 August 1916. A favourable view of Czernin's
attitude in the " Sixtus Affair " is taken by Count August Demblin
in Czernin und die Sixtusaffaire (1920); the standpoint of Prince
Sixtus is represented in Prince Sixt de Bourbon. L of re de la paix
separee de I'Autriche (1921). (A. F. PR.)
794
D'ABERNON DANCING
D'ABERNON, EDGAR VINCENT, IST BARON (1857
), English politician, was born at Slinfold, Sussex,
Aug. 19 1857, the youngest son of Sir Frederick
Vincent, nth Bart., of Stoke d'Abernon, Surrey. He
was educated at Eton, and was intended for the diplomatic
service, being in 1877 head of the examination list for the
appointment of student dragoman at Constantinople. The same
year, however, he entered the army, but in 1880 was appointed
private secretary to Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice, at that time
commissioner for Eastern Rumelia. The following year he be-
came a member of the commission for the evacuation of territory
ceded to Greece by Turkey, and in 1882 was sent to Constant-
inople as the representative of Great Britain, Holland and Bel-
gium on the council of the Ottoman public debt, of which in
1883 he became president. In 1883 he was sent to Cairo as
financial adviser to the Egyptian Government, remaining there
until 1889, when he returned to Constantinople as governor
of the Imperial Ottoman Bank, a post which he resigned in 1897.
In 1887 he received the K.C.M.G. Sir Edgar Vincent entered
Parliament in 1899 as Conservative member for Exeter, but
lost this seat in 1906. He unsuccessfully contested Colchester in
1910. In 1914 he was raised to the peerage as Baron D'Abernon,
and became very prominent during the World War as chair-
man of the Central Liquor Control Board. In 1920 he was
appointed ambassador to Germany. Lord D'Abernon published
in 1 88 1 a Grammar of Modern Greek, which was adopted for use
by the university of Athens. He married in 1890 Lady Helen
Venetia Duncombe, daughter of the ist Earl of Feversham.
DAMN, JULIUS SOPHUS FELIX (1834-1912), German his-
torian, jurist and poet (see 7.734), published his complete works
of fiction, both in prose and verse, in 1903. The final volume of
Die Konige der Germanen appeared in 1911. He died at Breslau
Jan. 3 1912.
DAHOMEY (see 7.734). An estimate made in 1918 put the
population at slightly over 900,000, of whom 65% lived in the
coast and adjacent regions. Upper Dahomey, two-thirds in area
of the whole colony, has no more than 12 inhabitants per sq. m.,
compared with 50 per sq. m. in Lower Dahomey. Porto Novo
(seat of Government and chief business centre) had about 25,000
inhabitants, including some 400 Europeans. Whydah and Ab-
omey each had a population of 1 2,000 odd. In all there were over
700 Europeans in Dahomey. There arc large numbers of mulat-
toes in the coast towns, chiefly employed as clerks.
Trade and Communications. The French devoted much attention
to the development of the natural resources of the country and in
opening communications. The metre gauge railway from Kotonu
(the ocean port of Porto Novo) which runs parallel to the Nigerian
frontier reached Save, 162 m. inland, in 1912. Thence a metalled
road (nearly 300 m. long), with substantial bridges was built to the
Niger at Madekali, just W. of the British (Nigerian) frontier. Along
this Route de I'Est a motor wagon service for passengers, mails and
goods was opened in 1012. From Pahu, 16 m. from Kotonu, a
branch line (20 m. long) runs W. to Whydah and Segborue. The
line from Porto Novo to Sakete, near the Nigerian border, was in
1914 extended to Pobe (total length 47 m.). On the Togoland side
there is a good metalled road connecting with the middle Niger
regions. In the coast region a mail steamer service was opened in
1912 along the lagoons between Porto Novo and Lagos.
Cocoa plantations were largely developed from 1912, and the
coconut palm for the copra trade introduced in the lagoon
districts, while in central Dahomey cotton plantations met with
success. Maize is largely grown for export, and there are considerable
herds of cattle in the north. But palm oil remains the chief source of
wealth of the country ; oil palms cover about 600,000 ac. The volume
of trade increased during 1905-12 from 1,075,000 to 2,530,000.
The trade for 1916 was valued at 1,446,000; in 1918 at 2,332,000
(evenly distributed between imports and exports). The increase in
1918 was largely due to higher prices. Palm kernels and palm oil
are the chief exports; maize, cotton, dried fish, copra, shea nuts and
shea butter rank next in value. Cotton goods, gin and trade
spirits are the chief imports.
Before the war Hamburg took nearly all the palm kernels; during
and since the war the kernels have gone mainly to Liverpool. In
1913 Germany had 49-28% of the total trade, France 26-47, the
United Kingdom 23-74; the elimination of Germany told mostly in
favour of the United Kingdom. The colony is self-supporting; in
1919 the budget balanced at 237,000. Nearly half the revenue is
derived from a poll tax on the natives.
History. In 1911 the French deposed the chief, a member
of the old royal family, whom they had installed at Abomey.
He had been intriguing against French rule. His territory was
divided among a number of petty chiefs placed under the direct
control of the resident at Abomey, and the whole country became
the colony of Dahomey and its dependencies. From that time
little trouble was experienced in the native administration.
In Sept. 1912 a Franco-German convention approved the
delimitation of the Dahomey-Togoland frontier which had been
made by boundary commissions. Less than two years later, on
the outbreak of the World War (Aug. 1914), small columns
of French troops entered Togoland and cooperated with the
British in its conquest. The energetic action of M. C. Noufflard
(the Lt.-Gov.) and of Commandant Mariox (senior military
officer) and Capt. Costaing helped to bring the conflict to a
speedy close and to keep Dahomey itself peaceful. The natives
of Dahomey furnished contingents for the Cameroon campaign
and for Europe.
See Dahomey (1920), a useful handbook issued by the British
Foreign Office; A. Le Herisse, L'Ancien royaume du Dahomey
(1911); P. Sprigade, " Die franzosische Kolonie Dahome " in Mitt,
deutschen Schutzgebieten (1918) ; L'Afrique Franqalse (Paris, monthly).
(F. R. C.)
DAIL EIREANN : see IRELAND, section Political History.
DAMROSCH, WALTER JOHANNES (1862- ), American
musician and conductor, was born at Breslau, Germany, Jan.
30 1862. He came to America in 1871 and ten years later
began his career as conductor in Newark, N.J. In 1894
he founded the Damrosch Opera Co. for producing Wagner.
In 1896 he produced, as director of the Oratorio Symphony
Societies, Wagner's Parsifal in concert form for the first time
in the United States. Since 1903 he has been director of the
New York Symphony Orchestra. He is the composer of The
Scarlet Letter (1894); Cyrano (1913); and music for Euripides's
Medea, Iphigenia in Tauris (Berkeley, 1915) and Sophocles's
Electro (New York, 1917). At the request of Gen. Pershing he
reorganized the bands of the A.E.F. in 1918.
His brother, FRANK HEINO DAMROSCH, was born at Breslau
June 22 1859. He was conductor in Denver, Newark, Bridgeport.
and New York (the Oratorio Society 1898-1912). From 1905
he was director of the Institute of Musical Art.
DANCING (see 7.794). The years 1910-20 saw a remark-
able revival of the love of all kinds of dancing in England and
America. On the one hand the organization popularly known as
the Russian Ballet has put new life into stage dancing, while on
the other the Americans are responsible for a reawakening of the
love of dancing in the ballroom. At the end of the igth century
the ballet in England had become a spectacular show of very
little artistic significance; the standard of dancing technique
was of the lowest and, except in the case of one or two dancers
such as Adeline Genee, it is doubtful whether stage dancing could
be called an art at all. In the ballroom, dancing had become a
rather perfunctory social function, practised without any par-
ticular skill or regard for steps.
Classical Dancing. The revolution in stage dancing was
started in England by Serge Diaghilieff's company of Russian
dancers, but no account of modern stage dancing would be
complete without some reference to the so-called " Classical
Dancing " which came into vogue at the beginning of the soth
century and had such an influence on all the stage dancing of a
later date. Classical dancing was a revolt against the form and
style of the stage ballet as it then existed. It was an attempt to
rescue the art from the artificiality of the older ballet, and bring
beauty of line and movement into prominence, instead of the
technical skill of the steps alone. In addition to this, classical
DANCING
795
dancers laid stress upon the musical side; they sought to interpret
the great composers in dancing; valses of Chopin, Mendelssohn's
" Spring Song," some of the smaller works of Schubert all these
were " interpreted " in different ways. The dancers sought to
catch the mood of each piece of music by an appropriate series
of poses and movements, which were intended to be not only
expressive of the music but beautiful in themselves. The costume
worn was a simple dress in the Greek style, with the feet bare;
the strangeness of this costume at the time and the similarity
of many of the poses to Greek paintings and friezes led to
the use of the word " classical " for this dancing.
The first and greatest exponent of this particular school was
Isadora Duncan. Her own point of view with regard to stage
dancing is worthy of mention:
" In my art I have by no means copied, as has been supposed,
the figures of Greek vases, friezes, and paintings. From them I have
learned to regard nature, and when certain of my movements recall
gestures that are seen in works of art it is only because, like them,
they are drawn from the grand natural source."
This description epitomizes the whole of the theory of classical
dancing, and Isadora Duncan's numerous successors improved
very little either on her own theory or practice. Her technique
was of her own invention and, although the result looked simple
and easy enough, the training to which she subjected herself
was severe. Perfect balance, perfect transition from one pose
to another however slowly, perfect control of breathing and
movement, all these, she found, required as much practice and
stud} r as the older style of ballet dancing. There was nothing
impromptu, nothing amateurish in her work. The result was
entirely novel and at first was received with ridicule both in
Europe and America; it was only much later that she achieved
the success and received the praise which were her due. She
danced on the stage by herself without scenery and with only a
simple background of curtains which showed off the movements
to their best advantage and kept the concentration of the audi-
ence on the dancer only.
It was left to one of Isadora Duncan's successors, Maud Allan
(b. 1879), to popularize classical dancing in England. Her
strongest quality was the very interesting way in which she
interpreted musical phrases and moods. The early musical
training she had in Berlin accounted no doubt for this fascinating
quality.
The influence of classical dancing on the stage dancing of a
later date is very considerable. The ballet which was designed
by Nijinsky to the music of " L'Apres-midi d'un Faune " of
Debussy, and which was danced by him with picked members
of Diaghilieff's corps de ballet, would never have been possible
without Isadora Duncan, and her dancing undoubtedly had
a great influence in bringing stage dancing back into relation
with real life and away from the absurd artificiality of the ipth
century stage ballet.
The " Russian Ballet." England hardly had time to recover
from the revolutionary methods of Isadora Duncan and Maud
Allan when there appeared a new organization which was ac-
claimed with rapturous applause and enthusiasm, first of all by
the artistic world of London and very shortly afterwards, at
their bidding, by the general public. Serge Diaghilieff was re-
sponsible for the introduction of this company and was the
moving spirit in collecting together the various people who con-
tributed to this highly artistic and successful enterprise. He
it was who enlisted the services of Leon Bakst and Alexandre
Benois, the designers of the scenery and costumes; Michel
Fokine, the producer and arranger of the dances; Nicholas
Tcherepnin, the musical director; and the leading dancers,
Karsavina, Anna Pavlova, Lydia Lopokowa, Vaslav Nijinsky,
Adolph Bolm, Leon Massine and Enrico Cecchetti.
The success of this company not only in London but all over
the world they visited all the principal towns of Europe and
America was all the more unexpected because very few people
in England were aware that anything so perfect could come out
of Russia. The existence of the Imperial Court ballet at St.
Petersburg was dimly known, and it was thought at first, quite
wrongly, that Diaghilieff's company had some connexion with it.
So far from this being the case it can truthfully be said that the
connoisseurs of dancing in St. Petersburg had no great opinion of
Diaghilieff's productions and achievements. The Imperial Russ-
ian Ballet was instituted in 1735 and continued up to the revo-
lution and the Tsar's deposition in 1917. The high standard
of technique of the Imperial Ballet was very largely due to
Didelot, a ballet master of the early igih century at St.
Petersburg, but Diaghilieff's troupe was a very revolu-
tionary body, and had very little in common in idea with the
Imperial Ballet. True, the corps de ballet and dancers of the
" Russian Ballet " were trained in the Imperial schools, and
Fokine was the assistant ballet master at the St. Petersburg
opera, but Bakst and Tcherepnin had no connexion whatever
with the Imperial Ballet. The classical ballets performed by the
Imperial Ballet at St. Petersburg year after year did not as a
rule form part of Diaghilieff's repertoire. His outlook on stage
dancing differed as much from the official ideas in Russia as
those of Isadora Duncan from John Tiller. His aim, like Miss
Duncan's, was to bring the ballet into relation with real life and
the contemporary arts which go to make up the " production."
The ballets themselves can be divided broadly into two
classes: those which are the lineal descendants of earlier ballets,
and those which are essentially experiments in new directions.
Into the first category fall such ballets as " Lac des Cygnes,"
" Pavilion d'Armide," " Cleopatre," " Thamar," " Oiseau
de Feu," " Petrouchka," the dances from " Prince Igor "
and " Sylphides." With regard to the last-named an interesting
point was the the use of Chopin's music, orchestrated by well-
known Russian composers. This orchestration of what was
hitherto considered as essentially piano-music created quite a
sensation, and was one of the most successful efforts of the
Diaghilieff company. The vivid colour schemes of the scenery
and dresses, and the modernity of some of the music (as in
" Petrouchka "), were as much responsible for the effect of
vitality and realness as the standard of the choreography and
dancing, which were in themselves higher than any hitherto
seen in England. Apart from the setting however, the character-
ization of the various personages in these ballets was presented
in such a way as to make the stage people seem alive and con-
vincing to the audience, every device of stage-craft and orches-
tration being used to this end.
With regard to the second category of ballets, " L'Apres-
midi d'un Faune " was an attempt that was only partially
successful to bring the plastic arts of Greece on to the stage.
" Le Sacre du Printemps " was a return to the " primitive,"
in the artistic sense. For both these, Nijinsky was mainly re-
sponsible as producer, and Stravinsky's music to the latter
ballet was furiously " modern " into the bargain. It is doubtful
whether these last-mentioned productions or any of the still
later ballets, however interesting as experiments, were as satisfy-
ing artistically or theatrically perfect as the early ones of Fokine
and Bakst. " The Good-Humoured Ladies " and other clever
little scenes, charming in themselves, have not gone much
further aesthetically, and in 1920 the standard of the dancing
and the performance of the music were not on quite so high a
level as in the first years of production.
Ballroom Dancing. In the ballroom a different kind of
revolution has been effected by the introduction of new dances
and music from America. The only dance that has survived
this invasion is the valse, but even this dance has altered so
much in style that it now bears very little resemblance to the
dance immortalized by Edward and Johann Strauss. The dances
in common use (1921) are the fox-trot, one-step and the valse;
the one-step is the most energetic of all the modern dances,
owing to the clearly defined beats of the music, which is in quick
march-time; the fox-trot is the lineal descendant of the polka,
although the steps are not the same, and it is danced more smooth-
ly, without the jerkiness of its ancestor. The steps are legion
and ever changing with the style of the dancers. There are
only three or four steps which are used by all couples and con-
sequently make it possible for a man to dance with a new partner
796
DANIELS D'ANNUNZIO
for the first time. The woman's part in these dances is absolute
passivity; she has to follow the man's lead and be responsive
to his lightest touch. Every good dancer is now an adept at
this, and the variety of steps in common use is surprising.
The evolution of the valse from mid- Victorian days is worthy
of note. At the beginning of the 2oth century, for some reason
which is quite obscure, the tendency of dance bands was to play
the valse faster every year than the last. The result of this was
that the valse, which was then by far the most popular dance,
instead of being slow in time, became a series of fast revolutions.
Dancers refused, in consequence, to continue to perform what
one may call the one-two-three circular rhythm of the valse at the
accelerated pace; they found the solution of the problem was to
dance the same steps at a slower rate in cross rhythm against
the music. Various other steps were added to enable these
couples to manoeuvre successfully among the old-fashioned dan-
cers. These new steps became crystallized, others were added,
and the result was finally taught as the " Boston."
The popularity of the " Boston "was short-lived owing to the
difficulty of the performance in cross rhythm, and the congestion
of traffic in the ballroom on account of the different speeds of the
revolving couples. As soon as the new American dances obtained
a hold in England the latitude in steps so essential to the new
dances was extended to the old valse. The tempo of the music
slowed down to its original speed and the " Boston " disappeared.
Valses were played more slowly and the latitude of steps
was the same as in the other dances. The old one-two-three step
has very largely gone, and the difference between a valse and a
fox-trot is mostly one of rhythm. The modern valse was called
the " Hesitation " as opposed to the earlier " Boston."
The " Tango " was the result of an attempt on the part of
dancing teachers to introduce a new dance into the ballroom
about the year 1913. It came originally from America and is said
to be founded on a dance used in the cafes of South America,
which would account for its somewhat " Spanish " style; the
rhythm of the music is akin to that of the " Habanera." The most
remarkable feature of all the dances described above as opposed
to the dances of earlier generations is that the personality of the
dancers is clearly reflected by the steps they use.
The music of the modern ballroom is almost entirely supplied
by the United States. The music used in the American dances
is no longer a string band and piano, but consists of various
combinations, the most common of which perhaps is: piano,
violin, alto or tenor saxophone, banjo and jazz-drum. This last-
named needs some explanation. The word " jazz " signifies
noise in America and is in no way a dance. The drummer uses
a side drum, a big drum and cymbals played with the feet,
and various other instruments on which he beats a tattoo with
his drum-sticks in alternation with the side drum. He is in fact
a sort of one-man band in himself and adds considerably to the
rhythm of the ensemble. There is as much variety in the method
of playing dance music to-day as in the dances themselves.
Dance bands therefore vary considerably in skill, as might be
expected, and the best known command very high salaries.
The skill of a modern dance band lies in two essentials: first,
good rhythm; and secondly, cleverness in extemporising variations
on the tune by the different executors.
The effect of the American dances has not yet permeated
the social scale, and the masses among whom dancing has
always been a popular pastime, and they continue to prefer
the dances of the loth century. (G. T.*)
DANIELS, JOSEPHUS (1862- ), U.S. politician, was born
at Washington, N.C., May 18 1862. He studied at the Wil-
son (N.C.) Institute and at the age of 18 became editor of
the Wilson Advance. He was admitted to the bar in 1885, but
preferred newspaper work, becoming editor of the Raleigh State
Chronicle. He was printer for the state of North Carolina from
1887 to 1893, and then for two years, under President Cleveland's
administration, was chief clerk of the Department of the Interior.
From 1904 he was editor of the Raleigh News and Observer, with
which his former paper was consolidated. He was twice a dele-
gate to the National Democratic Convention, and from 1896 to
1916 was a member of the Democratic National Executive
Committee. He early became a supporter of Woodrow Wilson
for the presidency and was publicity manager for his campaign
in 1912. In 1913 he was appointed Secretary of the Navy by
President Wilson. In 1914 he issued an order prohibiting the
use of intoxicants on ship-board and within the limits of navy
yards and stations. His personal interest in the enlisted men
was shown by his provision of opportunities for training in vari-
ous trades. From the first he advocated increase of the navy.
During his first years as Secretary of the Navy he was much
criticized, but after America's entrance into the World War
the criticism died down. He favoured Government ownership
of armour plate plants as well as of telephones and telegraphs.
On retiring from the secretaryship of the Navy in 1921 he re-
sumed his duties as editor of his newspaper. He was the
author of The Navy and the Nation (1919).
DANKL, VIKTOR, FREIHERR VON (1854- ), Austro-
Hungarian general, was born in Udine. After service in the
cavalry he was employed in important staff positions. In the
World War he commanded at the outset the I. Army and de-
feated the Russians in the battle of Krasnik (Aug. 23-5 1914).
After the Italian declaration of war he became in May 1915
commander of the defence forces in Tirol. As an army command-
er in the following years he took a successful part in the offensive
against Asiago-Asiero, but shortly afterwards retired from his
post on account of ill-health.
D'ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE (1863- ), Italian poet, man of
letters and soldier (see 2.78). Later years, from 1908 to 1921,
were the most active in D'Annunzio's career, not only in the
literary field but also in those of war and politics. In 1908 he
produced La nave, a vivid presentation of the early history of
Venice, in which he sets forth his aspirations for Italy's mission
as a great sea power, mistress of the Adriatic a curious forecast
of his future political action. The following year Fedra appeared,
a classical drama, and in 1911 Le martyr e de St. Sebastien, a
dramatic mystery play written by D'Annunzio in French verse
and first performed in Paris, with musical interludes by Debussy;
it was a remarkable lour de force and appreciated as such by
French critics, but is hardly one of his greatest achievements.
La Pisanella, ou la mart parfumee (1913), also written in French
and first produced in Paris, is a picturesque reconstruction of
the mediaeval Levant set forth in the author's gorgeous colour-
ing. The same year he brought out in Paris Chevre-feuille, a
drama of modern life, with a plot adapted from Hamlet and
containing some powerful scenes, and in 1914 he produced a
slightly different Italian version of it entitled Ilferro. Parisina,
a lyric tragedy in a Renaissance setting with music by Mascagni,
was first performed at Milan, also in 1914. His attraction
towards the stage did not wholly suspend his output in the
field of fiction, and in 1911 he published Forse che si,forse che no,
a powerful but somewhat long-winded novel in which aviation
plays a considerable part, and in 1913 La Leda senza cigno, a
collection of pieces, half essays and half fiction, which originally
appeared in the Corriere delta Sera and were afterwards issued
in three volumes with a licenza in 1917. His purely poetic output
was limited to the Canzoni della gesta d'Oltremare (1911), dealing
with the Libyan war and containing some admirable verse, and
also some violent invectives against the Powers which were
hampering Italy in her Mediterranean policy.
The outbreak of the World War did not put an end to D'An-
nunzio's literary activity. For some years he had been living
in France, having had to leave Italy on account of financial
difficulties, but the moment the conflict began he became deeply
impressed with the vital necessity for Italy to participate in it so
as to realize her aspirations towards complete unity and affirm
her sovereignty in the Adriatic. His addresses to the Italian
people, full of eloquent and inspiring patriotism, were afterwards
published in a volume Per la piu' grande Italia. In the spring of
1915 he returned to Italy; his speeches at Quarto for the cele-
bration of Garibaldi's Sicilian expedition and in Rome aroused
wide-spread enthusiasm, and undoubtedly contributed very
largely to Italy's intervention. From the moment Italy declared
DANZIG
797
war D'Annunzio's career became one of the extraordinary
romances of modern times the man, hitherto regarded as a
sensuous aesthete and a decadent, whose only claim to distinc-
tion was his exquisite sense of beauty and his mastery of the
language, was now to prove a man of action, a soldier of almost
incredible bravery, and a politician who, however hfs conduct
may be regarded, for many months monopolized the attention
of the world, and defied powerful Governments.
Although 55 years old, he at once volunteered for active service.
Having been a reserve cavalry officer in the Novara Lancers he
first joined the cavalry; but as that arm seemed at the time to
have little chance of fighting, he got himself attached to the 77th
Infantry and spent many months in the Carso trenches, always
in the most exposed positions. But even that was not enough
for his exuberant spirit, and he soon joined the navy head-
quarters in Venice, whence he took part in many torpedo and
submarine raids. Finally he took to flying, in the hope of
achieving immortality even at the cost of his life. His exploits
in the air were of the most fantastic nature, and he became an
airman of the very first rank. In one of his flights he lost an eye,
in another was wounded in the wrist, and many times his air-
plane was riddled with bullets. In Aug. 1918 he led a flight over
Vienna, where no bombs were dropped, but only propaganda
pamphlets as it was an unfortified city; the exploit was particu-
larly audacious owing to the great distance over enemy country
which had to be covered. He obtained three special promotions
for gallantry, attaining the rank of lieutenant-colonel, was deco-
rated with one gold medal for valour (a distinction correspond-
ing to the V.C.), four silver and two bronze medals, and was
created officer of the Military Order of Savoy. On being demobi-
lized in June 1919 he received an exceptionally flattering letter
from the Chief of the General Staff, regretting that the mobilized
army should lose his valuable assistance, adding that he would
still remain " spiritually among us," as a brilliant example " for
the whole army of faith, heroism and self sacrifice." During the
first period of the war he published 10 war poems, some of them
of great beauty, and after Caporetto he delivered several eloquent
addresses collected in La Riscossa; on the Buccari enterprise
he wrote La befa di Buccari.
After the conclusion of the Armistice the cold attitude of the
Allied Powers, and especially of President Wilson, towards
Italy, aroused D'Annunzio's bitter indignation, and his letters
and articles in this connexion, collected in the volume Contra
uno e contra tutli, will occupy a prominent place in the literature
of invective. The extreme violence of his language contributed
not a little to embitter the relations between Italy and President
Wilson. During the Nitti regime D'Annunzio came to personify
the patriotic reaction against the Government's policy; while
he became the idol of a small body of enthusiasts, he attracted
the sympathies of an ever-increasing portion of all the best
elements in the country. The Fiume dispute symbolized in his
mind the whole conflict between Italy's aspirations and the
selfish greed and ingratitude of her Allies. When, in conse-
quence of the decision of the commission of inquiry into the
anti-French riots at Fiume, the Italian garrison was to be
greatly reduced and the town policed by Maltese gendarmes, a
movement was planned by Major Reina of the Granatieri
brigade to reoccupy the town in the name of Italy with regular
troops and volunteers. D'Annunzio accepted the leadership of
the expedition and on the night of Sept. 11-2 he marched from
Ronchi at the head of detachments of grenadiers and other
troops and reentered Fiume. The movement was vehemently
discountenanced by the Italian Government, and D'Annunzio
was severely criticized even by many of his admirers for having
tampered with the discipline of the army and navy at such a
critical moment, even for a patriotic purpose. On the other
hand the policy of Signor Nitti and the open hostility of the
Allies justified in the eyes of a large part of Italian opinion even
so desperate an action. For 15 months D'Annunzio defied the
Italian Government and indeed the whole of Europe with
success. He assumed the style of ruler or " Commandant " of
Fiume and created a new State. His " reign " was character-
ized by a picturesque mysticism, with Italian patriotism as the
first article of his creed, and numbers of enthusiastic young, and
indeed middle aged, men flocked to his standard from all parts
of Italy. Men like Gen. Ceccherini, one of the bravest soldiers
in the Italian army, Maffeo Pantaleoni, the eminent economist,
and the syndicalist leader De Ambris came to Fiume and loyally
served under the " Commandant," and many officers of
the army and navy also joined him; the archaeologist Giacomo
Boni, the poets Siciliani, Fucini and Orvieto, the aged Risorgi-
mento patriot Senator Di Prampero, the scientist Prof. Cian,
Senator Del Lungo the distinguished man of letters, to
mention only a few, openly expressed their approval of his
action. His position at Fiume ended by going to his head,
and his language and actions came to be ever fuller of
rhodomontade, verging at times on the ridiculous, while the
adventurous nature of his undertaking also attracted many un-
desirable characters, not all of them Italians, who gradually
acquired influence over him and egged him on to blameworthy
actions. In his opposition to the official attitude of Italy he
came to regard its Government, even after Nitti had fallen,
the army itself, except the small part of it which had followed
him, and indeed the whole Italian people outside Fiume, as
enemies, and on them he poured the vials of his wrath and elo-
quence, hitherto reserved for foreign Powers. When the Rapallo
treaty was concluded he refused to recognize it, as he disapproved
of its provisions regarding Fiume and Dalmatia, and his refusal
to submit, while causing serious difficulties to the Government,
alienated from him the sympathies of many who had approved
his action at first and who strongly criticized the treaty. The
Government was finally obliged to resort to force in order to carry
out the Rapallo treaty, and D'Annunzio after vowing to hold
Fiume to the bitter end, submitted in Jan. 1921, and left the city.
He then went to live at Gardone on the lake of Garda. During
his stay at Fiume he delivered innumerable speeches, addresses
and messages, all of a high-flown and exaggerated style, but full
of his usual passionate eloquence. Most of these were printed
on fly-leaves and in newspapers; a small part of them were
collected in two pamphlets Italia o morte (1919) and Italia e vita
(1920). His constitution of the Reggenza del Carnaro is a strange
mixture of poetic concepts and mediaeval law. His diplomatic
correspondence with the Italian Government, published by him
in a " Green Book," also belongs to the domain of literature.
DANZIG (Polish Gdansk) (see 7.824), a free city constituted in
accordance with the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles on
Nov. 15 1920. The confines of the territory, extending over
some i, 800 sq. km., were laid down by Article 100, the delimita-
tion of the frontier being entrusted to a commission composed
of three members appointed by the principal Allied and Asso-
ciated Powers, one appointed by Germany and one by Poland.
The area of the free city, as well as the adjoining Polish territory
formerly part of West Prussia now divides East Prussia
from the rest of Germany.
The pop. of the city in 1910 was 182,468, that of the entire
free city territory being some 300,000. The river is navigable from
the sea entrance at Neufahnvasser to a distance of 4 m. for ships
drawing 27 ft. and for a further 2 m. up the river Mottlau for vessels
of about 15 ft. draught. Facilities are available for the repair and
maintenance of ships. Up to 5,800 tons these can be accommodated
in floating docks of which there are several. There are four dock-
yards, viz. Schichau, Danziger Werft (formerly Imperial dockyard),
Klawitter and Wogan. Schichau yard has built vessels of 35,000
tons. The Imperial dockyard was largely used during the World
War for submarine construction, besides being a repair centre for
torpedo craft and a constructional centre for aircraft. The present
annual building output of 20,000 tons could be largely increased.
The free basin has a wharfage of about 3,600 ft., and vessels drawing
from 18 to 24 ft. can lie alongside. Electric cranes and warehouse
accommodation are provided and railway connexion exists with the
main system. The island of Holm (an important adjunct to the
port) has a partially completed basin of great potential value as a
commercial harbour. The rifle factory furnished some 1,600 rifles a
day during the war, employing 10,000 men and being supplied with
the most modern machinery. After the Treaty of Versailles came
into force it devoted itself chiefly to the manufacture of domestic
articles, the personnel being greatly reduced.
The chief imports are raw materials for manufacture, clothing
798
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
and foodstuffs. The principal exports are timber and sugar. Large
granaries and warehouses for sugar stand near the wharves of the
port, which also affords storage capacity for over 20,000 tons of oil.
Timber pens are at Holm I. and extend for several miles along
the bank of the Dead Vistula between Danzig and Plehnendorf.
The port has great commercial possibilities, the natural features
of the waterways and surrounding country rendering expansion
easy. The port is practically ice-free and is the only gateway to
Poland. Thanks largely to the protection afforded by the peninsula
of Hela, it has special advantages of security and development.
The river Vistula from its source in the Carpathian mountains to
its mouth at Schiewenhorst in the gulf of Danzig is 660 m. in length.
Harmonious cooperation between the free city and Poland, re-
sulting in security and the capital required for the expansion and
development of the port, is essential to assure a prosperous future
for the city and a corresponding benefit to Poland.
A constitution was drawn up in 1920 by duly elected repre-
sentatives of the free city in agreement with the High Commis-
sioner appointed by the League of Nations. This constitution
was placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations and
the free city was proclaimed on Nov. 15 1920. A treaty be-
tween the free city of Danzig and the Polish republic, negoti-
ated by the principal Allied and Associated Powers (Article 104
of the Treaty of Versailles), came into force at the same time.
By the Danzig constitution the Legislature is composed of a
senate and a popular assembly. The senate consists of a presi-
dent (who is the chief officer of the state), a vice-president, and
20 senators. The popular assembly consists of 120 deputies,
elected by the universal, equal, direct and secret vote of all
citizens, both men and women, who have attained the age of 20
years, in accordance with the principles of proportional repre-
sentation. The League of Nations reserves the right of inviting
the free city to introduce amendments to the constitution.
By the Treaty of Versailles Poland received the unrestricted
use of the port, Polish imports and exports passing freely. The
free city and Poland now form one customs area under the
Polish customs tariff and legislation. The control and adminis-
tration of the railway system within the free city (except that
specially serving the port) and of direct communication between
Danzig and Poland, as well as postal, telegraphic and telephonic
communication via the port of Danzig between Poland and
foreign countries, is given to Poland. German nationals or-
dinarily resident in the territory of the free city lost their German
nationality on the coming into force of the Treaty and became
nationals of the free city of Danzig. A diplomatic representative
of the Polish Government stationed at Danzig acts as interme-
diary between the Polish Government and that of the free city.
Poland undertakes the conduct of the foreign relations of the
free city as well as the protection of its citizens abroad. Pass-
ports issued to nationals of Danzig require the visa of the repre-
sentative of Poland in Danzig. The right to fly the Danzig
merchant flag is restricted to ships owned exclusively by nation-
als of the free city. The Danzig port and waterways are under
a board composed of an equal number (not exceeding five)
of Danzig and Polish commissioners. Its president is of Swiss
nationality, failing previous agreement between the Danzig and
Polish Governments.
Of special interest to the British visitor may be mentioned the
so-called " Englisches Haus," rebuilt in 1569 as a home for the
London cloth merchants on the site of their former house; evidences
of early communication between Great Britain and Danzig may be
found in the " Englischer Damm " and in the quarters of the town
still known as " Old Siotland " and " New Scotjand." The High
Commissioner appointed by the League of Nations occupies the
residence of the former commander of the German troops.
See P. Simson, Geschichte der Stadt Danzig, vols. I, 2 and 4, 1913;
W. Lutoslawski, Gdansk and East Prussia (1919); A. Choloniewski,
Danzig, ville polonaise (1919); Les sieges de Danzig et I'occupation
franqaise 1807-1813 par le General Bourelly, (1904); Erwin Stein,
Monographien deutscher Staedte, Danzig, Band VI. (1914); Simon
Askenazy, Danzig and Poland (1919); Treaty of Peace signed at
Versailles on June 28 1919; Documents published by the League
of Nations. (R. T. T.)
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN, 1915. The Dardanelles cam-
paign of 1915 was brought about by a desire entertained during
the early stages of the World War by the Allied Governments,
and especially by the British Government, that communications
should be opened up from the Mediterranean into the Black
Sea. These communications had been severed on the Ottoman
Empire throwing its lot in with the Central Powers three
months after the commencement of the struggle. Russia had in
consequence been virtually cut off from intercourse by water
with the outer world, seeing that the Baltic likewise was closed
owing to action of the German navy; no adequate outlet for
the Russian Empire's produce remained available; the most
promising avenue for the introduction of warlike stores into the
Tsar's dominions from without had been effectually barred.
The very fact of reestablishing this vital strategical and eco-
nomic artery of the Near East by force of arms would, moreover,
of necessity carry with it the occupation of Constantinople by
Entente forces and would deal a resounding blow at the very
heart of the Sultan's realms. There was furthermore, at the
juncture when the project of attack upon the Dardanelles was
first seriously mooted at the beginning of Jan. 1915, a special
inducement offered to the Allies for acting in this quarter any
threat to Stambul and the Golden Horn must tend to take
pressure off the Russian army in Armenia which was at the
moment believed to be in some peril.
War between Turkey and the Allies broke out at the end of
Oct. 1914, following on several weeks of strained relations due
to the reception of the German warships " Goeben " and
"'Breslau" within the Straits. Some British vessels carried
out a brief bombardment of the Ottoman batteries at the mouth
of the Dardanelles on Nov. 3, but the operation partook merely
of the nature of a reconnaissance, and for some time hostilities
were confined to a blockade of the Ottoman coasts, 1 defensive
steps in Egypt, and the seizure of the Shat el Arab and Basrah.
ANZAC ANoSUVLA
Mil..? < *
Kilometres '1
Form fines at 25 m. Vertical Interval
British front line before Aug.ows*-^*
To secure command of the maritime defile that links the
Aegean with the Sea of Marmora was, in the opinion of most
'On Dec. 13 1914 the British submarine BIT, Lt. Norman Hoi-
brook, successfully passed the mine-fields of the Straits and tor-
pedoed the old Turkish battleship " Mcssudieh " at anchor. Less
fortunate, the French submarine " Saphir " was sunk in a similar
attempt to penetrate the inner waters on Jan. 15 1915.
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
799
authorities, an almost indispensable preliminary to the under-
taking of warlike operations against Constantinople and the
Bosporus by fighting forces coming from the west. The question
of the mastering of this all-important lower waterway in the
event of a contest with the Turks had indeed engaged the close
attention of British naval and military experts some years
earlier. The conclusion arrived at on that occasion had, however,
been that, whether the campaign were to take the form of a
purely naval operation or whether the task were to be performed
by an amphibious expeditionary force, the enterprise was bound
to prove most difficult. In 1914 the channel was known to be
defended by a number of batteries, some of them armed with
very heavy guns. Most of these works were planted about the
slender reach situated about 10 m. above the outlet into the
Aegean, and known as the " Narrows." If the batteries and
their artillery were somewhat out of date, the fact remained
that warships steaming up the defile would be compelled to pass
these fortifications at very close quarters, when the lack of
range of their guns would cease to tell. The Ottoman authorities
were moreover known to have given much attention to the
problem of mine-fields especially adapted to the peculiar condi-
tions existing within the Dardanelles; and the development which
had taken place in this particular form of defence was such as
to render the task of a fleet which should try to force the passage
a more difficult one than it would have been a few years earlier.
The fact that along the whole of its course this remarkable
waterway is only separated from the Aegean by the attenuated
Gallipoli Peninsula, did, on the other hand, suggest that the
most promising method of attack upon the maritime defile from
without would be to occupy that significant tongue of land.
An appeal reached the British Government from Russia on
Jan. 2 1915 for help to relieve the existing situation in Armenia,
and an operation directed against the Dardanelles was judged
to be the best means of complying with the request; but there
were no large bodies of troops available that could be used for
such a purpose. The consequence was that the feasibility of
forcing a way from the Mediterranean up into the Sea of Mar-
mora as a purely naval undertaking came to be examined afresh
in London. When asked for his views, Vice-Adml. Sir Sackville
Garden, the British commander-in-chief in those waters,
proposed that a fleet should try to destroy the Ottoman forts
in the Straits and to clear away the mine-fields sown in the chan-
nel, by adopting a process of methodical advance. This plan
possessed the merit of novelty. It had always been assumed
during previous discussions on the question that warships
adventuring the passage would try a rush, that they would
endeavour to steam by the batteries and drive the defending
gunners from their guns by concentrated fire. Although the
professional chiefs at the Admiralty were not enthusiastic
supporters of Adml. Garden's project, the Government decided
to adopt it. 1 French concurrence was obtained, French support
was promised, and measures were at once set on foot to con-
centrate such naval forces in the Aegean as appeared to be
required for the execution of the plan.
A considerable armada was got together, although its as-
sembling took several weeks and although the Russians had as
a matter of fact heavily defeated the Turks in Armenia (battle
of Sarikamish) even before orders for the assembling were
issued. As regards large craft, the fleet consisted in the main
of semi-obsolete battleships looked upon as unfit to take part
in a fleet action. Of such ships the British contributed fourteen 2
and the French four. 3 But the fleet also included two semi-
dreadnoughts ("Lord Nelson," "Agamemnon"), the battle-
cruiser " Inflexible " and the newly completed " Queen Elizabeth,"
1 On the naval operations, see also the article NAVAL HISTORY OF
THE WAR.
" Queen," " London," " Prince of Wales,"** " Implacable "
and " Irresistible "; " Majestic " and " Prince George "; " Corn-
wallis " (Duncan class); " Swiftsure " and "Triumph"; "Ven-
geance," " Albion," " Goliath " and " Ocean " (Canopus class).
For the characteristics of these ships and of the " Lord Nelson "
and " Inflexible " see 24.897.
3 " Bouvet," " Suffren," " Charlemagne," " Gaulois."
armed with is-in. guns. The battleships were to be aided by
several cruisers and destroyers and a flotilla of mine-sweepers
was also organized. The conveniently situated islands of
Tenedos and Lemnos 4 (the latter offering the immense land-
locked haven of Mudros as an anchorage) were occupied to serve
as naval bases, and on Feb. 19 the venture opened with an
attack upon the weakly Ottoman batteries that guarded the
outlet of the channel. The batteries were silenced for the
time being; but bad weather interrupted the proceedings and
the batteries had to be silenced afresh a week later (Feb. 25)
effectually on this occasion. That night the mine-fields at the
mouth of the Dardanelles were cleared away, and battleships
were in consequence enabled to penetrate into the lowest
reaches of the defile on the morrow.
Stormy weather caused some delays in continuing the pro-
gramme, but heavily armed vessels made their way a short
distance up channel on several days early in March and engaged
some of the enemy works that were sited about the Narrows. 5
The sweepers continued their labours night after night, gradually
extending the fairway up which heavy craft could safely venture.
Long-range fire on the forts directed from outside the Straits
over the Gallipoli Peninsula was also tried, but the results
proved disappointing. In reality, a very liberal expenditure of
artillery ammunition on the part of the fleet was doing consider-
ably less damage to the Ottoman defences than the Allied
sailors imagined to be the case. Any Turkish battery that was
chosen for target generally ceased firing before long; and the
assailants were disposed to assume that the work was definitely
put out of action, whereas all that had happened in reality was
that the hostile gunners had been driven from their guns.
Moreover, promising as the situation may have appeared to be
from the attacking side in so far as neutralization of the Ottoman
batteries was concerned, it was plain that the mine-sweepers
were making disappointing progress. The enemy's light guns,
aided by effective searchlights, were offering a strenuous opposi-
tion to the small craft engaged on the all-important duty of
clearing the channel of submerged defences. At last Vice-Adml.
Sir John Michael De Robeck, who had succeeded Adml. Garden,
decided, under some pressure from home, to undertake an onset
in full force upon the defences of the Narrows by day, although
mine-fields still forbade a close attack on the forts on the
part of battleships.
This operation took place on March 18, and it proved unsuc-
cessful. Sixteen battleships entered the Straits to participate
in the encounter, the manoeuvring of so large a number of
great vessels in this narrow space was a matter of some dif-
ficulty and also gave excellent targets for the Turkish artillery,
which replied to their fire with unexpected spirit. The contest
lasted for several hours, but towards evening the fleet was
obliged to retire, three of the battleships having been sunk and
four others having been put out of action. The three vessels
lost, the " Irresistible," " Ocean " and " Bouvet," were out of
date; but of those put out of action the " Inflexible " was a
modern ship, and she and another very nearly foundered before
they could be got to a place of safety. The defenders employed
mines drifting down with the current with striking success on
this occasion, and the damage caused by them contributed
largely to bring about the defeat of the naval force. The events
of the day indeed clearly indicated that the enemy's under-
water devices were an even more serious obstacle to the forcing
of the Dardanelles than were the Ottoman batteries. Nor had
the Allies grounds for supposing that drift-mines would not be
met with, were the attack renewed.
After this experience Vice-Adml. De Robeck felt himself
obliged to inform the Admiralty that the offensive against
the Straits ought not to be continued as a purely naval opera-
tion of war. This necessitated a complete recasting of the
Entente plans. The Turkish authorities, it may be mentioned,
4 Lemnos was a Greek possession having been ceded to Greece
as the result of the Balkan War of 1912-3. Imbros, Samothrace and
Tenedos had remained Turkish.
5 On March 10 Bulair was also bombarded from the Gulf of Saros.
8oo
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
on finding nearly all the ammunition for their heaviest ordnance
in the Narrows to be used up, viewed the prospect of a possible
fresh fleet attack with some apprehension, as they were under
the impression that the assailants had been beaten off on the
1 8th by the guns and not by the mines. This led to a mistaken
idea that De Robeck's ships might have succeeded had they
renewed their attack at once in spite of losses; the damage
which they had done to the batteries had been almost insignificant,
and they had not got within 5 m. of their objective.
The Allies had foreseen from the outset that land forces
would have to be brought into play sooner or later in their
campaign in this region. Even assuming that the fleet forced
the Dardanelles, its communications would have to be safe-
guarded, and there would still be Constantinople and the Bos-
porus to be dealt with. Entente troops had already before
March 1 8 been set in motion for the Aegean, and some were in
Lemnos. A heterogeneous army, drawn largely from India and
Australasia, had also been gathering in Egypt for several weeks
past, of which portions could be made available for work else-
where in the Near East. Gen. Sir Ian Hamilton, who had been
chosen as commander-in-chief of the military contingents that
were to cooperate in due course with the naval forces in this
theatre of war, had moreover actually arrived on the day before
the abortive fleet attack upon the Narrows and had witnessed
the fight. In view of what had occurred the Allied Governments
decided that in further operations full use must be made of
the gathering army, and from this time onwards the military be-
gan to assume the principal role in the effort of the Entente to
secure command of the Dardanelles.
But Sir Ian Hamilton judged it to be inexpedient to initiate
land operations at once. Reconnaissance had brought to light
the extent to which the Turks were making preparations to
repel attempted landings, both on the Gallipoli Peninsula, and on
the Asiatic coast adjacent to the mouth of the Straits; and
everything pointed to the expeditionary force having to start
work by fighting its way ashore. A tactical operation of that
character demanded most careful prior organization, and it
called for a distribution of the attacking force amongst the
available shipping based on purely tactical considerations. As
a preliminary to his undertaking a serious land campaign on
the shores of the Aegean, the general felt himself obliged to
concentrate his forces in Egypt, and to prepare them there for
the hazardous undertaking to which they were to be committed.
A month was lost in consequence. 1 During that month the
Turkish V. Army was formed (March 24) to guard the Straits,
and Marshal Liman von Sanders, head of the German military
mission in Turkey, was appointed its commander-in-chief.
Between the last days of March and the day of the landing the
defence system was overhauled and greatly developed. 2
The Franco-British expeditionary force was to be composed
of seven divisions three, the 2gth, the 42nd and the Royal
Naval, furnished by the United Kingdom, two formed of Aus-
tralian and New Zealand troops, and two composed of French
colonial troops. At the time however when active operations
began the 42nd Division and one of the French divisions could
'The chief naval incidents of this month were: a raid by the
Turkish destroyer " Demir Hissar " which sank the British transport
" Manitou " on March 16, but had to be blown up next day off
Chios to avoid capture; an attempt of the British submarine 15
to enter the Straits, which led to her being forced ashore (April 16)
and in the sequel to her destruction by a daring boat's crew from
the "Majestic" (April 18); bombardments of the defences of
Smyrna on March 28, April 6 and April 22; and operations at Gaza
and El Arish on the Syrian coast by the French battleship " St.
Louis " and other vessels (April 12-17).
From the Black Sea the Russian naval forces bombarded the
Bosporus defences on March 28 ; some fruitless operations were then
carried out against the " Goeben " and " Breslau " (in the course of
which the Turkish cruiser " Medjidieh " was sunk off Odessa (April
3), and on April 25, the day of the landing in the Peninsula, and on
May 2, the Bosporus defences were again shelled.
2 The coast defences themselves remained under the command
of the German Adml. v. Usedom, who was also responsible for those
of the Bosporus. The German naval forces were commanded by
Adml. Souchon, who had brought the "Goeben" and " Breslau."
not be counted on owing to shipping for them not being available.
Against this force Liman von Sanders could at the outset pit
six divisions. Hamilton had resolved on making the Gallipoli
Peninsula his objective, intending to secure high ground which
dominated the Narrows from that side. He could conceal his
design up to the very last. His adversary had perforce to
disperse the defending troops, so that on the morning when
the land campaign started two of the Turkish divisions (3rd
and nth) were watching the outer coast on the Asiatic side,
two (sth and yth) were near Bulair to provide against a landing
at the neck of the Peninsula, while the remaining two (gth and
igth) under Essad Pasha guarded the places where, in the event,
the Allied army made its appearance. Still, if the attacking
side enjoyed an advantage in this respect, the possible landing-
places were few in number and were therefore well indicated,
there had been ample time to protect them with earthworks
and barbed wire, and in any disembarkation in face of resistance
the tactical conditions favour the defence.
Hamilton contemplated two distinct major operations. One
force was to be put ashore about the extremity of the peninsula
an area which it is convenient to designate as " Helles." The
other force was to land N. of Gaba Tepe, where there are ex-
tensive beaches. Part of the one available French division was,
furthermore, to effect a descent at Kum Kale opposite Helles
as a subsidiary operation, partly to deceive the enemy and partly
to neutralize Turkish guns, which otherwise might intervene in
the Helles fighting. Feints were also to be carried out at other
localities so as to bewilder the defenders. The effort at Helles
was to be entrusted to the 2pth Division, supported by the
Royal Naval Division, and ultimately to be reinforced by the
French division. That at Gaba Tepe was to be carried out by
the two Australasian divisions under Gen. Sir William Birdwood.
The Anglo-French army concentrated in Mudros Bay, the great
natural harbour of Lemnos, in the third week of April and,
after a short delay enforced by bad weather, the armada put to
sea during the nights of the 23rd-24th and the 24th-2Sth, so
that the transports and the covering warships should arrive at
the various rendezvous at or before dawn on the 2 sth. The day
broke calm and still, after a placid night.
A firm footing was gained on shore by the assailants at three
out of the five points where disembarkation was attempted,
while the effort was also, within restricted limits, successful
at the two remaining points. The beaches which had been
selected were, enumerating from right to left, " S " in Morto
Bay, " V " and " W " on either side of Cape HeUes at the
south-western end, and " X " and " Y " on the outer shore;
" V " and " W " were regarded as of primary importance, as
those two beaches offered suitable landing places from the point
of view of subsequent operations. The attacks at " S " and " Y "
were intended to be subsidiary; but great importance was
attached to that at " X " owing to the vicinity of this point to
" W." The troops started for the shore in flotillas of boats
soon after dawn at all points, their approach covered by the
fire of battleships and cruisers, and in all cases the boats were
not fired upon until almost the last moment.
As it turned out, the actual disembarkations at " S," " X "
and " Y " were carried out without any very great difficulty;
but the troops detailed for " W " beach only gained a footing
after incurring very heavy losses and by a display of indomitable
resolution, while at " V " the operation went very near to failing
altogether. In the general scheme of attack the landing at this
last point was of primary importance; the largest force had been
detailed for it, and the troops were for the most part conveyed to
the beach in a steamer (the " River Clyde ") which was run
ashore; but only some scattered detachments cowering close to
the water's edge had established themselves on land by nightfall,
and the Allies' position here seemed to be highly critical. The
troops detailed for " Y " beach had also got into serious difficul-
ties, and as it turned out they had to be withdrawn next morning.
But the forces which had landed at " W " and " X " be'aches had
joined hands, the one battalion detailed for " S " beach had
secured a good position, and during the night the troops still
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
801
left aboard the " River Clyde " contrived to disembark. The
resistance offered by the Turks had been most determined, and
these could reckon upon receiving welcome reinforcements
within a few hours; for as soon as the situation declared itself
Liman von Sanders had hurried off one of the two divisions (the
7th) at Bulair by water with orders to repair to Helles.
In the meantime a French brigade had, after a tough struggle,
effected a lodgment at Kum Kale. The Turks were in strong
force in that quarter, and, as the hours passed and the defenders
(3rd and nth Divs.) massed, the situation became such as to
render any French advance out of the question; indeed, but for
the fire of the warships the troops who had landed could barely
have maintained themselves. Still, their presence on the
Asiatic side of the Straits was for the time being indirectly
helpful to their British comrades who were struggling for a grip
on the extremity of the Gallipoli Peninsula.
The invaders of Helles had secured but a precarious foothold
on Ottoman soil by the morning of the 26th, twenty-four hours
after starting operations; but fair progress was made by them
during the course of this second day. What was left of the
force originally detailed for the landing at " V " beach contrived
during the early hours by stern fighting to occupy some high
.ground hard by, and also to join hands with the troops landed at
" W " beach. Additional infantry was got ashore at " W" and
" X " beaches, the first elements of the French division began
disembarking at "V" beach in the afternoon, and before evening
touch had been gained with the battalion that had made good
at " S " beach. That night the French evacuated Kum Kale by
arrangement. On the 2;th a general move forward took place,
the Turks (gth Div.) offering little opposition, and by nightfall
the Allies held a line stretching approximately from the north
end of Morto Bay to " Gully " beach. But very heavy losses
had been sustained by the 2Qth Division, large bodies of Turkish
troops had arrived from Bulair and were being brought round
from the Asiatic side of the Straits, 1 and after three days of
strenuous combat the British and French had barely secured
a depth of 2 m. of country, while their opponents had had time
to concentrate their scattered forces. Realizing the urgent
need of gaining ground before the enemy was gathered in full
strength, and hoping to win the heights beyond Krithia and
Achi Baba, Sir I. Hamilton ordered a further attack for the 28th.
On this occasion the Turks made a determined resistance; but
the Allies' line was advanced by a few hundred yards at most
points, and a three days' lull then ensued in the Helles area.
While this embittered struggle had been in progress at the
extremity of the peninsula, stirring events had been in progress
on its outer coast-line. The arrangements for disembarking Bird-
wood's Australasians differed from those made at Helles, in that
here the whole force was to land at one point, and that an attempt
was to be made to effect a surprise just before dawn (April 25).
The surprise was effected, but in the darkness the force arrived
at a locality about a mile N. of the beach immediately N. of Gaba
Tepe which had been the selected goal. The beach on which the
landing took place proved to be satisfactory, but it lay at
the foot of a steep and rugged declivity, which was therefore
a most unsuitable place for putting ashore the stores and
impedimenta of an army. At the moment of approach of the
first boats the defenders actually on the spot were few, so that
the high ground overhanging the landing place (which came to be
known as Anzac 2 Cove) was secured by the assailants at the
first rush. But the enemy speedily brought effective flanking
artillery fire to bear on the beach and on the boats; the troops,
both officers and men, were inexperienced, the ground to be
advanced over was hilly, scrub-clad and extremely broken,
and considerable confusion arose. The advantage gained in
the first instance by the surprise was lost, and the Turkish
ipth Div. was able to gather in force during the critical hours of
1 The German commander of the 5th Div. (Lt.-Col. v. Sodenstern)
was put in charge of the Helles front, Essad taking command on the
Ari Burnei front.
2 The abbreviated designation of the " Australian and New Zea-
land Army Corps."
the morning when the Australasians might, in virtue of their
superior numbers, have secured a satisfactory sector of ground.
At the end of the day, although the whole of Birdwood's infantry
had been ashore for several hours, the position which these
troops had taken up remained a haphazard one, no depth had
been secured, losses had been heavy, and the situation seemed
so threatening that the question of a withdrawal was even
considered at one time.
Reinforced by parts of the two Bulair divisions the Turks
delivered vigorous counter-attacks on the 26th; but these were
beaten off, and on that day and on the morrow the Australasian
troops dug themselves in so thoroughly that by the night of
the 27th-28th the position which they had taken up, such as it
was, was reasonably secure. On the other hand, the Turks, who
were commanded by Essad, had likewise dug themselves in, and
they could bring an effective artillery fire to bear on the Anzac
trenches from three sides, the prospect of the landing force making
any effective progress under the awkward conditions of ground
in which it found itself was remote, and Birdwood's contingents
had in reality been even less successful than had those detailed
for Helles as regards securing an adequate area on the enemy's
shores before the defence gathered strength. Their situation was
unsatisfactory not only in the tactical sense, but also from the
point of view of keeping the troops supplied, owing to their being
perched on ridges with steep gradients behind them. Water
also was found to be scarce, and was sure to become scarcer
during the summer months. Lastly, the landing place was much
exposed in the event of bad weather.
Although his adversaries had fought their way ashore in two
sections of the Gallipoli Peninsula and he had had to give up
his first idea of driving them back to their ships Liman von
Sanders had no grounds for despondency when May opened.
The Allies' plan was now unmistakably indicated, and con-
centration of the defending forces had become possible in con-
sequence. The marshal's Turks had fought gallantly in the
strenuous encounters which had taken place, and large rein-
forcements (2nd, 4th, i3th, isth, i6th Divisions) were on the
move or preparing to move to his aid. His troops were entrench-
ing themselves solidly in face of the invaders both at Helles and
at Anzac, so that his antagonists would be obliged to storm lines
of earthworks whenever they should attempt to make further
progress. It is true that Hamilton was expecting the arrival of
the 42nd Division and of the 2nd French Division within a few
days; but his losses had been extremely heavy, there were no
depots at hand from which these losses could promptly be made
good, and he was inferior to the Turks in artillery both as
regards calibre of guns and as regards ammunition. On three
successive nights from the ist to the $rd the Turks delivered
resolute assaults upon the Allies' position at Helles, but they
were repulsed on each occasion; they also on the night of the
2nd~3rd launched attacks upon the Australasians, the combat
lasting into the next day, but here also they were beaten off.
Two brigades of Birdwood's force were thereupon temporarily
transferred to Helles by night, and on the 6th and following two
days a mighty effort was made by the invaders to push forward
in this southern area and to win the high ground that stretches
across the peninsula about 5 m. from its extremity; their front
was, however, only advanced by a few hundred yards and a much
more pronounced success was called for to render the Allies'
position in this area at all a promising one. Much work was done
in organizing the area and its communications and landing
places, but the tactical situation at Helles remained stationary
for the rest of the month. At Anzac similar work was done
but the only tactical incident of much importance in that
quarter was that Liman von Sanders personally directed a
formidable attack upon Birdwood on the night of the i8th-
igth, the assailants being defeated with severe loss.
The arrival of German submarines 3 during this month proved
3 Already a special German submarine command had been
established in the Adriatic, with bases at Pola and Cattaro, and
some small boats were sent thither by rail. Two of these (UBl,
UBi5) were attached to the Austrian submarine force. Three
802
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
to be an event of lasting importance. Two British battleships
were sunk off the peninsula (" Triumph " May 25, " Majestic "
May 27), and owing to the risks run by warships and transports
while in the open the Allied troops on shore were thenceforward
almost deprived of support from naval gunfire, while reinforce-
ments and stores were mostly brought from Mudros to the vari-
ous landing places in small craft. Hamilton made Imbros his
headquarters, and troops also were sometimes collected there
owing to its vicinity both to Helles and to Anzac. Within the
Dardanelles the battleship " Goliath " had been torpedoed by
the Turkish destroyer " Muavenet-i-Milliye " on May 13; on
the other hand British submarines were performing invaluable
service, diving under the mine-fields, causing havoc amongst
enemy craft in the channel itself and higher up, and threatening
Ottoman communications with the peninsula.
That the position of affairs had become one virtually of
stalemate was fairly evident to all authorities on the side of the
Entente before the end of May. A Russian army destined for the
Bosporus, which had been gathered near Odessa, obliging the
Porte to keep strong bodies of troops about Constantinople,
had been called to Galicia, thus liberating several Turkish di-
visions for service at the Dardanelles. Only by dispatching very
substantial reinforcements in men, munitions and war material
to the scene could the Entente achieve its object. But the
military situation elsewhere forbade the alloc tion of strong
British or French contingents to this secondary theatre of war,
and there was much delay in London in forming a decision. The
52nd Division was, however, under orders to proceed from
England to th? Aegean; it arrived at Helles early in June, where
there was some severe fighting during that month by which the
Alh'es somewhat improved their position.
But trench warfare was the order of the day, and the British
and French were trying to carry this on without that ample
artillery support which is almost indispensable when earth-
works have to be stormed under modern tactical conditions.
others (UB3, UB;, UB8) sailed for the Straits in the latter part of
April. UB3 was lost en route but nos. 7 and 8 reached the Straits
about the middle of May. They proceeded to Constantinople, and
were chiefly employed against the Russian Black Sea fleet. Four
small boats of the mine-laying class were also dispatched, of which
three (UCl4, UCl3, UCis) made their way to Constantinople,
carrying important technical stores, in the summer months after an
intermediate base had been established at Orak near Budrun.
Another small boat (UBl4) on its way from Orak -to the Straits,
torpedoed the British transports " Royal Edward " off Cos (Aug.
14), and " Southland " in the Aegean (Sept. 2). Other British
transports sunk in the Aegean were the " Ramazan " (Sept. 19)
and the " Marquette" (Oct. 26). Of the ships named only the
" Southland " was brought into harbour.
More important work was done by the seagoing boat U2I, Lt.-
Comm. Otto Hersing. This left the Ems after special preparation
for the long voyage, on April 25, and reached Cattaro with only half
a ton of fuel left on May 13. After replenishing at that base, Hersing
sailed on the 2Oth for the Dardanelles, where, on the 25th and 27th
he sank the battleships " Triumph " and " Majestic." L'2i then
proceeded to Constantinople. On July 4 he came out and sank the
French transport " Carthage " off Helles; later after a cruise in the
Aegean he tried to reenter the Straits, but finding the British mine
defences too formidable, he sailed to Cattaro to take part in the
general commerce-destroying warfare in the Mediterranean. This
was by now active, four other seagoing boats having followed U2I
from the North Sea, and it is claimed that 50,000 tons of shipping
were sunk in the Mediterranean and Aegean during Sept. 1915.
At the end of that month the Germans had nearly one-third of their
total available submarine force in this theatre 14 boats out of 44
of which 5 seagoing, 2 small and I mine-laying boats, were working
in the open, and 3 small (UB7, 8, 14) and 2 mine-laying (UCi3, 15)
at Constantinople. In addition, the Austrian boats numbered about
II, large and small, and one of these torpedoed the French cruiser
" I^eon Gambetta " in Ionian waters on April 27.
Submarine activity in the open Mediterranean and Aegean had
no small influence in determining the final abandonment of the
Gallipoli enterprise and in preventing its resumption in the later
stages of the war. But locally and tactically, no real success was
obtained by the new arm after the departure of U2I. Liman von
Sanders expresses the opinion that the German submarines on the
spot were of no assistance to him, and that the British boats, in
spite of their frequent raiding of the Sea of Marmora, did not seriously
interfere with his water movements.
A general attack was delivered on the Ottoman positions on the
5th, by which some little ground was gained along most of the
front. Then on the 2ist the French, who were on the right next
to the Straits, pushed their line forward as the result of a well-
planned local offensive, and this achievement was followed up
on the 28th by a successful operation on the part of the British
on the extreme left, by which the line at that end was advanced
to nearly abreast of Krithia. Satisfactory as were the results
of these two affairs at the end of the month from the point of
view of the Allies, they did not render their situation at the
extremity of the peninsula much less discouraging than it had
been before. The front occupied by the invaders at the end of
June was indeed for all practical purposes to represent the line
that was to be held up to the night of Jan. 8 in the following year.
The Turks still occupied all the high ground. They continued
to enjoy all the topographical advantage in respect to position.
Ottoman guns dominated the entire territory which the invaders
had succeeded in the course of two months in conquering, as
well as " V " and " W " beaches which were the landing-places
chiefly used by them. This Turkish artillery was bearing upon
Helles not merely from the uplands facing the Allies' front line,
but also from the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles on the Allies'
flank. At Anzac the situation remained stationary during June,
although there was some sharp fighting at the end of the month.
Both sides, it should be mentioned, were suffering much from
sickness, and continued to suffer all through the summer. The
heat was great. Flies swarmed. The dust caused much annoy-
ance whenever there was any wind. The British hospital arrange-
ments were not beyond criticism. The water question caused
no great difficulty at Helles, but the very limited local supply
found within the contracted area occupied by Birdwood's force
gave out almost entirely when the dry season set definitely in,
and much of that which was brought by sea or condensed had
to be conveyed up steep inclines to the trenches. As a result of
disease, and of casualties in action and from bombardment, the
British divisions recruited in the United Kingdom were con-
stantly far short of establishment, no proper provision having
been made for keeping them up to strength. The two Australa-
sian and the two French divisions were better off in this respect;
but the number of divisions under Sir I. Hamilton's orders
eight now that the 52nd had arrived in reality gave a very
misleading impression of the strength of the force; his Majesty's
Government had, however, during the course of the month
decided to dispatch large reinforcements to this theatre of war,
and the Allied commander-in-chief had been cheered by the
tidings that five further divisions, the loth, nth, i3th, 53rd and
54th, had been placed under orders for the Aegean, and would
join him between July 10 and Aug. 10. The number of Turkish
divisions within the peninsula and in reserve on the Asiatic
side of the Straits had, however, grown, and by the end of June
Liman von Sanders appears to have had nine under his orders.
July, in so far as the Allies were concerned, was in the main a
month of preparation. In view of the anticipated arrival of sub-
stantial reinforcements from England there was no great tempta-
tion to embark on offensives; and owing to the shortage of
artillery ammunition, what there was of it had to be jealously
husbanded, although the French divisions were not suffering
from this disability so much as the British. A general attack
was, however, delivered by the Helles force on the i2th and i3th
along the right half of its front, and some little ground was con-
quered; but the situation was not appreciably modified. To-
wards the end of the month the i3th Division, the first of the
new divisions to arrive, disembarked in this southern area as a
temporary measure, bringing welcome relief for the troops in the
trenches. At Anzac July passed off quietly. There the rival
forces were in close contact, the Turks everywhere enjoying the
advantage of command; some sections of the Australasian line
were, indeed, completely overlooked by ground in Ottoman
occupation. Liman von Sanders was joined by reinforcements
from other parts of the Empire early in the month, and the num-
ber of Turkish divisions in the peninsula swelled; but, aware
that additional British troops were arriving, he felt obliged to
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
803
leave forces on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles in case of a
hostile landing on the coast to the S., and of the divisions on the
peninsula he kept two about Gallipoli and Bulair.
How best to utilize the fresh troops joining him from England
was anxiously considered by Sir I. Hamilton, and he framed his
plans well in advance. The French had from the outset favoured
operations on the further side of the Straits, and the expediency
suggested itself of either throwing the whole Allied army in that
direction, or else of diverting the reinforcements thither as a
detached contingent. But there were valid objections to either
course. A descent S. of the Straits connoted disembarkation in
face of opposition, and, even supposing the landing to be suc-
cessful, the force would start work much further from the Nar-
rows than were either Helles or Anzac. Then again, to plant
down a portion of the Allied troops on one side of the Straits,
while continuing operations on the other side, would mean
voluntary dispersion of resources in place of concentration. The
commander-in-chief weighed the pros and cons and he decided
against a combination of war on such lines. There were also not
wanting inducements for the Allies to attempt a landing near
Bulair, seeing that a victory at that point would carry with it
the severance of the Turkish land communications with the pen-
insula. But, here again a disembarkation in face of opposition
would have to be risked and a dispersion of resources would
arise, while there were strong objections from the point of view
of ship transport to conveying troops to a point so distant from
the island of Imbros as Bulair; for Imbros was to be utilized as
the principal concentration point for the reinforcements from
England. That the Ottoman commander-in-chief had to be
prepared for his opponent adopting one of these two plans offered
a strong argument against adopting either of them.
Hamilton decided that his great effort should be made at,
and immediately to the N. of, Anzac. The rugged bluffs on
which Gen. Birdwood's force had taken root since April were
spurs of a tangled mountain mass known as Sari Bair, from the
topmost ridges of which the Straits about the Narrows were
partially visible at a distance of 4 or 5 miles. The occupation
of these topmost ridges must greatly assist in a further advance
across the peninsula here at its narrowest point. The plan de-
cided upon was secretly to augment the force already at Anzac
by about a division and a half, and, with the force thus aug-
mented, to secure possession of Sari Bair by a night-attack. But
this was only part of the plan. It was also decided that a force
of nearly two divisions should, on the same night as the attack
on Sari Bair was launched, effect a landing at an entirely new
point Suvla Bay, a few miles N. of Anzac, where the Turkish
troops were known to be few. The object of this second operation
was twofold it would indirectly assist the offensive against
Sari Bair, it would also furnish the Allies who were planted down
on the outer coast of the peninsula with a much more sheltered
landing place and base than Anzac Cove. The I3th Division,
with some other detachments from Helles and with one brigade
of the loth Division, were the troops chosen to augment Bird-
wood's force already at Anzac. The new venture further north
was entrusted to the nth Division, which was to assemble in the
island of Imbros supported by the rest of the loth Division;
the portions of this latter division not detailed for Anzac were
to concentrate partly at Mudros, and partly in a port of Mity-
lene more than 100 m. from Suvla. The last divisions to arrive,
the 53rd and 54th, were to be employed wherever should seem
best after the offensive had begun. To land the whole of the
reinforcements simultaneously would not have been practicable
with the amount of water transport available.
The utmost secrecy was observed by the Allied staff. Ap-
Ipropriate steps were taken to mislead the Ottoman authorities by
means of feints and of reconnaissances executed at localities
other than those selected for operations. False reports were
assiduously circulated by the intelligence department. This part
of Hamilton's programme was, indeed, carried out most suc-
cessfully, for, although Liman von Sanders was aware of the
arrival of large bodies of British troops in the islands, he remained
entirely ignorant of his rival's real design until this was actu-
ally in execution. The Ottoman commander had organized his
forces as a southern group watching Helles and a northern group
watching Anzac, with the already mentioned two divisions at
the Bulair end of the peninsula. There were large Turkish forces
in reserve about Chanak, in addition to substantial contingents
disposed to the S. of the outlet of the Straits ready for any move
of the Allies in that quarter; but, thanks to a system of jetties
erected on either shore at the upper end of the Narrows, and
to improved communications, troops could be shifted from side
to side of the waterway very rapidly. Numerically, the con-
tending armies would at this very critical juncture of the cam-
paign be almost equal, the invaders rather the stronger; but
the Turks were much dispersed, so that the result almost hinged
upon the speed with which the attacking side should gain
ground before the defenders had time to concentrate.
DARDANELLES
AND
GALLIPOLI PENINSULA
The offensive started on Aug. 6 with two preliminary enter-
prises. An onset was made upon some of the Turkish trenches in
the Helles area, which led to sharp fighting; the object was to
prevent the Turks transferring troops northwards, and it prob-
ably served its purpose; apart from that, little was accomplished
although the affray went on intermittently for a week. Portions
of the Australasian force also broke out of the southern sections
of the Anzac position, and were rewarded by the acquisition of
some very valuable ground after a violent contest; the real
purpose, however, was to occupy the attention of the enemy
and to conceal a design of much greater moment.
So dexterously had the assembling of the reinforcements
within Birdwood's position been effected, that the Turks had
entirely failed to detect how the numbers of their opponents
in this area had during the last few nights been nearly doubled.
The scheme of operations for the capture of the Sari Bair moun-
tain mass was that the force detailed for this enterprise should
move out in several columns from the northern end of the Anzac
position along the low ground near the shore, after dark on the
evening of the 6th. On reaching their appointed stations the
columns were to wheel to the right and were to work their way
up certain steep but well-defined gullies that led towards the
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
topmost ridges, which, it was hoped, would be reached by day-
light a somewhat sanguine anticipation, as it turned out. All
went well at the outset. The Turkish posts about the lower spurs
were in some cases surprised. The outlets of the gullies were in
the assailants' hands soon after midnight. The hostile detach-
ments on guard gave way at all points. But the routes to be
followed were difficult to find in the dark, the ascent was rapid,
the ground was much broken, and the enemy opposed a stubborn
resistance to the advance, with the result that this was greatly
retarded, and that at daybreak the most forward of the columns
was not much more than halfway up. The Ottoman staff had,
moreover, on the first alarm begun to hurry reinforcements on
the Sari Bair from the rear, while the Allied troops were so much
exhausted by their nocturnal experiences that all attempts to
win the upper ridge failed on the 7th.
A rearrangement of the attacking forces was carried out during
the following night, and the attempt to gain the highest ground
was resumed at dawn on the 8th from the positions that had been
acquired 24 hours earlier. The Ottoman detachments on the
mountain had by this time been reinforced by at least one divi-
sion, and they were fully prepared to meet the onset when it came.
One of the Allies' columns nevertheless succeeded in establishing
itself on a patch of the topmost ridge and in holding on to what
had been secured, although the efforts of the assailants miscarried
elsewhere. After a fresh reorganization during the night an
attempt was yet again made on the gth to win the mountain,
and that day some British and Indian troops actually fought their
way on to a commanding summit from which the Narrows could
be seen, only, however, speedily to be driven off again. The Turks
holding the ridge were, moreover, constantly receiving rein-
forcements now that Sir I. Hamilton's plan was completely
exposed, and so victory definitely decided itself in favour of the
defenders early on the loth. For these, by a sudden onset that
morning, recovered possession of the patch of high ground which
their antagonists had succeeded in wresting from them on the \
8th and in holding ever since. Then, by a resolute if somewhat
costly counter-attack delivered from the dominating position
which they occupied, the Osmanlis thrust those opposed to them
back down the slopes all along the line and could fairly claim to
have gained the upper hand. Strenuous fighting thereupon
ceased. Both sides had suffered very severely in the furious
encounters that had been in progress since the evening of the
6th, and the troops were completely worn out by their efforts.
The attempt to secure Sari Bair thus failed, and the carefully
devised scheme by which the invaders had hoped to establish
themselves in a dominating position in the Anzac region at
almost the narrowest portion of the Gallipoli Peninsula fell to
the ground. It is true that as a result of the operations the area
in occupation of the Allies in this quarter had been greatly
extended in a northerly direction, so much so indeed that little
difficulty was experienced by Gen. Birdwood in securing close
contact with the contingents that had landed at Suvla on the
'night of the 6th~7th, and from which substantial support had
been expected. As a matter of fact, the Suvla troops had afforded
the Anzac columns no assistance at all beyond occupying the
attention of one of the two Turkish divisions which Liman von
Sanders set in motion south-westwards from about Gallipoli
as soon as he had satisfied himself as to where danger lay, and
the doings of this newly landed force had now to be recorded.
The plans for bringing the nth Division and bulk of the roth
Division from the islands to Suvla and disembarking them had
been elaborated with meticulous care by the naval and military
staffs. As Turkish detachments watching this strip of coastline
were known to number only about 2,000 men the Ottoman
authorities never contemplating a hostile landing in force in the
locality the design was to put most of the attacking troops
ashore during the night of the 6th~7th as a surprise, and that they
should then push on at once and master a range of hills 4 or 5 m.
to the east. At Suvla Point the coast (which from there down to
about Helles runs roughly N. and S.) turns abruptly to the N.E.
to form one side of the Gulf of Saros; along this stretch of the
shore a well-defined ridge, starting close to the headland, rises
almost like a wall from the sea and overlooks what may be called
the Suvla area from the N., just as the above-mentioned range
of hills overlook the area from the east. The area is mostly flat
up to the foothills. Close to the bay there is a lake a marsh
in dry weather which necessarily cramped the movements of
troops landed at or near the bay. Army headquarters assumed
that the plain, with the high ground to the E. and N., would be in
British hands early on the 7th.
The nth Division from Imbros was to disembark first, and
was to be on the right in the subsequent advance. The roth
Division from Mudros and Mitylene was to follow it ashore, and,
moving forward on the left, would secure the northerly ridge.
Most of the nth Division was to land just S. of the bay, but one
brigade was to gain its footing inside the bay. The work was to
begin as early as possible, allowing for the flotilla only quitting
Imbros after dark. Especially constructed lighters, with motor
power, were to play an important part in the disembarkations, a
number of them having recently arrived from England. Elabo-
rate arrangements had been made for water supply to the troops
ashore, as the whereabouts and the capacity of wells were doubt-
ful. The secret had been well kept, and a difficult operation of
war was in its opening stages most successfully carried out.
The two divisions detailed for this Suvla enterprise both
belonged to the British " New Army "; they were unconversant
with active service conditions, having come straight out from
England, and they were being highly tried in being called upon
to execute a landing in force at night in face of opposition.
There was, indeed, no precedent for an undertaking of this kind
under modern tactical conditions. Nevertheless the whole of the
infantry of the nth Division was on shore before dawn, and its
leading battalions had driven off the Turkish detachments met
with in the immediate vicinity of the points of disembarkation.
The only hitch that had occurred during the night-time had been
at the landing-place within the bay, where the water had proved
to be inconveniently shallow for the lighters; this had created
some confusion and delay. But the urgent need of pressing
forward at once was not realized by the attacking side, and the
opposition offered by the parties of Osmanlis close to the bay
was taken too seriously after daylight. Moreover, when the
first portion of the toth Division arrived from Mitylene soon
after dawn, it was decided to put these troops ashore to the
S. of the bay, instead of inside the bay as had been intended; so
that they found themselves, to start with, on the right of the
nth Division and not on its left, the general line of contem-
plated advance being to the N. of the lake. They were
unfortunately moved from right to left, and this took many
hours.
During the forenoon a good landing-place was found inside
the bay on its northern side, and the contingent of the loth
Division from Mudros disembarked at this point. But no ver-
tebrate advance in force took place until comparatively late in the
afternoon, and by evening the attacking side, although enjoying
a great numerical superiority, had only reached the foot of the
hills that lay to the E. of the landing-places and captured one
advanced spur. The troops had during the latter part of the day
suffered greatly from thirst, the arrangements with regard to
water having practically broken down mainly owing to the
inexperience of the troops themselves.
When Liman von Sanders (who had fixed his headquarters
near Gallipoli) learned during the night of the 6th-7th that the
Allies were landing in strong force about Suvla, and were also
attacking Sari Bair from Anzac, and after he had satisfied himself
that certain threats on the part of his opponents at other points
might be regarded as mere feints, he ordered the two Turkish
divisions under his immediate orders to proceed towards Suvla
with all speed. This, however, meant a two days' march along
indifferent roads. The only Ottoman detachments which during
the 7th and 8th confronted the two British divisions that had
made a descent on this locality were those which had been on
guard on the spot when the landing was taking place. Con-
sequently there was still on the 8th a great opening left for the
attacking side to complete the first part of its programme, i.e. to
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
805
gain possession of the heights to the E. of Suvla, which dominated
the landing-places and the whole of the area in their immediate
vicinity that had been occupied on the 7th. The very few Otto-
man guns which had been causing the freshly disembarked
troops a good deal of annoyance during the 7th had been with-
drawn for fear of capture, the defenders fully expecting a forward
move by the Allies. But no move forward took place. The
opportunity was allowed to slip by. The Turks remained in
possession of the high ground, and that night reinforcements
began to join them from the N.E., the troops as they came up
being rushed into position in view of impending attack.
That attack was at last delivered early next morning. It
failed completely. Enjoying the benefits of occupying a com-
manding line, the defenders were also being reinforced during the
progress of the combat. Although sustained by a fair number of
guns and with the moral support of the 53rd Division, which had
disembarked during the night, the roth and nth Divisions could
make no headway. The deliberation of the Allies on the 7th and
8th, when the forces opposed to them were insignificant, had been
fatal. The great numerical superiority which they had at first
possessed was gone by the gth, and their task had come to be the
ejection of an almost equal enemy from a naturally formidable
position. That day was also the last on which any hope remained
of the Sari Bair offensive accomplishing its purpose, and on which
help from Suvla might conceivably even at the eleventh hour
have turned the scale. The defeat suffered by the Suvla troops on
the pth was in reality decisive in so far as the new area was con-
cerned; but, even so, the invaders who had set foot there tried yet
again on the loth to wrest the heights in front of them out
of Osmanli keeping. The effort, however, failed, and further
offensives in this quarter were abandoned for the moment.
The situation on the nth offered little encouragement to the
invaders. The carefully devised scheme of operations from which
they had expected so much had come to naught in its most im-
portant features. A footing had no doubt been gained at Suvla,
giving the Allies control of a fairly well-sheltered inlet on the outer
coast of the peninsula; but as the high ground within easy artillery
range of the landing-places, and which overlooked the whole
occupied area, remained in the hands of the Turks, much of the
benefit hoped for from the acquisition was in reality neutralized.
As had been the case at Helles and at Anzac ever since the first
opening of land operations in April, only a restricted patch of
Ottoman territory had been obtained by the new undertaking,
and although the position at Anzac had been extended and im-
proved it remained an extremely bad one. The Allies now occu-
pied many miles of front in the peninsula, but there was hardly a
spot where the enemy had not the upper hand in respect to
ground what they required was not breadth but depth, and
depth they had failed to secure. They had moreover incurred
very heavy losses in the combats of, and since, Aug. 6. There
were yawning gaps in their ranks. Except a division from Egypt,
coming to fight on foot, no reinforcements were on the way, and
the last of the five divisions from England, the 54th, had been
swallowed up at Suvla. The defending side had also, no doubt,
suffered heavily in casualties, especially on Sari Bair; but the
Turkish commander-in-chief could fairly claim that, if some
ground had been lost, he had held his own in a contest in which his
adversary had enjoyed some notable advantages at the start.
An effort was made on the isth by the troops on the extreme
left of the Allies' position at Suvla to gain ground along the ridge
N. of the plain ; but nothing came of it. Sir I. Hamilton, however,
still entertained hopes of effecting some improvement in his
position in this area. The mounted division, and also a division
from Helles, were quietly concentrated there, and on the 2ist a
determined attempt was made to capture some of the high ground
which had baffled the essays of the invaders on the gth and loth.
Large forces were engaged on either side in this battle, and the
attack was prepared for by a comparatively speaking heavy bom-
bardment of the Ottoman trenches; in this battleships and
cruisers moored in Suvla Bay, in security from submarines,
participated. But after a sanguinary contest the assailants met
with repulse, and from that date onwards no serious offensive
operation was attempted by the Allies in the Dardanelles
campaign. Those conditions of virtual stalemate which had
prevailed before the arrival of the five new divisions from
England set in afresh, and they continued to the end.
Even before this final reverse, Sir I. Hamilton had cabled
home asking for reinforcements and for very large drafts that
were needed to bring the depleted units under his command up to
their war establishment. The total figure he asked for amounted
to 95,000 men, his calculation being based upon the strength of
the opposing army, as this was fairly accurately known. He had,
however, been informed that no large bodies of fresh troops could
be spared for the Dardanelles theatre of war. A temporary
change of plan did occur a few days later, owing to the French
Government proposing to despatch four divisions to the Aegean
with the idea of their operating on the Asiatic side of the Straits;
under the circumstances the British Government was also pre-
pared to send fresh divisions to Sir I. Hamilton. But early in
Sept. these projects were finally dropped both in Paris and in
London, owing very largely to the threatening aspect of affairs
that was arising in the Balkans.
The campaign by which the Central Powers and Bulgaria
crushed Serbia for the time being, and by their triumph opened
communications through Bulgaria with the Ottoman Empire,
profoundly influenced the situation in the Gallipoli Peninsula.
Not only was all idea of reinforcing the Allied army that was
planted down in this region abandoned by the western Govern-
ments, but even some of the troops under Sir I. Hamilton's
orders were transferred to Salonika. Moreover, the linking up of
Turkey with the Central Powers by railway ensured that Liman
von Sanders would in due course be furnished with ample muni-
tions of all kinds, and this must make the prospect of Entente
forces gaining possession of the Straits remoter than ever.
As early as the middle of Sept. the French Government had
come to the conclusion that there was now no hope of victory in
the Dardanelles theatre of war. The British Government, on the
other hand, influenced to a great extent by anxiety as regards
prestige in the East, could not arrive at a decision as to giving
up the project. After two or three weeks Sir I. Hamilton was,
however, invited to give his views concerning the question of
evacuating the peninsula and abandoning the enterprise against
the Straits. On the commander-in-chief pronouncing himself as
emphatically opposed to such a step, Sir C. Monro was sent out
from England to take his place. Impressed by the unsatisfactory
positions in which the Allied troops found themselves on the
peninsula, by the impossibility of their making any progress at
their existing strength, and by the risks that the army ran in
remaining on such shores without any safe harbour to depend
upon for base in stormy weather, Monro, after examining the
situation on the spot in the closing days of Oct., declared un-
hesitatingly for a complete withdrawal. The British Cabinet
thereupon despatched Lord Kitchener to the Aegean to in-
vestigate and to report. He had viewed proposals to abandon the
campaign with alarm; but after visiting the peninsula he realized
that evacuation was the only justifiable course, and he reported
to that effect. All this time winter was drawing nearer and
nearer and the need for a prompt decision was becoming more
urgent, but the authorities in London lost another fortnight
before, on Dec. 8, they at last sent instructions to Monro to
evacuate Suvla and Anzac while retaining a grip on Helles.
Sept., Oct. and Nov. had been months of stagnation for the
armies that confronted each other on the peninsula, as was,
indeed, almost inevitable under the strategical conditions which
had come about. The Ottoman higher command was well content
that the troops under its charge should maintain an attitude of
passive defence; they were keeping Allied divisions in idleness
which, were they to be transferred to some other one of the
theatres of war, might prove invaluable assets to the cause of
the Entente. Well concealed in skilfully constructed entrench-
ments that were excavated on terrain overlooking the invader's
lines, the Turkish contingents holding the different fronts could
fairly calculate upon beating off any hostile attack unless their
adversaries should be heavily reinforced. The defenders could in
8o6
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
fact afford to remain quiescent. The Allies, on the other hand,
were practically compelled to remain quiescent. The general
situation offered them no inducements to embark on fresh offen-
sives. The great Aug. effort, which had been made when they
were enjoying the advantages derived from concentration as
opposed to dispersion, and when they were in the position to
take the Turks unawares, had miscarried. It would have been
folly after that experience to risk defeat and perhaps disaster in
assailing formidable positions, effectively held and assiduously
fortified. The Allies had in Aug. been rather superior in numbers
to their opponents. But during the autumn Liman von Sanders
was reinforced by several divisions, and at the juncture when Gen.
Monro arrived and recommended evacuation of the peninsula,
the Ottoman host gathered about the Dardanelles was already
decidedly stronger in point of numbers than was the army which
was clinging to patches of littoral without a sheltered base.
If there had been no fighting during these autumn months
worthy of mention, much creditable work had been carried out
by the invaders in respect to developing communications and
to improving jetties and landing-places, especially at Suvla.
One British and one French division were moved from the penin-
sula to Salonika early in Oct., but an additional Australian divi-
sion had arrived a few weeks earlier. In spite of the discouraging
conditions in which they found themselves, and of the constant
annoyance suffered from hostile artillery fire, the troops were in
fair heart, while the tactical efficiency of the recently created
divisions, which had not been of a high standard when they
arrived in the theatre of war, had appreciably progressed. The
proportion of sick had been high during the summer-time, but it
decreased somewhat after Sept. On the other hand a very severe
blizzard, lasting two days, swept the whole region towards the
end of Nov. and caused havoc amongst the divisions in the Suvla
area, which was particularly exposed to the elements; this visita-
tion augmented the numbers in hospital by several thousands.
The tempestuous weather, moreover, created serious damage at
most of the landing-places, where solidly constructed jetties were
in some instances completely demolished by the seas. The Allied
forces had been organized as three distinct groups. That at Helles
(which included the French contingent, still as at the outset on
the right) was under the charge of Gen. Davies. That at Anzac,
composed mainly of troops from the Antipodes, remained under
Gen. Birdwood. That at Suvla was commanded by Gen. Byng.
But as Gen. Monro found, himself responsible for the British
troops at Salonika as well as for the Allied army of the Dar-
danelles, he placed the latter under charge of Gen. Birdwood,
while Gen. Godley relieved Birdwood at Anzac.
Like their adversaries, the Turks had suffered much from dis-
ease during the summer. But as their numbers grew in the
autumn, and as their headquarters staff noted how the invaders
were dwindling away owing to transfers to Salonika and to no
drafts arriving to replenish wastage, it became possible to keep
a number of the Ottoman divisions in reserve, well in rear of the
fighting fronts or else on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles.
This also permitted of the troops in the trenches being relieved
and rested at frequent intervals. The defending side, in fact,
came to be in a much more favourable position than was the at-
tacking side in respect to diminishing the strain that is always
experienced by fighting personnel when in close contact with an
enemy even during periods of virtual inactivity. The Sultan's
forces guarding the Straits were not yet at the end of Nov. deriv-
ing much benefit from the strategical transformation which had
taken place in the Balkans consequent upon communications
being opened between Thrace and the Central Powers; but there
was every prospect of heavy artillery and munitions shortly
beginning to find their way through from Germany and Austria-
Hungary to the Dardanelles.
Foreseeing that the British Government must ultimately
resign itself to a withdrawal of the Dardanelles army from its
dangerous situation on the Gallipoli Peninsula, Monro had al-
ready, some days before the permission to evacuate reached him
from home, given instructions that certain preparations were to
be made towards facilitating that operation. That a retirement
of this kind was a hazardous undertaking was realized from the
outset. There was no precedent for large military forces, in close
contact with a formidable enemy, embarking within easy artillery
range of positions in the hands of the opposing side, and the most
sanguine amongst high military authorities in the councils of the
Entente feared that a withdrawal could not be carried out without
incurring heavy losses. The responsible authorities on the spot
perceived that the process of gradually removing the huge
accumulations of impedimenta that were massed about the land-
ing-places and of reembarking the troops must take place during
the dark hours and step by step, every effort being made to keep
the Turks unaware of what was in progress. Sickly men and
some stores and animals had been got away before Dec. 8, which
lightened the task in prospect. The tactical principle on which
withdrawal would be carried out when the time came had been
fully considered. The naval authorities had been busy assembling
and organizing the available small craft in anticipation of the
operation that appeared to be imminent, and jetties damaged in
the Nov. gales were being repaired. It should be noted that the
matter in hand was, from the point of view of water transport,
somewhat facilitated by the British Government's determination
to hold on to Helles for the present, as nearly all the lighters,
boats, etc., in naval charge could consequently be gathered at
Anzac and Suvla.
Birdwood decided, in consultation with Godley and Byng, that
the front trenches should be held up to the very last moment on
the night of final evacuation, the troops manning them then hast-
ening to the beaches, everything removable, whether animate or
inanimate, having already left. There was to be no taking up of
successive positions in accordance with the normal practice of
rearguard actions. At a given moment the trenches, which at
many points were but a few yards from those occupied by the
Turks, would be vacated by detachments, which by that hour
would have shrunk to mere handfuls of men. Scarcely a shot had
since the beginning of Dec. been fired after dark by the British,
Australasian and Indian troops, who were holding the long line
stretching from the Gulf of Saros to near Gaba Tepe, so as to
accustom the foe to quietude during the night watches. The
last parties of the Anzac force were to ship at Anzac Cove but
for a detachment on the extreme left, which would embark with
the Suvla troops. The Suvla area was divided into two sections,
the troops in the right (or southern) section retiring S. of the
lake and taking to the boats on the southern side of the bay,
the other section retiring N. of the lake and embarking on its
northern side. The final night was provisionally fixed as that of
the iSth-igth, and thanks to favourable weather and to the
efficiency of the arrangements, the very critical operation was
carried out with triumphant success, just as had been laid down
by programme ten days before.
Night after night during the intervening ten days the landing
places at Anzac and Suvla were scenes of unceasing activity.
Masses of war material and food supplies were in the first instance
removed, then most of the animals were got away, lastly portions
of the troops began to embark and to proceed to Imbros or
Mudros. During the daytime reliefs took place as usual, pre-
tences were made of disembarking animals and stores at the
jetties, and the result was that the Turks remained in complete
ignorance as to what was going on close to their lines. Large
bodies of infantry with a fair proportion of guns still remained on
shore on the i7th, but of these roughly half -about 10,000 men
and a number of guns in each area were removed that night, so
that on the i8th only a meagre force, composed almost wholly of
infantry and disposed almost entirely in the trenches, was holding
a long front face to face with a numerically far stronger enemy.
But, fortunately for the Allies, their dispositions had been so
skilful that the Ottoman staff had not ascertained that the
Anzac and Suvla areas had been almost vacated. The critical
day passed without incident.
The hour fixed for finally quitting the front trenches in the
Suvla area, and the adjacent northern portions of the Anzac
area, was 1:15 A.M. on the igth. Owing to their vicinity to the
cove the rest of the Anzac trenches were, however, to be held till a
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
807
later hour. At nightfall the very few guns still to go were hurried
off to the jetties. Then the troops along the front were quietly
withdrawn in successive groups, the fine weather continuing to
the end and work at the beaches proceeding without a hitch.
Finally the parties still in the trenches slipped away, and when
dawn broke the Turks, who had first ascertained that something
unusual was afoot from the explosion of a vast mine in the Anzac
area, and from conflagrations on the beaches where the few
stores to be abandoned were being destroyed, discovered that the
invaders were gone. Twenty-four hours later the long spell of
calm, a godsend to Godley and Byng, came to an end.
Practically nothing worth mentioning had been left behind at
Suvla. At Anzac, where conditions favoured the retreating
troops less, it had been necessary to destroy some valuable war
material at the last moment, and a few worn-out guns had pur-
posely been abandoned. The casualties in the two areas on the
final night had amounted to two. The relaxing by the Allies of
their frail hold upon the outer coastline of the Gallipoli Peninsula
had been effected more successfully than the most sanguine
amongst them had permitted themselves to hope for. Yet, for a
week subsequent to their receiving the glad tidings from the
Aegean, the British Government remained irresolute with regard
to the policy to be pursued at Helles. Then, on Dec. 28, Monro
received the expected sanction for evacuating that area also, and
Birdwood promptly grappled with this fresh problem.
Taken unawares and signally out-manoeuvred at Anzac and
Suvla, Liman von Sanders perceived that his antagonists would
probably retire from Helles also, and he took measures accord-
ingly. He had at this time 21 divisions at his disposal, while
there were only four British divisions to oppose them at Helles
(the last French division left for Salonika during Dec.). The
Turks, therefore, now possessed a huge numerical preponder-
ance in the theatre of war. They moreover enjoyed an even more
marked superiority in respect to artillery, and this the Ottoman
commander-in-chief hastened to turn to account; the heavier
guns which had been sweeping the Anzac and Suvla areas for
months past were promptly transferred to the high ground over-
looking the extremity of the peninsula or to positions on the
Asiatic side of the Straits from which the extremity of the
peninsula could be effectively taken in flank.
The same principles as those which had been so successfully
applied during the evacuation of the northern areas, were put in
force at Helles. The work of removing stores, war material,
animals and personnel was to be carried out on successive nights,
the fighting force ashore was to be gradually reduced, the front
line of trenches was to be held up till the very last the final
night being fixed provisionally for the Sth-gth and the detach-
ments vacating it were to hurry straight off to the beaches. So as
to deceive the enemy, bombing and rifle fire were to be practised
nightly up till 11:30 P.M., after which all activity was to cease.
Two possible eventualities had especially to be feared the sea
might get up, or a heavy bombardment of the beaches might be
instituted by the Turks while the final evacuation was in progress.
As the staff fully foresaw, the enemy would exert greater vigi-
lance than had been the case while the withdrawals had been in
progress from the northern areas, these having given the Ottoman
authorities warning of what was likely to happen. It ought also
to be mentioned that there was a greater accumulation of im-
pedimenta at Helles than there had been at either Anzac or
Suvla, so that even if the weather were to remain favourable,
it was certain that material of great value would have to be
destroyed to prevent its falling into the enemy's hands.
Embarkation operations were carried on almost entirely at
" V " and " W " beaches, at both of which there were provisional
breakwaters in existence furnishing some shelter when there was
an onshore breeze. The weather, as it turned out, was none
too favourable on several of the preliminary nights, but, owing
to its direction, the wind did not greatly retard the work of re-
moval. The enemy's guns gave a good deal of trouble at the
beaches, and caused many casualties. Although steps were taken
to conceal what was in progress, the Turkish staff were aware that
preparations for evacuation were in full vigour; but they could
not foresee the date on which the final flitting would take place,
nor could they make sure how far the number of combatants
within the British lines had been reduced. With the object
apparently of ascertaining the strength of their opponents, the
Ottoman forces on the afternoon of Jan. 7 delivered a half-hearted
attack upon the left of the British position, following on a violent
bombardment; but the assailants were driven off with little
difficulty. Nor would they seem to have discovered how weakly
held the trenches were; for a considerable proportion of both
infantry and artillery had been withdrawn by that date, as only
two more nights remained according to the programme. That
night the troops still left at Helles were reduced by one-third,
and, on the next day breaking fine, it was decided to complete
the operation on the following night as intended at the start.
The right half of the British were to withdraw by " V " beach
and the left half by " W " beach, except that the final detach-
ments on the extreme left, representing the i3th Division, were
to be got off at Gully beach. A large number of guns had been
retained ashore in view of the danger of a determined attack
by the Turks on the 8th, when the lines were thinly held; it had
been decided to abandon several of these, worn-out ordnance
being earmarked for the purpose. The artillery still remaining to
be embarked was for the most part got afloat during the early
hours of darkness, and the infantry followed ; but the wind soon
began to rise ominously, blowing home from W. and S.W., and
as the hours passed the situation at the beaches became dis-
quieting. The last detachments to quit the trenches moved off
simultaneously all along the front at 11:45 p - M -> without the
enemy noticing their departure, and they were embarked suc-
cessfully at " V " and " W " beaches according to schedule
in spite of the heavy seas. But the detachments designated for
Gully beach could not all be got off at the exposed point, and
those left over had to march on to " W " beach at the last
moment and were not afloat till nearly 4 A.M., their embarkation
being effected with great difficulty owing to the surf. Just before
the last boats sheered off the masses of stores which it had been
necessary to abandon were set on fire, and only from the glare
set up by this conflagration were the Turks made aware that
their opponents had evaded them yet again.
Although the evacuation of Helles without appreciable loss
in personnel reflected great credit on the British staff and the
troops concerned in it, as also on the Royal Navy, whose work
at the beaches was carried out under great difficulties, the escape
of the final remnants of the Dardanelles army from the Gallipoli
Peninsula was facilitated by the negligence of the troops opposed
to them. Had the Turks kept befitting guard on the night of the
8th-oth, aware as they were that their antagonists contemplated
departure, they must have detected that the British trenches had
been vacated. Effectual pursuit might not have been practicable ;
but the guns could have been turned on to the beaches, of which
the range was exactly known, and embarkation, impeded as it
was by the rough water, could hardly have been carried out
without many casualties.
After a few days taken up in collecting the troops from Helles
in their different divisions at Lemnos, what was left of the
Dardanelles army was shipped to Egypt, whither most of the
forces from Anzac and Suvla had already proceeded. The total
loss of the Allies' military forces in the eight months' contest
mounted up to 130,000 killed, wounded and missing.
Most authorities on the art of war agree that the collapse of
the Entente in this memorable campaign was primarily due to
the abortive naval effort to force the Dardanelles. By embarking
on that venture the fleet gave the Turks sufficient warning of
what was in store to ensure that, on the date on which Sir I. Ham-
ilton's army was ready to land, the defenders should be in a posi-
tion to bring it to a standstill. The only chance of the invaders
achieving their object after the first week of land fighting de-
pended on their being joined by very substantial additional forces
in a region where a belligerent fighting on the defensive in home
territory, as the Osmanlis were, enjoyed marked strategical and
tactical advantages. But neither the British nor the French could
afford to divert great military resources from the main theatre
8o8
DARLING DAUMET
of war in western Europe to the Aegean, and so the struggle
for the Straits ended in mortifying discomfiture for the Allies.
(C. E. C.)
DARLING, SIR CHARLES JOHN (1840- ), English judge,
was born at Colchester Dec. 6 1849. He was educated pri-
vately, and in 1874 was called to the bar. He became a Q.C.
in 1885, in 1888 successfully contested Deptford in the Conser-
vative interest, and in 1892 became a bencher of the Inner
Temple. He was raised to the bench and knighted in 1897.
He has published some volumes of light verse, including Scin-
tillae Juris (1877). In 1917 he was made a Privy Councillor.
DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, Hanover, N.H., U.S.A. (see 7.838), in
the period between 1908 and 1921 experienced a great expansion
in its plant, endowment and enrolment. Its educational plant
in the latter year included 21 buildings devoted to lecture and
recitation rooms, laboratories, and administration and similar
purposes.
Of these, the extensive alumni gymnasium was erected in 1910,
to which was added the Spaulding swimming pool in 1920; the
Parkhurst administration building was erected in 1910; Robinson
Hall, the home of all undergraduate organizations except athletic,
in 1914; and a large chemical laboratory in 19201. The plant
also included 18 dormitories, of which five were added after 1908,
the latest in 1920, capable in all of housing I, I oo students. The value
of the plant was over $2,000,000.
In addition to the educational plant the college had 20 single or
apartment houses for the use of its faculty. Its productive invest-
ment assets nearly doubled in the 1 2-year period, approximating
$5,500,000. In 1920-1 it had 150 officers of administration and
instruction, and there were 1 ,875 enrolled students, of whom 54 were
in post-graduate courses. The tuition fee was $250 a year. The
constituency of the college, formerly mainly in New England, ex-
tended to the whole country. In 1910 62 % of the freshmen came
from New England. One of the effective influences leading to ex-
pansion was the Outing Club, the first college club of its kind, which
was open to both faculty and students and had as its object the
stimulation of healthful outdoor activities. It owned a chain of
seven cabins, extending over 75 m. from Hanover to the White
mountains and equipped for the accommodation of its members on
their excursions into the country and among the mountains. Its
winter activities culminated in a carnival of sports.
Like other American colleges, Dartmouth was greatly affected
by the World War. Even before the entrance of the United States,
many of its students had joined the Allied armies or served in the
ambulance corps in France, and in Feb. 1916 a battalion of 218
men in two companies was formed for military drill. In March
1917, the great majority of the students was enrolled for military
training, and in the following fall military training was required of
the freshmen. After the United States entered the war, the college
became practically a camp, for all able-bodied students between 18
and 21 years of age were inducted into the Students' Army Training
Corps and trained under military regulations, and those under 1 8
were enrolled in the corps, although remaining under college au-
thority. There were also vocational sections of about 550 men who
came to the college from outside for instruction in carpentry, ce-
ment work, truck driving and repairing, and radio work. All military
training came to an end in Dec. following the Armistice, and
the college reverted to its former status. In consequence of the
war the enrolment fell from more than 1,50010 761, of whom only
1 10 were not under military training. Many members of the faculty
engaged in war service in the United States or in France, either
under the Government or in the organizations supplementary to the
military. The total number of undergraduates (from the six classes
1917 to 1922) who entered the war or served in the S.A.T.C. was
1,817 an d of the faculty 73. The total number of Dartmouth men,
graduates, undergraduates, and faculty, who served in the army,
navy or marine corps was 2,603, ' n the auxiliary service 752.
(E. M. Ho.)
DARWIN, SIR GEORGE HOWARD (1845-1912), English
astronomer, was born at Down, Kent, July 9 1845. The second
son of Charles Darwin (see 7.840), he was second wrangler
and Smith's prizeman at Cambridge, and was elected to the
professorship of astronomy and experimental philosophy at his
university in 1883. His principal work was on the subject of
tides, on which he became the leading authority, and on other
physical questions connected with the relation of the earth and
moon ; the article Tide in the E.B. (see 26.938 el seq.) represented
his matured researches on his special subject. He was made
K.C.B. in 1905 and died at Cambridge Dec. 7 1912.
DATO, EDUARDO (1856-1921), Spanish politician, was born
at Corunna Aug. 12 1856. He graduated in law at the univer-
sity of Madrid and was elected a deputy in 1884. An under-
secretary for the Home Department in 1892, he became min-
ister for the department in 1899, and distinguished himself in
the study of social legislation, the fruits of which were special
bills regarding accidents, insurance, and women's labour. In
Dec. 1902 he became Minister of Justice, in 1907 mayor of
Madrid, then president of the Chamber. He was elected a
member of the Royal Academy of Social and Moral Sciences,
June 20 1905. When in 1913 Senor Maura refused to take
power except on conditions unacceptable to the King, Senor
Dato, thinking that the' Conservative party could not refuse
to serve the Crown at a difficult moment, dissented from
his chief, carrying with him the majority of his party, which
elected him as its leader. He was still in office (1913-5)
when the World War broke out, and was responsible for Spain's
declaration of neutrality. He adhered firmly to that policy.
Becoming prime minister again in 1917, he faced the great crisis
of that summer. In 1920 he resumed office, and it was while
prime minister that he was murdered in Madrid March 8 1921.
Senor Dato had great social charm, persuasive talent and an
unswerving will under flexible appearances.
DAUDET, LEON (1867- ), French writer, son of Alphonse
Daudet (see 7.848), was born in Paris Nov. 16 1867. He
was educated at the lycee Louis le Grand, and afterwards
studied medicine, a profession which he abandoned in 1894 for
that of literature. He wrote many short stories and novels, and
has also contributed to the Figaro, Gaulois and Libre Parole.
He is an ardent royalist in politics, and was one of the group
which in 1908 founded the royalist organ L' Action Franfaise.
He published in 1898 a Life of his father, and among his
other works may be mentioned Les Morticoles (1894); Les Deux
Etreintes (1901); La Decheance (1904); Les Primaires (1906);
La Lutte (1907) and L'Avant Guerre (1913). He produced various
essays on the World War, and his latest novels include La Ver-
mine du Monde (1916); Le Bonheur d'etre Riche (1917); Le
Cceur et I' Absence (1917) and Dans la Lumiere (1919).
See R. Guillou, Leon Daudet (1918).
DAUMET, PIERRE JEROME HONORE (1826-1911), French
architect, was born in Paris Oct. 23 1826. He entered the Ecole
des Beaux-Arts in 1845, and was awarded the Grand Prix de
Rome in 1855. In 1861 he was attached to the important ex-
ploratory expedition and mission in Macedonia, and was com-
missioned to draw up the report. In the following year he was
appointed inspector of works for the then recently created
Prefecture of Police, and was later acting architect to the Palais
de Justice, succeeding in 1876 Viollet-le-Duc as architect-in-
chief. This fine building may be regarded as one of the great
and lasting monuments of his career. During the next few
years Daumet's talents and artistic equipment, especially in
matters of archaeological interest and research, received recog-
nition from the French Government in his appointment to many
official positions, culminating in his vice-presidentship of the
Commission des Monuments Historiques. His brother-artists
distinguished him by electing him vice-president of the Societe
des Artistes Francais, and president of the Societe des Archi-
tectes Francais. In 1885 he was elected a member of the Aca-
demic des Beaux-Arts, and in the following year an hon. corre-
sponding member of the Royal Institute of British Architects,
who further awarded him their gold medal in 1908. One of the
highest expressions of his genius was his restoration of Chantilly
in close collaboration with the Due d'Aumale, who later (in 1897)
bequeathed it to the French nation, as represented by the In-
stitut de France. Among Daumet's many architectural works
may be noted the following: The Palais des Facultes and the
Palais de Justice at Grenoble, the Ecce Homo chapel at Jeru-
salem, the pension and chapel of the Dames de Sion in Paris and
Tunjs, his early work at the Asile des Alienes of Ste. Anne, and
the Palais de Justice, Paris, already mentioned. His literary
work, besides his important account of the archaeological
mission to Macedonia, includes a book on the Chateau le St.
Germain and its restoration for which he was responsible. His
DAVIDS DAVISON
809
services to the educational side of his art were considerable.
His atelier produced no less than nine holders of the Grand Prix
de Rome a notable record. He died Dec. 13 1911.
DAVIDS, THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS (1843- ), British
orientalist, was born at Colchester May 12 1843. Educated
at a school in Brighton and at Breslau University he entered
the Ceylon civil service in 1866 and also read for the bar, be-
coming a barrister of the Middle Temple in 1877. He became
a close student of Buddhism and of the literatures of India, and
in 1882 was appointed professor of Pali ad Buddhist literature
at University College, London. In 1904 he became professor of
comparative religion at the university of Manchester. Amongst
his numerous publications are Buddhism (1878, i8th ed. 1899);
Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon (1877); Buddhist India
(1902); Marly Buddhism (1908); and the articles on Buddha,
Buddhism, Pali, Lamaism, etc. in the E.B. He became president
of the Pali Text Society, which he founded in 1882, and a fellow
of the British Academy. He married in 1894 Caroline Augusta
Foley, herself the author of Buddhist Psychology (1900), Psalms
of the First Buddhist (1910) and other works.
DAVIDSON, RANDALL THOMAS (1848- ), Archbishop
of Canterbury (see 7.863), in 1920 brought forward in the House
of Lords a motion opposing Lord Birkenhead's Divorce bill,
which was lost by one vote. The same year he presided over the
sixth Lambeth conference.
DA VIES, HENRY WALFORD (1869- ), English organist
and composer, was born at Oswestry, Salop, Sept. 6 1869.
After a preliminary private education he became a choris-
ter at St. George's chapel, Windsor, in 1882, and three years
later assistant organist to Sir Walter Parratt there. From
1890 to 1894 he was a pupil and scholar at the Royal College
of Music, where in 1895 he became a teacher of counterpoint.
There he came first into some prominence as composer with his
cantata Herve Kiel (1894), but meanwhile he was making his
way as organist. After filling several posts he was in 1898 ap-
pointed organist to the Temple church, a post he still holds
(1921). During the years 1903 to 1907 he was conductor to the
London Bach Choir insuccession to Stanford, and in 1919 he
was appointed professor of music in the University College of
Wales, at Aberystwith. For a great part of the World War, with
the rank of major, he worked with great success for the right
organization of music among the troops both abroad and
at home, and in 1918 he was made director of music to the
R.A.F.
Walford Davies has written much music in many forms. In
his list are two symphonies : A Solemn Melody, which attained to a
wide popularity, and, for chorus and orchestra, Everyman (1904);
Ode on Time (1908); The Sayings of Jesus (1911); Dante Fantasy
(1914), these having been produced chiefly at provincial festivals;
Heaven's Gate (People's Palace, 1917). A new choral work was in the
programme of the Hereford festival for Sept. 1921. In addition
there are seven quartets for various combinations of piano and
strings, or strings alone; six violin sonatas and several works for
voices and strings, part-songs, choruses, and hymn tunes.
DAVIES. HUBERT HENRY (1876-1917), English play-
wright, was born in Cheshire March 17 1876. After some years
of journalism in San Francisco, where he also produced a few
vaudevilles, he returned to England and made a success at the
Haymarket theatre in 1903 with Cousin Kate and a greater
success at Wyndham's theatre with Mrs. Gorringe's Necklace.
Among his other comedies were The' Mollusc (1907), and Door-
mats (1912). He produced The Outcast (1914). After overwork-
ing himself in France as a hospital orderly during the earlier
portion of the World War, he had a break-down in health, and
he was found dead at Robin Hood's Bay, Yorks., Aug. 17 1917.
DAVIES, JOHN LLEWELYN (1826-1916), English divine and
educationalist, was born at Chichester Feb. 26 1826. He was
educated at Repton and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
was bracketed as fifth classic in 1848, and was elected to a fel-
lowship at Trinity in 1851. He was ordained in 1850 and held
successively several London livings. He was made chaplain
to the Queen in 1876, and in 1889 became vicar of Kirkby Lons-
dale, Westmoreland, where he remained till 1908. Davies was
an intimate friend of John Frederick Denison Maurice (see
17.910), and was associated with him in the foundation of the
Working Men's College (1854), where he taught for many years.
He was elected to the first London school board in succession
to Huxley, and in 1873 became principal of Queen's College,
Harley St., which had been founded by Maurice in 1848 for the
advancement of women's education. He held this post until
1874, and was again principal from 1878 to 1886. Davies died
at Hampstead May 17 1916. He was part author of Davies
and Vaughan's well-known translation of Plato's Republic.
DAVIES, SARAH EMILY (1830-1921), British educationalist,
was born at Southampton April 22 1830. She was educated
at home, and later identified herself with the movement for
the higher education of women, being also one of a group
of women who about 1858 were discussing the question
of women's suffrage at the Kensington Society. In 1862 she
became secretary to the committee which was formed for the
purpose of procuring the admission of women to university
examinations, and from 1870 to 1873 was a member of the Lon-
don school board. In 1873 she was elected a life governor of
University College, London, and in 1882 became secretary of
Girton College, Cambridge, retiring in 1904. She published
The Higher Education of Women (1866) and Thoughts on some
Questions relating to Women (1860-1908, 1910). She died in
London July 13 1921.
DAVIES, WILLIAM HENRY (1870- ), British poet, was
born at Newport, Monm., April 20 1870. He was apprenticed
to a picture-frame maker, but when his apprentice days were
over he tramped through America, crossed the Atlantic many
times on cattle boats, became a pedlar and street singer in
England, and after eight years of this life published his first
volume of poems, The Soul's Destroyer, from the Marshalsea
prison. Next year appeared in prose The Autobiography of a
Super-Tramp (1908) with a preface by G. Bernard Shaw, as
well as Nature Poems and Others. A collected edition of his
poems appeared in 1916, and Forty New Poems in 1918. He also
published a novel, A Weak Woman (1911), and volumes of
nature studies and essays, including A Poet's Pilgrimage
(1918).
DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS (1833-1914), English
painter (see 7.866), died at Glaslyn, Radnorshire, Dec. i 1914.
DAVIS, RICHARD HARDING (1864-1916), American writer,
was born in Philadelphia April 18 1864. He studied at Lehigh
University and Johns Hopkins, and in 1886 became a reporter
on the Philadelphia Record. After working on several papers he
served as managing editor of Harper's Weekly. He became wide-
ly known as a war correspondent, reporting every war from the
Greco-Turkish War (1897) to the World War. Of his numerous
works of fiction, the earliest are his best, especially Gallegher and
Others (1891); Van Bibber and Other Stories (1892) and Episodes
from Van Bibber's Life (1899). His other books include: Soldiers
of Fortune (1897); Captain Macklin (1902); Vera the Medium
(1908); The Bar Sinister (1904) and With the French in France
and at Salonika (1916). His plays include Miss Civilization;
The Dictator; The Galloper; The Orator of Zapata City and The
Zone Police. He died near Mt. Kisco, N.Y., April n 1916
DAVISON, HENRY POMEROY (1867- ), American banker,
was born at Troy, Pa., June 13 1867. He was educated at
Greylock Institute, South Williamstown, Mass. He was suc-
cessively errand-boy in the bank conducted by his uncle in Troy,
Pa., runner for a Bridgeport (Conn.) bank and paying-teller in
the newly opened Astor Place Bank in New York City, re-
maining there from 1891 to 1894. From 1894 to 1902 he was
connected with the Liberty National Bank, New York, succes-
sively as assistant-cashier, vice-president and president. In 1902
he became vice-president of the First National Bank, and in
1907, following his activities during the panic of that year, he
entered the firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., of which he was in 1921
still a member. In 1908 he was appointed adviser to the National
Monetary Commission to investigate the financial systems of
Europe. Later he served at the head of a group of American
bankers interested in the Six Power Chinese Loan. From 1917
8io
DAWKINS DEAF AND DUMB
to 1919 he was chairman of the American Red Cross War Coun-
cil. During his incumbency, $300,000,000 was raised through
popular subscriptions in aid of war sufferers. In 1919 he became
first president of the newly formed international organization of
all Red Cross bodies, the League of Red Cross Societies.
DAWKINS, SIR WILLIAM BOYD (1838- ), English geol-
ogist and archaeologist (see 7.873), was knighted in 1919.
DAWSON OF PENN, BERTH AND EDWARD DAWSON, IST
BARON, English physician. He studied medicine at University
College and the London hospital, where in 1896 he became an
assistant-physician. He carried out extensive researches on
gastric affections, and became one of the leading authorities
on this subject. He was appointed physician extraordinary to
King Edward VII., and later physician in ordinary to King
George V. During the World War he did very valuable work
on war diseases, publishing various papers on paratyphoid and
infective jaundice. He was made G.C.V.O. in 1918, K.C.M.G.
in 1019, and in 1920 was raised to the peerage. He has published
The Diagnosis and Operative Treatment of Diseases of the Stom-
ach (1908), besides contributions to Allchin's Manual of Medi-
cine, and many papers in medical journals on gastric disorders.
DAYLIGHT SAVING and SUMMER TIME. The possibility
of saving daylight in summer had been pointed out as early as
1784 by Benjamin Franklin in a paper, " Economical Project for
Diminishing the Cost of Light, " contributed to the Journal de
Paris. The suggestion that the number of hours during which
the use of artificial light is necessary should be reduced by ad-
vancing clocks during the summer months was made in Great
Britain by the late Mr. William Willett. The first country in
Europe to put the proposal into actual operation, primarily
as a war measure, was Germany, and the example was followed
by Great Britain and most European states; after its wide
adoption in Europe, general attention to daylight saving was
roused in America in 1916.
In Great Britain, the question had been twice examined by a
Select Committee of the House of Commons: in 1908, this Com-
mittee reported that " the object was desirable if it could be at-
tained"; but, in 1909, "having regard to the great diversity of
opinion as to whether the measure can be attained by legislation
without giving rise, in cases involving important interests, to
serious inconvenience," the Committee recommended that it should
be dropped. In 1916, the need for economy especially in fuel and
transport becoming urgent, the " Summer Time Act " was passed,
prescribing that, during a period in each year, legal time in Great
Britain should be I hr. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time, the
precise incidence to be determined annually by Order in Council.
The period in 1916 extended from 2 A.M. (Greenwich Time) on
May 21 to 2 A.M. (G.T.) on Oct. I and, with the substitution of
" Dublin " for " Greenwich " Mean Time, the bill also applied to
Ireland. (Later, on Oct. I 1916 Ireland adopted the same Standard
Time as Great Britain.)
In September 1916, in view of expressions of disapproval of cer-
tain sections of the community agriculturists, munition and other
factory workers, miners and others the Home Secretary appointed
a committee to inquire into the social and economic results of the
Act. It reported to the effect that the small temporary incon-
venience of the transition from normal to Standard Time and back
were altogether outweighed by the saving in artificial. light and by
the general gain in health from the addition of an hour of daylight
to the time for exercise and recreation. It therefore recommended
the continuance of the Act in 1917 and subsequent years, the period
for 1917 to be from the second Sunday in April to the third Sunday
in September.
In the United States, after several abortive attempts at legislation
to apply to the country generally, a bill was introduced in Congress
in 1918, passed both houses, and was signed by the President
March 19. It provided that time throughout the United States
should be advanced I hr. at 2 A.M. on the last Sunday in March
and so continue until 2 A.M. on the last Sunday in October. This
law came to an end in Aug. 1918 after two years' trial, but though
the country as a whole repudiated daylight saving, certain eastern
states still continued it.
A new law in New York, passed in 1921, provided for local option,
so that daylight saving could continue in New York City and
several other cities. In Canada (though there was a strong rural feel-
ing against it) Summer Time continued to be adopted in 1921, the
U.S. and Canadian railways running to Standard Time. The
Australian Senate repealed the Daylight Saving Act in 1917, and
Spain ceased to adopt Summer Time in 1920. In 1918, the Egyp-
tian Government reported against the scheme, which has, in fact,
met with little support outside Europe and N. America.
Total
Male
Female
Deaf
Deaf and dumb
Dumb
26,649
13,427
1.695
10,640
7,192
975
16,009
6,235
720
Considerable opposition to the Act was manifested in Great
Britain and still stronger in the United States. Among other
things, it was alleged that children's sleeping hours would be
curtailed; that vitality of body was reduced in the early hours.
But reports of police authorities showed that the tendency
throughout the country to spend the extra hour out of doors
made for improvement in the moral tone, a marked decrease in
juvenile offences was noted, and health committees saw no
reason to suppose that workers were adversely affected. Many
farmers believed erroneously that their former noon hour was
the hottest part of the day, although the greatest heat is, in fact,
from 2 to 3 hours later; more sound was the objection that the
early morning hour was not favourable to farm (especially harvest)
work because of the heavy dew, and had to be made good at the
cost of overtime. Some complained that milking time was forced
ahead abnormally. Confusion arose at first in the record of
astronomical and meteorological observation and some series of
observations were interrupted. City people as a whole were,
however, strongly in favour of the measure, though some pointed
out that many were forced to exchange a cooler morning sleeping
hour for a warm early night hour. When Summer Time ceased
to operate in the United States, some inconvenience was ex-
perienced by the reduction of the number of business hours
common to the London and New York Exchanges. But saving
of coal was probably in excess of the estimate of 25 million tons
in Great Britain, and in the United States the saving amounted
to if million tons during the 7 months' period in 1918.
DEAF AND DUMB (see 7.880). In the census returns for
England and Wales for 1911 the figures relating to the deaf and
dumb were:
432 persons were returned in the tables as blind and deaf, 62
as blind and deaf and dumb, and 53 others in various combina-
tions of deafness, blindness, dumbness and feeble-mindedness.
The questions asked in the schedule for the census for 1911 were
as follows:
" If any person included in this schedule is:
(1) Totally deaf or deaf and dumb,
(2) Totally blind,
(3) Lunatic,
(4) Imbecile or Feeble-minded
state the infirmity opposite that person's name and the age at which
he or she became afflicted."
The report stated that this was the first occasion on which an
attempt had been made to obtain information regarding the
deaf other than deaf-mutes. This was felt to be desirable both
because at previous censuses many persons were returned as
deaf who were not stated to be dumb, though the information
was not sought for; and because of the progress made in the
phonetic training of deaf-mutes, it was felt that reasonable
exception might be taken as to the description as deaf-mutes of
persons who, while remaining deaf, had the art of intelligent
speech.
The variation in the terms of the census questions from those
asked on previous occasions renders the task of comparison
practically impossible, as the tabulated figures relating to
deafness alone in previous censuses were those stated volun-
tarily and not in response to a direct question, and therefore
obviously incomplete
England and Wales
1881
1891
1901
1911
Deaf and dumb
Deaf
13,295
14,192
15,088
15,246
18,507
13,427
26,649
Referring to these figures the report states: " It will be seen that
in 1911 the proportion of deaf and dumb is lower than at any pre-
vious census shown in the table, the improvement being shown at
nearly all the age-groups. Whether the last ten years only or the
whole forty years are considered, the improvement is, as might be
expected from the success of modern educative methods, much more
marked in early than in later life." From 1881 onwards the census
commissioners had stated that the returns are unreliable and in-
DEAF AND DUMB
8n
complete. In 1881 : " We feel bound to point out how very incom-
plete are the returns which relate to these afflictions. We have done
our best with these unsatisfactory data," etc. In 1891 the report
characterized the statistics as " in all probability excessively inac-
curate." In 1901 it was pointed out that the machinery of an ordinary
census was but imperfectly adapted to furnish the required particu-
lars with the degree of accuracy which is essential for statistical
purposes; and in 1911 the report stated: " We must submit that
statistics of this nature obtained through a general population census
are most unsatisfactory, firstly on account of the difficulty of fram-
ing a suitable form of inquiry denning the degree of disability, and
secondly because the definition has to be applied' by householders
with no technical knowledge, who will interpret it in different ways,
and many of whom have a natural reluctance to admit that they or
their relatives suffer from any defect." But the choice of wording in
the 191 1 census schedule was particularly unfortunate and confusing,
and might have been avoided if the department had been willing
to ask or accept the advice of those bodies, such as the National
College of Teachers of the Deaf, and the National Bureau for Pro-
moting the General Welfare of the Deaf, which, for educational and
social reasons, were anxious to secure reliable statistics relating to
deafness and deaf-mutism in the United Kingdom. " Total deafness"
is comparatively rare, whether it is congenital or acquired, and even
among the so-called " deaf and dumb " it is generally recognized
that there are from 15 to 25% with a useful amount of hearing.
This fact and the unwillingness mentioned by the commissioners
to the return of children who have fairly successfully been taught
speech as " dumb " presented difficulties which even experts, such
as the responsible heads of institutions for the deaf, founo! it hard to
overcome in any attempt to give accurate returns. For instance, if
the loo children in a school for the deaf were in the majority of cases
neither " totally deaf " nor " deaf and dumb " (i.e. orally taught),
what was the headmaster to do ? Leave them out ? or insert them ?
and, if the latter, where? Mr. B. St. Johns Ackers, the chairman
of the statistics committee of the National College of Teachers of the
Deaf, in his address before the Manchester Conference in 1911,
laid down a broad principle " statistics, to have their full value,
should not only be accurate, full and reliable, but should be on the
same plan in all countries. This should apply to census and school
statistics," and as the fuller consideration of all forms of defect,
not only as to treatment but also as to preventive measures, is now
occupying the attention of the newly formed Ministry of Health,
it is essential, if State funds are to be spent in collecting informa-
tion, that such information should be of real value when obtained.
The difficulty of framing a suitable question or questions
relating to so wide a subject as deafness and deaf-mutism, in a
short and simple form, in the small space available on a census
schedule, caused the department to omit any attempt to secure
information of this kind from the 1921 census, and further
statistics of this kind will not in future be available until
some new machinery has been provided. This may be under-
taken through the Ministry of Health, or, if undertaken with the
assistance of the various educational and social organizations
connected with the deaf and dumb, might secure figures not
only relative to the actual existence, but also as to the causes of
deafness, which might later prove of inestimable value in pre-
ventive measures, and so greatly reduce the number of this
afflicted class in the community.
Indeed the medical inspection of school children has already
begun to operate in this direction and the discovery of children
suffering from causes which may lead to partial or total deafness
is part of the ordinary routine of the school medical officers in
the counties and county boroughs of the United Kingdom. In
1919 Dr. Hamar, chief medical officer to the London County
Council, reported that at the school medical inspections 4,211
children (2-2%) were found to have ear disease, of whom 2,823
(1-4%) were referred for treatment, and the London County
Council has now established six centres for the educating of
children suffering from impairment of hearing short of " deaf-
ness " within the meaning of the 1893 Act. About 25% of the
children attending these centres suffer from discharging ears
and receive nursing attention under medical supervision.
In this connexion it is interesting to note that in a comparison
of the conditions in 1915 and 1919 it was found that in the former
year 2-1% of the children examined in London were found to
be suffering from ear disease, whilst in the latter year there were
only 1-85%. At Glasgow it was found that out of 500 cases of
deafness and middle-ear disease, 26% originated in measles, 12%
in scarlet fever, 29 % in simple catarrh and 20 % during dentition.
Mr. Yearsley, the aurist of the London County Council, found
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that of 177 cases certified by him to be deaf or hard-of-hearing,
37 were congenital, in 119 cases it was acquired, and in 21 doubt-
ful. Of the cases of acquired deafness, 61 resulted from suppura-
tive and middle-ear disease, 18 followed infectious fevers, n
resulted from congenital syphilis and 20 followed meningitis.
In the report of Dr. Butterworth (Lanes.) the general conclusions
arrived at were that " deafness in school children is largely due
to causes which can be removed by simple treatment, but this
treatment can only be satisfactorily carried out in a clinic, where
the child can attend regularly till it is cured " ; and a further
suggestion was made that " the ear, like the eye, must be brought
under systematic supervision from infancy upwards."
In the report of the chief medical officer of the Board of
Education for 1919 the position with regard to the schools was
given as follows:
In Scotland the latest figures available give 12 schools with
accommodation for 1,014 children and 714 pupils in attendance;
in Ireland 4 schools with accommodation for 580 children and
525 pupils. There was still no law for the compulsory education
of the deaf of Ireland.
In the same report for 1019 the chief medical officer of the Board
of Education made the following statement: "The regulations
of the board cover the educational needs of the child from the age of
two years upwards, extending to the age of sixteen. From the age of
two to the age of seven attendance is optional and only becomes
compulsory at seven. The disadvantages of this statutory provision
are considerable, and authorities are not as a rule willing to incur the
heavy expense of special education so long as the law does not compel
them to do so, and the deaf child is involved in a serious educational
loss in consequence. The early beginnings of speech which come more
easily to the deaf child are withheld from him to a later age and it
may safely be said that the majority of the deaf children never make
up for the loss sustained by postponing the beginning of education
until seven, or, as often happens, till later."
This illiberal policy of depriving the deaf of the early years of in-
struction occasionally takes a more aggravated form when parents
or local authorities, from reasons of economy, allow the children
to remain away from school even after the statutory age of seven.
In a return in 1920 it was found that among the children admitted
to schools for the deaf 109 were eight years of age or older, 47 over
8; over 9, 28;' over 10, 13; over II, 10; over 12, 7; over 13, 3;
over 14, I. To remedy this evasion of the law a resolution was
adopted at the Conference of Teachers of the Deaf at Birmingham
in 1920 asking that in cases in which the pupil was admitted later
than the legal age the school period should be extended to secure
to the child the full period of instruction. This would be in con-
formity with the practice in America, where many states provide a
school period of from 10 to 12 years for their deaf pupils, irrespective
of the age of entry.
The average attendance in England and Wales in the last school
year (according to the report for 1919) was 3,325 2,355 in institu-
tions and 970 in day schools. In 1920 Mr. Story, chairman of the
National College of Teachers for the Deaf, stated that of 2,761
children attending 32 of the schools, 170 were semi-mute (i.e. had
become deaf after having acquired normal speech), 390 were partial-
hearing cases, 80 were mentally defective as well as deaf, 7 were blind
and deaf, whilst 2,114 were ordinary cases of deaf-mutism. Referring
to the methods of instruction, he gave the following statement re-
lating to the year ended March 31 1920: " The oral method
largely predominates in our schools. The day schools are practically
entirely oral, as are also several of the residential schools. In the
cases of 2,816 children attending 34 schools, 2,494 are orally taught,
289 by finger spelling and 33 by finger and speech combined."
For the same period the returns of American schools, as published
by the American Annals, showed that in 169 schools in the United
States there were 13,779 pupils, of whom 10,376 were taught wholly
or chiefly by the oral method, and a further 862 taught speech in
combination with some other method finger-spelling or " signing."
These figures prove the great advance which has been made in
the attempt to remove the abnormality of the deaf. The deaf child
of tender years is just like his brother or sister, except for his deaf-
ness, but as years pass with no auditory impressions and no develop-
ment of speech, and the only means of communication open to him
that of gesture, his intercourse is narrowed down to those im-
mediately around him, and the divergence from the normal becomes
812
DEAF AND DUMB
more and more marked unless special means are used to combat it.
The possession of a verbal language in place of a language of gesture,
particularly if that language is used in the form of articulate speech,
even though artificially taught, and the ability to lip-read and the
habit of looking to the face of the speaker for what is being said
all tend to lessen the abnormality induced by their affliction and
to render the deaf more capable of taking their part in the workshop
and the environment of their home in later life, than a specialized
form of instruction such as finger-spelling or signing, known only to
those expert in that means of communication.
The general recognition of this fact has led during the past half-
century to an almost complete change from silent to oral meth-
ods in the majority of schools, both in Europe and America, though
there were still in 1921 a few schools on both sides of the water where
silent methods were adhered to, or where they formed the basis of
ordinary means of intercourse, so that the oral work of the teachers
was considerably nullified by the daily usage. A proportion, too, of
deaf children in the schools is incapable of acquiring speech and a
verbal language of sufficient range to be of practical use, either on
account of poor intelligence, poor sight, lack of interest or general
incapacity, whilst in some cases this incapability is induced by the
lateness above mentioned at which the children begin their educa-
tion, so that it is impossible to overcome the " signing " habit and
to substitute for it an intricate verbal language. This has led to a
demand for a classification of the pupils of the schools for the deaf
in order to secure for them that form of the education for which
they are mentally and physically best fitted.
The discussion of the Danish system of classification of schools for
the deaf at the international conference in Edinburgh in 1907 gave
an impetus to this question in England, and after careful considera-
tion of the question by teachers in London, and at the general
conferences, it has now become an accepted principle that, in order
to secure an advance in the success of the oral methods, and to give
each child the best educational opportunity of which it is capable,
the varying types of deaf children should be segregated into separate
schools and institutions and only one method employed in any one
school.- A similar conclusion has been reached in American schools.
At the meeting in 1920 of superintendents and principals of American
schools for the deaf, Principal Jones, the head of one of the largest
" combined " schools in the States, made the following statement:
" If I interpret the sentiment of the profession, and those in-
terested in the deaf, correctly, it is that speech and speech-reading
cannot be developed to the fullest extent of which they are capable
in a congregated combined school. In a combined school there
is always that lack of practice which makes it usable and effective.
This, therefore, reduces to the lowest value all the efforts of the
school and its hardworking teachers. The only remedy that I can
see, after many years of laborious struggle to overcome it, is to
separate the orally and manually taught children for as many years
of their school life as is necessary to fix the speech habit."
Steps in this direction have been taken by the segregation of all
backward and mentally and physically defective deaf children from
the L.C.C. schools for the deaf to the residential school at Homerton
(London), which in 1921 was about to be removed to new premises
at Penn, Bucks., and by the establishment of Clyne House for the
backward deaf at Manchester. At Homerton the combination of
other defects, such as total or partial blindness, with deafness
presents unique conditions for the study of psychological problems
in conjunction with physiological abnormalities. The gradual re-
moval of all younger pupils from the big institutions for the deaf
has also been in operation, and the extension of the British Govern-
ment regulations allowing children to be received from the age of
" two " upwards will no doubt give an impetus to the establishment
of infant and nursery schools for the deaf, where those " early begin-
nings of speech which come more easily to the young child " may
have full play.
Provision of this kind had already, by 1921, been made at the
Manchester, Doncaster and Margate institutions, at the Fitzroy
Square (London), Mpseley Road, Birmingham, and several L.C.C.
day schools, to receive these younger children. The removal of
partial-hearing and hard-of-hearing cases from the schools was
also extended, and increased accommodation was being made for
their special treatment, usually in connexion with one of the ordi-
nary elementary schools. Classes have been established in Glasgow,
Bristol, London and elsewhere, so that these children might not
need to be brought into contact with the ordinary deaf-mute child.
In these schools some amount of acoustic training is given, either
by means of appliances or by the human voice alone, and the child
is taught to supplement his partial hearing by " speech-reading,"
so that any hiatus caused by his lack of hearing may be overcome
by his recognition of the spoken word on the lips. The children at-
tend the ordinary school classes for such subjects as drawing, singing,
etc., in which their partial deafness does not prevent their receiving
the benefit of the instruction, whilst their association with the normal
type of child prevents the growth of idiosyncrasies which might
tend to increase their abnormality.
By a modification of the terms of Government regulations the
State has now become responsible for 50% of the cost of the educa-
tion of deaf children incurred by local authorities, and the remainder
usually falls on the local rates, parents contributing towards the
cost of " maintenance " of the children (as apart from education;
such sums as may be assessed by the local authorities, or, in the
case of dispute, as may be fixed by magistrate's order. Thus the last
vestige of the need of charity for the education of the deaf has been
removed.
The Board of Education in England extended its regulations in
1920 to allow for the payment of grants for the training of young
persons beyond the age of 16 in preparation for a trade who had pre-
viously been taught in a special school for the blind or deaf. This
would enable certain advanced courses of instruction in technical
knowledge to receive grants, which had hitherto been entirely sup-
ported by private means such as the J. E. Jones Trade School for
the Deaf at Manchester. No attempt had yet been made to estab-
lish a school for the higher education of the deaf, though the matter
had been repeatedly endorsed as a desirable end to the educational
effort for this class in Great Britain.
The organization of a course of training at the university of Man-
chester for teachers of the deaf was rendered possible by the generous-
benefaction of Sir James E. Jones, who endowed the Ellis Llwyd
Jones lectureship in the teaching of the deaf and founded the Ellis
Llwyd Jones Hostel as a hall of residence for women students. Thus
for the first time in the history of the education of the deaf the work
became part of the work of an ordinary university. Bursarships
have been established by various schools for the deaf and education
authorities, to enable students to take advantage of the training thus
provided.
A liberal grant has been made by the Carnegie trustees to the
university to establish a library of deaf education, and this is housed
in a room in the Christie Library at the university, where the books
can be consulted by students and others interested in the question
on application to the library authorities.
The establishment in London in 1911 of the National Bureau for
Promoting the General Welfare of the Deaf was a step of the greatest
importance. The famous " Volta Bureau," established in Washing-
ton, D.C., by Dr. Graham Bell, with the money he received from
the " Volta "prize for the invention of the telephone, is well known,
and it is confidently expected that this National Bureau, founded
through the generosity of Mr. Leo Bonn, will do for Great Britain
even more than its American predecessor. Full particulars of the
60 schools and institutions for the deaf, the 60 or 70 missions to
the adult deaf, and the 15 or 16 large organizations, all interested in
the advancement of the deaf in various ways, have been filed at the
bureau, and the council consists of representatives of every organiza-
tion working on behalf of this afflicted class, both in child and adult
life. The main objects of the bureau are: I (centralization), to
get into touch with and promote cooperation between all existing
agencies; 2 (information), to collect, classify, and disseminate in-
formation; 3 (investigation), to promote investigation. Statistics
and particulars relating to every existing agency and institution
working for the deaf in the United Kingdom have been collected
and published by the bureau in a useful form, and these will be kept
up to date as changes occur. When public bodies and private in-
dividuals realize that complete and accurate information on all
matters connected with the deaf may be obtained through the
bureau, it will become a " clearing-house " for this branch of effort.
Unfortunately, the outbreak of the World War occurred just as
this bureau was becoming recognized as a valuable asset, and owing
to the depreciation of its resources it had not been able by 1921 to
resume the activities it was so ably carrying on in its early years.
Under the auspices of the bureau, Dr. J. Kerr Love gave a series of
lectures in London on " The Causes and Prevention of Deafness."
These lectures have been published, and contain some definite
suggestions for the prevention of deafness both congenital and ac-
quired by the notification and treatment of certain diseases as well
as a full inquiry into the causes of hereditary deafness in Britain and
America.
During the war special work for the deaf met with the same
difficulties in Great Britain as beset every other branch of social
effort. As a class the deaf were unable to take active part in military
service, though here and there a few individuals managed to pass
the medical tests and joined the Forces. Several attempts were
made by bodies of deaf men in London, Liverpool and elsewhere to
form volunteer units for service in some non-combatant capacity,
but it was found impossible to secure recognition, probably owing
to the great pressure with which the organizing officers of the army
were working, and the matter languished for want of support.
The fact that a number of deaf men went out with private firms
and did useful work with hut building, etc., showed that there might
have been useful units organized for this type of service if there
had been time and inclination on the part of the officers to get them
established. The great demand for labour of all kinds during the
war brought about an unprecedented demand for the labour of the
deaf members of the community in civil life, and for several years
there was a greater appreciation of their economic value than had
ever been accorded before. Unfortunately, with the general trade
depression following the war there ensued a corresponding amount
of unemployment, in which the deaf suffered in the same way as the
hearing. The religious and social organizations working in behalf
of the deaf also felt the lack of support which was being experienced
by all charitable organizations up to 1921. With the exception of
DEAKIN DEBS
813
one official in the capacity of work-seeker appointed by the Board of
Trade, no State aid had been given to the deaf, but it was intended
to apply for the inclusion of the deaf in the State provision which was
set up for the training and employment of the blind.
As a result of the war a large number of wounded and disabled
British soldiers and sailors were found to be suffering from deafness
and from shell-shock, frequently accompanied by dumbness. In
dealing with these men the experience of the schools for the deaf
proved most valuable, and their organization and the services of
their staffs were drawn on to teach lip-reading to the deafened men
and to aid in the recovery of speech among those suffering from
dumbness. The ordinary training in the methods of teaching articu-
lation and speech-reading to deaf children was an excellent founda-
tion on to which could be moulded the special requirements of
the disabled men. Sir James Dundas Grant, at the head of a special
aural board, was in charge of this department of the Ministry of
Pensions, and had local expert and medical representatives in all
parts of the country. Sir Frederick Milner and Mr. A. J. Wilson
were instrumental in establishing hostels for deafened soldiers to
provide social clubs for the men whilst undergoing special treat-
ment and training in speech and lip-reading. The necessity for much
of this special organization had largely ceased by 1921, but the lip-
reading classes were still being carried on in various parts of the
country under the direction of the ministry.
The convocations of Canterbury and York in 1918 adopted reso-
lutions recommending that the spiritual welfare of the deaf and dumb
should become a definite part of the work of each diocese and should
be supported from diocesan funds, but up to 1921 this had not taken
general effect. Five ordained clergymen were in 1921 at work among
the deaf of London and district and three in other parts of Great
Britain, whilst in the various populous centres of the British Isles
" missions " to the deaf and dumb are carried on by lay-readers and
other workers. (F. G. B.)
DEAKIN, ALFRED (1856-1919), Australian statesman, was
born at Melbourne Aug. 3 1856, the son of a coach proprietor.
He was educated at the university of Melbourne and was called
to the Victorian bar in 1877; but before that date he had already
worked as a journalist, and he continued to contribute frequently
to the press, especially to the Melbourne Age. He entered the
Victorian Legislature in 1878 and first took office as Minister of
Public Works and Water Supply (1883-6). In 1885 he be-
came Solicitor-General and in 1887 he was senior representative
for his Colony at the first Imperial Conference held in London
on the occasion of Queen Victoria's Jubilee. He was a member of
all the bodies formed to promote the Federation of Australia as
well as of the delegation which proceeded to London with the
Australian Commonwealth bill in 1900 and, as Attorney-General,
he was included in Sir Edmund Barton's first Federal " Cabi-
net of the Captains " (1901-3), succeeding him as Premier of
Australia. During his legislative career in Victoria he was active
in promoting social legislation and an ardent advocate of pref-
erence in favour of Great Britain. This fiscal policy he pursued
during his three Federal premierships (1903-4, 1905-8,
1909-10), and he was also a strong supporter of Australia's
cooperation in Imperial defence, being responsible for the accep-
tance of the measure authorizing Australian naval construction
in 1909 and for the invitation to Lord Kitchener to come to
Australia to report on the question of defence. He also passed
that year an Act enforcing military training upon all able-bodied
citizens. He was the leading figure at the Imperial Conference
in London of 1907. After 1910 he led the Opposition in the
Australian Parliament until ill-health compelled his retirement
in 1913. He always refused any titular distinction; but he was
credited by many with being the most brilliant orator of the
British Empire, and the enthusiasm which he evoked in London
was great. He represented " Centre " thought in Australian
politics and for a long time was a reconciling influence between
the Conservatives and the Labour party. He died Oct. 7 1919.
DEANE, SIR HENRY BARGRAVE FINNELLEY (1846-1919),
English judge, was born April 28 1846, the only son of the Rt.
Hon. Sir James Parker Deane, K.C. He was educated at Win-
chester and Balh'ol College, Oxford, where in 1870 he won the
international law essay prize. He was called to the bar in 1870,
and was made a Q.C. in 1896. From 1885 to 1905 he was re-
corder of Margate, and in 1905 was raised to the bench and
knighted. From 1892 onwards his work lay mainly in the Pro-
bate, Divorce and Admiralty division. In 1917 he retired from
the bench, and he died in London April 21 1919.
DE BROQUEVILLE, CHARLES, COMTE (1860- ), Belgian
statesman, was born at Tostel, Belgium, Dec. 4 1860 of a family
which was French in origin. He was privately educated and
passed much time at his father's estate. It was his marriage to
Mdlle. d'Huart, granddaughter of Jules Malou (see 17.496) the
Conservative leader, that paved the way for his entrance into
public life. At the age of 25 he became a member of the pro-
vincial council of Antwerp, subsequently being elected deputy
for Tournhout, and in Aug. 1910 was appointed Minister of
Railways, Posts and Telegraphs in the Schollaert Cabinet. On the
fall of this Ministry (July 1912) Baron de Broqueville undertook
the formation of a new Cabinet, and in Nov. 1912 also became
Minister of War, in this position successfully pressing through
the bill for strengthening the Belgian army. When in Aug. 1914
the Belgians determined to resist the passage of the Germans
through their country, the Belgian premier well expressed the
feelings of the nation in his declaration " Nous serons peut-
etre vaincus, mais soumis, jamais! " On the retreat of the Belgian
army towards the Yser, De Broqueville established himself
at_ Dunkirk and there assisted the military authorities to re-
create the units of the Belgian army which had been broken in
the retreat. He established the Belgian base at Calais, and
after the battle of the Yser worked indefatigably for the re-
constitution of the army. In Aug. 1917 Gen. de Ceuninck be-
came Minister of War and De Broqueville succeeded Baron
Beyens as Foreign Minister. One of his more important actions
was to establish a war Cabinet of six members on the model of
those in France and England. In Jan. 1918, however, he was
succeeded as Foreign Minister by M. Paul Hymans, already a
member of the war Cabinet. It was found that in Sept. 1917
De Broqueville had transmitted to M. Briand peace proposals
secretly made by the Germans through Von der Lancken, head
of the political department in Brussels, without informing his
colleagues in the Cabinet, and this incident seriously diminished
his power. In Jan. 1918 he took over the charge of the new de-
partment of national reconstruction, but in June of the same
year his resignation of the premiership was accepted by the King.
At the end of the war he became Minister of the Interior in the
Delacroix Cabinet, and retained this office until Nov. 1919, when
he retired, having the same year been created a count.
DEBS, EUGENE VICTOR (1855- ), American labour
leader and socialist, was born at Terre Haute, Ind., Nov. 5 1855,
of Alsatian parents. On leaving the pubh'c schools he became in
1871 a locomotive fireman, and four years later took a position
in a wholesale grocery. In 1879 he was elected city clerk of
Terre Haute on the Democratic ticket, and in 1881 was reelected.
During 1885 he was a member of the Indiana Legislature. Mean-
while, in 1880 he was elected secretary and treasurer of the
Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and was chosen editor of the
Locomotive Firemen's Magazine. When the American Railway
Union was organized in 1893 he was elected president, serving
four years. Under his leadership a strike on the Great Northern
railway was won in 1894. The same year he led the strike which,
beginning in the Pullman car plants, soon involved the railways
leading into Chicago (see 6.124). Debs was arrested on the
charge of conspiracy to kill, was acquitted, was later convicted
of contempt of court for violating an injunction, and was sent
to gaol for six months (May-Nov. 1895). At this time his
study of socialism began, and in 1897 he allied himself with the
movement, for a year acting as chairman of the National Council
of the Social Democracy of America. After this was reorganized
into the Social Democrat party in 1898 he was an influential
member. In 1900 he was Socialist candidate for president of the
United States, receiving 96,116 votes; was again candidate in
1904, 1908 and 1912, but dech'ned the nomination in 1916. In
1907 he was appointed on the editorial staff of the Appeal to
Reason, and his contributions attracted wide attention. In
1914 he became editor-in-chief of the National Rip-Saw, a
socialistic paper published at St. Louis. After America's en-
trance into the World War he upheld pacifism, and in Sept.
1918, after a speech at Canton, O., he was charged with violation
of the Espionage Act, was convicted, and sentenced to serve 10
814
DEBUSSY DELAGOA BAY
years in the penitentiary. The sentence was upheld by the U.S.
Supreme Court March 10 1919, and he entered prison April 13.
In 1920, although still imprisoned, he was again nominated
presidential candidate by the Socialists and received 915,302
votes, ranging from 25 in Vermont to 203,400 in New York.
He was released on Christmas Day 1921, his sentence having
been commuted by President Harding, but his forfeiture of
rights of citizenship was not affected. He is the author of
Unionism and Socialism: a Plea for Both (1904); Liberty; and
Industrial Unionism (1911).
DEBUSSY, CLAUDE ACHILLE (1862-1918), French com-
poser (see 7.906), died in Paris March 26 1918.
DE FILIPPI, FILIPPO (1860- ), Italian scientist and
explorer, was born at Turin April 6 1869. He studied medicine at
the university of Turin, and became an assistant in the surgical
clinic of the university of Bologna, occupying later the same
position at Genoa. He subsequently became reader in operative
surgery at Bologna, and pursued researches of great value in
physiological and biological chemistry. In 1897 he joined the
expedition of the Duke of the Abruzzi to Alaska as scientific
observer, and took part in the ascent of Mount St. Elias. In
1906 Signer de Filippi again accompanied the Duke of the Abruzzi
on an expedition to the Ruwenzori range of central Africa.
The first detailed map of the higher part of this mountain region
was a result of this journey, together with many valuable geo-
logical and other observations. In 1909 de Filippi went with the
Duke's expedition to the western Himalaya and Karakoram
mountains, when a peak 24,600 ft. in height, close to Mount
Godwin-Austen, or K.2, was ascended. He later (1913-4)
organized and led an important scientific expedition to the Kar-
akoram mountains and central Asia, under the auspices of the
Indian and Italian Governments, and for his valuable investi-
gations received in 1916 an hon. K.C.I.E. from the In-
dian Government. He has also received many honours from
British and foreign scientific societies, and is a gold medallist of
the English and Italian Royal Geographical Societies. During
the World War he served in the Italian army medical service,
and also lectured in England on subjects connected with the war.
He has published The Ascent of Mount St. Elias (1900) ; Ruwenzori
(1909) and Karakoram and Western Himalaya (2 vols. 1912) ; besides
many papers in scientific journals.
DEGAS, HILAIRE GERMAIN EDGARD (1834-1917), French
painter (see 7.931). The Impressionist years, in which such
typical canvases as " Women in a Cafe " and " Danseuses a la
Barre " (sold in 1912 for 119,100 francs) showed Degas's complete
break with the academic painters, his realistic outlook, and his
mastery of materiel, notably pastel, ended with the eighth
Impressionist Exhibition 1886, where he continued his realistic
studies of modern life, showing drawings of the nude, of work-
women, and of jockeys. This marked his withdrawal from all
public exhibitions. In the following years, until his death in
1917, Degas mainly concentrated on drawings and pastels of the
nude, chiefly women at their toilets or in the bath, interspersed
with returns to his favourite ballet subjects. At one time he
almost abandoned the use of colour but returned thereto later.
In his last years, ill-health and a forced removal from his studio
prevented his working. Besides pastel and oil colour Degas also
handled his favourite subjects in etching, aquatint and lithog-
raphy. His work is to be seen in the Luxembourg (Caillebotte
collection), the Louvre (Camondo collection), the Victoria and
Albert Museum, the Tate Gallery, the British Museum, Boston
(U.S.A.) Museum, the National Gallery, Berlin, and many private
collections. Though closely associated with the impressionists
and showing their sensitiveness to atmospheric colour, Degas
was never one of them. An admirer of Ingres, and the great
classical draughtsmen, he was himself a classic in his impersonal
outlook. The increasing preoccupation of his art was the ex-
pression of form, chiefly by line, and to this must be ascribed his
later concentration on the nude and temporary abandonment
'of colour. His figures are never impressions, but an elaborate
synthesis of many sketches and much observation. An un-
compromising realist in his subjects, Degas found in the art of
the Far East a starting-point for combining the most ordinary
and ungraceful attitudes of everyday life into an original, in-
tricate and harmonious design.
See also P. Lafond, Degas (1918) ; A. J. Meier-Graefe, Degas (1920).
DELAGE, MARIE YVES (1854-1920), French zoologist, was
born at Avignon May 13 1854. He became a member of the
French Academies of Science and Medicine, professor of zoology
at the Sorbonne, Paris, and a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
He was one of the first authorities on animal reproduction and
questions of hybridism and heredity (see 23.116, 14.27, 22.478).
For his exploit in keeping alive in 1886, in a tank at Roscoff,
a specimen of Leptocephali until it developed into a conger, see
9.9. He died in Paris Oct. 8 1920.
DELAGOA BAY, Portuguese East Africa (we 7. 94 2). Improve-
ments in port accommodation during 1910-21 were mainly in
connexion with the transit trade with the Transvaal and the
development of the coal trade. Coaling plant was erected in
I9H-S and other plant added in 1921, so that altogether
1,400 tons per hour could be loaded direct into ships' holds.
A new ferro-concrete wharf, 1,614 yd- long, was completed in
1916. The wharf was amply provided with electric and steam
cranes. In 1920 the building of a dry -dock was begun. Dredging
vessels maintain a minimum depth of 215 ft. over the bar.
Lourenco Marques drained, given a good water supply, and
largely rebuilt, had become by 1920 one of the finest cities in
South Africa. Considerable sums had been spent in making
marine drives and golf links, in erecting hotels and on other
measures to convert the suburbs, notably Polana, into health
and holiday resorts in the winter months (May-Sept., average
temp. 64 F.). Pop. of Lourenco Marques (1912 census) 13,353
of whom 5,324 were whites, including 668 British. Pop., city
and suburbs (1920 estimate) 20,000.
The convention of April 2 1909 between the Transvaal and
Mozambique provided (for a period of 10 years) for free trade
in the products of the two provinces and for facilities for the
recruitment of natives of Mozambique for labour in the Rand
mines (from 80,000 to 100,000 Portuguese natives are normally
employed in the mines). In return Delagoa Bay was to be given
50 to 55 % of the railway traffic in the areas of the Transvaal
in which it competed with Union ports, i.e. Durban. This was an
effort to adjust conflicting political and economic factors. Had
Delagoa Bay been a British port it would have had nearly all
the trade of the so-called competitive area, the route from it to
Johannesburg being not only some 100 m. shorter than the
route to the Rand, but having easier gradients. During 1910-12
the division of traffic favoured Delagoa Bay. Rate adjust-
ments followed and the share of Delagoa Bay in 1916 fell to 31 %
and thereafter showed no marked recovery. A proposal made
by Senhor Freire d'Andrade (sometime governor of Mozam-
bique) that the part of the province S. of the Sabi river includ-
ing Delagoa Bay should join the South African Customs
Union found supporters but was not adopted, and pending a new
settlement the Mozambique Convention continued in force.
The following table shows the value of imports into and exports
from the Union of South Africa via Delagoa Bay in the years
named :
Imports.
Exports.
1909
1913
1918
4,826,000
4,551,000
2,308,000
253,000
740,000
1,100,000
Coal bunkered at Delagoa Bay was 136,000 tons in 1912; rose to
426,000 tons in 1917-8 and fell to 251,000 tons the succeeding
year. In the same period (1912-9) the coal exported rose steadily
from 179,000 to 589,000 tons. Most of the coal exported goes to
Indian ports. The coal comes almost entirely from the Witbank
mines, Transvaal. Besides coal Delagoa Bay receives from the
Transvaal for export copper, tin, asbestos and maize. The export
of copper on a considerable scale dates from 1913. It quickly at-
tained the first place in regard to value (573,000 in 1916 compared
with 199,000, the value of the coal exports the same year). Exports
of commodities produced in the province developed slowly. In
1913 they were worth 162,000, the chief item being sugar (62,000) ;
they fell during the period of the World War. Imports for consump-
tion in the province reached the value of 1,083,000 in 1912.
DE LA GORGE DELAWARE
815
Shipping remained mainly in British hands, though between 1905
and 1913 German shipping increased by 60%. In that year British
shipping was 66 and German 18% of the total. After 1914 the ship-
ping was almost wholly British and Portuguese. In 1917 the vessels
cleared numbered 736. The Union of South Africa maintains an
agency at Lourenco Marques.
The Manual of Portuguese East Africa (1920), a British Admiralty
publication, gives useful information in respect to the relations of
Delagoa Bay to the Transvaal. (F. R. C.)
DE LA GORGE, PIERRE (1846- ), French historian, was
born at Vannes June 29 1846. He devoted himself to the
study in particular of the history of the ipth century, and pro-
duced various works of much learning, the chief being Histoire
de la Seconde Republique Franc.aise (1887), Hisfoire du Second
Empire (1896-1905) and Histoire rcligieuse de la Revolution
(1909). He was in 1914 elected a member of the French Academy,
and in 1918 published a monograph, Deux Fr'eres: Andre et
Pierre de Gailhard-Bancal.
DELAND, MARGARET WADE (1857- ), American writer,
was born at Allegheny, Pa., Feb. 23 1857. She studied in private
schools and at Cooper Union in New York, and for a time was a
teacher of drawing. She lived in Boston after her marriage in
1880. She appeared as a writer of graceful verse in The Old
Garden (1887), and in 1888 attracted wide attention with her
first novel, John Ward Preacher. This story resembles in theme
Mrs. Humphry Ward's Robert Elsmere, at that time a centre
of discussion. In all her works she deals with religious and social
questions, and at first evoked protest in some quarters. Her
method is perhaps best seen in Sidney (1891); Philip and His
Wife (1894); The Awakening of Helena Richie (1906) and The
Iron Woman (1911). Her numerous works include The Story
of a Child (1892); Old Chester Tales (1899); Dr. Lavendar's
People (1903 in Dr. Lavendar some have seen a character
comparable with Goldsmith's Dr. Primrose); Partners (1913);
The Rising Tide (1916); and The Promises of Alice (1919)1 the
romance of a New England parsonage.
DE LA REY, JACOBUS HERCULES (1847-1914), Boer soldier
(see 7.944), who was concerned in the rebellion headed by Col.
Maritz (see SOUTH AFRICA), was shot dead by a police patrol at
Johannesburg, Sept. 15 1914.
DELAUNAY-BELLEVILLE, LOUIS (1843-1912), French en-
gineer, was born at Corbeil Nov. 20 1843. Educated at St.
Barbe and the Ecole Polytechnique, he entered the Naval En-
gineering school in 1864 and in 1867 left to join the Belleville
works at St. Denis, near Paris. He became a partner and finally
head of the firm which produced the well-known Belleville
boilers (see 4.145), and also the automobile called by his name.
From 1890 he was president of the Paris Chamber of Commerce.
He died at Cannes Feb. 10 1912.
DELAWARE (see 7.947). In 1920 the pop. was 223,003,
as compared with 202,322 in 1910, an increase of 20,681, or
10-2%. The number per sq. m. in 1920 was 113-5; in
1910, 103. In 1920 the native whites constituted 77-5% of the
total, foreign-born whites 8-9%, and negroes 13-6%. Of 10,508
illiterates in 1920, 4,700 were negroes, 3,373 foreign-born whites,
and 2,427 native whites. In 1920 for the first time the urban
pop. exceeded the rural; urban 120,817, or 54'2%, rural 102,186,
as compared with 97,085 or 45-8%, and 105,237 respectively in
1910. The change was due chiefly to the growth of Wilmington,
as Kent and Sussex counties remained strongly agricultural.
One county, Newcastle, showed an increase, the other two
decreases. Wilmington, a centre of war-time manufactures, had
in 1920 a pop. of 110,168, as compared with 87,411 in 1910, an
increase of 22,757, or 26%. The pop. of the other chief towns in
1920 was as follows: Dover, the state capital, 4,042; Newcastle,
3,854; and Milford, 2,753.
Manufactures. Delaware, especially Wilmington and the
upper end of the state, was influenced by the great industrial
activity of the World War period. Most noteworthy was the
part taken by the duPont powder interests in supplying the
needs of the Allies. The following table gives interesting com-
parisons between the pre-war period and the year following the
Armistice.
Number of establishments
Proprietors and firm
members . . . .
Salaried employees
Wage earners (average
number) . . . .
Capital
Salaries
Wages . . . . .
Cost of materials
Value of products
Value added by manu-
facture
1919
668
593
3,344
29,035
$^148,207,598
7,709,068
37,265,319
85432,938
165,073,009
1914
808
735
2,643
22,155
$69,323,927
3,399,568
11,382,160
31,649,265
56,034,966
/pop
726
722
2,024
21,238
$60,905,671
2,322,329
10,295,596
30,937,801
52,839,619
79,640,076 24,385,701 21,901,818
In 1919 the principal industries were leather, pulp goods, cars
and general shop construction and repairs by steam railway
companies, iron and steel, canning and preserving of fruits and
vegetables, and foundry and machine-shop products.
Agriculture. After the passage of the Agricultural Extension
Act (1911) the most significant movement was the develop-
ment of cooperative associations, and especially (1918-21) the
rapid growth of the Farm Bureau movement. In 1920 the num-
ber of farms was 10,140, as compared with 10,836 in 1910,
a decrease of 696, or 6-4%. The preceding decade had shown
an increase of 1,149, or U'9%- The value of all crops for Dela-
ware, in 1919, was $23,058,906. The total value of cereals was
$9,638,010; of hay and forage crops $4,366,174; of vegetables,
including potatoes, $6,271,714; and of fruits and nuts $2,566,807.
As compared with 1909, the total value of all crops showed an
increase of 166-6%; cereals 105-4%; vegetables 242-2%; and
fruits and nuts 188-3%. These figures, of course, reflect the
changed price level. The production of strawberries for 1919
was 4,362,473 qt., of apples 606,286 bus., of peaches 227,375 bus.,
and of grapes 1,445,121 pounds. The total value of live stock,
horses, mules, cattle, swine, in 1919 was $7,373,260; of dairy
products, excluding " cheese sold " (not reported), $2,442,253.
Education. The most distinctive development in the decade be-
ginning in 1910 was in the field of education. There was much dis-
cussion of educational matters, and an aroused public interest led
to various measures for the strengthening of the public-school system.
In 1913, a summer school was established for the training of
teachers, and four years later the state agreed to pay the expenses of
teachers in attendance. In 1913, also, the Women's College of
Delaware was founded, affiliated with Delaware College, with the
same president and board of trustees and in part the same faculty,
but entirely separate in buildings, classes, and student organization.
Delaware College showed rapid expansion. It had property worth
$1,800,000 (1921), and an income of $382,000 (1920). The enrol-
ment (1921) was 478,178 women and 300 men, not counting 80
ex-service men in vocational agricultural work. After 1913, following
reorganization and reincorporation, the college was solely a state
institution. In 1917 a commission was appointed to investigate
educational conditions, and to recommend plans for unifying, re-
vising and developing the public-school system of the state. The
commission employed the General Education Board of New York
to make this survey, and the results, when presented to the Legisla-
ture in 1919, were crystallized in the " New School Code." The
advantages claimed were: (i) the codification of the whole body of
school law; (2) definite and fixed responsibility of school officials;
(3) a modern and fairer system of taxation; (4) a carefully graded
system of schools; and (5) a normal school year of 180 days for pupils
from 7 to 14 years of age. The whole plan centred in a state Board
of Education, composed of five members, with a state commissioner
subordinate to them. Also, there were county boards and county
superintendents in each of the three counties. In 1920, however,
this system was considerably modified in the direction of lower
taxation and greater local control, and in 1921, because of these
influences, the ultimate fate of the Code seemed very uncertain.
Wilmington grew so rapidly that its government, utilities, educational
institutions, etc., were no longer adequate to its needs. In 1921 the
city schools were surveyed under the direction of the national
Bureau of Education and many needed reforms pointed out. At
the same time proposals were being made for a new charter, provid-
ing for a commission form of government and a city manager.
Finances and Taxation. The state system of finances and taxation
underwent considerable modification and extension. After 1917,
Delaware raised and spent about $i ,500,000 annually. For a num-
ber of years previously the state's expenditures exceeded the rev-
enues, but at the close of 1918 the balance in the general fund was
$533,692.89, and on Jan. I 1920 the balance was $1,367,733.57.
This swift change was due both to the creation of new sources
of revenue and to the increased returns from old sources,
especially the latter. The railway tax was established in 1897, the
8i6
DELBRUCK DELHI
corporation tax in 1899, the automobile tax in 1907. One new source
of revenue was the state income tax of 1917, the first $250,000 of this
going to the school fund, the surplus, if any, to the highway depart-
ment. In 1917, also, the collateral inheritance tax was changed to a
direct graduated inheritance tax, with a consequent revenue for
1919 of $199,033. Apart from these sources increased sums came
from fees and from the corporation, automobile and franchise taxes.
The much-discussed corporation tax became the state's main re-
liance as a revenue producer. A state banking department was
created (1919), with a banking commissioner and a deputy, whose
duty it was to examine every bank at least once a year. In 1917 the
budget plan was adopted for a two years' trial, but in 1919 it was not
continued. In 1921 the plan was again under discussion with a
reasonable chance of adoption. State finances were reenforced by
the " Federal Aid " revenue. In 1919 the receipts from the Federal
Government were $135,294.52, distributed as follows: (i) $50,000
to Delaware College under Federal grants; (2) $9,472.69 for voca-
tional education; (3) $75,821.83 for road construction.
History. The two dominant facts in the history of the state in
the period 1910-20 are: (i) the passage of a considerable number
of modern and progressive laws, and (2) the reaction of the state to
the strenuous demands and activities of the World War. In the
latter respect, Delaware met the situation squarely and was well
organized, with the various war-time activities centred in the state
Council of Defense,, of which Secretary of State E. C. Johnson was
the directing spirit. The number of troops furnished by the state
in the World War was 7,484, and the amount raised in Liberty and
Victory loans $103,898,350. In this period two progressive governors,
Charles R. Miller and John G. Townsend, by their qualities of
leadership, accomplished much for the state. During the adminis-
tration of the latter, for example, a number of important statutes
were enacted, including a Child Labor law (1917), a Workmen's
Compensation Act (1917), laws for the regulation of hours of labour
for women, an Income Tax law (1917), a Direct Inheritance Tax
law (1917), an Act creating a state banking department (1919),
and a thorough revision of the school laws, known as the New School
Code (1919). These Acts, together with the Agricultural Extension
Act (1911), mark a new era in the development of the state. After
IQIO the Republicans maintained their control of state affairs,
electing the following governors: Simeon S. Pennewill (1909-13);
Charles R. Miller (1913-17); John G. Townsend (1917-21);
and William D. Denny (1921- ). Much of the time, however,
the Democrats controlled the House of Representatives, and in 1916
they elected part of their state ticket. In 1921 the senior U.S.
senator, Josiah O. Wolcott, was a Democrat; the junior sen-
ator, L. Heisler Ball, a Republican. In the presidential election
of 1921 the Democrats carried the state, in 1916 and 1920 the
Republicans won by a considerable margin. A third characteristic
of the period should be mentioned. Public-spirited citizens of the
state contributed large sums for education, for public highways, for
child welfare, for charitable purposes, and for other worthy causes.
It has been estimated that the gifts of Mr. Pierre S. duPont to public
education total $3,653,540.35. Gen. Coleman T. duPont com-
pleted and presented to the state a modern highway 20 m. in length,
extending from Shelbyville to Georgetown. Under a state highway
commission this work was extended by a magnificent system of
highways, either under construction (1921) or projected.
See Henry C. Conrad, History of Delaware, 3 vols. (1908) ; Edgar
Dawson, " Public Archives of Delaware," in The Annual Report
of the American Historical Association for 1906, II, pp. 129-148;
Adelaide R. Hasse, Index ef Economic Material in Documents of the
States of the United States, Delaware, 1789-1904 (1910) ; Amandus
Johnson, The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware, 2 vols. (1912);
Delaware School Code (1920). (E. V. V.)
DELBRtlCK, HANS (1848- ), German historian (see
7.952). Under the old regime Prof. Delbriick vigorously opposed
the policy of the Prussian Government in dealing with the
Danes and the Poles, with the result that he was twice sub-
jected to disciplinary penalties as a professor and therefore, in
Prussia, a civil servant. From 1889 to 1920 he edited the Preus-
sische Jahrbilcher, the most important political magazine in
Germany. He was the author of a great number of articles and
works, of which the following were published after 1910:
Numbers in History (1913); Regierung und Volkswille (1914);
Bismarcks Erbe (1915); Krieg und Politik (1918); Kautsky
und Harden (1920) and Ludendorf, Tirpitz, Falkenhayn (1920).
Special attention may be called to the book Regierung und
Volkswille, in which Prof. Delbruck attempted a defence of the
old system of government in Germany and Prussia with par-
ticular reference to its " dualism, " i.e. parliamentary represen-
tation and simultaneously a certain degree of autocracy on the
part of the sovereign in Prussia and of the federated Government
in the empire. At an early stage of the World War he became
pessimistic regarding the possibility of any real success for
Germany except by military and political strategy and tactics
of a purely defensive character. He was, on tactical rather than
on moral grounds, a strenuous opponent of intensified submarine
warfare, and did not conceal his conviction that the result of this
method of warfare would ultimately be the intervention of
America. After the Armistice of Nov. 1918 he devoted himself
mainly to endeavours to prove that Germany could not be made
solely responsible for the outbreak of war, although she had
formally declared war upon Russia and France. He was one of
those who were sent to Versailles during the Peace Conference
in order to draw up a statement of the German case with regard
to the responsibility for the outbreak of war.
For a succinct statement of Prof. Delbruck's views on this
subject and an English reply see articles by Delbruck and J. W.
Headlam-Morley in the Contemporary Review (March 1921).
DELCASSE, THEOPHILE (1852- ), French statesman (see
7.953), returned to office in the Moms Ministry of Feb. 1911, as
Minister for the Navy, a post which he retained when Caillaux
succeeded Monis, and in the Poincare Cabinet which was formed
on Jan. 9 1912 after the fall of Caillaux over the Moroccan
negotiations. He was appointed ambassador in St. Petersburg
on Feb. 20 1913, and became once more Minister for Foreign
Affairs in the reconstructed Viviani Cabinet on Aug. 26 1914.
In this post he was actively concerned in counteracting the
efforts of German diplomacy throughout the world, and par-
ticularly in England. He resigned from the Cabinet on Oct. 14
1915, partly on account of differences of opinion as to the advis-
ability of proceeding with the dispatch of the expedition to
Salonika in the changed conditions created by the resignation of
M. Venizelos, and partly on the grounds of ill health.
DELHI, India (see 7.954). The planning and laying-out of a
New Delhi has been in progress since 1912, as the outcome of the
official transfer of the capital of British India to Delhi from Cal-
cutta, announced by the King-Emperor George V. at the Coro-
nation Durbar on Dec. 12 1911. Two inauguration stones were
laid by the King-Emperor himself on Dec. 15 1911, when he
said: " It is my desire that the planning and designing of the
public buildings to be erected will be considered with the greatest
deliberation and care so that the new creation may be in every
way worthy of this ancient and beautiful city." The first step
taken was the appointment of a town-planning committee to
advise on the choice of a site for, and a layout of, the new capital.
This committee consisted of Capt. G. S. C. Swinton (chairman),
Mr. J. A. Brodie and Sir Edwin Lutyens. Mr. V. Lanchester
was subsequently consulted by the Government on certain aspects
of the question. After a full consideration of all possible sites
near the existing city of Delhi on which a new capital could be
built, they found two alternative sites, known respectively as
the Northern and Southern Sites the former to the N. of Delhi
and to the W. of the range of rocky hills which run S.W. from
near the village of Wazirabad (35 m. N. of the Kashmir Gate),
giving a belt of land gradually increasing in width from W. to E.
between the hills and the river Jumna; and the latter to the S. of
Delhi and to the E. of this range.
The committee's first report was issued on June 13 1912, and
with regard to the Northern Site, on which the Durbar camps
of 1911 had been pitched and where the inauguration stones
were laid, they found it had some general advantages : This
area is upwind and upstream of the existing city of Delhi ; the
ruins of the Delhis of the past do not cumber the ground; whilst
external communications might need improvement, the area is
fairly well served by existing railways; roads, canals and in-
ternal communications could be made convenient without
excessive expenditure, and a good deal of money had already
been spent on the area in connexion with the Durbar. But its
disadvantages were found to be overwhelming: the site was
too small for the proposed new city, and part of the area was
liable to flooding.
The committee therefore recommended the site on the
eastern slopes of the hills to the S. of Delhi, on the margin of the
area occupied by the Delhis of the past. They found this site
free from liability to flooding, with a natural drainage. It was
DELHI
xi sting CiLy -
Imperial De/hi-red
DELHI
817
not too much cumbered with monuments and tombs needing
reverent treatment and, whilst it was reasonably near the centre
of the existing city, it was capable of almost indefinite expansion
southward. The committee had also examined other areas in
the neighbourhood but found none suitable for the purpose.
No good site existed E. of the Jumna. Similarly the Naraina
Plain, on the western slopes of the hills to the S. of Delhi, was
not recommended mainly because a new city built there could
hardly be considered to be Delhi at all, and the area was destitute
of historical associations and shut out by the hills from all view
of the existing city. This area was, however, found suitable as a
site for the new cantonment.
The publication of this first report aroused considerable interest
both in India and in England. Articles in the Indian press ex-
pressed a preference for the Northern Site, a predilection which
had also been felt by the town-planning committee when they
commenced their labours. In Dec. 1912 Sir Bradford Leslie read
a paper before the Indian section of the Royal Society of Arts
in London, in which he set forth plans for building the new capi-
tal on the Northern Site and producing a fine water effect by a
treatment of the river Jumna. The town-planning committee
therefore, in Feb. 1913, issued their second report, in which they
restated the arguments for and against the Northern Site.
" The soil is poor on the Northern Site as compared with the
Southern. The Southern Site is already healthy and has healthy
surroundings. The Northern Site, even after expenditure on sanitary
requirements, will never be satisfactory. If the Northern Site is
to be made healthy, this involves going outside the site itself and
making the neighbourhood healthy also. The building land to the
S. is generally good. On the N., to be used at all, it has in places to
be raised at considerable cost. There is no really suitable healthy
site for a cantonment in proximity to a city on the Northern Site.
The exigencies of fitting in the requirements to the limited area of
the Northern Site endanger the success of a layout as a whole and
tend to make for cramping and bad arrangement. The result of
placing a city on the Northern Site appears to the committee to be
the creation of a bad example in place of a good one."
In Feb. 1913 a committee was appointed to consider the
comparative healthiness of the Northern and Southern Sites.
The committee reported on March 4 1913 " that no doubt can
exist as to the superior healthiness of the Southern Site, the
medical and sanitary advantages of which are overwhelming
when compared with those of the Northern Site." The com-
mittee therefore, on March 20 1913, issued their final .report
with a layout for the proposed new city on the Southern Site.
The focal point of the new city (see map) is located on Raisina Hill,
and the buildings of the Government Centre are arranged symmetri-
cally about what is practically an E. and W. axis connecting the focal
point with the northwestern or Talaki Gate of the old fort of In-
drapat or Purana Kila. The two great blocks of secretariats are
situated to the N. and S. of this focal point, with Government
Court between them. Westward from Government Court, a raised
platform or forum connects Raisina Hill with the high ground of the
southern ridge, so that the whole Government Centre appears to be
built on a spur of the ridge itself. This raised forum is known as the
Viceroys Court and at the western end of this court is situated
Government House. The Viceroy's Court is also reached both from
the N. and S. by roadways with easy gradients and at the inter-
section of these roadways with the E. and W. axis of the court is
placed the Jaipur Column surmounted by the Star of India.
Government House itself is also approached both from the N.
and S. along fine avenues and to the westward of these avenues lies
the viceregal estate, with its gardens and parks, wherein are located
the bungalows of the viceroy's private and military secretaries, and
the surgeon and comptroller, the quarters for the viceroy's troops
and bodyguard and for other staffs connected with the viceregal
estate. The southern of these two avenues leads from Government
House to the residence of the commander-in-chief in India.
Below the eastern facade of the secretariats a forecourt, known
as the Great Place, is laid out. This is partially enclosed by a
beautiful S anc hi railing in red sandstone and is adorned with six
water basins and fountains. In two chambers, one in each basement
of the two secretariats, the chambers being entered from the Great
Place, are now installed the inaugural stones laid by the King-
Emperor, surmounted by the royal insignia cast in bronze.
Eastward again, below the Great Place, is a park known as the
Central Vista, planted with lines of jaman-trees and having two
water basins, one on either side of the central roadway, for the whole
of its length. On either side of this Central Vista are arranged the
houses of the members of Council. The Central Vista at its eastern
end opens out into a park, hexagonal in shape, in which is to be
built the All-India War Memorial Arch. This central parkway was
intended ultimately to terminate at a small lake, the waters of which
would wash the base of the northern end of Indrapat.
A second principal avenue of the city intersects at right angles the
Central Vista about midway in its length. In the four angles
formed by this intersection were planned four large buildings, to
accommodate, amongst other institutions, the Imperial Record
Office, the Ethnological Museum, the Medical Research Institute,
a Library and War Museum. At the northern end of this avenue
is situated the business and commercial centre of the city. This
consists of a circus, 1, 600 ft. in diameter, around which are arranged
12 blocks of buildings, each three storeys high. At this circus the
new post and telegraph office is to be located. Of the 12 roads which
radiate from this centre, that due N. will give a state entrance to the
new joint railway station. This same avenue, southward of the
Central Vista, will sight on to the Anglican cathedral, around which
are built the residences of the principal officers of Government.
The avenue radiating due N. from the focal point of the city on
Raisina Hill sights on to the Roman Catholic cathedral, all around
which are situated the houses of the Indian and European super-
intendents and clerks of the secretariats, the Lady Hardinge Medical
College and Hospital for Women being slightly to the north-east.
A little towards the E., the next main avenue passes through
the business centre already referred to, and sights in the distance
on to the dome of the Jama Masjid in the old city. Immediately
below the northern block of the secretariats is placed the building
designed to accommodate the Council of State, the Legislative
Assembly and the Chamber of Princes. A little farther eastward,
the next avenue sights on to the proposed Delhi University.
Facing now due S., an important avenue leads to the club, with
the racecourse beyond, a large recreation park being slightly to the
W. and Safdar Jang's mausoleum slightly to the east. Turning again
a little farther to the E., we overlook the Lodi Park, in which are
situated the tombs of the Lodi dynasty.
The eastern side of the city will be largely occupied by the res-
idences of ruling princes and chiefs and prominent Indian gentlemen.
At the Royal Academy in 1914 there were exhibited drawings by
Sir Edwin Lutyens and Mr. Herbert Baker (the architects jointly
responsible), which showed how it was proposed to treat the main
architectural problems of the new capital. Government House and
the two blocks of secretariats were planned as one group or capitol
facing eastward, with the afforested southern ridge behind it to the
west. A prolonged " battle of the styles " has been waged over the
New Delhi, and if these designs give satisfaction to neither of the
extreme and opposed schools, they clearly showed an endeavour to
apply, with due regard for Indian sentiment, the spirit of the great
traditions of architecture to the solution of structural problems
conditioned upon Indian climate and requirements. The inspiration
of these designs is manifestly Western, but they combine with it
distinctive Indian features without doing violence to the principles
of structural fitness and artistic unity.
Government Court has a length from W. to E. of about 1,100 ft.
and a width between the two blocks of secretariats of ab'out 400
feet. These buildings have been designed by Mr. Baker. The
eastern end of each block is marked by deep loggias looking out over
the Central Vista. In the centre of each block is a dome. In the
case of the N. block this marks an entrance hall; in the S. block it
surmounts a conference hall with a suite of reception-rooms. Each
block contains four floors: on the main ground floor are the general
offices of the departments; on the first floor are the offices of mem-
bers of Council, secretaries and other officers; whilst the remaining
floors are occupied by clerks' rooms and records. An 'essential fea-
ture of the design, and one which sets the character of the whole
building, is the provision of loggias and recessed gateways or exedrae
giving views through to the fountain courts situate in the interior
of the blocks, and these take the place of the continuous verandahs
that are so familiar a feature of Indian buildings. The architect
relies for control of temperature on these loggias and recesses, on
thick external walls, together with window shutters as adopted so
widely in southern Europe, and on the wide chajja characteristic
of Oriental buildings. The Viceroy's Court is about 600 ft. in
width and 1,300 ft. in length and it will be treated with grass,
waterways and fountains and shady trees, and will form a dignified
approach to Government House. Here will be erected the column,
funds for which were provided by the Maharaja of Jaipur.
The great portico of Government House is raised some 20 ft.
above the level of the Viceroy's Court and 35 ft. above the surround-
ing country. The house itself centres round the great Durbar Hall,
a domed structure which dominates the scheme of the buildings
surrounding it. Grouped round the Durbar Hall are the state
rooms and the great stairways from the entrance courts on the N.
and S. sides. Projecting from this central block are four wings : that
on the S.W. contains the viceroy's private apartments; in the S.E.
wing accommodation is provided for the A.D.C.'s to the viceroy;
guests are accommodated in the N.W. wing; whilst the N.E.
wing contains the offices of the Viceroy's private and military sec-
retaries. On the W. side of the house will be a raised garden, walled
and terraced after the manner of the Moghals. This building, with
the subsidiary buildings of the viceregal estate, has been designed
by Sir Edwin Lutyens.
8i8
DEMOBILIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT
The building which will accommodate the Legislative Chambers
is circular in plan and surrounded by a colonnade. The plan is
divided into six sectors, utilized respectively by the Council Cham-
bers and subsidiary accommodation for the Council of State, the
Legislative Assembly and the Chamber of Princes, with three open
courts separating these three chambers. A common library is situ-
ated in the centre of the building. The foundation stone for this
building was laid on Feb. 12 1921 by the Duke of Connaught, and
the building has been designed by Mr. Baker.
The All-India War Memorial is to be a monument in the form of a
triumphal arch. It will be built in white stone upon a red sandstone
base and will rise to a height of 162 feet. It will be surmounted by a
flare, so that on occasions of commemoration a column of smoke by
day and of flame by night will rise. The structure consists of a
mass pierced through from E. to W. by the great arch, 87? ft. high
and 35 ft. wide, which spans the Processional Avenue. The piers
thus formed are pierced by smaller arches which run through at
right angles to the main arch. The freedom from intricate ornament
and the simplicity of the design give the monument an appearance
of dignity. Above the great cornice is inscribed the one word
" INDIA," flanked by the dates " 1914 " and " 1919." This monu-
ment was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, and the foundation stone
was laid by the Duke of Connaught on Feb. 10 1921.
The estimate of cost for those works in the new capital which were
being carried out by Government, according to the revised figures
available in March 1921, was Rs. 12,91, 80,000 (or at Rs. 15 to the
i. 8,612,000).
On Oct. I 1912, by proclamation, there was constituted the
Administrative Province of Delhi under a chief commissioner.
This area was taken entirely from the old Delhi district of the
Punjab. Delhi province had originally an area of 528 sq. m., to
which was added later an area of 45 sq. m., to the E. of the Jumna
river and taken from the United Provinces, to serve as a grazing
ground for the cattle of the city. The total area of the province is
now therefore 573 sq. m., comprising, on the basis of the census of
1911, a pop. of 412,821. (H. W. M.*)
DELISLE, LEOPOLD VICTOR (1826-1910), French biblio-
phile and historian (see 7.964), published in 1909 his edition of
the Rouleau Mortuaire du B. Vital, Abbe de Savigni, and also
Les Actes de Henri II. (vol. ii appeared in 1916). He died at
Chantilly July 22 1910.
See R. L. Poole, Leopold Delisle (1911); X. Delisle, Lettres de
Leopold D elide (1911-4).
DELIUS, FREDERICK (1863- ), English musical com-
poser, born at Bradford, Yorks., Jan. 29 1863, was educated
primarily at the International College, Isleworth, and was des-
tined by his parents for a mercantile career. To Delius the
prospect thus held out was unendurable, though, rather para-
doxically, when he declined the business career proffered to him
in Bradford, he set out for Florida, where he established himself
as an orange planter. His spare time, however, was devoted to
such musical study as he could obtain from such books as were in
his diminutive Library. In this sense he, like Elgar, was self-
taught. But he quickly broke away from orange-groves and
betook himself to Leipzig, where he underwent a more or less
regular course of training at the hands of Jadassohn, though
probably he learnt more of practical use from Grieg who at that
time was resident in Leipzig studying the art of scoring for a
modern orchestra. In or about 1900 Delius took up his abode
at Grez-sur-Loing (S. et L.), near Fontainebleau, which sub-
sequently was his principal domicile, though he travelled in
many lands. He was in Norway in 1897 when his incidental
music was produced to Gunnar Heiberg's Folkeraadet, and, by
its satirical use of the National Anthem, set the town by the
ears. Meanwhile compositions flowed from his ready brain. He
gave a concert of some of them in London in 1899 when his
Legende for violin (composed in 1892) was produced. In 1893
his fantasie-overture Over the Hills and Far Away was done by
Dr. Haym at Elberfeld, and followed. in 1897 by his pianoforte
concerto in C minor. This fine work, however, was ultimately
recast and produced in London at a promenade concert in 1907
by Theo. Szanto, a Hungarian pianist. But before then, in
1896, Delius's first opera, Koanga, was in the making. It was
produced at Elberfeld in 1904. His second opera, Romeo and
Juliet in the Village, was first performed at the Komische Oper
in Berlin in 1907, and subsequently was given by Sir Thomas
Beecham at Covent Garden in Feb. 1910 and, in a revised
version, in 1919. A third opera, Fennimore and Gerda, was staged
at Frankfurt a/M soon after the Armistice.
In between the intervals of opera-composing, Delius was very
busy producing purely orchestral works, or works for chorus
and orchestra for the concert room. Thus Life's Dance dates from
1898; Paris: the Song of a Great City from 1900; Appalachia (1903) ;
Sea Drift (1904) ; A Mass of Life (after Nietzsche, 1905) ; Brigg Fair
(1908) ; In a Summer Garden (1908) ; Requiem (1909) ; a Poem of Life
and Love and Eventyr (1919). Besides all this Delius composed a
violin concerto and a double concerto for violin and violoncello, a
violin and a 'cello sonata, and a string quartet, many songs and
several a capella choruses.
DEMOBILIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT. No labour prob-
lem of greater difficulty has ever had to be faced than that of
national demobilization, whether military or civilian, after the
World War, because of the dimensions to which the calling -up of
national man-power had attained. An account of post-war
demobilization and resettlement in industry, in the United
Kingdom, from the civilian point of view, divides itself into three
clearly marked periods: (A.), the preparations during the pre-
Armistice period; (B.), the action taken immediately after the
Armistice; and (C.), during the first two years of resettlement.
(For the Army demobilization, see ARMY.)
(A.) PRE-ARMISTICE PERIOD
There were two lines upon which British Government
preparations proceeded during the pre- Armistice period in respect
of civilian workers:
(a) The bringing of workers demobilized from munitions work
and war work as quickly and as conveniently as possible to peace
work.
(6) The rapid turnover from war to peace so that employment
might be available for the largest number at the earliest moment.
For the provision for unemployment, see the article UNEMPLOY-
MENT.
(a) The Bringing of Workers Demobilized from Munitions
Work and War Work. In making plans for the demobilization
of civilians account had to be taken of the possibly simultaneous
demobilization of the armed forces. The ideal would have been to
have fitted civilian workers into their places before the forces
had been demobilized so that there should be no confusion as
between the two masses of demobilized persons. In point of fact
it was recognized from the outset that it would be impossible to
complete one process before the other began, first because in-
dustry could not in many places be started up again without the
return of numbers of pivotal men with the forces, and secondly
because large numbers of men with the forces had either a
statutory right or a promise to return to a particular employment.
It was accordingly necessary to frame a scheme for civilian work-
ers which could work conveniently side by side with the scheme
devised for the demobilization of the forces. The demobilization
of the forces took into account throughout the necessity of
approaching the matter, subject to paramount strategic consider-
ations, upon an industrial basis. From the first report on military
demobilization, signed in Dec. 1914 by Sir H. Llewellyn Smith
and Sir R. H. Brade (as secretaries of the Board of Trade and
War Office respectively), right through to the second interim
report of the Ministry of Reconstruction Committee on the
demobilization of the army, in Oct. 1917, this aspect of the
question was steadily faced. It was recognized that demobiliza-
tion must be so arranged as to render the transition from war to
peace as easy as possible, which meant arranging it so far as
possible to fall in with the immediate needs of the post-war
industrial situation.
The principles upon which the recommendations as to military
demobilization proceeded must be briefly explained, in order that the
way in which these were related to those laid down for civilian
workers may be appreciated.
The objects aimed at were to reduce unemployment to the lowest
possible point, but at the same time to make adequate provision for
such unemployment as was inevitable. In order to meet the first
point it was recommended that demobilization should, subject to
military exigencies, be carried out according to the requirements of
trade and industry, which meant disbanding first men for whom
employment was ascertained to be available or men in trades
specified in a priority list drawn up with reference to the relative
urgency of the industrial requirements of the country. To meet
the second object the committee recommended the provision of a
free unemployment insurance policy to be given on demobilization.
DEMOBILIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT
819
The object of the army scheme, which -was to get men to the place
where they could be employed as rapidly as possible, formed also
the first part of the civilian demobilization scheme. The questions of
civilian demobilization were considered from this point of view
partly by the Civil War Workers' Committee, appointed by the
Ministry of Reconstruction, which issued five reports during 1918,
partly by the Ministry of Labour, and partly by the Labour Resettle-
ment Committee set up by the Ministry of Labour. The recom-
mendations of these various bodies are arranged not in the order in
which they were actually made, but in relation to the order of the
events with which they dealt.
The first point to be considered was the order of discharge from
munitions works, just as the first point to be considered in army
demobilization was the order in which men should be released from
the colours. On this it was recommended by the Ministry of Labour
and the recommendation was accepted by the Cabinet that the
order of discharge should be as follows :
(a) That adequate notice of discharge should be given to each
individual worker.
(6) That adequate notice of the discharge ought to be given to the
local employment exchange so that the exchange might be able to
find employment for the worker.
(c) That the order of discharge should be: first, workers not
dependent on industrial employment for a livelihood ; second, workers
brought from a distance; third, workers who could be readily
absorbed in their previous occupation or in one of the staple indus-
tries of the district.
It was regarded as of paramount importance that the previous
industrial experience of the workpeople who were to be dismissed,
and the demand for workpeople of their experience elsewhere, should
be adequately considered by factory managements in consultation
with the officials of the Ministry of Labour before the selection of the
individuals to be discharged was made.
In order that persons discharged should be able to travel to their
homes at the earliest possible moment, or to their new places of
employment, it was recommended in the fifth report of the Civil War
Workers' Committee that free railway passes should be issued to
those persons who had changed their place of residence for the pur-
pose of taking up work on munitions or on naval or army contracts,
and who might be displaced from such employment owing to the
cessation of hostilities. In such cases the worker should have the
option of having his or her fare paid either to the usual place of resi-
dence, or to some other place at which work is available.
After the question of the order of discharge there was the question
to be considered of the actual machinery for bringing workers into
touch with possible employers. On this the following recommenda-
tions were made by a committee of the Civil War Workers' Com-
mittee : (a) Steps should be taken by the Government, through the
machinery of the employment exchanges, to assist war workers to
return to their former employment. In addition joint industrial
councils and similar joint bodies for individual industries should be
taken into consultation. (6) Steps should be taken as soon as there
was a reasonable prospect of peace to ascertain where war workers
would be required, (c) Workers should be encouraged to register
their requirements. Proposals were also made as to limiting the flow
of juvenile entrants into the rank of wage earners by means of pro-
longing the school age, and further schemes were proposed for
watching the placing of young persons in industry.
Action on these recommendations was possible during the pre-
Armistice period only in so far as it would not disturb the munitions
output by giving workers the impression that peace was in sight
before the facts justified this belief. It was therefore not possible
until immediately before the Armistice to take full advantage of the
proposals for bringing employers and workpeople into touch.
It was universally agreed that the machinery for demobilization
must be found in the employment exchange system. It was, how-
ever, suggested that the employment exchange machine might break
down under the heavy strain imposed upon it unless it were supple-
mented. The Minister of Labour had appreciated this aspect of
the problem and in 1917 had appointed a series of local employment
committees to advise and assist exchanges. These committees (see
UNEMPLOYMENT) consisted of equal numbers of employers and em-
ployed presided over by a chairman nominated by the Minister of
Labour. A committee was attached to each principal exchange area
and its duties were generally to advise upon the work of the exchange
and particularly to help in the task of the demobilization of civilian
workers. The various schemes prepared by the Ministry of Labour
were circulated to these committees, so that when the period of
actual demobilization came they were fully prepared to handle them.
In addition a central committee known as the Labour Resettlement
Committee was set up by the Minister of Labour to advise the
Ministry nationally, just as the exchanges were advised locally.
In the next place the actual machinery necessary to effect the rapid
demobilization and transfer of workers was elaborated in detail by a
Departmental Committee set up by the Minister of Labour. This
committee divided its report into four parts: (i) registration of
workpeople under notice of discharge; (ii) distribution of completed
forms of registration to exchanges or other local offices; (iii) negotia-
tions with the previous or other employers of the workpeople in
order that there may be no avoidable interval of unemployment
after discharge from war employment; (iv) placing of workpeople
in employment after their discharge.
Under these four heads the committee worked out in detail the
registration forms and cards which would be necessary for an
effective indexing of the workers. They worked out the system of
interchange between the exchange at which a worker was dis-
charged and the exchange at which he was to be reemployed. They
suggested a method by which, upon interchange of the forms, the
exchange in the neighbourhood where the man sought employment
put itself into touch with the employer, and notified the result of this
communication to the exchange of discharge. Finally, they made
proposals by which a worker previously engaged upon war work,
seeking employment, could be traced so that he could be fitted into
the general scheme.
Apart from these preparations for action to be taken upon the
cessation of hostilities, certain action was being taken in respect of
men returning, disabled or unfit, from the colours. This work was
undertaken as a result of the recommendation of the* Resettlement
of Officers Committee under the chairmanship of Sir Reginald Brade,
which recommended that "an Appointments Board for officers and
men of like standing should be established under the control of the
Ministry of Labour to operate with the existing University Appoint-
ments Boards or other approved bodies." There had been two
departments dealing from different points of view with this problem.
In 1915 a special department of the Ministry of Labour had been set
up, known as the Professional and Business Register, whose work
consisted in finding appointments for persons of the classes covered
by its title. During the earlier years of the war its duties principally
consisted in finding war employment for persons of the professional
classes who were either unable to pursue their pre-war occupation
owing to war conditions or who wished to be used upon national
service. In addition there was established early in July at the Minis-
try of Munitions an organization known as the Officers' University
and Technical Training Classes. These provided the means by which
unfit officers and professional and business men in the ranks could
attend universities, technical institutions and other centres of
instruction during their period of convalescence. Candidates so
trained, if still unfit for active service, were utilized to meet the
immediate demands of Government departments.
Following upon the report of the Brade Committee it was con-
sidered convenient to combine these two departments under one
control, and the Appointments Department of the Ministry of
Labour was established in April 1918. Previous to the cessation of
hostilities the department performed two functions: (i) the training
of the convalescent serving officer, and (ii) the placing in employment
of officers, whether trained or untrained, as well as of professional
men. The training of the convalescent serving officer was in opera-
tion for more than 12 months previous to the Armistice. Some 4,000
cases passed through the training scheme. The officers received
training for practically every professional and higher commercial
appointment. At this stage, while demands still far outran supply,
no considerable difficulties in placing the trained men arose.
These proposals affected officers. The placing of workpeople
remained with the exchanges, but the question of the training of
disabled members of the forces was also receiving attention. Joint
committees were formed by the Ministry of Labour for dealing with
this problem for a number of trades. These committees were generally
on a national basis and devoted themselves to laying down conditions
upon which trainees could be admitted into industry. Both as
regards officers and men these two schemes, which formed the
foundation of the large schemes, were operated after the Armistice
by the Appointments and Training Departments respectively.
(b) The Rapid Turnover from War to Peace. The proposals
on this head may be considered under two aspects:
(a) Proposals as to the way in which the Government should
treat its contracts with a view to reducing the dislocation consequent
on the change from war to peace to the lowest possible point.
(b) Proposals for development of industries in peace with special
reference to the lessons learned during the war.
So far as munitions contracts were concerned there had to be
considered (i) termination of contracts for the supply of muni-
tions, (ii) disposal of stores, stock and material, machinery, etc.,
in the possession of the Government, and (iii) the arrangements
for the disposal or post-war use of national factories with their
plant and equipment.
With regard to contracts it was plain that to continue manufacture
of munitions for a moment longer than the military situation required
was in the highest degree uneconomic. At the same time regard had
to be had to the fact that a sudden cessation of all contracts would
lead to unemployment on a hitherto unexampled scale, and would,
moreover, with regard to such munitions as guns and tanks,
lead to the abandonment of manufacture at an advanced stage in
the process. It was recommended by the Ministry of Munitions, and
accepted by the Cabinet, that the manufacture of munitions should
be terminated at the earliest possible moment, subject to discretion
both as regards creating excessive unemployment and with regard to
820
DEMOBILIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT
the waste that would be engendered by the sudden cessation of the
manufacture of expensive articles nearly completed.
With regard to the disposal of stores, the Surplus Stores Depart-
ment of the Ministry of Munitions had been proceeding for some
time with the day-to-day disposal of obsolete munitions, scrap, sur-
plus machinery and other movable property no longer required by
the Ministry. Owing to the enormous field covered by the Ministry
this was a considerable operation, but one almost negligible as com-
pared with the gigantic business which would have to be undertaken
in respect of the accumulation of war stores on the cessation of
hostilities. It was pointed out that large quantities of materials had
been delivered to contractors to enable them to carry out their
contracts, and plant and machinery had in many cases been installed
in the works of manufacturers on terms which formed part of the
contracts themselves. The Ministry of Munitions were made respon-
sible for the disposal of these stores, and it was at that time con-
sidered not improbable that on the completion of this work the
Ministry of Munitions would be converted into a permanent Minis-
try of Supply combining in itself the supply departments of the
Admiralty, War Office, Air Force and even of the Stationery Office,
and Office of Works.
The question of the post-war use of national factories was dis-
cussed as one of general policy. In labour quarters the view was
strongly held that these factories should be put into commission
immediately upon the cessation of hostilities to provide employment
during the transition period, and thereafter should be operated by
the Government in competition with private enterprise. These
proposals were rejected. In the first place it was pointed out that
for the immediate period of transition the factories would be use-
less. To convert a shell-producing factory into a factory for com-
mercial purposes would take anywhere from six months to a year,
and at the end of the year it was hoped that the worst period of dis-
location would be over. Apart from this, on general grounds, it was
felt that the Government by entering into competition with the
private trader would to a great extent decrease rather than increase
employment. The Minister of Munitions was therefore authorized
to make arrangements for the disposal of national factories.
In fact, all the national factories, with the exception of a small
number retained in connexion with the work of the Training Depart-
ment to the Ministry of Labour, were disposed of. In addition to the
cessation of contracts the Government's obligation in respect of
placing further contracts in regard to peace requirements was also
considered. It had long been maintained by labour opinion that
the placing of Government contracts with special regard to possible
unemployment would to a certain extent help to reduce unemploy-
ment. When, however, the volume of peace-time contracts is com-
pared with the general volume of trade, it becomes apparent that the
most careful placing of such contracts can do little to mitigate a
situation in which unemployment is really serious. While this is so,
in so far as Government contracts and contracts placed by public
bodies can alleviate the situation, it was recommended that Govern-
ment departments and public or semi-public bodies should be urged
to place contracts for their peace requirements at the earliest possible
moment. In point of fact this recommendation failed of its effect
because public bodies (like private employers), being utterly unable
to foresee the course of prices during the transition period, were not
disposed to run the grave financial risks involved.
Proposals were further made with a view to the development of
industry immediately upon the cessation of hostilities. These
proposals took two forms: (a) proposals for obtaining new markets
and the materials necessary for post-war manufacture, and (b) the
actual development of the various industries.
Under the first head it was contemplated that the reconstruction
of the devastated areas of Belgium and France would necessarily
bring large orders to the British manufacturers. It was accordingly
proposed that an International Commission should be appointed to
investigate the question of reconstructional work in the devastated
areas of Belgium and northern France and to prepare schedules of
contracts. Proposals were further made with a view to stimulating
those industries, such as dyes and glass, which had during the war
taken over processes previously carried on by the Germans.
With regard to materials, the early history of munitions supply had
indicated that in the handling of raw materials lay the key to the
control of industry. Metal and ore during the war had been con-
trolled by the Priority Department of the Ministry of Munitions,
wool and textiles (except cotton) by the War Office, and cotton by
the Board of Trade. Two steps were taken to apply similar prin-
ciples to the period of reconstruction. In the first place a Priorities
Committee of Cabinet Ministers was set up as the ultimate authority
for the allocation of raw materials. In the second a standing council
was established consisting of leading representatives of commerce,
industry, labour and the departments concerned to advise the
Cabinet Committee. Ancillary to these bodies control departments
for building were established under the general direction of the
Ministry of Reconstruction. Under these general authorities special
committees were set up for various trades to consider the nature and
amount of supplies of materials and foodstuffs which, in their
opinion, would be required by the United Kingdom during the
period which might elapse between the termination of the World
War and the restoration of a normal condition of trade
With regard to the development of industry, the future of engi-
neering, agriculture and electric power were held to be the burning
problems of the moment. So far as the employment of women was
concerned attention was directed to their rights as competitors with
men and the means by which they could be encouraged to revert to
domestic service.
Engineering. The first engineering committee was appointed by
the Board of Trade under the chairmanship of Sir Clarendon Hyde
and made certain recommendations dealing with essential indus-
tries, the amalgamation and joint working of existing firms, appren-
tices, technical education, trade combination, trade marks and
patents. In particular it recommended that "every effort should be
made to develop and encourage the medium and light engineering
trades, whether already existing in this country or not, thereby
making use of the workshop motive power and equipment installed
for war purposes, and finding suitable employment for the large body
of semi-skilled and female labour recently created."
This last recommendation was accepted by the Government, and
the Minister of Reconstruction appointed a further committee,
known as the Engineering Trades (New Industries) Committee,
under the chairmanship of the Hon. H. D. McLaren:
" To compile a list of the articles suitable for manufacture by
those with engineering trade experience or plant, which were either
not made in the United Kingdom before the war, but were imported,
or were made in the United Kingdom in small or insufficient quanti-
ties and for which there is likely to be a considerable demand after
the war, classified as to whether they are capable of being made by
(i) women, (2) men and women, (3) skilled men, and setting out
the industries to which such new manufactures would most suitably
be attached ; and to make recommendations
" (a) On the establishment and development of such industries
by the transfer of labour, machines and otherwise;
" (b) As to how such a transfer could be made, and what organiza-
tion would be requisite for the purpose, with due regard to securing
the cooperation of labour."
This committee appointed sub-committees to deal with the
various branches of engineering. 1
Agriculture. So far as agriculture was concerned, in 1915 the
Prime Minister appointed a committee under the chairmanship of
Lord Selborne. Their first report resulted in the setting up of the
Agricultural Wages Boards which have regulated the wages of
agricultural workers. The final report, presented in Jan. igiS, 2
dealt with the problems of small holdings, land reclamation and
drainage, credit facilities for land settlers, village reconstruction,
and rural transport.
Electric Power. Two committees were set up to deal with electric
power supply. The first, appointed by the Board of Trade, under the
chairmanship of Sir Archibald Williamson reported: 3 (a) that a
highly important element in reducing manufacturing costs will be the
general extension of the use of electric power supplied at the lowest
possible price ; (b) that the present system under which a supply of
electricity is provided in a large number of small areas by separate
authorities is incompatible with anything that can now be accepted
as a technically sound system ; (c) that a comprehensive system for
the generation of electricity, and, where necessary, reorganizing its
supply, should be established as soon as possible.
The problem was further considered by the committee of chairmen
on electric power supply. 4 They reported (a) that the development
of electricity should take place on a national scale and under the
control of the State ; (b) that an Electricity Board should be set up to
advise upon and control the carrying out of the national scheme,
assisted by an operating executive; and (c) that the first duty of the
Board would be to plan out a comprehensive scheme for the whole
country, and then by degrees to secure the development of electrical
power over the whole of the United Kingdom by such methods as
they might find suitable to the requirements of different areas.
In this way the committee of chairmen reduced the general prin-
ciples enunciated by Sir Archibald Williamson's committee to
practical proposals, though proposals still on a universal scale. The
electricity commissioners under the Ministry of Transport were the
tangible result of these recommendations.
(B.) IMMEDIATE POST-ARMISTICE PERIOD
On Nov. n 1918 the Ministry of Munitions issued to con-
tractors, sub-contractors and workpeople engaged on work for
the Department, a notice indicating the line of action to be
followed. The instruction proceeded on the following lines:
1. There should, as far as possible, be no immediate general dis-
charge of munition workers.
2. All workers, however, who desire to withdraw from industry or
to leave for any reason, and all workers who can be absorbed else-
where, should at once be released. Production on contracts for guns
1 Engineering Trades (New Industries) Committee Report (Cd.
9,226).
2 Agricultural Policy Sub-Committee Report (Cd. 9,079).
Cd. 9,062.
4 Cd. 93.
DEMOBILIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT
821
and gun munition, machine-guns, small arms and small-arms muni-
tion, trench mortars, bombs and stores, pyrotechnic stores, aerial
bombs, or accessories of the above stores, aircraft and air engines, and
the manufacture of explosives, should be reduced in the following
ways: (a) all overtime should be immediately abolished ; (6) systems
of payment by results may be temporarily suspended ; (c) where re-
duced hours are worked upon a time-work basis, the number of
hours worked must not be less than one-half of the hours in the
present normal working week. If the earnings of workpeople fall
below certain figures they will be made up to them by the State.
3. The adoption of half-time may cause discharges, but these
should be spread out for as long a period as possible.
4. Free railway facilities will be provided for workpeople from
the place of employment to their homes or to places where they
have new employment.
At the same time, the first announcement was made of the
institution of a temporary non-contributory scheme for un-
employment which would remain in force pending the intro-
duction of a general contributory scheme, the main provisions
of which were that unemployed men were to receive 243. per
week and women 205. (later increased to 305. and 255.), with
additional allowances for dependants. Almost immediately
afterwards instructions were issued in respect of war munition
volunteers, war work volunteers, national service and war
agriculture volunteers indicating that the schemes would be
terminated at Dec. 14 1918. A notice was issued at the end of
Nov. dealing with soldiers released from the colours, and army
reserve munition workers.
These instructions indicated the methods by which the
employment of these men under war conditions would be ter-
minated. They followed to a large extent the lines of the recom-
mendations prepared by the committees mentioned above; but
it was felt by the Government that it was necessary to con-
stitute a special department for dealing with problems of civil
demobilization. Accordingly, at the end of Nov. a Controller-
General of Civil Demobilization and Resettlement was appointed
and his department was attached to the Ministry of Labour.
This department was made responsible for:
(a) the actual machinery of the return both of the men from the
forces and civilian workers to their previous occupations through the
employment exchanges;
(6) attempting to remove from the labour point of view obstacles
to the restarting of industry; and
(c) the administration of the Appointments Department which
dealt, on a rapidly increasing scale as demobilization proceeded, with
the training and placing of ex-officers and men of similar educational
qualifications. To these functions were added later the responsibility
for the Civil Liabilities Resettlement Scheme.
The first few months were a time of great difficulty and
strain. On the one hand the machinery devised for demobiliza-
tion of the forces was found to be too slow to meet the situation
and a new scheme was introduced which enormously expedited
the procedure. This led to a position when very large numbers
of both ex-civilian workers and ex-service men were out of work
at the same time. Immediately, therefore, protests were made,
against the rapid closing down of factories engaged upon war
work. Deputations were constantly received both by the
Minister of Labour and the Minister of Munitions protesting
against the closing of factories engaged upon war work, and
during the end of 1918 and the early months of 1919 it was found
necessary to keep certain factories engaged on munitions at
work even though their products were not likely to be required.
Every effort was made by the newly created Civil Demobiliza-
tion and Resettlement Department to make the transition
from war to peace work as easy and as rapid as possible. For
this purpose at the end of 1918 it was decided to set up for each
of the areas covered by the Ministry of Labour Employment
Exchanges a divisional council, elected from members of the
local employment committees to which reference has already
been made. The business of these councils, which operated till
the later months of 1919, was to coordinate the work of the local
employment committee and particularly to help in the transition
from war to peace. In order to assist the councils in their work
a number of officers known as Resettlement Officers were
appointed by the Minister, whose business was to travel round
the country and investigate the causes which impeded the
turnover from war to peace. Such conditions as a temporary
shortage of materials, shortage of rolling stock, inability to
recover premises required for business purposes commandeered
by the Government, housing difficulties, and many other matters
of this type were investigated and dealt with by these officers
under the directions of the Minister and of the divisional councils.
At the end of the year, the Government set up a minister in
general charge of reconstruction problems, with a council
designed to review the position generally and give instructions
to the various departments concerned in the work. This council
terminated its functions upon the formation of the Lloyd George
Government at the beginning of 1919.
(C.) THE FIRST Two YEARS OF RESETTLEMENT
The success of the preparations which had been made, and
of the method in which the machinery was worked, is indicated
by the figures of re-absorption of men demobilized. For six
months after the Armistice there was a steady increase in the
number of ex-service men unemployed, and at the beginning of
May 1919, when about 3,300,000 men had been discharged, over
400,000 were recorded as drawing out-of-work donation. From
that date, although the numbers discharged continued to rise,
there was an almost uninterrupted fall in the number unemployed,
until, at the end of July 1920, when demobilization was practical-
ly complete and over 5,000,000 men had been discharged, less
than 150,000, or only 3%, were registered as unemployed.
These figures relate only to ex-service men, and in order to
discover how far the ex-civilian workers had been reabsorbed, it
is necessary to look at the unemployment figures for the same
period. After the Armistice the number of civilian workpeople
unemployed rose continuously until the beginning of March 1919,
when nearly 800,000 were recorded as receiving out-of-work
donation. After that date, however, there was a rapid improve-
ment, and by the end of Sept. the number had fallen to about
100,000. Owing to changes in administration and in some cases
to the exhaustion of benefit, the figures, no doubt, overstate the
extent of the, improvement, but, even when due allowance is
made for these factors, it is clear that there was a remarkable
recovery after March 1919. The evidence so furnished is con-
firmed by the statistics of unemployment among the members of
certain trade unions which make regular returns to the Ministry
of Labour. In these unions (mainly composed of skilled workmen)
the proportion unemployed, which was 0^4 % at the end of Oct.
1918, rose month by month after the Armistice until it reached
2-9% at the end of March 1919. From that date, however, it
fell, and at the end of Sept. 1919 it was only 1-6%. There was a
further rise in the winter of 1919-20, due to the strikes in the
railway service and in the iron foundries; but the percentage fell
again in the spring of 1920, and from March to June of that year,
when demobilization was almost completed, it varied between
0-9 and i 2 %, much below the figure for any month in 1913, which
was itself a year of good employment.
The consideration of these figures indicates that the turnover
from war to peace had been effected with surprising speed and
with remarkable lack of trouble. But while in the first 18 months
after the Armistice trade would have rapidly recovered, provision
was urgently required for certain large classes of ex-service men
which may be grouped as follows:
(a) the disabled who, although in receipt of pensions, required
training to enable them to enter upon some occupation ;
(b) youths whose apprenticeships had been interrupted;
(c) women thrown out of work by the turnover from war to peace;
(d) the ex-officer who, as a result of the war, was either unable or,
for adequate causes, unwilling to resume his old occupation ; and
() the large number of men who had had some small business or
undertaking which had been seriously affected by the war.
So far as the first class was concerned two steps were taken
the first to place men in immediate employment, the second
to train them for employment later.
Placing of Disabled Men. During 1917 a scheme had been pro-
posed by Mr. Rothband, of Manchester, for absorbing a proportion
of disabled men in each industry. This scheme was fully canvassed
during the later years of the World War, and finally, in Aug. 1919,
was adopted by the Government. In that month the King's National
822
DEMOBILIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT
Roll for disabled men was inaugurated by Royal Proclamation, and
the scheme itself was actually launched on Sept. 15. The basis of the
scheme was to ask each industry to take disabled men into its ranks
to a proportion of 5 % of the total employees. Individual employers
who agreed to come into the scheme were given a certificate to that
effect, and were entitled to use a special seal saying that they were
inscribed upon the National Roll. Industries, of course, vary con-
siderably in their power to absorb disabled men, and the 5 % was not
rigidly enforced, but they were invited to take as large a percentage
as the nature of the work permitted. The scheme worked with con-
siderable success. At Feb. 19 1921 the number of employers on the
roll was 24,278. The total staffs covered by them was 4,167,171;
the number of disabled ex-service men employed was 270,552.
The Roll was headed by the King and Queen Alexandra. H. M.
Treasury were entered upon the Roll in respect of Government
departments and Government industrial establishments, and the
Roll included the staff of the Houses of Lords and Commons and of
the Law Courts. Special efforts were made to include local authori-
ties upon the Roll, and at the date mentioned above there were 751
upon the Roll in England and Wales, and 68 upon the Roll in Scot-
land. In addition arrangements were made by which preference was
given in allocating Government contracts to employers whose names
were upon the Roll. It may be noted in this connexion that when the
scheme was launched in Sept. 1919 the number of disabled ex-service
men who had registered themselves as unemployed was 41,616.
There is no doubt that in addition to the men registered there was a
considerable number, perhaps as many as 20,000, who had not re-
ported themselves a fact which is proved by additional registra-
tions which followed upon the inauguration of the scheme. As a
result of the scheme the figure fell to 14,849 in Sept. 1920. Of these
a considerable number were in Ireland, where the National Roll, for
various reasons, could not operate.
Training dealt with three main classes: The disabled ex-service
man who could not, owing to his disability, return to his pre-war
occupation ; the man whose apprenticeship had been interrupted by
war service and could not be renewed without assistance from the
State; and the woman who, by entering munitions work at an early
age, had failed to acquire a woman's trade. In addition to these
classes there was the fit ex-service man whose enlistment in the army
or navy at an early age had prevented him from acquiring a skilled
trade. For industrial reasons it was soon found that little could
be done unless he had commenced an apprenticeship before the war.
On Aug. I 1919, when the industrial training of disabled ex-service
men was taken over by the Ministry of Labour from the Ministry of
Pensions, about 10,000 men had already been trained, about 12,000
were under training, and some 75,000 more were estimated to be
awaiting training. In dealing with this problem the policy of the
Training Department was to associate the administration of industrial
training with local education authorities, to retain and increase the
cooperation already established in training matters with the trades
and industries concerned, and to repair the shortage of training
facilities by the establishment of Government instructional factories.
The organization set up was based on the division of the coun-
try into 17 administrative areas, each under a divisional director.
The cooperation of the employers and workpeople of the industries
and trades in which men were being trained had already been secured
after protracted negotiations with the leading British industries,
which were conducted in 1916 and 1917 by the late Mr. St. George
Heath of the Ministry of Labour. These negotiations resulted in a
series of agreements to which representatives of employers' organiza-
tions, trade unions and the State were contracting parties, providing
for the precise length of the training courses, the regulation by
each trade of the number of men admitted to training in it, and the
proportion of the men's pay respectively contributable by the em-
ployer and the State. The training schemes were drawn up by the
National Trade Advisory Committees, composed of equal numbers
of representatives of employers and workpeople, and their super-
vision was carried out by Local Technical Advisory Committees,
similarly constituted, without whose consent no man was to be
placed into training.
The policy of concentrating training in the Government instruc-
tional factory, based on the closest possible imitation of the manage-
ment, discipline, machinery and productive work of the ordinary
factory, but differing from the latter in that its primary function
is the output of trained men instead of finished goods, was the out-
come of the great and growing demand during the war for semi-
skilled workers, capable of setting free the skilled man for more
complicated operations. The impossibility of obtaining a rapid
supply of such workers through the ordinary workshop, which was
too intent upon production to occupy itself with the scientific up-
grading of unskilled labour, or through the existing machinery of the
technical schools, which were out of touch with the requirements of
modern large-scale manufacture, compelled the Government to set
up institutions of its own. In these was evolved a system of intensive
training capable of teaching in two or three months, to a woman
hitherto accustomed only to house work, one or two of the simple
operations involved in specialized repetition work and of turning
her, for example, into a competent capstan hand. The considerations
which led to the adoption of this system for the purpose of dilution
applied even more strongly to the case of the disabled man.
Up to Jan. 1921 some 50,000 men had been trained or were in
training under the Ministry of Labour in addition to the 10,000
already trained when they took over from the Ministry of Pensions.
Fifty Government instructional factories had been set up with
accommodation for 20,000 men, providing training in most skilled
trades in the country and engaged on productive work ranging
from the building of houses to the repairing of watches and clocks.
The chief trades in which training was given were mechanical
and electrical engineering, building in all its branches, furniture-
making and wood-working, boot- and shoe-making and repairing
(hand and machine), tailoring (wholesale and retail), watch- and
clock-making and repairing, brush-making, basket-making, motor
mechanics and commercial work, besides a great number of smaller
trades, or trades, such as textiles and pottery, in which the amount
of training given has been more limited. A considerable number of
men were trained entirely in employers' workshops, but in the
majority of cases a preliminary period in an institution, either a
technical school or preferably an instructional factory, was given
before placing a man for the completion of his training with an
employer. The experience acquired during the war, in connexion
with semi-skilled workers, that instruction controlled and directed
on scientific principles results in a surprisingly high rate of progress
on the part of the learner, was amply confirmed when applied to
training for skilled occupations.
Interrupted Apprenticeships. Prior to the Armistice a special
committee, appointed by the Ministry of Reconstruction, considered
this problem, and, in consultation with the Labour and Resettlement
Committee, prepared a scheme to enable those involved to complete
their apprenticeship. It was recognized that each industry had its
own problems and that no uniform scheme could be adopted. The
Committee, therefore, contented themselves with laying down
certain general principles which should be observed if State assist-
ance was to be obtained. It was left to each industry, through an
organization representative of employers and operatives, to prepare
a detailed scheme adapted to the needs of the industry concerned
and embodying these general principles, which may be summarized
as follows:
(i) Men in the last year of their apprenticeship on enlistment
should be regarded as journeymen.
(ii) The unexpired period of apprenticeship should be reduced
by not less than one-third of the time lost by service in H. M. forces.
(iii) The time, it any, during which a man worked at his trade
while in H. M. forces should be counted as part of the original
apprenticeship.
(iv) After reaching the age when his original apprenticeship would
have terminated, or the age of 21 , whichever was the earlier, the man
should be paid not less than three-quarters of the journeyman's rate
for the first half of the resumed apprenticeship and not less than
five-sixths for the remainder. Towards such wages the State would
pay a grant equal to one-third of the journeyman's rate.
(v) Provision should be made in the scheme for allowing the
training in the employer's establishment to be supplemented by
training in a technical institute, the State agreeing to pay fees and a
maintenance allowance.
(vi) An agreement should be entered into by employer and
apprentice under which the employer undertook to train the appren-
tice as a skilled workman, and the apprentice to complete his training
with the employer.
Forty distinct industries, covering about 800 different trades,
prepared schemes in accordance with the principles laid down above.
These schemes varied in many details, especially as regards the wages
payable and the rate of deduction to be made from the unexpired
period of apprenticeship in respect of the time served in H. M. forces.
An additional scheme was prepared by the Ministry of Labour to
cover unorganized trades and trades where the small number of
apprentices did not justify a special scheme.
The number of apprentices brought under the scheme was, at the
end of Jan. 1921, 43,500. These figures do not indicate the total
number of persons who, whether directly or indirectly, had benefited
as a result of the scheme. A large number of important firms, includ-
ing the majority of the railway companies, took back their ex-service
apprentices under conditions as good as, or better than, those laid
down in the scheme, but preferred not to ask for State assistance.
Government departments, such as the Admiralty, the Ministry of
Munitions and the Post Office, adopted a similar course. Persons in
their last year of apprenticeship on enlistment were treated as
journeymen but did not receive State assistance.
It has been estimated that the number of persons who in this way
indirectly benefited under the scheme was at least as large as the
number of those who were formally brought within its provisions.
On Jan. I 1921 the number of apprentices who had applied and
were eligible, but for whom employers had not been found willing to
enable them to complete their apprenticeship, was 300. It will be
seen, therefore, that practically the whole of those desiring to com-
plete their apprenticeship were enabled to do so.
One of the conditions attached to payment of State assistance was
an undertaking on the part of the employer that he would give to the
apprentice the training necessary to make of him a skilled workman.
It became, therefore, the duty of the Ministry of Labour to take
steps to insure that this undertaking was carried out. Employers
DEMOBILIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT
823
might otherwise draw State assistance and exploit the labour of the
apprentices by keeping them on " repetition ' work. A small staff
of specially qualified officers was accordingly appointed to visit the
firms having apprentices under the scheme, and satisfy themselves
that the training given was satisfactory.
The training given to these apprentices was modelled on the
training given to boys. Where such was the case it was not possible
to take exception to what was in fact the methods customary to
industry. But in investigating the training of the ex-service men,
the officers were, in effect, making a survey of the methods of train-
ing customary in the skilled trades in the case of boy apprentices.
No such survey had ever been attempted before.
As stated earlier, each scheme for an industry was prepared by
some organization representative of employers and operatives in
that industry. Much thought was given by the industry to the
preparation of these schemes, and the methods and facilities for
training, whether in the workshop or technical institute, were fully
discussed. A scheme when finally adopted represented, therefore, a
considered agreement within the industry. In connexion with the
administration of the various schemes, many difficult questions of
interpretation arose. The Ministry of Labour made no attempt to
give an interpretation, but referred the question to the trade organ-
ization who had prepared the scheme, and accepted their interpreta-
tion; acting on the assumption that the only body fitted to give a
decision was the organization responsible for the scheme. Where
disputes arose between an individual employer and apprentice, it was
provided in the agreement between the two that such dispute
should be referred to the Trade Panel of the Local Employment
Committee and that the decision of the panel should be final.
It will be seen, therefore, that the policy underlying the scheme
was one of administration under the advice and direction of the
various industries. This policy was adopted after careful considera-
tion. It was felt that, in view of the widespread dislike of Govern-
ment interference, any attempt to impose a scheme on industry was
bound to fail, and that success could be looked for only if the coopera-
tion of industry was sought and secured. This policy has been
justified by its results. The Ministry of Labour, throughout, was
able to count on receiving the fullest assistance, both from em-
ployers' associations and trade unions.
Women's Training. The first women's training course was opened
at the end of May 1919. This was a course of training for domestic
service, and 16 young women passed through the 13 weeks' course
and obtained good situations at its close. Altogether 84 centres for
training in domestic service were established, and just over 2,000
women trained. The experiment proved successful and encouraging.
The courses were held in widely differing conditions and localities,
but under the excellent teachers the interest of the women was
aroused and the majority went straight into service from the schools.
These classes were held in various parts of London and the suburbs
and in 42 towns throughout Great Britain.
Apart from domestic service, some 7,000 women were trained for
industry. The department's training was from the first restricted
by the terms of the Treasury grant " to normal women's industries
which were women's trades or processes before the war," and to
these, notwithstanding much pressure from women's organizations,
the women's training branch rigorously confined its activities. Three
other conditions limited the sphere of its industrial training, viz. a
reasonable prospect of absorption in the industry after training, good
working conditions, coupled with fair wages, in the trade, and the
consent of the trade unions and the employers concerned to training
being given. Exhaustive enquiry and constant watchfulness were
necessary in these connexions.
The greatest demand tor training, combined with the best prospect
of absorption and most favourable conditions, was found in the
two chief women's trades dressmaking and tailoring; and 77
courses were provided, affording accommodation for 3,362 women.
The majority of these training courses came to an end on June 30
1920, though a limited number were continued for varying periods
in order that the standard course might in each case be completed,
viz. six months for an industrial and three months for a domestic
course. From July onwards but few new schemes (and those solely
of a domestic type) were started, but by this time the trade slump
had begun, and it was useless to train women for industries in
which the chance of employment was of the slenderest.
The training referred to above is that of women who were thrown
out of employment by the termination of the war. The Women's
Training Branch, however, was entrusted with the training of two
other classes of women directly affected by the war, viz. soldiers'
widows and disabled nurses. The powers of the State to give such
training to these women as would enable them to supplement their
pensions by employment were first vested in the Ministry of Pensions
by Royal Warrant, but were transferred to the Ministry of Labour
by Order in Council in the autumn of 1919.
Over 4,000 applications from widows were dealt with, and training
found for over 1,200 of those who applied. During the training,
which was in all cases free, an allowance was made to the widow in
addition to her pension to enable her to meet any extra expense to
which she might be put. A large number of widows were trained
as practising midwives. Having a home and a pension they were
able, as few women were, to accept the precarious livelihood which
this calling offers in a rural district. As all had to pass the examina-
tion of the Central Midwives' Board, women of good general educa-
tion only were selected for this particular branch. Another large
group of the widows in training were those learning tailoring and
dressmaking, home dressmaking being especially popular, possibly
because the department was empowered to make a grant of a sewing
machine on the completion of the course and also because the work
could be carried out without interference with normal domestic ties
and duties. Training in cookery, ladies' hair-dressing, confectionery,
photographic studio work, and secretarial work was also given.
Applications received from disabled nurses were relatively few in
number, as was to be expected, because those only were eligible who
were in receipt of a disability pension under the Royal Warrant,
and were not entirely disabled but physically unfit to practise as
nurses. After the powers of the Ministry of Pensions were trans-
ferred to the Ministry of Labour in the autumn ot 1919, 140 disabled
nurses had by March 1921 been placed in training, out of 394
applicants. Some very sad cases were brought to light, many of the
women proving physically unfit for the training desired, and for
such application for assistance was made to the " Officers' Friend."
Those remaining under training in March 1921 represented a great
variety of occupations, including dispensing, massage and electrical
treatment, public health appointments, secretaries and chauffeuses
to doctors, poultry farming, etc.
Training and Placing of_ Ex-Officers. The Appointments Depart-
ment came into being during the war. Upon the Armistice its work
developed very considerably both as regards training and placing in
employment. In the first place, so far as training was concerned,
under the decision of the War Cabinet given in Dec. 1918, funds
were made available for higher educational training in universities,
technical colleges, agricultural colleges, farms, professional firms,
business houses, etc. The Board of Education, the Board of Agricul-
ture and the Ministry of Pensions with the Ministry of Labour were
made responsible for the administration of the scheme. The Appoint-
ments Department, by reason of its experience and provincial
organization, operated as the machinery by which all the depart-
ments obtained information as to applicants, while the training for
agriculture and higher educational training remained respectively
with the Ministry of Agriculture and the Board of Education. The
professional business and workshop training was transferred from
the Ministry of Pensions to the Appointments Department. Under
this scheme 17,311 ex-officers and men of similar educational qualifi-
cations had been placed by the Appointments Department in train-
ing at the end of Jan. 1921, while there were 1,864 waiting.
In connexion with the scheme selection committees were set up
throughout the country, composed of prominent professional and
business men in each district. The functions of these committees
were to interview candidates who applied for grants, and to malcei
recommendations to a body known as the Grants Committee at
headquarters. The final decision in such recommendations rested
with the London Grants Committee.
These committees worked in turn in conjunction with what were
known as Interviewing Boards, whose functions were (a) to decide
what applicants properly came within the purview of the Appoint-,
ments Department ; (b) to advise applicants as to their prospects of
obtaining employment, and (c) to select applicants as candidates for
the vacancies on the books.
So far as placing was concerned, upon demobilization the depart-
ment undertook the work of acting as official agent between em-
ployers and their former employees, who were either officers or men
of other ranks of similar educational qualifications. In this capacity
the department facilitated the return to their pre-war employment of
169,321 men up to March 26 1919. In addition to this the depart-
ment undertook special activities with a view to finding new appoint-
ments for ex-officers, and up to the end of Jan. 1921 it found employ-
ment for 48,860 men, with 10,720 men remaining unemployed.
Resettlement of One-Man Businesses. In May 1916 the Military
Service (Civil Liabilities) Department came into being to help the
wives of serving soldiers where military service imposed serious
hardship. The scheme was limited to men who had joined the forces
since Aug. 4 1914. The general items in respect of which assistance
was granted included rent, mortgage interest, payment in instalments
of contracts such as the purchase of premises, business or furniture,
rates and taxes, insurance premiums and school fees. The maximum
amount granted was not to exceed 104 per annum. Up to the
conclusion of this scheme on July 31 1920, 475,271 applications had
been received and 312,810 grants had been made to a total value of
6,239,670. In Feb. 1919 the Government decided to extend the
principle of this scheme with a view to resettling men in their previ-
ous businesses when they were, as a result of military service, suffer-
ing serious financial hardship. The scheme as amended took two
forms: current assistance could still be given in respect of liabilities
such as those mentioned above, or alternatively, a lump sum grant
towards the restarting of a business might be given.
So far as the second class of case was concerned, the Civil Liabili-
ties Department was not empowered to pay resettlement grants for
new businesses except in the case of disabled men. In that case alone
the disability was in itself treated as serious financial hardship, and
powers were given to make grants for those men in respect of new
businesses. Under this scheme up to the end of Jan. 1921, 251,259
824
DEMOBILIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT
applications were received; 95,651 grants were made at a total
expenditure of 2,675,665. In addition there was a special scheme
for providing tools for workmen who had to return to their pre-war
occupations. Under this scheme 21,562 was paid out.
(H. WF.)
UNITED STATES. United States troops continued to embark
for Europe until the signing of the Armistice Nov. u 1918. At
that time, according to the final report of Gen. Pershing, 2,071,-
463 officers and men had sailed to serve with the A.E.F. and
only some 15,000 had returned to the United States. According
to figures compiled by the War Department, the total number of
officers and men encamped in the United States on that date was
1,634,499 an -d more than 300,000 additional men had been or-
dered to be in camp before Nov. 30 1918. All draft calls were at
once cancelled. On Nov. 26 orders were issued for immediate
demobilization of the Students' Army Training Corps, which had
been introduced Oct. i in about 500 colleges and universities
throughout the country. This led to the discharge of some
150,000 students during December.
The question of general demobilization presented serious
difficulties, and precedent offered slight help toward their
solution. It was recognized that with peace would come a drastic
curtailment of production in many industries, and it was feared
that this curtailment and the sudden release of large numbers of
soldiers would result in wide-spread unemployment and suffering.
On the other hand the retention of a large army no longer
needed would impose an unjustifiable financial burden upon the
country. It was decided to discharge all emergency troops as
rapidly as they could be dispensed with; but at the same time the
Department of Labor was requested to watch carefully the
labour situation, so that if desirable the rate of discharge might
be reduced locally or as a whole.
The method of demobilization finally adopted differed from
that employed by the European Allies. The plan of release by
military " classes " based on age and length of service, natural in
France and Italy, could not be applied in a country where the
system of universal military service was unknown. It would have
caused needless delay to attempt demobilization of the A.E.F.
before beginning the release of men encamped in the United
States. Neither was it feasible to follow England's system of
" industrial demobilization." Profiting by the early mistakes of
her Allies, America had not drafted indiscriminately into im-
mediate service " key or pivotal men " from essential industries,
but had placed them under deferred classification. Any attempt
to demobilize by different occupations would have caused useless
delay and might have impaired seriously military units overseas.
It was therefore decided to demobilize by complete military
units. In this way men returned to America under their own
officers in orderly fashion. From the beginning, however, atten-
tion was given to individual requests for discharge, especially
from American camps, if it appeared that men were needed by
their families or their service required for industries. Speed of
return from overseas was governed solely by transport facilities.
About one-half of the American troops had been carried across in
British vessels, which now were needed for home and colonial
service. At the time of the Armistice transports belonging to the
U.S. Government had a capacity of only about 110,000 a month.
This was now rapidly increased by the release of battleships and
cruisers. Use was made also of German passenger ships, and
arrangements were made for the use of Italian, French, Dutch,
and Spanish vessels. On June 30 1919, 173 vessels were in use as
transports. After the Armistice embarkation camps were
organized at Bordeaux, Brest, and St. Nazaire, and later at
Havre and Marseilles. Le Mans was selected as a centre of
distribution for the ports, and accommodations were ordered
there for 230,000 men. There was considerable complaint of
congestion and inadequate care of troops, especially at Brest,
where there were normal accommodations for only 55,000 men,
although that port alone was available for the largest transports.
In America, Boston, Charleston, Newport News, and New York
City were chosen as ports of debarkation.
Troops began to land in America in large numbers Dec. 2
1918, when the " Mauretania " reached New York with 4,000.
By June 3 1919 there remained in France only 694,745 officers
and men. The A.E.F. headquarters were closed in Europe in
Sept. on the departure of Gen. Pershing. Practically the last
remnant of the A.E.F. in France embarked with Brig.-Gen.
Connor in Jan. 1920. There remained in Europe, besides the
Graves Registration Service and special commissions, only the
Army of Occupation in Germany. By June 30 1920 troops in
Europe had been reduced to below 17,000.
Camps and cantonments in the United States formerly used for
mobilization were converted into centres of demobilization, and to
these were sent troops from overseas as well as those at home.
Efforts were made to send each man to the demobilization centre
nearest to his home or place of enlistment. Each man was given a
rigid physical examination and those suffering from contagious dis-
ease were detained until there was no longer danger of infection.
Discharge papers were prepared, accounts carefully settled, and an
allowance of five cents a mile made each man from camp to his home.
To encourage immediate return a reduced railway fare of two cents
a mile was conceded those who departed within 24 hours after
discharge. During the first three months of demobilization discharge
required from four to seven days, but this was soon reduced to an
average of two days. Gradually it was possible to reduce the num-
ber of centres, and beginning Nov. 25 1919 troops in America were
discharged where stationed. Only two large centres were retained,
Camp Dix, N.J., and the Presidio in San Francisco, for the use of
troops returning from overseas, and even these were dispensed with
after March 15 1920.
The following table prepared by the War Department shows the
rapidity of general demobilization, month by month and cumula-
tively during the first year.
1918.
Officers.
Cumula-
tive.
Enlisted
Men.
Cumula-
tive.
Nov. 11-30.
Dec
1919.
Jan
593
37,043
2^."i6^
593
37,636
6l ,IQQ
43,000
609,000
^S.ooo
43,ooo
652,000
1,010,000
Feb
March . . .
April ....
May ....
June ....
July ....
Aug
Sept. .
Oct
14,913
",479
12,185
14,622
13,588
16,404
15,986
8,716
8,690
76,112
87,591
99,776
114,398
127,986
144,390
160,376
169,092
177,782
263,000
263,000
298,000
383,000
391,000
361,000
151,000
73,ooo
33,000
1,273,000
1,536,000
1,834,000
2,217,000
2,608,000
2,969,000
3,120,000
3,193,000
3,226,000
The cost per rran of derrobilization varied from month to month
because the uncertainty of the number of men to be handled required
the keeping up of all the demobilization machinery; for March 1919
it was $69.95 Dut for June only $20.07.
At each detrobilization centre were stationed representatives of
the U.S. Eirployrrent Service, and if the discharged man had no
prospective job he was registered and a card given him for the local
service representative nearest his own home. The Employment
Service atten pted to coordinate and cooperate with various local
organizations, such as chambers of commerce, boards of trade, and
patriotic and welfare societies. In Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, New
York, and sorre other large cities, large bureaus were created for
securing work for returned soldiers, sailors and marines. It is
in-possible to estin ate the number of places secured through these
agencies, as few kept accurate records. But the Employment Service
alone, during the 10 months from Dec. I 1918 to Sept. 27 1919,
registered 758,474 rren and secured employment for 474,085. It
was seriously handicapped, however, by lack of adequate appropria-
tions in 1919 and its operations were practically suspended after
October. Although there were some industrial centres which, imme-
diately after the Armistice, experienced a degree of depression, busi-
ness as a whole was prosperous with the result that the great mass of
the returning soldiers, many of whom returned to their old jobs,
had little difficulty in finding employment. There was, of course, a
certain percentage of discharged men who found it difficult or irk-
some to adjust themselves again to the conditions of civilian life;
these were inclined to drift to the large cities, even though the
opportunity for getting employment there was often less favourable
than elsewhere. The surprising thing was not that a comparatively
small number was unable to get work, but that so large a number
could be absorbed without at any time causing an acute unemploy-
ment problem. One method early proposed for helping discharged
men was that of awarding a soldiers' bonus. The Federal House of
Representatives passed a Bonus Bill May 29 1921 by a vote of 289 to
92. The bill carried an appropriation of $1,600,000,000. Protest,
however, arose throughout the country, largely due to the prospect
of a great increase in taxation, and the Senate took no action. At its
national conventionsheld in 1920 and 1921 theAmerican Legion was al-
most unanimous for a bonus for all who had served. Several states have
acted on their own initiative and voted on the question of granting a
bonus to their citizens who served. According to statistics gathered
DE MORGAN DENIKIN
825
for The American Legion Weekly, up to the middle of May 1921 some
form of bonus had been granted in 13 states, namely, Maine, Massa-
chusetts. Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey. New
York (later declared unconstitutional), North Dakota, Rhode Island,
South Dakota, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin. The payment
provided varied. In several states a lump sum of $100 was awarded.
In most cases the veteran received a fixed amount for each month of
service (usually $10 or $15) up to a maximum (varying from $120 to
$600). Bonus bills had been defeated in 1 1 states, namely, California,
Colorado, Connecticut (relief fund provided, the interest of which
is to be used for needy men), Delaware, Indiana, Maryland, Okla-
homa, Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia, and Nebraska (reliel fund
provided, interest to be used for relief). No legislation was con-
templated in 14 states, namely, Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho,
Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Utah, Virginia, and Wyoming. In the
other states preparations were being made to act upon the question.
The American Legion. While the World War was still in
progress there arose spontaneously among the American soldiers
a wide-spread desire that with the coming of peace there should
be created a permanent organization for perpetuating their feel-
ing of comradeship and its ideals. Active steps toward this end
were first taken at a caucus held by a number of service men in
Paris March 15-17 1919. This was followed by another caucus
held in St. Louis May 8-10 1919, when preliminary organization
was effected and the name " The American Legion " adopted.
Incorporation was secured by an Act of Congress Sept. 16 1919.
The first annual convention was held at Minneapolis Nov. 1919.
The purpose of the Legion, according to its constitution, is: " To
uphold and defend the Constitution of the United States of
America; to maintain law and order; to foster and perpetuate a
one hundred per cent Americanism; to preserve the memories and
incidents of our association in the Great War; to inculcate a
sense of individual obligation to the community, state, and
nation; to combat autocracy of both the classes and the masses;
to make right the master of might; to promote peace and good
will on earth; to safeguard and transmit to posterity the princi-
ples of justice, freedom, and democracy; to consecrate and sanc-
tify our comradeship by our devotion to mutual helpfulness."
The organization is non-sectarian and non-partisan. Any man
or woman is eligible to membership who was in the military or
naval service of the United States between the dates April 6 1917
and Nov. n 1918 inclusive; also " all persons who served in the
military or naval services of any of the Governments associated
with the United States during the World War, provided they
were citizens at the time of their enlistment and are again citi-
zens at the time of their application." Exception is made of per-
sons dishonourably discharged from service, as well as persons
who refused to perform military duty " on the ground of con-
scientious or political obligation."
At the head of the Legion are a national commander and five
national vice-commanders, elected by the national convention.
The active director at headquarters is the national adjutant-
general. Each state also is organized under a state commander
and other officers. The local unit is called a post. On Sept. 30
1921 the number of posts was 10,795, located in every state
of the Union and in the District of Columbia, the Philippines,
Panama, Cuba and, many other countries, including Canada,
Mexico, Argentina, and France. The total membership at the
same date was about 785,000.
The Legion strongly endorsed the proposed Federal bonus for
all ex-service men; and, especially through its National Legisla-
tive Committee, was influential in giving publicity to the needs of
disabled soldiers and in securing legislation in their behalf. To
its efforts, in part at least, were due the enactment of the Sweet
bill, providing for the Veterans' Bureau; the Veterans' Hospital
bill, appropriating $18,600,000 for building or improving hos-
pitals for ex-service men; the publication of lists of draft evaders
in the Congressional Record; the bringing to the United States of
the body of an " Unknown Soldier " for burial in Arlington
National Cemetery; the bestowal of the Congressional Medal of
Honor upon the British " Unknown Soldier " buried in West-
minster Abbey, and upon the French " Unknown Soldier "
buried under the Arc de Triomphe. The official publication is
The American Legion Weekly. The Women's Auxiliary had a
paid-up membership of 107,345 on Sept. i 1921. At the national
convention of the Legion in 1921 distinct organization was
effected, and separate officers and headquarters were chosen.
DE MORGAN, WILLIAM FREND (1839-1917), English
novelist (see 8.10), was born in London Nov. 16 1839 and edu-
cated at University College school and later at the college itself.
He became a student at the Royal Academy in 1859 and in 1864
began the study of stained glass. Six years later he turned to
ceramic work and soon became known in artistic circles as a
potter, the " De Morgan " tiles being made remarkable by his
rediscovery of the secret of some beautiful colours and glazes.
But later in life he became even better known to the literary
world through his novels, Joseph Vance (1906); Alice for Short
(1907); Somehow Good (1908); // Never Can Happen Again
(1909); An A fair of Dishonour (1910); A Likely Story (1912);
When Ghost meets Ghost (1914), in which the influence of Dickens
and of his own earlier family life were conspicuous. He died in
London Jan. 15 1917. In 1919 The Old Madhouse was pub-
lished posthumously. His last but unfinished novel, The Old
Man's Youth, was published, with additions by his widow (1921).
DENBY, EDWIN (1870- ), American public official, was
born at Evansville, Ind., Feb. 18 1870. His father, Charles
Denby (d. 1904), was minister to China 1885-98. He was
educated in the Evansville schools, went to China with his
father in 1885, and two years later entered the Chinese imperial
maritime customs service. He returned to America in 1894,
graduated from the Law school of the university of Michigan in
1896, was admitted to the bar and thereafter practised in De-
troit. On the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in 1898
he entered the navy, and as gunner's mate saw action at Santiago.
Later he was a member of the Michigan House of Representatives.
From 1905 to 1911 he was a member of the National House of
Representatives and was allied with the conservative Republi-
cans. He served as chairman of the House Committee on Naval
Affairs. When America entered the World War in 1917 he
enlisted at the age of 47 as a private in the Marine Corps and
was sent to the training station on Paris I., S.C. He was ad-
vanced to corporal and sergeant and was highly successful in
training recruits. In Jan. 1918 he was commissioned second-
lieutenant and passing through the various stages, before the
end of the year had been promoted major. After the close of the
war he was appointed probation officer of the Detroit Municipal
Courts. In 1921 he was appointed Secretary of the Navy.
DENIKIN, ANTON (1872- ), Russian general, was of
humble descent and held democratic views. After going through
the usual military training and service he joined the Russian
general staff, and in the earlier period of the World War he rose
to the rank of lieutenant-general and to the command of a division
on the Danube front. During the Russian revolution he followed
Kornilov, and was for] some time chief of his staff. He was ar-
rested with Kornilov and imprisoned in Bykova. They escaped
together and fled to the Caucasian shore of the Black Sea. There
he joined Alexeyev, who was forming a small army of volunteers,
chiefly composed of officers. On Kornilov's death (March 31
1918) he became the military commander of the army, while
Gen. Alexeyev held power as " Supreme Leader " of the Govern-
ment and organized recruiting and supplies. They collected the
army on the southern border of the Don region, at Metchetinska-
ya, and established cooperation with a Caucasian detachment,
led by Erdeli, with the Don Cossacks under Krasnov, and some
2,000 men who had marched right through the southern steppes
under Drozdovsky. By June the army counted some 12,000 men
and was able to attempt the reconquest of the Kuban territory.
Things had changed considerably since March, when Kornilov's
invasion came to a standstill in front of Ekaterinodar. The
Kuban Cossacks had had time to ascertain the true character of
Bolshevik occupation, and the volunteers moved down the
Rostov-Vladikavkaz line and the Black Sea line from Tik-
horyetzkaya to Novorossisk The Reds, in spite of their numeri-
cal superiority, melted before this advance and one stanitsa
(camp settlement) after the other joined the invaders. On Aug. 5
Gen. Alexeyev entered Ekaterinodar, the capital of the Kuban,
826
DENIKIN, ANTON
and practically all the resources of the prosperous country were
henceforward at the service of the volunteers. By the middle of
Sept. the army had increased to 60,000 men. The Germans,
whose garrisons had advanced to Rostov at the mouth of the
Don, did not look on that extension with friendly eyes; they
did their best to disintegrate the volunteer fighting forces, and
at the same time tried to induce Alexeyev and Denikin to accept
a condition of vassalage, similar to that which had been sub-
mitted to them by the Don Ataman, Krasnov. But nothing of
the kind was possible in the case of Alexeyev and Denikin:
their whole energy was directed towards a patriotic reconstruction
of Russia, and they declined all overtures from the crafty foe.
On Sept. 25 Alexeyev died after an illness which he had con-
tracted during the World War, but against which he had struggled
by sheer devotion to his task, never sparing himself, never re-
laxing his efforts. It was impossible to replace fully this man,
who resembled one of the heroes of antique virtue. Denikin, who
had to step into the breach, was not Alexeyev's equal in military
genius or in statesmanship, but he was worthy of his prede-
cessor in purity of character and in his sense of duty.
The revolt of Siberia and eastern Russia against the Bolsheviks
prevented the latter from concentrating their forces against the
dangerous volunteers, and the Germans were at the end of their
tether in the struggle with the western Allies, and unable to use
their position in Russia to any useful purpose. These favourable
circumstances made it possible for Denikin to spread his wings
wide. The Don Cossacks joined him, he established communica-
tions with Astrakhan and Ural Cossacks and the Orenburg
province on the right, while on the left, his lieutenant Schilling
moved towards Kiev and Odessa. There was some very heavy
fighting in the centre, where Stavropol was taken after a struggle
of several days, and 3 5 ,000 Reds surrendered or were exterminated.
Towards the beginning of 1919 Denikin was master in the S. of
Russia, and could begin to organize a base for an attack on the
main block of the Soviet Republic. The principal Cossack armies
had congregated round the nucleus of the Volunteer army.
The latter had unfortunately suffered grievous losses in the
ceaseless fights of the Civil War, which it had to conduct in
miserable equipment, with hardly any ammunition except that
which was taken from the enemy, in hunger and cold; some
30,000 of its best men had fallen, and these could not be replaced
either by conscripts, driven in by command, or by the Cossacks,
who could fight well when they chose, but who did not always
want to do so. The difficulty of the political situation became
apparent when the question of an arrangement between the
various forces under Denikin was seriously raised. On Nov. i
Gen. Denikin met the Regional Assembly (Kmyevaya Rada) of
the Kuban territory. He made a powerful speech in which he
said, among other things:
" Can there be any peace politics on the Kuban? Will your long-
suffering settlement be safe from a new and more cruel invasion of
the Bolsheviks when the Red power establishes itself firmly in Mos-
cow, when it throws back by weight of numbers the Volga front,
when it presses on the Don from north and east and when it moves
towards you? No! It is time that people should cease to wrangle,
to intrigue, to seek precedence. Everything should be sacrificed
for the sake of the struggle. Bolshevism must be crushed, Russia
must be liberated. Otherwise your well-being will not prosper, you
will become the plaything of the enemies of Russia and of the
Russian people. . . . There can be no talk of separate armies the
Volunteer army, the Don army, the Kuban army, the Siberian army.
These should be one army the Russian one, and also one front, one
Chief Command, endowed with full power, responsible only to the
Russian people, as represented by its future supreme authority."
The speech did not produce the desired effect. It was criticized
in the lobbies by separatists and by Socialists, but it was at least
conceded to the Commander-in-Chief that a Government should
be formed in which ordinary provinces, like Stavropol or the
Black Sea district, should be subjected to an emergency military
regime, while the Kuban and to some extent the Don should be
governed by independent institutions, though maintaining a
kind of federal allegiance to the High Command. The Kuban
obtained, in fact, political autonomy, but agreed to place its
forces under the command of Gen. Denikin. Yet the Ukrainian
elements of the Rada contrived to send a special mission to Paris,
and negotiated there with representatives of the Allies indepen-
dently of the Russian "Political Council" and of S. D. Sazonov,
the Foreign Minister of the South Russian Government.
For the conduct of the Government Gen. Denikin formed a
" Special Council," which combined legislative and executive
functions. It consisted of generals of the headquarters staff
and the heads of departments, some 18 or 20 in number (Gens.
Dragomirov, Lukomsky, Romanovsky, etc. ; the civil members
Neratov, J. P. Shipov, N. Astrov, Stepanov, K. Sokolov, M. M.
Fedorov, etc.). Most of the members belonged to the so-called
National Centre and to the moderate Right. The Left was
represented by four Cadets, of whom, however, two had drifted a
good deal to the Right. The weight of authority rested with the
generals, but there were long discussions and many compromises.
It was attempted to steer a strictly " business course," politically
colourless, but the Government did not succeed in achieving
popularity. Gen. Denikin regarded this Assembly as a con-
sultative organization, and gave his decision after listening to
proposals and discussions. He insisted on keeping military
restoration to the fore until the Bolsheviks had been laid low or
at least until Moscow had been liberated. No pronouncement
was allowed as to the form of Government, but the authority
of the old Constituent Assembly, which was attempting to
gather power in Ufa and Omsk, was rejected as the product of
popular insanity. On the whole the Government was clearly
leaning towards the Right, but Denikin was averse to any kind
of acts of violence and oppression; his rule was, however, not
free from contradictions and lacked political initiative. He fol-
lowed the current more than he directed it.
His military plans were based on the idea that if he succeeded
in driving the Bolsheviks out of the Russian provinces the
population would reform behind his lines and set up compact
patriotic levies against the hateful usurpers. With this purpose
in view he pushed forward rapidly in all directions, and it seemed
at first as if events justified his previsions. The Bolsheviks were
driven back everywhere by the Volunteers and the Cossacks.
When they rallied in the East and made a determined attempt to
retake Tsaritsyn and turn the line of the Don they were re-
pulsed and finally routed by Gen. Wrangcl's Caucasian army.
The Cossacks of Mamontov and Shkuro made raids deep into the
lines of the enemy; officers and soldiers of the Red army deserted
in thousands to the Whites; the population met Denikin's hosts
as liberators with processions and the ringing of bells. Kursk,
Kharkov, Voronezh, were occupied, and in July the advance
guard reached Orel, some 200 m. from Moscow.
This rapid progress proved deceptive. The armies of liberation
did not bring law and order with them. Not only were Commis-
sars and prominent Bolsheviks given short shrift, but officers who
had served in the ranks of the Reds and gone over to the Whites
were subjected to irksome investigations and delays before obtain-
ing " rehabilitation." The badly equipped and badly supplied
troops laid hands on all sorts of goods and stores; it was hard to
distinguish between requisition and looting. Such administrators
as were introduced by the advancing army were more intent on
bettering themselves than on looking after the population; the
peasants felt themselves menaced by the revenge of the squires.
The people, driven to despair, took to flight, and the more ad-
venturous among them formed " green " bands, which roamed
about the country, seized stations, stopped trains, cut off pro-
vision columns. The most daring of these brigands, Makhno,
made Ekaterinoslav his capital, and nearly overran Rostov in the
summer of 1919. The most threatening symptom of all was the
lack of union between the various sections of the Whites. The
Kuban was preparing for complete independence and negotiating
with the Mahommedan mountaineers for a league. Denikin
found it necessary to strike hard against the Separatists; the Rada
was dissolved; one of the leaders, Kalabukhov, was shot as a
traitor, and a new Government was formed from among the
supporters of a closer union with the Russian army (Nov. 1919).
The " line " Cossacks were favourably disposed, but the coup
d'ttat did not succeed in uprooting the movement for an in-
DENIS DENMARK
827
dependent Kuban republic in the south-west. On the contrary,
the Separatists, though forced for a time to conceal their aspira-
tions, were embittered, and resolved to wreck the combination
with the Volunteers.
In the meantime the resistance of the Reds stiffened in
proportion as the Whites lost the sympathy of the people. Soviet
propagandists had no difficulty in rousing the apprehension of
the Great Russian peasants against the advance of the " squires ";
officers of the Red army became less keen to desert when they
ascertained that they would be treated as suspects by Denikin's
lieutenants. The relentless discipline re-introduced by Trotsky
in the Red army was backed by the action of select bodies of
privileged troops international contingents of Letts, Chinese,
Magyars, etc., picked Communist battalions, large bodies of
cavalry trained for rapid marches and sudden concentrations
against weak points of the line. In the beginning of Nov. Bu-
denny's cavalry corps broke through the White lines at Kupyansk
and threatened to cut off the Volunteer army from its base on the
Don. The line rolled back and a general retreat set in. Denikin
tried to stem the back flow by appointing Wrangel to command
the Volunteer army in the place of Mayevsky, who had been
indulging in reckless debauchery in Kharkov. But Wrangel
was not a magician who could mend the consequences of errors
which he had detected and criticized from the beginning. Town
after town fell, and there was no hope of support from the Poles,
who were by no means inclined to fight for the restoration of
Russia. A British political mission headed by Sir Halford
Mackinder, M.P., was more concerned with promoting the
interests of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan than in taking up
the cause of Russian centralization. In these dire straits Denikin
resolved to abandon his former policy in regard to the Cossacks,
and summoned a central " Krug " (circle) of the Cossack armies
Don Kuban, Terek, Astrakhan with the object of starting a
new Government on federal lines. It was agreed that there should
be a Legislative Assembly of the Federation, and that Denikin
should act only as Chief of the Executive and Commander-in-
Chief. Even this surrender did not help. After a last success of
the Volunteer army, which retook Rostov (Feb. 8), the final
catastrophe came through a defection of Kuban Cossacks on the
right flank, of which Budenny's cavalry took full advantage.
Rostov and Ekaterinodar had to be abandoned. Crowds of
refugees gathered in Novorossisk in the first months of 1920;
spotted typhus raged among them. The remnants of the Black
Sea fleet and foreign ships carried loads of these wretched people
to the Prinkipo Is. and to Lemnos, and Denikin himself left for
Constantinople.
By way of an epilogue to the drama of discord which had embit-
tered the minds and paralyzed the efforts of the Whites, Denikin's
Chief of the Staff, Gen. Romanovsky, was murdered by two officers
of the Volunteer army on the steps of the Russian embassy in
Constantinople. He was a quiet, industrious man, who had come to
recognize that there was no Conservative class in Russia capable of
serving as a basis for government. He was therefore in favour of a
closer alliance with the Moderate Socialists. This was an unpardon-
able heresy from the point of view of the Rights, and it was from
this side that the shot came which put an end to the life of Denikin's
trusty assistant. (P. Vl.)
DENIS, MAURICE (1870- ), French painter, was born
at Granville, Manche, in 1870. He studied at Julian's Academy
and at the ficole des Beaux-Arts. As a student he came under the
influence of Paul Serusier, one of Gauguin's associates at Pont
Aven, and became a prominent member of the symboliste group
which included also P. Bonnard, K. X. Roussel and E. Vuillard.
Inspired mainly by Cezanne and Gauguin, the symbolistes repre-
sented a reaction against impressionism, in favour of synthesis
and the use of form and colour to express subjective states of
mind. Denis was also associated with the Rose Croix group
which aimed at substituting an idealist decorative art for the
realism of the day. To these influences was added that of Italian
quattrocento art, as the result of a visit to Italy in 1894. Denis
early turned his art to religious purposes, but classical mythology
has also frequently provided him with subjects. His most im-
portant work is his mural decorations, which include decorations
for the chapels of the church of Vesinet (1899-1903); " L'His-
toire de Psyche," five panels for M. Morosoff, Moscow (1908);
" L'age d'or," five panels for a staircase of the Prince de Wag-
ram (1912); a frieze for the cupola of the Theatre des Champs
Elysees illustrating in four panels the history of music (1912);
decorations and stained glass for the church of St. Paul, Geneva
(1917-8); and a decoration for La Chapelle du Souvenir in
the church of Gagny (1920). All these works show the influence
of quattrocento Italy in the linear character of the design, and
the preference for spare, stiff, angular forms, which connect
Denis with Puvis de Chavannes. His colour, however, is much
more vivid than that painter's, and shows an impressionist
palette and method of handling. An artist of great fecundity,
Denis has also produced many easel pictures including a " Hom-
mage a Cezanne " (1901), somewhat in the manner of that
painter; a portrait of Degas; and a long series of religious sub-
jects typified by " La Meilleure Part " (1920). He has also
illustrated among other books, Paul Verlaine's Sagexse (1891-
1910), The Imitation of Christ (1903), and La Vita Nucva (1908).
His frequent contributions on art to the reviews were republished
in 1912 in ThSorie i8po-ipio, which contains much interesting
comment on modern art. Denis has chiefly exhibited at the
Societe Nationale, of which he became full member in 1902,
at the Salon des Independents, and at the Salon d'Automne.
He is represented in the Luxembourg, Paris. In 1910 he was
made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
DENMARK (see 8.23). Since the incorporation of North
Slesvig (1,496 sq. m.), returned to Denmark in 1920 according
to the Treaty of Versailles, the area of Denmark proper is
16,958 sq. miles. About 75% of the area is occupied by cultivated
land, about 10% by woods and plantations, while the rest, 15%,
is either uncultivated or is used as gardens, building lots, roads,
etc. Besides, the Faeroes (540 sq. m.) and Greenland (a little
more than 770,000 sq. m.) belong to Denmark.
Population. Since the incorporation of North Slesvig Den-
mark proper has something over 3,200,000 inhabitants, of whom
about 150,000 live in North Slesvig. The Faeroes have 20,000 and
Greenland about 13,000 inhabitants. In Denmark proper, apart
from Slesvig, the density of pop. is 195 per sq. m. (325 per sq. m.
on the islands, 127 in Jutland). One-fifth of the pop. lives in the
capital, about another fifth in the provincial towns and about three-
fifths in the country. The average death-rate in the years 1910-9 was
about 13 per thousand, the average birth-rate 25 per thousand.
Before the World War the overseas emigration was some 7,000
persons a year. In war-time it fell off, in 1918 to 800, rising again to
3,300 in 1919. The yearly increase of pop. is a little more than I %,
the average percentage of the years 1910-9 being i-n. On the basis
of the statistics of the years 1911-5, the average duration of life
has been calculated at 56-2 years for men and 59-3 years for women,
while 75 years earlier the figures were 40-9 and 43-5.
Communications. The total length of roads in 1919 was about
28,000 m., some 4,300 m. being main roads. There were in 1921
about 2,700 m. of railways (Slesvig excepted), of which one-half was
under State administration. Motor-cars numbered about 18,000,
including about 2,300 taxis and omnibuses, 3,800 commercial ve-
hicles and 12,000 motor-cycles.
Occupations. In 1911 36% of the population were engaged in
agriculture (horticulture, forestry and fishing included), about
27 % in industry and manufactures and about 17 % in commerce and
transport. The remaining 20 % included those occupied in different
trades or in non-productive work, domestic servants, independent
persons and those supported by the State. In 1901 some 40 % of the
population lived by agriculture and 14% by trade, transport, etc.
Since 1911 this movement from agriculture towards other occupa-
tions has been on the increase.
Legislation. In Sept. 1917 a joint-stock companies Act at last
was passed, introducing directors' liability, public registration,
protection of the rights of the minority, and public accounts.
Agriculture. By a law of 1919 land held as feoff or by entail,
large estates formerly undivided in succession (Lehn), was made
freehold property. Owners must deliver to the Treasury part of the
capital value of the estate and on compensation hand over to the
State one-third of the fields for small holdings. In the same year
it was decreed that property still held on lease should become free-
hold. This legislation, especially the Acts of 1919, concerning the
parcelling-out of lands previously in the possession of the State and
of entailed property passing into free possession, was a continuation
of the movement, begun by the Cottars' Allotment Act of 1899,
towards establishing a number of independent small holdings; in
1899 the idea was two acres and a cow; now .legislation aims at 20
ac. ; from 1899-1919 some 10,000 new small holdings had been
established, the State holding the secondary mortgages.
828
DENMARK
In the middle of the igth centuiy the market price per Tonde
Hartkorn (Danish unit of land valuation, equal to 18 ac. good soil)
was about 2,000 Danish kroner; in the first half of the 'eighties
6,500 kr. ; prices declined till towards the close of the century, the
price then being 5,200 kr., rising later to about 8,500 kr. in 1913.
A constant rise took place during the war, prices in 1918 reaching
12,800 kr. per Tonde Hartkorn. This decline of prices from the
middle of the 'eighties to the close of the century, due to the general
fall in corn prices, was met by a change of the whole system of
agriculture in consequence of which milk, butter, bacon and seed
took the place of corn and live stock as chief product. This develop-
ment continued till the outbreak of the World War. The new in-
dustries were based on the use of home supplies together with im-
ported grain and artificial manure, the result being a very con-
siderable output, especially of dairy produce, pork, eggs, cattle and
horses. Only a part was marketable in Denmark itself, and a con-
siderable export trade was developed, dairy products, pork and eggs
mostly going to England.
During the war, and after the beginning of the ruthless sub-
marine campaign, conditions were altered, the importation of raw
materials being very much impeded. The import of corn and
forage, including oilcake, amounted before the war to 1,700,000 tons
annually, while Denmark's home production was 2,400,000 tons of
grain: allowing 500,000 tons for food supplies and for industrial
purposes, about 3,300,000 tons remained for forage. During the war
the import of rye, maize, and oilcake partly, and in 1918 almost
totally, failed; moreover, the harvest in the country was reduced
by one-sixth owing to the want of artificial manure. Denmark was
compelled to reduce its live stock. The number of cattle was in
1914 2,500,000 and after 1917 two million. Notwithstanding that the
best milch cows were least affected by this reduction of stock, the out-
Eut of milk and subsequently of butter was reduced by about 50 %,
utter from' 1 1 7,000,000 kgm. in 1914 to 67,000,000 kgm. in 1918.
But while in 1914 about 95,000,000 kgm. were exported, in 1918
only 15,000,000 kgm. were sent out of the country. Home consump-
tion of butter was much more than doubled due to the stoppage
of the import of copra, the raw material for margarine. The number
of swine, in 1914 about 2j million, almost equalling the number of the
population, was in 1917 reduced to I j million and in 1918 to half a
million. This reduction manifested itself in the rapidly decreasing
export of pork, from 150,000,000 to 3,000,000 kilograms. The
number of hens fell between igi4and igiSfrom 15 million tog million,
export of eggs being in the same years 450 million and 320 million
respectively. The number of horses and sheep was almost undimin-
ished, about 500,000 of each.
After 1918, with the coming of peace, Danish agriculture re-
covered rapidly, but the production, especially of pork, was still in
1921 less than before the war. The butter and pork production is
mainly in the hands of the farmers' own cooperative factories; thus,
of the 1,380 Danish butter factories 1,168 are on a cooperative basis
and about 90% of the swine killed in Denmark are taken to the
cooperative slaughter-houses.
Two important laws relating to agricultural exports were that of
May 27 1908, dealing with the control of meat exported from Den-
mark, and a similar law of April 12 1911, dealing with the control of
butter. They were based on section 62 of the British Trade-Marks
Act 1905, which enabled Danish farmers to register a common
trade-mark as against all other trade-marks in these articles. Thus
all exported meat or bacon receives a public trade-mark and a
Government stamp showing it to have been passed for export at the
control station either as first- or second-class produce. Agricultural
goods for export can therefore receive an official trade-mark certify-
ing the quality of the articles. No butter is allowed to be exported
that contains over 16% of water, or other preservatives than salt.
Industry. Manufactures dependent on the import of coal and
raw materials did not develop in Denmark until about the last
decade of the igth century, as the country produces no coal and
very little raw material apart from farm products and material for
brick- and cement-making. It thus happens that Denmark as a
whole is the loser in the years of high prices and so-called prosperity
the raw materials having to be bought abroad at the highest
price level and regains the losses in the years of depression. The
rather small-sized factory is typical, but some big factories have
been established in connexion with the manufacturing of leather
and footwear, cement, margarine, textiles, tobacco, spirits, sugar,
beer, oil, matches, paper, agricultural machines and iron ships. Of
the 140,000 persons engaged in factories employing more than 20
working-hands in 1914 more than half belonged to Copenhagen.
Most of the larger establishments belong to joint-stock companies.
In 1919 there were 994 industrial joint-stock companies with a
total capital of 621,000,000 kr., of which three-fourths belonged to
companies with a capital exceeding 100,000 kr. each. During the
last decades Danish industry has shown an increasing tendency
towards centralization. Customs duties were considerably reduced
in 1908, but as th~> are almost always calculated upon weight, the
general advance in prices made the protection left to industry com-
pletely ineffective. During the blockade industry had to face
difficulties regarding the importation of raw material and coal;
but the blockade mainly affected industries producing oils and
margarine, which were practically at a standstill in 1918. The
Total Number
Skilled
Power.
employed.
Workers.
H.P.
Food ....
63,000
38,000
81,000
Textiles
17,000
14,400
16,300
Clothing
65,000
35,000
3,500
Building and
Furniture
79,000
52,000
21,000
Woodwork .
13,300
6,000
18,000
Tanneries .
1,200
900
11,400
Earthenware and
Glass
20,000
16,000
28,000
Metals
63,000
46,000
34,000
Chemical and
Technical
13,000
9,000
15,000
Paper ....
3,500
3,000
7,600
Printing
12,000
9,700
4,200
Totals
35O,OOO
230,000
230,000
failure of the coal supplies was met with the strictest economy in
consumption and partially made up for by an energetic utilization
of the native fuels woods, peat and brown coal. In spite of heavy
difficulties, Danish industry was to a large extent able to supply the
demands of the home market.
On the whole the war period must be said to have been econom-
ically favourable to the neutrals, as appears from the formation of a
number of new industrial concerns and the extension of many of
those already in existence, and the fact that between 1914 and 1920
the number of companies increased by 50% and their capital by
150%. Industrial profits were largely invested in extensions and
improvements which could not be turned to full account during the
post-war depression. The following table shows the total number of
persons, the number of skilled workers, and the horse-power of
prime movers concerned in the principal industries in the year 1914:
Shipping. At the close of 1913 Denmark's mercantile marine
counted apart from vessels of four-ton register or less 1,970
sailing vessels with a joint tonnage of about 90,000 tons register,
941 motor vessels of 30,000 tons register and 642 steamers of 420,000
tons register. At the close of 1919 the respective figures were 1,584
sailing vessels of 103,000 tons register, 1,465 motor vessels of 89,000
tons register, 514 steamers of 332,000 tons register. The number of
Danish steamers sunk by submarines, torpedoes and mines was
147, representing a tonnage of 229,000 tons register in gross. The
gross freight carried in Danish ships excluding home coast traffic
amounted in iqi j to no million kr. and in 1919 10445 million kroner.
The average dividend on steamship shareswas in 1919 70%. From
1916-20 foreign-going shipping of the country was controlled
by a Freight Board, elected by the shipowners themselves.
Rather generous maximum rates were fixed for the supplies of the
country. Owners were bound to employ their ships according to
the instructions of the board. In July 1917 an arrangement was
made according to which all Danish owners put tonnage at the dis-
posal of the Freight Board for the coal supply from the United
Kingdom at a fixed rate and quantity.
Commerce. The total imports and exports from 1912-20 were
as follows :
Year
Imports:
Mill. kr.
Exports:
Mill. kr.
Excess of Imports :
Mill. kr.
1912
818
682
136
1913
855
721
134
1914
795
867
72
1915
1,157
1,120
28
1916
i,357
1*309
48
1917
1,082
1,065
17
1918
945
743
202
.1919
2,519
909
1,610
1920
3.142
1,814
1,328
Thus it appears that the excess of imports over exports was in the
years preceding the war about 130,000,000 kr., while in the first
four war-years export and import were almost equal. Yet in 1914,
on account of " hidden exports," the trade balance was actually
favourable. In 1918 the balance was 200,000,000 kr., and in 1919
and 1920 it averaged 1,500 million kr. against Denmark. In the
years 1914-8 the position was favourable, partly owing to the con-
sumption of stocks and the selling-out of assets, such as the stock
of domestic animals, and partly owing to the profits of shipping.
It is only natural that the commercial and therefore the financial
balance after the war should present a somewhat different aspect.
Also it must be borne in mind that some of the war-time profits
were invested in extensive purchases in order to replenish the empty
warehouses; also considerable contracts were made with a view to
subsequent exportation to the Baltic states, a possibility which,
however, had not been realized in 1921, and involved many individ-
ual concerns in heavy losses. A comparison of the value of Danish
imports for home consumption in 1913 and 1918, the last of the war-
years, is as follows:
DENMARK
829
Imports.
1913
1918
Mill,
kr
Per
cent.
Mill,
kr.
Per
cent.
Raw material for agriculture .
Raw material, etc., for industry
Partly manufactured articles .
Articles of food or luxury
Fuel and illuminants
Articles of industry .
170
130
48
148
81
200
23
16
6
19
10
26
33
183
130
56
299
209
4
20
H
6
33
23
Entire import for home con-
sumption ....
777
IOO
910
IOO
The figures show the remarkable changes in the relative values
of different imports arising in consequence of the war, but the
varying advance in prices must also be taken into account, and the
corresponding changes in quantities imported are not indicated.
As for fuel, the yearly import before the war was about 3,000,000
tons, while during the war it fell below 2j million.
A comparison of the exports during the normal year 1913 with
the war-year 1918 gives the following:
Exports.
1913
1918
Quantity:
Mill. kgm.
Value:
Mill. kr.
Quantity:
Mill. kgm.
Value:
Mill. kr.
Butter ....
Pork
Eggs
Horses (number)
Cattle (number)
Meat
Other agricultural prod-
ucts ....
Total ....
Fish
Articles manufactured
91
135
454
28,000
152,000
15
2OO
164
33
21
4 8
14
71
15
3
328
29,000
114,000
H
"3
8
68
75
70
39
150
551
12
74
523
17
170
Total ....
637
710
The chief articles of export were the more or less manufactured
agricultural products. But between 1913 and 1918 this export was
so much reduced that, notwithstanding the great advance in prices,
the total value declined. After the Armistice the export of farm
products increased. The value of manufactured products and eggs
exported was in 1920 about 920 million kr. and of live animals about
no million kr. The butter export rose in 1920 to 75,000,000 kgm.
and the pork export to 45,000,000 kilogrammes. The trade with
foreign countries in 1913, 1917 and 1918 was as follows:
Imnorts.
Exports.
1013
1917
I9l8
Home
Home
Home
Country
1913
1917
1918
manu-
manu-
manu-
per cent.
per cent.
per cent.
factured
articles:
factured
articles:
factured
articles:
per cent.
per cent.
per cent.
United Kingdom .
16
26
21
63
27
7
Germany
38
22
33
25
50
43
Sweden
8
13
25
2
9
23
Russia
9
I
2
i
i
United States
10
20
4
I
Norway .
i
3
5
. 2
6
16
Other Countries
18
15
12
5
7
10
The export of home-made articles to the United Kingdom in
1913 was 398 million kr., of which butter (180 million kr.), pork
(160 million kr.) and eggs (31 million kr.) made up 371 million
kr., or more than 90% of the total. Exports to Germany were
in 1913 valued at 159,000,000 kr., cattle and meat 65,000,000 kr.,
and hides 10,000,000 kroner. Before the war Denmark did most
of its business with England and Germany, but during the war much
business was done with the Scandinavian countries, especially with
Sweden. A considerable part of the foreign trade in war-time was
conducted by agreements between the countries concerned as to
desirable interchanges of supplies. After the war foreign trade
partly returned to pre-war lines. The import and export of raw
materials and agricultural produce is largely conducted through
the farmers' own cooperative organizations. During the war only a
limited quantity of goods was admitted from England and America.
Agreements to that effect were made with the United Kingdom in
Nov. 1915 and with the United States in Sept. 1918, negotiations
being conducted between the respective Governments and the
Danish commercial and industrial organizations, " Grosserersocie-
tets Komite " and " Industriraadet." These organizations also
distributed the imported quantities among such Danish firms as
had hitherto been importing or using the articles in question. The
export of agricultural produce is mainly conducted through Esbjerg
or Copenhagen. Copenhagen is by far the most important commer-
cial city. A part of the retail trade is in the hands of the peasants'
own cooperative societies.
Economic Legislation During the War. Immediately upon the
outbreak of the war, on Aug. 7 1914, the Government was authorized
to take measures to ensure supplies and to prevent an unfair rise in
prices. A special committee was appointed for the regulation of
prices and supply of necessaries of life and of other articles, and ex-
port was either prohibited or required a licence. For such articles
as butter, pork, etc., the object of control was not merely to ensure
the supply of the home market but quite as much the control and
regulation of the export trade.
The special committee commenced immediately to forbid the
use of rye and wheat for forage. Till that time home-grown grain
had been largely used for feeding swine, horses, etc., bread being
baked from imported corn, the supply of which completely ceased.
In the winter of 1916 the use of sugar and in 1917 of potatoes for
forage was prohibited. Licences for potatoes were, however, always
granted when supplies for human requirements were sufficient. Max-
imum prices for home-grown rye and wheat were fixed about Christ-
mas 1914. In May 1915 maximum prices followed for swine and
pork. By order in council of Nov. 27 1916 it was notified that any
advance in the prices of food decided on by mercantile unions or
firms holding monopolies must be notified to and sanctioned by the
special committee. On Jan. 31 1917 maximum prices were fixed
for potatoes. Sugar production and prices were also placed under
observation and control.
Thus Denmark had the distribution of commodities and maximum
prices, especially of farm produce of importance to the home market,
well under control before the blockade in its severest form took effect.
Immediately upon the beginning of the blockade a general decree
made it punishable for commerce to raise the percentage of profits
above the level of 1914. On May 19 1917 orders were issued to pre-
vent the enhancement of prices of commodities as a result of their
having passed through more hands than necessary and customary
(the so-called " chain-commerce "). The existing maximum prices
were retained and new ones were fixed for a constantly increasing
number of commodities. In the spring of 1916 the State had already
taken possession of the corn harvest, but at the beginning of the
blockade it took the sole control of the trade through the Board of
Food Control, established in 1917. Before Feb. I 1917 only sugar
had been rationed but had not been materially reduced, home pro-
duction almost equalling consumption. Grain was rationed in the
spring of 1917 and pork in the autumn of 1917. Owing to the in-
creasing scarcity similar measures were taken later with regard to
butter, margarine, fuels, illuminants, benzine, coffee, tea, rice and
other articles. The scarcity of fats made it necessary to introduce
special regulations for the soap industry. At the same time maximum
prices were fixed for the articles in question. Several other branches
of industry were also put under control. After the war, imports
having gradually reached their former level, these rules and regula-
tions were discarded. In the spring of 1921 only a very few were
left, such as regulations and maximum prices for bread and sugar
and certain regulations of the beer and spirit industries. To ensure
thorough economy in the production of spirits the respective con-
cerns formed a combine. These measures for controlling prices
were taken after consultation with the different trades.
Taxation and Public Finance. The former basis of taxation of
landed property in Denmark was the assessment of Hartkorn which
was based on the quality of the land and had remained unaltered
since 1844. For other property there was a variety of taxes of old
standing. A law of 1903 introduced a new general assessment of all
estates and property. Land rent was based on periodical valuations
(" selling value "). A general income and property tax of a pro-
gressive per-cent. rate increasing in amount almost every year, and
at the same time made more progressive, was introduced in the same
year. The indirect taxes are the customs duties and the inland taxa-
tion of industry and trade. The tariff of 1863 was moderate but
became heavier than was intended because of falling prices ; and in
1908 it was revised, all necessaries of life, raw materials and agricul-
tural produce being relieved of duty; protective duties were made
small and duties on tobacco and spirits relatively high. Objects of
taxation giving the best return are beer, spirits, tobacco and feugar.
In the financial year 1913-4 the revenues of the Danish State
amounted to 124 million kroner. Of these 101 million kr. were raised
by taxation, 28 million kr. by direct and 73 million kr. by indirect
taxes. The war occasioned an increase of taxation, and at the same
time a change from indirect to direct taxation was effected. The
State revenues of the financial year 1919-20 were 601 million kr.,
of which 575 million were from taxes, 347 million kr. direct, 248
million kr. indirect. Yet the main part, 235 million kr., of the direct
taxes were extraordinary taxes. The national debt was in 1914 361
million kr. and in 1920 925 million kroner. The debt of all the
municipalities was in 1914 375 million kr. and in 1920 750 million
kroner. It must, however, be borne in mind that the value of State
and municipal assets had proportionately increased.
Money and Banking. Before 1908 the right of the National Bank
to issue bank-notes was based on the same system as the Bank of
England, but in that year the quota system was adopted. By
legislation of 1915 the bank is required to be in possession of gold
to the amount of one-third of the notes in circulation, and for the
830
DENMARK
remaining part there must be security m assets easily cashed ac-
cording to special rules. The amount circulating in notes in 1900
was about 100, and just before the war about 150 million kroner. In
the middle of 1917 it was 365 million kr., in 1919 541 million kroner.
In 1914 the duty of the National Bank to redeem its notes with gold
was temporarily suspended and it had not been reimposed in 1921.
The other big banks of Denmark are the Danske Landmandsbank,
with a stock capital of 100 million kr. and a balance at the end of
1919 of 1,421 million kr. (of which more than one-quarter is put
under the ample heading: "Sundry Debtors"); Privatbanken,
stock capital 60 million, balance 594 million; Kobenhavns Handels-
bank 50 million, balance 672 million; Kobenhavns Diskonto og
Revisionsbank, 48 million, balance 452 million kroner. In connex-
ion with the farming import and export organizations a cooperative
banking institute, the Danske Andelsbank, was established in 1914
with a guarantee fund .of 1 1 million kr. paid in. There are also sev-
eral smaller banks, but in recent years many provincial banks
have been absorbed by the big banks.
Prices. According to an average calculation wholesale prices
if the immediately pre-war index figure is put at 100 rose to 249
by July 1917. The upward tendency continued until the maximum
was reached in Nov. 1920 with the figure 430. The general tendency
afterwards was downwards, the figure for April 1920 being 270.
The advance in the retail prices of necessaries of life is illustrated
by figures calculated on the basis of household budgets for families
belonging to the working classes. The expenses of such a family just
before the war being put at 100, the index figure rose constantly till
it reached 265 at the close of 1920. The value of the Danish krone
was very unsteady during the war compared to other values. In
the post-war years the and $ rates declined the minimum was
reached in Nov. 1918, l equalling 13 kr. and $1,2.80 kroner. The
exchanges were afterwards reversed, the maximum being reached
in Sept. 1920, when i equaled 25.68 kr. and $l, 7.40 kroner. In
April 1921 l equalled about 21.50 kr. and $i about 5.50 kroner.
Finance. About 1910 the yearly revenue of the Danish State
was estimated on the basis of the assessment for income tax, at
about 1,200,000,000 kroner. In the war period this showed a con-
stant increase, 1917-8 disclosing a yearly revenue of 2,600 million
kr. and 1918-20 of over 3,300 million kroner. Thus since the war
the yearly revenue has been multiplied by 2\, i.e. in almost the same
ratio as the retail price index. The incidence of incomes is more
equal in Denmark than in many other states, though here as else-
where the contrast between rich and poor was to some degree sharp-
ened during the war. In 1915 about 70% of the adult population
(married Women excepted) had incomes of less than 1,000 kr.,
making together some 30 % of the total income ; about 29 % had in-
comes of between 1,000 and 10,000 kr., 48% of the total incomes;
and nearly I % had incomes of more than 10,000 kr., about 22 % of
the total incomes. While in 1908 three-quarters of the adult popula-
tion (again with the exception of married women) had incomes of
less than 1,000 kr., in 1918 only half the population were below that
amount. The national wealth before the war was estimated at 10
milliards, and in 1921 had probably doubled (the assessed property
had risen from 5,000 to 10,000 million kroner). While in 1908 about
92 % of the adults possessed property of less than 10,000 kr., the
corresponding figure for 1918 was only 87%.
The value of the shares represented on the stock exchange was
in 1912 about 800 million kr., the quotation of the same shares was
in 1918 about 3,000 million, in 19 19 2,000 million and in 1921 probably
1 ,000 million. The difference of 2,000 million kr., forwards and
again backwards, may represent individual gains and losses, to
some extent made and suffered by the same persons. (F. G.-T.)
Labour. In the 'seventies and 'eighties of the igth century, the
era of modern industrial development, an impetus was given to the
trade-union movement, closely connected with the Social Demo-
cratic party. Both employers and employed are very strongly
organized, chiefly under the two main organizations, the Combined
Trade Unions and Danish Employers' Organization. The trade
unions included in 1919 nearly 350,000 members, 277,000 belonging
to the Combined Trade Unions. In 1910 Denmark was foremost in
the movement, 51 % of the workmen employed in industry, commerce
and cbmmunications being organized. Since then the movement has
made rapid progress. In most industries nearly all the workmen were
in 1921 members of the organizations. There has also been a con-
siderable inflow of agricultural labourers. The usual basis of classi-
fication of the unions is trades, not industries.
Besides the divisions for the different towns there are factory
clubs and shop stewards; in some places a system by which chosen
representatives exercise an influence over the general conditions of
work has grown up in connexion with these clubs. In the summer of
1920 syndicalistic tendencies manifested themselves rather strongly,
but in 1921 the movement largely died away.
The Employers' Organization, dating in its present centralized
shape from 1898, exercises considerable authority over its members,
by whom about 200,000 workmen are employed. After an extensive
lockout in 1899 the two main organizations made the so-called
" September agreement," deciding, for instance, that a positive
majority is required for the declaration of strikes and lockouts,
which must, moreover, be notified according to certain rules, and
that all differences on the question of the interpretation of existing
contracts and agreements must be referred to arbitration. After a
conflict in 1910, on the proposition of the parties concerned, a law
was passed adopting the system of conciliation in disputes and the
establishment of a special court to decide questions of law. The
average number of days lost in labour conflicts over a series of years
was only one day a year for each workman, but in the unsettled
state of the labour market in 1919-21 much higher figures were
reached, chiefly owing to strikes in the Copenhagen building trades
and among sailors and navvies. During the transport strikes of
1920 the activities of " Samfundshjaelpen," a voluntary civic or-
ganization for carrying out indispensable work left undone by the
strikes, were of considerable importance.
The Employers' Organization attached great importance to the
simultaneous expiration of the labour agreements of the different
trades. This often resulted in joint negotiations for the renewal of
agreements, in most cases accompanied by threats of extensive
stoppages of work, which had, however, until 1921 always been
averted at the last moment. In later years yearly agreements were
made, adopting an automatic regulation of wages according to the
price index of the Statistical Department from the middle of the
period. A smaller part of the wages of State employees was also
calculated according to this price index. Even before the war Danish
industry suffered considerably from unemployment, which amounted
to 10% in the period 1903-13. After the close of the war, conditions
became still more complicated owing to the after-effects of the block-
ade and the critical state of affairs generally.
Wages in Denmark were somewhat high compared with other
European countries. The average weekly wages for skilled labourers
were: in 1897 20 kr. ; 1905 25 kr. ; and 1920 120 kr. ; for unskilled
labourers 16, 20 and 100 kroner. During the war wages rose con-
tinually, at first slower than prices, later somewhat faster, but in the
spring of 1921 a general though not very important reduction of
wages took place. Before the war about 20 % or 25 % of the work-
men in industry were paid by the job. The wages of agricultural
labourers were: in 1910 700 kr. ; 1915 800 kr. ; 1918 1,400 kr. ; and
in 1920 partly owing to the increasing organization 1, 800 kroner.
The position of Denmark in the matter of working hours has, as was
the case in the matter of wages, been something between that of
England and the rest of Europe. The average working hours of
industry were in 1872 11-4; since then they have gradually decreased.
Accordingly, when the eight-hour day was adopted on Jan. I 1920 by
voluntary agreement between the chief organizations, this was a
step of comparatively small importance. Denmark joined the inter-
national agreement about the eight-hour day, but in May 1921 no
law concerning this question had been passed.
At the close of the igth century a general interest in social ques-
tions was greatly awakened. The year 1873 brought the first factory
legislation, and in the beginning of the 'nineties came the general
decisive acceptance of insurance relief legislation. The leading
principle is voluntary State-aided insurance against illness and
unemployment, and for the rest public relief, apart from accident
insurance, which, as elsewhere, is paid by the employers. The poor
law of 1891 not only regulates pauper administration proper but
also lays down certain rules, which have been repeatedly extended,
for State or parochial relief, directed through the ordinary pauper
administration but without the usual unpleasant consequences to
the recipients. Such aid is given in cases of a number of chronic
diseases, insanity, epilepsy, tuberculosis, blindness and to deaf-and-
dumb persons. Medical and obstetric aid is also given and extended
aid to members of benefit clubs. Since 1907 every parish has had,
besides the poor-rates, a relief fund Uhjaelpekasse, with a board of
its own, intended to administer relief in cases of urgent need. This
fund has, however, in many cases become merely a more respectable
form of pauper administration. By the Old-Age Pensions Act
passed in 1891, Denmark took the lead in the question of providing
for the aged. Certain conditions are laid down as to the need and
worthiness of the recipients, and it is especially stipulated that per-
sons who have for five years previously received parish relief are
excluded. The age limit is 60 years. The amount of the pension,
which is decided upon the merits of each separate case, should suffice
for sustenance of life, and medical aid in case of illness is included.
In 1919 the number of recipients was 74,000 and the expenditure
amounted to 34 million kr., State and parishes contributing each one-
half. Denmark has several voluntary benefit clubs, mostly locally
organized, but State-aided and under State control, in accordance
with the Benefit Club Act of 1892, amended in 1921. Notwith-
standing the voluntary system 70% of the working classes and a
large number of others of similar standing are members, the total
number amounting to two hundred thousand. As children of the
members below the age of 15 years are also entitled to the benefits,
the full number makes about three-fifths of the population. The
chief benefits are hospital treatment, medical aid and subsistence
money not exceeding 6 kr. a day. The State aid is 3 kr. per member
and one-quarter of the chief expenditure. A considerable economic
advantage to the benefit clubs is the very low charges made by the
public hospitals for treatment of the members. The clubs recognized
by the State have limited self-government under control of the
State inspector of benefit clubs.
By three decrees of 1921 persons suffering from chronic diseases
were admitted to the sickness insurances without any extra charges;
DENMARK
831
an insurance against disablement, forming an obligatory supple-
ment to the voluntary sickness insurance, was established; and
special rules were laid down concerning " poor-relief without the
effects of poor- relief," to be paid to a considerable part of the un-
insured disabled. The first Accident Insurance Act relating to a
number of dangerous industries and based on the principle of em-
ployers' liability was passed in 1898, and after some gradual im-
provements a general comprehensive Act was passed in 1916. It
is the duty of the employer to have all persons employed insured in
the private accident companies. For compensation a sum of money
not exceeding 24,000 kr. is given. Special rates are paid to the sons
of widows. As early as 1907 an Unemployment Insurance Act was
passed. The unemployment funds are voluntary and are practically
identified with the trade unions. During the critical years 1917-9
the ordinary State aid was very considerably raised, and large sums
were distributed according to rules which were less strict than usual.
In 1918 the entire contribution of the State to social insurances
and the various forms of relief was, apart from sums arising out of
special war-time legislation, 17 million kroner. The municipalities
contributed 39 million kr., while the contribution of the members of
sickness and unemployment insurance societies was 12 million kr.,
and the employers paid for the accident insurance 6 million kr.,
altogether about 74 million kroner. While the social insurance sys-
tem proper is generally considered satisfactory though in the recent
difficult years the administration of the unemployment funds has
been the object of criticism strong claims were advanced for a
modification of the old-age pensions system, which should establish
a right to fixed rates, and also for a thorough reorganization of the
lower branches of social relief (the pauper administration and relief
funds), the administration of which had become complicated and
unpractical owing to their gradual development. Danish factory
legislation is, notwithstanding its inauguration by the conservative
but very far-seeing Ludvig Bramsen (in the 'nineties) father of
the Danish Employers' Liability Act rather radical and thorough-
going, and very ably and effectively administered. On the other
hand, Denmark has no Wages Board or Minimum Wage system.
(F. Z.)
Political History. After the Cabinet of J. C. Christensen
the formation of which in 1905 had led to a split in the ranks of
its supporters, the Left Reform party separating from the
Radical Left party had been forced by the Albert! catastrophe
to retire, a new Cabinet was formed by Niels Neergaard, a distin-
guished historian, as leader of the Moderate Left, with the
support of the Moderate and Left Reform party (Oct. 12 1908).
The problem of defence became the most prominent under this
Cabinet, as the defence commission, which had been working
since 1902, now reported. The members of the commission had
not reached unanimity. The Socialists proposed disarmament;
the Radicals wished the military to be replaced by a naval and
police guard; while the Right proposed a material increase of
military forces. The Government and its supporters in the
Rigsdag were divided on the question of Copenhagen's land
defences, and only after great confusion new elections had not
brought clearness did the old leader of the Left, Count Holstein-
Ledreborg, who had been away from active politics for years,
succeed, as premier of a new Cabinet, in carrying through a new
arrangement. The army and navy were enlarged; Copenhagen's
naval defences were strengthened; and the land defences were
to be dismantled not later than March 31 1922.
No party had a majority in the Folkelhing, and the Holstein
Ministry was forced to retire in favour of a new Cabinet, formed
by the Radicals with C. Th. Zahle, a barrister, as premier. This
Cabinet could depend on support from the Socialists in the
Rigsdag, though without thus acquiring a majority in either of
the Houses. Under these conditions the Government announced
its intention of postponing the introduction of the Radical
programme. With the support of the Right it was able to secure
a majority in favour of a proposal to prosecute the two ex-
ministers, J. C. Christensen and Sigurd Berg, before the State
Parliamentary Court, the Rigsret, for neglect of their ministerial
duties in regard to Alberti (Mr. Christensen was acquitted and
Mr. Berg sentenced to a fine). As the Government proposed a
democratic amendment of the constitution and met with
opposition, the Folkething was dissolved, and at the elections of
May 20 1910 the Left, which was still divided on the defence
problem, won half the seats. The two moderate Left groups now
united into one party, the Left, and one of the old Moderate
leaders, Klaus Berntsen, a former teacher in the peasant high
schools, formed the new Cabinet on July 5 1910.
King Frederick VIII. died on May 14 1912 and was succeeded
on the throne by his son, Christian X.
With the support of the Radicals and the Socialists the
Government again raised the constitution problem in 1912, but
because of opposition in the Upper House (Landsthing) , where
the Right controlled about one-half of the seats, no solution had
been reached when the ordinary elections were held in May 1913.
At these the Radical and Socialist parties gained control of 63 out
of the 114 seats in the Folkething; Zahle formed the new Radical
Cabinet. The constitution problem immediately became prom-
inent, and the constitutional parties decided to let nothing
divide them because of the importance of the issue; under these
conditions the Socialists voted for the budget for the first time.
The Right raised the most decided opposition against this
united democracy; powerless in the Folkelhing, they undertook,
by a policy of obstruction in the Landsthing, to check the further
development of the case. As an answer to this the Government
dissolved the Landsthing. The election results were: 29 support-
ers and 25 opponents of the constitutional amendment. Of the 12
members nominated by the Crown 9 were on the side of democracy,
hence the Government was certain of a solid majority.
The outbreak of the war temporarily hindered the final solu-
tion of the constitution problem. It was with great anxiety
for the future of their country that the Danish people experienced
the fateful days of Aug. 1914. On Aug. i the Rigsdag passed
a number of laws which the extraordinary conditions made
necessary. The mobilization of the emergency army, numbering
in all about 70,000 men, began on the same day. All political
parties agreed in maintaining the neutrality of Denmark. An
attack by Germany was especially feared. A difficult situation
arose on Aug. 5 in consequence of an inquiry from Germany as
to whether the Danish Government intended to block Danish
waters with mines, an inquiry which could only mean that if
Denmark refused Germany would lay the mines. The Govern-
ment was uncertain as to Denmark's responsibility as a neutral
Power, and only after great hesitation was it decided to lay the
mines. With this Germany was satisfied, and England sanc-
tioned the action in view of Denmark's precarious position.
It became apparent that the war situation might have serious
effects upon Denmark's economic life. Accordingly the Rigsdag
on Aug. 7 authorized the Home Secretary to regulate prices and
to confiscate all goods on giving full compensation. A Price-
Regulating Committee was established to advise the minister.
Further the Secretary of Justice was given power to prohibit
exports. The Government exercised these powers several times
during the following months to secure the supply of food grains
and for other purposes. As in military affairs, the Government
adhered to the policy of keeping the warring nations always
informed of the measures adopted, and in this way succeeded
in establishing, with both sides, confidence in Denmark's desire
for real neutrality, and an understanding of the importance of
maintaining effective industries. This in time resulted in fixed
agreements with Germany and England as to exports.
When the first anxiety was allayed the constitution problem
was again taken up. As the opposition of the Right was declining,
a result was reached without great difficulty and June 5 1915 the
King signed the new constitution. This introduced equal
suffrage in the elections for both Houses, men and women being
entitled to vote under identical conditions; the voting age was
fixed at 35 years for the Landsthing and was lowered successively
from 30 to 25 years for the Folkething. Of the 140 members of the
Folkething, 93 are elected in individual districts, 27 in greater
Copenhagen according to proportional representation, and 23
supplementary seats are divided among the parties that have
received too few representatives at the other polls in proportion
to their number of votes. The Landsthing has 72 members, of
which 54 are indirectly and proportionally elected in the large
districts, while 18 are elected by the retiring Landsthing accord-
ing to the same principles. In the case of a constitutional
amendment a referendum must take place, and 45 % of the eligi-
ble voters must vote for it to give it validity. The constitution
came into force on April 21 1918.
832
DENMARK
Other important legislative Acts of the first years of the war,
which were passed unanimously, were the Reform of the Ad-
ministration of Justice (April n 1916), which separated the
administrative and judicial systems, and introduced oral pro-
ceedings and publicity with trial by jury in criminal and politi-
cal cases and the Accident Insurance law (July 6 1916), which
made it the duty of all employers to insure their employees.
The privileged suffrage in elections to the Amtsraad (county
councils) was abolished with the consent of all parties.
In the late summer of 1916 the comparative quiet which had
marked political life since 1914 was succeeded by a bitter
struggle. The cause was the announcement by the Government
that it had concluded a treaty with the United States ceding the
Danish West Indies to that country for $25,000,000. Both in the
Rigsdag, whose ratification was essential, and outside strong
feeling was aroused against the sale. The Left proposed a
postponement till after the war or, if an immediate decision was
necessary, the holding of fresh elections under the new con-
stitution. The only solution of the crisis seemed to be new
elections, but the King implored the party leaders to avoid such
a situation, which would be a danger to the country. The result
was a compromise: the Cabinet was supplemented by representa-
tives of each of the political parties (Th. Stanning, the Socialist
member, being the first member of the working classes to become
a minister), and the sale of the islands was to be decided by the
Rigsdag after a plebiscite of the people. At the polls (Dec. 14
1916) 283,670 votes were cast in favour and 158,157 against,
and shortly afterwards the Rigsdag ratified the cession.
A contest of like character, but not nearly so far-reaching or
bitter, arose in connexion with the rearrangement of the relation
of Iceland to Denmark. With increasing force, Iceland demanded
political independence and integrity. Despite the opposition of
the Conservatives, the support of the other three parties sufficed
to pass an Act of Union (Nov. 1918), in which Denmark acknowl-
edged the independence of Iceland. The King is joint ruler of both
countries and Denmark directs Iceland's foreign policy. The
Act of Union is valid till 1940.
From 1917 onwards the unrestricted submarine warfare, com-
bined with the stricter measures of the Entente, caused increasing
difficulties in the economic life of Denmark. The Government,
for whose economic policy the Home Secretary, Ove Rode, was
primarily responsible, made further efforts, by means of maxim-
um prices, export prohibition, and also by the rationing of certain
articles, to create tolerable conditions for the people. It sought to
mitigate the effects of the increase in prices by an extensive
policy of relief; both the State and the communes rendered
direct aid to those without means; public officials received
increased pay until their salaries had undergone a thorough
revision; and the unemployed, whose number rose to 70,000 in
the winter of 1918-9, were given extra support. Through an
increase of the succession, income and personal property taxes,
and the introduction among others of ataxon exchange business,
the Government tried to cover these and the greatly increased
military expenses. In the five years of the war 1914-9, the
expenditures of the Government were 156, 185, 251, 369, 616
million kr. respectively (in all 1,577 million kr.), and the total
revenue for all five years 1,343 million kroner. The deficit was
covered by loans. While the indirect taxes 1913-4 amounted
to 55% and the direct to 28% of the total revenue, the figures of
1918-9 were 21% and 62% respectively. A radical anti-
militaristic Government had from 1914-9 spent more than 500
million kr. on defence more than all the Conservative war
ministers together from 1865-1901.
After the spring of 1918 the elections could no longer be
postponed. At the elections for the Folkelhing, when
women voted for the first time (68% voted to the men's 84%),
72 supporters of the Government were elected, 39 Socialists
and 33 Radicals, receiving 263,000 and 196,000 votes respec-
tively; and 68 opponents, 45 Left and 23 Conservatives, re-
ceiving 273,000 and 168,000 votes respectively. The Landsthing
was constituted as follows: 17 Conservatives, 26 Left, 13 Radi-
cals and 1 5 Socialists.
At the time of the Armistice the old problems were viewed
differently and new questions arose. The troops were quickly
demobilized, the special defence works were razed, and on March
17 1920 a law was passed abolishing the land defence and artillery
of Copenhagen. In 1919 the special military administration of
justice had ceased. The Government's economic policy, which
had caused some dissatisfaction, but as a whole had been support-
ed by all parties, became the object of very strong criticism, as the
Opposition thought it time to abrogate the war-time legislation
in this respect. Instead of improving, the economic conditions
became worse: small exports, the falling value of the Danish
krone both at home and abroad, and numerous strikes, partly
caused by the syndicalistic agitation, characterized the industrial
and economic situation until near the close of 1920.
The Allied victory affected Denmark chiefly through the
prospects of a reunion with the Danish part of Slesvig. On
the same day Oct. 23 1918 as the deputy of North Slesvig,
H. P. Hanssen-Norremolle, raised the demand of a renunion
with the mother country in the German Reichstag, the Danish
Rigsdag unanimously passed a resolution " that no other change
in Slesvig's present position than an adjustment according to the
principles of nationality would harmonize with the wishes, feel-
ings and interests of the Danish people." With reference to this
and statements made by the leaders of the Danish population in
North Slesvig, the Danish Government communicated its wishes
to the Allies (Nov. 28 1918), so that, when the Peace Conference
in Feb. 1919 reached the discussion of the Slesvig problem, a
united Danish North Slesvig delegation was sent to Paris to
present the Danish point of view: a plebiscite en Hoc in North
Slesvig (Zone i), a community ballot in Central Slesvig and
Flensburg (Zone 2), and voting rights to all those who were born
in the voting districts. The Peace Treaty was presented to
Germany on May 7. The fact that it contained a provision for a
plebiscite in South Slesvig (Zone 3), and gave voting rights to
natives of the districts without consideration of their present
place of residence, caused considerable excitement in Denmark.
This departure from the wishes of the Government and the Rigs-
dag was due to the influence of a small group of the Danish people
who wished the Slesvig question to be solved from a legal and
historic point of view. Representations to the Peace Conference
by the Danish Government were successful in getting the article
providing for a plebiscite in Zone 3 omitted from the Treaty.
On the coming into force of the Peace Treaty on Jan. 10 1920,
an international commission, containing among others the am-
bassadors of England and France, Sir Charles Marling and M.
Paul Claudel, took charge of the plebiscite district. The plebi-
scite in Zone i on Feb. 10 gave 75,431 (75%) votes for Denmark
and 25,329 (25%) for Germany; even the doubtful Tender Amt
had a majority for Denmark of 59%. On March 14 Zone 3
gave 48,148 (79%) German and 13,029 (21%) Danish votes.
While the plebiscite results in Zone i satisfied Danish ex-
pectations, this was not the case with the results in Zone 2. In
the last years before the war the Danish element had here been
yielding in the national struggle, but there seemed to be plain
evidence of a change of feeling, especially in Flensburg, during the
agitation before the plebiscite. The disappointment over the
result was great. The Zahle Ministry had for months been the
object of the most vehement attacks, because of its cool attitude
towards the national propaganda in Central Slesvig, and the
assailants made it responsible for the poor result of the plebiscite.
In certain circles it was still hoped to prevent the final union of
Central Slesvig with Germany by the so-called " Internationaliza-
tion " of Zone 2. A storm of indignation at the national attitude
of the Government in connexion with its economic policy began
in the weeks after the plebiscite. When the Government refused
to order new elections, with reference to the necessity for a new
electoral law, the King dismissed it. A Cabinet of non-politicians,
formed by Liebe March 30 1920, took the responsibility for the
King's action, which was regarded by the supporters of the
dismissed Cabinet as unconstitutional, and had caused the threat
of a general strike from the Socialists. During this " Easter
crisis " Denmark was not, but may have looked as if it were, on
DENTISTRY
833
the verge of a revolution. The mediation of the city council of
Copenhagen and others conciliated the Crown and the Socialists,
and on April 5 a new Ministry, consisting chiefly of State officials,
was appointed to formulate an electoral law and to order new
elections. The new law was based on proportional representation
in the county districts (Amlskredse) , and the supplementary
seats system was retained in a slightly altered form. At the
Folkething elections (April 25 1920) the Left received 351,000
votes (49 seats), the Conservatives 201,000 (28)," Erhvervsparti "
(trades party) 29,000 (4), against the Socialists' 300,000 (42), and
the Radicals' 122,000 (17). Niels Neergaard formed the new
Left Cabinet on May 5.
On July 7 1920 the international commission handed over the
executive power in Zone i, awarded to Denmark by the Allies,
to the Danish Government. After the constitutional amend-
ments necessitated by this expansion had been adopted, the
Folkething elections were held on Sept. 21 1920. In these the
people of North Slesvig took part, and the voting age was 25
years for the first time. The results were 41 2,000 votes cast for
the Left (52 seats), 390,000 Socialists (48), 217,000 Conservatives
(27), 147,000 Radicals (18), 27,000 " Erhvervsparti " (3), and
7,000 for the German candidates (i). The Left maintained the
leadership, and the Neergaard Ministry continued.
The problems relating to the constitution and to defence,
which formerly were of the greatest consequence, had during
later years been thrown into the shade by social problems, and
the political parties were in 1920-1 developing in an increasing
degree as representing economical interests, and as attached to
certain classes: thus the Left was supported by the farmers, the
Radicals essentially by the small holders, the Socialists by the
industrial labourers, and the Conservatives by the capitalists
and the middle classes in the cities.
See also: Erik Arup, Rids af Danmarks Historic (1921); Fr.
N6rgaard, Danmark fra 1864 til Genforeningen med Sdnderjylland
(1920); Alex. Thorsde, Grundrids af den danske Rigsdag Historic
1866-1015 (1920). (H. Lu.)
Literature. Between 1910 and 1921 Danish literature lost
by death several of its representatives already famous Karl
Gjellerup (1857-1919), Herman Bang (1857-1912), Peter Nansen
(1861-1918), Vilhelm Bergsoe (1835-1911), Sophus Bauditz
(1850-1915), Troels Frederick Lund (1840-1921), Edvard Holm
(1833-1915) and A. Fredericia (1849-1912). In 1917 Henrik
Pontoppidan (b. 1857), the novelist, was awarded the Nobel prize.
While the older generation was still productive, either on the
old lines or, as in the case of Karl Gjellerup, taking up new themes
(classical, ancient Gothic, Indian), a good many young authors
came to the front. Niels Moller (b. 1859) and Ludvig Holstein
(b. 1864), in their few but elaborate poems, represented the
scepticism and dark views of the 'eighties; Vigo Stuckenberg
(1863-1905) and his friend Sophus Clausen belong essentially
to the aesthetic renaissance; and partially this may also be said of
Sophus Michaelis (b. 1865) and Edvard Blaumuller (1851-1911),
although they have some features in common with the younger
generation. All these were mostly lyric poets, but Stuckenberg
and Michaelis had also written powerful novels.
The foremost younger lyrical poets were Valdemar Rordam
(b. 1872; Selected Poems, 1918) and Helge Rode (b. 1870).
Thor Lange (1851-1915), as well as Rordam and Moller, made
many excellent translations of English and foreign poems.
To the same school belong L. C. Nielsen (b. 1871; Cantatas,
Children's Songs); Kai Hoffmann (b. 1874; The Town and the Sea,
1902; Selected Poems, 1916); Olaf Hansen (b. 1870; Selected
Poems, 1918; Translations from Icelandic); Thoger Larsen (b.
1875; Selected Poems, 1917); Axel Juel (b. 1883). Of a more
pessimistic and satirical type is Harald Bergstedt (b. 1877;
Jack and Elsie, 1916 " a modern Adam Homo ").
Powerful novels were produced by Harald Kidde (1878-1918)
and Johannes Buchholtz (b. 1882). Ever since the latter half
of the 'nineties the provincial note had been strong in Danish
literature, as represented by writers emanating from the farm-
houses and workshops. Foremost stands Jakob Knudsen (1858-
1917), son of a parson, and for a time himself a clergyman but
descending from and in the closest contact with Jutland peasants,
a novelist of extraordinary power, but without artistic refinement.
From Jutland also came Jeppe Aakjaer (b. 1866), a peasant's
son and a peasant himself; his masterpieces are short stories and
lyrical poems, but he has also written novels and historical essays.
Johannes V. Jensen (b. 1873, son of a Jutland veterinary surgeon)
has shown himself a master in his treatment of the Danish
language (Prehistoric Novels, 1909-19, translations from Frank
Norris and Whitman). From Fiinen there is the novelist Morten
Kerch; from Zealand, Thorkild Gravlund (b. 1879), partly novel-
ist, partly folklorist; Knud Hjorto (b. 1869), a prolific novelist;
and from Bornholm, Martin Andersen Nexo (b. 1869), who had
given pathetic pictures of the proletarians' lives. H. Bergstedt
has manifested a satirical vein of some consideration.
The outstanding name in archaeology has been Sophus Miiller
(b. 1846, director of the National Museum till 1921). Ludvig
Wimmer (1839-1920) was supreme as a runologist (Danish
Runic Monuments, 1895-1908). Folklore has had eminent
representatives in H. F. Feilberg (b. 1831; Jullandic Dictionary,
Danish Peasant Life), in Evald Fang Kristensen (b. 1843) and in
Axel Olrik (1864-1917; Heroic Legends of Denmark; in English
1919). Celebrated linguists are Kristoffer Nyrop (b. 1858;
Grammaire historique de la langue franc.aise i.-iv.), and Otto
Jespersen (b. 1860; Progress in Language, 1894; Growth and
Structure of the English Language, 1905; Modern English Gram-
mar, 1900-14). The domestic culture of Scandinavia about 1600
was depicted by Troels Frederick Lund (Daily Life in Scandina-
via, i.-xiv.), while Danish and foreign literatures were treated by
Vilhelm Andersen (b. 1864) and Valdemar Vedel (b. 1865).
See Vilh. Andersen and Carl S. Petersen, Illustreret dansk Lit-
teraturhistorie (1916 seq.); Dahl and Engelstoft, Dansk biografisk
Haandlexikon (1918 seq.). (M. K.)
DENTISTRY (see 8.50*). The progress of dentistry in the
decade 1910-20 was more rapid and more radical than in any
previous period. The cause of this progress was the general
advancement in knowledge due to the accumulation of data
arising from scientific investigation and the application of the
knowledge thus acquired to the prevention and treatment of
disease. Until comparatively recent times the extent to which
abnormal mouth and teeth conditions are responsible for de-
rangements of health was imperfectly understood. The pioneer
studies of W. D. Miller, of Berlin, especially as reported (1891)
in a series of communications entitled The Human Mouth as a
Focus of Infection, first called attention to the fact that the oral
cavity is the habitat and breeding ground for a large group of
micro-organisms, many of them possessing pathogenic character
which under conditions of lowered resistance invade other parts
of the organism and become the direct exciters of bodily disease.
Miller also showed that the mouth is the common portal of
entry for most of the disease-producing organisms that infect
the human body, and further demonstrated that certain mouth
bacteria, when injected into the circulation of a test animal,
could pass through the blood stream or lymphatic system and
establish metastatic foci of inflammatory action at points and in
organs remote from the seat of inoculation. These early findings
were afterwards confirmed by other investigators, more particu-
larly by Sir Kenneth Goadby, of London. Recognition of the
significance and far-reaching importance of the principles under-
lying these results of scientific research was only gradually ac-
corded by the general body of the dental profession, and then
merely as interesting facts without direct utility in dental
practice.
In several communications on septic dentistry, notably in an
address delivered in 1910 at the opening exercises of the annual
session of the Medical school of McGill University, Montreal,
Sir William Hunter, physician and lecturer to the Charing Cross
hospital, London, criticised badly conceived and unskilfully
executed dental restorative operations, especially in crown and
bridge work and the treatment of pulpless teeth, which were
performed without regard to surgical asepsis. In this connexion
Hunter brought to bear clinical evidence to prove the soundness
of his contention that operations so performed leave septic foci
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
834
DENTISTRY
that cause septicaemic conditions, as well as infections in remote
parts of the body. Hunter's revelation impressed at once the
dental and medical professions and his criticisms immediately
bore fruit. The general use of the X-ray as a means for study of
the apical region of tooth roots, the development and application
of specialized bacteriological technique for determining in pulp-
less teeth the identity and character of the exciters of disease
action and similarly those responsible for inflammatory lesions
of the retentive structures of the teeth (commonly designated as
pyorrhea aheolaris), all stimulated by the realization of the pro-
found clinical importance of mouth infections as related to bodily
health, quickly followed the communications of Hunter.
The total effect of this evidence, both clinical and scientific,
upon the development of dentistry has been little short of rev-
olutionary. From time immemorial it has been believed from
empirical observation that an unclean and infected mouth cavity
is a source of bodily ill health, and much direct evidence of a
clinical character had accumulated to strengthen that belief, but
the evidence now at hand has affirmatively established the facts
by scientific demonstration. Until this development of knowl-
edge concerning the systemic relationships of disorders of the
teeth and their related structures and their bearing upon the
bodily health, the major feature of dental interest, and that
upon which the attention of the profession was concentrated,
had been the development and perfection of manipulative pro-
cedure in restorative operations. The ingenuity expended and
the excellence of the results attained had become the outstanding
characteristics of dental practice; and the restoration by prosthet-
ic or operative means of the masticatory mechanism damaged by
partial or total loss of teeth had been its dominating ideal.
There is now an enforced recognition in the professional as well
as in the lay mind of the importance of the welfare of the tissues
and organs of the mouth. In the dental profession the conse-
quent changes of technical procedure and objectives have been
fundamental. The ideal of mechanical perfection in the methods
and appliances by which the dental surgeon restores the patient's
power to masticate has come to be regarded as a remedial meas-
ure subservient to the larger ideal of normal mouth health.
Oral Hygiene in Schools. One of the principal factors which
extended and popularized this knowledge is the oral hygiene move-
ment, an effort to demonstrate practically the fact that school chil-
dren, relieved of the disabilities arising from infected mouths and
diseased teeth which handicap normal development, will show im-
proved physical and mental efficiency. What is known as the Cam-
bridge experiment, inaugurated in 1907 by the late George , Cunning-
ham, of Cambridge, England, was perhaps the earliest practical
test. The analogous work of Dr. Ernst Jessen, of Strassburg, re-
sulted in the introduction of oral hygiene into the public schools of a
number of towns in Germany. In the United States the oral hygiene
movement took practical form in the test of its utility in the Marion
school of Cleveland. O., in 1910, and in 1919 there was completed
under conditions yielding accurate figures, a five years' test of
applied mouth hygiene in the public schools of Bridgeport, under the
direction of Dr. A. C. Fones. In this test 20,000 children of the first
five school grades were under observation and treatment. The
average number of carious cavities was found to be over 7% per
child; 30% claimed that they brushed their teeth occasionally; 60%
frankly stated that they did not use a tooth brush and IO% were
found to have fistulas on the gums, showing outlets from abscesses
from the roots of decayed teeth. Systematic application of oral
hygiene, the intelligent and systematic use of the tooth brush, and
the elimination of accretions, dental decay and suppurative con-
ditions achieved striking improvement in general health and mental
efficiency. With respect to general health the statistics of the
Bridgeport board of health show that the most common fatal
diseases among children in that locality were diphtheria, measles,
and scarlet fever. The decrease in deaths from these sources after
the introduction of oral hygiene in the public schools is shown by the
following table, the figures for 1914 showing conditions before the
test :
1914. 1918.
Diphtheria .... 36-6% 18-7%
Measles .... 20-0 4-1
Scarlet Fever .... 14-1 0-5
The improvement in mental efficiency is shown by the reduction
in the percentage of retarded children. A retarded child as defined
by the Bridgeport school board is one who is not less than two years
older than the normal age for the school grade to which it should
belong. The percentage of retarded children before and after the
introduction of mouth hygiene in the Bridgeport schools is shown in
the following table:
Percentage of Retarded Children.
Drop in retarda-
Grade. Sept. 1912. Nov. 1918. tion
I- 16-5% 8-1% 51-0%
J{- 37-o 15-3 58-0
III. 53-o 24-7 53-0
!V. 59-5 3i-7 47-o
V. 61-0 33-1 45-0
VI 54-0 30-4 44-0
V"- 39-o 19-3 50-0
VIII. 27-0 12-s 54-0
Average. 40-0 20-1 50-0
Since retardation represents inability of the child to continue to
advance with his class, it necessitates repetition of his grade work,
and therefore becomes an economic question of serious importance
to the ratepayer. The cost of reeducation in Bridgeport in 1912 was
42 % of the entire budget, and for 1918 only 17 %. Among the 20,000
children under observation in the schools of Bridgeport, it was
found that 98% had various forms and degrees of malocclusion
of the dentures, a condition now generally recognized as being
associated with a symmetrical development of the bones of the face
and the brain case. Many children with malocclusion owing to the
arrested development of the facial and cranial bones suffer from
impeded nasal respiration, and moreover develop adenoids and ton-
sillar hypertrophy, leading to infection with its systemic sequelae
and the interferences .with bodily nutrition incident to insufficient
oxidation of the blood. Orthodontic treatment for the correction of
malocclusion in children has come to be regarded as a therapeutic
and prophylactic measure having an important health relation
rather than as a mere cosmetic procedure for the relief of deformity.
The foregoing facts furnish convincing evidence of the desirability
of making oral hygiene available to children of school age as a feature
of dental public health service on economic as well as humanitarian
grounds and on the broader ground of national efficiency.
Work in Armies and Navies. Analogous considerations resulted
in the organization in various countries of army and navy dental
service of the nation. From small beginnings upon a contract
basis the U.S. army and navy Dental Corps rose to an allot-
ment by law of one dental surgeon for each 1,000 of the
army personnel, and before the close of the World War provision
had been made to double that allotment and to supply adequate
equipment for field and hospital service. Instead of contract service
the corps was placed upon a commissioned basis with pay and al-
lowances identical with those of the Medical Corps and rank within
the corps through all grades up to and inclusive of colonel. After
1918 full provision was made by the U.S. Government for
the dental care of its enlisted men and of those demobilized
from service suffering from dental defects or disabilities since de-
mobilization. This latter activity is assigned to the dental division
of the public health service. Accurate statistics as to the develop-
ment of army and navy dental service in forces of other nations
are not yet available, but the proportion of dental surgeons to army
personnel in 1917, as given by officials of the British Dental Associa-
tion (see " Man Power and the Army Dental Service," British
Dental Journal, Feb. 15 1918), for some forces was: Canadian
Expeditionary Force, one per 1,000 men; New Zealand Expe-
ditionary Force, one per 2,500 men; Australian Expeditionary
Force, one per 2,600 men. Satisfactory figures for the German army
dental service are not obtainable, but according to Dr. Ernst
Jessen, head of the dental work in Strassburg, quoted in the German
Dental Review, there were 810 dental surgeons active in the field in
1915. France, during the World War, had at least 1,500 army den-
tists working in various parts of the lines as fixed units, in addition
to the dental ambulances. The French army dental service furnished
a striking example of the practical importance of army dental serv-
ice in that during the latter part of the war, when the man power
of France was seriously depleted, over 250,000 effectives were
mustered into the French service as the result of efforts instituted
by Dr. Georges Villain, of Paris, by which that number of men who
had been previously rejected because of loss of teeth, but were other-
wise physically sound, were subsequently fitted with artificial den-
tures and sent to the fighting line.
The British dental service in the World War was inadequate,
owing to the limited number of qualified dental surgeons available
and the unfortunate fact that of the 1,050 to 1,100 serving in the
army and navy in various capacities about 300 were enlisted as
combatants, and of those latter 50 were killed. (See Report of Par-
liamentary Committee on the Relation of Military Service to Man
Power. D. F. Pennefather, Chairman.) Great Britain created by
Royal Warrant, issued Jan. 4 1921, a military dental service,
the Army Dental Corps, which is administered by the Direc-
tor General, Army Medical Service. The Army Dental Corps is
a joint service for the army and R.A.F., and is on a commission
basis with rank through the grades inclusive of lieutenant and
lieutenant-colonel. Experience during the war clearly demonstrated
to all the belligerent nations the importance of dental service as a
DEPEW DESCHANEL
835
means of mouth sanitation and the practical utility of the latter in
maintaining the physical efficiency of the fighting personnel, with
the result that definite a,nd active work has been undertaken to
extend these health benefits to civilian populations.
Undoubtedly the most notable example of comprehensive planning
for the national extension of dentistry and oral hygiene as a factor
of the public health service is that proposed in the Interim Report
on the Future Provision of Medical and Allied Services, made to the
British Ministry of Health by the Consultative Council on Medical
and Allied Services, May 1920. This report recognizes oral hygiene
and dental service as factors of public health and as proper subjects
for control and development by the State. Oral hygiene compre-
hends much more than the correction of dental defects and oral
infection due to neglect of the tooth brush; its aim is prophylactic
as well as corrective. Corrective procedures such as the filling of
cavities of decay, treatment of diseased roots, extraction of useless
teeth, correction of irregularities in their position and prosthetic
restoration of lost teeth or parts of teeth, merely arrest the progress
of disease and mechanically restore damage already done. The
entire energies and skill of the whole dental profession are totally
inadequate to cope with more than a small fraction of the corrective
work needed. To establish the habit of personal care of the mouth
in school children is a field of activity that has developed the special-
ly trained dental nurse or hygienist as an adjuvant to dental serv-
ice, whose calling is now legalized in the principal states of the
United States. The work of the dental nurse is limited to the surface
treatment of teeth, in the removal of deposits and accretions thereon,
the training of school children in the systematic use of the tooth
brush and their education in the importance of mouth cleanliness.
In addition to the physical benefits resulting from oral hygiene
among school children there is also a manifest improvement in
moral. A child who has learned to use the tooth brush exhibits
increased self-respect, greater attention to bodily and mental
cleanliness, closer compliance with school regulations and an awak-
ened interest in attendance and studies. The close connexion be-
tween oral hygiene and better citizenship is no longer debatable, and
the present trend is toward making dental and oral hygiene service
in all civilized countries a public health measure.
The many head, face and jaw wounds during the World War cre-
ated a new field for oral surgery and surgical prosthesis. For the suc-
cessful treatment of these cases it became evident that surgical
measures alone were insufficient, as the loss of tissue from gunshot
wounds of the head and face, as well as the unsightly scars resulting
from extensive lesions when surgically treated, left the patient in
many instances with repulsive deformities. The resources of surgery
and dentistry were called into cooperation. Plastic surgery, in-
volving the transplantation of the soft tissues and of bone to supply
missing parts, was developed to a degree previously unknown.
The rebuilding of the face, including reconstruction of the nose,
lips, cheeks, the orbicular region, etc., was accomplished with a
perfection in many cases almost miraculous. In this work the aid of
dental prosthetic technique was often necessary. The large and in-
creasing number of casualties of the head, face and jaws resulting
from trench warfare quickly developed the need for hospitals and
specialized equipment devoted entirely to the treatment of this class
of wounds. Of these centres of specialized surgical activity the fore-
most in importance and extent was Queen's hospital, Sidcup, Kent,
England, a unit under British administration with sections for
British, Canadian, New Zealand and Australian forces manned
by personnel from the respective forces. Cooperation between
the medical and dental staffs of the sections was organized with
most satisfactory results. The American Ambulance hospital
of Paris at Neuilly-sur-Seine, subsequently taken over as American
Red Cross hospital No. I., was an analogous centre of specialized
head, face and jaw surgery in which similar cooperation was again
successful. These experiences furnished convincing evidence of the
need by each profession of a more intimate acquaintance with the
work of the other. This need is recognized in the practice of adding
a professional dental service to hospital staffs.
A general quickening of scientific research has followed. Bac-
teriological and histological investigation of dental and oral pathol-
ogy by numerous investigators has not only added greatly to
knowledge in this field, but brought about great improvement in
dental and oral surgical technique. Notable progress has been made
in the study of dental and oral infections and of physical irritations
of nerve terminals in and about the teeth, in their relation to mental
disorders and reflex neuroses, that cause disturbances of the special
sense organs as well as spastic disorders of a local or general char-
acter. Attention has been directed to the endocrine relationships
of the teeth and oral tissues, especially as to the probable connexion
between the activities of the ductless gland system and the reactions
of the salivary secretion, as well as to variations in the calcified
structures of the teeth and their susceptibility or immunity to caries.
Corresponding changes in the objectives as well as in the character,
the content and extent of dental education have taken place in
harmony with these developments. Practical teaching has tended
toward a closer approximation to the fundamental ideals and meth-
ods of general medicine in so far as they represent the principles
common to the whole science and art of healing. While the most
conspicuous progress in dentistry during the decade 1910-20 has
been in the direction of its vital and hygienic relations, its technical
and engineering features have shown a similar development. Until
this period the construction of artificial dentures for the prosthetic
restoration of lost teeth was almost wholly an empirical procedure
depending on the judgment, manual skill and good taste of the opera-
tor. Scientific studies of the engineering principles underlying the
mechanism of the human masticatory function, initiated about 1890
by W. G. A. Bonwill. of Philadelphia, and since prosecuted by his
numerous followers, have brought the knowledge of masticatory
movements and of the relations of the teeth and their morsal surfaces
thereto to a state of completeness that enables the prosthetist by
the aid of mechanical articulating devices to reproduce in the
artificial denture a mechanism with possibilities approximating, both
functionally and artistically, those of natural dentures.
The work of Alfred Gysi, of Zurich, constitutes the most advanced
achievement in this field. In close relation to the progress is the
co5rdinate progress made in the artistic reproduction in porcelain
of nature's forms and colouring, brought about mainly by the studies
of J. L. Williams, of New York, and N. S. Esdg, of Philadelphia.
In 1913 Charles H. Mayo, the distinguished surgeon of Rochester,
Minn., expressed the opinion that the next great step in medical
progress in the line of preventive medicine should come from the
dental profession. A review of the progress since made would seem
to indicate a reasonable prospect of the fulfilment of that prophecy.
(E. C. K.)
DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL (1834- ), American
lawyer and politician (see 8.56), failed of reelection as U.S.
senator on the expiration of his term in 1911. In 1914 he favoured
the repeal of the Panama Canal Tolls bill. He assailed pacifism
and after the sinking of the " Lusitania " (1915) urged a strong
stand against Germany. In 1918 he presented to Peekskill, N.Y.,
a bronze statue of himself, which was erected in Depew Park,
a plot of land purchased from the Indians in the I7th cen-
tury by an ancestor, Francois du Puy. In 1919 he added much
adjoining land to this park.
He is the author of Some Views on the Threshold of Fourscore
(1914), including speeches delivered 1912-14, and Speeches and
Literary Contributions at Fourscore and Four (1918, articles and
speeches composed 1916-18).
DERBY, EDWARD GEORGE VILLIERS STANLEY, i 7 TH
EARL OF (1865- ), English statesman (see 8.69), was in
Jan. 1915 created a Knight of the Garter. In Oct. 1915 he be-
came director of recruiting for the army, and as such was re-
sponsible for a new scheme for a final effort on behalf of voluntary
service. A large number of recruits were obtained by Lord Derby's
scheme, but as the numbers did not equal expectations the
Military Service bill was introduced and carried in Jan. 1916.
In Feb. 1916 Lord Derby became chairman of the naval and
military air service joint committee, but resigned in April,
becoming Under-Secretary of War in July. On the formation of
Mr. Lloyd George's Government in Dec. 1916, he became Secre-
tary of War, and in April 1918 was appointed British ambassador
to France. He retired from the latter office in Nov. 1920.
DEROULEDE, PAUL (1846-1914), French author and poli-
tician (see 8.74), died at Mont-Boron, near Nice, Jan. 30 1914.
In 1910 he had published a collection of his patriotic speeches,
and a volume La Ligne des Patriotes containing further extracts
from them appeared two years after his death.
DESCHANEL, PAUL EUGENE LOUIS (1856- ), French
statesman (see 8.91). During his absence from the presidential
chair in the Chamber of Deputies after 1902, Deschanel carved
out for himself a position of some political importance on the
Committee of Foreign Affairs. He was president of this impor-
tant committee when the Franco-German treaty of 1911, con-
firming the settlement of the Agadir incident, came before
Parliament. He was reelected deputy in 1910, and on May 23
1912 he was chosen to succeed M. Brisson in the presidency
of the Chamber of Deputies. He was maintained in this office
by subsequent ballots in 1913 and 1914. His presidency of the
Chamber was marked by much oratory of a literary nature, and
by considerable dexterity in the treatment of the rowdy elements
of the extreme Right and the extreme Left. He aimed at being
the impartial Liberal Republican. During the World War he
played a great part as the national orator. There were, indeed,
few occasions of sorrow or of thanksgiving which his eloquence
did not either lighten or intensify. He delivered orations more
frequently than he made speeches. Whether it was to hold Ger-
8 3 6
D'ESPEREY DETROIT
man infamy up to universal execration, to sing the splendours of
the dead of France, to pay a glowing tribute to an ally's achieve-
ments, or to console the widow and the orphan and spur on the
living fighter, he always had at his command the delicate, if
somewhat artificial, style of speech of the great Latins, which
combined both the structure of the artist and the feeling of a man.
Speech did not give to him a sufficient outlet for his literary gifts.
He was prolific as a writer in reviews such as the Revue de Paris,
the Revue Bleue, Revue Hebdomadaire and the Nouvelle Revue.
His books number Figures de Femmes, Figures litt&raires (both
1889), and a tribute to his political godfather Gambetta. His
talents as a litterateur were recognized by his election to the
French Academy on May 18 1899. He married on Feb. 13 1901
Mdlle. Germaine Brice, and had three children.
It was a secret to none that M. Deschanel, throughout his long
political life, nurtured one great ambition he desired to become
President of the repubh'c. When in Jan. 1920 M. Poincare's
term of office came to an end, it was with some genuine reluctance
that Clemenceau allowed himself to be put forward as a candi-
date in opposition to Deschanel. That reluctance was justified
by results. In the preliminary party ballot Clemenceau was
beaten, and withdrew his candidature. Deschanel was elected
President of the republic by the National Assembly on Jan. 17
1920 by an overwhelming majority. His term of office opened
brilliantly, but his health was unable to stand the strain of office.
In May 1920, while on an official journey to Montargis, he fell
unobserved from the presidential train, and though he found his
way to a signalman's box, and suffered no worse consequences
than a nervous breakdown, he was temporarily incapacitated.
His condition subsequently became such that on Sept. 20 1920
he was obliged to resign his office, and to leave Rambouillet,
where he had sought the quiet necessary for the restoration of
his health. He then went into a private nursing home at Rueil
where he sufficiently recovered to be able to stand successfully
for the Senate in the elections at the beginning of 1921, though
he no longer took an active part in public affairs. (G. A.)
D'ESPEREY, LOUIS FRANCHET (1856- ), French marshal,
was born at Mostaganem, in Algeria, on May 25 1856, and was
commissioned from St. Cyr to the infantry in 1876. As a junior
officer he saw much service in N. Africa and Tongking. For a time
he was aide-de-camp to Freycinet, then Minister of War and
premier. He served also in the expedition to N. China in 1900,
after which he commanded an infantry regiment at home. He
became general of brigade in 1908 and general of division in
1912. For a time he commanded the troops in Morocco, but in
1913 he was appointed to the I. Corps at Lille. He commanded
this corps in the V. Army during the battle of the Frontiers, and
at Charleroi had the ungrateful task of protecting the right of
Lanrezac's army during its deployment on the Sambre; brought
up at last on to the battlefield to deliver a decisive counter-stroke,
he was at the moment of attack withdrawn again to protect the
right rear of the army, the force which had released him having
failed to keep the line of the Meuse. In the difficulties of the re-
treat which followed it was the I. Corps and its commander which
formed, according to Lanrezac's own testimony, the soundest
element of the V. Army, and when that general was relieved of
his command on the eve of the battle of the Marne, Franchet
d'Esperey was his obvious successor.
Gen. Franchet d'Esperey commanded the V. Army during
the battle of the Marne and the advance to the Aisne, and
continued in command till the end of March 1916, when he was
appointed to the eastern group of armies, in succession to Gen.
Dubail. After holding this office for some eight months, he
passed to the more active command of the northern group of
armies, of which he was in charge throughout the campaign of
1917. In May 1918 he went to Salonika as commander-in-chief
of the Allied armies in that theatre. His predecessor, Gen.
Guillaumat, had worked out the main features of a general
offensive on the Salonika front, and continued, in close coopera-
tion with him, to support the claims and needs of such an
offensive in the councils of the Allied High Command at Paris.
Men and material were sent out in adequate numbers, and
though Franchet d'Esperey, even with Guillaumat's assistance,
was only able to obtain the decisive authorization to attack a few
days before the scheduled date, his energy was equal to the task
of hastening on the last stages of preparation and on Sept. 15
an offensive was launched that carried all before it. Bulgaria
surrendered, and the pursuit was pushed with hardly a check
into and through Old Serbia. After the final victory he remained
in charge of the Allied forces in European Turkey and Balkan
occupied territory, with headquarters in Constantinople. He
was created a marshal of France early in 1921.
DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDOUARD (1848-1912), French
painter (see 8. no), died in Paris Dec. 24 1912.
DETROIT (see 8.113). Commencing with the recovery
from the industrial depression of 1907-8, the city of Detroit
entered upon a period of growth almost without precedent among
large cities. The area of the city in 1907 was 35-65 sq. m.,but
by the end of 1918 had increased to 83-58 sq. m. With reference
to a portion of this area a peculiar condition existed. The villages
of Hamtramck and Highland Park were originally outside
territory into which the population and business of Detroit over-
flowed. By annexations in 1916 and 1917 their outer boundaries
were brought two miles within the city limits, but they still
retained their separate municipal administrations. Together
they covered 4-83 square miles. The pop. of the city as estimated
from the Water Board enumeration of families was in 1907 about
390,000. In 1910 the U.S. census record was 465,766. The
census of 1920 gave a total of 1,088,853 within the city limits,
distributed as follows: under Detroit municipal administration
993i739J village of Hamtramck 48,615; City of Highland Park
46,499. A canvass made late in 1920 by the various city agencies
for Americanization indicated that about 70% of the population
was either of foreign birth or foreign parentage. Polanders,
Germans and Russians represented the largest numbers, though
there were large accessions from south-eastern Europe. In a
single automobile plant there were 34 nationalities represented.
A canvass of the public schools taken in Dec. 1920 showed 55%
of the pupils of American-born parentage, 50-5% being white
and 4-5% coloured. In 45% of children of foreign-born parents
Polish ranked first and Russian next. In the three years ending
with 1920 a large amount of work was done by the Board of
Commerce, the Board of Education, and leading manufacturers
in teaching the English language and the elements of citizenship
through public night schools and factory schools.
Manufacturing. The extraordinary growth of the city was
mainly a consequence of the expansion of its manufacturing in-
dustries. In 1904 the city was I2th in rank among the industrial
centres of the country, with $91,038,000 in manufacturing capital,
60,150 industrial employees, and a product valued at $128,247,000.
Five years later it was 6th in place, with a capital of $210,000,000,
103,287 employees and product of $252,992,000. In 1914 it was 4th,
being surpassed only by New York, Chicago and Philadelphia, with
a capital of $405,000,000, 141,188 employees and product valued at
$569,000,000. In 1919 the number of employees had increased to
310,000 and the value of the product was estimated at $1,450,000,-
ooo. In the first half of 1920 industrial activity was at its height, and
although there was a decline in the latter part of the year, the
total value was estimated at a slight increase over the previous
year. By far the most important of the manufacturing industries
was the making of automobile parts and accessories and assembling
of motor cars. The business began in Detroit in 1899, but was not
classed by the Census Bureau as a separate industry till 1904, when
it had $3,447,000 capital, employed 2,191 workers and had a product
valued at $6,240,000. In 1909 the capital employed in the industry
had increased to $28,928,000, the number of persons employed in
office and factory 17,437, the number of cars produced 45,560 and
the value of the product $59,536,000. The next year there was a
great expansion of the industry, both through the organization of
new companies and additions to old plants. With the exception of a
slight set-back in 1914, the growth was continuous till the latter
part of 1920. At its peak of production in that year there were
25 companies assembling motor cars and 140 whose sole or principal
business was the making of automobile parts and accessories.
Together they employed about 155,000 persons and put out 1,250,000
cars valued at over $1,000,000,000. The Ford Motor Co. alone had
a maximum of 53,000 men on its pay rolls; Dodge Bros. 23,000;
and the Packard Co. 17,000. The distribution of these products
was world-wide, the portion set apart for export in 1920 amounting
to $152,000,000. During the decade ending in 1920 there were numer-
DE VALERA, E.
837
cms other changes in Detroit's manufacturing industries. Freight-
car building, which was the largest of all up to 1908, has been almost
entirely discontinued. The carriage and furniture factories were
for the most part changed to the making of automobile accessories,
and clothing manufacture diminished. Meantime some of the
metal industries increased enormously. The city in 1920 was either
first or near the front in the following lines : aluminium castings, brass
products, computing machines, druggists' preparations, soda ash
and kindred alkalis, stoves and varnishes.
Transportation. For the accommodation of the increasing traf-
fic caused by this industrial expansion there were great enlarge-
ments by the transportation lines. The Michigan Central tun-
nelled Detroit river and built an immense new passenger station and
office building. That road and the Grand Trunk and the Pere
Marquette made great additions to their freight yards, stations and
sidings, and the outer belt line was extended. The Pennsylvania
lines were extended from Toledo to Detroit, with a belt line of their
own round a portion of the city, and ample freight and passenger
facilities. The Detroit, Toledo and Ironton, which was suffering
for lack of funds and equipment, was purchased by the Henry Ford
interests, with great improvement in its facilities for service as
a coal road. In lake freight transportation 1916 was the maximum
year. The number of passages by vessels through the Detroit river
that year was 37,852, net registered tonnage 76,677,264, actual
freight tonnage 100,907,279, estimated value of freight $1,069,617,-
157. There was also in 1919 and 1920 an astonishing development
in motor-truck service. There were in 1920 about 20 established
lines reaching out from the city in all directions, and covering dis-
tances as great as 50 m. or more. At the April election in 1920 by a
vote of 89,285 to 51,093 the people approved of a plan for municipal
construction and operation of street railway lines. It was intended
for the present to supplement, but ultimately to absorb, the privately
owned system. A short section was opened Feb. I 1921.
Miscellaneous. The manufacturing and population growth was
accompanied by similar expansion in other lines. For example:
assessed valuation, 1910, $377,335,980; 1920, $1,699,149,580; city
tax levy, 1910, $6,837,686; 1920, $35,086,359; bank capital and
surplus, 1910, $19,130,000; 1920, $58,343,500; bank deposits, 1910,
$140,183,995; 1920, $503,944,735: bank clearings, 1910, $910,835-
005; 1920, $6,109,313,803; building permits, 1910, 5,498, to cost
$17,225,945; 1920, 19,412, to cost $77,737,365; post-office receipts,
1910, $2,133,647; 1920, $6,031,442; internal revenue receipts,
1910, $6,725,941; 1920, $304,184,392; imports, 1910, fiscal year,
$13,763,200; 1920, $91,160,552; exports, 1910, $82,143,633; 1920,
$339,844,490. Detroit's allotment of the four Liberty loans and
the Victory loan was $233,977,172. The subscriptions actually
made amounted to $299,794,150, from 785,176 subscribers. During
1917 and 1918 contracts for munitions and army supplies to the
amount of about $900,000,000 were taken in Detroit. Of these
nearly $300,000,000 worth were cancelled after the Armistice.
Administration. Under a charter adopted by popular vote
June 25 1918, the methods of municipal government were
materially changed. In place of a Board of Education of one
member from each ward, there was a Board of seven members,
elected two or three at a time on a general ticket and holding office
for six years. The old Board of Estimates, consisting of two mem-
bers from each ward and five at large, was abolished, leaving ap-
propriations and bond issues to be determined by the mayor and
common council. The mayor's final judgment was conclusive upon
all appropriation items, unless reversed by a vote of seven out of the
nine aldermen. The old common council of two aldermen from each
ward was displaced by a council of nine members all elected at one
time on a general ticket. The mayor, city clerk and city treasurer
were elected, but all other administrative officers and commissions
were appointed by the mayor, without reference to the council, and
were subject to dismissal by him without trial. Nominations, two
for each office to be filled, were made at non-partisan primaries.
Blanks for voting were also non-partisan, and the time of election
was separated from that of the state and national contests. By
special legislative enactment the police and recorders' courts were
combined in one with seven judges, holding office for four years and
having jurisdiction of all criminal and ordinance cases. The judges
were all chosen at one time on a non-partisan ticket. (W. ST.)
DE VALERA, EDWARD [EAMONN] (1882- ), Irish re-
publican leader, was born Oct. 14 1882, near Charleville, Co.
Cork. His father, Vivian de Valera, was a Spaniard; his mother,
whose maiden name was Kate Coll, came from near Bruree, Co.
Limerick. He spent his childhood and boyhood among his
mother's people, and was educated first at the national school
and later at the Christian Brothers' school, Charleville. He then
went to Blackrock College, Co. Dublin, where he gained a reputa-
tion both as a student and an athlete. Here he worked at Latin,
Greek, French and English literature, and at his favourite
subject, mathematics. He won a middle grade exhibition in 1899,
and in 1900 one in the senior grade. Entering the Royal Univer-
sity in 1901, he won the next year a second class mathematical
scholarship. He went as teacher to Rockwell College, and while
there graduated with a pass B.A. degree in mathematical science
in 1904, and proceeded to the B.Sc. degree in 1914. In 1910 he
passed the examination for the diploma in education (teaching).
For a time he worked at a thesis on quaternions for his M.A.
degree, but he never presented it. He also attended lectures in
mathematics at Trinity College, Dublin, where he unsuccessfully
competed for a scholarship. Returning to Dublin, he taught
mathematics, Latin, and French in the principal Roman
Catholic colleges, including the old University College, St.
Stephen's Green; Belvedere; Clonliffe; Dominican College,
Eccles Street; Loreto College, St. Stephen's Green; and Carysfort
Training College for teachers. He examined in mathematics for
the Irish Intermediate Board of Education in 1912 and following
years. He unsuccessfully attempted to become an inspector of
national schools. He was very popular with his pupils. He also
rapidly acquired a knowledge of Irish (Gaelic), and in 1914 he
was able to read difficult bardic Irish poetry. He took charge of
the Irish Summer College at Tawin founded by Casement.
On the foundation of the Irish Volunteers in 1913, he threw
himself heart and soul into the new organization. Sinn Fein had
turned to the use of violence in 1909, and to this organization
De Valera belonged, though he assumed no leading share in it till
the Easter rebellion of 1916. When Casement was captured he
countersigned the order of Thomas MacDonagh on April 23,
cancelling the inspection and manceuvres ordered for that day.
When, nevertheless, the rebellion broke out De Valera was in the
outer circle of Dublin held by the rebels, which ranged from
Ringsend to Ballsbridge. He commanded the insurgents holding
Boland's bakery, which was valuable in two ways: it assured the
rebels of a supply of foodstuffs, and it offered a commanding
position for rifle fire. Though there was heavy firing day and
night in this district, there were not many casualties, as there was
much cover for both sides. The real leaders of the rebellion were
P. H. Pearse and J. Connolly. When an order from the former
reached De Valera commanding him to surrender, he at first
refused to believe that it was genuine. When he satisfied himself,
on Sunday, April 30, he submitted and surrendered with the
hundred men of his garrison. He was sentenced to death, but the
sentence was commuted to penal servitude for life, and he was
committed to Lewes prison, but was released in the general
amnesty of June 15 1917. No conditions had been attached to
the release of the prisoners, and De Valera himself openly
ascribed this action of the Government not to generosity, but to
fear. As the only surviving leader of the rebellion, he found at
once that he had achieved importance in the eyes of the majority
of the Roman Catholic Irish, who had meanwhile swung round
violently in the direction of Sinn Fein. When the ex-prisoners
left the boat at Kingstown De Valera marched at their head,
and his entry into Dublin was a triumphal progress. His triumph
was increased in the same month by his election for East Clare
by a large majority, his opponent being P. Lynch, who had been
the crown prosecutor and now stood as a Nationalist. The
importance of this election rivalled that of the famous Clare
election of 1828, when O'Conneli stood. De Valera's sweeping
victory gave an immense impetus to the Sinn Fein cause.
From this time until his re-arrest in the spring of the following
year De Valera was the heart and soul of the Sinn Fein move-
ment. A facile writer and speaker, both in English and Gaelic,
he was a 'master of the type of unmeasured eloquence that
appeals to the Irish temper, which is impatient of compromise.
In Dublin, on the day after his election for Clare, while in the hall
of the convention the representatives of the N. and S. were
engaged in seeking a formula of union, in the street outside De
Valera was telling a cheering crowd that " if Ulster barred the
way, Ulster must be coerced." A similar violence characterized
all his speeches. The Sinn Fein convention of Oct. 26-27 1917
elected him " President of the Irish Republic."
In the agitation, in the early part of 1918, against " con-
scription " De Valera took a leading part. But in May the dis-
covery by the Government of another plot for a rising, to be
combined with a German invasion, led to his re-arrest together
838
DEVENTER DIAZ, A.
with some 1 50 other prominent Sinn Feiners. He was imprisoned
at Lincoln, in England, but on Feb. 3 1919 he, with two other
Irish prisoners, escaped and, ultimately, made his way to
the United States. Here, working with the same restless
energy as in Ireland, he was successful for a time in enlisting a
large amount of public sympathy for the Sinn Fein cause,
especially in Irish and German-American circles. He was
received as " President " by the civic authorities of New York
(under Mayor Hylan's Tammany administration) and in other
cities where the Irish vote predominated, presented with their
" freedom," and otherwise honoured. His attempt, however, to
persuade the party conventions, assembled to nominate candi-
dates for the presidency, into making the independence of Ireland
a plank in their programmes, completely failed, and the Irish
question was not mentioned in the programme of either party.
With the election of Mr. Harding to the presidency, it became
clear that De Valera's efforts to involve the United States in a
quarrel with Great Britain about Ireland had broken down, and
in the spring of 1921 he returned to Ireland, wherein June and
July negotiations were opened with him by the Government with
a view to an Irish settlement (see IRELAND: History).
In 1910 De Valera was married to Miss Sinead Ni Fhlannagain,
one of the most popular teachers and earnest workers of the Ard
Craobh and Colimcille branches and of the Leinster College.
DEVENTER, SIR JACOB LOUIS VAN (1874- ), S. African
general, was born in the Orange Free State in 1874. A colonel
on the permanent staff of the S. African Defence Force, Van
Deventer served in the German S.-W. Africa campaign, 1914-5,
where he had a distinguished record in active service. His real
gifts as a general, however, were not fully appreciated till he
went to German E. Africa, to fight in Gen. Smuts's campaign
against the Germans there. So well did he acquit himself in that
field that when Gen. Hoskins, who had succeeded Gen. Smuts in
the chief command, ceased to hold that post in 1917, Van Deven-
ter was appointed commander-in-chief of the Empire Military
Forces in E. Africa. He was then a major-general, and was given
the temporary rank of lieutenant-general on becoming command-
er-in-chief. Shortly afterwards he was created K.C.B., in rec-
ognition of distinguished services in the field. As commander-
in-chief he showed the same qualities which had secured for
him this high promotion and it was under his auspices that the
campaign was brought to a successful end. Van Deventer left
E. Africa at the end of 1918, sending a message of thanks to
the administrator of Southern Rhodesia, in which he expressed
his sincere thanks for the " unfailing cooperation of the Rho-
desian troops, British and African, in the campaign."
DE VILLIERS, JOHN HENRY DE VILLIERS, BARON (1842-
1914), first Chief Justice of the Union of South Africa, was born
at Paarl, Cape Colony, in June 1842. Descended from the
Huguenots who settled in that part of the Cape, he was educated
at the South African College, Cape Town, and went to Utrecht
and Berlin universities. In 1865 he was called to the bar by the
Inner Temple, and in the same year returned to South Africa and
began practice as an advocate of the Supreme Court of Cape
Colony. His success was immediate. Entering Cape politics in
1866, he was elected a member of the House of Assembly, became
attorney-general of the Colony in 1872, and two years later was
appointed Chief Justice of the Cape. In that high office he
speedily confounded critics of his appointment. The Roman-
Dutch law of the Colony, admirable in its logic and symmetry,
was ill-fitted to the complications of modern conditions, and it
was the life-work of de Villiers to adapt it to these needs. This
he did with a conspicuous success which has secured for his
name a place high on the roll of those great judges who have done
the work of British civilization in many parts of the world. De
Villiers was knighted in 1880, was created a K.C.M.G. a year
later, and in 1910 was raised to the peerage on his assumption of
the post of Chief Justice of the newly formed Union of South
Africa. He died Sept. 2 1914.
In the work of moulding the instrument of union he had borne
a great if not a decisive part. Throughout his career he had
taken a constant interest in the politics of Cape Colony and of
South Africa an interest which had never degenerated into
partisanship, which had throughout been inspired by a true and
enlightened patriotism, which had never lacked the touch of
courageous plain speech at the many moments of crisis through
which his country had passed. Universal recognition of these
outstanding qualities made the appointment of de Villiers as
president of the National Convention inevitable, though it must
be said that, as the work of the Convention drew towards com-
pletion, there were murmurs and not without justification
that long years on the bench had done something to affect his
natural aptitude for presiding over the deliberations of such a
body. These criticisms, however well justified, should not de-
tract from the greatness of his achievement, both as a judge and
as a figure in the tortured public life of South Africa during the
hazardous years of his career. As a judge he touched genius.
Acute, unbiased, learned in the crabbed texts of Roman-Dutch
law, he added to these gifts the art of keeping steadily in mind
the practical needs of the life of his country as affected by his
judgments. Equity rather than precedent was his mentor.
With the bar his relations were those of a wise and revered
adviser. During repeated visits to Great Britain he shared with
known distinction in the work of the Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council, and the value of his assistance to that body was
recognized more than once in public by his colleagues.
DEVONPORT, HUDSON EWBANKE KEARLEY, IST VISCT.
(1856- ), English politician and man of business, was born
at Uxbridge Sept. i 1856, and educated at Cranleigh school.
He entered the firm of Kearley & Tonge, tea merchants and
shippers, of London and Calcutta, subsequently becoming senior
partner. In 1892 he entered Parliament as Liberal member for
Devonport, and from 1905 to 1909 was parliamentary secretary
to the Board of Trade. In 1908 he was created a baronet, and in
1909 was elected chairman of the Port of London Authority,
being prominent in this capacity during the strike of transport
workers and lightermen at the London docks in 1912. In 1910
he was raised to the peerage. He was appointed first Food Con-
troller in 1916, and in 1917 became secretary to the Sugar Com-
mission, but had to retire owing to ill-health. The same year
he was created a viscount.
DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist 'and phys-
icist (see 8.137), published (with G. D. Liveing) Collected Papers
on Spectroscopy (1915). In 1916 he received the Copley medal
of the Royal Society, and the Franklin medal of the Franklin
Institute of Philadelphia in 1919.
DEWEY, GEORGE (1837-1917), American naval officer
(see 8.139), died in Washington Jan. 16 1917, and three days
later was buried in the Arlington National Cemetery. By special
provision Admiral Dewey was never retired but continued in
active service up to his death, for the last seven years being
president of the General Board of the navy. To the last he
continued to urge the building of large battleships, citing their
superiority in the battle of Jutland in the World War. He
published his Autobiography in 1913.
DIAZ, ARMANDO (1861- ), Italian general, was born in
Naples Dec. 6 1861. He entered the artillery and served in that
branch and in various staff appointments, until his promotion
to major, when he transferred to the infantry. He served in the
Italo-Turkish War in command of a regiment and was wounded
at Zanzur in Sept. 1912. In 1914 he was promoted to major-
general, and, after commanding the Sienna Brigade for a short
time, was transferred to the general staff. On Italy's entry into
the World War he was attached to the supreme command as
chief of the operations department. He held this post till
June 1916, when he was promoted lieutenant-general and took
command of the 4gth Division, which in Nov. of that year dis-
tinguished itself by the capture of Volkovnjak, an important
position on the northern rim of the Carso. He visited the French
front in Jan. and Feb. 1917, and in June he was given special
promotion and confirmed in command of the XXIII. Corps,
which he had held temporarily from its formation two months
previously. Under his direction in the following Aug. this corps
won a considerable success between Korite and Selo, on the Carso.
DIAZ, PORFIRIO DINES
839
In Nov. 1917, after the Caporetto disaster, Diaz succeeded
Cadorna as chief of the general staff. He was confronted with a
very serious situation, but he brought to bear upon it all the
needful understanding and resolution. Under his direction the
battle front was successfully reconstituted, and the work of re-
organizing the Italian army was carried out. At the instigation,
and under the close personal supervision, of Diaz much was done
to improve conditions for the soldiers at the front and for their
families at home. Under his command the double attack of
Boroevich and Conrad was broken up at the battle of the Piave
(June 1918) and the armies of the Dual Monarchy were destroyed
by the battle of Vittorio Veneto (Oct.-Nov. 1918). For his
services Diaz received the collar of the Annunziata, the highest
Italian order. In Nov. 1919 he was nominated army general and
retired from his position as chief of staff, and later, upon the
reorganization of the army and Ministry of War, he was appointed
vice-president of the Army Council. He also became a Senator
and in 1919 he received the freedom of the City of London.
As a division and corps commander Diaz displayed high
military qualities. His position as chief of the general staff was
rendered delicate by the fact that the British and French divi-
sions which were sent to Italy after Caporetto were not at first
placed directly under his command, and his personal qualities
were specially adapted to render collaboration easy. Diaz has
been criticized for excess of caution in delaying his final attack
upon the Austro-Hungarian armies. It is possible, though by no
means certain, that he might have attacked with success sooner.
But an earlier victory might very well have been less complete,
and anything less than complete victory would not have served
the cause of Italy or of the Allies.
DIAZ, PORFIRIO (1830-1915), president of the republic of
Mexico (see 8.172), died in Paris July 2 1915. In April 1910 he
was elected president for the eighth time, but as the result of
widespread opposition to what was regarded as a prolonged
dictatorship, a revolution broke out the following Nov., headed
by Francisco I. Madero. Because of his age the President could
not head his army personally, and in May 1911 was forced to
resign. With his family he went to Spain, and thereafter until
his death lived in various European capitals.
DICEY, EDWARD (1832-1911), English writer (see 8.178),
died in London July 7 1911.
DIERX, LEON (1838-1912), French poet (see 8.210), died in
Paris June n 1912. His Poesies Posthumes appeared in 1913.
DIESEL, RUDOLF (1857-1913), German engineer, was the
inventor of the Diesel oil-engine (see INTERNAL COMBUS-
TION ENGINES), the possibilities of which, however, had hardly
been realized till after his untimely death. He fell overboard
the Antwerp-Harwich mail steamer on Sept. 30 1913, and was
drowned.
DIGGLE, JOHN WILLIAM (1847-1920), English divine, was
born at Strawberry Hill, Pendleton, March 2 1847. He was
educated at Manchester grammar school and Merton College,
Oxford, where he graduated in 1870, being ordained in 1871.
After many years of energetic work in various parishes he was
in 1892 made examining-chaplain to the Bishop of Carlisle, Dr.
Bardsley. Four years later he became archdeacon of Westmor-
land and canon residentiary of Carlisle. In 1902 he became rector
of St. Martin's, Birmingham, in 1903 was made archdeacon of
Birmingham, and in 1905 became Bishop of Carlisle, where his
energy and industry brought him a great reputation. He died
at Rose Castle, Carlisle, March 24 1920.
DIGGLE, JOSEPH ROBERT (1849-1917), English education-
alist, was born in Lanes. May 12 1849. He was educated at
Manchester grammar school and Wadham College, Oxford.
He took orders, but resolved later to devote himself to public
work. In 1879 he was elected for the Marylebone division to the
London school board, on which he remained until 1897, being
chairman from 1885 till 1894. Diggle was an active member of
many committees for the betterment of the conditions of the
working classes, and published Pleas for Better Administration
upon the London School Board (1881 and 1885). He died at Ox-
ford Jan. 16 1917.
DILKE, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH, 2ND BART. (1843-
1911), English statesman (see 8.271), died in London Jan. 26
1911, and was succeeded by his son, CHARLES WENTWORTH
DILKE (1874-1918), who died in London Dec. 7 1918. The
baronetcy went to Sir Fisher Wentworth Dilke (b. 1877), a cousin
of the 3rd Bart.
DILLON, JOHN (1851- ), Irish Nationalist politician
(see 8.273). The Irish members endeavoured unsuccessfully to
censure the conduct of the Speaker in regard to the suspension
of Mr. Dillon on March 20 1902. He was prominent that year
in Parliament in his attacks on the Government for the revival
of the Crimes Act, and in the following year he helped forward
Mr. Wyndham's Land Purchase Act. For several subsequent
years he played a comparatively subordinate part both in Ire-
land and in Parliament; but in 1909 he appeared as a leading
apologist of cattle-driving, telling the House of Commons that
the grazing system in Ireland had become an abomination.
He aided the parliamentary progress of the Home Rule bill mainly
by a judicious silence. In the years before the World War he
had been very critical both of the increased naval preparations,
which he said were the result of a bogus naval scare, and of
Sir Edward Grey's policy in Egypt and Morocco. But he followed
his leader, Mr. Redmond, in urging Ireland to take her share in
the war against Germany, and spoke at the meeting in the Dublin
Mansion House on Sept. 25 1914, when the platform was occupied
by the Lord Mayor, the Lord Lieutenant, Mr. Asquith (Prime
Minister), the Chief Secretary, and Mr. Redmond. In Parlia-
ment, however, he showed himself opposed to compulsory service
and the setting up of a Munitions department; and after the
Dublin rebellion he said he was proud of the rebels, accused the
Government of washing out the word Nationalist in a sea of
blood, and declared that Sir John Maxwell's system of military
rule had done more to spread disaffection in Ireland than all the
organizers of Sinn Fein. He did not show himself very sym-
pathetic or hopeful in regard to the various suggestions of Mr.
Lloyd George for settling the Irish question. In July 1918,
as Mr. Redmond's successor in the leadership of his party, he
brought forward a motion that the Irish policy of the Govern-
ment was inconsistent with the principles for which the Allies
were carrying on the war, advised calling in President Wilson to
settle the question, and bitterly denounced what he called the
outrageous coercive system in force in Ireland. But the violence
of his language did not save him from the vengeance of Sinn Fein
who now dominated that country; he, along with almost the
whole of the Constitutional Nationalist party, lost his seat at the
general election of Dec. 1918.
DINANT, Belgium (see 8.274). The town was almost com-
pletely destroyed at the beginning of the World War by German
forces invading Belgium, who here endeavoured to force the
passage of the Meuse, the left bank of which was held by the
French. On Aug. 23 1914, the Germans rushed the town, and,
on the pretext that the civil population had fired on them, they
set fire to the town and shot numbers of the inhabitants en masse.
In all 665 persons, or about one-tenth of the total pop., were
massacred, among them being 71 women and 39 infants, many
of the latter only a few weeks old. Of 1,653 houses only about
600 remained. A minute inquiry into the charge, held subse-
quently, completely established the innocence of the inhabitants.
The rebuilding of the town was being actively pursued in 1921.
DINES, WILLIAM HENRY (1855- ), English meteorolo-
gist, was born in 1855, the son of G. Dines, also a meteorologist.
He was educated at Woodcote House school, Windlesham, and
afterwards entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where
he obtained a first-class in the mathematical tripos in 1881. He
afterwards carried out some investigations for the Royal Mete-
orological Society on the subject of wind forces, and in connexion
with this work designed the Dines pressure-tube anemometer.
In 1901 he commenced researches into the problems of the upper
air, and designed or perfected several instruments for use with
kites, as well as a form of the Hargreaves box-kite, which proved
of great value. In 1905 he was appointed by the Meteorological
Office director of experiments in connexion with the investigation
840
DIPLOMACY
of the upper air, and in 1907 designed a meteorograph for use
with balloons. He also produced, in conjunction with Dr. Napier
Shaw, the microbarograph and a recording mercury barometer,
as well as various other instruments. From 1901 to 1902 he was
president of the Royal Meteorological Society and in 1905 was
elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He was a member of the
International Commission for Scientific Aeronautics, and be-
came an hon. or corresponding member of various foreign scien-
tific societies. He is the author of many important papers on
the meteorology of the upper atmosphere which appeared in the
Transactions of the Royal Society, the Geophysical Memoirs of
the Meteorological Office and elsewhere.
DIPLOMACY (see 8.294). The general effect of the World
War on the principles and practice of diplomacy, defined as the
science and art of conducting negotiations between sovereign
states, has been very great, for better or for worse; but in general
it may be said that the war did not give the initial impulse to, but
merely greatly strengthened, forces which had been long at work
modifying the traditions of diplomacy and adapting it to new
social and political conditions.
Long before the war the gradual development of a sense of the
community of interests among civilized nations, and of the
public law which was the outcome of this sense, had raised
diplomacy to a far higher plane than that which it had occupied
in the i8th century. Before the war, too, the progress of de-
mocracy had produced great changes in diplomatic practice.
Delicate negotiations were, indeed, still conducted in secret, as
they always must be; but publicity had already become a
recognized diplomatic weapon to be used on occasion, and
ambassadors, though still accredited to courts and governments,
were sometimes notably in the case of the United States and
Great Britain selected for qualities likely to appeal to peoples.
Already, too, democratic sentiment was demanding open
diplomacy, with popular control, while a host of publicists had
long been busy devising schemes for an international order which,
were it possible to realize it, would revolutionize diplomacy by
establishing among the nations to use President Wilson's
language " not a balance of power, but a community of power;
not organized rivalries, but an organized common peace."
General E/ecls of the War on Diplomatic Practice. These
tendencies received a fresh impetus from the outbreak of the war.
This disaster was widely ascribed to the machinations of diplo-
matists, who were denounced as representing not peoples but a
class, as in league with capitalists and munition manufacturers
to stir up war, as fraudulent trustees of the nations' welfare,
who in their pitiful game of international chicanery habitually
used language " false-friendly, circumlocutory, and non-commit-
tal, full of duplicity and secret reserves " (e.g. J. A. Hobson,
Towards International Government, pp. 67, 69). The cure for this
was to be to sweep away the diplomatic tradition altogether;
to replace the trained diplomatic service by men directly repre-
senting popular opinion; and to secure effective " democratic
control " by giving the deciding voice in all international ques-
tions to legislative bodies. These remedies for an assumed evil
had the support of many sociologists and of many democratic
politicians, especially in countries where parliamentary action on
treaties was already required. Extend the system of democratic
control, they argued, and crown the international edifice with a
legislative assembly representing collective humanity, and peace
will be forever assured, since the " peoples " never want war.
This solution of the international problem, which ignored the
fundamental difficulties, seemed to receive support in the
highest quarters when President Wilson put forward his " pro-
gramme of the world's peace." The very first of the Fourteen
Points condemned " secret diplomacy." In future there were
to be " open covenants openly arrived at, after which there shall
be no private international understandings of any kind, but
diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the pubh'c view."
A " general association of the nations " was to be formed, in
place of the partial alliance's of former times (Point XIV.), and
peace was to be made secure " by the organized major force
of mankind."
The incorporation of the Covenant of the League of Nations
in the Peace Treaty was an effort to realize the President's ideal. l
From the point of view of the present article its main interest
lies in the fact that it set up permanent machinery for that
" diplomacy by conference " to which the work of settlement
after the war gave a powerful development. For the rest, it
cannot be said that the history of diplomacy from the time of
the Armistice onward revealed any striking change in the
old methods. Indeed, in so far as the traditional methods were
departed from, the change was sometimes for the worse. The
sounding phrases which had heralded the Peace Conference had
only as President Wilson himself confessed raised in the
hearts of millions of people hopes which could not be realized ; and
the enforced departure of the victorious powers from the promises
and professions which they had made in their time of trouble
did not inspire admiration for the new diplomatic morality. Nor
was the assertion of this morality in the great Treaty a luppy
one. The preambles of treaties of peace in earlier times had
perhaps been tinged with hypocrisy, since it was customary to
describe the peace to be concluded as " Christian, universal and
perpetual " which nobody believed to be the truth. But even
this pretence had its use, since it at least placed on record an
ideal. In addition to this, however, it was usual to state that
there was to be " complete oblivion of the past," a treaty of
peace being conceived as a settlement of all outstanding differ-
ences and as clearing the ground for an entirely fresh start in the
relations of the contracting parties (Satow, ii., p. 180). Whatever
may be said of the guilt of the German nation in respect of the
origin and conduct of the war, as justifying a departure from this
tradition, the fact that in the Treaty of Versailles it was de-
parted from is momentous. For the first time a treaty of peace
was made to contain a confession of guilt on the part of the
vanquished party, a confession permanently humiliating to a
whole people. The old diplomacy, which was wholly practical,
would not have made the mistake of introducing into what
was intended as the foundation of the permanent order of the
world a full charge of political dynamite of this description. The
Allied statesmen of a hundred years ago did not thus humiliate
France, even after the fresh outburst of the Hundred Days,
though they were equally persuaded of her guilt and public
opinion clamoured for her humih'ation and dismemberment.
But they were trained diplomatists, able to look into a future in
which France, regenerated if not repentant, would again become
a useful member of the European body politic. They cared not
a rap for public opinion.
In general it may be said that the Peace Treaty of 1919
was the work of politicians, not of diplomatists; and this fact
marks a significant change in the practice of diplomacy. Before
the war the conduct of international affairs was, in Europe at
least, in the hands of the trained diplomatic body working in
connexion with the various Foreign Offices; and this international
business was conducted according to an elaborate code of rules,
established by custom or by convention, which had been devised
as the result of long experience, to ensure its smooth working.
At the Conference of Paris diplomatists were present, but they
played but a secondary part. This was perhaps inevitable in
view of the passionate interest of the peoples in certain aspects
of the settlement, which forced those responsible for it to combine
the functions of diplomatist and demagogue. But it had an
unfortunate repercussion on the professional diplomatic service,
of which it lowered the prestige.
This was especially the case, perhaps, in Great Britain.
Even before the war there had been a tendency to pass over the
professional diplomatists in making appointments to important
embassies, which were occasionally, though as yet exceptionally,
given to eminent party politicians. It is the system which has
always prevailed in the United States, sometimes with excellent
results as in the notable succession of ambassadors to the Court
1 For Mr. Wilson's conception, see his address to the Senate, Jan.
22 1917. Compare Mr. Asquith at Ladybank, Feb. I 1917: "A
real European partnership, based on the recognition of equal right,
and established and enforced by a common will."
DIPLOMACY
841
i
of St. James's but more often perhaps with results less satis-
factory. Whatever may be said for this system, however, there
can be no doubt that its considerable extension by the British
Government since the war has dealt a severe blow at the diplo-
matic service; for how can men be expected to serve a long and
arduous apprenticeship to a profession when they realize that
its great prizes are given to outsiders who have served no
apprenticeship at all?
Less obviously harmful was the outcome of the attacks from
democratic quarters on the system of recruiting the diplomatic
service in England. The object of this system, which demanded
of candidates for examination nomination by the Foreign Secre-
tary on the recommendation of persons of position and proof of
the possession of an income of 400 a year, was to ensure the
manning of the service by gentlemen, that is to say by those who
had " at least had the opportunity of mixing in society where
good manners are to be expected." In this system certain
modifications were made as the result of a report issued in 1914
by the Royal Commission on the Civil Service. One of its
recommendations was that the diplomatic establishment of the
Foreign Office and the diplomatic corps abroad should be
amalgamated, up to and including the grades of assistant under-
secretary of state and minister of the lowest grade. This involved
the abolition of the property qualification, which did not apply
to the Foreign Office; and it was recommended that, in place
of this, members of the service employed abroad should receive
a suitable foreign allowance. After the publication of the
findings of the Commission the recommendation of the Foreign
Secretary was made dependent on the report of a board of
selection composed of members of the Foreign Office and of the
diplomatic service. In this there was nothing revolutionary;
and the effect of the putting in force of these recommendations
has been to widen the area of selection for the service. The
danger lies in the denunciation as undemocratic of any principle
of selection other than by the strict result of written examination.
But the qualities required for a diplomatist, as Sir Ernest Satow
rightly points out, cannot be ascertained by means of a written
examination, which only affords evidence of knowledge already
acquired, but does not reveal the essential ingredients of charac-
ter (ii., p. 183). The character required for an efficient diplo-
matist will always be that implied in the best sense of the word
" gentleman," meaning a man honourable, well educated, of
good address and manners, and able to hold his own without
self-consciousness in any company.
The whole body of rules and conventions for the regularizing of
international intercourse, which is known as International Law,
is the work of diplomacy, and it is the work of diplomatists to
apply them. It follows that to be efficient they must be trained,
and it is folly to suggest that the place of the trained diplomatist
can be taken by a popular representative without experience or
technical equipment. As Mr. Denys P. Myers has pointed out,
by far the greater mass of diplomatic work consists in giving
particular application to rules already universally admitted, a
matter straightforward enough, but demanding technical knowl-
edge. The remaining portion of the work is disproportionately
difficult, since it consists in adjusting disputes about matters to
which the application of existing rules is doubtful, or to which
they admittedly do not apply, or which stand beyond all rules as
questions of high policy. In such debates the diplomatist is
necessarily an advocate; his object is not justice, but the ad-
vantage of the country he represents; and therefore " the art of
which Socrates spoke, of making the worser cause appear the
better, is inherent in every negotiation " (Myers, p. 298). Cer-
tainly the attempt of President Wilson to set up a standard of
Right as the " acid test " of all claims between nations has
altered nothing in this, and can alter nothing so long as nations
differ in their conceptions of what Right is. Diplomacy must
continue to be, in this aspect of its activities, frank advocacy of
particular interests, even though the dispute be heard before the
high court of the League of Nations. But this advocacy has
been subject to certain rules, and in the interests of peace which
it has been the main purpose of diplomacy to preserve it
has in course of time elaborated a highly technical phraseology
of which the object has been to convey a plain meaning without
being unpardonably offensive. This method may be " circum-
locutory," but it is more calculated to keep the peace than
democratic " plain-speaking." A peccant Government informed
that such and such an act will be considered " unfriendly " will
perfectly understand the threat conveyed, and it will be easier for
it to yield than if the threat had been uttered in more unequivocal
fashion. In short, the conventional forms used in diplomatic
intercourse have a very practical use. In the words of the late
Mr. E. C. Grenville-Murray, " they regulate the precise words of
respect and courtesy necessary to be used on every occasion:
they deprive argument of its heat and expostulation of its
acrimony." l
Secret Diplomacy and Democratic Control. In spite of President
Wilson's denunciation of secret diplomacy, the negotiations
before and after the Conference of Paris followed almost exactly
the old practice. The organization of the conference itself was
modelled closely on that of the Congress of Vienna in 1814. As
at Vienna, all business of first-class importance was settled by
the representatives of the Great Powers in secret conference, and
the plenary sessions, to which alone the Press was admitted, were
almost admittedly mere full-dress parades intended to produce
an illusion of publicity. By a curious irony it was indeed
President Wilson himself who was most violently attacked
for neglecting the principle that diplomacy must always
proceed in the public view. In the course of the long con-
troversy between the President and the Foreign Relations
Committee of the United States Senate about the Covenant of
the League of Nations, which ended in the refusal to ratify the
Treaty of Versailles, complaints were loud and reiterated that
the Committee were kept completely in the dark as to the prog-
ress of the negotiations in Paris, although under the Con-
stitution their treaty-making power was coordinate with that of
the President. It was also urged against President Wilson that,
in order to secure his sole control of foreign affairs, he had
largely extended the custom of superseding, for the purpose of
particular negotiations, the accredited agents of the United
States whose appointment was also subject to the advice and
consent of the Senate by personal agents of his own (Corwin,
p. 64). The victory of the Senate over the President in the
matter of the Treaty of Versailles was widely assumed to have
settled in favour of the Senate's view the long controversy it
had raged intermittently since the days of Washington about
the powers of the President and the Senate respectively over the
conduct of foreign affairs. President Harding, however, was
hardly in office before he asserted as vigorously as any of his
predecessors the sole right of the President to conduct negotia-
tions. The right of the Senate to ask for papers has long been,
admitted, but the right of the President to refuse, in the public
interest, to submit them seems equally clear (Corwin, p. 84 seq.).
The outcome of this controversy illustrates the fact that the
war and the negotiations which followed have left the questions
of secret diplomacy and of democratic control very much as they
were before. So far as democratic control is concerned, wherever
parliaments exist foreign relations come under their review, and
can be controlled by their power of the purse; and it is their own
fault if this control is not effective. " The ultimate misfortune
of war," says Mr. Myers, " depends everywhere upon legislative
financial support." But while control of broad policies is thus
assured, there is no control of the processes of negotiation.
It is, indeed, hard to see how such control could be attempted
without creating a hundred difficulties and dangers for one which
it would obviate. The point was admirably stated by Mr.
Arthur Balfour in the House of Commons on March 19 1918, on
a motion for a Standing Committee of Foreign Affairs:
" I think the British world perfectly understands the broad ends-
for which British diplomacy works. . . . What is not simple, what
is not plain, what is not easy, is the actual day-to-day carrying out
of the negotiations by which these ends are to be attained. A Foreign
Office and a diplomatic service are great instruments for preventing,
1 Embassies and Foreign Courts (and ed., 1856).
842
DIPLOMACY
as far as can be prevented, friction between states which are, or
which ought to be, friendly. How is the task of peace-maker be-
cause that is largely the task which falls to diplomatists and the
Foreign Office which controls diplomatists to be pursued if you are
to shout your grievances from the house-top whenever they occur?
The only result is that you embitter public feeling, that the differ-
ences between the two states suddenly attain a magnitude they ought
never to be allowed to approach, that the newspapers of the two
countries agitate themselves, that the parliaments of the two
countries have their passions set on fire, and great crises arise,
which may end, have ended sometimes, in international catastrophes."
Mirabeau had said much the same thing in the French Nation-
al Assembly in 1790, and subsequent history bore out its wisdom.
It was not the diplomatists but the oratorical heat of the Legisla-
tive Assembly that plunged Europe into the wars of the Revolu-
tion. It was not public opinion, but the wisdom of the diplo-
matists on either side, which saved Great Britain and the
United States from a renewal of war during the critical years
that succeeded the Peace of Ghent in 1814. Had Castlereagh
listened to the outcry of the British press and Parliament, had
James Monroe and John Quincy Adams listened to the outcry
of the American press and Congress, there would have been no
hundred years of peace between the two countries. Instances
might be multiplied. The world remembers the wars which
diplomacy has failed to avert; it has forgotten, or has never
known of those and they are many more which diplomacy has
averted by a conspiracy of silence.
Diplomacy by Conference. The most striking development of
diplomatic practice since the beginning of the World War has been
the increasing practice of direct negotiations in conference
between the heads of governments, or between the principal
ministers of departments concerned in the subjects under dis-
cussion. The practice is, of course, not new. The similar circum-
stances of the great war against Napoleon had produced similar
results in the long series of conferences from that of Chatillon
early in 1814 to the Congress of Verona in 1822; and Castlereagh
had at the outset commended the convenience of the system,
which promised to endow the councils of the Powers " with the
efficiency and almost the simplicity of a single State." The
practice arose in both cases from the necessity of reaching swift
decisions. It is clear, indeed, that the problems to be solved by
the Allies during the war were too varied, too technical, and
generally too urgent to be dealt with solely through the ordinary
diplomatic channels. The practice of direct negotiation between
the heads of governments was an obvious counsel of expediency,
and began early in 1915 with the visit of M. Millerand to London.
In Feb. of the same year there was a meeting of Finance Ministers
in London; but the first meeting of the heads of the Allied
Governments was that at Calais on July 6. On Nov. 17, at a
conference in Paris, it was decided in principle to establish a
permanent machinery for coordinating the efforts of the Allies;
and on Jan. 19 1916, at a meeting of Mr. Asquith and M. Briand
in London, rules for the establishment of an Allied Committee
were approved by them. This plan was first applied at the great
conference opened at Paris on March 26, at which the prime
ministers of France, Italy, Belgium and Serbia were present,
together with representatives of Japan, Russia and Portugal.
It is unnecessary to give here a list of the further conferences
that followed. The significant thing is to quote Sir Maurice
Hankey that " in the forcing-house of war the governmental
machinery of a veritable League of Nations had grown up,
whereby the will of the Allied peoples to win could be put into
effect " (p. 15). The system of diplomacy by conference thus
revived reached its fullest development, of course, in the great
Peace Conference at Paris; and in the League of Nations an
attempt was made to give it a permanent organization.
In addition to the advantage of rapidity of decision arising
from this system, the claim has been made for it that the states-
men ultimately responsible for the policy of their respective
countries become personally well acquainted, and that the in-
timacy and even friendship which tend to develop out of these
meetings make possible an interchange of confidences which
would otherwise be impossible. This is, of course, perfectly true.
It is also true that, in view of the closer interdependence of the
nations and the vast complexity of their economic relations
alone, the old system of diplomacy is no longer sufficient and that
" diplomacy by conference has come to stay " (id., p. 25). If
this means that the conferences of experts on this or that matter
of international interest are to continue, there is nothing to be
said against it. If it means that periodical meetings of heads of
governments are to be erected into a permanent system, the case
is far more doubtful. It may be doubted whether the cause of
peace will permanently gain by taking the conduct of all serious
international negotiations out of the hands of trained diplo-
matists and putting them into those of politicians unversed in
diplomatic technique and sensitive to every shifting current of
public opinion. Certainly the unrestful world left by the Peace
Conference gives evidence enough of the disastrous results of the
sounding phrases which heads of governments had used with so
much effect on public platforms. Nor is a rapid decision on
matters of controversy by any means always a good thing. The
world has often been saved from war by the diplomatic dragging
out of negotiations until public excitement on either side has
subsided. Finally, there is the objection to too frequent con-
ferences urged by the British Government at the time of the
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, which has not lost its
validity. They tend, as Lord Bathurst put it, to " keep the mind
of Europe afloat," by suggesting to discontented peoples that no
settlement is final and that, the machinery for change being
permanent in the conferences of the powers, a long and loud
agitation will suffice to set it in motion. It may be that the
conference system will as the creators of the League of Nations
maintain provide a safety-valve for the expansive forces of
nationalism; but there is a danger that it may operate in another
way, by not allowing these forces to cool. The introduction of an
organized legislative element into international relations is thus
somewhat of an experiment, and no one can say confidently how it
will work out. In any case, however, there will still be room for
the old diplomacy in its quasi-legal function of applying the
acknowledged public law, and in its trained ability to adjust
differences lying beyond it.
Functions and Rights of Diplomatic Agents. The new and far
more complicated conditions under which the World War was
fought naturally added fresh problems to those which the old
writers on diplomacy had discussed, as to the activities proper to
those representing the interests of their Prince at a foreign court.
Such questions were raised during the war more especially by the
activities of the diplomatic agents of the belligerent states
accredited to neutral governments. The duty of these agents
being to forward the interests of their own states, what limita-
tions was it proper and necessary to observe in carrying out this
object? In effect, the answer to this question was found, not in
establishing new principles, but in applying old principles to new
conditions. The old definition of the ambassador as "an
honourable spy " certainly applied during the war. In all neutral
countries it was the duty of diplomatic agents to collect informa-
tion useful to their governments, and to act as centres for an
active propaganda of their views and aims. In certain cases, e.g.
Switzerland and Holland, neutral countries were made the bases
of propaganda and espionage in enemy countries, and these
activities were carried on more or less under the supervision of
the ministers accredited to the neutral countries. So long as this
propaganda did not pass certain bounds there was nothing in
this that did violence to the traditional principles of diplomacy,
though propaganda had never before been organized on so vast a
scale. Nor was the organization of a spy system, centred in
neutral countries, a violation of diplomatic propriety, since in
this respect all the belligerent nations exercised equal rights.
It was otherwise when diplomatic privileges and immunities
were used to cover indirect attacks on the enemy through neutral
interests. The most outstanding instances of this arose from the
efforts of the Central Powers to interrupt the supply of arms and
ammunition to the Allies from the United States. In Sept. 1915
the interception of a letter from Dr. Dumba, Austro-Hungarian
ambassador in Washington, to Count Burian proved that the
Austrian embassy, with the approval of the German, was con-
DIVORCE
843
templating financing strike movements on a large scale in the
United States in order to hamper the manufacture of munitions.
At the instance of the United States Government Dr. Dumba was
recalled. Count Bernstorff had previously been forced to apolo-
gize for his want of diplomatic courtesy in publishing, without
first submitting it to the American Government, a denunciation
of the un-neutral conduct of that Government in permitting the
export of munitions of war to the Allies. Even more serious,
however, was the subsequent discovery (Oct.) that Captain
Boy-Ed and Captain von Papen, the naval and military attaches
to the German embassy, had been active in a plot to destroy
American munition factories and American ships carrying
munitions. Their subordinates, who were not covered by
diplomatic immunity, were imprisoned; the two attaches were
recalled at the instance of the United States Government. The
same fate befell Count Luxburg, German minister in Buenos
Aires, the author of the famous advice that ships carrying food
from the Argentine to the Allies should be " spurlos versenkt "
(sunk without leaving a trace). These notorious cases, character-
istic of many others, involved no new statement of principle, for
they were clearly condemned by the traditional standards of
diplomacy. " The ambassador," Callieres had written in the i8th
century, " may suborn the Prince's subjects for the purpose of
obtaining information, but not for the purpose 6f plotting
against their master." Equally clear was the principle con-
demning the practice of the German diplomatists, especially in
the United States, of plotting attacks on enemy states (e.g.
Canada, Ireland) under cover of their immunities. This was
an abuse of diplomatic privilege, since it injured the state in
which the plots were hatched by imperilling its neutrality.
See Sir Ernest Satow, A Guide to Diplomatic Practice (2 vols.,
1917); Denys P. Myers, " Notes on the Control of Foreign Rela-
tions," in part iii. of the Rccueil de Rapports of the Organisation
Centrale pour une Paix durable (The Hague, 1917), pp. 285-382, an
invaluable study of the essential conditions under which diplomacy
works; Edward S. Corwin, The President's Control of Foreign Re-
lations (1917) ; Sir Maurice Hankey, Diplomacy by Conference (1921).
In Democracy and Diplomacy (1915) Mr. Arthur Ponsonby, who was
in the diplomatic service from 1894 to 1903, puts the case for " demo-
cratic control"; an appendix contains the findings of the Royal
Commission. (W. A. P.)
DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE: see WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.
DIVORCE (see 8.334). (I.) UNITED KINGDOM. In the law
of divorce administered in England and Wales there was no
change between 1910 and 1921 except as to procedure by poor
persons, and in Scotland and Ireland there was no change at all.
But in England since 1910 the subject has become one of acute
controversy, and there has also been a remarkable increase in
the number of divorces granted. The report of the Royal Com-
mission appointed in 1909 was not published till 1912. The
appointment of the Commission, and the Majority Report advo-
cating increased facilities for divorce, were both backed by an
influential body of prominent persons outside the Commission
itself. The inquiry was dominated throughout by the late Lord
Gorell (formerly Sir Gorell Barnes) who had previously prac-
tised in and presided over the Divorce Court, and who held very
strong views in favour of the extension both of the reasons and
facilities for divorce in all classes of society. But the recom-
mendations of the Majority Report have been strenuously
opposed, especially in the Church of England, which has been
practically unanimous in condemning the present system of
divorce and opposing its extension.
Most of the recommendations of the Commission were, how-
ever, embodied in a bill which passed the House of Lords in 1920,
but was abandoned in the House of Commons. A new bill was
introduced in the House of Lords in 1921 by Lord Gorell, the
son of the chairman of the Commission mentioned above. The
bill is based on the recommendations in which all the members
of the Commission were in accord. The Lord Chancellor has also
presented a report embodying the reform of procedure so as to
give easier divorce to the poorer classes.
The Commission took evidence from lawyers and officials to a
much greater extent than from any other class, and much of the
Majority Report was highly technical and official. The point of
view of the ordinary man and woman is better represented by the
Minority Report, published in 1912 in the same Blue Book (Cd.
6478). Women were represented on the Commission by Lady
Frances Balfour and Mrs. H. J. Tennant the latter of whom
added a valuable separate memorandum to the Majority Report.
The Minority Report agrees to certain changes in procedure in-
tended to bring divorce within the means of labour and the poor
middle-class, but strongly warns the public on the experience of
France and America not to extend the reasons for divorce.
The recommendations of the Commission are given below,
those embodied in the two bills presented being distinguished
from those rejected or ignored. Following the report of the
Commission, the scheme of bill No. i was to save expense by
bringing the court locally to the home of the applicant. This
was to be effected by rules giving power to certain selected
county court judges to act as judges in divorce and other matri-
monial causes. Each cause for divorce or nullity or judicial
separation was available by this bill to either husband or wife so
that it was intended that, e.g. adultery or desertion alone should
in future enable a wife to obtain a divorce and vice versa, the
sexes being treated on an absolute equality.
The causes for divorce included in No. i bill (1920) are (a)
adultery, (b) desertion, (c) cruelty, (d) insanity continuous for
five years and certified as incurable, (e) " incurable habitual
drunkenness. " Any one of these causes was to be sufficient.
A cause rejected by the bill was imprisonment in lieu of com-
muted sentence of death. Causes rejected by the Commission
were disease (except as below), unconquerable aversion, and
mutual consent. In addition to the above the causes in the bill
for which nullity of a marriage can be obtained are (a) physical
incapacity, (b) unsound mind or epilepsy at the time of marriage
or within six months after, (c) venereal disease communicable at
the time of marriage, (d) pregnancy at the time of marriage
caused by some person other than the husband. Permanent
judicial separation is allowed in the (1920) bill on any ground
available for divorce, and the court may in its discretion convert
the decree for judicial separation into a decree nisi for divorce,
unless the applicant prefers to have the application dismissed.
These last provisions are as recommended by the Commission
to meet the conscientious scruples of the vast majority of the
Church of England as well as of Roman Catholics and others who
object to any divorce which enables either party to remarry.
Besides the consideration of what should be the grounds for
divorce in future, the commissioners were most anxious to bring
" the benefits of the law " to the poor and to remove the com-
plaint that divorce is still the privilege of the comparatively rich.
This the majority recommended should be done by selecting
some of the county court judges to go round and hold divorce
courts locally. A step in this direction was taken in the Adminis-
tration of Justice Act (Dec. 23) 1920, which provided for divorce
cases being heard at Assizes. The right to a jury was retained.
The bill presented by Lord Gorell in 1921 makes adultery by
either husband or wife sole cause for divorce, but a marriage can
be made null and void for (a) incapacity or wilful refusal to consum-
mate, (b) unsound mind or epilepsy under certain conditions, (c)
venereal disease at the time of marriage or (d) pregnancy by some
person other than the husband existing at the time of marriage.
With regard to (b), (c), and (d) the applicant must prove that at the
time of marriage he or she was ignorant of the fact alleged ; proceed-
ings must be taken within a year from marriage and marital inter-
course must not have taken place after discovery of the fact alleged
by the applicant. Connivance, condonation and collusion by the
applicant bar his application and remain absolute defences as before.
The Court is to have a discretion to override the following defences:
adultery, cruelty, desertion, unreasonable delay, neglect or mis-
conduct by the applicant. Judicial separation can be obtained for
habitual drunkenness if the applicant has used all reasonable means
to reform the defendant and has not caused or conduced to it by his
own conduct. Presumption of death can be decreed by the Court in
proper cases and in particular where defendant has not been known
by the applicant to be living for seven years. Juries in matrimonial
cases are abolished by the bill, as are damages against the co-
respondent beyond the actual pecuniary loss sustained by the ap-
plicant, but the co-respondent may be ordered to pay the whole of
the costs and to settle property or make payments to " the parties
to the marriage or either of them or the children of the marriage "
according to his or her ability. It is clearly intended to make women
8 4 4
DIVORCE
liable as co-respondents. There are improved provisions as to the
custody and maintenance of the children and for preventing the
parties from getting rid of their property during the proceedings.
A British subject domiciled in England or Wales but resident in any
other British possession who has obtained a divorce there may apply
to the High Court in England to register the decree as a decree nisi.
The wife whose husband has deserted her or been deported and whose
domicile was at the time of desertion or deportation in England or
Wales shall be considered so domiciled for the purposes of matrimo-
nial causes. In cases where the wife so domiciled has married a
foreigner and the marriage has been declared null and void by the
Court of the husband s domicile, the High Court may pronounce the
marriage null notwithstanding that the marriage was valid according
to the law of the place where it was celebrated. This is to meet the
very hard cases of French and other laws. In France the want of the
parents' consent makes an otherwise valid marriage which has taken
place in England void, so that the English subject so married re-
mained tied in England though unmarried in France. The rule that
refusal to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights is
" desertion " it is proposed to abolish, but on the other hand refusal
of marital intercourse without reasonable cause is to be deemed
desertion, and if one party has in good faith requested the other to
return to cohabitation the refusal so to do within "a reasonable
time " is to be deemed desertion. Neither desertion nor cruelty
without adultery was to be a good ground for divorce (see below).
The bill further proposes to regulate separation and maintenance
orders by Courts of Summary Jurisdiction to be granted for cruelty,
habitual drunkenness, or venereal disease. The bill provides for
the orders to last two years only unless converted into decrees for
judicial separation in the High Court. The applicant who obtains
one of these summary orders is to have police protection against the
defendant, and maintenance is to be collected by a court official.
An important proposal of the bill is to make it contempt of court
to publish any report or pictorial representation of the matrimonial
proceedings until the conclusion of the case, and to exclude the
public but not the reporters in the discretion of the judge.
This bill was almost uncontroversial as originally introduced
but the advocates of divorce insisted on desertion being made a
sole ground, and the bill (May 1921) was so printed in the House
of Commons. This produced a reaction and the increase of di-
vorce cases in 1920-1 accentuated the differences of opinion.
The reasons for the recommendations of the Commission on
other points also demand more notice. The most serious problem
raised is the question of allowing adultery by the husband to be
the sole ground for divorce. This was treated by the majority
very superficially as a question of the equality of the two sexes
before the law; but in reality it is a much more serious problem.
The idea of divorce by mutual consent is rejected by the majority,
not so much on principle as on the ground that there is no demand
for it. But divorce by mutual consent is already de facto in exist-
ence, and if the husband's adultery is made a sole cause it will be
greatly extended. This is a point on which, among those well
acquainted with the facts, there is no great difference of opinion
(see Minority Report p. 180: evidence Mr. Justice Bargrave
Deane, p. 848). It has been recognized law in England for a
generation past that refusal by the husband to obey a decree to
return to his wife, coupled with proof of adultery, entitles the wife
to an immediate divorce. It has therefore become the common
practice, where both parties desire a divorce, for the husband
to leave the wife, who writes him a letter asking him to return.
He refuses. She brings her suit. An order is made on the husband
to return in 14 days, which he disobeys. He lets the wife know
where proof of adultery can be found and a divorce is the result.
This is not " collusion " in law, but it is what the public mean by
collusion, and the number of these cases was even in 1918 nearly
as great as the whole number of divorces in 1857 and has been
greater since. If there were any desire to decrease the number of
divorces this should be stopped. But the 1921 bill on the con-
trary proposes following the Majority Report that the husband's
adultery alone should be a sufficient ground for divorce. No
wife will ever commit adultery in order to get a divorce; because
her adultery, if acknowledged, makes her a social outcast; but
there is no such ostracism of the husband. At present the husband
is deterred from seeking a divorce if he is obliged to admit cruelty.
Desertion for three years, as proposed in both the bills, is not
quick enough to be any temptation to collusion. But there could
be no doubt that if the husband's adultery alone is made a suf-
ficient ground it would greatly increase the number of divorces.
The increase in number was already enormous, as will be seen by
the figures given below, taken from the official " Civil Judicial
Statistics " (Part II, up to 1919).
The average number of petitions of divorce (apart altogether from
suits for nullity and judicial separations, as to which there was no
increase) for the years 1885 to 1900 was:
1885-90
1891-5
1896-1900
Petitions
541
543
650
Decrees Nisi
378
391
504
Restitution Orders ....
21
18
21
The number of petitions seems as important in considering the
disturbance in married life as the number of divorces.
The annual number of cases between 1900 and 1919 was:
Petitions
(Divorce)
Decrees Nisi
Decrees
Absolute
Restitution
Ordered
1901
750
60 1
477
30
1902
889
608
601
33
1903
825
614
606
31
1904
720
634
528
35
1905
752
623
604
45
1906
767
650
546
54
1907
734
598
644
49
1908
846
672
638
65
1909
787
685
694
72
1910
755
588
59
69
1911
859
655
530
90
1912
920
690
587
125
1913
998
870
577
135
1914
1-075
693
833
158
1915
I-H3
1, 060
668
136
1916
1,163
686
972
159
1917
1,423
946
683
159
1918
2,323
1,407
1,082
236
1919
5,085
2,610
1,629
310
It will be seen from the table that the number of petitions for divorce
(apart from those for judicial separation) increased from 750 in
1901 to 2,323 in 1918, that is at a rate of over 224 % in 18 years. An
even larger number was shown in 1919-21. The population of Eng-
land and Wales in the same years increased by regular increments
from 32,612,022 in 1901 to 36,800,000 in 1919. The latter year is
taken to avoid complication as to demobilization. The increase is a
little over 12 %, so that if the increase of population were the only
cause the number of petitions would in 1918 have been about 840
instead of 2.323.
The rate of marriage is rather more variable. The number of
marriages in England and Wales was:
1901
259,400
1902
261,750
1903
261,103
1904
257,856
1905
260,742
1906
270,038
1907
276,421
1908
264,940
1909
260,544
1910
.267,721
1911
274,943
1912
283,834
1913
286,583
1914
294,401
1915
360,885
1916
279,846
1917
258,853
1918
287,163
1919
369,411
The years 1915 and 1919 were abnormal years, and in both the
number of marriages was much higher than in any previous year.
This is accounted for by mobilization in 1914-5 and demobilization
in 1919. If the rate be taken on the figures 1901-19 the increase
was only a little over J8%. The increase of petitions in 1913 is
almost exactly at the same rate as the increase in marriages. But
the rate of increase in petitions in 1919 was more than double the
increase in the marriage rate. If the petitions continue to increase
at the same rate for another 18 years there will be 5,152 of them in
1936. The proportion of petitions to marriages in 1901 was less
than one-third of I %. It was nearly two-thirds of I % in 1919.
The registrar-general of births, deaths and marriages in his Report
for 1919 (Cmd. 1017) says " the number of divorces obtained in
1919 was about 50% greater than in 1918, which was itself the
highest up to that date, and with the increase in divorces there
has been a corresponding increase in the number of persons who on
remarriage described themselves as divorced." He adds that the
war is " largely responsible for the sudden increase of the last two
years, but as the frequency of divorce as recorded in the table has
been increasing for many years it can hardly be expected that the
pre-war level will be restored." The warning of the Minority Re-
port is illustrated by these figures. In 1918 the number of divorce
petitions exceeded the number in 1917 by 900, and in 1919 rose to
a total of 4,317, or an increase of 1,994. Petitions by husbands have
largely increased since 1910. Petitions by wives have fallen off since
1914. The figures as to " poor persons' " suits under the system ini-
tiated in 1914 show that nearly five-sixths of these cases were for
divorce. There were no fewer than 10,108 applications in the five
DIVORCE
845
years, of which, however, nearly half were refused. The total number
of husbands' petitions in 1917 were 1,067 against 638 by wives. There
were no children in 660 of these 1,705 cases. In 1918 the husbands'
petitions rose to 1,837 an .d the wives' to 857 for all classes of cases.
There were no children in 1,043 of these cases. The duration of
these marriages is another interesting point. The marriages which
had lasted over five years and less than twenty were 1,149 out f
1,705 in 1917 and 1,788 out of 2,688 in 1918.
Scotland. In Scotland, after the Reformation, adultery was in-
troduced as a cause for divorce without statute, apparently upon
scriptural grounds, and as a consequence of the abolition of the
pope's jurisdiction in Scotland. Prior to the Reformation, marriage
had been looked upon in Scotland, as in other Roman Catholic
countries, as a sacrament; after the Reformation it came to be re-
garded from the point of view of a contract, of a peculiarly solemn
and far-reaching nature, but which might be dissolved consistently
with public morality, and divorce for adultery was at once introduced.
Wilful desertion was confirmed by statute in the year 1573 as a
ground for divorce, four years being then fixed as the period for
which the desertion must subsist, and that period has been main-
tained until the present day. From the evidence of Lord Salvesen
(vol. I., p. 254) it appears that in 1908 no decrees for divorce were
granted for adultery, of which 59 were at the instance of the husband
and 51 at the instance of the wife; and that, in the same year, 81
decrees for divorce were granted for desertion, of which 20 were at
the instance of the husband and 61 at the instance of the wife ; and
the statistics show that the number of divorce cases has, relatively
to the population, continued about the same.
It has been the statute law in Scotland since 1600 that the guilty
spouse cannot marry the paramour during the lifetime of the other
spouse, but in practice this has been generally evaded by not putting
the name of the paramour into the decree of divorce. The large
proportion of the divorced husband's property allowed to the wife
and children by the law of Scotland is believed to have a considerable
effect in reducing the number of divorces.
Ireland. In Ireland, where the majority of the population are
Roman Catholics, and where, apparently, conditions of life differ
materially from those in England, divorce a vinculo of parties
there domiciled is only obtainable (as in England before 1857) by
private Acts of Parliament, after a divorce a mensa et thpro
has been granted by the King's Bench Division of the Irish High
Court (which now exercises the powers of the old Ecclesiastical
Courts), and (if the suit be by the husband) after judgment has been
obtained in an action in the Irish courts for crim. con., the minimum
expense of such proceedings being between 450 and 500 (evidence
Mr. Roberts, 42,603; 42,627). Since the passing of the Divorce and
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1857, there have been 39 Private Divorce
Acts (Mr. Roberts, 42,624).
Isle of Man. Divorce a vinculo can only be granted by Act of
Tynwald, founded on a decree of judicial separation granted by the
Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice in the Isle of Man,
which, by the Ecclesiastical Civil Judicature Transfer Act, 1884, has
jurisdiction in matrimonial matters, and follows the principles upon
which the Ecclesiastical Courts acted.
Channel Islands. There appears to be no right to proceed to ob-
tain judicially a divorce a vinculo, and there have been no legisla-
tive proposals with that object.
(II.) BRITISH DOMINIONS
India. The dissolution of marriage among the Christian com-
munities in India, whether European, domiciled or country-born
(save that in the native states the Act applies to British subjects
only), is regulated by the provisions of Act IV. of 1869, usually
called the Indian Divorce Act, under which decrees of divorce may
be granted on grounds similar to those which exist at the present
time in England, and where, since the marriage, a Christian husband
has abandoned Christianity. Jurisdiction to grant any relief under
the Act is confined to cases where (a) the petitioner professes the
Christian religion; (b) resides and is domiciled in India at the time
of presenting the petition; and (c) the marriage was solemnized in
India. The two latter restrictions have inflicted in numerous cases
great hardship, and the Commission made some suggestions thereon,
which it is now proposed to incorporate in a special Act. The de-
cision of Sir H. Duke in Keyes v. Keyes (1921) only emphasized the
above which was good law before. It may be noted in passing
that, by section 495 of the Indian Penal Code, adultery is made a
criminal offence in the case of a man who, without the consent or
connivance of the husband, has illicit intercourse with a woman who
is known to be the wife of another man.
Canada. The British North America Act, 1867, by section 91,
conferred upon the Parliament of Canada exclusive legislative au-
thority in relation to marriage and divorce, but by section 129 all
laws in force in the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick were continued in such provinces respectively, and, by
section 146, the provisions of the Act were extended to other prov-
inces admitted to the Union. In the provinces of Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, Prince Edward I. and British Columbia, there existed
at the time of the Union courts of divorce, and they still continue to
exercise their functions. The grounds in those provinces are as
follows: in Prince Edward I. and New Brunswick, adultery, im-
potence, or consanguinity, and, in Nova Scotia, cruelty as well.
The Privy Council, the highest court of appeal, decided in 1919
(Walker v. Walker) that the English Act of 1857 applies to and is
part of the substantive law in all the provinces of Canada except
Ontario and Quebec. There being no divorce courts in Ontario and
Quebec, recourse for relief must be had to the Parliament of Canada
by private Act.
Union of South Africa. (a) Cape Province. According to Roman
Dutch law, which is in force in that province, the grounds upon which
divorce may be granted are adultery, malicious desertion, un-
natural crime, perpetual imprisonment, long absence, and refusal of
marital privileges, though it would appear that recourse is seldom,
if ever, had to the latter four grounds. (6) Province of Natal.
Divorce is granted on the ground of adultery or malicious desertion
for not less than 18 months before the suit. These provisions,
however, do not apply to the native tribes, which are governed under
their own system of laws.
Newfoundland. There is no law relating to divorce.
New South Wales. By the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1899 (Act
No. 14, 1899), Part IV., ss. 12-6, divorce is granted, on the petition
of a husband, for the adultery of the wife, and, on the petition of a
wife, for the adultery of the husband, if the husband is domiciled in
New South Wales when the suit is instituted, or such adultery is
incestuous, or is coupled with (l) bigamy, or (2) cruelty, or (3)
desertion, without reasonable cause or excuse, for three years or
upwards. In addition to the above, on the petition of either party, if
domiciled in New South Wales for three years or upwards, divorce is
granted for malicious desertion during three years or upwards;
on the ground that the husband has, during three years, been a
habitual drunkard, and has left his wife without means of support,
or has been guilty of cruelty; on the ground that the wife has, during
three years, been a habitual drunkard, and has neglected her
domestic duties, or been unfit to discharge them ; on the ground of
imprisonment for three years under commuted sentence for a capital
crime, or under sentence of seven years or upwards; on the ground of
conviction for attempt to murder or inflicting grievous bodily harm ;
on the ground of the respondent repeatedly assaulting and cruelly
beating the petitioner; on the ground that the husband has been in
the last five years frequently convicted, has had sentences of three
years in the aggregate, and has habitually left his wife without support .
New Zealand. By the Divorce and Matrimonial Act 1908, No. 50,
as amended by the Acts 1912, No. 22; 1913, No. 69; 1919, No. 53,
and 1920, No. 70, either husband or wife can obtain a divorce for
adultery or wilful desertion for three years. If the wife is living
separated and the husband leaves her without reasonable main-
tenance for three years he is deemed to have wilfully deserted her
(Act of 1913)- If either husband or wife fails to comply with a decree
for restitution of conjugal rights the other can obtain a divorce
forthwith, and the Court may in its discretion dissolve any marriage
on the petition of husband or wife where the parties have been living
separate for three years under decree of judicial separation or magis-
trate's order or deed or merely by mutual consent (Act of 1920).
Where the husband has been an alien enemy the wife, if a natural-
born British subject, can divorce him if he has left New Zealand for
more than 12 months (Act of 1919). Habitual drunkenness for four
years coupled with cruelty or with leaving the wife without means
of support, or, in the case of the wife, coupled with neglect of domestic
duties, is also a ground for divorce. Other grounds are conviction
and sentence of seven years or upwards for attempting to take the
life of the petitioner or any child of the petitioner or respondent or
the conviction of the murder of such a child or the fact of being a
lunatic confined in New Zealand for an aggregate period of seven
years within 10 years of the filing of the petition.
Queensland. By the statutes of Queensland, Matrimonial
Causes Jurisdiction Act of 1864 (28 Viet. c. 29) and Matrimonial
Causes Act of 1877 (39 Viet. c. 13), the provisions of the imperial
statutes (20 and 21 Viet. c. 85, 21 and 22 Viet. c. 93, 21 and 22 Viet.
c. 108, and 22 and 23 Viet. c. 61) are reenacted, so that the law
is substantially the same as in England.
South Australia. In South Australia divorce is granted on the
same grounds as in England, except that in the case of adultery
coupled with desertion in a wife's suit one year's desertion is sub-
stituted for two years.
Tasmania. The provisions of the imperial statutes (20 and 21
Viet. c. 85, 21 and 22 Viet. c. 108, 22 and 23 Viet. c. 61) have been
made applicable by statute in Tasmania, so that the law is substan-
tially the same as in England.
Victoria. In Victoria the petition may be presented and decree
granted on the same grounds as those at present existing in England.
In addition to the above, on the petition of a petitioner domiciled
for two years in Victoria, a decree may be granted on the ground of
desertion for three years ; on the ground that the respondent husband
has been a habitual drunkard for three years, and has left his wife
without means of support, or has been guilty of cruelty; on the
ground that the respondent wife has been a habitual drunkard for
three years, and has neglected her domestic duties, or rendered
herself unfit to discharge them ; on the ground of imprisonment for
three years, under commuted sentence for a capital crime, or under
sentence of penal servitude for seven years or upwards; on the ground
846
DIVORCE
of a conviction within one year previously for attempt to murder the
petitioner, or of having assaulted him or her with intent to inflict
grievous bodily harm, or on the ground that the respondent has
repeatedly during that period assaulted and cruelly beaten the
petitioner; on the ground that the respondent husband has been, in
the preceding five years, frequently convicted of crimes, and has
been sentenced in the aggregate to imprisonment for three years,
and has habitually left his wife without means of support; on the
ground that the respondent husband has been guilty of adultery in
the conjugal residence, or coupled with circumstances or conduct of
aggravation or of repeated acts of adultery.
Western Australia. Until 1912 the divorce laws of this state,
which were regulated by an ordinance (27 Viet. No. 19), were similar
in all respects to the laws of England, but Act No. 7 of 1912 contains
material alterations in the law.
The causes upon which the divorce may be granted, as enumerated
in that Act, are adultery; malicious desertion for five years; on the
ground that the respondent (husband) has been a habitual drunkard
for four years, and has either habitually left his wife without means
of support or has been guilty of cruelty towards her; or, the husband
being the petitioner, that his wife for a like period has been a habitual
drunkard, and has habitually neglected her domestic duties or
rendered herself unfit to discharge them ; on the ground of imprison-
ment for three years under commuted sentence for a capital crime
or under sentence for seven years or upwards, or, the wife being the
petitioner, that the husband has been in the last five years frequently
convicted, has had sentences of three years in the aggregate, and
has habitually left his wife without means of support ; on the ground
of conviction for attempt to murder the petitioner or inflicting
grievous bodily harm on him or her; further, on the ground that
the respondent is a lunatic or a person of unsound mind, has been
confined in an asylum or other institution in accordance with the pro-
visions of the Lunacy Act of 1903 for a period or periods not less in
the aggregate than five years within six years immediately preceding
the suit and is unlikely to recover.
(III.) EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
It should be kept in mind that in all countries the Roman
Catholic Church absolutely forbids its adherents to apply to the
civil courts for a divorce a vinculo, and in modern European
states there is frequently a conflict between the law of the State
and the law of the Church on this subject. In certain cases the
Church permits the spouses to separate and will sometimes annul
a marriage if properly approached.
Austria. In Austria, among Protestants, divorce may be granted
on the ground of adultery, namely, the adultery of the wife, con-
demnation for crime, immoral habits, infectious diseases, ill-treat-
ment, threats or serious vexations, unconquerable aversion; and
among the Jews by mutual consent, or on the adultery of the wife.
Belgium. In Belgium, divorce is granted on the following
grounds, namely, the adultery of the wife, the adultery of the hus-
band if he shall have kept his mistress in the common residence,
violence endangering life (exces), cruelty (sevices), grave indignities
(injures graves), sentence of one of the parties to an infamous punish-
ment involving loss of civil rights, mutual and unwavering consent
of the parties expressed in manner prescribed by law.
Bulgaria. By the law of the orthodox Greek Church, and there-
fore of Bulgaria, divorce a vinculo only is recognized. It may be
granted on the grounds of adultery, cruelty, threat or designs
against the life of the other party to the marriage, absence of the
husband for four years if his whereabouts are unknown, or, if his
whereabouts are known, without sending his wife means of support ;
impotence; insanity; epilepsy; idiocy, or syphilis supervening after
marriage and incurable; sentence to severe or degrading punish-
ment for theft, fraud, embezzlement or homicide; unsubstantiated
charge of adultery made by one party to the marriage against the
other; unnatural crime of the husband upon his wife; restraint on
religious liberty; drunkenness, when accompanied by squandering
property or destroying the home, or an otherwise disorderly or
dissolute manner of life ; abandonment of the husband by the wife,
driving him from his home without sufficient grounds followed by
refusal for three years to live with him again.
Denmark. In Denmark judicial divorces are obtainable on ihe
grounds of adultery, bigamy, desertion (if malicious, after three
years; if simple, i.e. absence without known or apparent cause,
after seven years), absence for five years where the presumption is
that the absentee is dead, imprisonment for life. Administrative
divorces may also be obtained on the grounds of insanity, separa-
tion for three years, sentence of three years' penal servitude.
France. In France, divorce, which had been introduced for the
first time in 1792, but had been abolished at the Restoration in
1816, resumed its place in the Civil Code in 1884. The grounds upon
which it is now permitted are adultery, violence endangering life
(exces), cruelty (sevices), grave indignities (injures graves), condem-
nation of either spouse to an afflictive punishment.
Germany. By the German Civil Code of 1900 all the previous
laws of the federal states have been abolished, and the absolute
grounds upon which decrees for divorce are now granted throughout
the German Reich are adultery, bigamy, crime against nature,
attempt on the life of the other party to the marriage, malicious
desertion for one year, insanity of three years' duration after the
marriage, destroying intellectual communion between parties, and
holding out no hope of recovery. The Court has a discretion to
grant divorce on the ground of serious breach of conjugal duties, and
dishonourable or immoral conduct, under which all vices and bad
habits may furnish a sufficient ground.
Greece. Divorce in Greece is regulated by the Roman and
Byzantine laws, in accordance with the provisions contained in the
collection of Harmenopoulos. The grounds for divorce are estab-
lished in No. 117 of the Novellae Constitutiones of Justinian (with
some important amendments) and are, on the petition of the hus-
band, adultery; that the wife attempted the life of her husband,
or, being aware of plots against it, has not disclosed them to him;
non-disclosure to her husband of knowledge of a conspiracy against
the sovereign; without her husband's consent staying the night at
another house, except the house of her parents; without her hus-
band's consent attending races, theatres or sports; against her
husband's wish attending dinners or bathing in the company of
men ; procuring abortion. On a wife's petition, the grounds are, that
the husband entertained schemes against the sovereign, or, being
aware of such, has not denounced them to the authorities; that the
husband has attempted the life of his wife, or, being aware of plots
against it, has not disclosed them to her, or undertaken to prosecute
the authors of them; that he has endeavoured to procure her to
commit adultery ; that he has brought a false accusation of adultery
against her; adultery in the conjugal home; adultery in the same
town, if persisted in; impotence of husband, existing before mar-
riage and continuing at least three years after it.
Hungary. Prior to 1894, each religious denomination was gov-
erned by separate regulations, but in that year marriage and
divorce in Hungary and Transylvania were regulated by the Civil
Marriage bill of that year which came into force in 1895; and the
absolute grounds upon which divorce is permitted by the State (see
note above), without distinction of creeds, are adultery; unnatural
crimes; bigamy; desertion; attempt upon life or serious maltreat-
ment endangering safety or health ; sentence of death or penal ser-
vitude or imprisonment for five years. The discretionary grounds
are violation of marital obligations, other than above; inducing or
attempting to induce a child of the family to a criminal act or
immoral life; the respondent persisting in leading an immoral life.
Italy. No divorce is permitted.
The Netherlands. Adultery and malicious desertion under Roman
Dutch law; and, by more recent addition, imprisonment for four
years; grave injuries or ill-treatment endangering life; a lapse of five
years after a judicial separation (by consent or otherwise) without
reconciliation, are now grounds for divorce.
J Norway. The Norwegian Act of Aug. 20 1909 has effected radical
changes in the law. Either party to the marriage is now entitled to a
divorce, where, at the time of marriage, the other spouse, without
the knowledge of the former, has suffered from a physical defect
making him or her unsuited for marriage, or from epilepsy, or leprosy,
or from venereal disease in an infectious form, or from insanity ; or
(the husband being petitioner) where the wife has been made
pregnant by someone other than the husband; where either party
has been guilty of certain crimes dealt with in the General Criminal
Code, such as the contracting and transmitting, or exposing any
others to, an infectious sexual disease, which has been contracted
in consequence of immoral conduct, a serious offence against de-
cency, or against a child under 16 or anyone being a ward of the
party, incest, unnatural offences, etc.; adultery, bigamy, or such
crimes as are dealt with in the Criminal Code, e.g. abduction of
children and minors from the care of their parents and guardians,
or a crime involving bodily injury of the other spouse, or of any
deliberate crime by which the other spouse suffers injury in body or
in health; or cruelty to children; or exposing them to conditions
which are clearly dangerous to their morals; sentence of loss of
liberty for three years or upwards ; sentence to hard labour or con-
finement in an inebriate home for repeated acts of vagrancy or
drunkenness; refusal of conjugal rights for two years; insanity for
three years with no reasonable prospect of recovery ; where a separa-
tion has been in existence for two years after formal decree, or for
one year after such decree, if both parties assent to its becoming a
decree of divorce ; where there has been a separation for three years
without decree, and no conjugal relations during that time (see
also Report of Divorce Commission, Appendix V., pp. 43-5).
Portugal. Prior to 1910, there was no law of divorce in Portugal.
By Article 4 of a law passed on Nov. 4 of that year (copy set out in
Appendix XXII., Report of Divorce Commission, pp. 152-3), the
causes for divorce are: (i) adultery; (2) conviction of one of the
major crimes specified in Articles 55 and 57 of the Penal Code; (3)
ill-treatment ; (4) abandonment of home for not less than three years ;
() absence for not less than four years, during which the absentee
gives no tidings of himself or herself; (6) incurable lunacy, three
years after the date on which insanity has been declared by the com-
petent authorities; (7) separation de facto by mutual consent
for 10 years; (8) inveterate gambling habits; (9) incurable contagious
disease or any disease which induces sexual aberration.
DIXMUDE DJEMAL PASHA
847
Further, by Article 34, the non-success of a suit for divorce in-
stituted for causes 1,2, 3, 4, 8, 9 aforesaid affords sufficient cause for
the respondent in such previous actions petitioning for a divorce.
Sections 35-40 permit divorce by mutual consent, subject to the
provisions laid down in those sections.
Rumania. In accordance with the laws of the orthodox Greek
Church, only divorce a vinculo is recognized, the grounds for
which it may be granted being adultery; injuries or ill-treatment;
sentence to imprisonment ; attempt on the life of the other party to
the marriage, or failure to warn such party of such attempt when
made by a third party. Divorce may also be obtained by mutual
consent, subject to various formalities.
Russia. In Russia, before the revolution, the ordinances of
each church embodied in the General Code of Laws laid down the
grounds upon which divorce was to be granted.
For the members of the Russian Church, and for " the Old
Believers," the grounds upon which decrees of divorce could be
made were adultery; bigamy; impotence existing at marriage; the
absence of the respondent for five years without news ; sentence of a
court of law, under which one of the parties to a marriage was con-
demned to loss of civil rights involving deportation ; the entrance of
both parties into a religious order, in cases where there are no
children needing parental care; the conversion of a non-Christian
spouse to the Russian Church, provided such a party or the other
party to the marriage desires the dissolution. Members of the
Lutheran Church (other than those resident in Finland for whom the
grounds of divorce appear to be adultery, illicit intercourse with a
third party after betrothal, and malicious desertion for at least one
year) may seek divorce in their consistorial courts on the grounds of
adultery; concealed loss of virginity of the wife before marriage;
attempt to poison; five years' desertion; impotence and repugnance
to marital intercourse; refusal to fulfil conjugal duties; incurable
infectious disease; madness; depravity of life; cruelty and offensive
treatment ; attempts by one party to bring dishonour on the other
or deprive him (or her) of his (or her) freedom, office, or occupation ;
unnatural propensities; grave crimes involving sentence of death or
a punishment in substitution ; penal exile. Among the Jews, divorces
were granted by th; rabbi. The marriage might be dissolved
by mutual consent, or on grounds based on Mosaic law.
The law of Poland was, before the war, regulated by a decree of
the Russian emperor of 1836, under which there were separate reg-
ulations for the members of the Roman Catholic, the Greek Ortho-
dox, the Greek Unified and Protestant Churches, for members of
denominations other than the above, and for cases where the
religions of the parties to the marriage are different.
Spain. No divorce is permitted.
Sweden. The grounds for judicial divorces are adultery; illicit
intercourse of either party with a third party after betrothal, or
the intercourse of the wife with a third party before betrothal;
malicious desertion for one year, provided the absentee has left
the kingdom; absence without news for six years; or attempt by
one party to the marriage on the life of the other; on the grounds
that either party is suffering from bodily incapacity, or has con-
cealed the fact of being affected with an incurable contagious dis-
ease ; sentence of life imprisonment ; insanity of three years' duration
which is pronounced incurable. Divorce may also be obtained by
direct appeal to the king's royal prerogative, where one party has
been condemned to death or civil death; or condemned for a gross
offence, or one involving temporary loss of civil rights; where one
party has been imprisoned for at least two years; on the ground of
prodigality, drunkenness, or violent disposition, or incurable aver-
sion and hate, which has lasted after one year's separation a mensa
et thoro.
Switzerland. Prior to Jan. I 1876, the different cantons of
Switzerland had individual laws regulating divorce, but after that
date the matter was regulated by a federal law throughout the
country, and is now regulated by the Code Civil of Dec. 10 1907
which made but little change in the law then existing. The grounds
laid down by that code are adultery; attempt by one party on the
life of the other ; cruelty (sevices) ; grave indignities (injures graves) ;
the commission of an infamous crime by one party, or base conduct
by one party rendering married life intolerable; malicious desertion
for two years ; insanity rendering married life unbearable, and which
after three years' duration is pronounced incurable; conduct render-
ing married life unbearable. (R. TH.)
(IV.) UNITED STATES
Statistics concerning marriage and divorce are not compiled
annually in the United States. The period 1867-1906 was thor-
oughly covered by two Federal reports, and in 1917 a govern-
ment appropriation became available for continuing the investi-
gation to the end of 1916. Because of the World War, however,
it was decided to postpone the gathering of statistics for the
whole decade and to make a special report for the year 1916
alone. This report was issued in 1919 by the Census Bureau.
Figures for a single year may register abnormal fluctuations,
All causes 108,702
Granted to
Husband
33,809
Granted to
Wife
74,893
Adultery . .
Cruelty . . \
Desertion
Drunkenness
Neglect to provide
Combination of
preceding .
Otner causes
12,486
30,752
39,990
3:652
5,H6
9,332
7,344
n-5%
28-3
36-8
3'4
47
8-6
6-8
6,850
5,895
16,908
271
1,440
2,445
5,636
24,857
23,082
3,381
5,146
7,892
4,899
but it is apparent that divorce was rapidly increasing from the
following figures for the years 1896, 1906 and 1916:
1916 1906 1896
Marriages. . . . . . 1,040,778 853,290 613,873
Divorces 112,036 72,062 42,937
From 1867 to 1906 the number of divorces granted totalled
1,274,341, each period of five years showing a constant increase
averaging about 30%, while population was increasing at the
rate of about 10%. The number of divorces per 100,000 pop.
in 1916 was 112 as compared with 84 in 1906. It is noteworthy,
however, that four states Colorado, Maine, South Dakota,
West Virginia and the District of Columbia reported fewer
divorces in 1916 than in 1906. The following table indicates
causes of divorces in 1916, excluding 3,334 cases for which statis-
tics were not given:
It appears that 31-1 % of the divorces were awarded in 1916 to the
husband and 68-9% to the wife; for 1906 the percentages were 32-5
and 67-5 respectively. It is probable that the wife more frequently
has legal ground for divorce. Of the total number in 1916 desertion
was the most frequent ground, and cruelty next, these two causes
accounting for 65-1 % of all. Of the 108,702 divorces noted in the
table above, 69,036, or 63-5 %, Were granted in the state where the
marriage had taken place, as compared with 76-3 % for the period
1887-1906. It is not possible to determine the extent to which per-
sons migrate to another state for the purpose of obtaining a divorce,
as population is constantly shifting, but many changes of residence
are made for this purpose and the tendency appears to be growing.
The question of uniform state divorce laws was discussed in 1913 at
the conference of governors, but the conflicting views held in differ-
ent sections of the country do not point to early action. There is a
growing demand, especially on the part of church authorities, for
an amendment to the Federal Constitution to empower Congress
through legislation to regulate marriage and divorce.
DIXMUDE, or in Flemish DIXMUYDE, a town in the province
of West Flanders, Belgium, on the right bank of the Yser, with a
pop. which had risen from 3,278 in 1909 to 3,460 in 1914. It is
the centre of an agricultural district noted for cattle-rearing and
for its dairy produce. The i sth-century church of St. Nicolas
had a remarkably fine rood-loft erected in the i6th century by
Jean Bertet and an Adoration of the Magi by Jordaens (1644).
As a result of the World War the town was almost totally
destroyed. Dixmude constituted in effect one of the principal
points of passage of the Yser and, at the end of Oct. 1914, a force
of 5,000 Belgians and a brigade of French marines under Admiral
Ronarch successfully resisted the desperate efforts of the Ger-
mans to seize the town. The town held out until Nov. 10, by
which date, by damming the lower reaches of the Yser and open-
ing the sluices between Dixmude and Nieuport, a large flooded
area was placed between the two armies. The town was retaken
by the Belgians on Sept. 29 1918. The pop., which after the
Armistice had been slowly returning, numbered in 1921 about
1,000 persons, housed for the most part in temporary huts, and
the rebuilding of the town had begun.
DJEMAL PASHA (AHMAD DJEMAL) (1875- ), Turkish
politician and soldier, was born at Bagdad about 1875. His
father, a person of some distinction, gave him a careful
French education, and placed him in the army, where his energy
and activity speedily brought him to the rank of lieutenant-
colonel. As such' he went to Salonika, where he spent five years,
and not only gained an intimate understanding of the Young
Turk ideas, but became their most able supporter. In 1909,
when Djemal went as governor to Adana in Cilicia, he was
charged with the task of strengthening the Young Turk ideas and
the elimination of contrary currents. It was in administrative
matters that DjemaPs talents were most conspicuous. In 1911
848
DOBSON DOGGER BANK, BATTLE OF
he .was made governor of his native town, Bagdad, but a year
later he was sent to the Balkan War in command of a division,
and subsequently contrived to become Vali of Constantinople.
After once more filling a military role for a short time as
commander of the I. Corps at Constantinople, he handed over the
command to the German general, Liman von Sanders, and devoted
himself to politics. At that time Djemal, Talaat and Enver con-
stituted a triumvirate which was the only effective Turkish
Government, and already a certain antagonism, which had its
roots in personal ambition, had sprung up between Djemal and
Enver. Djemal obtained the Ministry of Public Works and
immediately afterwards the Ministry of Marine. Djemal gave
Adml. Limpus and the English naval mission a free hand, as
Enver did the German military mission. In the spring of 1914
Djemal attended the French fleet manceuvres, and on Aug. 9
1914, after the outbreak of the World War, he wished the home-
going Frenchmen glory and victory. He was unwilling that
Turkey should attach herself to Germany at once, even though
the victory of the Central Powers might be certain. Enver,
fearing Djemal's influence in Constantinople, banished the
Minister of Marine, at the end of 1914, to Syria, as commander-
in-chief of the IV. Army. There his military achievements
were insignificant, but he fought the plagues of locusts and the
epidemics, exerted himself over the cultivation of the land, the
draining of the marshes, the building of new and the improvement
of old streets, even began the work of afforestation, and made ef-
forts to raise the level of public education. In Oct. 1917 he was
removed by order of Enver from the command of the IV. Army
and made commander-in-chief of all the troops in Syria, Palestine
and the Hejaz, with the exception of the army operating on the
Sinai front. This edict led to disorder and friction. Djemal's
power was not lessened south of the Taurus, but he took no more
interest in the conduct of the military operations. In Dec. 1917
he betook himself to Constantinople, and, greatly to the wrath of
Enver, resumed his activities as Minister of Marine. However,
he was given no more opportunities, either political or military.
When, in the autumn of 1918, Turkey, and with her the Young
Turk Government, was broken in pieces, Djemal Pasha was
forced to flee, and he repaired to Germany where he wandered
about under an assumed name. Later he obtained refuge in
Switzerland, and subsequently he made his way to the East.
In 1921 he was reported to have found employment as military
adviser to the Amir of Afghanistan.
DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN (1840-1921), English poet and
man of letters (see 8.352), died at Ealing Sept. 2 1921. His later
work consisted of prose essays, notably At Prior Park (1912),
Rosalba's Journal (1915) and Later Essays (1921), all studies of
the i8th century, and A Bookman's Budget (1917).
DOGGER BANK, BATTLE OF. One of the most important
naval engagements in the World War was fought near the Dogger
Bank on Jan. 24 1915 between the British and German battle
cruiser squadrons.
Movements of the British fleet had led the Germans to
suspect some scheme for blocking their harbours was afoot, and
Rear-Adml. Hipper was despatched at nightfall on Jan. 23 to
reconnoitre off the Dogger Bank. His force consisted of the four
battle cruisers of the First Scouting Group, the " Seydlitz "
(flag), " Derfflinger," " Moltke " and " Bliicher," four light
cruisers of the Second Scouting Group, and 22 destroyers of the
5th Flotilla and the isth and i8th Half Flotillas. Intelligence of
the departure of the German force had been intercepted at the
British Admiralty, and Vice-Adml. Sir David Beatty (later
Earl) put to sea from the Forth at 6 P.M. on the evening of the
23rd. With him were the five battle cruisers of the ist and 2nd
Battle Cruiser Squadrons, the " Lion " (flag), " Tiger," " Prin-
cess Royal," " New Zealand " and " Indomitable," and the four
light cruisers of the ist L.C.S. under Commodore W. E. Good-
enough in the " Southampton." His orders were to proceed to a
rendezvous in 55 13' N 3 12' E, 180 m. from Heligoland, where
he was to meet Commodore Tyrwhitt in the " Arethusa " (flag)
with the ist, 3rd and loth Flotillas, mustering three light cruisers
and 30 destroyers. Behind him to the northward was the Grand
Fleet. The 3rd Battle Squadron (seven King Edward VII. class)
had left Rosyth two and a half hours after him and the com-
mander-in-chief had put to sea from Scapa with the battle-fleet.
In the hope of intercepting the enemy on his way back Commo-
dore (S) ' had been ordered to proceed towards Borkum with the
" Lurcher," " Firedrake " and four submarines. In heavy guns
the British force was decidedly superior. The British battle
cruisers mounted 24 i3-5-in. and 16 12-in. against the German
8 i2-in., 20 n-in. and 16 8-2-in.
Beatty reached the rendezvous at 7 A.M. It was a winter
morning with a calm sea and good visibility. His battle cruisers
were in a single line ahead with Goodenough's light cruisers a
couple of miles on the port bow. Course was altered to S. by W.
at 18 knots. Ten minutes later the " Arethusa " was sighted to
the south-eastward about 7 m. on the port bow. The " Aurora "
and " Undaunted," the two other Harwich light cruisers, were
still some 15 m. to southward of her out of sight. Hardly had the
" Arethusa " been identified by the " Lion " when flashes of
gunfire were seen to the S.S.E. This was the " Aurora " engaging
the " Kolberg " coming up from the S.E. on the port bow of
Hipper's squadron. The " Kolberg " was hit twice and withdrew
at 7:25 A.M.
At the sound of the guns Admiral Beatty ordered his light
cruisers to chase to the southward. The " Southampton " had
hardly gone a couple of miles when the " Aurora " was seen on the
starboard bow, and soon afterwards enemy battle cruisers were
sighted on the port bow to the south-east. Dense clouds of smoke
were pouring from their funnels and they were evidently getting
up steam for full speed. It was now ten minutes to eight. Beatty's
unexpected appearance had come on Hipper as an unpleasant
surprise, and he turned to the S.E. and made off at full speed
with Beatty some 13 to 14 m. behind. Beatty's position at 8:30
A.M. was about Lat. 54 50' N. Long. 3 40' E., and the two
forces had settled down to the long rush to Heligoland 140 m.
away (see fig. i). When the chase commenced the British
BEATTY
INDOMITABLE**
NEW ZEALAND*
PRINCESS ROVAL ^TIOER
LION'*
Jan. 24'- h 1915
Position 8.30 a.m.
J*1 L.C.S.
".SOUTHAMPTON
T.H.
* UNDAUNTED
* AURORA
-4 ARETHUSA
HIPPER
BLUCHEH
y ^ MOLTKE
* DERFFLINGER
"SEYDLITZ
FIG. i.
battle cruisers were in single line ahead on a S.E. by S. course
working up to full speed. The " Arethusa," " Undaunted " and
" Aurora " now took station about 5 m. on the " Lion's " port
bow in a ragged line abreast some 2 m. apart. Goodenough with
his squadron was further off on the port bow steaming hard after
the enemy. Hipper was 1 1 m. sharp on the " Lion's " port bow on
a S.S.E. course in full flight for Heligoland with his light cruisers
and destroyers ahead of him sharp on his starboard bow. The
action about to commence took the form of a long chase in which
speed was the principal consideration. Here Beatty's squadron
had a considerable margin of superiority. It maintained an
average speed of probably 26 knots; while Hipper's may have
done just over 23 till the " Blucher " fell out, and something over
24 afterwards. By 8:42 A.M. the range of the " Blucher " had
come down to 22,000 yd., and at five minutes past nine the Vice-
Admiral hoisted the signal to engage. At 9:9, some 17 minutes
after the first shot, the " Lion " obtained her first hit on the
" Blucher. " About ten minutes later, at 9:20 A.M., a movement
of some sort was observed among the enemy destroyers, and in
1 Commodore (S)= Commodore (Submarines), Commodore Roger
Keyes.
DOGGER BANK, BATTLE OF
849
expectation of an attack British destroyers were ordered to take
station ahead, but none of them except the " M " class had the
speed to do so and the remainder accordingly dropped back to
clear the range. At 9:35 the " Lion " made the signal to engage
corresponding ships in the enemy's line, not intending it to refer
to the " Indomitable," which had dropped some way astern, but
the " Tiger " took it to include the " Indomitable," and instead
of firing at the " Derfflinger," the second ship, concentrated on
the " Seydlitz," leaving the " Derfflinger " unfired at. ft was not
till 9:45 that the Germans scored their first hit on the " Lion,"
sending an n-in. through her armour aft. Five minutes later a
i3-5-in. crashed into the after turret of the " Seydlitz," wrecking
a portion of the stern and igniting a charge in the working
chamber under the turret. The flames roared up through the
turret and passed through a connecting door into the adjoining
one, setting the charges alight there and turning both turrets into
furnaces where all the guns' crews perished. The " Blucher "
was now having trouble with her engines, and at ten o'clock drew
out of the line going heavily. The range increased for a time
partly due to the " Lion " slowing down to 24 knots at 9:53 to
allow the line to close up, partly to the enemy turning away for a
time. The " Bliicher " was on fire by this time and had dropped
behind to a position 3 or 4 m. on the " Seydlitz's " port quarter.
At 10:22 Adml. Beatty, to bring the rear of his line into action,
ordered his battle cruisers to form on a line of bearing N.N.W.
and to proceed at utmost speed. But repeated hits were telling
on the " Lion," and at 10:45 she was dropping back. As it was
clear that she could no longer maintain her place at the head of
the line, Beatty at 10:47 made a signal " to close the enemy as
rapidly as possible consistent with keeping all guns bearing,"
but the " Tiger " was the only one to receive it and then only
the words " close the enemy." About 10:50 A.M. the " Lion "
received a bad hit on the port side aft, which holed the feed tank
and did serious damage in the engine room. This was the crisis
of the action; at this moment the wash of a periscope was seen on
the starboard bow (in a position Lat. 54 9' N. 5 15' E.), and
Beatty immediately made a signal to alter course eight points to
port. This was hauled down at 11:02 A.M. and the squadron
turned to N.N.E. (see fig. 2).
Position tl a.m
FIG. 2.
But the " Lion " was no longer able to perform the duties of a
flagship. Her wireless and her searchlights were out of action,
she had fallen out of line and the rest of the squadron was drawing
every moment farther and farther away to the northward. The
" New Zealand " was some way behind, and Rear-Adml. Sir
Archibald Moore, the second in command, whose flag was flying
in her, had not grasped the intention or nature of the turn.
It was urgently necessary to resume the chase. Beatty
therefore ordered two signals to be made compass B (course
N.E.) and A.F. (attack the rear of the enemy), and then a
third: " Keep nearer to the enemy. Repeat the signal the
Admiral is now making." These all went up practically at the
same time, and had they been understood in the sense in which
they were made would have redeemed the situation. Unfortu-
nately Rear- Adml. Moore only received the first two at 11:21 A.M.
and then read them as meaning " attack the rear of the enemy
bearing N.E." The " Blucher " was then bearing roughly N.E.,
and taking them as an order to attack the " Blucher " he steered
towards her. Hipper altered for a few minutes to the S., bringing,
a heavy fire to bear on the " Tiger," which received seven hits at
this time, then resumed his course E.S.E. and drew rapidly out
of range. The " Lion " in a crippled state steamed slowly to the
north-westward, while the remainder of the squadron some 6 or 7
m. off began to circle round the " Blucher," whose fate was now
sealed. The destroyers " Meteor " and " Miranda " attacked
her, but she was still m action and sent four shots into the
" Meteor," wrecking her boiler room. At 11:38 A.M. the " Are-
thusa " came up and fired two torpedoes into her. She ceased
firing, listing heavily with fires raging fore and aft. Hipper was.
now some ism. off, only 70 m. from Heligoland, and Rear-Adml.
Moore apparently did not think it worth while to continue the
chase. It was not till n 152 A.M. that he assumed active command
and made his first signal to form single line ahead and steer west.
Beatty meanwhile had transferred his flag to the destroyer
" Attack " and was racing after his squadron. About half-past
twelve he reached the " Princess Royal," hoisted his flag in her
and was about to resume the chase. But pursuit was now
hopeless, and the situation not too favourable. The " Lion "
could only go 10 knots and the High Sea Fleet was supposed
to be coming up. Accordingly at 12:45 P.M. the squadron
turned back. Hipper meanwhile made for home and got in
touch with the German battle-fleet about 2:30 P.M. The
" Blucher " had been lost, the " Seydlitz " seriously damaged
and the " Derfflinger " hit three or four times. When Beatty
turned home Jelh'coe was hastening down to him with the battle-
fleet. They met at 4:30 P.M. and it remained only to get the
" Lion " home. In tow of the " Indomitable " and screened by
the ist and 2nd Light Cruiser Squadrons and two flotillas she
reached Rosyth safely the next morning.
The loss of the " Blucher " was quickly reflected in German
naval policy. Adml. von Pohl took Adml. von IngenohPs place
as commander-in-chief of the High Seas Fleet with definite
instructions to revert to a more cautious policy.
On the British side the results were generally regarded as
disappointing. It was believed that, had the pursuit been
pressed, the " Seydlitz " and " Derfflinger " might have shared
the " Bliicher's " fate, but it must not be forgotten that the
range was still over 18,000 yd. and the enemy's speed not serious- .
ly diminished. The battle, however, had a very real result. It
fettered the initiative of the German commander-in-chief, and
put an end to raids on the English coast for over a year.
See also Filson Young, With the Battle Cruisers (1921).
The following is a list of the forces engaged :
BRITISH
1st Battle Cruiser Squadron.
" Lion " (flag), Vice-Adml. Sir David Beatty, Capt. Alfred Chat-
field, 28 knots (designed).
" Princess Royal," Capt. Osmond de B. Brock, 28 knots.
" Tiger," Capt. Henry B. Pelly, 30 knots.
Armament 8 13-5-111., 16 4-in. (" Tiger " 16 6-in.).
2nd Battle Cruiser Squadron.
" New Zealand " (flag), Rear-Adml. Sir Archibald Moore,
Capt. Lionel Halsey, 26 knots.
" Indomitable," Capt. Francis W. Kennedy, 25 knots.
Armament 8 12-in., 16 4-in.
1st Light Cruiser Squadron.
" Southampton," Commodore W. E. Goodenough, Comm. E. A.
Rush ton.
" Birmingham," Capt. Arthur A. Duff.
" Nottingham," Capt. Charles B. Miller.
" Lowestoft," Capt. Theobald W. Kennedy.
Armament 9 6-in., " Southampton " 8 6-in., 25 knots.
Harwich Flotillas.
" Arethusa," Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt, Comm. E. K.
Arbuthnot. loth Flotilla: " Meteor " (Comm. Hon. Herbert
Mead), " Miranda," " Milne Mentor," " Mastiff," " Minos,"
" Morris," speed 34 knots.
3rd Flotilla: " Undaunted," Capt. Francis St. John, " Lookout,
" Lysander," " Landrail," " Laurel," " Liberty," " Laertes,
" Lucifer," " Lawford," " Lydia," " Louis," " Legion," " Lark,
speed 29 knots.
1st Flotilla: " Aurora," Capt. Wilmot S. Nicholson, " Acheron,
" Attack," " Hydra," '' Ariel," " Forester," " Defender,
" Druid," " Hornet," " Tigress," " Sandfly," " Jackal,
" Goshawk," " Phoenix," " Lapwing," speed 27 knots.
850 DOGS (WAR) DOLLAR SECURITIES MOBILIZATION
GERMAN
1st Scouting Group.
" Seydlitz," Rear-Adml. Hipper, 10 ll-in., 12 5-9-111., 26 knots.
" Derfflinger." 18 12-in., 12 s-g-in., 27 knots.
" Moltke," 10 ii-in., 12 s-g-in., 25 knots.
" Bliicher," 12 8-2-in., 8 s-g-in., 24 knots.
2nd Scouting Group.
" Graudenz," " Stralsund," " Kolberg." " Rostock."
(A. C. D.)
DOGS (WAR). That dogs could be usefully employed as
auxiliaries in the prosecution of war, as was the case in the World
War of 1914-8, is not a modern discovery. Both Greeks and
Romans used them for offensive and defensive purposes and
for maintaining communication on the field of battle. War-
dogs are mentioned by Plutarch and Pliny, and Strabo describes
how, in Gaul, dogs were armed with coats of mail. In the Middle
Ages and in early modern history there are many stories, some
of them no doubt legendary, of the participation of dogs in war.
In the Crimean War, dogs were employed on sentry duty; in the
American Civil War they were used both as sentries and guards.
An ancient writer, Camerarius, noted that guard-dogs could
discriminate Christians from Turks; and a modern authority
has stated that dogs employed during the war of 1914-8 could
even detect men of unfamiliar regiments. Instinctive fidelity and
keen scenting power make the proper sort of dog peculiarly
suitable for training as an auxiliary in war. Further, a dog very
readily acquires a sense of danger; and it was noted, during the
World War, that dogs, if unable to reach or uncertain of a
particular destination, would make their way back to their
kennels. They would never cross the zone to the enemy. The
same instinct for hurrying to the rear was, it may be added,
observed in stray horses and mules.
Despite his acknowledged suitability, however, no modern
systematic training of the dog for use in war began until the
latter part of the last century. About that time the movement
made considerable headway in Germany, mainly because of the
energetic championship of the animal-painter, Jean Bungartz.
In France, too, some progress was made and some official en-
couragement extended; but in England, apart from the private
efforts of Lt.-Col. E. H. Richardson, no action was taken, and
it was not until 1917 that a British war-dog training school was
established at Shoeburyness.
In Germany there was, at first, a great difference of opinion
on the question of the most suitable breed for training. Poodles
were originally decided upon, because of their high degree of
intelligence, but poodles suffer considerably when exposed to the
heat of the sun and, though they have sharp scent, they are
extremely short-sighted. The St. Bernard was then experimented
with. The record of its ancestors at the Hospice was distinguished
enough ; but it seemed to have been forgotten that the Hospice
dog, besides being short-haired, was also of lighter build than the
modern St. Bernard. The pointer was next tried; but though it
has unquestionably the necessary intelligence and physical
strength, the hunting instinct is so deep-rooted in this breed as to
be ineradicable except after years of labour. One principle the
German authorities had insisted upon from the outset that " a
military dog cannot be produced from cross-breeds." The
Scotch collie, pure-bred for centuries, was, therefore, some
20 or 30 years ago regarded with great favour in Germany as a
potential war-dog. J. Bungartz, indeed, in his book on the
subject of the war-dog, dated 1892, pays eloquent tribute to the
collie's qualities. Later, however, the collies fell into disrepute;
and during the World War the great bulk of the dogs employed
with the German army (it has been stated that, almost im-
mediately after the outbreak of war, the Germans placed some
6,000 war-dogs in the field) were German shepherd-dogs. In-
deed, according to the returns of the German Society for Ambu-
lance Dogs (Oldenburg) of 1,678 dogs sent to the front up to
the end of May 1915, 1,274 were German shepherd-dogs, 142
Airedale terriers, 239 Dobermanns and 13 Rottweilers. The
figures remained in a like proportion throughout the war. The
ambulance dogs were able to distinguish between the dead and
the apparently dead; the former they left untouched, even passed
with signs of disgust, the latter they succoured. The English and
French armies found it impossible to employ ambulance dogs on
the western front during the late war; but the German army
seems to have employed them, especially during the Russian
retreat on the eastern front, with conspicuous success. It is
indeed officially recorded that thousands of German soldiers
owed their lives to ambulance dogs. Messenger-dogs also con-
stituted a.n acknowledged part of the organization of the German
army. An infantry regiment was allotted a maximum of 12
dogs, while a battalion might have six, the allotments being
made by the Messenger Dog Section (Meldehundstaffel) at the
Army Headquarters. The breeds chiefly employed for message-
carrying work were German sheep-dogs, Dobermanns, Airedale
terriers, and Rottweilers. The Germans, unlike the British,
employed the dogs on the double-journey- " liaison " principle
that is, with two keepers, and the dog travelling backwards and
forwards between both. In the British army the messenger-dog
was trained to make the return journey only to the one keeper.
British war-dogs, which were placed under the signal section
of the Royal Engineers, were employed principally in maintaining
communication, though sentry-dogs did valuable work, especially
in' Salonika; but a British war-dog school was not established
until 1917. Many types of dogs were use'd. Thus, of a total of
340 dogs sent to France from the school within a certain period,
74 were collies, 70 lurchers, 66 Airedales, 36 sheep-dogs, and 33
retrievers, the remainder being made up of 13 different breeds.
A central kennel was established in France at Etaples. The
training course at the school lasted about five or six weeks and the
dogs and their keepers were then sent overseas. From Etaples the
dogs were posted to sectional kennels behind the front line, each
sectional kennel consisting of about 48 dogs and 16 men. From
these kennels the dogs and their keepers in the proportion of one
man to three dogs were sent up for duty in the trenches.
The war-dog training school of the French army was es-
tablished at Satory about the same time as the English school
was set up at Shoeburyness. Shepherd-dogs of various kinds,
Airedale terriers and Scotch collies were mainly employed.
Each French infantry battalion was allotted six dogs, the allot-
ments being made from the Army Headquarters kennels. The
U.S. army did not use dogs.
In determining a particular dog's suitability for war training, his
physical condition should first be considered. Strength and agility
combined, of course, with intelligence are in fact indispensable qual-
ities. The chest should be broad, the legs sinewy and the paws of
firm construction. Colour must also be taken into account. White
dogs and those of " check " colouring are obviously unsuitable for
war purposes. They would constitute too conspicuous a target. Sex,
again, plays a part. A bitch in heat will, at any time, throw a pack
into excited confusion and therefore, though trials have proved that
bitches are apter at learning and are more trustworthy, they are not
suitable for use in war. Castrated dogs, on the other hand, lack
courage and temperament and are useless for work in the field. With
regard to age it has been said that the dogs chosen for war training
should not be less than one year and not more than four years old.
(C. E. W. B.;E. S. H.*)
DOHERTY, CHARLES JOSEPH (1855- ), Canadian states-
man, was born at Montreal, Quebec, May 1 1 1855. He was called
to the Quebec bar in 1877, and became a Q.C. in 1887. He was
elected to the House of Commons for the St. Ann's Division of
Montreal 1908, being reelected Sept. 1911 and in the by-election
consequent upon his taking office as Minister of Justice in Nov.
1911. He was professor of civil and international law in McGill
University for several years before entering the Government. He
became a member of the Unionist Government in Dec. 1917.
In 1920 he was made an Imperial Privy Councillor and the same
year was a member of the Canadian delegation to the first
assembly of the League of Nations at Geneva.
DOLLAR SECURITIES MOBILIZATION. In the British system
of war finance, 1915-7, an important part was played by the
mobilization of securities. During the World War enormous
supplies of war materials of all descriptions had to be purchased
by England from abroad, and in addition, owing to the with-
drawal of labour from production in the Allied countries, abnor-
mal quantities of goods had to be obtained from the same sources.
DOLLAR SECURITIES MOBILIZATION
851
The exchange facilities available were entirely inadequate for
the purpose of making the payments necessitated by these pur-
chases, and artificial methods had to be adopted to provide in
suitable foreign currencies the funds required. The natural
procedure was by borrowing, and by the realization of such assets
as were marketable in the creditor countries.
Though in some instances, and more particularly in the early
days of the war, it was possible to effect loans abroad on the
credit of the borrowing countries, it was found necessary to a
large extent to provide collateral security in addition. The
various securities quoted on the Stock Exchange and others of
similar nature held in the Allied countries formed the natural
and most fruitful field for obtaining suitable collateral and for
providing the assets most readily marketable abroad.
Before the introduction of any official control a considerable
amount of securities of the United States of America and other
foreign countries was sold abroad, on account of the relatively
high prices obtaining and the favourable terms on which the
proceeds could be remitted home, owing to the fall in exchange
rates which had already taken place. Even after the introduction
of official action these natural sales continued, though necessarily
in decreased volume. The funds provided by means of these
sales and from loans effected abroad without collateral security
supplied in the main the necessary sums to pay for the purchases
made, but as the demand for goods and raw material became
more insistent the British Treasury found it necessary to take
official action. In July 1915 instructions were given to the Bank
of England to purchase American dollar securities by private
treaty or through the London Stock Exchange and forward them
to New York for sale. By this means securities of the nominal
value of $233,000,000 were obtained before the end of the year
and the pressing requirements of the Treasury were satisfied.
By Dec. 1915, however, it had become apparent that this
somewhat haphazard method of purchasing available securities
was not altogether satisfactory nor likely to achieve the desired
results, and it was therefore decided to adopt a more compre-
hensive scheme. Accordingly, the Treasury appointed a com-
mittee, known as the American Dollar Securities Committee,
with a permanent secretary of the Treasury as chairman, the
deputy governor of the Bank of England as deputy chairman,
and four members, two of whom were nominated by the Bankers'
Clearing House and two by the Committee of the London Stock
Exchange. The management was placed in the hands of Mr.
(afterwards Sir) George May, the secretary of the Prudential
Assurance Company.
In order to obtain some idea as to the volume and class of
securities available a circular letter was sent to all the larger
investors, such as insurance companies, banks and trust com-
panies, asking them to submit lists of American dollar securities
held by them, with a view to a possible sale or loan to the Treas-
ury. Active operations were begun in Jan. 1916, at the Nation-
al Debt Office in Old Jewry, by the issue of a list of 54 selected
American dollar bonds which the Treasury was prepared to
purchase. The prices offered were based on the current New
York closing quotations of the previous evening, the New York
percentage price being converted into the London sterling price
at the existing rate of exchange with accrued interest.
In illustration of the procedure adopted it may be mentioned
that the official prices were not only posted up at the London
Stock Exchange but by a special arrangement were telephoned by
the General Post-Office to all the provincial stock exchanges at
about 10 A.M. This enabled the country stockbrokers to deal
promptly with the committee by means of a short telegram stating
the amount they wished to sell and quoting the official number
assigned to the particular security. Such bargains held good pro-
vided that the telegram was handed in at the provincial post-office
not later than 2 o'clock (later extended to 4 o'clock) on the day of
the quotation. As regards London dealings, the bargains were
booked over the counter at the National Debt Office. To facilitate
delivery of securities a branch of the Bank of England was installed
in Old Jewry and on the Bank's officers devolved the duty of accept-
ing the securities in good order and paying the purchase money.
It is interesting to note that brokerage was paid by the Treasury
and not by the seller, while unstamped bonds were accepted on
the same terms as those bearing the English stamp. In the early
days of the scheme payment was made at the seller's option in Brit-
ish Government Exchequer bonds then being issued. In this way
the double purpose was served of obtaining the means of securing
a credit in New York and increasing subscriptions for British Gov-
ernment securities. Additional lists of bonds and snares for which
daily prices were quoted were published from time to time, while
special prices were made for suitable securities not appearing in a
published list. Since it was essential for the Treasury to obtain the
largest possible credits in New York at the earliest possible date
negotiations were entered into with large holders of securities,
and bulk prices were quoted for large and comprehensive blocks.
The scheme was successful from the outset, as will be seen
from the fact that securities to the value of over 40,000,000
sterling were obtained in the first ten weeks of its operation.
During the first months of the Committee's existence no
securities had been taken on loan, but towards the end of March
1916 a deposit scheme, subsequently known as scheme A, was
introduced. Briefly the scheme was as follows:
Securities were to be deposited for a period of two years from the
date of deposit, the lender to receive all interest and dividends on
the securities deposited by him, plus an additional J of i % per
annum on the nominal amount. During the currency of the loan
the lender was entitled (i) to have his securities sold in New York
free of expense, the proceeds being paid to him in London at the
current sterling rate of exchange, or (2) to obtain the release of his
securities in New York against payment to the Treasury agent
there of a sum in dollars equivalent to their American value, a sim-
ilar sum in sterling being paid to the depositor in London.
The Treasury was also prepared in most instances to purchase
for sterling the deposit certificates in London at the current Ameri-
can prices of the securities deposited. Though there was no inten-
tion to realize the deposited securities except in an emergency, the
right to do so was reserved to the Treasury as otherwise the securi-
ties would have been useless as collateral for loans in New York.
In Aug. 1916 a further loan scheme, B, was brought into force.
It differed from the previous scheme in that (i) deposit was for a
period of five years from a fixed date, instead of two years from
the date of deposit; (2) under it were included many colonial and
foreign stocks and bonds in addition to the purely American securi-
ties; and (3) the right to realize securities as given under scheme A
was limited to American securities having a market value in New
York. Power was given to depositors under scheme A to transfer to
scheme B, and this option was in most cases exercised.
The securities purchased were sold immediately a suitable oppor-
tunity offered, and those remaining unsold, together with deposited
American dollar securities, were used for short borrowing as required.
The main use, however, to which the deposited securities were put
is illustrated by the particulars of a typical loan floated in the
United States of America prior to the entry of that country into
the war:
UNITED KINGDOM 3-5 year $\ % Notes Dated Nov. i 1916.
Amount of loan 300,000,000
Collateral 360,000,000
Composed of $ 59,500,000 Australasian.
25,500,000 South African.
20,000,000 Argentine and Chilian.
30,000,000 Japanese.
15,000,000 Egyptian.
5,000,000 Cuban.
25,000,000 British Railway Debentures.
180,000,000 U.S.A. dollar securities and
Canadian.
Up to May 27 1916, rather less than five months after the
formation of the Committee, the amount paid for securities
purchased exceeded 51,000,000 sterling, while the nominal
amount of securities deposited on loan was about 8,000,000.
Since these figures, however, were not sufficient to provide the
funds required, the Chancellor of the Exchequer stated in
Parliament that powers would be taken to impose a special tax
of 2S. in the i on the income of all securities that the Treasury,
by means of special lists, declared its willingness to purchase.
The necessary authority of Parliament was granted. Relief
from the additional tax was only obtainable by selling or loaning
the specified securities to the Treasury. The effect was immediate.
In the first two weeks following the announcement the purchases
exceeded 23,000,000 sterling and the deposits 15,000,000
sterling. In course of time the purchases greatly decreased but
the deposits, mainly owing to the introduction of scheme B,
assumed very large proportions. For example, during the month
of Sept. 1916, the securities taken in on loan amounted to about
100,000,000. The enormous requirements of the Treasury are
852
DOLLAR STABILIZATION
emphasized by the fact that in spite of the large amounts of
securities purchased and deposited a still more drastic step had
to be taken.
On Jan. 24 1917, a regulation issued under the Defence of the
Realm Act came into force, by which the Treasury was given
power to requisition securities. The first order under this regula-
tion was issued on Feb. 17 1917, and required owners or custo-
dians of specified securities to deliver them up in return for an
amount of compensation based on the current market values.
Holders of securities not ordinarily resident in the United King-
dom and certain other holders were exempted from the terms
of the order. The compensation was payable within seven days
of the transfer, and power was given to reduce its amount in case
of late delivery. Altogether four such orders were issued, the
number of securities included being 1,076. On March i 1918
deposit scheme B was closed to new deposits, except in regard
to securities subject to the extra zs. tax and which had not pre-
viously been included in the list of requisitioned securities.
A little later, when the securities under scheme A began to fall
due for return, depositors were given the option to extend the
term to five years. Nearly all such depositors availed them-
selves of this offer.
In addition to the purchase and loan schemes which have been
described above, the American Dollar Securities Committee under-
took various operations for the purpose of placing dollars at the
disposal of the Treasury in America. In this connexion may be
instanced arrangements with various Canadian provincial and muni-
cipal authorities for the purchase of their sterling securities in Lon-
don for cancellation and the issue, in place thereof, of Canadian
dollar securities for sale in America. Similar plans were adopted
in the case of certain American industrial companies. Further,
arrangements were made with certain British corporations to issue
their own loans in America and place the dollars obtained at the
disposal of the Treasury, the latter looking after the American loan
and providing the English company with sterling in London. As an
instance, reference may be made to the issue by the Central Argen-
tine railway of a $ 15, 000,000 loan in America.
The labour involved in connexion with the operations and
more particularly with the loan scheme, was of considerable
magnitude, and it was necessary to adopt every device in order
to lessen the work, which in the main had to be carried out by a
staff collected in a time of emergency. In the early days an
agreement was entered into with the agents of over 100,000,000
bearer securities, the coupons of which had to be encashed in
London, to pay the coupons on deposited securities, plus the
additional ^% per annum, and for this purpose they were
supplied with schedules giving such information as would permit
of the calculations and payments being made. In Sept. 1917
this procedure was discontinued, and thereafter the work was
taken over by the National Debt Office.
With regard to the registered stocks on deposit, much duplica-
tion of work was avoided by the railway companies and other
paying agents undertaking to keep the Treasury register and
pay the increased interest as it fell due. By this means it is
estimated that the authorities were relieved from the prepara-
tion, etc., of about 350,000 dividend warrants each year. Fur-
ther, certain approved agents were appointed to accept deposits
of amounts of less than $5,000 each, the securities being handed
over in bulk to the Committee ; payment of interest on the aggre-
gate amounts was made to such agents, who in turn distributed
the sums received amongst the individual depositors.
The United States of America was naturally the chief source
of supply, both for munitions of war and for goods, and there-
fore the financial arrangements already referred to were mainly
directed to the provision of dollars in order to effect the necessary
payments. In a smaller degree, however, payments had to be
made to other countries, and certain of the securities obtained
by the Committee were used to meet these obligations.
The United Kingdom was, of course, preeminent as the holder
of foreign securities, and she therefore played by far the greater
part in the efforts made towards mobilization in the Allied inter-
ests. But France also held a considerable amount and had a deposit
scheme of her own, though on nothing like the same scale as that
of the United Kingdom. In her scheme no purchases of securities were
made, but a considerable volume of private sales to the United
States of America was effected, both direct and through London,
and to a certain extent purchases of French holdings were made by
the American Dollar Securities Committee through the medium of
the banks of France and England.
The total amount of securities dealt with under the British mobili-
zation scheme, including those bought by the Bank of England
prior to the appointment of the American Dollar Securities Com-
mittee, was as follows:
Purchases 216,000,000
Deposits 406,000,000
Total 622,000,000
These particulars may be to some extent amplified. Thus, the
purchases consisted of :
$680,000,000 . . Dollar bonds
$241,300,000 . . Dollar shares
27,800,000 . . Sterling bonds and shares
4,100,000 . . Registered stocks
Fl. 5,400,000 . . Florin bonds and shares
Similarly the deposited securities were made up of :
$197.800.000 . . Dollar bonds
$303,600,000 . . Dollar shares
115,100,000 . . Sterling bonds
172,000,000 . . Registered stocks
17,500,000 . . Home Railway debentures
Fr. 8,500,000 . . Franc bonds
Kr.8, 100,000 . . Kroner bonds
Fl. 4,400,000 . . Florin bonds
The total number of different securities dealt with was 2,027.
The total amount of American dollar securities which passed
through the hands of the Committee was thus approximately
285,000,000. In addition securities to the value of probably 100,-
000,000 were sold direct to America through the ordinary channels,
making in all, say, about 400,000,000. Various estimates have been
made from time to time of the amount of American securities held in
Great Britain before the war. The data available on which to base
any such estimate are very vague and uncertain in their nature,
and the present writer is inclined to believe that any such estimates
can only be regarded as more or less intelligent guessing. In his
opinion the total amount of American securities held in Great
Britain before the commencement of hostilities was certainly not
greater than 600,000,000 and probably nearer 500,000,000.
The operations of the Committee undoubtedly achieved the pur-
pose for which it was formed, as during its existence the rate of
exchange practically remained constant at about 4.76^ dollars to
the i. Although securities were purchased and taken on loan
after the Americans came into the war the amounts obtained were
not great, and it is believed that practically all available American
securities suitable for sale or collateral for loans had been dealt with.
It is difficult to see what course could have been taken in order to
obtain the necessary credits abroad in sufficient amount when these
securities had been exhausted, but speculation on this point would
be idle since the necessary credits became available after and on
account of the entry of the Americans into the war. (G. E. M.)
DOLLAR STABILIZATION. Under the existing currency
system, the so-called " level of prices " is largely at the mercy of
monetary and credit conditions. The tide of prices will rise or
fall with the flood or ebb of gold or of paper money or of bank
credit. Evidently a rise in the level of prices is a fall in the pur-
chasing power of the dollar or other monetary unit, and vice
versa. The purchasing power of money has always been unstable
because a unit of money, as at present determined, is not a unit
of purchasing power, but only a unit of weight. It is the one
inconstant unit of measurement left in civilization. Other units
the yard, pound, bushel, etc. were once as unstable and crude
as the dollar, sovereign or franc still are; but, one after another,
the other units have all been stabilized or standardized. Short
weights and measures cheat the buyer; long weights, the seller.
So a unit of money which changes in value or purchasing power is
always playing havoc between contracting parties. When prices
are rising in other words, when the purchasing power of the
dollar is falling the creditor and the creditor-like classes suffer
injustice. The sufferers include savings-bank depositors, bond-
holders, salaried classes and wage-earners. In the great upheaval
of prices i.e. in the United States, depreciation of the dollar
which took place between 1896 and 1921 such injustice amounted
to over a hundred billion dollars. On the other hand, when prices
fall, as they did between 1873 and 1896, it is other classes-
debtors, stockholders, farmers and independent business men
generally which suffer the injustice. The indirect effects of
falling or rising prices i.e. of a rising or falling dollar are
equally bad. These indirect effects include industrial discontent
DONALDSON, SIR J. DOVER
853
(either over the " high cost of living " or unemployment) and
economic crises and depressions.
Hitherto there was ample excuse for the unstable monetary
units of various countries. No instrument for measuring their
aberrations had been devised. Likewise, until weighing scales
were devised, weights could not be standardized, and until
instruments for measuring electrical magnitudes were invented,
electrical units could not be standardized. But for many years
the " index number " of prices has provided an accurate in-
strument for measuring the value of the dollar in terms of its
power to purchase goods. An " index number " of prices is a
figure which shows for a specific period of time the average
percentage increase or decrease of prices. One of the most sug-
gestive signs of the times is that this instrument for measuring
changes in the purchasing power of money has recently been
utilized in adjusting wages and salaries to the high cost of living,
i.e. to the depreciated dollar. A number of industrial concerns
and banks, and some official agencies, have amended wages by
the use of an index number of the prices of commodities.
It has been contended by some economists that this principle
may be utilized in the future more generally to safeguard agree-
ments made at one date to pay money at another date. Such
corrections of the dollar would gradually break down the popular
superstition that " a dollar is a dollar "; for every time we correct
the dollar, we convict it of needing corrections; and ultimately
the correction might be applied, not, as at present, as a patch on
the dollar from the outside, but by incorporating it in the dollar
itself. Various methods for accomplishing this have been pro-
posed. The one perhaps best known is Prof. Irving Fisher's
proposal to vary the weight of the gold dollar so as to keep its
purchasing power invariable. Instead of a gold dollar of con-
stant weight and varying purchasing power, what is needed, he
contends, is a dollar of constant purchasing power, and, there-
fore, of varying weight. It is not proposed, of course, to remint
gold coins, but simply to count an ounce of gold bullion as being
the equivalent not always of $20.67 ( as at present) but of as
much more or less than that sum as is required from time to time
in order to keep the purchasing power of the dollar constant.
In other words, the proposal is to vary the price of gold according
to its worth relative to other commodities, instead of, as at
present, keeping it artificially constant at $20.67 an oz - pure or
3 173. iojd.anoz.il/i2nne. In this way, Professor Fisher con-
tends, we can control the price level, lowering it, raising it, or keep-
ing it from fluctuating much, if at all. Thus, if Mexico should
adopt the dollar of the U.S. (instead of its present dollar of half
the weight of gold), the price level in Mexico would be disastrous-
ly cut in two. Again, if the U.S. should adopt the Mexican dollar,
the price level in the U.S. would be disastrously doubled.
That is, the more gold in the dollar, the greater its buying-power;
and the less, the less. If, Professor Fisher contends, this prin-
ciple be admitted, it follows that we hold, in the hollow of our
hand, what the dollar's buying-power shall be that is, what
the level of prices shall be. It can be kept from changing greatly
just as easily as it could be made to change, simply by period-
ical adjustments of the price of gold, each adjustment being
made in accordance with the index number of prices. By this
method, in conjunction with any of the sound systems of bank-
ing, Professor Fisher contends, variations of more than one or
two per cent could easily be prevented except under the most
extraordinary conditions. (I. F.)
DONALDSON, SIR JAMES (1831-1915), British scholar (see
8.406), died at St. Andrews, March 9 1915.
DONNAY, CHARLES MAURICE (1859- ), French drama-
tist (see 8.417), wrote several fresh plays after 1910: Le Menage
de Moliere (1912); Les Eclaireuses (1913); L' Impromptu de
Paquetage (1916); Le Thedtre aux armies (1916). He also pub-
lished some war-time essays and addresses: La Parisienne et la
Guerre (1916); Premieres Impressions apres (1917); Leltres a la
Dame Blanche (1917); Pendant qu'tts sont a Noyon (1917);
La Chasse a I'Homme (1919).
DOUGHTY, CHARLES MONTAGU (1843- ), British ex-
plorer and writer, was born in 1843, the youngest son of the
Rev. C. M. Doughty of Theberton Hall, Suffolk. In 1875 he
made an adventurous journey through northern Arabia, remain-
ing nearly two years in the country, and, after many hazards
and hardships, finally emerging at Jidda (see 2.257). He pub-
lished the results of his observations in a work since recognized
as a classic worthy to rank with the records of the Elizabethan
voyagers. Travels in Arabia Deserta, issued by the Cambridge
University Press in 1888, received at first little recognition and
brought its author no material reward. But gradually its fame
spread amongst travellers and lovers of literature until the rare
copies of the first edition were scarcely procurable at any price,
and in 1921 a facsimile reprint of the two volumes was issued at
9 os. The value of Doughty's work as a traveller had by
that time secured universal recognition; nothing was left for
any future explorer to study between Damascus and Mecca
which Doughty had not already closely studied, and in 1912
the Royal Geographical Society bestowed on him its Founder's
gold medal. He had done other work previously, and he pub-
lished several volumes; but he remains, in the estimation of the
literary world, the author of one book. It should, however, be
noted that in 1866 he brought out On the Jostedal-Brae Glaciers
in Norway, and a collection of inscriptions copied by him in
Arabia was published by the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-
Lettres in 1884. His later years were devoted to poetry and poet-
ic drama. In 1906 he published an epic in six volumes The Dawn
in Britain, followed by Adam Cast Forth (1908), The Cliffs
(1909), The Clouds (1912), The Titans (1916) and Mansoul,
or the Riddle of the World (1920).
DOVER, England (see 8.453). PP- (1911), inclusive of the
garrison, 43,645; estimated civil pop. (1920) 41,408. The muni-
cipal boundaries were extended in Nov. 1921 so as to include an
area of about 70 ac. in the River Ward destined for housing
purposes; at the same date the various piers and jetties of the
harbour were brought within the municipal area. A new general
post-office was completed in Biggin St. in 1914. Two new churches
have been erected Charlton church, a large building in the
early English style which takes the place of a small church dating
back to the Middle Ages since demolished, and St. Barnabas
church, built between 1890 and 1912. The Duke of York's
Royal Military School was transferred from London to Dover in
1907, an extensive series of buildings of the bungalow type having
been erected on the Eastern Heights near Fort Burgoyne. The
Connaught barracks near the castle with accommodation for an
infantry battalion were completed in 1915. The Dover Patrol
memorial obelisk on the cliffs E. of the town was unveiled by
H.R.H. the Prince of Wales on July 27 1921.
The Dover harbour scheme in addition to the construction
of piers and a breakwater to enclose the Admiralty harbour with
a perimeter of about 4! m., completed in 1909 included the
reclamation of about nj ac. upon the harbour (eastern) side
of the Admiralty pier, to provide for a new marine station and
berths for the continental mail packet steamers and other vessels.
Both these projects were sufficiently completed in time to be of
service during the World War.
The reclamation wall is 2,260 ft. long, and the landing-stage upon
the Admiralty pier extension, 792 ft. long and 20 ft. wide. Altogether
six berths are provided. The stage is built on open pile work and
double decks to suit levels for the passenger steamers spring tides
rise 18 ft. 9 in., neap tides 15 ft., and range II feet. Reinforced
concrete piles support the foundations of the passage to an inset
landing-stage, and also the foundations of the marine station. At
the outer end is a lighthouse 85 ft. above high-water level, the light
visible for 14 miles. As at Chatham, large colliers drawing four
fathoms can berth alongside the pier to unload into railway trucks.
To provide railway communication to the Prince of Wales' pier,
and to the harbour quays, the Harbour Board, in 1904, constructed
a new swing bridge to carry passenger trains as well as ordinary
vehicular traffic; during the war this bridge proved indispensable
in the transport of material.
The Harbour Board acquired parliamentary powers, in 1920, to
construct, by arrangement with the Government, an enclosed wet-
dock upon the Admiralty harbour side of the Prince of Wales'
pier, having an area of 21 ac. and depth of 34 ft. at high-water of
spring tides. The entrance lock is to be 100 ft. wide, and additional
quays, transit sheds, coal-tips, and connexions to the inner dock
basins will be provided.
854
DOWDEN, E. DRAMA
On its completion, the Admiralty harbour became the base
of the battleships and armoured cruisers of the Atlantic Fleet.
In 1911 the defence of the Straits was handed over to the destroy-
ers and submarines and a camber in the northern corner of the
harbour was completed for them just before war broke out.
In Aug. 1014 the Sixth Flotilla of destroyers and submarines
formed the naval force guarding the Straits, with their base at
Dover.
During the war Dover was entrenched, the perimeter being
nearly 6 m., and a division of troops manned the defences. The
Swingate aerodrome was an instructional school for the final
training of officers before leaving for France, and the Guston
aerodrome the H.Q. of the R.N.A.S., afterwards the R.A.F.
Dover was subjected to repeated air raids, the first raid on
England taking place at Dover on Dec. 24 1914. There were
several Zeppelin raids in 1915-7, but the defence prevented any
serious damage. In all, 184 bombs were dropped on the borough
and 370 in the immediate vicinity, and the total death toll was
25. The castle was hit several times by bombs but beyond a few
chips in the walls of the keep no trace of damage remains. Over
100 men lost their lives in the blowing up of the monitor " Glat-
ton " in Dover harbour on Sept. 16 1918, and 155 were drowned
in the mining of the " Maloja " off Dover on Feb. 24 1916.
At the close of the war Dover harbour was abandoned as a
naval base, the camber was leased to a private company for the
breaking up of old battleships, and the Admiralty in 1921 were
offering to lease the naval harbour for commercial purposes.
Dover castle has been placed in the care of the Office of Works
as an ancient historical building and a considerable amount of
restoration and preservative work has been carried out on the
Roman pharos and the late Norman towers and walls. In recent
years many tiles bearing the letters Cl Br have been found in the
area between the Western Heights and the Dour, indicating that
Roman Dover occupied this site. The tiles show from their
stamp that they were made by artisans belonging to the Roman
British fleet. As they have not been found elsewhere except
at Boulogne, they appear to indicate that Dover was the chief
Roman port to the continent.
The chief feature of the industrial development in the dis-
trict was the opening up and working of the Kent coal-field.
The H.Q. of the chief colliery company is at Dover.
AUTHORITIES. "The Port of Dover," Jour, of the Royal Society of
Arts (April 15 1910); Engineering Supplement of the Times (April 24
); J- Bavington Jones, The Annals of Dover (1916).
DOWDEN, EDWARD (1843-1913),' English writer (see 8.456),
died at Dublin April 4 1913.
See his Letters, edited by E. D. and H. M. Dowden (1914).
DOYLE, SIR ARTHUR CONAN (1850- ), English novelist
(see 8.461), was one of the originators of the Volunteer Corps
during the World War, the first corps being formed by him at
Crowborough, Sus., in Aug. 1914. In this, the 6th Sussex Batt.,
he served for four years as a private. He also did much propa-
ganda work, and issued various pamphlets on war subjects,
also a six- volume history of the war which was extensively read
in America. He visited the war zones twice, and published
The British Campaign in France and Flanders, 1914. (1916) and
A Visit to Three Fronts (1916), as well as a volume of verse,
Then Guards Came Through, and other Poems (1919). His other
writings since 1910 include The Case of Oscar Slater (1912);
The Poison Belt (1913); Danger (1918) and His Last Bow (1918).
He became an ardent spiritualist and published A New Revela-
tion (1918) and The Vital Message (1919), following these up by
an active campaign of lecturing and controversy on the possibil-
ity of proving by spiritualism the continued existence and con-
ditions of human life after death. A public debate between
him and Joseph McCabe on the subject took place in 1920.
DRAMA (see 8.502). The decade 1910-20 was one of para-
mount importance in the history of English drama and the
English theatre. Apart from the temporary, but substantial,
effect of the World War, which lasted for nearly half of the
decade, other causes of wide influence profoundly affected both
the drama as a part of literature and the theatre as a commercial
organization during that period. In the United Kingdom great
changes in the constitution of theatrical enterprises were brought
about abruptly and almost catastrophically. The government
of the theatre by actor-managers ceased with dramatic sudden-
ness and was replaced by the government of syndicates composed,
for the most part, of persons innocent of all knowledge of acting
or drama and concerned primarily, if not exclusively, with the
production of large profits quickly returned. In those theatres
where the actor-manager was not replaced by a commercially
minded syndicate, his place was taken by what may be called the
producer-manager.
The three great actor-managers of the English theatre, Sir
Herbert Beerbohm Tree, Sir George Alexander and Sir Charles
Wyndham, did not outlive their reign; the era of the actor-
manager ended simultaneously with their decease. Tree died
July 2 1917; Alexander March 16 1918; and Wyndham Jan. 12
1919. The normal process of nature, whereby one generation or
tradition is slowly merged in another, was in their case mercifully
suspended. In 18 months the actor-managerial system, which
had been immensely powerful, was in ruins, and its chief pro-
tagonists, men of ability and taste, were dead, spared from the
humiliation of neglect and supersession. It was a system un-
deniably disadvantageous to the drama as an art, since it tended
to make the play subordinate to the player and restricted many
dramatists to the production of plays with good parts for particu-
lar persons, but there is no doubt that the actor-managers,
especially the three named, were possessed of ambition and much
taste and that they worked successfully to restore dignity to the
theatre. They were directly associated with many of the most
interesting plays that were written during their reign, and Tree,
Alexander and Wyndham could claim exemption from the
charge so frequently and justly brought against Sir Henry
Irving, of doing nothing whatever to encourage the work of
meritable modern English dramatists. Sir Herbert Tree's
annual Shakespearean festival, held often at grave financial
disadvantage to himself, was a real tribute to taste and culture,
despite the serious complaints fairly made about his methods of
production. Sir George Alexander, more than anyone else, made
the way to the stage easy for the writer of distinguished comedy
and was chiefly responsible for the career as a dramatist of Oscar
Wilde. Sir Charles Wyndham, less consistently ambitious than
his colleagues, followed an honourable tradition and was re-
sponsible for the redemption of farce from buffoonery.
The decline and fall of the actor-managerial system coincided
with the disappearance from the centre of London of the music-
hall in which a succession of " turns," sparely produced but
highly individualized and having no relationship with each other,
formed the programme. Three well-known music-halls ceased
between 1910 and 1920 to be music-halls. These three, the
Oxford, the Tivoli and the London Pavilion, were the centre
from which radiated an elaborate ganglion of music-halls
throughout Great Britain and Ireland. The Tivoli was de-
molished and its site remains, in 1921, unoccupied. The Oxford
became, during the war, a theatre and in 1920, under the manager-
ship of C. B. Cochran, was re-named the New Oxford, where
an elaborately produced but less highly individualized form of
music-hall entertainment, roughly connected in shape, was
provided. At the London Pavilion, also controlled by Mr. Coch-
ran, a skilfully contrived form of what is called " revue " became
the standing entertainment. Specific reference to " revues " will
be made later, but here it may be said that they are not " revues "
in the French sense, a commentary on contemporary affairs, but
a mingling of musical comedy and music-hall entertainment in
which individual ability is made subordinate to general im-
pression. The chief characteristics of this new entertainment,
seen perhaps at its best in the roof-garden productions in New
York, are expensive dresses, handsome scenery, fine and even
beautiful effects both in grouping and lighting, and a particular
insistence on feminine beauty.
This change in the character of the London West End music-
hall coincided with the great growth in popularity of the kinema,
DRAMA
855
or picture-palace, or " movies." During the decade, almost all of
the London suburban theatres became picture-palaces. Many of
the provincial theatres, especially in small towns, also became
picture-palaces. A variety of reasons caused this change to take
place, some of which were financial and others connected with
altered taste. The kinemas were at once cheaper and more
comfortable than the theatres and they offered a more con-
sistently attractive programme. The inhabitants of a London
suburb or a small provincial town were able to see as good a film
at the local kinema as could be seen in a kinema in the centre of
London, but they could not hope to see a play performed at the
local theatre by a company as capable as that acting in the same
play in the West End. On the contrary, they might expect with
certainty to witness a very inferior exhibition of acting. Precisely
the same process was observable in America, where, owing to the
competition of the " movies " and the inferior quality of travelling
companies, what were known as " one-night stands " ceased to
be profitable enterprises and were almost entirely abandoned. '
Those were the three main changes in the nature of theatrical
entertainment during the decade 1910-20; the disappearance
of the actor-manager and the substitution for him of the commer-
cial syndicate; the disappearance from the centre of London of
the music-hall of marked personality and the substitution for it
of the music-hall with elaborate effects and mechanical skill;
and the collapse of the suburban and provincial theatre before
the advancing kinema. These changes, although they hardly
cause satisfaction, are of the nature of constructive changes, and
they probably possess permanent characteristics. The commer-
cial syndicate may result in more efficient administration in the
theatre and a greater likelihood of continuous employment for the
actor. It has not yet shown a desire to produce drama equal in
merit to that produced by the actor-manager, but the system is
still young and it was considerably handicapped by its in-
auguration during the war and remains handicapped by the high
cost of production. The great virtue of these syndicates is likely
to be of an administrative character. Many theatres, in London
and the provinces, are coming under the control of a single
syndicate, and this trustification of theatres will enable a
particular firm to arrange its tours on a more economical and
comfortable system than has hitherto been the case. The old
individual system unavoidably resulted in touring companies
sometimes spending a week in Edinburgh, the next week in
Bristol and the third week in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In a
properly organized theatrical system, such tours will no longer
take place, but will be arranged so that the journey from town to
town will be short and easily accomplished by motor-car or lorry.
The change in the music-hall has brought about a great
development of the mechanical and pictorial side of that en-
tertainment, and if some of the spirited personality of the
superseded form can be captured for the new form, the change
will be of considerable value. The danger of it is that human
qualities are subordinated to machinery and spectacular effects.
In the case of the kinema development has been progressive and
is likely to continue so. Film-manufacturers are constantly
engaged in experiment, and they will in time invent a machine
which will enable them to exhibit pictures in three dimensions,
in natural colours and with some effect of the human voice. This
will be done by means of an instrument which is a combination of
gramophone and stereoscope, aided by some process of colour-
photography. The film-firms, particularly in America, are en-
deavouring to improve the quality of the film-play and, since
they offer very handsome monetary rewards to authors, are
likely to succeed in their attempt. Many of the most distin-
guished dramatists of the world are engaged in writing scenarios
for the " movies," and several of them have announced that
they will in future write only for them.
Repertory Theatres. The survey in the earlier article (see 8.475)
ended at a period when, in spite of many undesirable things, the
drama was in a healthy condition. Plays of merit were being written
and produced, not only in London, but also in the provinces where
the activities of the repertory theatres were stimulating the imagina-
tion of young authors. Conservative managers were receiving orig-
inal work with less hesitation or hostility than had been accorded
to it for several generations. The long and, in many respects,
valuable domination of the theatre by dramatists such as Sir
Arthur Pinero and Henry Arthur Jones, was declining before the
rising authority of such dramatists as Bernard Shaw and John
Galsworthy. The repertory theatres were increasing in number. In
1910, there were three repertory theatres in the British Isles, one in
England (the Gaiety theatre, Manchester, owned by Miss A. E. F.
Horniman), one in Scotland (the Royalty, directed by Alfred Ware-
ing) and one in Ireland (the Abbey, directed by Lady Gregory and
W. B. Yeats). The last was the oldest as it has proved to be the
most durable of the three. In addition to these three repertory
theatres, there was a most ambitious attempt to establish one in
London, at the Duke of York's theatre, where the late Charles
Frohman (who was drowned in the " Lusitania " when it was
torpedoed by the Germans May 7 1915) enlisted the services of
Harley Granville-Barker and Dion Boucicault. The scheme was
to establish a repertory theatre more nearly corresponding to the
strict definition of one than any of those operating in the provinces,
which were identical with what used to be called " stock " com-
panies. Mr. Frohman's gallant enterprise failed. It lasted for 17
weeks, from Feb. 21 to June 17 1910, and during that period eight
new plays and two old ones were produced. The names of the plays
and their authors are as follows: Justice by John Galsworthy;
Misalliance by Bernard Shaw; Old Friends by J. M. Barrie; The
Sentimentalists by George Meredith; The Twelve-Pound Look by
J. M. Barrie; The Madras House by H. Granville-Barker; Helena's
Path by Anthony Hope and Cosmo Gordon- Lennox; Chains by
Elizabeth Baker; Trelawney of the Wells by A. W. Pinero and
Prunella by H. Granville-Barker and Laurence Housrran. Three of
these plays were in one act (the third, fourth and fifth in the list).
The original scheme, of a strictly repertory theatre similar to the
Comedie Franchise, was not rraintained, nor does the history of the
repertory theatres in Great Britain and Ireland indicate that such a
scheme is ever likely to succeed in a country where the people are
disinclined to make the research through newspaper advertiserr.ents
which a programme of irregular performances involves. For good
or ill, the system of continuous performances has obtained a hold
on the British theatre which will not easily be shaken off and may
never be shaken off. Trelawney of the Wells, the most popular of
the plays produced during the season, was performed 42 times in a
season of 17 weeks, which clearly signifies that the promoters of the
scheme had to revise their plan, partly to satisfy the public demand
and partly to recoup themselves for the losses sustained on the
unpopular pieces. A similar history has attended the establishment
of other repertory theatres on Corr.edie Franchise lines in England,
for example the Everyman theatre at Harrpstead, established in
1920 by Norman MacDermott. The repertory theatres steadily
increased in number until, at the outbreak of the World War, there
were seven of them operating regularly and a number of others
operating for short periods during each year. None of these theatres
earned large sums of money. Some of them, indeed, were constantly
embarrassed by insufficient funds. But they performed a n ost valu-
able service to young actors and young dramatists: to the first,
by giving them continuous and varied employrrent which, although
not highly remunerated, enabled them to becorre accomplished in
their craft; to the second, by giving them the greatest of all in-
struction to a dramatist, the public performance of his work, and
by bringing before them the work of established dram-atists, British
and foreign, which otherwise they would not have known except
in book form. Ibsen, Strindberg, Hauptmann, Schnitzler, Maeter-
linck, Rostand, Verhaeren, Sudermann, Tolstoi, Chekhov, Shaw,
Galsworthy, St. John Hankin, Granville-Barker, Arnold Bennett
and John Masefield among the moderns ; and Euripides, Shakespeare,
Ben Jonson, Congreve, Beaumont and Fletcher, Goldsmith and
Sheridan among the classics the work, in quantity, of all these
writers was brought to the knowledge and even to the intimacy of
provincial playgoers who, but for the repertory theatres, would have
had to subsist in the theatre on the more popular of the pieces
produced in London and sent on tour. A sin ilar service is performed
in America by what are called " little " or " community " theatres.
Out of these repertory theatres came a nun ber of young drama-
tists, many of them resident in the city in which their plays were
first performed, of whom at least one n an was a genius, John Mil-
lington Synge (d. 1909) and three men of distinction, Stanley Hpugh-
ton (d. 1913), John Drinkwater (b. 1882) and Lennox Robinson (b.
Oct. 4 1886). Synge has been the subject of several biographies of
which the principal and most authoritative one is John Millingtou
Synge and the Irish Theatre by Maurice Bourgeois. He wrote six
plays, a book of poems and translations and some impressionist
articles of a newspaper character. Two of the plays are in one act.
In the Shadow of the Glen and Riders to the Sea. The latter is common-
ly regarded as the best of his work. One ot the plays, Deirdre of the
Sorrows, is unfinished. Of the remaining three, The Tinker's Wedding
(in 2 acts), The Well of the Saints (in 3 acts) and The Playboy of the
Western World (in 3 acts), the last-named is the most widely known,
partly because of its merits, but chiefly because of the anger which
it aroused among the more sentimental of the Irish people who,
accustomed to the romantic delusions in which subject or oppressed
peoples live, could not endure the romantic realism of this play. A
long succession of poets had insisted on one aspect of the Celtic
8 5 6
DRAMA
character, its idealism and generosity and romance, with the result
that people disbelieved in the other aspect of it, the cruelty and
greed and treacherous materialism. Synge, a man without preposses-
sions or creed, set down what he saw in words of acrid beauty, and
the Irish people, horribly shocked, pronounced him to be a liar, a
degenerate and even a traitor. The violence of their anger against
The Playboy of the Western World died down in time, but Synge re-
mains a man of genius of whom his countrymen, when they take
pride in him at all, remain reluctantly proud. He and Lennox Robin-
son are the principal products of the Abbey theatre, Dublin, which
includes among its minor dramatists Lady Gregory, William Boyle,
T. C. Murray, Padraic Colum, the late Seumas O'Kelly and St.
John Ervine. W. B. Yeats has written plays for the Abbey theatre,
but the dramatic form is intractable in his hands.
Lennox Robinson, who was appointed manager of the Abbey
theatre in 1910, at the age of 23 and, except for a break of two or
three years, has managed it ever since, has written nine plays, of
which two, The Lost Leader and The White-headed Boy, have been
successfully performed in London. The first was produced at the
Court theatre June 10 1919, where it was acted 68 times. The
second was produced at the Ambassadors' theatre Sept. 27 1920,
and was acted for more than 300 times. His plays conform more
closely to the conventional shape than do those of John Drinkwater,
and they are more skilfully contrived than those of Stanley Hough-
ton. He puts realistic, rather than romantic, speech into the mouths
of his people, thus separating himself very distinctly from the
Synge drama. His principal merits are great technical skill, veracity
of character and speech, and natural exploitation of natural emo-
tions. His defects are a lack of staying power and vagueness of
thought, which causes his last act to drop considerably below the
level of his first. But of all the Irish dramatists, he has the greatest
comprehension of the theatre.
Stanley Houghton, after writing a number of meritable pieces of
uninspired realism, presented the Gaiety theatre, Manchester, with
a comedy in three acts, entitled Hindle Wakes, which, to fill an
emergency, was first performed before the Stage Society June 16
1912. It made an immediate impression and was put into the
evening bill at the Playhouse and afterwards at the Court, receiving
in all more than 100 performances in London. It had greater success
in the provinces, where at least one company has performed it
ever since, but it failed to be popular in America. Hindle Wakes is
not a profound play, nor has it conspicuous literary qualities; but
it is fresh and forceful and it deals with a question of sex in a direct,
natural and sincere, but unusual, manner. Whether or not Hough-
ton would have grown into a dramatist of distinction (he was 32
when he died) is not a matter which can profitably be discussed. The
plays which came after Hindle Wakes The Perfect Cure and Trust the
People did not sustain the reputation it had made for him, but
as they seemed to be written deliberately for commercial purposes
and failed to realize them The Perfect Cure was performed for four
nights only it is probable that Houghton would have returned to
the milieu in which he was happiest and that, although he was un-
likely ever to become a first-rate dramatist, he would have become a
very competent and meritable one. The Gaiety theatre, Manchester,
gave opportunity to a number of other dramatists, of whom the
principal are Harold Brighouse and Allan N. Monkhouse, the first-
named being the author of Hobson's Choice, which had great pop-
ularity in America and London, and the second-named the author
of Mary Broome and The Education of Mr. Surrage.
John Drinkwater is the product of the Birmingham Repertory
theatre (founded in 1913 by Barry V. Jackson) of which for several
years he was both manager and play-producer. He had already earned
reputation as a poet, critic and dramatist when his historical play
in five scenes, Abraham Lincoln, was first produced. This play,
influenced by the form of Thomas Hardy's The Dynasts, is written
in prose, but the scenes are separated by a Chorus who speaks in
verse. It was produced for the first time at Birmingham Oct. 12
1918, and afterwards at the Lyric opera house, Hammersmith,
Feb. 19 1919, where it was performed for exactly one year. Much
doubt was felt about the reception the play was likely to receive in
America, but this doubt was dispelled when, Dec. 15 1919, it was
produced at the Cort theatre, New York, where it was continuously
performed for nine months. Abraham Lincoln will probably be per-
formed throughout the United States for many years and has given
a great impetus to the production of serious historical plays in
America. Percy Mackaye, an American poet, wrote a pageant play
on George Washington, at the request of President Wilson, but this
piece was not a success when produced in New York. Other plays
on Lincoln have been written since the production of Drinkwater's
play, but the latter, which was derived, so far as its main facts
are concerned, from Lord Charnwood's biography of the great
President, is indisputably the best of them. The play is simply and
directly written, in spite of its remarkably long cast, and its emo-
tional quality is very high. Part of its appeal to the British people is
probably due to the fact that Drinkwater with extraordinary skill
has unobtrusively drawn a parallel between the circumstances of
the Civil War and the World War, and many of the great crowds
who saw it performed in London must have been more conscious of
the war from which the world had just emerged than they were of
the war which had been so fiercely fought in America 60 years
earlier. This was the first of a series of historical plays planned
by Drinkwater, of which two others, Oliver Cromwell and Mary,
Queen of Scots, have already been written. The latter was produced
for the first time at the New Ritz theatre in New York March 21
1921, with Clara Eames in the title part. It is interesting to ob-
serve that Lennox Robinson and John Drinkwater have followed
faithfully in the footsteps of such dramatists as Shakespeare, Mo-
liere and Ibsen by being practical theatre managers and pro-
ducers and even, as in Drinkwater's case, an actor.
The " Intellectual " Drama. The record of the English repertory
theatres up to the time the World War began was honourable and
promising. We have now to consider the record of the ordinary com-
mercial theatre, and here we discover that the standard of plays
produced had been greatly raised. The authority of Sir Arthur
Pinero and Henry Arthur Jones, already diminished by the work of
Oscar Wilde, was now yielding to that of Shaw and Sir James
Matthew Barrie and John Galsworthy. A number of young drama-
tists of varying quality were appearing, whose allegiance was more
definitely given to the school led by Shaw than to the school led
by Sir Arthur Pinero, and these included Granville-Barker, the late
St. John Hankin (d. 1909), Charles McEvoy, Arnold Bennett, John
Masefield, Cicely Hamilton, Githa Sowerby and Elizabeth Baker.
What was called the " intellectual " drama seemed to be established
not on a broad basis, but on a basis sufficiently wide to make it
steady. Shaw and Bennett were even able to obtain long " runs "
for their plays, and Cicely Hamilton made a popular success with
Diana of Dobson's. It is true that the " intellectual " drama did not
make fortunes for its producers, but it is true also that it did not
cause any bankruptcies, and probably, if an accurate statement of
accounts could be prepared, the " intellectual " drama would be
found to have caused less loss of money, relatively and absolutely,
than the commercial drama. It might even be found to have paid
its way. Following on the heels of the " intellectual " dramatists
cited above came still younger dramatists, also of the school led by
Shaw, whose intellectuality was perhaps less arid or severe, and these
young dramatists contrived to write plays definitely of the " in-
tellectual " school which made much profit for those who produced
them. They have already been named in connexion with the re-
pertory theatres. Their lack of aridity is due, possibly, to the fact
that the stage is their first concern, whereas most of the generation
between them and Shaw came to the theatre from the novel and the
sociological survey.
Outside the " intellectual " or " highbrow " school, in what is
called the commercial theatre, there was observable a great in-
crease in the quality of the plays produced. The younger dramatists
who were without any intellectual pretensions were indirectly
affected by the work of Shaw, even when it was repudiated by them.
Plays by Hubert Henry Davies, Rudolf Besier, Alfred Sutro, Bernard
Fagan, Somerset Maugham and J. E. Harold Terry were notably
better in quality than plays written by their predecessors at any
time during the century immediately preceding their appearance in
the theatre. The work of Besier in Don and Lady Patricia had a
flavour of letters and a technical excellence which made it appear
almost equal to the best work of Sir Arthur Pinero and Henry Arthur
Tones and superior to the best work of Sydney Grundy. Somerset
Maugham, who began his career with a sombre play, The Man of
Honour, changed his metier completely and very soon reached a
high and profitable position as a writer of light comedy. He is the
most skilful writer of the comedy of manners now working for the
English theatre and his plays, Home and Beauty (re-named Too-
Many Husbands in America) and The Circle, put him in direct line
of succession to Congreve. J. E. Harold Terry may be said to have
been produced by the war. His plays are notable chiefly for their
tropical quality, but they are well-done and are not without universal
appeal. His first play, written in collaboration with Lechmere
Worrall, was entitled The Man Who Stayed At Home. It was pro-
duced at the Royalty theatre Dec. 10 1914, when the condition of
theatrical enterprise was still sore from the effects of the war's
beginning, and it was an immediate success. Terry wrote a second
play with a war motive, entitled General Post, produced at the Hay-
market theatre March 14 1917. This play, slightly similar in theme
to Meredith's Evan Harrington, was also a great popular success.
In 1921 he produced a play entitled The Fulfilling of the Law, in
which special appeal was less direct.
The situation at the outbreak of the war, therefore, was one of
great hope and of considerable achievement. A finer type of play
was being written in every department of the theatre. The influence
of Shaw, strong among the intellectuals and distinctly felt among
the commercial dramatists, was even discoverable in the work of the
melodramatists, whose plays began to show signs of sociological
interest. A more enterprising form of management was obtaining a
hold on some theatres, and even in minor matters, such as stage
decor, a newer and better spirit was informing productions. The
vicious principle of subordinating the play to the actor-manager
was fading away. Demand was made for a high level of acting
throughout the cast, for better team-work, and actors were busy
forcing the Actors' Association into a trade union for the purpose of.
improving their conditions of employment.
DRAMA
857
Stage Production. Simultaneously with this improvement in
the kind of play and of the quality of the acting there was also an
improvement in the mechanics of the theatre. The whole business
of stage decoration, both from the point of view of scenery and of
lighting, was undergoing a profound change, due chiefly to the work
of E. Gordon Craig, the son of Ellen Terry. The elaborate " sets "
used by Sir Henry Irving and, later, by Sir Herbert Tree involved
a serious waste of time in changing scenes, to such an extent that
Shakespeare's plays were mercilessly " cut " and even re-shaped to
make them fit the requirements of the stage-carpenter. The re-
action from this sort of thing brought a demand for more manage-
able scenery. Craig had been experimenting with stage settings
for many years and had produced " sets," particularly suited to
poetical plays, which were undeniably beautiful. They had the
supreme merit of enabling a manager to perform a Shakespearean
play as it was written by its author and with no other " cuts "
than were made necessary by a different code of manners or by the
obscurity caused through the lapse of time. Craig founded a school
of decorative artists in Florence and printed his theories in various
books of which the principal one is The Art of the Theatre. His in-
fluence on stage decor has been immense. The famous Moscow Art
theatre admittedly derives from him, and it is indisputable that Herr
Reinhardt, the great German producer, owes much to him (see
Reinhardt und seine Buhne, by Ernst Stern and Heinz Herald, Ber-
lin, Eysler & Co.). In England Craig's influence is wide and ad-
mitted. Decorative artists, such as Norman Wilkinson, Claude
Lovat Fraser, (d. June 18 1921), Hugo Rumbold, Charles Ricketts
and Albert Rutherston, derive from him, as do producers such as
Granville-Barker, Nigel Playfair, Bernard Fagan and Basil Dean.
In America Lee Simonson, Robert Edmond Jones and Rollo Peters
acknowledge Craig's authority.
Simplicity was the key-note of Craig's demand. He achieved
impressions of height and depth by the use of long curtains and the
manipulation of light, and it became plain that in future production
would be less a matter of complex machinery and more a matter of
manipulated light. Drury Lane theatre, on its mechanical side, has
the appearance of a large engineering works, and its very complicated
machinery requires the attention of a large staff of skilled mechanics.
There is not likely to be any growth in the extent of engineering-
production, although engineering will not entirely disappear from
the theatre. We are likely to achieve a revolving stage in every
theatre, with deep cellars into which whole " sets " can, if necessary,
be dropped. Scenes will often be a matter, not of substantial things,
but of actual light. It will then be possible to produce a Shakespeare
play in a great variety of scenes, without elaborate " cuts," in a very
short time. In America, where electricity is much cheaper than it is
in England, experiments with light have been made for many years,
with the result that production is in a more advanced state than it is
in England. Some of the more modern English producers, such as
Basil Dean, had to import electrical apparatus from America.
The movement for greater simplicity in stage decor received some
impetus in England from the employment of Craig by Sir Herbert
Tree to make the scenery for Macbeth. A quarrel, followed by
litigation, prevented the experiment from being completely made,
but Tree used enough of Craig's designs to show their austere beauty
and value. It was not, however, until Granville-Barker began his
remarkable season at the Savoy theatre with the production of
The Winter's Tale in Sept. 1912, followed by Twelfth Night in Nov.
of that year and A Midsummer Night's Dream in 1914, that the
new methods of production received extensive consideration. Barker,
who had been associated with J. E. Vedrenne at the Court theatre
where Shaw's plays first received popular support and Galsworthy
became known to the public as a dramatist, and was later associated
with Frohman and Dion Boucicault in the Duke of York's season
already described, entered into management with Lilian McCarthy,
both at the Savoy and at the Kingsway, where he conducted seasons
of remarkable value and courage, dramatically and decoratively.
A number of plays, old and modern, English and foreign, were
produced by him in a highly brilliant and, in several instances, ex-
ceedingly beautiful manner. Some of his innovations were not
successful in obtaining the degree of beauty at which he aimed the
use of golden-faced fairies in A Midsummer Night's Dream, for ex-
ample, introduced a metallic and heavy element, unattractive in
itself, into a world where insubstantiality was the primary require-
ment, and took, moreover, the English quality out of the play but
it is impossible to deny high tribute to him for the quality of his
work and the great distinction he achieved for the theatre. The plays
produced at the Savoy, in addition to the three Shakespearean plays
already named, were The Tragedy of Man by John Masefield ; The
Witch, translated from the Norwegian of H. Wiers-Jennsen by Mase-
field; The Silver Box by Galsworthy; The Wild Duck by Ibsen;
The Doctor's Dilemma by Bernard Shaw; a translation of Moliere's
Le Manage Force and Alfred Sutro's translation of Maeterlinck's
The Death of Tintagiles. Prior to the season at the Savoy, Barker
had conducted a short season at the St. James's where he produced
Androcles and the Lion by Shaw, followed by a Harlequinade com-
posed by Dion Clayton Calthrop and himself. Simultaneously
with his season at the Savoy he conducted a season of modern
English plays at the Kingsway, producing The Eldest Son by Gals-
worthy, followed by revivals of his own play, The Voysey Inheritance,
Shaw's very popular piece, Fanny's First Play, and Arnold Ben-
nett's The Great Adventure in which Henry Ainley and Wish Wynne
especially distinguished themselves. Bennett's play was a great
popular success, almost as popular as Milestones which he wrote in
collaboration with Edward Knoblock. Mr. Shaw seemed to be
on the crest of a high wave of popularity, for not only had Fanny's
First Play been performed for more than 600 times, but his five-act
comedy, Pygmalion, with Sir Herbert Tree and Mrs. Patrick Camp-
bell in the principal parts, which was produced at His Majesty's
April II 1914, ran for 118 nights, a long run for any play in so large
a theatre. -Two plays by Galsworthy, The Mob and The Fugitive,
were not popular successes and were hardly on the general high
level of his work. Sir James Barrie's activities during the five years
preceding the war, apart from the production of The Adored One,
were confined to one-act plays, of which The Twelve-Pound Look
is likely to be a classic example of the short play at its best. Others
of these plays, notably The Will and Rosalind were very near the
level of The Twelve-Pound Look.
Effects of the World War. The situation, then, at the outbreak
of the World War was one of extraordinary interest in the English
theatre. The theatrical season 1913-4 had closed with considerable
brilliance. Plays of merit had been extensively performed in London
and in the provinces, and the repertory theatres were in a fairly
healthy condition. A rich level of acting had been discovered. Pro-
duction was on a genuinely artistic scale. The season of 1914-5
seemed likely to open still more brilliantly than the season just
concluded. There was even talk of a national theatre at which the
plays of Shakespeare would be permanently performed. On Aug. 4
1914 Great Britain declared war against Germany and immediately
the great revival of the English theatre languished and seemed at
first in danger of total collapse. Many of the repertory theatres
soon ceased to exist. In 1921 the Gaiety theatre, Manchester, passed
from the hands of Miss Horniman to a kinema syndicate. A gallant
effort to maintain a decent standard of plays was made by some
managers; Sir Herbert Tree revived L. N. Parker's pageant piece,
Drake, and Mr. (now Sir) Frank R. Benson revived Henry the Fifth
in the laudable desire to satisfy patriotic cravings with something of
value. Granville-Barker produced a number of scenes from Thomas
Hardy's The Dynasts at the Kingsway. But these attempts to keep
the theatre on a high level were not successful, and very soon began
the process of degeneration which was maintained for the whole
period of the war. Some of the managers gave up their efforts to
save the tradition they had established: Sir Herbert Tree and
Cyril Maude went to America. Others such as Gerald du Maurier
remained in London and, with great courage, made a fight for
decent drama. Among the plays produced by Gerald du Maurier
during the war was a strange piece, very popular, entitled Dear
Brutus by Sir James Barrie, and a revival of the same author's
A Kiss for Cinderella. Du Maurier, more than anyone else during
the war, kept faith with fine things finely done.
For the first two years of the war, a form of entertainment in-
aptly described as " revue " was very popular. The chief features
of these entertainments were light and colour and jingling music and
pretty girls and broadly comic effects. They were a medley of
music-hall and musical comedy and pantomime performances,
reduced to a low level. Some of the individual performers in these
entertainments, notably Ethel Levey and Violet Loraine, Harry
Tate and George Rpbey, were of indisputable talent, but generally
speaking, personalities were submerged in spectacles. Mr. C. B.
Cochran, more wise than some of his competitors, exploited per-
sonalities in his " revues," which were handsomely and even wittily
done, and in Mile. Delysia and Nelson Keys he discovered two
artists of very great merit. Farces of a bold and even indecent char-
acter were next to the revues in popular esteem. Oddly enough, cer-
tain plays commonly called " highbrow " became popular during
the war for reasons which were not concerned with literature.
Brieux' banned play, Les Avaries, known in England as Damaged
Goods, was licensed by the censor for public performance on the
representations mainly of medical men and sociologists, and it was
widely patronized in London and the provinces. The artistic
value of Damaged Goods is slight, but its sociological value is in-
disputably great, and it brought a degree of publicity to the discus-
sion of evils which would have been impossible in England prior to
1914. The success of this play led to the public performance of
Brieux' play, The Three Daughters of M. Dupont, and of Ibsen's
Ghosts, from which also the ban was removed by the censor. The
latter play, however, is not, like Damaged Goods, a propaganda play
and it received little support in spite of its being labelled " A Play
for Adults only." The rule of the censor was considerably relaxed
during the war and his ban was removed from Shaw's one-act play,
The Shewing-up of Blanco Posnet, but attempts to obtain a licence
for Mrs. Warren's Profession were unsuccessful. Since the conclusion
of the war the censor's rule has been tightened again, but, as a re-
sult of the changes made on the recommendations of the Joint
Select Committee on Stage Plays (censorship) 1909, the rule bears
rather less arbitrarily on meritable work than it formerly did.
The end of the war found the stage in a chaotic condition. The
demand for entertainment during the hostilities had been so great
858
DRAMA
that theatre rents rose rapidly to absurd figures: a common rent
at any time between 1915 and 1921 for a theatre in the centre of
London was 400 to 500 per week. All other expenses, owing to the
high cost of living, increased proportionately, but the price of ad-
mission, apart from the entertainment tax imposed during the war
(which did not benefit, but rather harmed, the theatre manager)
remained at the pre-war figure. Slight increases, after the Armistice,
were made in one or two cases, but in 1921 the economic situation
in the theatre was that the revenue remained at the pre-war figure
while the expenditure was on the post-war scale. Such a situation
as that is only endurable when the theatre is filled with an audience,
each member of which has paid for his seat. In pre-war times a
play could be profitably performed before an audience occupying
three-fourths of the seats. A manager could even make ends meet
although half his seats were unsold. He could afford to lose money on
a production for four or five weeks if he had a reasonable hope that
thereafter profitable audiences would assemble for the performances.
In 1921 a manager could not hope to make money out of a production
unless his theatre was fully occupied at each performance. If a play
failed to draw enough people to fill all or nearly all his seats, that
play could not be continued in his programme. The financial burden
was too heavy to be borne; and for this reason many meritable
pieces which might have been " nursed " into popularity were with-
drawn almost immediately after production because they had not at
once taken hold of popular fancy. The plays which suffer from this
economic situation are undoubtedly the better kind of plays. Those
which profit from it are the plays without merit other than that of a
spectacular character. The best illustration of the effect of this
situation on the drama is to be found in the remarkable popularity
of Chu Chin Chow, an eastern spectacle written by Oscar Asche.
This banal piece, a variant of the theme of Ali Baba and the Forty
Thieves, was produced at His Majesty's theatre a theatre with an
honourable tradition on Aug. 31 1916. It ran for nearly five
years, creating a record of over 2,200 consecutive representations.
Every device of colour and light and costume was used in this
production. The appeal made was almost exclusively to the eye,
very little to the ear and not at all to the mind. Chu Chin Chow broke
all records for consecutive performances at one theatre and earned
large fortunes for those who were concerned in its production.
In spite, however, of the difficult economic situation, of the change
in tradition and government of the theatre, there was a remarkable
recovery of quality on the English stage after the signing of the
Armistice, and plays of quality began to appear, not timidly, but
almost arrogantly. A play by Galsworthy, The Skin Game, dealing
with the conflict between aristocracy and plutocracy (in which
both sides are badly besmirched) and susceptible of allegorical ap-
plication to the war and the treaty of peace, was performed with
great success at the St. Martin's; and a political comedy, entitled
The Grain of Mustard Seed, by H. M. Harwood, produced at the
Ambassadors' had a singularly successful " run," singular because
of the fact that political plays are rarely acceptable to English au-
diences. Sir James Barrie's Mary Rose was performed at the
Haymarket with enormous success. In this play he treated the
problem of life after death in a fashion which divided playgoers
sharply into complete devotees or complete sceptics. The Skin
Game was successfully produced in America, but Mary Rose hardly
won the favour in New York that it had won in London. The most
interesting post-war success was the popularity with which Gay's
The Beggar's Opera was revived at the Lyric opera house, Hammer-
smith. It was not, however, a success in America. Rostand's
Cyrano de Bergerac was revived with notable success by Robert
Loraine, and Bernard Shaw's Arms and the Man, also revived by
Loraine, had astonishing success with ex-soldiers on account of its
anti-romantic treatment of war. Shakespeare's plays are extensively
produced. A working-class theatre in the Waterloo Road, London
(popularly known as " the Old Vic."), had maintained the standard
of good drama throughout the war, and this theatre, handicapped
by lack of funds and rather amateurish acting,'steadily built up an
audience for good plays. After the Armistice its work was amply
rewarded. The " Old Vic." became the one theatre in London where
playgoers could depend on seeing great drama, and as the quality
of the acting was much improved, they could also depend on seeing
competent performances. Bernard Pagan in 1920 reconstructed the
Court theatre and announced that it would henceforth be a Shake-
spearean theatre, where four of Shakespeare's plays would be pro-
duced annually. But the economic situation made gallant enter-
prises difficult, and it remains to be seen how far good intentions
will survive high prices. The era is one of transition, and the period
of transition nearly always causes more pessimism than good hope.
UNITED STATES
In America, the theatre, after the end of the war, was in a
healthier state than in England. This is more true of New York
perhaps, than of the rest of the country. Playgoers in that city
seem more willing to patronize good things and to support new
enterprises than playgoers anywhere else. A remarkable organ-
ization entitled The Theatre Guild of New York has, in three
years, raised itself from an obscure, impoverished and unknown
position into that of the only first-class theatrical enterprise in
the world which is a great financial success. The Theatre Guild
grew out of the activities of a small group of enthusiasts who
were known as the Provincetown Players and the Washington
Square Players. These players gave performances, usually of
one-act plays, in small theatres near Washington Square. They
were akin to the movement, very widespread in America, known
as the Little Theatre or Community Theatre movement
societies of amateurs producing plays primarily for their own
entertainment rather than for profit. The Theatre Guild, when
established, secured a long lease on an old theatre, the Garrick,
in West 35th St., and began operations with the production of
Bonds of Interest, translated from the Spanish of Jacinto Bena-
vente. This play (Los Inlereses Creados) has been done in
England both under the American title and under that of The
Bias of the World. It was not a financial success, and the capi-
tal of the Guild, about $500, was almost exhausted when the
directors decided to produce John Ferguson, a four-act tragic
Irish play by St. John Ervine. This play was not expected to be
financially successful, but it falsified anticipation. It was per-
formed in New York for nine months, and enabled the Guild to
establish itself more securely. Subsequent productions, including
Masefield's The Faithful, were not quite so profitable, but the
season ended with greater hope than it had begun. In the
following season Tolstoy's The Power of Darkness, St. John
Ervine's Jane Clegg, Strindberg's The Dance of Death, and other
plays were performed, of which Jane Clegg, which ran for five
months, was the most financially successful. The third season
included the first production in English of Bernard Shaw's
Heartbreak House, as well as of A. A. Milne's Mr. Pirn Passes
By. Both these plays made much profit for the Guild, the first-
named running for 150 performances. The success of the
Theatre Guild and of John Ferguson caused an immediate effect
on theatrical entertainments in New York, and one interesting
result of it was that a young American dramatist of Irish descent,
Eugene G. O'Neill, was given an opportunity of producing his
plays at a first-class theatre. He had already become known as
the author of one-act plays when his six-act tragedy, Beyond the
Horizon, was produced at the Morosco theatre in New York.
This play, most skilfully acted, had a great success, and those
who are desirous of seeing a fine native drama grow up in America
felt encouraged to maintain their hope when they contemplated
O'Neill's work. In 1920 he produced a strange play in eight
scenes, entitled The Emperor Jones, which is what may be called
a one-part play, dealing with the journey of a negro into a West
Indian forest where he lapses into primal terror. This play was
produced by the Provincetown Players and the principal part
was acted by a remarkable negro actor, Charles Gilpin. O'Neill
is perhaps the most significant figure that the American theatre
has produced since the death of William Vaughn Moody, and the
quality of his work justifies hopes of raising the standard of
American drama to a considerable height.
American dramatists display great technical excellence in their
work, together with a tendency towards sentimentalism of a curious-
ly crude character. There is probably more mechanical ability
among American dramatists to-day than among any other drama-
tists in the world, but this ability is seldom related to artistic power
and it is frequently used to falsify life. There are signs, however, of
discontent with slick sentimentality, and young writers throughout
the country are endeavouring to relate technical excellence to plays
in which life is truly treated. Dramatic craftsmanship is more closely
studied in America than in England, and in many of the colleges
and universities students take a course in dramaturgy. The most
interesting experiment of this kind is that conducted by Prof.
George P. Baker, professor of dramatic literature at Harvard Uni-
versity, who, in what is popularly known as " the 47 workshop,"
instructs his pupils in the writing and production of plays from the
point of view of author, producer, actor and critic. Many of his
pupils have written competent one-act plays and several of them
have successfully produced more ambitious pieces. One of the
ablest of American dramatists and, at the same time, the least
prolific, is James Forbes, the author, among other plays, of The
Chorus Lady, The Show Shop and The Famous Mrs. Fair. Forbes
produces mainly satirical comedies of stage-life, but the last-named
piece deals with ordinary life and is a very able bit of work. Other
DRAMA
859
notable dramatists are Edward Sheldon whose Romance, with
Doris Keane in the principal part, was extraordinarily successful
in England; George Broadhurst h'.s Bought and Paid For was
described by Arnold Bennett as one of the best commercial plays he
had ever seen; David Belasco; the late Clyde Fitch; Langdon
Mitchell, the author of a brilliant comedy, The New York Idea;
Augustus Thomas, whose The Witching Hour, The Harvest Moon,
As a Man Thinks and The Other Girl are plays of uncommon quality;
the late Charles Klein; Eugene Walter, author of two particularly
able realistic plays, Paid in Full and The Easiest Way; Channing
Pollock; A. E. Thomas; Booth Tarkington who, more popularly
known as a novelist, achieved remarkable success in 1920 with a
light comedy called Clarence; Zoe Akins;and Susan Glaspell. The
condition of the theatre in America at the end of the decade 1910-20
was more hopeful than that in England because of the greater gen-
eral interest in meritable plays and of the noticeable desire, especially
in New York, to support original enterprises.
The standard of acting in America so far as actresses are con-
cerned, is higher than in England, but there is more all-round
efficiency among English actors than there is among American
actors. The latter excel in character-parts a very admirable
instance of this is the case of Frank Bacon in his own play Lightnin'
but are less capable in what are known as " straight " parts.
With the exception of John Drew there are few American actors
who can interpret characters such as were acted by Sir George
Alexander. It is very difficult to discover either actors or actresses in
America who can speak verse. These flaws in technique are
remediable, however, and are slowly being rectified. One result
of the war was to cause a distinct decline in the quality of acting
among young players in England, and it is probably true to say that
there was less acting ability among the younger members of the
English theatrical profession at the end of 1920 than at any other
period in the history of the English theatre. In America, on the
contrary, there was a marked growth in technical skill among young
actors and actresses.
GERMANY
In 1910, the condition of the drama in Germany was very curious
declining in Berlin, but flourishing in the provinces. Metropolitan
taste was fickle and vulgar; provincial taste was steadfast and of
high quality. The result of this odd reversal of customary positions
was that the German provinces absorbed almost the whole of the
interest of dramatic students. More experiments were made out-
side Berlin than were made inside it, not only in the quality of the
plays performed, but also in the methods of production and in the
interior economy of the theatre. Volksbiihnen (people's theatres)
were organized in many places, at which performances of classical
and modern pieces were given at very moderate prices. The two
Freien Volksbiihnen of Berlin, which were typical in most respects
of all the other people's theatres, had between them a membership
of 60,000 persons, of whom a considerable number were working-
men. These Freien Volksbiihnen contracted with various theatre-
managers for the performance of specified plays for their members,
and the larger of the two, Die Neue Freie Volksbiihne, was spending
25,000 per annum in 1910 on plays produced at 1 1 different theatres.
This society even started a building fund, which in that year had
reached 5,000, for the purpose of establishing a theatre of its own,
to hold 2,000 persons. The members of this society paid one shilling
for each performance witnessed, and seats were allotted by ballot.
A similar society, with a membership of '9,000 persons, existed in
Vienna, under the direction of Stefan Grossmann, a dramatist. The
Cologne Stadt-theater organized performances on lines similar to
those of the Volksbiihnen, on Sunday afternoons before audiences
drawn from workmen's societies which were allowed to nominate
the play to be produced. In 1909, the trade unions of Cologne chose
Galsworthy's Strife for performance, and this play was received with
enormous enthusiasm. A Deutsches Volkstheater was in process of
erection in 1909. Each subscriber to this society was to be admitted
to one performance per week in a season of 40 weeks and to receive
a theatrical paper, delivered free of charge, together with free ad-
mission to a number of lectures, for an annual subscription of 20
shillings! The number of Stadtbund theatres was increasing re-
markably, and certain towns either subsidized or completely owned
the local theatre. The following is a record of sums paid by German
cities and towns for their own theatres: Cologne, 25,000; Frank-
fort, 13,000; Barmen, 6,000; Dortmund, 6,000; Essen, 4,000;
Elberfeld, 4,000; Aachen, 3,500; Breslau, 3,000; Diisseldorf,
2,500; Magdeburg, 2,500; Kattowitz, 1,000; Thorn, 1,000.
The two great German dramatists, Gerhart Hauptmann and Her-
mann Sudermann, had reached the apex of their powers in 1910
and were beginning to yield place to new men, of whom the chief
were Frank Wedekind, Arthur Schnitzler (an Austrian and, like
Somerset Maugham and H. M. Harwood in England, a doctor of
medicine) and Hermann Bahr. Problem and " tendency " plays
were prolifically produced, and the drama of intellectual concepts
rather than the drama of human emotions seemed to predominate.
Just before the outbreak of the World War, a number of allegorical
plays were being performed, such as Haus am Meer by Stefan Zweig
and Mutter and Gelebtes Leben by W. von Molo. But, apart from
the extraordinarily experimental character of much of German drama
and stage production during this time, the general range of theatrical
entertainments was very catholic, extending from harshly realistic
plays of the soil, such as Sudermann's Strandkinder, to purely poetic
plays, such as Medusa, by a young dramatist of promise, Hans
Kyser. In addition to the very diverse quality of native drama, the
German theatre produced many foreign plays, equally diverse in
character, ranging from Shaw's plays to plays by Jerome K. Jerome.
Ibsen, Bjornson and Strindberg (who died in 1912) had much pop-
ularity in Germany, and so had many French dramatists, but none
of them had greater popularity than Shaw, Oscar Wilde and Gals-
worthy. Other English writers, Maugham, Sir James Barrie, Sutro,
Arnold Bennett and Edward Knoblock, Monckton Hoffe, H. H.
Da vies, Sir Arthur Pinero, W. J. Locke and L. N. Parker, were
freely and extensively admitted to the German theatre. Shakespeare,
of course, had long been a popular author in Germany and this
popularity did not decline during the war.
Hauptmann, who received the Nobel prize on his fiftieth birthday
in 1912, was fairly prolific during the five years preceding the war.
Griselda, founded on Boccaccio's legend, was produced in 1909, and was
followed in 1911 by Die Ratten (The Rats). Gabriel Schillings Flucht
(The Escape of Gabriel Schilling) was produced in 1912. and in 1913
came the famous Festival Play commissioned by the city of Breslau
to celebrate the war against Napoleon for freedom. This play was
produced by Reinhardt in the new rotunda of the Breslau Centenary
Exhibition, and its democratic sentiments were so displeasing to the
Junkers that it provoked a great uproar. The then Crown Prince
threatened to cancel his patronage of the exhibition unless the play
were withdrawn which was done. Another play, entitled Der
Bogenspanner Odysseus (Odysseus the Archer), was written in 1913.
Hermann Sudermann was less prolific than Hauptmann. His
Strandkinder, a play about people living on the shores of the Baltic
Sea, was produced in 1909. This play had considerable affinity with
the work of a dramatist who died in 1909, Ernst von Wildenbruch,
two of whose plays. Lieder des Euripides and Der Deutsche Konig,
were performed, after his death, in that year. Strandkinder was fol-
lowed by an historical niece, entitled Der Blinde von Syracus in 1911
and Der Cute Ruf in 1913.
The ascending dramatists, Bahr, Wedekind and Schnitzler, pro-
duced many plays in the first half of the decade, as did another well-
known, but peculiar and unsuccessful dramatist, Herbert Eulen-
berg. Bahr, whose gift is for human comedy, is known abroad by
Das Konzert (The Concert) which was not notably successful in
London, but was very popular in America as well as in Germany.
Another play, Kinder, was produced simultaneously in 20 different
German theatres in 1910. It was followed by Das Prinzip and Das
Tanzchen in 1912 and by Phantom in 1913. Frank Wedekind, a
dramatist of queer, undisciplined genius, was by far the most
prolific of all the dramatists in Germany during the period under
review and probably of all the dramatists in Europe. He produced
nine plays in five years, four of which, indeed, were in one act. The
plays were Die Junge Welt, Die Zensur (one act), Der Liebestrank,
Die Buchse der Pandora, and three one-act plays, In Allen Satteln
Gerecht, Mil Allen Hunden Gehetzt and In Allen Wassern Gewaschen,
which were combined in 1911 under the general title of Schloss
Wetterstein and issued with the statement that they contained his
views " on the inner necessity on which Marriage and the Family
rest." These plays were followed by Der Stein der Weisen and
Franziska, the latter, prohibited by the censor in Vienna, being
produced in Munich. Arthur Schnitzler, a Viennese, known in
England through the Anatol playj, translated by Granville-Barker,
and Der griine Kakadu (The Green Cockatoo), had four plays per-
formed in the first five years of the decade, Komtesse Mizzi, Der
junge Medardus (which took five hours to perform), Das Weite Land
and Professor Bernhardi, the latter of which was forbidden in
Vienna. Herbert Eulenberg was responsible for six plays, Der
naturliche Vater, Anna Wolewska, Samson (his most popular piece),
Attes um Geld, Alles um Liebe, Belinde (which won the Volksschiller
prize), Zeitw inde and a one-act play, Paul und Paula. Hans Kyser, in
addition to the play already named, produced Titus und die Judin
and Erziehung zur Liebe.
The list of meritable German dramatists is a very long one. It
includes men such as Paul Ernst, Hans Franck, Otto Harnack, Carl
Schonherr, whose Volksstiick (" people's play ") Glaube und Heimat
was performed in more than a thousand theatres in six months,
Edward Stucken, Max Halbe, Ludwig Fulda, Ludwig Thoma, Franz
Dulberg, Leo Birinski, Reinhard Sorge and Arno Holz. The records
of the German theatre during the war indicate that a better standard
of play was maintained there than elsewhere. Since the signing of
the Armistice a new group of dramatists has arisen, of whom Georg
Kaiser is known in England, because of the performance of his play
Von Morgens bis Mitternacht (From Morn to Midnight) before the
Stage Society in 1919. He experiments with new dramatic forms, but
his work hardly merits the extravagant claims made for it. In
addition to the play named, he has written others, of which the
most meritable are Die Burger von Calais (Burghers of Calais) and
Die Koralle (The Coral). A violence of sex-interest has been mani-
fested in much of the post-war German drama, and this was most
plainly to be detected in Schnitzler's Reigen (The Chain).
Perhaps the most interesting figure in the German theatre since
the signing of the Armistice has been Max Reinhardt, who derives,
86o
DRESDEN DUBAIL
with more practicability, from Gordon Craig. Prior to the war he
was known in England as the producer of The Miracle, Oedipus Rex
(with Sir John Martin Harvey and Lillah McCarthy in the
principal parts) and Sumurun. His taste is for spectacular pieces
of an ambitious nature. He was in 1921 in charge of Das Grosse
Schauspielhaus (the Great Arena theatre), which was opened in
1919 and has seating capacity for 3,000 persons.
FRANCE
In 1910, the theatre in France gave less occasion for satisfaction
than the theatre either in England or in Germany. The traditions
of decent drama were, of course, maintained at the Comedie Fran-
caise, the Antoine and the Odeon, but, broadly speaking, plays of
quality were few in number and " revues " of a very vulgar character
were growing in popularity. That bad state of affairs could not
last, and after 1910 until the outbreak of the World War, when the
French theatre for obvious reasons completely collapsed, there was a
revival of quality in French drama. The French theatre, too,
which had not previously offered much hospitality to foreign plays,
began to open its doors, not widely, indeed, but slightly to plays
written by foreigners. Shakespeare suddenly came into fashion.
Hamlet was produced at the Comedie Francaise, King Lear at the
Antoine, Julius Caesar at the Orange Fetes, and Romeo and Juliet
at the Odeon. Camille de Saint-Croix organized single performances
of many Shakespearean plays which were highly praised. One of
Shaw's plays was performed in Paris, but without much favour.
English musical comedy, produced on a more extravagant scale
than is customary in France, became popular, and George Grossmith
set the Parisians to singing " Ip-i-addy-i-ay-i-ay."
The most interesting play produced in Paris during the first
five years of the decade was undoubtedly Edmond Rostand's
Chanteder, which had been anticipated for seven years before it was
performed for the first time at the Porte-Saint-Martin in 1910. It
had not the great success of Cyrano de Bergerac, but it caused much
discussion. Lucien Guitry played the part originally intended for the
late Constant Coquelin, which part was played in New York
by Maude Adams. Rostand, who was born in 1868, died in 1918.
Another death of great importance to the French theatre was that
of Jules Claretie, who, after controlling the Comedie Francaise for
28 years, died in 1913. Claretie conducted the difficult affairs of the
national theatre with very great skill and diplomacy, and showed
clearly that while a national theatre is not a forcing-house for genius,
it is certainly a place in which the level of honourable drama is
highly maintained. He was succeeded by Albert Carre, who re-
mained in charge of the theatre until he was called up for military
service during the war, when he was succeeded by Emile Fabre, a
dramatist. Paul Hervieu, the dramatist, died Oct. 25 1915, and Mme.
Rejane, the famous actress, June 14 1920.
Much useful, if not particularly significant, work was done by
French dramatists from 1910 to 1915, but none of the disintegrating
and insurgent influences detectable both in the English and the
German theatres appeared to affect the French theatre. Stage
decor, for example, is singularly poor in France, where, on the other
hand, the standard of acting is very high. In addition to Rostand's
play, notable pieces were produced by Henry Bataille (Le Songe
d'un Soir d' Amour and La Vierge Folle the first of which, done at the
Comedie Francaise, was hardly so successful as the second, done at
the Gymnase), by Pierre Wolff (Ruisseau and Marionettes), Henri
Bernstein (L Assaut and Le Secret), George Duhamel (La Lumiere),
Brieux (La Femme Seule, done in England under the title of Woman
on Her Own), Maurice Donnay (Les Eclaireuses), Sacha Guitry
(Le Beau Mariage and La Prise de Berg-op-Zoom) , De Flers and de
Caillavet (Habit Vert) and Tristran Bernard (Jeanne Dore with
Sarah Bernhardt in the cast).
After the outbreak of war, the French theatre for a considerable
period practically ceased to exist. Conscription and war regulations,
together with enemy air-raids and proximity to the front, made
theatrical enterprise in Paris either impossible or exceedingly difficult.
Some companies of French players came to London. There were
only two new plays produced in Paris in 1915 Les Deux Vestals,
a farce of an old-fashioned broad character, done at the Gymnase,
and a translation, made by W. B. Perier, of the English play, The
Man Who Stayed at Home by J. E. Harold Terry and Lechmere
Worrall, which was done at the Theatre des'Bouffes Parisiens under
the title of Kit, with Max Dearly in the cast. Several war plays, not
particularly meritable, were done in Paris towards the end of the
war or immediately after the signing of the Armistice, and Sacha
Guitry's play Debureau was also produced. A translation of this
play, done into rhymed couplets, has been made by H. Granville-
Barker and was produced in New York in 1921 with great success.
Edmond See's Saison d' Amour was produced in 1919, and Sacha
Guitry, rapidly acquiring a high place in France as a dramatist and
an actor, was responsible for Pasteur, a farce entitled Le Mari, La
Femme el L'Amant (a title which sufficiently indicates the character
of the piece), and a comedy called Man Pere avail Raison. The
Guitrys, father, son and daughter-in-law, gave a season of their plays
in London in 1920 which was exceedingly successful. (ST. J. E.)
DRESDEN, Saxony (see 8.574). The pop. of Dresden, according
to the census of 1919, was 529,326; in 1910, without some suburbs
since incorporated, it was 548,308. Dresden was perhaps harder
hit by the World War than most other towns in Germany.
The whole structure of its economic life had been dependent upon
visitors, especially foreigners, and the outbreak of the war
brought this to a sudden stop. In addition, the shortage of food,
serious everywhere, was more especially felt in Saxony and her
capital, which were dependent mainly upon industry. Lastly,
the revolution swept away the life of the Court, which meant
a great deal for Dresden. With the revolution came the develop-
ment of extreme political tendencies among the working classes
of Dresden, which led to constant disturbances, strikes, etc.,
although the violent and sanguinary encounters associated with
the insurrectionary movement in western Saxony, were less
widespread in Dresden. But the assassination of Neuring,
the majority Socialist Minister of War, on April 12 1919, and
the sanguinary street fighting of Jan. 9 and 10 of the same year,
are sufficient proof that the capital of Saxony was not immune
from scenes of violence. After 1914 the expansion of the city
came to a complete standstill, and in 1921 Dresden, like other
towns, was suffering severely from lack of housing accommoda-
tion. After the revolution there was a majority of extremists in
the Municipal Council, and the financial position of the city had
become very precarious.
The collections and museums will doubtless maintain the
reputation of Dresden as a centre of art. The Royal Opera,
which enjoyed a world-wide reputation before the World War,
has not been able as a State Opera to maintain its high artistic
level. Industry came to a complete standstill during the war
the manufacture of cigarettes, for instance, which was very
flourishing, had to be cut down owing to lack of raw material
but by 1921, some recovery had taken place and Dresden showed
signs of returning prosperity as a resort for visitors. (C. K.*)
DRINKWATER, JOHN (1882- ), English poet, play-
wright and critic, was born at Leytonstone, Essex, June i 1882
and educated at the Oxford high school. After twelve years' work
as an insurance clerk he began to devote himself to theatrical
enterprise, and became manager and producer to the Pilgrim
Players, who developed into the Birmingham Repertory Theatre
Company. His first volume of poems appeared in 1908 and his
first play Cophetua (in verse) in 191 1. He subsequently published
several volumes of verse, critical studies on William Morris
(1912), Swinburne (1913) and others, and several plays, of which
Abraham Lincoln (1918) was produced with great success both
in London and in America.
DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846-1914), English divine and
Hebrew scholar (see 8.585), died at Oxford Feb. 26 1914. His
later works include Four Papers on the Higher Criticism (with
F. Kirkpatrick, 1912).
DROYSEN, GUSTAV (1838-1908), German historian (see
8.596), died at Halle in 1908.
DUBAIL, AUGUSTIN YVON EDMOND (1851- ), French
general, was born at Belfort April 1851. At the age of 17 he
entered the military academy at St. Cyr, and on July 15 1870 was
appointed a sub-lieutenant of infantry, having passed seventh
out of 310 candidates. He took part in the Franco-German War
and was captured at Metz in Oct. 1870. Released in April 1871 he
rejoined his regiment, and served with the army of Versailles in
the operations against the Commune. He was appointed captain
and transferred to the 8ist Inf. Regt. in Nov. 1878. From Oct.
1880 to Feb. 1883, and again from Nov. 1883 to Jan. 1886, he
had an appointment as professor at the Ecole Speciale Militaire
St. Cyr. In June 1886 he was made a chevalier of the Legion
of Honour. In Nov., while serving in Algeria, he was pro-
moted lieutenant-colonel; and in Oct. 1901, while still in Al-
geria, was made a colonel and given command of the ist Regt.
of Zouaves. On returning to France he took over the Alpine
Brigade at Grenoble. In 1906 he became commandant of St.
Cyr an appointment which he held for three years. He was
made a divisional commander on Dec. 25 1908, being ap-
pointed to the I4th Div. at Belfort. He later commanded
the IX. Army Corps. In 1911 he was made chief of the gen-
eral staff and a member of the Superior War Council. On the
DUCLAUX DUCTLESS GLANDS
861
outbreak of the World War Gen. Dubail took over the
I. Army, which (with the II. Army under Gen. de Castelnau
on the left) was responsible for the offensive into Lorraine,
and later for the defence of the eastern fortress line against
the armies of Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria. The stubborn
resistance of Dubail and Castelnau not only nullified the
threat of invasion but insured a pivot for future French
manoeuvres; it prepared the way indeed for the Marne vic-
tory. Gen. Dubail was given the Grand Cross of the Legion
of Honour (Sept. 18 1914). On the withdrawal of the II. Army
to the Somme, Dubail took charge of the whole line between
Verdun and the Vosges, and when in Jan. 1915 the armies along
the front were grouped under three headquarters of groups of
armies, Dubail was placed in charge of that of the east, com-
prising the III. of Verdun, his old I., and the Vosges force. In
Oct. of the same year he was awarded the medaille militaire.
On April 6 1916 he was made military governor of Paris. He
was placed in the " Second Section " on reaching the age limit
in April 1916, but retained his appointment as military governor
of Paris. After his final retirement he was appointed Grand
Chancellor of the Legion of Honour.
DUCLAUX, AGNES MARY F. (1856- ), Anglo-French
poet and critic (see 8.632), published after 1910 a volume of
essays, The French Ideal (1911); a study of Madame de Sevigne
(1914); A Short History of France (1918); Twentieth Century
French Writers (1920) and a life of Victor Hugo (1921).
DU CROS, WILLIAM HARVEY (1846-1918), British manu-
facturer, of Huguenot descent, was born in co. Kildare, Ireland,
June 19 1846. He was educated at the King's hospital, Dublin,
and became founder of the pneumatic tire industry and a pioneer
in automobile construction. From 1906-8 he represented Hast-
ings in the House of Commons. He died at Dalkey, co. Dublin,
Dec. 21 1918.
DUCTLESS GLANDS (see 8.633). Much new work on the
physiology, pathology and medicine of the ductless glands has
been done since 1910.
There are two ways in which the consensus partium in the
animal economy is brought about. The best known of these is
that which occurs through the nervous system. But it has been
recognized during recent years that other agents take part in
this process of coordination. These are called the ductless glaruLs
through their products the internal secretions, which have also
been called hormones. The latter have, however, been renamed
autocoid substances by Schafer, and these again divided into two
groups: those which excite metabolic processes and those which
depress them. The former autocoids are called by him hormones,
the latter chalones.
In the glands of internal secretion, or as they are sometimes
called the endocrine organs, the material secreted is passed away
not through a duct but by means of the veins leaving the organ.
This material when it reaches the general blood stream acts in the
manner of a chemical messenger, or of a drug, producing effects
upon various organs and tissues of the body. The ductless
glands which we shall have to consider are (i) the adrenal gland;
(2) the thyroid gland; (3) the parathyroid glandules; (4) the pituitary
body; (5) the pineal gland. It is probable that the thymus is not
an organ of internal secretion. In addition to these certain other
glands furnished with a duct and providing an ordinary or
external secretion are supposed to supply the body with internal
secretions also. This applies to the pancreas. Further, the
gonads (reproductive organs) have an endocrine function.
The Adrenal Gland. For many years it has been customary
to refer to the cortex and the medulla of the adrenal body as the
suprarenal capsule. But comparative anatomical studies have
shown us that this is an inaccurate view of the problem. It is
only in mammals that the terms cortex and medulla as applied
to the two parts of the organ are strictly appropriate. In elas-
mobranch fishes we have to deal with a series of paired chroma-
phil bodies in connexion with the sympathetic ganglia, and with
an interrenal body placed in the middle line between the two
halves of the kidney. The first of these is the homologue of the
mammalian medulla while the interrenal body corresponds to the
mammalian cortex. Even in mammals a trace of the original
arrangement still persists, e.g. the sympathetic ganglia contain
groups of chromaphil cells and there are other outlying masses of
chromaphil tissue. The cortex also is not the sole representative
in mammals of the original interrenal body. So that the problem
before us is by no means to discover the function of a single
organ but to ascertain the significance of the chromaphil tissues
(of which the adrenal medulla is only a part) and of the cortical
tissues (of which the adrenal cortex is only a part, albeit the
principal one).
The chromaphil tissues everywhere contain adrenin, the formula
for which is:
HO
^>CH (OH). OH 2 . NH. CH 3
This substance is generally supposed to constitute the internal secre-
tion of these tissues. When injected into the circulation of a living
animal it produces effects similar to those brought about by stimula-
tion of the sympathetic nervous system. That is to say, its action
is sympathomimettc. Other substances having a similar chemical
constitution will produce similar physiological effects. The most
striking of such effects are constriction of arterioles and an enormous
rise of blood pressure, dilatation of the pupil and inhibition of the
muscular coats of the alimentary canal. Small doses often produce
results qualitatively different from medium or large doses.
The secretion of the chromaphil tissues does not appear to be
essential to life. It is tolerably certain that it does not help to main-
tain the normal blood pressure. It is possible that it is important
for the activity of muscular structures under circumstances of
physiological and especially of emotional emergency.
Of the functions of the cortex we know practically nothing, and
yet we are justified in regarding this portion as the adrenal body in
the true sense of the word. Experimental and clinical evidence has
taught us that it is the part which is essential to life. It seems prob-
able that it has to do with the development of the organs of re-
production. Tumors of the adrenal cortex are frequently associated
with sexual precocity in young children.
The only disease definitely traceable to a lesion of the adrenal
body is that known since 1855 as Addison's disease. The most strik-
ing symptoms are a peculiar bronzing of the skin, extreme muscular
weakness, low blood pressure, vomiting and other symptoms
probably referable to the sympathetic nervous system. The patho-
genesis of the skin pigmentation cannot be correlated with anything
we know of the physiology of the gland. The muscular weakness is
supposed to be pathognomic and attributable to the absence of
circulating adrenin. The cases are always fatal, and treatment with
adrenal substance seems to be of no use.
The Thyroid Gland. The thyroid is developed as an out-
growth of the embryonic pharynx between the first and second
branchial clefts. It is at first single and solid, but later becomes
bilateral aud divided up into closed vesicles. It is doubtful how
far the lateral rudiments or post-branchial bodies take part in
the formation of the mature thyroid in mammals. The vesicles
hold a peculiar " colloid " material which contains iodine.
The blood supply is very rich and nerves are provided from both
vagus and the sympathetic.
Extirpation of the thyroid produces varying results according
to the kind of animal employed and according to its age. The
symptoms are not always very clearly defined, but they consist
in general terms of the manifestations of sluggish metabolism.
In young animals there may be almost complete cessation of
growth though there is a tendency to adiposity. The symptoms
differ from those of myxoedema in the human subject.
DISEASES OF THE THYROID. Myxoedema. This condition is
found in middle-aged or elderly subjects, usually women. The
skin becomes altered, hands and feet swollen, lips and tongue en-
larged. The oedema does not put on pressure, and there is mental
dullness. The symptoms are in fact those of pronouncedly slowed
metabolism. The disease is clearly due to deficient thyroid secre-
tion, and may be kept in abeyance or permanently cured by treat-
ment with thyroid substance.
Cretinism. This is usually due to atrophy of the gland at the
time of birth. The growth of the skeleton is arrested and the nutri-
tion of the muscles and skin is seriously affected, so that the children
are deformed, and, as a result of lack of mental development,
idiotic. Treatment with thyroid substance is often beneficial.
Simple Goitre. The precise pathological condition varies in
different cases. The commonest form is now very generally con-
sidered to be due to an infection from drinking-water. Many cases
can be cured by treatment with intestinal antiseptics and steriliza-
tion of the water. Small doses of iodides have been found useful as a
prophylactic when administered to children in goitrous districts.
862
DUCTLESS GLANDS DU MAURIER
Exophthalmic Goitre. This disease is characterized by the three
cardinal symptoms, enlargement of the thyroid, protrusion of the
eye-balls and a rapid heart beat. It is usually ascribed to an over-
secretion of the thyroid gland, though many authors prefer to at-
tribute it to a disturbed function of the organ. Complete rest often
suffices to cure the condition, though many surgeons recommend
removal of a large part of the gland.
Kendall believes that he has isolated the active principle of the
thyroid gland, and to this he gives the name of thyroxin. It is al-
leged that this substance may be used instead of thyroid substance
in cases of thyroid insufficiency and that the results are as satis-
factory as when the gland substance is employed.
The Parathyroids. In the great majority of mammals there
are four parathyroids, two in relation with each lobe of the
thyroid. The glandules do not contain vesicles but consist of
solid masses of cells. They are developed from the epithelium
of the third and fourth branchial clefts. Most observers do not
believe that they are functionally related to the thyroid.
Extirpation of all four parathyroids is rapidly fatal in the case
of many animals. Where death does not occur it is usually as-
sumed that accessory parathyroids are present. It is certainly
true that in many of the herbivora such accessory glandules are
frequently present. The symptoms which occur after extirpation
are those of tetany muscular spasms, rapid respiration, saliva-
tion, etc. The condition is now usually called tetania para-
thyreopriva, and Koch and Noel Paton ascribe it to intoxication
by guanidin. They believe that the parathyroids control the
metabolism of guanidin and in this way exercise a regulative
action upon the tone of the skeletal muscles.
Idiopathic Tetany. Since the symptoms of this disease strikingly
resemble those of tetania parathyreopriva, it is now very generally
believed that they are due to disease of the parathyroid. It is
sometimes alleged also that paralysis agitans, chorea, epilepsy, and
eclampsia are due to disturbance of the functions of these bodies.
The Pituitary Body. The pituitary body consists of two
principal portions, the anterior or glandular, and the posterior or
nervous. The former is developed as an evagination from the
ectoderm in the buccal region. The posterior portion is an
outgrowth from the base of the brain. Covering the latter is a
second glandular portion called the pars intermedia.
The glandular portion seems to give rise to substances which
are essential for the proper development of the skeleton and
other tissues of the growing animal, and Robertson states that
he has succeeded in isolating from this lobe a substance called
tethelin, which hastens growth in young animals. Pituitary
feeding is stated to increase the output of eggs in laying hens.
Extirpation experiments seem to point to the anterior lobe as
the part which is essential to life. But from the posterior lobe
certain active extracts can be obtained. These extracts when
injected into the circulation of a living animal produce a rise of
blood pressure which is more prolonged than that produced by
adrenin, but a second injection may produce a fall. The extract
produces a sthenic effect upon uterine contractions and upon
those of the intestine and bladder. It also causes dilatation of
the pupil and constriction of the bronchioles. Pituitrin also
causes a marked increase in the flow from the kidney and the
mammary gland. A striking effect on metabolism produced
by the administration of pituitary substance is a lowering in the
tolerance for sugar.
DISEASES OF THE PITUITARY. Hyperpituitarism. Overgrowth
of the anterior lobe usually of an adenomatous nature gives rise to
increased growth of the bones of the extremities and of the face, and,
if it occurs in young subjects, to gigantism, when, as in older sub-
jects, it chiefly affects the face and the ends of the long bones, the
condition is called acromegaly. Diminished sugar tolerance usually'
supervenes as the other parts of the organ become affected. There
may be actual glycosuria and frequently polyuria.
Hypopituitarism. In this condition the body does not grow,
although there may be an extensive deposition of fat. There is
marked failure in sexual development. Sugar tolerance is very pro-
nounced and there is arrested mental development. In cases which
do not arise until adult age has been reached obesity and increased
sugar tolerance are the most striking symptoms.
A functional relationship between the pituitary and the other
ductless glands (especially the thyroid) is more than probable.
The Pineal Gland This tiny structure has usually been
considered as belonging to the group of " vestigial remains,"
and its chief interest to morphologists centres round its homology
with the median eye of reptiles. It is developed as an outgrowth
from the third ventricle of the brain. But even in lower verte-
brates there is some evidence that a glandular constituent has
to be reckoned with. Within the last few years numerous writers
have urged that in mammals, including man, the organ is of
considerable importance, and that it belongs to the group of
glands furnishing an internal secretion.
Extirpation experiments have been carried out in some ani-
mals, and it is stated that removal of the organ accelerates
growth of the body and especially of the reproductive apparatus,
or at any rate a hastening of the development of the reproductive
functions.
Tumors of the pineal gland are associated with abnormal growth
of the skeleton in children, and with early and precocious develop-
ment of the secondary sexual characters. In order to correlate these
findings with the results of extirpation experiments it is assumed
that the tumour gives rise to a condition of hypopinealism. It will
be remembered that the common tumours of the pituitary body are
considered to be adenomata and to give rise to a hypersecretion.
Injection of extracts made from the pineal gland give rise to no
special effects upon the blood pressure, respiration, secretion of
glands, or other functions which can be investigated by ordinary
kymographic methods. But it is alleged that administration of
extracts over a long period to growing animals hastens the growth
and development of the reproductive organs. If these statements
are correct they only tend in the present stage to complicate the
problem, for it is certainly contrary to expectation to learn that
removal of an organ from an animal and its administration to the
animal as food or drug will produce similar results. The whole sub-
ject is obscure, and here, as in the case of some other of the ductless
glands, it is probable that our experimental technique is too faulty
or too limited to enable us yet to draw any just conclusions.
The Testes. The effects of castration in man have been
known for a very long time. The absence of hair from the face,
the undeveloped larynx and the persistent soprano voice result-
ing, and the tendency to gigantism and obesity are among the
more striking of the characters of a eunuch. In male stags the
antlers do not grow, and in the cock the comb fails to develop.
These results do not occur when the vas is tied. In some animals
and under favourable conditions these secondary sexual characters
may be induced if a testis is transplanted from another animal.
So that they must be attributed to an absence of a specific
internal secretion.
The elements of the testis which are usually supposed to furnish the
internal secretion are the interstitial cells of Leydig. These are of an
epithelioid character and contain lipoid granules. These structures
are not always very striking in sections through the testis, but they
are more marked in some animals than in others.
Injection of extracts of the testis was observed many years ago
by Brown-Sequard to have a rejuvenating or stimulating effect
upon the subject so treated, but it is doubtful whether the effect is
specific or more marked than with other extracts.
The Ovaries. It is well known that if both ovaries are removed
from a young animal the uterus does not develop, menstru-
ation does not occur, and the mammary glands fail to grow.
Extracts made from the ovary produce certain effects upon
smooth muscle, but it is not certain that these effects are specific.
The corpus luteum appears to be concerned with the fixation of
the embryo in utero and also with the growth of the mammary gland
and the secretion of milk. As in the case of the testis there is a
tendency to attribute the internal secretions of the ovary to cer-
tain interstitial cells. These, however, are not present in all animals
or at any rate are not present during all periods of the sexual cycle.
Extracts of ovary have been employed in the same manner as
those of testis, and the same criticism applies.
The Carotid Body. Situated at the bifurcation of the carotid
artery and consisting, in many animals, of only a few cells, it is
not known that the carotid body, or carotid gland, carries out
any important functions. Among the constituent cells are a few
of the chromaphil variety, and these are capable, presumably, of
furnishing a small amount of adrenin to the general circulation.
The Coccygeal Body. This structure is included in our list
because it has been alleged that it contains chromaphil cells.
This, however, does not appear to be the case. The body is
apparently an arterio-venous anastomosis. (S. V.)
DU MAURIER, GERALD (1873- ), English actor, was
born at Hampstead March 26 1873, the son of George Du Mau-
DUNAJEC-SAN, BATTLES OF THE
863
rier (see 8.658). He was educated at Harrow and first appeared
on the stage at the age of twenty at the Garrick theatre, London,
then under the management of John Hare. Two years later he
joined Herbert Tree at the Haymarket and played with him in
Shakespearean plays and his father's play of Trilby, as well as
in various melodramas. Amongst many later successes may be
mentioned his acting in Same's Peter Pan, The Admirable
Crichton, Little Mary, What Every Woman Knows and Dear
Brutus, and his performances as the hero of Conan Doyle's
Raffles and of McCutcheon's Brewster's Millions. He wrote the
play A Royal Rival, produced by Lewis Waller, and with his
brother, Guy Louis Busson Du Maurier (1865-1915), author of
An Englishman s Home (1909), wrote Charles I. and II.
DUNAJEC-SAN, BATTLES OF THE. The line of the river
Dunajecand that of the San, both in West Galicia, marked the
two successive stages in the break-through battle which initiated'
the Austro-German offensive of 1915 on the eastern front.
After the severe fighting on the Carpathian front (see CARPA-
THIANS, BATTLES OF THE) there ensued a pause in the second
half of April 1915, both on the side of the Central Powers and on
that of the Russians, whose attempts at a break-through had
failed. Fighting continued only in the sector of the German
Southern Army up to the end of the month, the crowning day
being April 24, when Hofmann's Austro-Hungarian corps stormed
the Ostry heights.
The general situation on the eastern front was at this time
somewhat unsatisfactory. The Austro-Hungarian armies in the
Carpathians were exhausted; the IV. and I. Armies, Woyrsch's
Army, and the German forces on the eastern front were certainly
holding their ground, but were continually being weakened by
having to detach troops to the Carpathian front. The Russians
were in similar case; the combats in the mountains had absorbed
not only great masses of men but also quantities of material,
which could not so readily be replaced. Thus, although the
danger in the Carpathians was not yet over, Russian offensive
movements on a large scale were hardly to be expected.
The position was far more favourable on the German western
front, where the Germans awaited the French attacks with calm
confidence, while behind the lines the organization of 14 new
divisions was nearing completion. The opportunity for improv-
ing the situation in the E. appeared, therefore, to have arrived.
The desirability of relieving the pressure on the Carpathian
front seemed self-evident, and the only question was as to the
direction and method of execution of the offensive. The choice
appeared to lie between an offensive on a large scale against the
whole Russian front, combined with enveloping movements
against its northern and southern flanks, and a direct break-
through at some part of the line. For the latter operation the
area Gorlice-Tarnow appeared to offer advantages; it had been
largely denuded of troops by the Russians during the course of
their Carpathian offensive, and a drive on Sanok, via the Jaszlo
and Krosno basins, would get into the rear of the Russian forces
in the Carpathians and roll them up. The length of time that
would be necessary for the preparation of an attacking group in
the Carpathians, where the railway communications were very
bad, would be bound to militate against the success of the first
plan, while an enveloping movement in the N. would be too far
distant to have any lasting influence in improving the situation
in the Carpathians. West Galicia, on the other hand, was well
suited as an area of assembly for an offensive group, and the
possibilities of success were highly promising.
The High Commands of both the Central Powers had early in
April decided, independently of each other, for the second solu-
tion of the problem; indeed, the Austrians had, in the middle of
March, undertaken an offensive towards Gorlice with weak
forces, which resulted only in a tactical success. When the
Austrians early in April renewed their request for German
divisions to be dispatched to the Carpathians the whole matter
came up for discussion; the preliminary conditions for the offen-
sive were arranged by telegraph, and the final decision was
arrived at on April 14, at a conference between the two chiefs
of the general staffs in Berlin.
The XI. Army, under Gen. von Mackensen, was organized
as a shock group, consisting of eight German divisions from the
western front, the two divisions of the Austrian VI. Corps, and
the nth Honved Cav. Div.; and it assembled behind the right
wing of the Austrian IV. Army. This latter was also placed
under Mackensen, who was himself subordinated to the Austrian
High Command. These two armies were to carry out the main
attack in West Galicia, while the armies of Dankl N. of the
Vistula and those of Boroevic, Bohm, Linsingen and Pflanzer
were to display all possible activity and engage the enemy in
their front so as to prevent him from detaching troops to the
main attack. Simultaneously two demonstrations in the Prasz-
nysz and Novgorod areas, and a raid on Memel, were planned.
After the completion of the assembly of the XI. Army, the
distribution of the Austro-German forces in West Galicia and
the Carpathians was as follows: In West Galicia, on the Lower
Dunajec, the heights of Wai, and the Biala as far as Cie,zkowice,
was the Austrian IV. Army under Archduke Joseph Ferdinand
(7 inf. divs.). To the right of this, the XI. German Army,
under Gen. von Mackensen (10 inf. and i cav. divs.), lay by
Luzna and Gorlice as far as Malastow. The Austrian III. Army,
under Gen. von Boroevic (14 inf. and 2 cav. divs.), stretched
from Malastow in a salient curve S. of the Carpathian crest
by Zboro to Virava. Thence the Austrian II. Army, under
Gen. von Bohm-Ermolli (14 inf. divs.), held its position as far
as the heights W. of the Uzsok pass. From here by Zawadka,
on both sides of the Orawa and the Oportales, by the Wyszokow
saddle to the sources of the Moloda, lay the Southern German
Army, under Gen. von Linsingen (9^ inf. divs.). Next came
the Austrian VII. Army, under Gen. Baron von Pflanzer-Baltin
(8j inf. and 5 cav. divs.), curving on the line Solotwina, Ottynia,
Horodenka Zaleszczki, and along the Dniester and the frontier.
On the Russian side there stood in the area S. of the Vistula,
and on the Carpathian front, the III. Army (Gen. Radko
Dimitriev), the VIII. Army (Gen. Brussilov), the Stry detach-
ment and the IX. Army (Gen. Lechitski) in all some 40 inf.
and 16 cav. divs. with at least 10 Militia Opolchevie brigades.
The Break-through of Gorlice-Tarnow (May 2-5). By the end of
.April all the preparatory measures for the offensive were complete,
and on May I the preliminary bombardment on the front of Macken-
sen's Army Group began; this was followed at 6 A.M. on the 2nd by
four hours' intensive fire by some 1,500 guns of all calibres, on a
scale far surpassing anything yet known. The Russian trenches, on
which many months' labour had been expended, and which were
sited with great skill, were soon so shattered that the infantry, who
had advanced to assaulting distance, were able to storm them.
During the night of the 2nd the left-wing group of the IV. Army,
the combined division under Field-Marshal-Lt. Stoger-Steiner,
forced the line of the Lower Dunajec by a surprise attack, and during
the day established itself at Otfinow on the eastern bank.
The vigorous offensive of the XI. Army, in which the Austrian VI.
Corps specially distinguished itself, met with little resistance from
the Russians, who had been completely overwhelmed by the bom-
bardment. Between Ciezkowice and the heights S. of Gorlice their
lines were completely broken through. The Austrian X. Corps,
fighting on the left wing of the III. Army, had a large share in this
success. By 5 P.M. it had stormed the Russian positions on the
heights S.E. of Ropica Ruska, and E. of Malastow, and continued
its advance up till a late hour of the night.
The Austro-Hungarian IV. Army, which had to carry the very
strong and defensible ridges of Dobrotyn and hills 419 and 402, was
also in the end successful, after severe fighting, assisted in some
measure by the effect of the XI. Army's break-through. Meanwhile
the remaining Austro-German armies kept the Russians on their
respective fronts constantly on the alert, and thus prevented any
transference of troops; the Russian III. Army alone succeeded in
concentrating strong reserves (III. Caucasian Corps and 63rd Res.
Div.) in the vicinity of Jaszlo.
The offensive was continued on the 3rd with the utmost energy ;
the XIV. Corps stormed hills 419 and 402, while the IX. Corps on
the right wing of the army captured the heights E. of Gromnik.
Up to mid-day the XI. Army met with little resistance ; in the after-
noon, however, it came up against a series of strong positions, which
were not captured till the evening, and its right wing peached
Wapienne, the centre Biecz, while the left wing occupied the Lipie
heights and the ridge N.E. of Olpiny. The left corps of the III.
Army stormed Ostra Gora, the Russians in front of it establishing
themselves on the E. edge of Magura.
By the 4th such rapid progress had been made that it was pos-
sible to extend the attack on the whole front of the III. Army.
864
DUNAJEC-SAN, BATTLES OF THE
The Army High Command ordered the XI. Army to continue its
advance, with its reenforced southern wing moving in the direction
of Dukla-Krosno-Strzyzow, the III. Army's left moving on Tylawa,
its centre and right continuing to hold fast the enemy in their front.
The time for the assumption of the offensive was to be at the dis-
cretion of the army commander himself. The neighbouring army
under Bohm was already assigned as a reenfprcement of the left
wing, to operate in harmony with Boroevic's right wing.
The left wing of the IV. Army was heavily attacked on the night
of the 4th-5th, and little progress was made by it or by the Ger-
man 47th Res. Div. in the course of the following day. On the other
hand, the Russians opposed to the XIV. Corps, in the centre of the
IV. Army, fell back before dawn; both divisions of the corps followed
them up closely, and by nightfall had reached the line of the Biala.
The right corps captured the heights N.E. of Tuchow and Dobrotyn
hill. The XI. Army made very rapid progress on this day,
driving the enemy back step by step as far as the Wisloka, and
establishing itself at Pilgrzymka Osobnica and Olpiny in close
touch with the IV. Army.
On the left wing of the III. Army the 2ist Landwehr Inf. Div.
occupied the heights of Watkowa after heavy fighting.
On the 5th, however, the resistance of the Russian III. Army was
still unbroken. The IX. Corps, indeed, captured the heights of
Obzar and Wiszowa, thus securing possession of the whole of the
Dobrotyn ridge, while Szende's brigade and the Io6th Inf. Div., in
the face of stubborn resistance, cleared all the area E. of Tuchow
as far as Zalasowa and the heights of Trzemesna W. of it, while the
3rd Div. succeeded in crossing the Biala; but the 8th Div., which
finally followed the 3rd over the river, and the whole of the northern
wing of the IV. Army, were unable to gain any success.
On the right wing of the XI. Army, however, Gen. von Emmich's
corps, which had pressed far forward, again met with great suc-
cess, throwing the Russians back behind the Jasiolka in the direc-
tion of Dukla, while the left wing of the army advanced to Jodlowa.
This rapid advance naturally facilitated the task of Boroevic's
army. As early as the morning of the 5th the front of the XXIV. and
XII. Russian Corps, before the centre and left of that army, began
to yield. Pursued by the Austro-Hungarian X., XVII. and VII.
Corps in thedirection of Jasliska and the upper valley of the Laborcza,
they were driven into the area W. of Tylawa behind the valley
of the Ondava and onto the heights N.E. of Nagybakocy. Only the
XXI. Russian Corps held its ground at great cost against the Ger-
man Beskiden Corps, fighting on Boroevic's right wing.
On the N. wing of the IV. Army the enemy's resistance was at
length broken on the night of the 6th by the repeated assaults of
Stoger-Steiner's Div. and the German 47th Res. Div. While the
Russians evacuated their positions below Tarnow as far as the Vis-
tula, the Austro-German troops occupied Tarnow and initiated a
pursuit in the area W. of Pilzno.
The right wing of the IV. and the left and centre of the XI. Army
had meanwhile reached the Wisloka. Emmich penetrated as far as
Wietrzno with his corps, and in the Dukla area blocked all the lines
of retreat leading N. and N.E., along which Radko Dimitriev's
defeated columns were now retiring in wild disorder. At Tylawa the
Austro-Hungarian X. Corps, advancing from the W., encountered
the 48th Inf. Div. of the Russian XXIV. Corps under Gen. Kor-
nilov, and, in conjunction with Field-Marshal-Lt. Berndt's Cavalry
Div., forced the greater part of it to surrender and scattered the
rest, who were captured some days later by Emmich's troops.
By the evening the Austrian XVII. and VII. Corps had reached
the I)ukla pass and the Laborcza valley, driving before them Radko
Dimitriev's broken right wing, which took refuge behind the
Jasiclka and the Carpathian ridge, leaving behind many prisoners
and vast quantities of war material.
In view of these successes, it was to be expected that the Russian
XXI. Corps would shortly be compelled to evacuate the Lupkow
pass which would shake the whole Russian front along the Car-
pathians to the E. of it. The rolling-up of this line seemed to
ensure the complete strategic success of the five days' " break-
through " battle of Gorlice-Tarn6w in which Radko Dimitriev's
army had been driven back more than 20 m. on a front of 100 m.,
with a loss of 50,000 prisoners, 50 guns and much other material.
The Pursuit and Battles at_ Sanok and Rzeszow (May 6-n). After
his severe defeat, Radko Dimitriev's plan was to hold the Lupkow
pass with his left wing, and, supported upon this, to bring the pur-
suit to a stand on the line Nowotaniec-Besko-right bank of the Wis-
lok, where there were positions favoured by the lay of the ground,
and then, between the Vistula and the Wislok, on the line Wielo-
pole-Zassow-Malec. Here he proposed to reconstitute his units,
which had fallen into great disorder, and to strengthen them by
bringing up reserves. Troops were sent to him from other fronts,
and by the 8th he could again dispose of iSinf. divs.,5cav. divs. and
5 Reichswehr bdes. The orders were that the offensive was to
De continued with all possible vigour. Mackensen's army was
to push forward over the stretch of the Wislok between Besko and
Frysztakon Mrzyglod and Tyczin,_and the Archduke Joseph Ferdi-
nand on Rzeszow, while Boroevic was to roll up Brussilov's VIII.
Russian Army in the direction of Sanok. Bohm's II. Austrian Army
was to join up corps by corps from the left wing in proportion to the
progress of the attack.
In the course of the 8th the Russian positions were once more
attacked along the whole front, and in the sector of Mackensen's
army were stormed along the whole E. bank of the Wislok. Both
here and in the front of the centre and right of the IV. Army the
fighting was heavy ; the Russians were driven by the latter from
Pilzno and Brzostek and pursued beyond Debica and the hill of
Chelm. In front of the newly formed group under Gen. von Kirch-
bach, composed of Stoger-Steiner's Div., the German 47th Res.
Div. and certain Landsturm formations, on the left wing of the
IV. Army, the Russian IX. Corps fell back in the afternoon to the
new line prescribed.
Meanwhile, Boroevic had also pressed the Russians hard and by
3 A.M. forced them to abandon the Lupkow pass as well as the
strong Bokuwica ridge, and to retire to the line Zarszyn-Bukowsko-
Szczawne, where they once more took up strong positions. As a
natural result of the retreat of the III. Russian Army, the whole of
Brussilov's VIII. Army began to give ground, and Bohm's army,
with the W. wing of Linsingen's, at once took up the pursuit.
On the gth, however, violent resistance was once more encoun-
tered, particularly on the fronts of the German Southern Army and
the Austro-Hungarian II. and III. Armies, from the Ostry hill to
Besko. The Russian point d appui at the latter place was much en-
dangered by the withdrawal of the Russian front fighting against
Mackensen to the left bank of the Stobnica; but it was urgently
necessary to hold it, as also the strong front Bukowsko-Szczawne,
in order to secure Brussilov's undisturbed retreat. Despite a vio-
lent counter-attack delivered by three newly arrived divisions astride
the Sanok road between Besko and the left flank of the Russian line
on the Stobnica, the Russians were forced to abandon Besko on the
evening of the gth.
When on the loth Bohm's left wing, pressing forward by Bali-
grod and the San, captured Szczawne, and the gallant X. Corps on
Boroevic's left took Zarszyn, the strong position of Bukowsko
became untenable; and by the evening of the nth the Russians had
fallen back behind the San. The III. Army followed them up to the
area Sanok-Zagorcz. Meanwhile the XI. Army had stormed the
Stobnica position and advanced its front. Of the Archduke Joseph
Ferdinand's army Kirchbach's corps on the evening of the lith
reached the Lower Wislok while the centre took Sedziszow. During
the night of the I2th the IX. Corps secured Rzeszow.
The Russians, after some minor rear-guard actions, had also
fallen back along the whole front before the II. Army, so that on
the iith the Austrian left wing had reached the Lisko area, while
the right had passed the Upper San, where the Southern Army was.
At this point may be said to have ended the battle of Rzeszow-
Sanok, the effects of which were quickly seen in the retirement of
the enemy line N. of the Vistula. The Russians now prepared to
make a fresh stand on the strong defensive line of the San below
Przemysl, where they had constructed strong lines of defences,
with their flanks resting on the Dniester marshes at Wielki Bloto,
and the angle made by the Vistula and the San. Up to this point
they had lost 130,000 prisoners, 100 guns and 300 machine-guns.
Events up to the Battle of Przemysl (May 12-23). The Russians,
foreseeing the possibility of a further retreat, had chosen as their
next position the line of the San below the fortress of Przemysl,
which had again been placed in a state of defence, as far as Nisko,
and they had strengthened this line by the construction of bridge-
heads at Radymno and Jaroslaw. Below Nisko the line enclosed
the angle formed by the Vistula and the San, whence a particularly
strong line of defence led to Tarnobrzeg and was continued on the
far side of the Vistula to Klimontow and Opatow. The southern
front was connected by an equally strong fortified line through
Husakow and Krukienice with the Dniester, which served as tne
next natural line of defence for the Russians. At first, however,
they did not make full use of this river as an obstacle, since they
advanced their IX. Army against Pflanzer-Baltin to the Pruth.
The immediate object of the Austrian and German High Com-
mands was to force the San below Przemysl, and to attack that
fortress. The following objectives were assigned to the armies.
The IV. Army was to force the Lower San, and the XI. to pass that
river on either side of Jaroslaw. The N. wing of the III. Army
was to push forward S. of the San against the W. and S. fronts of
Przemysl, and secure that place by a coup de main, while its S. wing
advanced by Dobromil on Mosciska. To the II. Army was assigned
the direction Chyrow-Sambor, while the Southern Army's objec-
tives were Drohobycz and Stryj. The VII. Army was to maintain
its positions, while on the N. of the Vistula the armies of Dankl
and Woyrsch were to follow up the enemy, with their inner flanks
moving by Daleszyce on Slupia.
After breaking off the battle the Russians had rapidly fallen
back to the San, and were as rapidly pursued. The pursuers encoun-
tered in the main only a few small rear-guards during the next few
days; the II. Army, however, had violent fighting at the San cross-
ings; and on the III. Army front, the 27th Div., in conjunction with
the German Beskiden Corps, dispersed a hostile rear-guard on the
heights of Magiera, S. of Przemysl.
On the I4th the German Guard Corps found itself face to face
with the strong fortifications of the bridge-head at Jaroslaw. After
a short but intense preliminary bombardment the Guard infantry,
assisted by those of Field-Marshal Arz's Corps advancing from the
DUNAJEC-SAN, BATTLES OF THE
865
S.W., stormed the works on the I5th, and on the l6th entered Jaro-
slaw and crossed to the E. bank of the San.
The IV. Army reached the Russian lines on the Vistula-San angle
on the same date, and took up a position on the W. bank of the San
as far as the Wislok. S. of the Wislok the XI. Army had established
itself on the left bank of the San, in face of the fortress girdle of
Przemysl and extending to the San S. of Mackowice; the III. Army
aligned itself as far as Husakow before the S.W. and S. fronts of
Przemysl, while the II. Army had worked its way forward to the
entrenched line extending over Krukienice to the Wielki Bloto.
S. of this marshy -area the Southern Army had driven Cherba-
chev's XI. Russian Army back on Stryj and Dolina, which had been
formed out of the Stryj detachment early in May. Pflanzer's Army
was compelled to withdraw before the Russian IX. Army (Lechit-
ski) to the Pruth between Czernowitz and Kolomea, and there made
preparations to hold this line, while cooperating with its reenforced
left wing in the offensive of the Southern Army.
N. of the Vistula the Russian IV. Army was forced back by the
armies of Dankl and Woyrsch to the line Nowe Miasto-Mniszek-
Ilza-Opatow Klimontow, after heavy fighting in the Czarna and
Lysa Gora areas, and smair rear-guard actions elsewhere. Before
the IX. German Army the Russians held their ground.
In 14 days of fierce battle the Central Powers had gained a great
victory, and had pushed back the Russian " steam-roller " some
no m. eastwards, besides securing 170,000 prisoners, 128 guns,
368 machine-guns and immense quantities of war material.
A pause in the operations now ensued, which was devoted to the
preparations for a further offensive, to comprise the forcing of the
San line, the capture of the fortress of Przemysl, and the storming
of the heights S.E. of the fortress.
The San itself at this season was not a serious obstacle, and its
passage presented no difficulties in itself; but on the far bank there
existed strong and well-prepared positions, while the Russians had
received considerable reinforcements ; their front E. of the Vistula
having been strengthened by some 9 divs. at the beginning of May.
The fortress of Przemysl had been reconstructed by the Russians
and was now too strong to capture by a coup de main. The bringing-
up of heavy artillery would therefore be necessary, and the strong
positions S.E. of the Vistula also demanded a carefully planned
attack. It appeared, moreover, that the Russians had recovered
their breath in this new position, and that they intended to oppose
an energetic resistance to the pursuit. Fresh and thorough prepara-
tions had, therefore, to be made for the continuance of the attack.
The transport of supplies could not keep pace with the troops
during their rapid advance, for the Russians in their retreat had
carried out a thorough work of destruction. The roads and rail-
ways could not be used, and the bridges had been blown up. Only
after hasty restoration had been carried out could the necessary
heavy artillery and ammunition be sent forward.
As the front became shortened during the advance, the Austrian
VIII. Corps was on May 10 taken out of the line on the III. Army
front, transferred by rail to the IV. Army, and attached to Kirch-
bach's group where it was to be assigned the part of storming Sando-
mierz. The 4lst Honved Inf. Diy. was also transferred from the
III. to the I. Army, coming into line on the igth at Staszow.
The imminent entry of Italy into the war had no influence on
the continuance of the offensive, apart from the fact that the VII.
Corps (iyth Inf. Div. and 2Oth Honved Inf. Div.) were entrained
on the 2 1st at Mezo Laborcz for the S.W. front. There was, how-
ever, a spontaneous pause during which both sides made their prep-
arations for the forthcoming great battle. The Austro-German
troops were engaged on their front in securing favourable condi-
tions for their impending attack, while the Russians endeavoured,
in a series of powerful counter-blows, to check the progress of their
pursuers and even to prepare the ground for a possible offensive.
The occupation of Jaroslaw early on the l6th, and the construc-
tion within the next few days of a regularly fortified bridge-head,
in which was included the village of Sieniawa, captured on the l8th
by the Austro-Hungarian roth Inf. Div., afforded a favourable
sallyport for the next advance. Despite the gallant counter-attacks
of the III. Caucasian and XXIV. Corps, the German X. and Guard
Corps and Arz's Austrian Corps were able to consolidate their posi-
tions in this sector. The I2th Div. of the last-named corps on the
2oth carried out a successful advance towards Radymno. The XI.
Army Command, in order to assist the II. and III. Armies, which
were making little headway, projected an attack on the 24th with
the left flank along the Szklo on the E. bank of the San. If the part
played by the Russians opposed to the XI. Army was mainly pas-
sive, they showed a more aggressive spirit opposite the IV. Army
on the Lower San. Units of their IX. Corps near Misko, and of
their X. Corps near Stare Miasto, delivered violent attacks on the
l8th, which were defeated. On the igth. after being reenforced. they
again crossed the San between Rudnik and Stare Miasto but had
to return hurriedly to the E. bank as the result of a counter-attack
by the 3rd Inf. Div. Heavy fighting also occurred near Rudnik,
where the 8th Inf. Div. defeated with the utmost gallantry the
repeated Russian efforts to effect a break-through.
During the pause in the fighting here, violent fighting took place
in the bend of the Vistula on the front of Dankl's and Woyrsch's
armies. The pursuit, which had been begun on the I2th by the for-
mer army, had been successively taken up by Woyrsch's armies and
by Kovess's army group. The right wing of Dankl's army encoun-
tered strong resistance on the 1 6th on the line Koprziwnyca-
Klimontow, advanced to the attack but failed to break through ;
the same fate befell the II. Corps on his left wing, which had to
relinquish its initial gains in face of a violent Russian counter-
attack. Woyrsch's right wing, which was in touch, was also held
up; on his left wing, however, the i6th Inf. Div. took Ruski Brod
near the source of the Radomka and drove the enemy back in flight.
During the lyth indications of a Russian counter-offensive
between the inner wings of Dankl's and Woyrsch's armies increased
in number, and Bredow's div. (Woyrsch's right wing) and the II.
Corps actually had to resist a series of violent assaults which, in
the case of Dankl's army, even suggested the necessity of a retreat
behind the Czarna. On the i8th, however, the expected counter-
offensive failed to materialize against Dankl's left wing; the Rus-
sians devoted all their efforts on this and the following day to the
capture of Bredow's positions, and they also exercised consider-
able pressure against Dankl's southern wing; all their attacks, how-
ever, were beaten off.
On the 2Oth the main body of the Austro-Hungarian yth Cav.
Div. came into action on Bredow's right, and the 4ist Honved Inf.
Div. from the III. Army, on the II. Corps' left; and the Russians in
this part of the front thereupon fell back before this corps and Bre-
dow's div. to an entrenched position on the line Brody (on the
Kamienna)-Wasni6w-Kobylany. The pursuers worked forward to
this on the 24th. Nothing of moment occurred in the centre and on
the northern wing of Woyrsch's army, or on the fronts of Kovess's
army group and the German IX. Army.
The Russian attempt to break through in the mountain area N. of
Kielce, to relieve the pressure on their retiring troops N. of the
Vistula, had thus failed; 6,300 prisoners had been lost.
S. of the Vistula there now began the violent struggle prepared
for since the I2th, which in the battle of Przemysl, was to introduce
the second phase of the great spring campaign in Galicia.
The Battle of Przemysl (May 24- June 6). On May 24 the attack
by Mackensen's army, which had been planned four days earlier,
began along the Sklo in an E. and S.E. direction. At the same time
the II. and III. Armies were to advance in a N.E. direction along
the Mosciska-Przemysl road, with the object of driving the Russian
field army away from the fortress from the S. The IV. Army, secur-
ing the San crossing at Sieniawa, was to direct its main effort against
the strong Russian positions in the angle between the San and the
Vistula about Rudnik and Machow, while the Southern Army was
to continue its attacks in the Drohobycz-Stryj area. As early as
the 24th the XI. Army forced back the enemy along all the front of
attack. The German XLI. and Austro-Hungarian Corps, on this
and the following days, accomplished the brilliant feat of storming
Radymno, which the Russians had erected into a powerful bridge-
head by means of three exceptionally strong lines connected with
the northern defences of Przemysl.
A violent and extremely effective artillery preparation begun
early in the morning made it possible to take Ostrow and Radymno
on the 25th, and finally for the VI. Corps to capture the bridge-head
of Zagrody. The Russians fled over the San in complete disorder.
By the premature destruction of the bridge over the river, 21,000
of them were cut off, and fell into the hands of the victors, who
also captured 39 guns and 40 machine-guns.
By the evening of the 25th Mackensen's attacking wedge had been
driven forward on the E. bank of the San to the line Radwa-Zapalow
(on the Lubaczowka)-Laski-Lazy. On the W. bank the Bavarian
nth and German ngth Divs. had already on the 24th reached the
heights S.W. of Zablotce. On the 26th the XLI. Corps succeeded in
gaining possession of the S. end of Swiete on the W. bank of the
San, while the VI. Corps took the villages of Nienowice and Chotyniec.
The Guard established itself on the line Zaleska Wola-Zapalow.
The Russians had made every effort to check Mackensen's
advance, particularly by means of violent counter-attacks at night,
but in vain. Mackensen's advance had progressed so far to the E.
that Przemysl was now encircled from the north. He proceeded to
consolidate his positions in this area, partly in order to counter a
Russian offensive which was just beginning, partly in order to
await the moment when the II. and III. Armies should be able to
deliver a direct assault on Przemysl from the south.
The right wing of the II. Army and the whole of the III. contin-
ued their attacks on the 24th with the utmost energy. On the pre-
vious night a Russian counter-attack had pressed the XVIII. Corps
back a little, but on the morning of the 25th the position was restored,
largely owing to the arrival of the I3th Landwehr Inf. Div.
Field-Marshal-Lt. Schmidt's group (yth Inf. Div. of the IV.
Corps and the XVIII. Corps) attacking on the left wing against
Mosciska, gained some small successes, but the German Beskiden
Corps farther to the left made no advance on this day. On the
26th it was able to storm two hills near Husakow, but as against this
all the efforts of Schmidt's group broke down before the strong
Russian positions, Which were in part concreted and consisted in
places of seven successive lines of trenches. Owing to the lack of
heavy, artillery the attack here could progress only by systematic
866
DUNAJEC-SAN, BATTLES OF THE
sapping, and in this manner it had, by the 28th, worked its way up
to the Russian wire entanglements.
Meanwhile the Russians had resolved on a counter-offensive with
superior forces against the S. wing of the IV. Army. Their plan was
to advance from the N. and N.E. over the San at Sieniawa and to
the N.W. of it, and thus to put a term to Mackensen's progress.
On the 2yth the strongly reenforced III. Caucasian Corps (Gen.
Irmanov) delivered a surprise attack upon the Sieniawa bridge-head.
The Austro-Hungarian loth Div., consisting in part of untrust-
worthy Czech troops, gave way, and was thrown back to the \V. bank
of the San and the Lower Lubaczowka, losing 9,000 prisoners, 9
guns and 4 machine-guns. Strong reenforcements hurried forward
from other divisions succeeded in stiffening the badly weakened right
wing of the army on the W. bank of the San, and in averting the
menace to Mackensen's left flank. On his front also the Russians
on the 2yth delivered unexpected but unsuccessful attacks against
the Lubaczowka and the positions of the VI. and XLI. Corps at
Chotyniec and Starzawa.
On the 28th the Russians renewed their attacks in this area and
on the San. On the Lubaczowka they succeeded in penetrating the
lines held by the German X. Corps, but were driven out by a flank-
ing movement. On the next day they again delivered strong as-
saults in the Sieniawa area and made vain attempts to pass the San.
The N. wing of the IV. Army, in conjunction with the I. Army
on its left (now under Kirchbach, in place of Dankl, who had been
appointed to the command in Tirol), moved forward on the 24th to
attack the fortified line Machow-Rudnik, and by the 26th had
forced the Russians back to the S. of Grebow. The Russian attack
at Sieniawa, however, necessitated the immediate withdrawal of
forces to strengthen the right wing of the IV. Army and the cessa-
tion of the N. wing's offensive. On the 3Oth, therefore, there was a
temporary cessation of activity; at the same time indications were
observed of a renewed Russian blow against the inner flanks of the
IV. and XI. Armies. The Supreme Army Command gave expres-
sion to this fear in instructions to these armies to devote special care
to the strengthening of their positions and to hold reserves in readi-
ness on their threatened wings. The III. and II. Armies were mean-
time to pursue their attacks.
During the following days, from May 30 to June 3, Przemysl was
stormed (see PRZEMYSL). Throughout this period hard fighting was
also taking place immediately S.E. of the fortress and on the San
between Przemysl and Rudnik. In the latter area it was the Rus-
sians who took the initiative. Since the capture of the Sieniawa
bridge-head by the III. Caucasian Corps, it became clear that strong
forces were being concentrated against the XI. Army, and that the
Russian IX. Corps in the LHanow-Rudnik area was being reenforced.
The XIV. and XV. Corps of the Russian IV. Army had been
brought over the Vistula to the area Sandomierz-Nisko.
In front of the Austro-Hungarian IV. Army and the northern
wing of the German XI. Army (in all, n| inf. and 2 cav. divs.)
stood the whole of the Russian III. Army (some 20 inf. and 4 cav.
divs., with 6 militia brigades). The Russians appeared to be plan-
ning an energetic counter-attack; on June 2 the Austro-Hungarian
IX. and XIV. Corps had had to repulse heavy attacks and to pre-
vent attempts to cross the San.
On the evening of June I the 8th Inf. Div. on the left wing of the
XIV. Corps W. of Rudnik had been hard pressed and forced to fall
back to its next line of defence ; all attacks on the 2nd were beaten
off, but there was danger of a Russian break-through just W. of
Rudnik, as the whole XIV. Corps in conjunction with the IX.
Corps had been pressed back to the line running from the heights W.
of Tarnagora, by Jezowa to Jata, where it came into touch with the
right wing of the VIII. Corps which was bent back on the line
Stany-Przyszow. In the case of this latter corps nothing worth
mentioning occurred. All attacks on the Lubaczowka were repulsed
by the German X. and Guard Corps, on the northern wing of
Mackensen's army.
On the following day the IV. Army front continued quiet, the
troops fortifying their new defensive line, which was not attacked.
The fall of Przemysl having freed troops of the III. Army for use
elsewhere, the Austrian X. Corps (24th and 25th Divs.) was hastily
dispatched to Lancut and Rzeszow, to reenforce the IV. Army.
Troops were also dispatched to the XI. Army, the German 22nd
Div. to Lancut, the 8th Bavarian Div. to Radymno, the German
XXVI. Corps to Jaroslaw, and the loyth Div. to Przeworsk.
On the 4th the Russians renewed their massed attacks against
the IV. Army, but these were all repelled with heavy loss. The 59th
Regt. near Tarnagora repulsed an attack by the four regiments of
the Russian 6lst Inf. Div. The northern wing of the XI. Army
also dealt successfully with a series of Russian attacks delivered as
late as the night of the 4th. On this day the Russians' power of
attack seemed to have exhausted itself. They had suffered enor-
mous losses and the driving-back of the Austro-Hungarian XIV.
Corps was the only success they had to show. Only on the 6th did
strong forces from the Russian VIII. Army once more attempt a
counter-attack on Mackensen's eastern front; but this did not suc-
ceed in preventing the establishment of the XLI. Corps on the line
Starzawa-Czerniawa. On the front of the IV. Army all was quiet
on June 4. The Russian plan of holding the San line, and relieving
their hard-pressed VIII. Army by a powerful counter-offensive in
the Rudnik area, had thus failed.
While Przemysl was being invested and captured Puhallo's and
Bohm's armies were engaged with Brussilov's left wing S.E. of the
fortress. The former had taken over the III. Army from Boroeyic,
who on May 24 was put in command of the V. Army against
Italy. Early on June 2 Bohm made an energetic attack in con-
junction with the German Beskiden Corps on the right wing of
the III. Army, but on this day met with no success. Only by slow
degrees and step by step could the divisions of the II. Army work
their way forward up to the strong hostile positions. On the ;jrd
the Beskiden Corps succeeded in breaking through the Russian
lines at Husakow and in establishing itself on the heights W. of
Myslatycze, while the divisions of the XVII. Corps in touch with it
to the W. gained a firm footing on the crest N.W. of Husakow.
The success of the attack was greater next day. In conjunction
with the XI. Army the XVII. Corps pushed forward to the heights
E. of Wola Locka, and there met with strong resistance. The
Beskiden Corps was engaged by the evening against the hostile
positions W. of Czyski and N. of Rakosc (S.W. of Mosciska), where
it connected with the left-wing corps <5f the II. Army, which had
itself done excellent work in the area to the S. of the Beskiden Corps
and in conjunction with it.
Battle of Stryj, and Fighting^ on the Pruth and Dniester (May 24-
Jun? 75). Simultaneously with the attacks of the IV., XL, III.
and II. Armies, there began on May 24 on the German Southern
Army front a 48 hours' intense artillery preparation, which was fol-
lowed by the actual attack on the morning of the 26th. The front of
Linsingen's army extended from Hruszow on the Bystrycza E. of
Drohobycz, S.W. of Stryj, and E. of Bolechow to the Dolina area.
The 5 inf. divs. of Shtcherbachev's XI. Russian Army were opposed
by 8 inf. divs. and 3 independent brigades.
The results of the first day's operations were brilliant. Field-
Marshal Szurmay's corps on the left stormed the hostile positions
at Gaje, while the 38th Honved Inf. Div. and the left wing of Gen.
Count Bothmer's German Corps in touch with it pressed forward
successfully before Stryj. Hofmann's Austro-Hungarian corps also
made progress N. of Dolina. Gen. Gerok's XXIV. German Reserve
Corps fighting on the right wing to the S.W. of Dolina, on the other
hand, beat off all attacks. As on the second day, however, the
Russians everywhere maintained their strong positions with the
utmost stubbornness, the attack was brought to a standstill, and
recourse had to be made to sapping, as on the II. Army front.
During the next few days the Russians endeavoured to clear their
front by a series of strong counter-attacks mostly delivered by night
against Hofmann's Austro-Hungarian corps; and they succeeded
by the morning of the 3Oth in forcing it back behind the Swica to
the line Lisowice Hoszow. Here, however, their progress was
checked by Hofmann and the 24th Reserve Corps.
On the 3 1st Bothmer's energetic attack on Stryj turned the scale
of victory in favour of the Southern Army. Advancing in conjunc-
tion with Szurmay's S. wing from the Holobutow area, he defeated
the enemy, taking 9,050 prisoners, 8 guns and 15 machine-guns
and, pushing on through Stryj, established himself on the line Liso-
wice-E. of Stryj-S. of Brigidau.
The effect of this was immediately felt on the Southern Army
front. Szurmay's left wing, on June I, stormed the Russian line
N.E. of Drohobycz, and pursuing by Kolodruby and Mikolajow,
drove the enemy back on Medenice. The 1st Cav. Div. and 5 bat-
talions of the II. Army, which had joined in the attack, were placed
under the Southern Army. On June 2 Bothmer's corps took Lisia-
tycze, but its 1st Div., fighting E. of Stryj, made no progress. The
38th Honved Inf. Div. and Szurmay's right wing during the night
drove the Russians back to the Dniester.
The Supreme Army Command now proposed, while securing its
flank on the Dniester, to push Bothmer's corps and the main body
of Szurmay's corps eastwards towards Zurawno against the flank
of the Russian IX. Army, thus relieving the pressure on Pflanzer
Baltin. The execution of this scheme produced excellent results.
Yielding to Bothmer's pressure, the whole Russian line was in retreat
early on the 4th. While Szurmay on the line of the bridge-heads of
Mikolajow and Kolodruby undertook to guard the flank facing the
Dniester, Bothmer advanced on Zurawno with the 38th Honved
and German 1st and Guard Divs. By the evening Hofmann and
Gerok, taking up the pursuit towards Kalisz, had reached the line
Zawadka-Holyn. Here on the 5th the right-wing corps of the Rus-
sian IX. Army stood stubbornly at bay, while Bothmer was already
preparing to force the Dniester at Zurawno, which he had taken by
a coup de main. Meanwhile the 1st Cav. Div. had advanced by
Tejsarow on Zydaczow, and on the W. flank Szurmay repulsed pow-
erful counter-attacks by the Russian XXII. Corps.
On the 6th Gerok and Hofmann broke the resistance of Lechitski's
right wing at Holyn and Zawadka, and pursued the XI. Corps,
which had been in action there, by Kalisz on towards Wojnilow.
Bothmer, with the 38th Honved Inf. Div. and the Guard Div.,
stormed the heights N. of the Dniester, and on the 7th, after violent
fighting with parts of the Russian XVIII. Corps, forced the Rus-
sians to retire from Nowoszyny. The 38th Honved Div. reached
Bukaczowce that evening. On the 8th Hofmann's troops forced
DUNAJEC-SAN, BATTLES OF THE
867
the passage of the Lomnica, and pressed on towards Halicz and
Jezupol, while Gerok entered Stanislau
The task of the Southern Army, to roll up the hostile line in front
of Pflanzer's army by an attack eastwards, was more than fulfilled
when it had reached the line Halicz-Stanislau. The right wing of
the Russian IX. Army had indeed been in retreat since June 9.
Pflanzer-Baltin's army had been forced back behind the Pruth
by the Russian counter-offensive in the middle of May, and only at
Kolomea did it continue to hold a position somewhat in the nature
of a bridge-head on the N. bank. Its line ran from Delatyn, which
it enclosed N.E. of Pasieczna to the Perehinsko area, where it
touched Linsingen's right. On May 21 the Russians had stopped
their advance and entrenched themselves along their whole front:
they had some 1 1 inf. and 8 cav. divs. as against 8 Austro-Hungarian
inf. and 5 cav. divs., with 5 independent brigades. On June I they
delivered an unsuccessful attack against Pflanzer's left-wing corps
under Field-Marshal-Lt. Count Schonburg; and next day they
turned against the neighbouring corps, the XIII., S. of Nadworna,
which also held its ground. On the 3rd, however, the Russian 2nd
Rifle Div. managed to force a passage to the S. bank of the Pruth
at Sadzawka, but was thrown back to the Pruth next day, after
heavy fighting, by the hastily reenforced Eastern Group under
Field-Marshal-Lt. von Czibulka.
In view of the change which had meantime taken place in the
situation on the German Southern Army front, the Russians seemed
determined to press forward in the direction of Delatyn, in order
to secure a fresh success against the VII. Army and to put a stop to
the Southern Army's progress. During the whole of the 5th they
assailed the 5th Inf. Div. and Czibulka's group with the utmost
violence, and forced the latter back to the line Mlodiatyn-Peczeni-
czyn. By the evening, however, the Austro-Hungarian troops, reen-
forced by some battalions from the neighbouring groups and by the
8th and loth Cav. Divs , succeeded in driving them back to the line
Kniazdw'or-Mlodiatyn, and in holding this line until the 6th.
At noon on the 4th Pflanzer-Baltin, hearing that the Russian
XI. Army was withdrawing on its whole front, issued orders to
Count Schonburg, in command of his left-wing group, and to Gen.
Baron von Rhemen, commanding the XIII. Corps, to assume the
offensive, which would also relieve Czibulka's hard-pressed troops.
Schonburg was to advance eastwards with his main body on Bohorod-
czany, and with his right wing on Solotwina, while Rhemen was
directed on Nadworna and Krasna. By the evening Schonburg had
succeeded in getting forward to the heights S.E. of Maniawa, and
to the line Kryczka-Jablonka-Majdan-Krasna. His advance came
to a standstill on the 5th, but by then the flank attack of the South-
ern Army had begun to make itself felt. During the 6th the Russian
attacks on Rhemen's and Czibulka's front entirely ceased, and in
front of Schonburg's group rearward movements suggested that
the Russian front was about to be withdrawn.
On the yth Pflanzer-Baltin assumed the offensive all along the
line. The Russians were thrown back again over the Pruth at
Sadzawka, and the 3&th Div. pursued them on to the far bank.
The XIII. Corps got well beyond Nadworna, while Schonburg con-
tinued his attack in an easterly direction, and by nightfall stood on
the Bystrycza Nadwornianska at Grabowice. Marschall's corps
took Zablotow, and Korda's XI. Corps and the 5th and 6th Cav.
Divs. crossed the Pruth below the confluence of the Czeremosz.
On the 8th Schonburg reached the Ottynia area, while Rhemen,
Czibulka and Krautwald (III. Corps) reached the line Chlebiczyn-
Korszow Kamionka Wk. Gwozdziecand the area E. of Wolczkowce.
The right wing was advancing victoriously beyond the Pruth be-
tween Czernowitz and Sniatyn.
The gth saw further successes; the centre and left wing forced
the Russians back from the line of heights N.E. of Ottynia and
Obertyn and S.W. of Horodenka. At this date Field-Marshal Lt.
von Kaiser assumed command in place of Gen. von Marschall, who
had been appointed to a command in the Southern Army.
Meantime, howeyer, events on the Southern Army's front had
taken an unfavourable turn, which had its repercussion on the
operations of the VII. Army. Gerok's corps and the German
5th Cav. Div. had to be detached from the right of the Southern
Army to its left, which was in a perilous position. This transfer,
together with the fact that Schonburg and Rhemen were pushing
eastwards, could not fail to create a gap in the area of Stanislau
which would involve considerable danger to the inner wings of the
Southern and VII. Armies if the Russians became aware of it in
time. The direction of the VII. Army's advance, therefore, had to
be changed from E. to N. Schonburg and Rhemen were to move to
the Mariampol-Nizniow area, Czibulka to Potok Zloty, Krautwald
to Czernelica, Kaiser to the adjoining Zaleszczycki area, while Korda
was to attack in the direction of Toporoutz.
The Russians had meantime resolved on a counter-offensive
against the Southern Army. Bothmer's advance in the Zurawno
area, the possible loss of the Mikolajow bridge-head, and an advance
by the Southern Army in the direction of Lcmberg, would have a
serious influence on the Russian situation, both in the battle of
Przemysl and on the Lower Dniester.
On the 7th the right of the XI. Russian Army reenforced by 2
divisions delivered a series of fierce attacks against Szurmay's
group, which were driven back by the 8th to the line Dcrzow-
Bilcze-Medenice. At the same time a similar counter-blow was
delivered against Bothmer in the Zurawno area; he held his ground
successfully on the 8th, but on the morrow the superiority of the
enemy on his front was so overwhelming that he withdrew to his
old positions behind the Dniester. Szurmay's group also, attacked
on both wings, had again to retire, and was withdrawn to the line
Ruda-Tejsarow-Wolica-Letnia Dobrowlany-Hruszow.
Faced with the urgent necessity of assisting his hard-pressed left
wing, Gen Linsingen left on his right wing before Stanislau and
Halicz only Marschall's group and Hofmann's Corps. Gerok's
corps (igth Inf. Div. and 38th Honved Inf. Div.) was entrusted
with the defence of the Dniester between Ostrow and Zurawno, while
Bothmer, with 1st Inf. Div., the 3rd Guards Div., the 48th Reserve
Div., and the 4Oth Honved Inf. Div., counter-attacked from the
Salatycze Zurawno area in the direction of Ruda and Zydaczow.
Meanwhile Szurmay's group, covered on its left by the 4th Cav.
Div., had, without any assistance from other troops, forced back the
enemy to Litynia, and assumed the offensive all along its front.
On the nth the 1st Inf. Div. stormed Zurawno, and the 3rd
Guard and 4Oth Honved Inf. Div. approached Zydaczow, while
Marschall's group repulsed all attacks on Stanislau, and Hofmann's
Corps prepared to carry Halicz.
The Russians, however, who had observed all their preparations,
were ready with the necessary counter-measures. Reenforced by
contingents from the VI. Corps, they made an attempt to break
through Szurmay's front along the road to Stryj, but all their attacks
failed. On the 4th, reSnforced by two new divisions (33rd and 44th)
of the XXI. Corps, they again attacked all along the front, and
Szurmay's troops had once more to be withdrawn.
Meanwhile, the VII. Army's offensive northwards had met with
great success. On the right wing Korda's corps threw the Russians
back over the heights of Brdo Horosdyszcze on to the Bessarabian
frontier, while Kaiser's group, despite fierce resistance, took the
village of Zaleszczyki and reached the N. bank of the Dniester at
Zezawa; the centre stormed the heights S. of Czernelica, while
Rhemen and Schonburg on the left wing occupied Jezierzany and
the area S. of Tysmienica.
On the 1 2th these two corps crossed the line Tysmienica Tlumacz,
and then moved against the fortifications of Nizniow, which were
stormed after a short artillery preparation on the I5th. On this
date the S. bank of the Dniester was in German-Austrian possession
from Mariampol to Kosmierzyn, where units of the I5th Inf. Div.
(XIII. Corps) crossed to the N. bank. After a short but violent
resistance the Russians were driven back, and the advance was
resumed on Potok Zloty.
Korda's corps on the I2th drove the Russians over the frontier,
and pursued them by way of Chotin and Wladiczna to beyond
Nowosielica. During the pursuit the 6th Cav. Div. encountered hos-
tile resistance at Raszkow, which was quickly overcome. As any
further penetration over the frontier, however, involved the danger,
not only of being as an isolated advance, unsuccessful, but of open-
ing too wide a gap in the line near Zaleszczycki, the Austro-German
front was withdrawn over the frontier on the I5th.
A favourable influence on the situation on the right wing had been
exercised by the break-through achieved by Mackensen's Army
Group, after the battle of Przemysl, at Mosciska and Lubaczow.
The Break-through at Mosciska and Lubaczow (June 12-15).
After the fall of Przemysl, the armies of Mackensen, Puhallo and
Bohm pursued Brussilov's army with rapidly succeeding attacks
until June 5. On the heights W. and S.W. of Mosciska, as far as
Wielki Bloto on the one hand and on the Middle and Lower Lubac-
zowka on the other, Brussilov hoped again to hold up the Austro-
German advance. After Mackensen's capture of Starzawa on the
5th the attack came to a standstill before the strong Russian posi-
tions. Here, as before Przemysl, the II. Army had recourse to
sapping, which by the I2th brought it sufficiently far forward for
the assault of the enemy lines.
Mackensen had now assumed command of the IV., XI. and II.
Armies; the III. Army had been broken up, its X. and XVII. Corps
going to the IV. Army after the fall of Przemysl, and the Beskiden
Corps to the II. Army. He determined to make use of the breathing-
space for a thorough preparation of the attack. Reserves had to be
brought up to strengthen the armies, which in the matter of material
also had to be made again fit to take the field by bringing up a suffi-
cient store of munitions and by establishing a new base of supplies.
Mackensen's Army Group was organized on June 10 as follows:
The IV. Army (Archduke Joseph Ferdinand) stood on the front
held by it during the Russian counter-offensive; the VIII. and XIV.
Corps on the left wing to S. of Tarnagora ; the X. Corps, brought up
from the III. Army, extended thence to Stare Miasto, and the IX.
Corps from Stare Miasto to the Wislok. S. of that river as far as
the heights at the confluence of the Lubaczowka, stood the XVII.
Corps, also from the III. Army. The total strength of the Army
amounted to 14 inf. and r| cav. divs. From the Lower Lubaczowka
to S. of Czerniawa by way of Zapalow, E. of Chotyniec and Star-
zawa, the XI. Army held the line. It was composed from N.W.
to S.E. of the combined corps, the German X., XXII. and Guard
Corps, the Austro-Hungarian VI. and the German XLI. Corps
in all 14 inf. divs. The positions of Bohm's II. Army, which ad-
joined it, extended from S. of Czerniawa in a circle W. of and S.W.
868
DUNCAN DYEING
of Mosciska to the S. edge of the Wielki Bloto. This army com-
prised the Beskiden Corps, the Austro-Hungarian IV., XIX., XVI 1 1.
and V. Corps 14 divs. and I Landsturm Hussar brigade.
The Russian front was held by the III. Army from the Vistula
to the upper Lubaczowka S. of Zapalow, and by the VII. Army
thence to the Wielki Bloto. In all there were 41 inf. and 6 cav. divs.
and 9 Reichwehr brigades of which, however, on June 14 two divi-
sions of the XXI. Corps had been transferred to the W. flank of
their XI. Army for the counter-offensive against Szurmay.
The general attack by all three armies began on the I3th. That
of the IV. Army opened at 5:40 A.M. on the 1 2th with a powerful
artillery preparation against the Russian positions at Sieniawa. In
the course of the day Lt.-Gen. Behr's combined corps on the N.
wing of the XI. Army succeeded in passing the Lubaczowka, and
the Austrian 26th Landwehr Inf. Div. crossed the San at Ubieszyn
and Lezachow, S. of Sieniawa, and finally got possession of the last-
named place, which was held despite Russian counter-attacks.
At dawn on the I3th the XVII. Corps stormed the strong points
of the hostile line at Sieniawa and Jukowa Gora, E. of it. These
strong points were technically strengthened. Units of the IX. Corps
had meanwhile passed to the E. bank of the San, including the whole
of the loth Div., which came into action in support of the XVII.
Corps. On the same day Mackensen and Bohm opened the main
attack. The Austro-Hungarian VI. Corps succeeded in pressing
forward to Malastow, and to the N. of this the Guard advanced
victoriously on Krakowiec. On the other hand, the II. Army at
first made little headway until in the night of the I4th the suc-
cesses of the XI. Army on the previous day began to have an effect.
As early as the evening of the I3th the Russians began their retreat,
which on the morning of the I4th became general. On this day the
XVII. Corps of the IV. Army pushed forward on Cewkow and the
IX. on Tarnogrod, the northerly advance of the latter being intended
to facilitate the advance of the adjoining X. Corps over the San.
The objectives of the XI. Army were, to the E., the line Sakny-
Krakowiec, and to the N., in conjunction with the IV. Army, the
area S. of Lubaczow. The II. Army was to advance beyond Mos-
ciska. By the evening of the I4th the Russians had fallen back behind
that town to a new defensive line which they had prepared on the
heights W. of Sadowa Wisznia, at Krakowiec and Oleszyce. This
line, however, also fell on the I5th. On the previous day the VI.
Corps had for the second time succeeded in breaking through the
Russian front at Krakowiec, and on the following day the German
XXII. Corps did the same in the Niemirow direction, and the Ger-
man X. Corps in that of Oleszyce and Lubaczow. On the IV. Army
front the IX. Corps captured the point d'appui of Pioskorowice,
while the XVII. Corps exploited its success at Sieniawa. The Rus-
sian resistance also gave way in front of Bohm's army, which on the
I5th had stormed the Russian stronghold W. of Sadowa Wisznia.
On the evening of the I5th and on the i6th, the Russians were in
retreat along the whole front.- They had once more been beaten
decisively in the battles of Przemysl, Mosciska, and the Lubaczowka,
and were now in full flight towards Lemberg. There existed now
between the victorious Austro-Germans and the capital of Galicia
only a single line of defence on the Grodek and Janow marshes of
the Wereszyca, on which the 1914 battles of Lemberg and Rawa
Ruska had been fought, and on this line the Russians once more
attempted to make a stand.
Their losses since the commencement of the spring campaign in
Galicia had already amounted to no less than 971 officers and
391,000 men captured, with 304 guns, 763 machine-guns, and vast
quantities of other material. (E. J.)
DUNCAN, SARA JEANNETTE, MRS. EVERARD COTES (1861-
), British-Canadian author, was born at Brantford, Can.,
in 1 86 1, the daughter of Charles Duncan, merchant, and married
Everard Cotes, Anglo-Indian journalist, late managing-director
of the Eastern News Agency, in 1890. She began her literary
work as a journalist in connexion with the Washington Post and
afterwards the Toronto Globe and Montreal Star, contributing to
the latter letters from Japan and the East, afterwards republished
as A Social Departure (1890). During her long residence with her
husband in India she made a considerable reputation as a
novelist of Anglo-Indian life, notably in His Honour and a Lady
(1896); Set in Authority (1906); The Burnt Offering (1909) and
The Pool in the Desert, a volume of short stories (1903). Her
lighter work includes A Voyage of Consolation (1898); Those
Delightful Americans (1902) and His Royal Happiness (1915),
dramatized and produced in London March 1919. She also
wrote The Imperialist (1904), a Canadian novel.
DUNSANY, EDWARD JOHN MORETON DRAX PLUNKETT,
i8TH BARON (1878- ), Irish author, was born in London
July 24 1878 and educated at Eton and Sandhurst. He entered
the army, holding a commission in the ist batt. Coldstream
Guards, and served in the South African War. He was transferred
to the Reserve Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and was wounded in
the World War, April 25 1916. He unsuccessfully contested
W. Wilts, in the Conservative interest in 1906.
Amongst his prose works may be mentioned The Gods of Pegana
(1905); Time and the Gods (1906); The Sword of Welleran (1908);
A Dreamer's Tales (1910); Tales of War (1918); Unhappy Far-off
Things (1919) ; Tales of Three Hemispheres (1920). His plays include
The Glittering Gate (1909); King Argimenes (lOIl); The Gods of the
Mountain (1911); The Golden Doom (1912) ; A Night at anlnn (1916)
and// (1921).
DUPUIS, JEAN (1828-1912;, French traveller, was born at
Saint- Just-la-Pendue, near Raonne, France, Dec. 7 1828, and
was educated at Tarare (dept. Rhone). In 1858 he went to
Egypt as a trader, and from thence to China. His trading jour-
neys took him into many previously unexplored parts of southern
China, and in 1871-2 his efforts opened up the Song-koi or Red
river to commerce. The foundations of the French possessions
in Tongking were thereby laid and Dupuis did much to assist
in the conquest of the country (see 27.6 seq.). His explorations
are described in the following works: L'ouveriure du jleuve
Rouge au commerce (1879); Les origines de la question du Tong-
kin (1896); Le Tong-kin et I' intervention franqaise (1898) and
Le Tong-kin de 1872 a 1886 (1910). Dupuis was in 1881 awarded
the Delalande Guerineau prize by the Academy of Sciences in
Paris. He died at Monaco Nov. 28 1912.
DURBAN, Natal, S. Africa (see 8.696). Pop. (1911) 34,880
whites and 53,118 natives, Asiatic and coloured. In 1918 the
whites numbered 41,865 (with suburbs 48,413), natives (esti-
mated) 26,000 Asiatics; and other coloured persons, 23,750; total
91,615. Durban's importance and prosperity depends upon
its port (Port Natal), but since 1910 it has become a manufactur-
ing place of some note. It is the most compact of the larger
S. African towns, the borough covering only 12 square miles.
Chief among modern buildings are the new Town Hall (opened
1910) and the Law Courts. The latter face the Victoria Embank-
ment, a fine thoroughfare along Bay Beach, i.e. the Bay of Natal.
At the Point, overlooking the eastern entrance to the harbour, an
equestrian statue of Dick King, commemorative of his great ride to
seek help for the infant settlement, was erected in 1915. From Ocean
Beach a semi-circular pier, over 900 ft. long, encloses a bathing place
free from sharks. Ocean Beach, with its esplanade and park and
fine hotels, forms the chief attraction during the Durban winter
season (May to Sept.) when the mean maximum temperature is
76" F. For horse-racing fixtures Durban ranks only second to
Johannesburg among the cities of South Africa.
Vessels are constantly engaged in dredging the bar at the entrance
to the harbour; the lowest depth of water at the entrance is 36 ft.,
the minimum depth at the quayside varies from 22 to 30 ft. The
harbour is equipped with every facility for the rapid loading and
unloading of ships. At Congella, at the N.E. end of the harbour,
some 220 ac. of land had been reclaimed and 3,460 ft. of wharfage
provided by 1920. Here timber and bulky goods are handled. Con-
gella is also the centre for manufactures ; it has cold-storage accom-
modation and does a large export trade. It was, however, the devel-
opment of coaling facilities, made practicable by the nearness of the
Natal coalfields, that placed Durban in 1913-4 above Cape Town as
premier port of the Union. The coal bunkered at Durban, 1,196,000
tons in 1913, rose greatly during the war, but fell to 608,000 tons in
1918-9. In the sameyear, however, the export of coal rose to 704,000
tons compared with 261,000 in 1917-8. The rival to Durban for coal
exports in South Africa is not Cape Town but Delagoa Bay, which
exports the coal from the Transvaal mines. In 1918, in which year
there was a great falling off in the number of ships visiting the port,
the total tonnage of cargo landed, shipped and transhipped at Dur-
ban was 2,373,000 it had been 2,801,000 in 1916. In 1919 shipping
increased, the total net tonnage entering the port being 2,959,000,
of which 2,562,000 tons were British.
In 1910 a wireless station was opened at Durban; the first in South
Africa. It has a normal range of 300 m. by day and 1,000 m. by
night. In 1918 year ending July 31 the rateable valuation of
Durban was 12,378,000, the revenue 1,095,000 and indebtedness
3,135,000. In that year the net profit on municipal trading was
110,000; in 1920 the municipal valuation was 13,546,000.
DUVENECK, FRANK (1848-1919), American painter (see
8. 737), died in Cincinnati Jan. 3 1919. He was awarded a special
gold medal at the San Francisco Exposition in 1915, and the
same year he presented to the Cincinnati museum a large collec-
tion of his own works.
DYEING (see 8.744). The changes which occurred in the
practice of dyeing during the years 1900-21 were not numerous
DYEING
869
or important, any real progress having been checked by the
World War, while in the rush to make up for loss of time post-war
developments have also been few and far between.
As far as cotton-dyeing is concerned the most striking feature
was the continued demand for the fast colours produced by means
of vat dyes (indanthrene dyes, thioindigo red, etc.) which were
introduced prior to 1914. These colouring matters, of which a
wide range is now available, are being extensively used, in spite
of their high price, for dyeing casement cloths, warp or weft
threads to form the pattern in " grey " or unbleached piece goods
which are subsequently bleached in the piece, and for the pro-
duction of the fastest class of work in calico printing. Effects are
thus obtained, even in bright colours and tints, in a degree of
fastness formerly unknown, and this circumstance should go far
to strengthen public confidence in the permanence of high-class
coloured cotton goods.
Of colouring matters produced on the fibre, aniline black ' is by
far the most important, and is used in increasing quantity. This
black may be produced on the fibre by different methods, but the
one almost universally employed to-day is a modification of Light-
foot's original process patented as long ago as 1863. Commercially
known as a " copper black," it is obtained by impregnating the
material with a liquor containing aniline salt, copper sulphate and
chlorate of soda, and, after ageing at a moderate temperature, run-
ning the goods through a hot dilute solution of bichromate of soda.
This latter treatment constitutes the improvement on Lightfoot's
process.
The production of insoluble azo dyes on the fibre, which was orig-
inated by Holliday in 1880 and has since been improved upon, is
largely employed especially for the brilliant para-nitraniline red, a
colour which also lends itself to the production of cheap but very
striking resist effects in calico printing. The substitution of the
anilide of beta-oxynaphthoic acid (naphthol A.S.) for beta-naphthol
in the " prepare " may be regarded as a distinct recent advance in
this class of dyeing, for the resulting colours are not only fuller and
more level but the new colouring matters are tinctorially about
twice as strong as those obtained with beta-naphthol. A still further
improvement has recently come about by which the number of
operations required to produce the colour is reduced to padding and
steaming. To this end the fabric is padded with a mixture of naph-
thol A.S. and a nitrosamine (the nitrosamine obtained from diazo-
tized ortho nitro para-toluidine) and the colour developed by steam-
ing in a rapid ager. It appears likely that this class of colour will have
considerable application in the future.
Among the direct cotton colours a complete range is now available
(of the benzo fast red and other types) which yield shades of re-
markable fastness to light, a property which was rarely shown by
earlier representatives of this class of dye; For goods such as case-
ment cloths this property is naturally an advantage, for the colours
are not only easier to apply than the vat colours but are considerably
cheaper. It should, however, be borne in mind that although they
possess fastness to light they are liable to bleed in washing as badly
as their predecessors.
Other improvements in cotton-dyeing relate mainly to labour-
saving devices in the dyeing of yarn. Dyeing in the cop, " cheese "
or on the beam (for warps) is more largely practised than formerly
and various appliances are employed for the purpose. The principle
in all of these is, however, the same, i.e. instead of the yarn being
moved about in or passed through the dye liquor, the material to
be dyed is held in situ and the dye liquor is caused to percolate evenly
by pumping or other suitable contrivance. It is easy to understand
that only such colouring matters as can be obtained in perfect
solution can be employed for this kind of dyeing. The process re-
quires skilful management to get good results, but if such can be
achieved with certainty- it not only saves much labour but the yarn
remains in a better condition. In hank dyeing and washing the turn-
ing of the hanks to ensure uniformity of treatment requires much
hand labour. This is now largely dispensed with by the use of suit-
able machinery for the purpose.
As regards wool-dyeing no great changes have taken place
in the ordinary run of bright and most fancy colours, which are
mainly got with acid dyes. For blacks and browns and other
sombre colours which were formerly dyed almost exclusively
with mordant colours (and are still so dyed for the best class of
work) , two classes of azo dyes have come into prominence which
are rendered faster by means of chromate or bichromate of soda.
Diamond black may be taken as a type of the first class. The wool
is dyed with this colour in the ordinary way in an acid (acetic) bath,
and at the end of the operation bichromate of soda is added to the
1 Through an oversight the copper sulphate (10 parts) was omitted
in the recipe given in 8.751. The total volume of the liquor (200
parts) should also have been stated.
bath and the boiling continued for some time, this additional treat-
ment resulting in a considerable improvement in fastness and at
the same time darkening the shade. Colouring matters of this type
are known in the trade as " after-chrome " colours. The other class
comprises the " meta-chrome " colours, and of these meta-chrome
brown may be taken as typical. The dye-bath is made up with colour-
ing matter, chromate of soda and ammonium sulphate. When the
temperature of the bath approaches the boil ammonia is given off
and the bath gradually becomes acid, causing both colouring matter
and some of the chromium to be taken up by the fibre.
As in the case of cotton, machine-dyeing is now largely practised
in dealing with wool in the loose state, in slubbing and in yarn.
Here also a considerable saving in labour is effected and the valuable
qualities of the fibre are much better preserved.
As far as silk -dyeing is concerned what changes have occurred
are not of sufficient importance to merit special mention here.
Artificial silk, especially that obtained from viscose which comes
into the market in ever-increasing quantity, is dyed like cotton,
but requires more care in manipulation since in the wet condition
its tensile strength is considerably diminished.
Effects of the War. During the years preceding 1914 Great
Britain had been drawing roughly nine-tenths of its require-
ments in coal-tar dyestuffs (about 18,000 tons valued at 2,000,000
annually) from abroad mainly from Germany. It was therefore
clear at the outbreak of war that, unless the deficiency could be
made up the British trade in coloured textiles would be severely
handicapped as soon as the stocks in hand were exhausted. As
early as Sept. 1914 a strong committee of British chemical
manufacturers, colour manufacturers and colour users, styled
" The Dyewares Supply Enquiry Committee," was inaugurated
in Manchester under the auspices of the Society of Dyers and
Colourists to discuss ways and means to meet the situation. This
committee held numerous meetings at which various recommen-
dations were made, some of which were ultimately taken up by the
Board of Trade. The cardinal point which it was sought to
elucidate from the start was the wants of the colour users, and to
this end it was sought to make a classification of the imports
before suggesting any definite course of action. The users were
therefore appealed to, but although the majority readily re-
sponded several large users, including two of the large combines,
refused to cooperate and the whole scheme fell through. The list,
which would have been of great use and would not have taken
long to compile, was completed and published at the instance of
the Board of Trade five years later. In the meantime, stocks had
long since become exhausted, and in spite of the enormously
increased activity of the English colour makers and of the timely
assistance of the Swiss colour works, 2 the supply was nothing like
equal to the demand. The enormous profits realized by makers
were largely devoted to extending and improving their works, but
the prices of dyestuffs both artificial and natural nevertheless
soared to unheard-of figures. The shortage of dyestuffs was
brought home to the public by the miserable quality of the colours
in wearing apparel offered for sale. Khaki for the army was dyed
on wool mainly with a colouring matter of the meta-chrome series,
whereas for cotton the old method (in which chromium and iron
salts supply the colour without the use of any dyestuff) was
available, but khaki shades were also dyed largely with sulphide
colours. Indigo for navy clothing was not available in sufficient
amount to go round, and its place was taken on wool by an azo dye
known as coomassie blue. For indigo-blue shades on cotton
sulphide blues were mainly employed.
The principal makers of coal-tar colours in England in 1914
included the following firms: Ivan Levinstein & Co., Blackley,
Manchester; Read Holliday & Co., Huddersfield; Claus & Co.,
Droylsden; The Clayton Aniline Co., Manchester (owned by a
Basle firm and mainly concerned with intermediates); The British
Alizarine Co. of Silvertown; a works at Bromborough owned by a
combine of three German colour works, and a works at EUesmere
Port owned by another German combine. The two latter were
sequestrated by the Board of Trade and subsequently disposed of
2 Seeing that the Swiss colour makers were likely to help the
British textile industry out of their dilemma, the German Govern-
ment stopped supplies of raw materials to Switzerland, and these
were sent from England on the understanding that an equivalent
supply of dyestuffs should be delivered.
870
DYEING
to British manufacturers. In 1915 a company was formed with
Government assistance to take over and extend the works of
Read Holliday & Co. of Huddersfield under the style of British
Dyes, Ltd. The amount of capital was 3,000,000, half of which
was taken up by the Government and the other half largely by
dye users, and it was decided at the time that the principal new
works of the company should be established at Huddersfield,
where a large tract of land for the buildings and yards had been
purchased. Although at the time no efforts were spared to ac-
celerate building and equipment the demand for colours still
largely exceeded supply. Encouraged by the huge profits which
were being made other works soon came into existence in various
parts of the country, and each of these supplied its quota for
users and for export. It may be said that in 1921 the development
of the industry in England had proceeded so far that makers were
in a position to supply a fair proportion of the colouring matters
which were formerly imported at a price. Considering the
difficulties with which the makers had to contend in the way of
having first of all to put up plant for the manufacture of the
necessary intermediate products and then for the colouring
matters themselves, in face of all the engineering and building
restrictions which were accentuated by war conditions, great
credit is due to the organizers and workers alike for this great
achievement. Many processes were of course known to the
chemists in pre-war works, and these offered little difficulty in the
larger output. The intermediate products required for the
manufacture of the azo dyes alone (the largest and most impor-
tant class of the coal-tar colours) had to be first worked out in the
laboratory before being put into operation on the large scale, for
they had previously all (with the exception of aniline and
toluidine) been obtained from Germany. In 1897 a plant was
working in Manchester for the manufacture of two of the most
important of these intermediates beta-naphthol and alpha-
naphthylamine, and German colour makers at that time
actually drew their supplies of the latter product from England.
But it was not many years before they were offering their own
products for sale in England at prices lower than they could be
produced at, with the result that the British manufacture was
given up and imports were made from abroad. What was neces-
sary in the way of preliminary work in the case of intermediates
was naturally also required for the new colouring matters
introduced, and this of course also required not only time but the
undivided attention of a large number of skilled chemists. An-
other difficulty which the British colour makers were up against
was the shortage of acids, especially oil of vitriol and fuming
sulphuric acid or " oleum." This meant the huge additional
burden of having to erect new chambers and contact plant without
which progress would have ceased.
After 1918, the British Government, recognizing the impor-
tance of dye manufacture as a "key" industry to the most
important of the manufacturing industries the textile in-
dustry, and in view of the fact that the colour industry and the
manufacture of high explosives had something in common,
decided to extend their support of dye-making as a national
industry, and a new concern was launched under the style of
"The British Dyestuffs Corporation, Ltd." The new firm in-
cluded British Dyes and Levinstein, Ltd. (which had previously
bought up Claus & Co.), and started off with a capital of
10,000,000. Lord Moulton, who during the whole period
of the war had undertaken the arduous and difficult duty of
supervising the explosives branch of the Ministry of Munitions,
was elected the first chairman of the new company. He possessed
an intimate knowledge of some branches of the colour industry,
and had from the outset taken a keen interest in their war-time
development. The vast new works which have been erected by
the company at Huddersfield are well planned and substantially
built. Once in proper working order they should go far towards
meeting the whole of the requirements of the British textile
industries.
After the signing of peace at Versailles it was not unnatural
that the German colour makers should have desired to re-open
their trade in coal-tar colours with England, and as the British
consumers had been so long accustomed to the excellent products
which they had supplied, German colours again began to be
imported. The legality of this procedure was challenged by the
British Government, who caused a consignment of pyrogallic
acid to be impounded under a Proclamation dated June 25 1919.
But in the test case against Mr. John Brown, trading as Brown
& Fourth, Mr. Justice Sankey held that the Proclamation was
illegal and invalid. Subsequently some thousands of tons of
German-made dyestuffs were imported, and it soon became clear
that the regenerated British industry would receive a severe
check through foreign competition. To obviate this the Dyestuffs
bill, which it had been intended to bring in immediately follow-
ing the Sankey judgment, was prepared and passed somewhat
hurriedly (but not without opposition) through both Houses of
Parliament and came into force on Jan. 15 1921. The Act offers
protection to the colour-manufacturing industry for a period of
ten years, and is worked on the basis that no dyestuff may be
imported which can be satisfactorily made in Great Britain. All
imports in dyestuffs must pass through the hands of a licensing
committee appointed by the Board of Trade. It was difficult to
conjecture how this arrangement would work in the long run, but
unless the prices of the British-made products were to be very
materially reduced from their existing standard they were likely
to constitute a drain on the textile industries which would not
be justified. As long as the Act remains in force internal com-
petition could operate as the only check. The colour users in
England were quite prepared to pay a reasonable price for the
possession of a colour industry of their own, and are large
shareholders in the Dyestuffs Corporation. In this respect there
is a precedent which, though well known in some circles, is not
very common knowledge. About the year 1879 the manu-
facture of alizarine was almost entirely in the hands of the
German works. They formed a combine and demanded an
extortionate price for their products, whereupon the United
Turkey-red Co. and other large British users of alizarine
founded in 1882 the British Alizarine Co., which in spite of all
foreign competition was a flourishing concern from its inception
and has remained so ever since. Had it not been for the existence
of these works (the only alizarine works in the world outside
Germany) the English calico-printing trade would have almost
gone out of existence during the war.
The difficulties which the British textile industry had to face
owing to the shortage of dyestuffs was the lot of all other countries
with a textile industry which were at war with Germany. In
Belgium and France the industry was located almost entirely in
the war zone. Nevertheless the French were not slow to resusci-
tate their old-established colour-making industry. Italy never
had one and was supplied for war purposes either with dyed
material or with dyestuffs largely from England. In Russia a
works was started previous to the revolution under the manage-
ment of Swiss technical chemists with a capital of 1,000,-
ooo. Japan appears to have had a fairly large stock of German
dyes, but before these gave out colour works were started in that
country which are reported to have been worked successfully.
In India the position was very bad, and recourse was had largely
to the indigenous natural dyestuffs, which were, after all, not
very long since, the only dyes used there. The position in the
United States and in Canada was very much the same as in
England. The United States had, however, the advantage of
having come into the war much later, although in 1917 their
stocks of foreign-made dyes must have been at a very low ebb.
Several American colour works of considerable capacity had
existed prior to 1914 and had been protected by a 30% ad
valorem import duty, plus a fixed duty of 7 cents per pound,
on foreign dyestuffs. Without having to appeal to the State for
further assistance, new and important works were started under
the supervision of Swiss or German scientifically and technically
trained chemists, private capital being abundantly supplied
for the purpose.
It has been computed that, taking the world's production of
artificial dyestuffs as 100, the distribution in 1913 was as follows-
Germany 74-1, Switzerland 7, Great Britain 6-5, France 5-4,
DYEING
871
United States 3-3, Austria 1-6, Russia i-i. In view of the great
changes which have taken place these figures are now of course
no longer valid. What the figures were in 1921 was not even ap-
proximately known, but it is certain that the world's producing
capacity, as dis'tinct from actual production, was far in excess of
any likely demand.
A good deal has been said and written about the correlation of
dyestuff manufacture and the manufacture of high explosives,
poison gases and other products required for chemical warfare.
As far as the manufacture of high explosives is concerned, two
main products, namely picric acid and trinitro toluole (T.N.T.),
come into consideration. It is not very generally known that the
former was made in England in large quantities as a dyestuff
long before the French introduced it as an explosive. As a dye-
stuff it has long since been discarded, having been replaced by
other coal-tar yellows of greater fastness which are not subject
to any official restrictions. Both of these substances are nitro
compounds of the aromatic series, and, like those manufactured
as intermediates for dye-making, require, besides the coal tar
common to both, large quantities of sulphuric acid, oleum
and nitric acid (all products of the so-called " heavy chemical "
industry) as raw materials. The nitrating operations are similar
in both cases and similar plant is used, but there is always a
limit to the size of the nitrating vessels which it is neither safe nor
economical to exceed. Once the process is standardized on a unit
of plant any increased production is obtained by increasing the
number of units. Naturally any plant producing such nitro
compounds in a colour works could in an emergency be turned to
account to produce such a substance asT.N.T.,but the amounts
required for any serious military or naval operations would be
vastly in excess of what could be turned out with the nitration
plants of even large colour works. Nitrating is only one of a
large number of important operations required in colour manu-
facture, and some dyestuffs are manufactured entirely without
the help of this operation. The idea which seems to have become
prevalent that the plant in a colour works is capable of turning
out anything from a finished dyestuff to mustard gas or any
new product that may come along is untenable. What is really
wanted in this respect is a body of alert, scientifically and
technically trained chemists. The best guarantee for the re-
quirements of " chemical warfare " in the future is the possession
of a successful colour industry, for the chemist best suited by
training and habit of mind to cope with an emergency problem
is the colour chemist.
REFERENCES. J. K. Wood, The Chemistry of Dyeing (1913);
J. Merritt Matthews, Application of Dyestuffs; C. M. Whittaker,
The Application of the Coal-Tar Dyestuffs (1919) ; A_. G. Green, Analy-
sis of Dyes and Dyed Materials (1911) ; for qualitative and for quanti-
tative work, New Reduction Methods in Volumetric Analysis, Knecht
and Hibbert. (E. K.)
United States. The dyeing industry of the United States
during 1910-21 grew commensurately with the textile industries.
An important advance was made in the production of fast colours
on cotton goods. This was in keeping with the rapidly extended
use of cotton in high-grade wearing apparel and the increase
of steam laundries, displacing household washing. Modern
laundry methods of rapidly cleansing and whitening fabrics
necessitated the use of strong chemicals, destructive of the
colours formerly employed in dyeing cotton. The demand for
laundry -fast colours was met by the introduction of the so-called
" vat " dyes of which indigo was long the only representative.
The extended use of the dye known as sulphur black to take
the place of aniline black for cotton hosiery and piece-goods was
also worthy of note. The silk industry in America also grew
largely, consuming more raw silk in manufactures than any
other country. This led to the great extension of silk-dyeing,
chiefly in the industrial centres of South Manchester, Conn.,
Paterson, N.J., and Lancaster, Pa.
The World War at first threw the dyeing industry in the
United States into confusion, owing to the uncertainty of trade
relations with Germany, the more so when the Allied blockade
put a complete embargo on Germany's exports. It was then
seen how dependent America had been on Germany for dye-
stuffs, and it was estimated that manufacturing industries with
products valued at about $4,000,000,000 might soon be thrown
completely out of gear by a lack of dyestuffs. In the confusion
which resulted all manner of expedients were adopted in the
production of colours with a consequent reduction in the fastness
and quality of dyeing. Dyestuffs became so scarce that exorbi-
tant prices stimulated the erection of many dyestuff factories in
various parts of the United States. Large amounts of capital
were freely invested in the new industry, and many chemists
became engaged in dyestuff research and manufacturing.
Previous to the war the United States had a small dyestuff
industry distributed among about five plants. The manufactur-
ing operations, however, were limited chiefly to the assembling
of the coal-tar intermediates imported from Germany for the
production of the finished dyes, so that the new industry had to
be built from the ground up. To the great credit of the American
chemist and chemical manufacturer it may be said that in a very
short time the more important dyes were successfully made in
the United States in such quantity that practically no dye-con-
suming industry was forced to shut down by reason of a lack
of dyes. Indigo and sulphur black wore soon produced on a
large scale, as well as the required acid dyes for wool and silk,
most of the basic dyes, and a complete line of the direct cotton
dyes. In 1920 there were 213 firms manufacturing dyestuffs and
related coal-tar chemicals. These employed about 2,600 chem-
ists and nearly 20,000 workmen and the total value of the finished
products amounted to over $112,000,000. There were 236
different intermediates manufactured, and 360 different dyes.
The total production of dyes amounted to over 88,000,000
Ib. as against a pre-war importation of about 70,000,000
pounds. The total value of the finished dyes was given as
$95,600,000, so that the average price per pound was about
$1.07. Over 18,000,000 Ib. of synthetic indigo was made, about
twice the pre-war importation, indicating great extension in the
use of indigo. Associated with the making of dyestuffs there
also grew up the many related branches of the coal-tar chemical
industry, such as colour lakes for paints, lithographic and print-
ing inks; coal-tar Pharmaceuticals; flavouring and perfume
materials; photographic chemicals and synthetic tannins and
resins. The great growth of the industry created a constant
demand for increasing quantities of coal-tar distillates, which
form the raw materials of the dyestuff industry, and this led
to a rapid increase in the number of by-products coke ovens.
In 1920 the production of coke in by-product ovens amounted to
about 60 % of the total.
The great production of dyes in the United States during the
period 1917-21 led to the building up of a considerable export
trade, particularly to South America and the Orient. The total
dyestuffs exported from the United States in 1920 amounted in
value to nearly $30,000,000, of which $22,450,000 was for coal-tar
dyes. This export trade, however, showed a rapid falling off
from the beginning of 1921, due both to the general business
depression throughout the world and to the fact that the German
dyestuff manufacturers were again active in foreign trade.
At the close of the war the American dyestuff manufacturers
quickly realized that unless they had suitable Government pro-
tection they could not meet aggressive competition from Euro-
pean dyestuff factories. In 1916 they petitioned for, and obtained
the passage of, a bill placing a tariff of 30 % ad valorem and a
specific duty of 5 cents per pound on most dyes. When hostilities
ended certain Government regulations were also applied to the
importation of dyestuffs and related products from Germany so
that such importations were licensed to bona fide consumers and
were limited to dyes that could not be satisfactorily obtained from
the American manufacturers. In the meantime Congress was
petitioned for an embargo on importation of dyes from foreign
sources except under adequate licence regulations which would
restrict the imports to dyes not manufactured in the United
States. This was in line with similar action by Great Britain,
France, Italy and Japan, all these countries deeming it highly
expedient to foster and build up a self-contained dyestuff and
coal-tar chemical industry as a measure of national defence.
872
DYSENTERY
In the matter of natural dyestuffs America has always occupied
a leading position. Many of the principal natural dyes are of
American origin. Logwood, fustic, cochineal and the red-woods
are all American products, discovered in, and still obtained
from, Mexico, Central America and South America, as well as
the West Indies. During the war a product very closely re-
sembling fustic and known as osage orange was also developed
in the United States and in 1921 was being produced in con-
siderable quantities. As the dyer usually employs the colouring
matters of the dyewoods in the form of suitable extracts, there
has long been developed in the United States a considerable
industry in the manufacture of these extracts, generally pro-
duoed in connexion with the manufacture of tannin extracts.
This industry is in no way associated with the coal-tar dyestuff
business. The great scarcity of dyes during the early part of the
war resulted in an abnormal expansion of the dyewood extract
industry, which rapidly declined as the manufacture of synthetic
or coal-tar dyes increased. In former years natural indigo was
extensively used in dyeing, and in early colonial days large
quantities of this dye were cultivated in the south. As the grow-
ing of cotton increased, that of indigo was neglected, so that
most of the indigo used in the United States was imported,
chiefly from the Far East. A certain amount, however, had
long been obtained from Central American provinces and the
West Indies. The advent of synthetic indigo soon displaced
the natural product, so that little of this vegetable dye was used
in America, although the United States in 1921 manufactured
all it needed of this most important dye. After the war, owing
to the shifting of the centres of trade, the United States became
an important market for the sale and manufacture of furs. This
resulted in the building up of an extensive industry in the dyeing
and finishing of furs which will without doubt become firmly
established as an important adjunct to the general dyeing in-
dustry of America. (J. M. M.)
DYSENTERY (see 8.785*). This term is now employed to
designate a clinical syndrome characterized by the passage of
blood and mucus consequent upon the pathogenic activities
primarily upon the large bowel, leading to ulceration of certain
animal or vegetable forms of life. The advances in our knowledge
of dysentery made during 1910-20 were considerable, and were
in great measure due to the combined interdependent efforts of
protozoologists, bacteriologists and entomologists in their
unremitting investigations and laboratory researches, to their
fruitful collaboration with the physician, also to the extensive
experience gleaned through the World War. Dysentery as a
disease is widespread throughout the world and workers in all
continents and many countries have shared in the progress of
knowledge of it. This was, moreover, essential, as certain causal
organisms amongst the helminths can only complete their life-
cycle in the particular regions where their primary host, a lower
animal, exists in nature.
Again, climatic factors play a r61e in the incidence of certain
types of dysentery; and the organisms, their r&le and specific
lines of treatment and prevention, can be best studied where the
disease prevails. Thus American workers in Manila firmly
established by experiments on condemned prisoners that there is
but one, Entamoeba histolytica, of the five amoebae found in man
which is pathogenic to him, and finally cleared up the confusion
by determining its life-cycle and differentiating it from the E.
coli, . an amoeba living also in the large bowel of man.
From Hong- Kong we learned the specific action of emetine, an
alkaloid extracted from ipecacuanha, on amoebae; and its ap-
plication with such beneficial results to man was first made in
India. Though amoebic dysentery was until recently considered
a disease of the tropics, and rare in temperate countries, relative
researches on inhabitants of several temperate countries show a
small percentage to harbour the E. hislolytica, some without
complaint of dysenteric symptoms. The conditions of climate,
sanitation, food and living may favourize individual resistance as
well as susceptibility to acute symptoms. Recently a few workers
in England have concluded that there are two or more strains of
the E. histolytica, distinguishable by the size of the cyst each
* These figures indicate the volume an
forms. French physicians in Indo-China have observed that in
one region the E. histolytica gives rise to more severe dysentery
and is less amenable to treatment than in another, thus raising
the question of a difference in virulence amongst strains.
In Rumania in 1916 a new and distinct species of Bacillus
dysenteriae Bacillus dys. Schmitz was first found.
In England and France the presence of bacteriophage has been
determined. If a few drops of the filtrate from a culture of the
dysentery bacillus Shiga be placed in a new growth of this
bacillus, the micro-organisms are dissolved. The action is con-
sidered due to the development of an ultra-microscopic micro-
organism which destroys the bacillus and appears to be specific.
As dysentery may be due to diverse organisms, the causal
one or its family or generic name is employed to specify the origin,
thus amoebic, bacillary, spirochaetic, ciliar and helminthic
dysentery. When there are evacuations of blood and mucus
associated with inflammation and ulceration, not due to an
organism which acts primarily and specifically on the lower bowel,
but which may primarily attack another part of the body (e.g.
tubercle, syphilis), or to carcinoma, or due to an impacted foreign
body or mechanical irritation, the condition is termed, to
distinguish it, pseudo-dysentery. When an ulcer is low down it
can be seen and its character determined by the sigmoidoscope.
It is important to determine the causal organism in a sporadic
dysentery case or in an epidemic, not only because of the specific
treatment necessary but to assure adequate prevention of its
extension; and laboratory collaboration for this is essential.
It has been amply exemplified that dysentery cannot be diag-
nosed on the presence of blood and mucus in the stools with
accompanying abdominal pain and tenesmus. One or more of
these symptoms may be absent, for they depend on the extent or
site of the ulceration. In the contact or healthy carrier of the E.
hislolytica there may be no signs past or present, the E. histolytica
to all appearances living as a harmless commensural within its
human host, and the first sign of the presence of the disease may
be a liver abscess, a very rare condition outside tropical regions.
It is only by investigating these contact carriers in the laboratory
that the disease can be detected from cysts in the faeces.
Dysentery has always been the most dire disease accompany-
ing war. During the World War, despite our greater knowledge
of its causes and of prophylactic measures to counteract it, its
invaliding role was considerable in all armies, especially those
fighting in tropical countries where the conditions favour it, and
in parts of eastern Europe where sanitary control was not
scrupulously exercised. The number of admissions to military
hospitals which follow testify to its ravages amongst British
troops, and many others there were who did not seek hospital
treatment. The comparatively small death-roll was no doubt
due to the application of the advances in our knowledge that
dysentery may be due to diverse organisms, each having a
specific line of treatment to be directed against it. Most deaths
were due to Bacillus dys. Shiga.
In France there were n cases in 1914; 1915, 26 cases; 1916, 5,754;
1917, 6,031; 1918, 12,211 cases figures which are relatively small
considering the number of troops there. In East Africa 1917, 9,369
cases, 317 deaths; 1918, 1,646 with 38 deaths. In Mesopotamia
1916 (6 months), 1,939 cases with 126 deaths; 1917, 4,860 with 151
deaths; 1918, 5,455 with 109 deaths. In Egypt 1916, 5,577 cases
with 81 deaths. In Italy 1918, Forward Area, 897 cases with 17
deaths; Lines of Communication (Toranto), 146 cases. In Salonika
1916, 5,987 cases with 132 deaths; 1917, 5,842 with 124 deaths;
19181 9,318 with 158 deaths. On the Gallipoli Peninsula figures
were not obtainable, but it is estimated that nearly every soldier
who landed on the peninsula suffered from dysentery or diarrhoea
and few escaped the former disease. Severe climate, difficulties of
obtaining adequate food and sterilized water, fly pests, fatigue,
hastily improvised resting places and sanitary arrangements, pro-
longed periods in trenches all were important factors conducive to
susceptibility in man and to the spread of infection.
Bacillary and amoebic dysenteries greatly predominated. There
were exceptional and sporadic cases of spirochaetic and, amongst
coloured troops especially, of ciliar and helminthic dysentery. In
all countries bacillary greatly predominated. In France other than
bacillary infections were rare and the amoebic type was found more
frequently amongst those associated with troops from tropical
countries or who took over camps or trenches used by them. In
tropical and sub-tropical regions the percentage of amoebic to
d page number of the previous article.
DYSENTERY
873
other dysentery cases was approximately 12. More particularly in
Gallipoli combined infections were not uncommon and there were
cases suffering from dysentery and enterica at the same time.
During 1920, of 6,193 returned troops claiming State aid for
disability from war dysenteries, 446 were still harbouring the
E. histolytica and over 80 % of these were intermittently or constantly
passing blood or mucus ; two acquired a liver abscess when in England
as a complication: eight were still infected with the B. dys. Shiga
and four with B. dys. Flexner-Hiss; one case had mixed amoebic
and bacillary (Shiga) infection, and three mixed amoebic and
spirochaetic, and six spirochaetic dysentery.
By reason of the variety of the causal organisms, the clinical
symptoms and pathological characters to which each gives rise
and the specific treatment directed against it, each type of dysen-
tery had best be considered separately, and the commoner types,
amoebic and bacillary, discussed in greater detail.
Amoebic Dysentery (also called Amoebiasis, Loeschfasis or Tropical
Dysentery, the latter because of its early endemicity and greater
incidence there). The causal organism, E. histolytica (Loesch 1871),
a species of the genus Entamoeba, affects man alone in nature, though
the dog and cat and recently the guinea-pig have been infected
experimentally. The E. histolytica in its life-cycle in man passes
through three stages a large vegetative stage when living within
the tissues, giving rise to ulceration and passage of blood and mucus ;
a pre-cystic or minuta stage found in convalescents and in carriers
when the amoebae are much smaller, live on the mucous membrane
within the bowel, but which may pass through the membrane and
assume the larger vegetative form, with ulceration and its symptoms
following; and a cystic stage. The amoebae increase in numbers
by division of the parent into two, but it is only the pre-cystic or
minuta stage in which many of the amoebae contract into a smaller
rounded or ovoid form, develop a firm outer wall and are trans-
formed into cysts with the characteristic one to four nuclei and con-
taining chromatoid rods which possibly act as food stores. Since it
is only by swallowing these cysts that man is infected, the continu-
ance of the entamoeba in nature is thus provided for. These cysts
do not resist drying, but retain their vitality for two weeks if kept
moist in the faeces or in water. They can therefore be transmitted
by direct contamination with faeces through handling soiled linen,
by flies carrying them on to food, by soil or by drinking contami-
nated water; and prophylaxis must be directed accordingly.
Clinically the disease is characterized, as are all protozoal infec-
tions, by its chronicity with tendency to recrudescence of symptoms.
The onset is insidious, the sufferer first noticing a feeling of debility
and lassitude with an increase of stools, soft in character, for several
days. These may clear up and be the only signs noticed or may light
up again and assume true dysenteric characters months later. Most
often the initial stage is followed on by an acute exacerbation of
symptoms, dependent in their degree upon the extent of the ul-
ceration in the large bowel, the most markedly affected sites being
the caecum and flexures. Stools become still more frequent, up to
40 or 50 in 24 hours, and the ulceration gives rise to abdominal pain
and, if at the rectum, to severe tenesmus. The patient takes to his
bed exhausted. In uncomplicated cases there is but slight rise of
temperature or other symptoms of toxaemia as the entamoeba pro-
duces no toxin. The entamoeba gains entrance to the body by the
swallowing of its cysts, which pass through the stomach unchanged.
In the small intestines they germinate and young amoebulae are
set free in the lumen of the intestine. They increase in size,
multiply by a process of division, and by means of their lytic or
dissolving power penetrate through the mucous membrane lining
the large bowel, rarely the appendix save at its base, into the sub-
mucous layer, where they continue to proliferate, destroy the tissue,
including the blood-vessels, thus leading to the haemorrhage that
accompanies the mucus produced by the irritation of the membrane,
and impede the circulation of blood and lymph at the site. A typical
flask-shaped ulcer is formed, with roughened undermined edges at
the orifice. When ulcers are situated approximately they are fre-
quently joined by submucous tunnels, and, the ulcers being me-
chanically produced, there is little accompanying inflammatory
reaction. Occasionally super-added infection with other bowel
organisms supervenes and gangrene may follow, or the amoebae
may penetrate through the outer muscular walls of the large bowel,
giving rise to perforation and accompanying peritonitis, or, by
penetrating a blood-vessel, they may be carried off in the blood
stream and give rise to an abscess in the liver, to which the blood
first takes them, or, as most exceptionally happens, an abscess in
the brain or elsewhere. Healing is brought about by the develop-
ment of fibrous tissue at the sites of the ulcers, and this contracts
and leads to a thickening of the walls and constriction of the lumen
which, if extensive, produces subsequent chronic constipation; or,
what is rare, to stenosis and blockage. Diagnosis is quickly made by
examination of the stools. In the acute condition they may consist
entirely of blood and mucus or contain also a little faecal matter.
The mucus is stained a brownish colour by degenerated blood cells
and the blood is usually in the form of clots, not evenly mixed through
it. Microscopically the E. histolytica is readily found and is dis-
tinguished by ils rapid movement, ill-defined nucleus and greenish-
tinted ectoplasm and ingested red cells. White blood cells apart
from a relative increase of eosinophils are not seen in great numbers.
Charcot-leyden crystals, as yet only seen in dysentery of the amoebic
type, may be found.
The acute symptoms readily subside under appropriate treatment.
The patient should be put to bed. The specific treatment is ipe-
cacuanha or an alkaloid extracted from it, emetine. Combined hypo-
dermic injections of emetine hydrochloride with oral administration
of ipecacuanha (Brazilian), to attack the amoebae from within and
without, have given striking results in allaying symptoms. More
recently emetine alone or in combination as bismuth-emetine-iodine
in a'salol capsuled pill has been widely employed and good results
are claimed, especially in the treatment of chronic cases. The
toxic action of emetine on the heart must be watched. Added to the
specific treatment inacute cases there is the general and symptomatic,
which should include a free flushing of the bowel by a dose of castor
oil with tinct. opii. added; later followed by magnesium (or sodium)
sulphate in hourly or two-hourly half or drachm doses for 12 or 2A
hours. Morphia may be necessary to relieve the abdominal pain and
straining. The diet must be light and easily assimilated. Milk and
raw foods should be withheld.
The symptoms subside in one to three weeks and no further
trouble may supervene. However, the patient not infrequently is
left with symptoms, generally slight, from cicatrization of the
bowel ; or, from persistence of the entamoeba, becomes a convalescent
carrier as distinguished from a contact carrier, one who has never
developed acute symptoms. The treatment of these carriers is one
of considerable importance not only for the individual, who may re-
develop acute symptoms or a liver abscess, but for the community,
since these carriers pass in their stools the cysts of the entamoeba
which can infect others. Treatment apart from symptomatic is
directed to eliminate the amoeba in chronic cases and consists in
giving orally ipecacuanha or emetine alone or combined with other
drugs as a pill, capsule or paste in courses over a number of days.
Emetine hydrochloride subcutaneously, or neosalvarsan intraven-
ously, have been employed to supplement oral treatment. At the
same time the large bowel is washed out by enemata per rectum,
the use of appendicostomy wounds not having given sufficiently
encouraging results, with solutions of quinine, tannin or, as recom-
mended by the French, of neosalvarsan. Indiscretions in diet
should at all times be avoided and it appears advisable for the
carrier to reside in a temperate region. Amoebic hepatitis and a
small abscess of the liver are cured by injections of emetine hydro-
chloride or neosalvarsan, but a large abscess needs surgical inter-
vention.
Bacillary Dysentery. While sharing with the amoebic the clinical
dysenteric syndrome above described, it differs therefrom in the
shortness of the inoculation period, generally 24 to 72 hours, by its
sudden acute onset with elevation of temperature, which may per-
sist several days or more, and other symptoms of toxaemia ; extreme
contagiousness; seasonal incidence (midsummer and autumn);
epidemic character and predilection for temperate regions; higher
death-rate and in the complications that may follow infection with
Bacillus dys. Shiga, namely: arthritis, conjunctivitis, muscular par-
alysis and myocarditis. Clinically it may assume forms varying in
symptomology from mild to severe, and occasionally be hypertoxic,
typhoidal or ulcero-gangrenous in character. Outbreaks of dysen-
tery in asylums, prisons, concentration camps and ships are gener-
ally bacillary in type. In tropical regions the amoebic type also
occurs, but in terrperate regions this latter form is practically lim-
ited to sporadic cases.
The bacillary dysentery group comprises species of bacilli genet-
ically related: I. The B. dys. Shiga (Chantmesse and Widal 1888,
Shiga 1898, Kruse 1900), a well-defined homogeneous species,
known as the true dysentery bacillus since it alone contains endo-
toxins which are pathogenic to man and experimental animals.
2. B. dys. Schmilz (Schmitz 1916, Andrewes 1918, Broughton-Al-
cock 1918), another homologous species and one which contains
endotoxins acting severely on rabbits but less pathogenic to man.
3. B. dys. Flexner-Hiss, a very mildly toxic group of bacilli charac-
terized by their power to ferment mannite, produce indol from pep-
tone and containing many species as recently distinguished by the
agglutination and absorption reactions. 4. A further group which
embraces bacilli characterized by specific agglutination and ab-
sorption properties and power to ferment certain sugars, e.g. Bacil-
lus of Strong, Ca'stellani, Gay, d'Herelle and others, each capable of
producing a mild clinically dysenteric syndrome in man.
Clinical symptoms vary, as does the degree of the intestinal le-
sions and the toxicityof the causal bacillus. Infections with B.
dys. Shiga are characteristically the most severe. The ulcerative
lesions are not confined to the large bowel but extend one to two
feet into the small intestine. Recent researches have proved that the
bacilli pass through the stomach, multiply in the small intestine and
produce at least two toxins which are absorbed into the blood, one
acting on the nervous system and the other excreted into the large
bowel, causing inflammation with coagulation of lymph, thrombosis
of vessels and necrosis of the submucous layer and superimposed
mucous membrane. An exudative fibrinous diphtheritic-like
membrane forms on the bowel wall and separates off, leaving
superficial ulcers with raised red oedematous edges. These may
874
DYSENTERY
deepen by continued microbic action and even penetrate through
into the peritoneum, leading to peritonitis, or gangrene may set
in in the damaged necrosed tissue, and in either case death follows
unless surgical intervention is early. Repair proceeds along the
same lines as in amoebic cases, but, the ulcers being generally more
superficial, the permanent damage is not so great.
The stools have a characteristic microscopic appearance, as
numerous pus epithelial cells and large macrophage cells are present
'in the mucus. Macroscopically the stool most often consists of
mucus, like cloudy-grey jelly streaked or stained by bright red
blood, or the mucus may be bile-stained in a diarrhoea-like stool or,
in very severe cases, there are shreds of necrosed mucosa.
The causal bacillus is readily isolated by culture within the first
days, but afterwards it becomes difficult as the microbic life in the
necrotic tissue becomes a flora of proliferating organisms. The
bacillus of Shiga, which has been the only species isolated from the
blood stream, has been found therein in only four or five cases. The
bacilli dysenteriae, as judged by post-mortem findings, pass to the
mesenteric glands along the lymphatics, but are arrested there.
After the cessation of the symptoms the percentage of cases retain-
ing the causal organism in the bowel is very small, as testified in the
figures given above. If the patient becomes a carrier of B. dys. Shiga
the stools will continue to be in part muco-purulent, even up to three
or more years. The property of agglutinating the causal organism
and other strains of the same race is present in the blood after the
first week and may last for only eight or ten days in mild cases, but
when the infection is prolonged this property of agglutination per-
sists for a longer period. B. dys. Shiga infected cases generally
agglutinate also the B. dys. Flexner-Hiss in a lesser degree, but the
converse does not hold. B. dys. Flexner-Hiss cases agglutinate sev-
eral species of the group, rarely only the strain isolated from them.
B. dys. Schmitz cases do not appear to develop agglutinins even for
their own organism.
The general and symptomatic treatment given above for amoebic
dysentery is similar, but the specific treatment widely variant, and
this is directed towards neutralizing the toxins which further the
clinical symptoms. It is the anti-Shiga serum, prepared by in-
oculating the bacilli with their contained endotoxins into the horse,
which is the most efficacious; and as it is the infection with B. dys.
Shiga which is most severe, its utility is considerable. It has been
employed also in cases due to B. dys. Flexner-Hiss with apparently
satisfactory results. A polyvalent horse anti-serum made by
inoculating strains of both these groups has also been extensively
given in cases of either infection and, with this, amelioration of
symptoms has followed. The injection of anti-serum should be as
early in the illness as possible and in large doses dependent upon the
severity of the cases, e.g. 60 c.c., 40 c.c., 20 c.c., on successive
days in a severe case; and with this treatment free saline purgation is
combined until the stools become faecal. Thereby rapid ameliora-
tion follows, complications are rare, and the bacillus quickly elim-
inated from the body. In the early complications of bacillary dysen-
tery anti-serum therapy again gives good results.
The general prophylactic measures to be taken are comparable
to those against infections with E. hislolytica, but it should be
remembered that bacilli are lower vegetable organisms and can
proliferate in suitable environment outside the body. Dependent on
several factors, bacillary is more contagious than amoebic dysentery.
Encouraged by successful results following inoculations of typhoid
and paratyphoid vaccines, some series of inoculations with a vaccine
of B. dys. Shiga were made in epidemic areas during the war, as
this was the bacillary organism so prevalent and so toxic in epidemics
during war conditions. Its contained toxins give rise to acute local
reactions unless modified prior to inoculation by special methods, as
by laving the heat-killed bacilli with normal serum (serum-treated)
or with specific horse anti-serum (sensitized), or by inoculating both
specific anti-serum and bacillary emulsions on approximating days,
or by giving an absorbed specific anti-serum and bacillary emulsion
simultaneously, or by emulsifying the bacilli in oil. The series of
inoculations made by various workers gave encouraging results.
Vaccine-therapy employed to rid the convalescent carrier of B.
dys. Shiga has not been successful. In striking contrast with B.
dys. Shiga the killed and untreated emulsions of the B. dys. Flexner-
Hiss group give rise to no reaction, even in high doses.
Spirochaetic Dysentery, due to Spirochaeta eurygyrate (Le Dantec
1900, Werner 1910, Fantham 1916). Investigation of this type of
dysentery is in continued progress, and evidence is increasing that
this spirochaeta is capable of living upon the mucous membrane of
the large bowel and maintaining a chronic form of dysentery. It
is seen in considerable numbers in the mucus and occasionally also
within the lining cells of the glands. Occasionally there is also blood
present with the mucus which is being continually passed with
faeces. An acute condition with passage of blood and mucus only
has been observed. This spirochaeta is resistant to intravenous
injections of neosalvarsan or tartar emetic alone ; and treatment by
an arsenic-containing compound at the same time as a local washing
of the bowel with irrigations containing eucalyptus has given the
most encouraging results.
Helminthic Dysentery. The chief helminths which give rise
to dysentery are the bilharzia worms, Schistosoma mansoni, in
Africa, South America, West Indies, and Schistosoma iaponicum
in the Far East. Bilharzia dysentery is characterized by the passage
of mucus and clots of blood due to the presence of the ova which the
adult female worm lays in the capillaries of the wall of the rectum.
This form of dysentery is extremely common in Egypt. The discov-
ery of the intermediate snail host and the specific action of sodium
or potassium tartrate in killing these worms in man is an advance
of considerable value.
Other trematodes which may cause dysenteric symptoms are
Fasciolopsis buski, Heterophyes heterophyes and Paragonimus wester-
manni. Normally the last is a lung fluke, but it occasionally occurs
in cysts of the intestinal wall, when it gives rise to the passage of
blood and mucus in the stools.
In heavy infections with hook-worm (Ancylostoma duodenale,
C resent in England in the mines of Cornwall, and Necatpr americanus)
lood and mucus are sometimes passed in large quantities, and these
cases may be mistaken for true dysentery. Thymol given orally
rapidly kills off these worms.
Ciliar Dysentery, due to Balantidium coli and known to occur in
Japan and the Philippine Is., is rare elsewhere and needs but men-
tion. A specific remedy has not yet been found. (W. B. A.)
EAKINS EAST AFRICA
875
EAKINS, THOMAS (1844-1916), American painter (see
8.791), died at Philadelphia June 25 1916.
EAST, SIR ALFRED (1849-1913), English painter (see
8.827), was knighted in 1910, and died in London
Sept. 28 1913.
EAST AFRICA: MILITARY OPERATIONS, 1914-8. The out-
break of war found all the combatants in East Africa unprepared
for offensive operations. But the advantage inclined to the Ger-
mans, for they had forces on the spot sufficient for defence, which
was not the case in respect to the British protectorates bordering
German East Africa. The Belgian Congo was also without ade-
quate means of defence.
Hostilities were entirely unexpected. So little was the Govern-
ment of British East Africa anticipating war with its German
neighbours that the bulk of the Protectorate Force, a battalion
and a-half of the King's African Rifles negro troops officered
by Europeans, together with the Uganda battalion of the same
force, was, in Aug. 1914, engaged against recalcitrant tribesmen
in Jubaland, on the borders of Italian Somaliland, 500 m. away.
In short, all the British protectorate lay open to invasion. But
Lt.-Col. von Lettow-Vorbeck, commander of the forces in German
East Africa the one German soldier who earned a high reputation
in the colonial campaign knew that his opponents would be
reinforced from oversea, and contemplated nothing more than
an offensive-defensive. His total force, when the war began, was
just under 5)ci> including 260 Europeans.
The British had the advantage of the command of the sea, and
the ports of German East Africa lay open to attack. So keenly
did the governor of the protectorate, Dr. Heinrich Schnee, realize
their helplessness that one of his first orders was to forbid any
action to be taken which would lay the ports open to bombard-
ment. As in the case of the governors of British Dominions and
Colonies the governor of German East Africa was also command-
er-in-chief of the forces, and Dr. Schnee asserted his authority
in that respect despite the protests by von Lettow. Indeed, Dr.
Schnee and many of the Government officials at Dar-es-Salaam,
the capital and chief port, had " little stomach for a fight," and
when on Aug. 8 two old British cruisers, the " Astraea " and
" Pegasus," steamed across from Zanzibar to Dar-es-Salaam, by
the governor's orders and without the knowledge of von Lettow,
negotiations for surrender of the port took place. The ships had
no force to garrison the town, but the Germans signed an agree-
ment " which forbade us to undertake any hostile act in Dar-es-
Salaam, while the enemy was not so bound " (von Lettow).
The same day Dr. Schnee left Dar-es-Salaam for Morogoro, a
pleasant hill station with European amenities, 140 m. inland by
train. The high-power wireless station at Dar-es-Salaam which
communicated with Berlin was destroyed.
Despite the attitude of the governor, von Lettow determined
to carry on the fight to the utmost possible limit. He had taken
up his command in East Africa in Jan. 1914 convinced that " the
universal war," as he calls it, might be imminent, and that if it
broke out it was his duty to combat as many of the enemy as he
could and for as long as he could.
The country was highly favourable to protracted defence by a
resolute and ruthless commander, such as von Lettow proved.
A very large proportion of the country is covered by
character " bush," that is an undergrowth sometimes more or
'country. l ess open, but usually dense, from which rise trees to a
height of some 30 feet. This bush covers hills and
valleys and even dry desert, and in the coast region develops
into luxuriant jungle. Much of it is infested by the tsetse fly. Some
areas are covered with dense forests, others with elephant grass
growing 6 to 10 or more feet high. The valleys of almost all the
rivers are swampy and fever stricken; during the rains vast areas
become inundated; in the dry season, away from the rivers, water
is often lacking; wild animals constitute a real danger, especially
to the wounded. The climate is tropical and very unhealthy save
on a few high plateaus, and in certain hill districts malaria is
endemic. These conditions existed throughout German East
Africa, a country nearly double the size of Germany. The " bush"
was the greatest asset of the defence. As Gen. Smuts wrote
(in 1918), " in the African bush, with its limited visibility, it is
practically impossible to enclose an enemy determined to escape."
The method is simple when a force is so hard pushed that de-
struction is inevitable if resistance continues the order is given
to " line for bush," whereupon the force splits up into parties of
threes and fours and vanishes into the bush. Pursuit is hopeless,
and the scattered enemy, if well trained, reassembles at an ap-
pointed rendezvous. Moreover, so dense is the bush over many
thousands of square miles that considerable forces may be on the
march within a mile of one another, without being aware of each
other's existence. These factors explain why, given sufficient
armament and food, von Lettow was still in the field when the
Armistice was signed in Europe, in spite of his isolation and the
superior forces that after 1916 were brought against him.
Von Lettow had drawn up his plan of campaign before hos-
tilities began, and as the best means of defence had determined
to take the offensive against the enemy's most sensitive spot. 1
This he rightly conceived to be the line of the Uganda railway
(which runs from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza). The line is
parallel to and about 50 m. distant from the (then) Anglo-
German frontier. It passes through the Highlands, where the
British European population is concentrated with Nairobi as
chief town. On the " German " side of the frontier are the
Usambara hills and the Pare mountains, presenting a wall-like
face to British East Africa, with few passes. But between the
northern end of the Pare mountains and the towering slopes by
Kilimanjaro, which rise farther north, was a distinct " gap "
forming the usual passage-way between the German and British
protectorates. A railway from Tanga, the port of Usambara,
ran to Moshi, on the slopes of Kilimanjaro, and at the western
end of the " gap." At its eastern end, in British East Africa, is
Taveta. This place was seized by the Germans on Aug. 15 and
was used by them as a jumping-off ground for raids on the Ugan-
da railway, raids which included the design of occupying Nairobi.
At the outset, or shortly afterwards, a design was also enter-
tained by the Germans of capturing Mombasa and holding it
long enough to wreck the harbours and destroy the great railway
bridge from the island to the mainland. This was rendered pos-
sible by the return to Dar-es-Salaam in Sept. of the cruiser
" Konigsberg " (it had sailed from that port shortly before the
declaration of war). It was then arranged that a force should
march along the coast from Tanga on Mombasa, while the
" Konigsberg " attacked it from the sea. On Sept. 20 the " Ko-
nigsberg " appeared off Zanzibar and destroyed the " Pegasus,"
which was in the roadstead undergoing repairs. Mombasa, was
to be attacked on Sept. 29. But the " Konigsberg " did not
keep its engagement, ships of the Cape Squadron under Vice-
Adml. King Hall intervening. Harried by the British, but not
overtaken, the commander of the " Konigsberg," Capt. Looff,
in Oct. ran his ship aground in the shallow waters of the Rufiji
river, south of Dar-es-Salaam. The land force which was to coop-
erate with the " Konigsberg " was already at Vanga, just within
the British border, and it began its march of 50 m. along the
coast on Sept. 20. It attacked Gazi, 25 m. from Mombasa, on
Sept. 23, was repulsed and forced to retire to the frontier on
Oct. 8.
Apart from raids along the coast and on the Uganda railway
the Germans made a series of incursions into the frontier districts
of Uganda, the Belgian Congo, Rhodesia and Nyasaland. For
1 Von Lettow records that at first many officers were loth to obey
his orders, because, apart from the governor's attitude, they believed
that " under the Congo Act " they were obliged to be neutral. In
fact the German Government made neutrality proposals on Aug.
23 1914. These were rejected by the Allies (see AFRICA: ^History).
8y6
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
these minor operations the Germans had the advantage of a
central position, interior lines and better means of communica-
tion. The railway from Dar-es-Salaam to Kigoma on Lake Tan-
ganyika had been completed about six months before the war
began, and during Aug. the small steamer " Hedwig von Wiss-
mann," manned and armed by German sailors from Dar-es-
Salaam, sank the only hostile boat on the lake, a small Belgian
vessel. Thus the Germans had command of the 400 m. of
waterway on Tanganyika. On the two other lakes, Nyasa and
Victoria, the British, however, early obtained command.
The operations in all theatres other than on the British East
Africa frontier were regarded by both sides as subsidiary. At
first the British had to consider purely defensive measures. At
the outset the East Africa Protectorate Force was under the
command of Lt.-Col. L. E. S. Ward. Volunteers were called for,
and two regiments, one mounted, were at once formed by the
white settlers in British East Africa. The King's African Rifles
were recalled from Jubaland and were in action by September.
An Arab detachment was raised on the coast by Lt. (subse-
quently Maj.) A. J. B. Wavell (an adventurous soldier who had
made the pilgrimage to Mecca), and it rendered good service
until its gallant commander was killed in action Jan. 6 1916. But
outside help was needed, and the Government of India consented
to send a force, officially known as " Indian Expeditionary Force
B." The first regiment, the 2pth Punjabis, arrived at Mombasa
at the end of Aug., and with them Brig.-Gen. J. M. Stewart, who
took over the command.
Plans for an offensive were now formed. It was decided that
the bulk of the force from India should land at Tanga and occupy
the Usambara Highlands, the most healthy and most
Episode.** developed region of German East Africa, and in which
lived the majority of the German settlers. The land-
ing finished, it was intended to advance along the railway from
Tanga to Moshi. At the time Tanga was attacked Gen. Stewart
was to demonstrate against Taveta, and to sweep round by
Longido (N. of Kilimanjaro) to Moshi. Brig.-Gen. A. E. Aitken
was selected to command the Tanga expedition. India was then
being heavily drained of troops for service in France, and for
East Africa troops that were not all of first-class quality had to
be employed. The strength of the force was about 7,000, includ-
ing one British unit, the 2nd Batt. Loyal North Lancashire
Regiment. The force sailed from Bombay towards the end of
Oct. and the transports arrived off Tanga harbour early on Nov. 2.
The attack had been expected, news of the expedition having
reached the Germans through captured Indian mails, and at the
end of Oct. von Lettow had arranged with the district commis-
sioner, Auracher, that Tanga should be defended, whatever were
the instructions of Dr. Schnee. On receiving a summons from the
commander of H.M.S. " Fox " for unconditional surrender Herr
Auracher went on board, stated that Tanga was an open and
undefended place and said that he must obtain special instruc-
tions. The British, therefore, refrained from bombarding the
town, and meanwhile von Lettow was hurrying down reenforce-
ments by rail. On the evening of Nov. 2 Gen. Aitken landed one
and a-half battalions at Ras Kasone, two m. east of the port. It
advanced through dense jungle to the outskirts of the town, be-
came heavily engaged and had to fall back. The British were
reenforced and the fight was renewed on Nov. 3. It was inde-
cisive, but in the evening the officer in command, Capt. Baum-
stark, believing that Tanga could not be held against another
attack, had collected his force four m. W. of Tanga, leaving
patrols only in the town. That evening von Lettow arrived,
passed through deserted Tanga, and reconnoitred the British
camp at Ras Kasone. Von Lettow's plans for the morrow were,
while defending Tanga itself, which he reoccupied with two
companies of Europeans, to place most of his troops in the bush
along the Ras Kasone-Tanga road and attack the enemy in flank.
The fight was renewed on the fourth. The British and Indian
troops advanced through coconut and rubber plantations and
entered Tanga town. By this time fighting was severe and
general, and soon after 3 P.M. von Lettow delivered his
counter-attack on the British left, which, he states, he was able
Prepara-
tion.
to outflank by means of his two reserve companies. Supported
by machine-gun fire, this outflanking force was able to push its
attack home, and soon the British were in full retreat to Ras
Kasone. The fight continued in the dense bush till after night-
fall, the Indian and British troops eventually getting back to
their camp. The next day, Nov. 5, they were reembarked, and
taken to Mombasa. The attack on Tanga had been a complete
failure. The casualties in Aitken's force were, according to an
India Office statement, 795, including 141 British officers and
men. Sixteen machine-guns were lost. Von Lettow gives the
German force engaged as " little more than 1,000." Fifteen
Germans and 54 askaris were killed. The number of wounded
was not stated. After this action Aitken was removed from his
command, but in Dec. 1920, after a fresh investigation by the
War Office, he was declared " not guilty of culpable negligence
. . . and should not be held responsible for the failure."
The simultaneous attack on Longido, N. of Kilimanjaro, also
failed. The Germans about 800 strong were strongly posted,
and covered the only permanent water supply available. Stew-
art's attacking force numbered about 1,500. After a night march
of 15 m. across a waterless region, the action began on the morn-
ing of Nov. 4 and continued till 7:30 P.M. The whole movement
typical of many operations in this theatre of war was tersely
summed up by an officer who wrote, " We marched all night,
attacked at dawn, fought all day, and then having failed to turn
the Germans out, came back here as we had no water."
Following the failure at Tanga no new general offensive was
undertaken by the British until the early months of 1916. The
intervening period was one of preparation on both
sides, with, on the part of the Germans, frequent and Period of
sometimes successful attempts to raid the Uganda
railway, and on that of the British, defensive and re-
taliating raids of the same kind. Of the engagements of this
period that at Jassin was the most notable. Following the failure
of the German march on Mombasa, the British force on the
coast advanced S., crossed the German frontier and occupied
(Jan. 2 1915) the buildings of Jassin plantation, which was
garrisoned by some 300 Indian troops. Von Lettow thinking
that a land attack on Tanga was intended got together a force of
1,500-1,600 men, and attacked Jassin on Jan. 17. After 48
hours' fighting, the Indian troops, having expended all their
ammunition and being without water, surrendered. Attempts by
the King's African Rifles (in camp 10 m. distant) to relieve
them failed. But the German losses, especially in European
officers, were serious, and the expenditure of ammunition made
a heavy inroad on von Lettow's small stock.
The period of preparation was spent on the British side largely
in raising new troops and in the organization of transport. In
April 1915 Col. M. I. Tighe, Indian army, with the local rank of
Major-General, was appointed to command the troops in East
Africa and to prepare for the new offensive. His force was in-
creased by two newly raised white regiments, the 2nd Rhodesian
and " DriscolPs Scouts" (zsth Batt. R. Fusiliers). While par-
rying the raids on the Uganda railway which were numerous
and daring, but taken as a whole, ineffective Gen. Tighe or-
ganized occasional offensives, such as the successful attack (June
1915) on Bukoba, the German base on Victoria Nyanza for
operations against western Uganda. This raid was made by
Gen. J. M. Stewart, and it affords an illustration of the great
distances to be covered in the East African operations. Nairobi,
headquarters, was 327 m. by rail from Mombasa, the base, and
237 m. from Kisumu, railhead on Victoria Nyanza. Thence
Stewart's force had to go by steamer 240 m. before reaching
Bukoba. To aid his operations Gen. Tighe began the building of
a railway and pipe line across the 70 m. of desert between Voi,
on the Uganda railway, and his advanced posts near Taveta.
The other theatres of operation in East Africa were much
worse off for means of communication. To reach the German
frontier bordering Nyasaland, Rhodesia and the Belgian Congo
was a journey of from 2,000 to 3,000 m., including hundreds of
miles to be covered on foot or by animal and mechanical trans-
port. This involved the employment of vast numbers of carriers
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
877
in regions where local supplies of food were often non-existent.
Thus in northern Rhodesia a road 400 m. long had to be cut
through trackless bush, in which the areas of cultivation were
infinitesimal. The Germans were better off in that, besides
their two railways, 1 they had constructed several main roads
before the war, and during the war other roads and some light
railways were laid down. And the German troops had not such
long distances as had their opponents to cover on foot. Nor
were they troubled by lack of food (at least not before 1917).
The natives had been compelled to establish large food depots
at all military stations, while Usambara, in or near which the
bulk of von Lettow's force was quartered for 22 months, was a
land of plenty. But the necessity that they were under of guard-
ing the coast and to a lesser extent the N.W. and S.W. frontiers,
while keeping their main forces in the principal theatre about
Moshi, imposed upon them a great deal of movement in a more
or less N. and S. direction for which apart from the command
of Lake Tanganyika few facilities existed. For instance, move-
ment of supplies or stores by carrier from the Central railway to
the Usambara railway took 12 days, and from the Central rail-
way to Lindi in the S. not less than three weeks.
Throughout 1915 von Lettow's chief concern was the increase
and training of his forces. At the outbreak of war he had, as has
been stated, just under 5,000 men (a figure which in-
The eluded the police as well as the troops proper). This
forces. number had been increased by Feb. 1916, when the
German force was at its maximum strength, prob-
ably over 20,000. Exact figures cannot be given as the number
of carriers and batmen who acted as combatants is unknown,
but the rule was to arm 15% of them. Von Lettow himself says
that the total numbers enrolled during the war were " about "
3,000 Europeans and 11,000 askaris (natives); the figures of
casualties and captives show that the number of whites on
the German side was nearer 4,000, and an official German return
gave 2,217 Europeans as under arms in Aug. igiS- 2 The
Europeans included most of the German settlers in Usambara
and other districts, almost all of whom were ex-soldiers and
many ex-officers; a few Boer settlers; German residents at
Zanzibar who had been allowed by the British to cross to the
mainland; some 500 sailors from ships in harbour, including
over 400 men of the Imperial navy, and a few visitors to Dar-
es-Salaam. These last had come to attend fetes to mark
the formal opening of the Dar-es-Salaam-Tanganyika rail-
way, and among them was a retired Prussian officer, Maj.-Gen.
Wahle, who rendered von Lettow good service. The Ger-
man forces were organized in companies normally consisting of
200 askaris and 16 Europeans; a few of the companies were com-
posed almost entirely of whites, two companies were mounted.
The askaris were drawn from the most warlike tribes of the
country, and were very well treated. Von Lettow himself was
ever careful of their needs and shared their hardships on cam-
paign. He won and retained throughout their respect and devo-
tion. Besides his regular force von Lettow had in the earlier stages
the help of various levies; and the anti-Moslem policy of Dr.
Schnee having been reversed he also obtained the support of a
number of Arabs (support which proved of little value). His
movements were not, for a considerable time, hampered by
disaffection among the natives; some tribes near the border of
British East Africa were deported because of doubt as to their
sympathies, and the converts of the British missionary societies
were in general regarded as enemies and were very badly treated,
many being executed. Fear of a native rising was felt among the
Germans when the war broke out, but the fear proved ground-
less. " It was not " (writes von Lettow) " till the enemy had
1 The Usambara line (Tanga Moshi) and the Central railway
(Dar-es-Salaam-Tabora-Tanganyika).
2 Dr. Ludwig Deppe, a surgeon with von Lettow's force, who ap-
pears to have kept careful records, states that there were 3,629
casualties among the whites up to the end of Nov. 1917. He puts
the highest total of the German force in the field at any one time at
3,300 whites and 15,000 askaris. These included the non-com-
batant services.
penetrated the country that the natives became a real danger to
us; and then it was indeed very great. The native has 'a fine
sense of the transfer of real power from one hand to the other."
Even then, with the natives hostile, the askaris (who had with
them their women and children and carriers) were faithful to
their leader, and more resolute than many of the Germans.
That they obviously had the advantage inspired the German
native troops with confidence, and the hard training they had
between Nov. 1914 and March 1916 made them, as the event
proved, very formidable opponents in the;r own country of white
and Indian troops. And months before the onslaught of Gen.
Smuts they had also been rearmed with modern weapons.
On Feb. 28 1915 a blockade of the whole coast of German East
Africa was proclaimed, and the British Government stated that
" ample steps had been taken to make the blockade
thoroughly effective." The task of the reenforced
Cape squadron under Vice-Adml. King Hall in watch-
ing 600 m. of coast line provided with many excellent natural
harbours was difficult, and in fact several vessels got through.
In Dec. 1914, before the blockade was proclaimed, Dar-es-Salaam
was visited and the German ships which had taken refuge there
sunk. In April 1915, when the Germans were in greatest need of
more ammunition, the blockade was broken in a remarkable
manner. The " Rubens," an English ship of 3,000 tons seized at
Hamburg, had been loaded with arms and ammunition, had
eluded the blockade of the North Sea, and on April 4 (its arrival
was expected) was sighted by H.M.S. " Hyacinth " four m. off
Mansa Bay, N. of Tanga. The " Rubens " got into the bay,
severely damaged and on fire. The crew fled ashore; the ship
was boarded by bluejackets, who found her timbered up and
battened down; the party was recalled and more rounds having
been fired into the vessel " the admiral . . . steamed away
under the impression that she would burn herself out " (Brig.-
Gen. J. H. V. Crowe). Subsequently the Germans salved at
leisure nearly the whole of her cargo, though a great part of
the cartridges had been damaged by sea water. But there were
enough Mauser '98 rifles to rearm the force, which previously,
for the most part, used the M 71 rifle. (A year later, at another
critical period of the war, the Germans were again rearmed, by
another blockade runner.)
The operations against the " Konigsberg " also resulted in a
valuable addition to von Lettow's armament. The cruiser had
remained shut up in the shallow waters of the Rufiji, but in July
1915 the light-draught monitors " Severn " and " Mersey," sent
specially from England, succeeded in setting it on fire. The
cruiser was then blown up by Capt. Looff, who with his officers
and crew joined von Lettow. The " Konigsberg's " armament,
which included 10 4-i-in. guns, was all salved, and these 4-i-in.
guns formed von Lettow's heaviest ordnance. 3 The Germans
also recaptured with its guns the 3oo-ton steamer " Adjutant "
(originally taken by the British at Dar-es-Salaam), which had
run aground off the Rufiji in Feb. 1915. The " Adjutant " was
transferred by rail to Lake Tanganyika.
Plans for the conquest of German East Africa took shape in
the summer ot 1915, but their execution had to be delayed until
Britain could put a sufficient force in the field. This
force was not forthcoming until the close of 1915, Plans for
when Gen. Botha, Prime Minister of South Africa, ^ lsh
having conquered German South- West Africa, agreed Belgian
to provide a force for service in East Africa. At the offensive.
time Gen. Tighe had under him 10 regular infantry
regiments supplied by India, including the 4Oth Pathans and the
1 29th Baluchis brought from France, a squadron of the I7th
Lancers (Indians), Imperial Service troops, the 27th and 28th
(Indian) Mountain Batteries, and the Calcutta Volunteer bat-
tery. Of white troops there were, besides the two regiments
3 In like manner the 4-in. guns of the disabled " Pegasus " were
removed and added to Gen. Tighe's artillery. It is noteworthy that
the captain of the " Konigsberg " had the breech-blocks of his guns
thrown overboard, but they were salved by the officer commanding
the land detachment at the Rufiji delta.
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
meats..
raised by the settlers in East Africa, the 2nd Rhodesian Regi-
ment, the 25th Batt. Royal Fusiliers and the 2nd North Lanca-
shires (the only regular British infantry unit in East Africa).
There were also the battalions of the King's African Rifles, but
at that time the value of negro troops was not sufficiently ap-
preciated. Though they were best adapted for warfare in equa-
torial Africa and ultimately bore the brunt of the fighting
and though von Lettow had shown the way, the raising of new
native regiments was neglected at first by the British.
The plan adopted by the British in conjunction with the Bel-
gians was for a concerted attack on three sides. The object was
not only to defeat the enemy, but effectively to occupy the coun-
try, so as to render impossible the splitting up of the German
forces " into guerrilla bands doubling back in all directions "
(Gen. Smuts). This aim was achieved with one remarkable ex-
ception, the Wintgens-Naumann raid (see p.883, note). But when
von Lettow was driven eventually into Portuguese territory the
whole remaining German force became a guerrilla band, with an
unlimited field for doubling and redoubling. The scheme evolved
in 1915 was to strike the main blow with the force in British
East Africa, whilst the Belgians were to operate in the north-west
and a second British force in the south-west of the German pro-
tectorate. This second force was gathered on the Nyasa-Rho-
desia borders, and Brig.-Gen. Edward Northey assumed command
of it in Jan. 1916. When, in March 1916, the Portuguese entered
the war, they undertook to guard the southern frontier of Ger-
man East Africa. Thus the Germans had enemies on every side,
and had no opportunity (which the Germans in Cameroon
took) of escaping capture by retirement into neutral territory.
When Gen. Botha's Government undertook to send forces to
East Africa it had to rely upon volunteers to redeem its promise.
But a force already organized and originally destined
for service in Europe the 2nd South African Infantry
Bri g ade ( under Brig.-Gen. P. S. Beves) was diverted
to East Africa. A mounted brigade under Brig.-Gen.
J. L. Van Deventer, and a brigade consisting of five
batteries of S.A. Field Artillery, with all necessary administrative
and other units, were also formed so that the South African con-
tingent was complete and self contained. Later this contingent
was increased by another infantry brigade, a second mounted
brigade and the Cape Boys Battalion 1 (under Col. Morris). All
these troops except the 2nd mounted brigade had reached East
Africa by Feb. 1916, before the offensive began.
When South Africa furnished this contingent the largest body
of white troops which had taken the field in tropical Africa
the Home Government offered the command to a South African,
Gen. Smuts. Smuts was Minister of Defence in the Union Cab-
inet; the political situation in South Africa was uncertain and he
declined the offer. Gen. Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien was then
selected for the post, but while at the Cape on his way out, in
consequence of ill health, he resigned his appointment. Again
appealed to, Gen. Smuts accepted the command and reached
Mombasa on Feb. 19. He adopted, with some modifications, the
plan of campaign which Gen. Tighe had originated.
Gen. Tighe had had a very difficult task, and the moral of his
force, predominantly Indian, had suffered through being so long
on the defensive. It altered completely with the opening of the
offensive. Before the arrival of Gen. Smuts the railway across
the waterless waste between Voi and Taveta had been taken to
Serengati, within five m. of the German post on El Oldorobo
(otherwise Salaita hill), which blocked the main approach to
the Taveta gap. Skirmishing had been going on around Salaita
since March 1915. The hill was without water, which was taken
to the garrison from Taveta in donkey carts. " Strangely
enough," wrote von Lettow, "it did not occur to the enemy to
interfere with it [the transport] and thus render the mountain
untenable." The first action in which the South Africans took
part was an attack on Feb. 12 1916, on Salaita. Brig.-Gen.
Malleson with the ist East African and 2nd South African In-
1 The " Cape Boys " are coloured men, all with a strain of white
blood, from the Cape Province.
fantry Brigades, supported by artillery, assaulted the strongly
entrenched German positions, approached through thorn bush.
Little progress was made and the Germans, reinforced from Ta-
veta, counter-attacked and compelled Gen. Malleson to retreat.
The British casualties were 172, of which number 139 were among
the South Africans. They suffered through ignorance of the new
conditions. " The South African Infantry," wrote Gen. Smuts,
" had learned some invaluable lessons in bush warfare, and also
had opportunity to estimate the fighting quality of the enemy."
Gen. Tighe intended to force the enemy from the Taveta gap
by a double movement. One force, undeT Gen. J. M. Stewart,
was to sweep round Kilimanjaro from the north ; another, under
Gen. Malleson was to attack Taveta. The forces were to join
hands at Kahe, a place on_the Tanga railway S. of Moshi. Gen.
Stewart, who had the ist East African Division (infantry) and
Van Deventer's mounted brigade, was at Longido, some 50 m.
from Kaijado, the terminus of the Magadi branch of the Uganda
railway and Stewart's base for supplies. The chief alteration in
Gen. Tighe's plans made by Gen. Smuts was to bring back Van
Deventer's mounted brigade to the Taveta side and to use it for
a turning movement which would render a frontal attack on
Salaita hill unnecessary. The infantry which were to follow up
Van Deventer's movement consisted of the 2nd East African
Division, of which Gen. Tighe -was placed in command.
Four days after reaching Mombasa Gen. Smuts telegraphed
to Lord Kitchener that he was prepared to carry out the occupa-
tion of the Kilimanjaro area at once; two days later
(Feb. 25) Kitchener's sanction for the operation was
received. There was good reason for haste as the
rainy season was approaching, and during the rains
operations might be (and in fact proved to be) impossible. Von
Lettow was well aware of the enemy's movements, and as early
as Aug. 1915 had made preparations in view of having to abandon
the Kilimanjaro and Usambara regions. These preparations in-
cluded the removal of all military stores. For this purpose a
light railway was built south from Mombo station on the Tanga
railway to Handeni (40 m.), whence a wagon road went to Kim-
amba on the Central (or Tanganyika) railway. Up to nearly
the end of 1915 von Lettow had thought that the new British
offensive might be a landing at Dar-es-Salaam or Bagamoyo;
afterwards there was no doubt that it would be in the Kiliman-
jaro region. To meet the attack he had, he states, a force of
"about 4,000 rifles" under Maj. Kraut (the British estimated
that Kraut had 6,000 rifles, 16 naval and field guns and 37 ma-
chine-guns). About 1,000 rifles were concentrated to dispute
any advance from Longido.
The Germans were apparently unprepared for the turning
movement executed by Van Deventer's mounted men, who got
behind Taveta, and forced the enemy to evacuate Salaita hill,
though on this point von Lettow asserts " our want of artillery
obliged us to look on quietly while the enemy executed unskilful
movements at no great distance from our front." 2 Van Deven-
ter's movement began on March 8, and on the next day his men
were astride the Moshi road behind Taveta. Salaita hill was
evacuated by the Germans on that day and new positions were
taken up by them covering the gap between the North Pare
mountains and Kilimanjaro. Von Lettow himself, with the bulk
of his force, was at Himo, five m. from his front, and he was
aware that behind him Gen. Stewart's column was advancing.
That column, in Gen. Smuts's plan, was to cut off von Lettow's
retreat, and in view of the greater distance it had to cover had
started from Longido on March 5. Stewart's column met with
many difficulties, and though it had no serious encounter with
the Germans its progress was much slower than had been antici-
pated. Meanwhile the attack on the position west of Taveta
was delivered on March n. The road to Himo and Kahe passed
between two hills, Raeta and Latema. Maj. Kraut held both
2 It is to be observed that von Lettow's record of the campaign
appears not to have been written till after the close of the war, and
there are indications that knowledge subsequently gained colours
his record of events.
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
879
hills. and the pass or nek between them; no turning movement
was possible and the order was given to Gen. MaUeson, com-
manding the ist Brigade of the 2nd East African Division, " to
clear up the position and, if possible, make good the nek." The
whole region was densely bushed. The advance began at 11:45,
and the i3oth Baluchis and the 3rd King's African Rifles were
sent forward to seize a spur of Latema. The defence was very
strong and by 4 P.M. little progress had been made. At this hour,
writes Gen. Smuts, " Gen. Malleson, who was seriously indis-
posed, asked to be relieved of his command." Gen. Tighe then
assumed personal direction of the operations. The 2nd Rho-
desians, the 3rd King's African Rifles, and the i30th Baluchis now
attempted to gain the Latema ridge. The enemy, well hidden
in the bush, and supported by accurate machine-gun fire, kept,
however, possession of the ridge. Finally, the 5th and yth South
African Infantry Battalions, brought up as reinforcements and
led by Lt.-Col. Byron, were sent in to make a night charge with
the bayonet. Here and there small parties, which became iso-
lated, gained the crest. Col. Byron got within 30 yds. of the
main enemy position, but with 20 men only, and was forced to
retire. Tighe thereupon dug in astride the road to await day-
light. At 4:30 A.M. March 12 Smuts ordered Tighe to draw back
his force. This operation was in progress when news came that
the enemy was in full retreat. Von Lettow states that about
ii P.M. on the nth a telephonic message from the Raeta position
informed him that the enemy had penetrated into the position in
great force and that to avoid the risk of having his communica-
tions cut he ordered the troops with him, forming his left wing,
to fall back towards Kahe. When he discovered the mistake
made it was too late to alter his dispositions. Maj. Kraut then
evacuated the Latema-Raeta position, and the whole force re-
tired to the Kahe position, abandoning Moshi and Kilimanjaro.
Gen. Stewart's division had not played the part expected; it
was not until March 13 that it reached Bomba Jangombe, 25m.
N.W. of Kahe. Here Gen. Stewart was informed by telegram
that the enemy had already avoided encirclement, and his
force was brought into New Moshi on the i4th. On the igth
Gen. Stewart left for India. Later experience showed that the
difficulties of encirclement were greater than then supposed.
Von Lettow's new position known as the Kahe-Ruwa
stretched, S. of the Moshi-Taveta road, from Kahe railway
station, near which the Ruwa (Pangani) crossed the railway,
eastward along the northern end of the Pare mountains, through
a region of forest, bush, swamps and rivers. On March 18 he was
attacked from the Latema Nek direction by a force under Brig.-
Gen. S. H. Sheppard (who had commanded the 2nd East African
Brigade under Gen. Stewart) and on March 20 Gen. Van De-
venter was sent westward from Moshi to turn the enemy's rear
at Kahe. He reached and after some sharp fighting seized
Kahe station on the 2ist, but owing to the difficulty in getting
his force across the Pangani could not cut off the enemy. On the
same day Sheppard fought a very determined and apparently
indecisive action on the northern front a South African Brigade
which was to have aided him " was so impeded in the dense bush
that it was unable to exercise any influence on the fight " (Gen.
Smuts). But under cover of night the German force was with-
drawn to Lembeni station, 20 m. S. of Kahe. Von Lettow retired
in perfect order with practically all his stores and guns, except
one of the " Konigsberg's " 4-i-in. guns, which was blown up.
The fight of March 21 marked the conclusion of the Kiliman-
jaro operations. They had opened the door into German East
Africa and had greatly inspirited the British. They had done
more, for though von Lettow's force was intact and its moral
still high, its supply of ammunition had been greatly depleted.
But at this critical moment another ship ran the blockade and
brought the Germans most welcome supplies, including four 4- i-in.
field howitzers, ammunition for the " Konigsberg's " big guns,
5,000,000 rounds of '98 small-arms ammunition, 12 machine-guns,
medical stores, provisions and clothing (for women as well as
men). The ship, the " Maria," which had come via South
America, the East Indies and Madagascar, entered Sudi Bay,
near Lindi, in the far south of German East Africa, in the middle
of March unobserved by the British patrolling vessels. She was
discovered early in April, fired into and damaged. But she com-
pleted the discharge of her cargo, and got clear away. The value
of this reenforcement to von Lettow is difficult to over-estimate. 1
The military problem as it presented itself to Gen. Smuts and
to Col. von Lettow respectively was very different. Smuts knew
that the Belgians were ready to strike from the N.W. and the
Nyasa-Rhodesia force from the S.W. and von Lettow was also
aware of the fact. But in so large a country as German East
Africa those operations were not likely for some time to affect
the main forces. Von Lettow's position was comparatively
simple; he could not prevent the enemy from developing his
offensive in the manner he chose, but with his superior mobility
he could adapt his movements to meet his foe's tactics.
Gen. Smuts had four possible alternatives: (i) to advance
from Victoria Nyanza on Tabora, the chief town in the interior
(this was ruled out as it was thought, and proved to be
the case, that the Belgians could deal with Tabora) ; Atteraa-
(2) follow the enemy down the Tanga railway through tive Plans
Pare and Usambara (this was rejected as it was the f a f a ^'
enemy's chosen ground, and where he was strongest) ; Smuts's
(3) advance direct inland from Kilimanjaro; (4) Choice.
land a force at Dar-es-Salaam and advance along
the Central railway. Gen. Smuts chose the third alternative;
whether it was better than the fourth is questionable. An
advance along the line of the Central railway had obvious
advantages. The railway traversed the protectorate in an east-
west direction from end to end; its occupation would have cut
the German forces in two and materially helped the operations
of the Belgians and Gen. Northey. Dar-es-Salaam, the ocean
terminus of the railway, lay at the mercy of the British
navy; it was the capital of the protectorate; its occupation
would have much political as well as military importance, and
would have given the British a sea base 200 m. nearer South
Africa than Mombasa and reduced land communications to
a much greater extent. And the shortening of the lines of
communication was a vital matter. Smuts, however, decided
against Dar-es-Salaam " partly because the prevalence of
the S.E. monsoon at that period (April) made a landing of a
large force on that coast an operation of great difficulty, and
even danger, partly because a prolonged campaign on the coast
immediately after the rainy season would mean the disappear-
ance of a very large percentage of my army from malaria and
other tropical ailments."
Moreover, von Lettow by retiring along the Tanga railway
had left the road into the interior " wide open and unguarded."
At that time, April 1016, it was not realized that the climate of
the interior was little less deadly than that of the coast, and that
whatever course was adopted a large proportion of the army
especially among the white troops would be affected by ma-
laria and other tropical ailments. Also Gen. Smuts was misin-
formed as to the extent and severity of the forthcoming rainy
season. Of the difficulties of communication he was well aware,
and slightly to lessen them the railway from Voi to Taveta was
carried through the Latema gap and joined to the Tanga railway
at Kahe. This railway was completed on April 25 1916. It
was cut through swamps and virgin forest and thousands of men
had to be employed to keep the rails from sinking in the mud.
Kahe, by rail, was 210 m. from Mombasa; from Kahe the ad-
vance into the interior had to be made by other means of trans-
port. Smuts made large use of motor lorries.
Smuts's plan for his new campaign was, briefly, as follows: A
mounted force under Van Deventer was to make a rapid advance
1 A remarkable attempt to carry medical and other comforts to
von Lettow in 1917 by air failed. Zeppelin L59 (known as " The
Balkan Terror ") under von Butlar, carrying supplies, left Yambol,
Bulgaria, on Nov. 21 1917, crossed the Mediterranean, and keeping
along the edge of the Libyan Desert, reached the latitude of Khar-
tum on Nov. 23. Then von Butlar received a wireless message
" Return, East Africa occupied." He got back to Yambol on Nov.
25. after a non-stop flight of 4,500 m. By the Egyptian authorities
it was thought that the L59, which was observed passing over the
oases in the Libyan Desert, intended to bomb the Assuan Dam.
88o
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
S. from Arusha (a place 40 m. W. by S. of Moshi) to Kondoa
Iringa the chief strategic point in the interior of the northern
part of the country thence advance to the Tanganyika railway
and turn E. along that line to Morogoro. Smuts himself, with
the rest of his force, after clearing as much of the Pare and Usam-
bara regions as was necessary for his purpose, was to turn S.,
parallel to the coast and E. of Van Deventer's line of advance,
also converging on Morogoro. It was hoped thus to corral von
Lettow and bring him- to a decisive engagement. Smuts had
reorganized his forces since the March operations, and no longer
had the aid of Gen. Tighe, who was given a command elsewhere
and created a K.C.M.G. Smuts formed his army into three
divisions, the first under Maj.-Gen. A. R. Hoskins (Inspector-
General King's African Rifles), the second under Van Deventer,
the third under Maj.-Gen. Coen Brits. The first division was
made up of the two East African Brigades; the two other divi-
sions were composed of South African troops, supplemented by
batteries of Indian and other artillery. On April 3 Van Deventer
took the road across the Masai Steppe to Kondoa,
Van which place he occupied after a smart engagement on
^tanh'to' April 19. En route the garrison of Lol Kissale, 1 7 Ger-
Kondoa. mans and 404 askaris with two machine-guns, had
been surrounded and forced to surrender. It had been
a brilliant march of some 200 m., but Van Deventer had lost
hundreds of animals through horse-sickness, and though only
some 80 m. from the Central railway he could advance no fur-
ther. Then the rainy season set in and cut off Van Deventer
for several weeks. Meanwhile von Lettow made rapid prepara-
tions to meet Van Deventer's thrust. Three companies were
brought from near Lake Kivu in the N.W. and by steamer on
Lake Tanganyika to Kigoma, whence they took train to Saranda
(the nearest point on the railway to Kondoa), while von Lettow
himself with 1 5 field and two mounted companies marched from
Korogwe on the Tanga railway to Kimamba on the Central
railway a distance of 125 miles. Maj. Kraut remained in
charge of the force left in Usambara. The rains began while the
troops were on the march, but by the beginning of May von Let-
tow and his force had occupied a strong position a little S. of
Kondoa. A good deal of minor fighting followed but neither side
made a general attack. (In May, owing chiefly to the privations
caused by the rains, Van Deventer could barely muster 3,000
rifles a number inferior to that of von Lettow.) And in
June, during the period of waiting, the Belgian advance towards
Tabora began to have effect on von Lettow's own position. Gen.
Smuts was also moving. His advance could not begin until May
18, the rains having turned much of the country into a lake.
It took an armoured-car detachment under Lt.-Comm. Whittall,
R.N., sent to reinforce Van Deventer, 35 days to cover 75 m.
(in the dry season the journey took three days).
When Smuts advanced Maj. Kraut retired, skilfully, by the
railway to Handeni. Equally skilful was Smuts's advance. The
main column under Gens. Sheppard and Beves marched,
through the densest bush, down the left bank of the Pangani, W.
of the Tanga railway; a smaller force under Gen. Hannyngton
followed the railway; a third column under Lt.-Col. T. O. Fitz-
gerald entered the Pare mountains through a gap (the Ngulu
gap) on the east. Outflanked, Kraut had no option but to retire;
he had strongly fortified the railway line, but had, apparently,
not believed that an advance along the fever-haunted valley of
the Pangani was possible. By June 15 the conquest of Usambara
was completed by the occupation of Korogwe, whence the Tanga
railway descends to the coast plain. Smuts put off the occupation
of the coast region, and had already with his main
den. ^ force turned S., and on June 19 Handeni was occupied.
/Wata*'* ^ n J une 24 a determined effort was made to round up
Opera- Kraut's force, the Germans being attacked simulta-
tioos. neously on three sides. In this action the Kashmiris
and the 2$th Fusiliers (familiarly known as " the Old
and Bold ") earned special distinction. The Germans fought with
great determination, and when the day was lost scattered in
the bush and thus escaped. They reformed in strong positions
in the Nguru hills.
After this fight Gen. Smuts was compelled to halt, forming a
large standing camp on the Msiha river. The force had covered
about 250 m. since May 22; water was short and the transport
had reached the limit of its capacity. Malaria had greatly re-
duced the force several units had no more than 30% of their
original effectives and the troops were on half rations. The in-
terval of enforced idleness at Msiha camp was utilized in clearing
Smuts's left flank; that is, the northern coast region. This was
done by Indian and African troops under Brig.-Gen. W. F. S.
Edwards (Inspector-General of Communications), with the help
of the Cape squadron, now under Rear-Adml. E. F. Charlton.
At this time Gen. Smuts had already reached the conclusion
that white troops were not best suited for campaigning in tropical
Africa (nor were the Indian troops particularly suited for the
work), and that a much larger negro element was needed. By
his direction the raising of new battalions of the King's African
Rifles was undertaken, but the need was urgent for immediate
reinforcements by trained black soldiers. These were found in
West Africa. The Gold Coast Regiment had volunteered for
service soon after its return from the Cameroon campaign; its
offer was accepted and it sailed in June for East Africa and was
in action in July. At the end of Aug. volunteers were called for a
Nigerian overseas contingent and there was a ready response,
but the Nigerian Brigade could not reach East Africa till Dec.-
Jan. 1916-7. Meantime a battalion of the West India Regiment
and the Gambia Company had joined Smuts. The coast opera-
tions, in which the navy played a great part, were successful;
Tanga was occupied on July 7, Pangani on July 23, Sadani on
Aug. i and Bagamoyo the terminus of the old slave road from
the great lakes on Aug. 15. The British base was removed to
Tanga, a saving of 75 m. sea voyage and over 200 m. rail trans-
port. Dar-es-Salaam was occupied on Sept. 4, but it took three
months before the port could be used as the new base.
While Smuts was still at the Msiha river von Lettow had
brought most of his force from Kondoa to the Nguru hills. An
attempt to surprise the British camp was unsuccessful owing to
" the remarkably dense bush." When on June 24 Van Deventer,
reinforced, resumed his offensive the German detachments left
on his front gave way, nor was their retreat marked by the skill
usually displayed by the Germans in their retirements. Van
Deventer was delayed by the difficulties of transport, but by the
end of July he was in possession of some 100 m. of the Central
railway from Kilimantinde to Kikombo, and on Aug. g had
concentrated his division for an advance E. on Morogoro. Far-
ther W. the Belgians were beginning to close in on Tabora. Von
Lettow was obliged to leave his forces in that region to their fate,
but (at the end of June) he had sent reinforcements to the de-
tachments opposing Gen. Northey's advance from the south.
His own position now appeared critical. He withdrew Maj.
Kraut and most of his force S. to Kilosa, on the railway, W. of
Morogoro, leaving Capt. Schulz, with a few companies, to
oppose Gen. Smuts, who resumed his advance on Aug. 5. Von
Lettow's plan was to get away with as much of his stores as he
could. Kraut's force did not remain at Kilosa, but crossing the
railway struck S. in the direction of Mahenge, a military station
in the middle of a healthy plateau, to which plateau the detach-
ments which were opposing Northey were falling back.
Gen. Smuts's effort, to use his own words, " to bottle the
enemy up in Morogoro " failed. Schulz, after fighting an action at
Dakawa on the Wami river on Aug. 16, retired on
Morogoro, leaving a broken bridge across the Wami. Voo
Smuts sent forces to outflank von Lettow, but in vain. l f it '>?
When on Aug. 26 the British occupied Morogoro it Encircle-
was to find it abandoned, and partly destroyed, by meat.
the enemy. Von Lettow had gone with his force into
the Uluguru mountains, which lie immediately S. of Morogoro;
by a track the existence of which was unknown to the British.
With von Lettow was Dr. Schnee, the governor.
Gen. Smuts had taken measures intended to prevent von Let-
tow getting away from Morogoro by roads leading E. and W. of
the Uluguru hills; he had not anticipated a retreat into the hills
themselves. Brig.-Gen. Enslin was sent with the 2nd Mounted
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
881
Brigade to guard the western exit from the hills. This movement
von Lettow had foreseen and had posted troops to meet an ad-
vance in this direction. Meanwhile the rest of his men, with as
much of the stores as could be collected, were being moved
through the mountains to Kissaki. To prevent von Lettow's
escape E. of Morogoro Smuts's main force had crossed a water-
less desert 25 m. long, a move which the enemy had not expected,
and it was this march which caused the hurried evacuation of
Morogoro. Exhausted as were his men Smuts determined to
make another effort to corner von Lettow. For some three weeks
very bitter fighting continued in the Uluguru hills, in which the
Germans gained several successes, but on Sept. 15 Kissaki, with
considerable stores, was captured by the British. Von Lettow
could neither remain in the fertile and healthy hill region nor
escape W., but he was able to retreat S.E. towards the Rufiji,
where he formed an extensive camp on the further side of the
Megeta river, which he continued to occupy for months. In
short, the limit of endurance had been reached by Gen. Smuts's
troops, further pursuit was impossible and the second rainy sea-
son was approaching. " Gen. Smuts," writes von Lettow, " re-
alized that his blow had failed. He sent me a letter calling upon
me to surrender, by which he showed that as far as force was
concerned he had reached the end of his resources."
Von Lettow is entitled to his deduction, but by his energy and
driving force Gen. Smuts had surmounted obstacles which ap-
peared insuperable, and in conjunction with the Belgians and
Northey had conquered fully two-thirds of the German protec-
torate, including the chief areas of European colonization and
both the railway lines. This had been done in a period of seven
months, and was a very considerable achievement. Civil ad-
ministrations were set up in the conquered regions.
The operations of the Belgians had been carefully planned and
were thoroughly successful. While such troops as were available
were engaged in defending, as best they could, the
The Congo frontiers, a special force of a little over 10,000
Advance men a ^ natives of the Congo was raised and offi-
to Tabora. cered by Europeans. All supplies for this force, except
food, had to be imported, a long and tedious process.
A railway completed in Sept. 1915 from the upper Congo to Lake
Tanganyika gave some help as, for example, when two small,
fast and comparatively heavily armed British motor boats were
* taken from Cape Town to Tanganyika in sections. These boats
took nearly six months to complete the journey of some 3,000 m.
from the Cape to Tanganyika. Launched on the lake in Dec.
1915' they soon obtained mastery of its waters, by capturing,
sinking or bottling up the enemy steamers. This achievement
was of much assistance to the Belgian operations.
The organization of the new Belgian force was confided to M.
Tombeur, acting Vice-Governor-General of Katanga, and an
ex-officer, who in Feb. 1915 was made commander-in-chief of the
Belgian Congo troops with the rank of Colonel (subsequently
Major-General) . All the fighting men were infantry and gunners
there were, all told, 60 machine-guns and 1 2 field pieces. The force
was divided into a Southern Brigade (under Lt.-Col. Olsen) and
a Northern Brigade (under Col. Molitor). Olsen's brigade was
stationed along the Rusizi river, between lakes Kivu and Tan-
ganyika; Molitor's N. of Kivu along the Congo-Uganda border.
Tombeur's headquarters were established at Kibate, just N. of
Lake Kivu. Molitor's brigade was partly stationed in British
(Uganda) territory. It had the help of the Congo Carrier
Corps, consisting of natives of Buganda (of whom 8,429 served
in the corps), while Gen. Smuts made himself responsible for
supply arrangements to Molitor's headquarters, which were at
Lutobo, 150 m. W. of Victoria Nyanza. This was a great advan-
tage as from Mombasa to Lutobo is barely 1,000 miles.
The defence of the region had been entrusted to Maj.-Gen.
Wahle, whose " western command " extended from Lake Nyasa
to the Uganda frontier. Von Lettow had withdrawn part of the
troops to strengthen his main force. Wahle, whose headquarters
were at Tabora, was instructed not to risk a decisive action, but,
1 The Belgians also launched a small vessel on Tanganyika.
when compelled, to fall back on Mahenge. From about mid-July
to the end of Oct. Wahle was cut off from his chief.
The terrain for the first part of the Belgian operations was
extraordinary. North of Kivu rise the Mfumbiro mountains, a
range of lofty, active volcanoes; farther N.E. extends a tangled
mass of hills, for the most part heavily wooded, and numerous
small lakes and rivers. On the German side was the mountain-
ous, fertile, and thickly populated region of Ruanda but newly
conquered and still preserving its native government. A narrow
passage between Lake Kivu and the Mfumbiro mountains af-
forded the only practicable route for the invasion of Ruanda from
the N. side of the lake; from the S. side there was an easier
approach. Col. Molitor's plan was to attack from both sides of
Kivu and to make a third advance from Lutobo. The campaign
began on April 4 with holding attacks by Maj. Rouling at the
N. end of Kivu, where the Germans, under Capt. Wintgens,
held very strong positions at Kissenji along the little river Sebea.
Then the two other columns were set in motion, and to avoid
being trapped Wintgens had to evacuate the Sebea lines. By the
middle of May the Belgians by their converging movements had
" nipped off " Ruanda. They next repeated the manceuvre on a
larger scale. Olsen crossed the Rusizi at the N. end of Tangan-
yika and pressed E. ; Molitor sent columns S.W. to join up with
him and at the same time sent other columns S.E. to Victoria
Nyanza, which was reached on June 27. Capt. Godovius, the
German commander in Karagwe, who for nearly two years had
conducted guerrilla warfare with the British Lake Detachment
near the western Uganda frontier, falh'ng back, tried to pierce
the Belgian lines. His detachment sustained very heavy losses,
and. Godovius, severely wounded, was taken prisoner. The de-
tachments under Wintgens, though badly mauled, escaped the
Belgian cordon. By the middle of July the Belgian columns had
secured the Tanganyika-Victoria Nyanza line and were ready
for a further advance. Olsen's brigade marched S. parallel to
Lake Tanganyika on Kigoma the lake terminus of the railway
from Dar-es-Salaam and the port of Ujiji.
In its harbour was the " Graf von Gotzen " launched in 1915
and the biggest boat ever seen on Tanganyika, the " Adjutant "
(the vessel brought in sections from Dar-es-Salaam), and the
tug " Wami." From June onwards they had been bombed by
British seaplanes manned by Belgians. Olsen's brigade occupied
Kigoma on July 28 and Ujiji on Aug. 2, the German garrison re-
tiring by the railway to Tabora, 200 m. east. Other Belgian de-
tachments now crossed Tanganyika S. of Ujiji, and these and
Olsen's brigade advanced on Tabora.
Molitor's brigade, whose objective was also Tabora, had the
cooperation of a British column under Brig.-Gen. Sir Charles
Crewe, a South African soldier, who was on Gen. Smuts's staff.
With a force of about 1,800 men Crewe captured Mwanza, the
German port on the southern shores of Victoria Nyanza, on July
14. Thereafter the Molitor brigade marched W. and Crewe's
column E. of the road leading from Mwanza to Tabora. Both
forces suffered from transport difficulties, excessive heat and
lack of water, and both had to fight several stiff actions. Tabora 2
was the most important and the largest place in the interior of
German East Africa. The Arabs had a large colony; there were
Greek, Genoese and Indian traders and representatives of many
African tribes. To lose the place would be a severe blow to the
2 The Germans had sent the enemy civilians they interned and
also many of their soldier captives to Tabora. The British Euro-
peans interned numbered over 200, a large proportion being mis-
sionaries, women as well as men. All the Europeans there were
Belgians, Italians, French and Russians as well as British were
harshly treated, but the British were subjected to calculated inr
dignities, with the object of lowering British prestige in the eyes of
the natives. The Indian and African prisoners of war were treated
with open brutality. One Brandt, commandant of Tabora, was
directly responsible, but his action appears to have been approved by
Dr. Schnee, and it was not till the Belgians were approaching Tabora
that Schnee ordered better treatment of the prisoners. Von Lettow
seems to have had no responsibility for the ill-usage of the prisoners.
There was, however, first-hand evidence that at the prisoners' camp
at Chiwata he took no steps to put an end to the inhumanity with
which the Indian prisoners were treated.
882
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
Germans in Arab and African eyes, but though they fought
strong delaying actions with Olsen's brigade W. and Molitor's
brigade N. of Tabora they had no intention of holding out to the
last, and in preparation for departure Gen. Wahle employed Brit-
ish, Indian and African prisoners in building a road towards
Mahenge and established food depots along it. On Sept. 18
Wahle evacuated Tabora, leaving behind about 150 white (Ger-
man) soldiers, some sick, some simply war-weary, a number of
civilians (among them Frau Schnee), many prisoners of war and
considerable military stores. The Belgians occupied the town
the next day. Sir Charles Crewe's column, which, it was hoped,
would have reached the railway line E. of Tabora before the
Germans had time to get away, only struck the line a week later.
Shortly afterwards the column was broken up and Sir Charles
Crewe returned to South Africa. He had, said Gen. Smuts,
" rendered very useful service." The Wintgens column in its
retreat was engaged by a Belgian detachment at Sikonge, 40 m.
S. of Tabora. Though Wintgens suffered serious loss he made
good his escape. With this action the Belgian campaign of 1916
ended, just at the close of the dry season and at the same time
that Smuts suspended his operations against von Lettow. Gen.
Tombeur's organization had been thorough and methodical, and
Cols. Olsen and Molitor had proved capable commanders. The
Congo Carrier Corps was disbanded and returned to Uganda.
When the Germans evacuated Tabora the operations conduct-
ed by Gen. Northey from the Nyasaland-Rhodesian border had
so far developed that some of Northey's columns were
Campa/jfn interposed between Tabora and Mahenge. Northey
had taken the offensive on May 25 (1916). His fight-
ing force was about 5,000 strong; it was made up of King's
African Rifles (ist battalion), South African troops (infantry),
Nyasa and Rhodesian volunteers, the Northern Rhodesian
Police (natives under European officers), the British South
African Police (Europeans) , and, later, a battalion raised from the
natives of northern Rhodesia. For the supplies of this small
fighting force the administrations of northern Rhodesia and Ny-
asaland were responsible. Some idea of the effort required is seen
from the fact that up to July 1917, out of a total native popula-
tion of scarcely 2,000,000 in the two districts named, 395,000
were employed as carriers. Much of the supplies had to be car-
ried, in canoe or on foot, fully 600 miles.
Northey's forces were in two main columns: a Nyasaland
column under Maj. (temporary Lt.-Col.) G. M. P. Hawthorn,
and a Rhodesian column under Lt.-Col. R. E. Murray. A third
column under Lt.-Col. T. A. Rodgers cooperated with Col. Mur-
ray. The advance was along the 200 m. front between lakes
Nyasa and Tanganyika; there was a great deal of detached fight-
ing, some German commanders, in von Lettow's opinion, too
easily surrendering. Bismarckburg, the German port at the
S. end of Tanganyika, was occupied by Col. Murray on June 8.
Northey's main thrust was along the highroad which led from
the Nyasa frontier by Neu Langenburg and Iringa to Kilosa on
the Central (Tanganyika) railway the road crossing the
Tabora-Mahenge route. In an action on July 24 at Malangali
Northey defeated the German force which sought to bar his
progress, and on Aug. 19 the British seized Lupembe, a place
100 m. W.S.W. of Mahenge. On Aug. 29 Iringa was occupied.
Exactly a week earlier Van Deventer had taken Kilosa, 120 m.
N.E. of Iringa. Northey could have reached Iringa much earlier,
but on Gen. Smuts's advice he " slowed down."
When von Lettow had been forced to take to the lower Rufiji
district, it was decided that a joint effort should be made by
Van Deventer and Northey to deal with the enemy in the Ma-
henge district. But before that operation could be undertaken
Van Deventer's men were nearly spent after over six months'
fighting, marching, privations and illness Northey had to meet
the troops of Gen. Wahle coming from Tabora. The Germans
were in three columns, an eastern under Maj. von Langenn, a
centre column under Wintgens, and a western under Lt. Hue-
bener. Wahle was with the centre column. The western column
lost touch with the others, which acted in close cooperation.
Northey's columns near Iringa were much outnumbered. Al-
though Col. Rodgers with a small body of South Africans made
an effort to hold up the enemy on the night of Oct. 21 1916
the larger portion of Gen. Wahle's troops broke through the
British lines. An attack made by Maj. Kraut the same day on
Mkapira, in the Lupembe region, was regarded by the British as
evidence of his knowledge of Wahle's movements; von Lettow
states that this was not the case. The attack on Mkapira ended
in a severe reverse to the Germans, but sharp fighting with
Wintgens' column continued in the Lupembe area till the middle
of Nov., by which time the Germans had occupied a chain of
posts covering Mahenge, extending over 200 m., and facing Van
Deventer's and Northey's troops. Huebener's column was still W.
of Northey's lines, in the neighbourhood of Lake Rukwa. This
was a region where there were neither British nor Belgian troops,
and for weeks the British had been doubtful even of the existence
of this column. It was eventually tracked down at Ilembule by
Col. Hawthorn and bluffed into surrendering. It numbered 54
Europeans and 249 askaris, and the booty included a 4-i-in.
howitzer (one of the guns from the " Maria ").
The combined attack by Van Deventer and Northey against
the Mahenge force was at length begun, on Dec. 24. The opera-
tion failed, though one of Northey's columns compelled the sur-
render of Maj. von Grawert and his detachment of 289 fighting
men, including 39 Europeans. The main engagement was fought
by Van Deventer's force South African infantry and mounted
men. The fight was at Muhanga, 70 m. N.W. of Mahenge. It
began on Christmas Day and continued till Dec. 28. The Ger-
mans were attacked front and rear, but, as Gen. Smuts wrote,
" eventually escaped through the dense bush and forest under
cover of darkness and eluded pursuit." The rains had begun
and early in Jan. (1917) the operations had to be abandoned.
Gen. Wahle had now under him in the Mahenge area 6,000 or
more soldiers, of whom at least 1,000 were Europeans, with a
large following of carriers, and he found some difficulty in feeding
them all. To relieve the pressure he directed Kraut and Wint-
gens to take detachments S. towards the Portuguese frontier, and
Kraut, crossing Northey's lines, reached the Rovuma, where
supplies were found. Wintgens had separated from him and
turned N.W. (see below). All this time communications between
Wahle and von Lettow were slow and irregular.
Since the abandonment of the pursuit of von Lettow at the
end of Sept. (1916) Gen. Smuts had been engaged in reorganiz-
ing his army and in shortening lines of communication
by making Dar-es-Salaam his base. He evacuated forces re-
12,000 to 15,000 white troops (South Africans), their organized;
place being taken by the Nigerian Brigade (under changes in
Maj. -Gen. F. H. Cunliffe) and new battalions of the ma nd'.
King's African Rifles. The German ports S. of Dar-es-
Salaam had been occupied by the navy in preparation for a
new offensive. Of these ports the chief were Kilwa and Lindi,
Kilwa being the nearest to Dar-es-Salaam. A considerable force
had been concentrated at Kilwa by mid-Nov., when Gen. Hos-
kins took over command in that area. On Jan. i 1917, in con-
junction with Van Deventer's and Northey's operations in the
Mahenge region, Gen. Smuts opened a new offensive against von
Lettow, Hoskins cooperating from Kilwa in the rear of the Ger-
mans. Smuts tried an enveloping movement on the Mgeta river,
but again, after very stout fighting, the enemy got away; they
were followed up towards the Rufiji and engaged on Jan. 4 at
Beho-Beho, in which fight F. C. Selous was killed at the head of
his company of 25th Fusiliers. Though severely handled the
Germans " again slipped past " and crossed the Rufiji at Kibam-
bwe. The operations continued and were proceeding favourably
to the British until the rains turned much of the valley of the
Rufiji into a vast lake; and in that region, uncomfortably enough,
von Lettow was able to maintain himself.
In the middle of these Jan. operations Gen. Smuts gave up the
command. At the request of Gen. Botha he went to England to
become a member of the Imperial War Cabinet. Having handed
over the command in East Africa to Gen. Hoskins Smuts sailed
from Dar-es-Salaam on Jan. 20 for London. Gen. Van Deventer
left East Africa at the same time, returning to South Africa.
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
883
In consequence of the heavy rains Gen. Hoskins had to aban-
don operations on a large scale, though by the end of Feb. the N.
bank of the Rufiji was cleared of the Germans. Some idea of the
difficulties caused by the rains may be gathered from the fact
that in this area " patrol work had to be carried out for some
time in canoes, and the men found themselves making fast to the
roofs of houses which had lately formed their quarters " (Gen.
Hoskins 's despatch). Sickness among the European and South
African units was so great as to necessitate their withdrawal. As
many as possible were sent to South Africa to recuperate, being
recalled in May, when the dry weather permitted the offensive
to be resumed. Meantime Gen. Hoskins utilized the period of
the rains to undertake a thorough reorganization of his forces.
The training of new battalions of the King's African Rifles was
pushed on rapidly, and special attention was devoted to the
improvement of communications. The difficulties of transport
were very great; owing to the tsetse fly animal transport was no
longer possible; both carriers and light mechanical transport,
essential for a forward movement, were deficient. Gen. Hos-
kins by energetic measures largely overcame these difficulties.
To an extent hard to realize, the operations of the Germans
equally with the British and Belgians depended on the number,
organization and distribution of native carriers. Com-
Depeaa- plete statistics are lacking, but on the British side
Native"" 1 a l ne > nrs t to last, well over 500,000 carriers were em-
Carrlers. ployed. Those with the main forces were recruited
from British East Africa (Kenya Colony) and Uganda,
in both of which countries a Compulsory Service Act was put
in force in March 1917. Uganda, which also found a large number
of carriers for the Belgian troops, up to the end of 1917 had fur-
nished a total of 178,000 porters (besides 10,000 men for the
King's African Rifles). A still larger number was recruited in
British East Africa; a fair number of carriers were also recruited
in German East Africa itself. Gen. Northey, as already stated,
obtained his carriers from Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
Many carriers were used in the first line, that is they took am-
munition, water, etc., right up to the fighting men, and casual-
ties in action amongst these carriers were numerous.
There was also serious wastage among the carriers from sick-
ness and privations, especially among the men obtained from
Uganda and British East Africa. This arose mainly from the
difficulty in supplying them with their accustomed food. Tribes,
like the majority of those in the Uganda Protectorate, whose
staple food consists of bananas, sweet potatoes and beans, suf-
fered from intestinal disease when placed on a grain diet. For
example out of 3,576 carriers from Uganda employed in the coast
region of British East Africa between Aug. 1914 and March 1915
only 2,050 returned. Sufficient care was not always taken by
officers in charge to procure suitable rations. But these cases
were exceptional, and the African Native Medical Corps, 1,000
strong, raised in 1917 (recruited mainly from the senior high-
school boys in Buganda), did much to improve the health of the
carriers. In 1918 the carriers in hospital numbered 7%. The
West African troops had their own Carrier Corps, raised volun-
tarily in Nigeria, the Gold Coast and Sierra Leone. The South
African troops also brought their own carriers and labour con-
tingents, a total of 60,300 men being sent from the Cape.
Before the weather had improved sufficiently to permit the
offensive to be renewed Gen. Hoskins was appointed to command
a division in Palestine. Gen. Van Deventer returned
Position f rom South Africa and took over the command on
ilir. 3 * May 29 1917. The position of the Germans at this
time was briefly this: von Lettow with his main force
was at the Matunda river, with patrols and detachments pushed
close to and S. of Kilwa. Maj.-Gen. Wahle had recently been
transferred from Mahenge to command in the Lindi area, suc-
ceeding Capt. Looff. At Mahenge Capt. Tafel had taken over
control. There were smaller German detachments between Kil-
wa and Lindi and near the Rovuma. There was indirect if not
dircci. communication between all the German forces. Nowhere,
as throughout the campaign, was there any continuous front.
The columns under Northey contained the Mahenge force on the
S. and W., and Van Deventer had at Iringa another column
watching Tafel from the N.W. The rest of Van Deventer's force
was to be engaged against von Lettow. That von Lettow might
in the last resort retire into Portuguese territory had been fore-
seen ; he had in fact contemplated that course ever since in Sept.
1916 he had been forced out of the Uluguru mountains. And
German columns had already raided deep into Portuguese East
Africa, bringing back much loot and reports of a land flowing
with milk and honey. 1
For his main operations Van Deventer had the choice of an
advance either from Kilwa or Lindi. An advance from Lindi
(which is situated on the estuary of the Lukuledi) appears to
have had the prospect of the best results, as by pushing forces
up the valley of the Lukuledi and joining hands with Northey's
column E. of Nyasa the escape of von Lettow into Portuguese
territory might have been prevented. But Lindi harbour was
poor, that at Kilwa was good, and the main body of the Germans
was concentrated near it. Van Deventer's formula was to
" find the enemy and hit him hard," and he decided to attack
on the Kilwa side. The Kilwa force had been under Gen.
Hannyngton, but Hannyngton was then seriously ill and Gen.
Beves was in temporary command. The advance began on
July 5, in the direction of Liwale, it being hoped to force von
Lettow to disclose his intended line of retreat. Three columns
were formed, the forces engaged including South African
infantry, King's African Rifles, the 23rd Punjabis and two
mountain batteries. After some sharp fighting the Germans fell
back to Narungombe, where an engagement was fought on
July 19. The fighting was very severe; the Germans delivered
several well-sustained counter-attacks and the issue appeared
doubtful. The fight showed that " the enemy's capacity for
resistance had not in any way been weakened by the rainy
season, and that the moral and training of his troops remained
high " (Van Deventer).
After the fight at Narungombe the Germans, who were under
Capt. von Liebermann, retreated south. Von Lettow regarded
the action as an opportunity missed by von Liebermann and as
further proof of the immense difficulty of carrying out successfully
in the bush operations in which several columns are engaged.
But Beves's offensive was spent, and his troops suffered heavily
from sickness. It was not until mid-Sept, that a new Kilwa force
was ready to take the field. In the meantime preparations had
been made for the advance from Lindi. In Aug. Brig.-Gen.
H. de C. O'Grady, a great fighting soldier, had driven the
Germans from the estuary of the Lukuledi, and provided elbow
room for a further advance. He also foiled an attempt made by
von Lettow in person to surprise his force.
When in Sept. Van Deventer was at length in a position to
begin the main advance Gen. Beves had been transferred to the
Lindi command and Gen. Hannyngton had resumed
command at Kilwa. The Nigerian Brigade had been Jf aa
DCVQO tcr s
at Kilwa since Aug., and Hannyngton had also three campaign
new battalions from India, including the 25th '" the
cavalry. It was planned that the Kilwa force should &,"(. "
sweep S. and the Lindi force W. so as to enclose von
Lettow and prevent his breaking W. and consolidating with the
Mahenge force. This period of the main advance, up to the end of
1 Here may be mentioned the most remarkable raid of the whole
campaign. When early in March 1917 Wintgens parted from Maj.
Kraut he took his detachment N.W. to Lake Rukwa, where he was
engaged by, but escaped from, one of Northey's columns. He then
continued N. towards Tabora, but falling ill with typhus surrendered
to the Belgians (May 23). A Lt. Naumann then took command of
Wintgens' men. Constantly pursued, he reached almost to the
borders of British East Africa, then doubled back, losing men in
several encounters, redoubled N. and finally was compelled to sur-
render with the remnant of his command 146 soldiers out of 600
at the beginning of Oct. (1917). A regiment, the loth South African
Horse, had been specially raised to help in tracking him down.
" Such a raid," wrote Van Deventer, " could perhaps only have been
carried out in a country like German East Africa, where the bush is
often so thick that two considerable forces may pass within a mile,
unaware of each other's presence; and where a ruthless leader of a
small force can nearly always live on the country."
884
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
Nov., witnessed the hardest fighting of the whole campaign in
East Africa. Relentlessly pursued by Hannyngton's columns
von Lettow was compelled to fall back to the Lukuledi valley,
the chief line of retreat being towards Nyango, a place 40 m.
S.W. of Lindi, towards which Beves was pressing back Wahle's
detachments. Early in Oct. Hannyngton detached the Nigerian
Brigade (with which was the Gambia Company) to march to
Nyango and join the Lindi force. Meanwhile other columns of
the Kilwa force, including cavalry, were marching S., bu.t further
W., towards the mission stations of Lukuledi and Massasi.
At those places, and at Chitwa, S. of the Lukuledi river, were
most of the German supplies.
The Nigerian Brigade, after a fine march of 80 m., reached its
destination on Oct. 15. On that day two columns of Beves's
force under Gen. O'Gradyand Col. Tytler respectively
na( ^ driven back Wahle's main body to Nyango and
Mahiwa (the latter about two m. from Nyango).
The Nigerians were to cooperate in cutting off Wahle's retreat
(preparatory to the pursuit of von Lettow), and were in action
early on the isth. This was the beginning of a four days' battle,
the most stubborn and most costly of the whole campaign. Von
Lettow with four companies had gone to the help of Wahle, and
attacks were met by counter-attacks; the Nigerians at Mahiwa
being driven back and very hard pressed. Nyango the Germans
abandoned on the i6th, only to take up stronger positions on a
ridge two m. S. on the farther side of a river bed. These positions
the British in vain assailed; they were in turn counter-attacked
on the I7th and again on the i8th and compelled to fall back to
the river bed, the enemy pressure continuing until after dark.
Gen. Beves gave orders that the attack was to be resumed on
the ipth. This order was cancelled by Gen. Van Deventer, and
on the same day the command of the Lindi force was transferred
to Gen. Cunliffe. On that day the Germans retired to the posi-
tions they had taken up on the i6th. The battle was over. Out
of a total strength of 4,900 infantry engaged the British had 2,700
casualties, of which 528 were in the Nigerian Brigade. The 2$th
Fusiliers, reduced to a remnant in previous fighting, had 70
casualties out of 120 men who went into action. Von Lettow
says that the German force was " some 1,500 men " and their
casualties 519. This did not include all Wahle's casualties in the
retreat to Mahiwa, for on Oct. 15-8 the British captured in all
241 Europeans and 677 askaris. The total German force engaged
was not fewer than 2,800. Von Lettow describes this fight as,
next to Tanga, the most serious defeat suffered by the British,
and says he adapted his tactics to those of Gen. Beves, who
" threw his men into action regardless of loss of life and did not
hesitate to try for a success ... by repeated frontal at-
tacks." He (von Lettow) abandoned the idea of " an annihilat-
ing pursuit " as he learned that the enemy columns in his rear
were threatening the Lukuledi mission station. He hastened to
its relief and began the process of concentrating his forces to
the Chiwata region. The Mahiwa-Nyango battle gave him this
advantage -it was 10 days before Gen. Cunliffe was able to re-
sume the offensive. On Oct. 24 von Lettow had a conference
with Dr. Schnee, who appears to have urged that the end had
come, but, writes von Lettow, " I firmly stated my opinion
that . . . the war could and must be carried on."
Meanwhile Tafel's force had been driven from the Mahenge
plateau with the help of troops furnished by the Belgians, whose
cooperation had been sought. While columns of Nor-
Maheage they's force, under Cols. Hawthorn and Fair, pressed
'of'the the enem y nard from the S. and S.W., the Belgians
German*, struck at Mahenge from the north. The main Belgian
column, under. Maj. Batille, left the Central railway
on Aug. 15, and made good progress through very difficult
country. The Germans put up the usual strong rear-guard de-
laying actions, but when the Belgians attacked (Oct. 8) the
last defence of Mahenge, Tafel ordered a general retreat. His
losses had been heavy and many of his askaris deserted. Both
Hawthorn and Fair were drawing near, but Tafel succeeded in
outdistancing his pursuers, whose long lines of transport had
reached breaking point. Tafel chose the only route open to him
that leading S.E. in the direction of von Lettow. On Nov. 16 he
broke through two weak detachments of Northey's force which
gallantly endeavoured to bar his progress. A Belgian column,
which had been sent round via Kilwa to Liwale, arrived only in
time to engage Tafel's rear-guard. This was the end of the Bel-
gian effort, and their troops shortly afterwards returned to the
Congo. The pursuit of Tafel was taken over by the Kilwa force
and his attempt to join von Lettow was frustrated.
At this time, mid-Nov., von Lettow's position was critical.
The Lindi force had resumed its offensive on Nov. 6 and had
joined hands with the Kilwa force on Nov. 12. Von
Lettow had concentrated all his men near Chiwata, ^"tow
but to remain there meant certain disaster. So leaving escapes to
only a small body at Chiwata to put up a delaying 7^/5" ese
action the place was taken by Gen. O'Grady on Nov.
14 he retreated eastward, i.e. towards the coast, along the
broken edge of the Mkondi Plateau. He was pursued without
pause and constantly engaged, suffering losses every day, was in
a foodless region and had lost nearly all his stores. On Nov. 17
von Lettow took what he calls a fateful decision. It was to aban-
don all idea of fixed bases; reduce his force half-starved and
very short of ammunition, break off fighting and get away to
some district where food was to be found. At a place called
Nambindinga he left some hundreds of Europeans (many of
whom, he states, were not unwilling to lay down their arms) and
600 askaris, and with the rest again eluded his pursuers by turn-
ing S.E. " by an unsuspected path." While the British columns
were re-forming to pick up his trail he marched rapidly S.W.,
having determined to cross the Rovuma near its confluence with
the Lujenda, where was the Portuguese fort of Ngomano. At
Nwali he shed more of his troops, and his force was now reduced
to approximately 300 Europeans, 1,800 askaris and 3,000 bearers
and other natives, including women and children. He marched
along the Rovuma to the selected crossing place, and on the
night of Nov. 25-6 he crossed the river into Portuguese territory.
Gen. Wahle, Maj. Kraut and other tried leaders were with him
and also Dr. Schnee. Two attempts to overtake him " failed by
a few hours at both places, in spite of hard marching." So wrote
Col. G. M. Orr, commander of one of the pursuing columns.
For a day or two Tafel and von Lettow had been near one
another; Tafel had reached the Rovuma but not finding von
Lettow turned back. Running into an Indian patrol
Tafel again tried to turn south. But his force was
foodless and hopeless. On Nov. 27 a party of 37
Germans, 178 askaris and 1,100 followers gave themselves up to
the British, and the next day, Nov. 28 1917, Tafel himself sur-
rendered unconditionally with 19 officers, 92 other Europeans,
over 1,200 askaris and some 2,200 other natives. 1
Not a single German combatant was left in German East
Africa, and the conquest of the Protectorate was complete. At
the time of his flight into Portuguese territory von Lettow states
that he received a second summons to surrender. But he was no
more ready to surrender to Van Deventer than he had been to
Smuts; moreover, he considered his position satisfactory inas-
much as he could still contain a large enemy force.
The failure of the Portuguese to prevent von Lettow from
crossing the Rovuma, or in accounting for him when he had
crossed that river, was not due to lack of effort on the
part of the Lisbon Government. During 1914-5 they ^"p^rtu"
had sent over 2,000 white troops to Mozambique, and yu esc East
between May and July 1916 another force 4,600 Africa.
strong was sent from Lisbon. Part of this force had
occupied Nwali ( Oct. 1916 ), but had been forced to evacuate
it a month later. 2 In 1917 Portugal sent 8,776 more men from
Lisbon, and had strengthened the posts along the Rovuma, in-
cluding that at Ngomano. But the Portuguese white troops
1 A party of six Europeans and 20 askaris under Capt. Otto broke
away from Tafel the night before his surrender and eventually
joined von Lettow.
* Urgent instructions were sent by the Lisbon Cabiaet to tl
Portuguese commander, Gen. Gil, to cooperate with Gen. Smuts.
The original idea was that Gen. Gil should march on Lindi.
EAST AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS
885
lacked experience; there were not sufficient trained native sol-
diers and the military posts were widely scattered. Nor was any
one post equal to a successful defence against the 2,000 and more
veterans von Lettow had with him. Ngomano was attacked,
and it surrendered after a gallant resistance in which some 200
casualties were suffered, including the commanding officer, Maj.
Pinto. Its loot gave the Germans just what they lacked food,
ammunition, rifles, machine-guns and clothing. The Nigerians
and the 2$th Cavalry being in pursuit von Lettow then marched
up the Lujenda valley. He had no difficulty in keeping ahead of
the enemy, and the rainy season having set in the Nigerians and
25th Cavalry were recalled in the third week in Jan. (1918) and
the Germans had a short breathing space.
Gen. Van Deventer now sent home all his white and Indian
troops, and the Nigerian Brigade also. Except for the Gold
Coast Regiment (which Was not sent back till Aug.) the 1918
operations were carried out almost entirely by natives the
King's African Rifles. There were, however, a considerable num-
ber of Europeans among the Portuguese forces, which were put
under the supreme command of Van Deventer.
Given the character and extent of the country into which the
Germans had entered, the known determination of von Lettow
to continue the struggle and the proven difficulty of bringing
him to a decisive action, " the 1918 campaign," said Van Deven-
ter, " had perforce to be one of virtual extermination." Wide
converging movements were undertaken. Gen. Northey sent
columns from the E. and S. shores of Lake Nyasa, while the Gold
Coast Regiment advanced W. from Port Amelia (a harbour
midway between the Rovuma and Mozambique). This Port
Amelia column was later strengthened and came under command
of Brig.-Gen. Edwards. Between Feb. and the middle of May
the Germans were engaged at several points from both sides,
mainly in the central region between the Lujenda and Msalu
rivers. Von Lettow then marched S. to the Lurio river, 200 m.
from the point where he had left German territory, with no
enemy in front of him except isolated Portuguese posts, from
which he obtained more valuable supplies. He was pursued from
the N., and an Anglo-Portuguese column started N.W. from
Mozambique (to which port Gen. Edwards removed his base)
to overtake him. But von Lettow, marching very quickly S.,
captured Ilie, and in June reached the coastal region near
Quilimane (Kilimane), where he ravaged many rich prazas. In
this month Gen. Northey left, having been appointed governor
of British East Africa and Col. (Brig.-Gen.) Hawthorn took his
place. On July i von Lettow attacked a mixed Portuguese and
British force at Nhamacurra, 25 m. from Quilimane, and after
three days' fighting captured the place and inflicted very severe
loss on the defenders. The approach of strong British columns
then compelled von Lettow to retire. He marched parallel to
the coast, in the Mozambique direction. He established himself
at a place called Chalaua, but when in mid-Aug. British columns
closed in upon it, it was to find the ca-np evacuated. Von Lettow
had turned N.W. again, one of his ideas at this time being to
raid the Blantyre district of Nyasaland. On Aug. 30 and 31 he
was engaged by part of Hawthorn's force at Lioma, E. of Lake
Shirwa, and suffered severely. " It was hoped that the enemy
might have been captured, but the rugged country and the thick
bush made operations very difficult, and he finally broke away
to the northward."
Save that he could not replace his casualties (except to some
extent by turning bearers into askaris) von Lettow held the
advantage in this campaign in northern Portuguese East Africa.
It was nearly as large as France, most of it was fertile, and the
natives, richly rewarded with booty from captured posts, were
friendly and useful. If hustled from one area there were others
to which he could move. He was tied to no base and was an ideal
guerilla leader. He had now, end of Aug., to decide his future
course; he came to the conclusion that an attempt to invade
British Nyasaland was too risky, as there the British communi-
cations were good. It was easier to go north. To reenter German
East Africa would be a complete surprise to the enemy, who
would imagine he was making for the Tabora region (where
most of his askaris came from) and take precautions accordingly.
This would give him an opportunity of turning in another di-
rection, and keep his force in being. His casualties at Lioma had
numbered 95, and he had lost stores, baggage and ammunition.
By Sept. i his total strength had been reduced to 176 Europeans
and 1,487 askaris. He suffered further loss in another encounter
on Sept. 6, after which date he got clear of his pursuers. Gen.
Hawthorn had sent troops by steamer up Lake Nyasa, which
should have reached the N. end of the lake before von Lettow
could get there; the steamers broke down, and when on Sept. 28
the Germans again reached the Rovuma they were able to over-
come the weak posts stationed there. Avoiding places held in
strength by the British, and keeping ahead of the columns
now in hot pursuit, von Lettow passed round the N.
corner of Lake Nyasa, losing many carriers by deser- Y ,
tion but recruiting a few askaris. He stayed at Ubena surrender.
some days and then (Oct. 17) set out for Rhodesia.
(At Ubena Gen. Wahle and two other Europeans, sick or
wounded, were left behind.) On Nov. i von Lettow attacked Fife,
just within the Northern Rhodesian border, hoping to capture
its stores, but it was too strongly held, so the Germans turned
S.W., making for Kasama, von Lettow now having some idea of
penetrating into Belgian Congo. Kasama was taken on Nov. 9,
but British columns were in its immediate neighbourhood and
there were several patrol encounters. Necessity urged von Let-
tow onward. On Nov. 13 he was reconnoitring a crossing of the
Chambezi (the eastern head stream of the Congo) when an
English motor-cyclist arrived with a message from Gen. Van
Deventer announcing the conclusion of the Armistice. Von
Lettow notified his acceptance of the Armistice on Nov. 14; the
formal surrender was made to Gen. Edwards at Abercorn on
Nov. 23. The force which surrendered numbered 30 officers and
125 other Europeans, 1,165 askaris, and 2,891 other natives,
among them 819 women, with one small field gun, 24 machine-
guns and 14 Lewis guns. Those who surrendered included Dr.
Schnee and Maj. Kraut.
The troops employed by the Allies in East Africa included
52,339 sent from India (among them 5,403 British) and 43,477
South African whites. Other white troops employed
(East African and Nyasaland settlers, Rhodesian Troops
volunteers and the 25th Fusiliers) numbered about /,//, y "
3,000, the African troops (King's African Rifles, Allies.
Nigerians, Gold Coast Regiment, Gambia Company,
Cape Corps 1,600 strong and West Indians) about 15,000;
an approximate total of 114,000, not reckoning Belgian native
troops about 12,000 in all the Portuguese and the naval force
engaged. The greatest number in the field at any one time, May
to Sept. 1916, was about 55,000; the lowest number, in 1918, was
some 10,000, ah" African, save the administrative services. The
total British and Indian casualties was officially returned at
1 7, 823; of these 2,762 were among the South African Forces.
These figures are exclusive of casualties among carriers and of
deaths and invaliding through sickness, which among the South
Africans alone exceeded 12,000.
The cost of the campaign to Great Britain, inclusive of Indian
and South African expenditure and that of the local protectorates
to March 1919, was officially estimated at 72,000,000.
AUTHORITIES. British. The despatches of Generals Smuts,
Hoskins, Van Deventer, Northey, of the High Commissioner for
South Africa (Lord Buxton), the Governor of Nyasaland (Sir George
Smith) and of Adml. Charlton, published in the London Gazette,
cover the operations, except the period up to March 1916, on the
British East Africa frontier and the early naval operations, concern-
in? which no despatches were issued. " The Times " History ofjhe
War, chaps. 155, 183, 206 and 276, covers the whole campaign.
Brig.-Gen. J. H. V. Crowe, Gen. Smuts' Campaign in East Africa
(1918), has an introduction by Gen. Smuts and an account of the
blockade runners. For the German treatment of prisoners, etc.,
see the White Paper, Cd. 8689 (1917); E. F. Spanton, In German
Gaols (1917), and J. H. Briggs, In the East Africa War Zone (1918)
For particular units see A. Buchanan, Three Years of War in East
Africa (1919), chiefly about the 25th Fusiliers; Sir Hugh Clifford,
The Gold Coast Regt. in the East African Campaign (1920) ; W. D.
Downes, With the Nigerians in East Africa (1919) ; G. M Orr," The
Indian Army in East Africa," Jnl. U.S. Inst. India (1919).
886
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
German. Gen. von Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences of East
Africa (English trans. 1920); Dr. Ludwig Deppe, Mil Lettow-Vor-
beck durch Afrika (1919); Dr. H. Schnee, Deutsch Ost-Afrika im
Weltkriege (1919).
Belgian. P. Dave, Les Conqitetes africaines des Beiges (1918).
(F. R. C.)
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS. Under this
heading comes the general story of the campaigns of the World
War which were fought between 1914 and 1917 on the front
between the Baltic and the Black Sea. Till the summer of 1916,
Rumania was neutral, and the theatre of war was limited on
the S. by the northern extremity of that country. Thereafter,
till the conclusion of the peace of Brest, the Russian and Ruma-
nian fronts became one.
The story falls into three main parts, of which the first is
considerably the most important. These are: the open- war-
fare, free-manceuvre campaigns from the outbreak of war till
the establishment of a continuous trench line and the setting-in
of trench-warfare conditions, along the whole front in Oct. 1915;
the trench-warfare operations on the Russian front from that
date to the peace of Brest; and the Rumanian campaigns of
1916 and 1917. The events of 1918 belong rather to the story
of the Russian civil wars than to that of the World War, and
may be summarized for the present purpose in two clauses
the occupation of the Ukraine, for its economic exploitation,
by German and Austrian forces, and the maintenance of a cor-
don, requiring large numbers of troops, along the frontier of
Bolshevik Russia to provide against the contingency of a new
eastern front being built up by the Entente and the Soviet
Government, or by either singly. As an active element in the
operations of the World War, the eastern front closes its history
with the battle of Riga in the autumn of 1917, and this event,
therefore, is taken as the limit of the present article.
I. THE THEATRE OF WAR
The operative contrast between the eastern and the western
theatres of war lies less in the greater distances and areas of the
former than in the fact that there Nature's handiwork has not
been greatly modified by man's, whereas in France and Belgium
there is an intense network of main roads and railways, and in
many parts a great industrial development that has covered the
country with factories, mines, tramways and workmen's suburbs.
Hence arises a peculiar distinction. Strategically, the western
theatre is penetrable everywhere; tactically, it is in many parts
so tangled that coherent operations are nearly impossible. In
the east, on the contrary, it is strategy that is difficult and
tactics that are simple.
The importance of area and distance must not of course be
ignored. Without counting Rumanian territory the theatre
measures 650 m. x 320 m. a six weeks' march under peace con-
ditions from flank to flank, and a three weeks' march from front to
rear. This and the unfamiliar sound of the place and river
names to western ears have tended to make the operations of
the eastern front seem more difficult to understand than they
really are. In fact, the course of operations was largely dic-
tated by geography, and the map, rightly read, shows the lines
of geography to be drawn in bold, strong strokes. And even
in point of distance, the E.-W. depth of the theatre is not more
than 15 times the distance covered by the Germans in their
1914 sweep through Belgium and France, and only half that
covered by the Grande Armee in its march from the Rhine to
Austerlitz in 1805. The picture of the operations of 1914-17,
therefore, is not too large for comprehension, and the meanings
of its parts are usually clear.
The broadest characteristic of the eastern theatre is its divi-
sion into four well-defined regions, (a) The great central salient
of Poland on and W. of the middle Vistula. (6) The Pripyat or
Rokitno marshes, an area of 240 x 160 m. which, though largely
reclaimed in modern times and therefore penetrable to a certain
extent for tactical purposes, constitutes an almost insurmount-
able barrier to strategic movements on a large scale. Lying
behind the Polish salient, these marshes, as it were, hollow out
its base, leaving on either hand two avenues or corridors:
(c) the northern, connecting Petrograd and Moscow with north-
western Poland, and (d) the southern, connecting Kiev and S.
Russia with Galicia and S.W. Poland. To the right and left
rear of the salient (a) the two corridors (c) and (d) lie exposed on
their outer flanks to hostile attack from E. Prussia and Galicia
respectively, except in the portions nearer to their eastern
entrances where the hostile frontiers curve away to the sea and
to Bessarabia. Across the base of both corridors and in rear
of the central marshes runs a water barrier consisting of the
western Dvina and the Dnieper lines, unbroken save for the
narrow gap at the watershed traversed by Napoleon in 1812.
This waterline marks the eastern limit of the theatre. Its
, western limits, which espouse the shape of the salient, lie inside
the frontiers of Germany and Austria-Hungary and may be
taken as the lake region of W. Prussia, the Oder and the Silesian
and Carpathian mountains. This limiting line, in contrast to
the eastern, has several gaps, of which the most important is
that lying between the Silesian and the Carpathian mountains
which is the gate to Vienna, and, owing to the higher cultural
development of Germany and Austria, is strategically more
penetrable even where geographical obstacles exist.
Across the whole width of the theatre, cutting off the salient
from the corridors and the marshes, runs an almost straight
barrier of water, constituted by the Vistula and its tributary
the San, from the Baltic to beyond Yaroslav, and by the
Dniester from the lakes S.W. of Lemberg to the Black Sea.
The only gap is between Yaroslav and the lakes of Grodek.
All railways connecting the salient with the interior of Russia,
whether they approach by the northern corridor, the marsh or
the southern corridor, converge on the Warsaw-Ivangorod
portion of this waterline and thence make south-westward for
Upper Silesia. Practically all railways from S. Russia to Austria-
Hungary, on the contrary, traverse the gap of Grodek- Yaroslav.
The only line from Russia to the German Baltic lands enters
E. Prussia at Wirballcn at the broad entrance of the northern
corridor; and similarly, at the other end of the theatre, a line
from Bessarabia comes into the Bukovina system at Czernowitz.
Apart from these two, the whole length of the northern corridor
is traversed by three lines from Dvinsk, Polotsk and Orsha
respectively ending at Warsaw and Ivangorod; the central
marshes by one from Gomel which at Brest-Litovsk merges
with the third of the northern lines; and the southern corridor
by two from Kiev and Berdichev respectively which at Kovel
become one, ending at Ivangorod. The significance of the
various lateral lines connecting these approach lines is best
judged by studying the map, and here it is enough to draw
attention to (i) the line along the eastern base itself; (2) the line
Baltic-Shavli-Vilna-Minsk with its accessory Vilna-Barano-
vichi-Rovno; (3) the line Kovel-Brest-Litovsk-Osowiec-Lyck-
Memcl (4) the line Ivangorod- Warsaw-Mlava-Danzig; (5) the
line Skierniwice-Lowie-Wloclawek-Danzig. It should also be
noted that, in the salient, no lines exist W. of Lodz and N. of
Czenstochowa, and that in the northern corridor about Grodno
and Augustowo the Prussian and Russian railways carefully
avoid contact. Of the road system, it may be said, broadly,
that first-class roads are not numerous, and that they group
themselves, in the main, on the same axes as the railways. In
the area N.W. of Lodz-Czenstochowa, however, roads to some
extent mitigate the absence of railways, and about Augustowo the
connexion with E. Prussia, which the railways avoid, is, as re-
gards roads, intimate.
Within each of these broad divisions the salient and the
two corridors other natural features exercised a considerable
influence. The chief characteristic of the northern corridor is
the practically continuous waterline which defends its flank from
attack from E. Prussia. Leaving the Vistula at Novogeorgievsk
below Warsaw, this line is formed by the lower Bug, the lower
Narew, the Bobr, the lakes of Augustowo and Suwalki, the
middle Niemen to Sredniki, the Dubissa, the Vindavski canal
which crosses the low Shavli watershed, and the Venta pro-
longed by the Vindava to the Baltic. From the Niemen section
to Novogeorgievsk almost every important crossing there are
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
887
not many is protected by permanent fortification of some sort.
Its most vulnerable section is that at which the E. Prussian
frontier makes contact with Augustowo-Suwalki-Kovno-Grodno.
South of this region, on the stretch Rozan-Lomsha, owing to
the absence of railways and first-class roads, military operations
were never principal, but always dependent upon either those of
Suwalki and Augustowo or those astride the Warsaw-Mlava-
Danzig line. North of Kovno, at the broad entrance to the
corridor, it was safe against all but secondary attacks, so long as
Kovno held out and kept the attack toward Shavli.
Frontally, of course, the corridor was protected by the Vistula
and its fortresses Ivangorod, Warsaw and Modlin or Novo-
georgievsk (this last at the origin of the flank barrier just de-
scribed), and behind this frontal defence were other successive
lines the middle Bug, the middle and upper Narew, the upper
Niemen and its feeders, the Vilia system not to mention partial
barriers such as the Wieprz. But most of these rear barriers,
in particular the Bug, tend in their upper course to turn south-
ward, thus opening to an invader who stands N. of the San a
series of successive gates along the inner edge of the corridor, by
which penetration is possible to Bialystok or even to Baranovichi.
Hence the special importance attaching, in the operations of
1914-5, to the lower San sector and the fortress of Brest-Litovsk.
The southern corridor, unlike the northern, lies partly on
one side of the political frontier and partly on the other. No
important natural barrier prevents either an Austrian irruption
from the S. as far (roughly) as the line Lublin-Kovel-Sarni, or a
Russian irruption through and past Lemberg (Lvov) to the
Dniester. As has just been mentioned, the left wing of such an
Austrian irruption has the opportunity of seizing the gates of
the northern corridor; no reciprocal advantage offers itself to
the Russians since the Dniester line is doubled by that of the
Carpathians. But, in particular, the fact that the whole Lem-
berg region is within the Austrian frontier narrowed the corridor
normally open to the Russians to a mere strip of country. To
protect this from being cut off from behind, the Russians had
constructed a triangle of fortresses Rovno-Dubno-Lutsk. At
its front end, where it joins the northern corridor and the salient,
Ivangorod, Brest-Litovsk, and minor river courses and marshes
were relied upon to seal the region of Chelm and Vladimir
Volynsk; in effect, a drive by the Austrians into that region if
pressed too deep laid open its flanks to counter-attack both from
Ivangorod and from Lutsk (Luck).
The geography of the interior of the marsh area needs little
description. As above mentioned, much of it is tactically
penetrable, but owing to the extreme paucity of communications,
as well as to its physical difficulties, it is on the strategic plane
essentially an obstacle and not a field of manoeuvre. Its out-
standing geographical feature is its river system; the Pripyat
itself runs W.-E., but it has numerous N.-S. tributaries notably
on the S. side, and these tributaries sometimes form, with tribu-
taries of the Dniester (flowing in the opposite direction), N.-S.
waterlines of defence only broken at the watershed (Brody, for
example) along which run the communications between Rovno
and Lemberg.
In the forepart of the central salient, too, it is the waterlines
that are the most important features. The course of the upper
Warta; that of the Pilitca; the position of Lodz (or rather Len-
czyska) at the divide of the Warta and Bzura systems; the course
of the Nida meeting at its mouth the mouth of the Dunajec, one
of the several Galician rivers which double the San obstacle;
lastly, the upper Vistula itself which forms the southern boun-
dary of the salient all these were important.
Practically the whole of this region belongs to the W. Russian
plain, and has marshy valleys, feeble undulations, and great
forests, some of these last still existing in primeval- density,
others already broken up by man's clearings and settlements.
The only hilly mass is the Lysa Goza in the Kielce region of the
salient. On the contrary, the Lemberg-Brody-Buczacz portion
of the southern corridor, and all country between the San or
Dniester and the Carpathians, is almost wholly a country of
deep-cut valleys and high plateaux.
The German reentrant opposed to the Polish salient is
geographically similar to, but in point of human development
very different from, that region. In Silesia, owing to its industrial
character, the network of roads and railways is as dense as in
western Europe. Without going west of Posen, no less than
three complete lateral or circumferential railways join Upper
Silesia to the trans-Vistula railways of E. Prussia. As, in face
of these, no Russian lateral exists W. of Lodz it is easy to see how
this region, in spite of its want of natural defences, was able to
act as a curtain between the two bastions of E. Prussia and
Galicia, facilitating quick transfers of the centre of gravity from
flank to flank and itself (save at one critical moment) immune
from attack because of the difficulty of approach.
Of these two " bastions," E. Prussia was the more important
as menacing the whole length of the northern corridor, from front
to rear. Whereas the Lemberg region only projects from the
San-Dniester barrier, E. Prussia has its whole length at right
angles to the Vistula. It is served by so many railways that
either end of this length is utilizable for the offensive.
The principal directions which this offensive may take are
from the eastern end of the province towards Shavli, from the
same towards Kovno and Grodno, and from Mlava towards
the Narew and, if and when that obstacle is overcome, on
Siedlce or Bialystok. We have seen that the first of these is
inevitably a secondary or dependent operation. Between the
other two the choice was always, for the German Command,
difficult. Presuming the Narew forced, or Kovno taken, as
the preliminary in either case, the one offensive leads close into
the rear of the Warsaw-Ivangorod stronghold, while in the other
the corridor is seized far back near its entrance; the choice
therefore depended on how deeply the enemy was advanced in
the Polish salient or how long the passive front of the " curtain "
could be held, or what chance there was of cooperation from
the lower San through the Bug " gate," and on other factors
which had to be reckoned together on every occasion that an
offensive was planned. But these two avenues (Kielce or
Warsaw-Mlava, and Vilna-Kovno [or Grodno]-Insterburg)
equally serve for Russian offensives, and the defensive charac-
teristics of E. Prussia were nearly if not quite as important as
its qualities as an offensive base.
The main feature of military geography in E. Prussia is the
chain of the Masurian lakes which, in a sickle from N. to S. and
then westward, protects the interior against attack from the
E. or the S.E. The tongues of land which separate the lakes
represent only a narrow frontage which has actually to be
defended, and have the effect also of gathering communications,
plentiful in the interior, at a few points of exit. To the S. of
the lakes a number of tributaries of the Bobr-Narew system
continue the water barrier, as against eastern attack, to the
Narew; to the N. of them the river Angerapp presents a similar
barrier as far as the Pregel, beyond which river smaller streams
continue the line of defence with some gaps to the Niemen.
Behind the lakes, the next important N.-S. barrier is the line of
the Alle which, rising in the central Masurian lakes, runs to the
Pregel at Wehlau, whence from Tapiau to the Kurische Haff
runs the Deime. Other partial barriers to an invader's west-
ward progress exist but are of less importance. Finally there
is the German section of the lower Vistula which, intricate at
Danzig and fortified at Thorn and Graudenz, still bars access
to Germany proper when E. Prussia has been conquered or
evacuated.
Thus on the E. this province is singularly well protected.
But it is to be noted (i) that the frontier, especially in the north-
ern part, lies well in advance of the barrier, and that a policy of
passive defence on the lake line forfeits a not inconsiderable
region at the outset; and (2) that both the Insterburg-Johannis-
burg line and the Alle are turned by attack from the S., by
Mlava and Soldau, where the "westernmost part of the lake sys-
tem dies away. At the centre of the " sickle," on the other
hand, the density of the lakes is highest and they not only afford
local protection to this part of the region, but also enable the
defending army to shift its weight from E. to S.W. and vice
888
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
versa without much fear of flank attack in doing so; while, on
the Russian side, the paucity of communications in the fore-
ground of these central lakes seriously impedes liaison between
the northern or Gumbinnen and the south-western or Soldau
groups of the invaders. Such shifts of the centre of gravity are,
moreover, facilitated by the dense railway system lying behind
the lakes. The frontier railway, which runs from Thorn, by
Soldau, Johannisburg and Lyck (junction of the Russian Bialy-
stok-B rest-Li tovsk transversal), to Tilsit and Memel, lies outside
all defensive barriers. But inside the barriers are some three
other transversals, one being the Thorn-Insterburg-Wirballen
section of the Berlin-Petrograd main line, and the others parts
of a well-developed provincial system.
The military-geographical characteristics of the Lemberg
region, the other potentially offensive base lying outside the
Vistula-San-Dniester barrier, are less sharply marked and their
influence is not so definite. Offensive possibilities lie in the
direction of (a) Bessarabia, (b) Kiev, (c) Kovel, (d) the inner edge
of the northern corridor, towards Brest-Litovsk. Of these, as
in the case of E. Prussia, (a) is eccentric, except as a secondary
element of (b) ; and (c) centres on a region which is ill-developed
in communications, and therefore operations there are subsidiary
to those on either flank. The important alternatives are there-
fore, speaking broadly, (b) and (d). In (b) Dubno and Rovno
play the same role as Kovno in the N., and the results to be
expected from a successful operation of this character are similar
to, but smaller in scale than, the corresponding enterprise on the
Niemen. (d) The operation, twice carried out and several
times contemplated, offered many results and many risks, and its
usefulness varied according to a number of factors like that of
the corresponding operation from the N., with which, in fact, it
was logically combined.
Defensively, the conditions of the Lemberg region were similar
in some respects to those of E. Prussia. Waterlines opposed
invasion from the E., while from the N. Lemberg was open.
But the real obstacle value of the E. Galician watercourses,
Gnila Lipa, Zlota Lipa, Strypa, etc., whose names were to
become historic, is small, and, though N. of the Styr system and
the uppermost streams of the Bug (Styr) have wide marshy
valleys and are serious barriers, the watershed itself (Dubno-
Brody-Lemberg) is an open gate both for road and rail approach
to the Galician capital.
The railway system of the Galicia theatre, though far inferior
to that of Silesia and Prussia, included two complete laterals N.
of the Carpathians, and at least one S. of them. From the
interior of Hungary and Moravia, over the Carpathians, to the
San-Dniester barrier there were eight approach railways between
Teschen in the W. and Czernovitz in the E., and four of these
pass the barrier at or near the Grodek gap, converging on Lem-
berg and Rava Ruska. In the latter region itself the railways
lie chiefly radially from Lemberg. It is to be noted that on the
whole front N. of Lemberg the Russian frontier region is destitute
of approach railways.
Finally, the Carpathians (of which Galicia to the San, to
Lemberg and to the Dniester, is simply a glacis) are not as the
sea is to E. Prussia, a definitive barrier, but rather a wall with
many gates for the passage of an invader into Hungary and
Austria. The mountains themselves are rather Vosgian than
Alpine, and their main passes are low enough to be practicable
for railways. At the W. and E. ends, the mountains broaden
out into the Tatra and massifs, but in the centre the mountain
zone is at its narrowest, and if is exactly in front of this that the
Grodek gap breaks the forward barrier and allows these railway
approach lines to make for the Hungarian plain. West of the
Tatra massif, the Troppau gap opens Moravia to an invader who
has mastered Upper Silesia. (C. F. A.)
II. THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1014
The Russian Plan of Campaign. Two characteristics of the
Russian Army were admitted on both sides as axiomatic, the
relative slowness with which its total forces could be brought to
bear and the numerically overpowering superiority of those
forces when assembled and ready. Both these were summed up
in the popular phrase of 1914, which likened the Russian Army
to a steam roller. The axioms were not, however, independent.
Only by waiting could the overpowering strength be realized,
and by temporarily forgoing this numerical advantage, it was
possible for the Russians to act with partial forces and provisional
objectives, almost if not quite as promptly as the armies of the
Central Powers. Instead, therefore, of the usual stages of cou-
verture and full-power action there would be, or might be, three
couverture, rapid partial action, and delayed full-power
action and the application of the geographical factors to strategy
varied accordingly.
In all alternatives, the inclusion of the central salient, either
in the couverture system or in the deployment for the main
action, was impossible. In other words, it was militarily evac-
uated from the outset. In the alternative of delayed full-power
action, the couverture would guard the outer flanks of the two
corridors and the Warsaw-Ivangorod-Lutsk front, while the
main masses assembled further back. Flank-guard groups
would prolong the defence of the corridors respectively in the
Shavli region and to the S.E. of Dubno and Rovno. The line
of detrainment for the main bodies would be, substantially,
Kovno-Grodno-Bialystok-Brest, and (for the Southern armies)
points behind Rovno. But the abandonment of so large a
portion of Poland would only be necessary in the case of Ger-
many's employing the major portion of her forces in the east.
In that case, especially if it arose in winter, it was calculated
that the Russian forces on the couverture line would have to
retire fighting, giving up Warsaw and possibly Ivangorod, but
holding firmly at all costs on the middle Niemen front and at
Brest. If that case did not arise, then the couverture was
strong enough to enable the main masses using the northern
corridor to detrain further forward. In proportion as the
arrangements for mobilization and concentration were improved
in the years 1910-4, and in proportion also as it became more
probable that Germany would elect to employ the bulk of her
forces on her French front, not only this forward concentration
but also preparatory offensives delivered from the couverture
line came to be considered.
In all cases the main object which was to be sought when the
forces were fully assembled was practically the same. It was
the destruction of the Austrian armies in Galicia, the occupation
of the Carpathian line, and eventually an advance into Moravia
and Silesia by Troppau and the Oder head, turning Breslau.
The exact form in which this ultimate offensive would be realized
could not be foreseen until the Germans and Austrians had
shown their hand; meantime, the problem before the Russian
general staff was so to plan their couverture arrangements,
their detrainments, and their now feasible preparatory offensives
as to subserve this purpose.
Generally speaking, the couverture on the Narew-Bobr, that
on the middle Niemen, and that in the Shavli region were dis-
posed and directed to checking as long as possible any German
attack on the flank of the northern corridor. It would be reen-
forced in situ to the strength of two armies and an independent
group. If powerful German attacks developed it would offer
an elastic defence, on one line after another, to protect at all
costs the region of Bialystok-Grodno-Vilna during the troop
movements in that area. If not, it was to take the offensive
and, by conquering E. Prussia to the Vistula, definitely to secure
the right rear of the future main effort. This conquest was to
be carried out from the S. by Mlava, turning the lake barrier,
by one army while the other pressed up against the front of the
lakes and the Angorapp, so as to occupy the Germans and at
any rate to prevent a rush upon Kovno and Grodno. The
independent group about Shavli was to deal with minor enter-
prises of the enemy in its own area, and especially with landing
threats on the Baltic coast as far as Riga. From that point
inclusive, coast defence was entrusted to another army, with
headquarters at Petrograd.
In the centre two armies, coming from the interior by the
central and eastern railways of the corridor, were, if possible, to
OH
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2
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT
CAMPAIGNS (NORTH)
PLATE I.
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT
CAMPAIGNS (SOUTH)
PLATE II.
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT
CAMPAIGNS (POLAND)
PLATE III.
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
889
concentrate about Lublin and Chelm respectively; otherwise
they were to divide, one going to the right of the defensive wing
about Shavli, the other continuing S. to Brest and Kobryn.
Supposing that this proved unnecessary, the two armies, from
Lublin and Chelm respectively, were to take the offensive
against the left of the Austrian armies in Galicia. The right of
these meantime would be attacked by two other armies, advanc-
ing from Dubno and from Proskurov. These armies were given
special precedence in their equipment, so as to be ready to act
early. At Odessa, a minor army of reserve divisions was to be
assembled to watch Rumania.
Defensive or offensive as the case might be, these preparatory
engagements were all assumed to be in progress before the full
concentration had been effected. Including the Petrograd
army, only 28 out of a total of 37 active corps were comprised
in the dispositions, and the reserve divisions formed on mobili-
zation were not counted upon for immediate service. The
remainder, in so far as no new complications occurred to tie
them to their peace regions (e.g. Caucasus), would become suc-
cessively available and constitute a mass of manceuvre or a
pool of reinforcements, according to the course of events.
On mobilization, accordingly, the allocation of troops was as
follows:
I. Army (Rennenkampf). Niemen, including Shavli. II., III.,
IV., XX. Gd., I. Corps. (As soon as relieved by reserve divisions
[XXVI. Corps] at Shavli, XX. Gd. was to proceed to IV. Army.)
First task: protection in front of Niemen line, on that line, or if
necessary further back towards Vilna. Second task: advance to
bind the German forces on the lakes and Angerapp.
II. Army (Samsonov). Narew. VI., XV., XXIII., XIII. Corps.
First task: protection of Bpbr-Narew-Bug line and reconnaissance
into Mlava-Neidenburg region. In case of heavy German offensive,
the region of Bialystok to be protected at all costs. Second task :
invasion and conquest of E. Prussia via Mlava, turning the lakes.
(These two armies had each several reserve divisions allotted.)
IV. Army (Evert). Concentration area Lublin. - Grenadier, XIV.,
XVI.. XVIII. Corps.
V. Army (Plefoe). Concentration area Chelm.: V., XVII., XIX.,
and XXV. Corps.
Both for attack of N. front of Austrian armies in Galicia.
III. Army (Rttzsky). Concentration Rovno-Dubno. IX., X., XL,
XXI. Corps.
VIII. Army (Brussilov). Concentration S. and W. of Proskurov.
VII., VIII., XII., XXIV., III. Caucasian Corps.
Both for attack of N.E. and E. front of Austrians in Galicia.
The I. and II. Armies formed the north-western front under
Gen. Zhilinsky (succeeded after the first operations by Ruzsky),
the IV., V., III., VIII. the south-western front under Gen. Ivanov,
whose Chief of Staff was Alexeyev.
The VI. Army (Grand Duke Nicholas) was the title of the Petro-
grad force, the VII. (Nikitin) that of the Odessa troops.
(In the event of German offensives developing on a large scale,
requiring the adoption of the rear line of rail-heads, the IV. Army
was to be switched en route to the right of the I., and to it instead
of to the VIII., the XXIV. Corps was to go. It would also become
part of the north-western front.)
The peace-time scheme, as thus outlined, was at once modified
in the early days of mobilization, not so much in intentions as in
allocations of force. No commander-in-chief of the whole was
appointed before the war, as the Tsar was undecided as to
whether to take command himself. At the outbreak of war the
Grand Duke Nicholas, Commander of the VI. Army, was
appointed. He had taken no part in drawing up the scheme,
and his own ideas differed somewhat from it. He therefore
formed a new scheme, or rather a modification of the basic
scheme, whereby the Guard and I. Corps were dispatched to
Warsaw (instead of to the I. Armyf to form the nucleus of a
IX. Army, and the VI. or Petrograd Army was reduced first to
one corps, and then to reserve divisions only. The first corps
to leave was the XVIII., originally intended for the IV. Army
but now assigned to the IX. (replaced in the IV. by the III.
Caucasian Corps taken from the VIII. Army). The XXII.
followed towards the end of August, joining the I. Army in lieu
of the Guard and I. Corps. Further, a number of the reserve
divisions accumulating behind the I. and II. Armies were con-
stituted a little later as a X. Army with the mission of connect-
ing the I. and II. Armies but too late to avoid the catastrophe
of Tannenberg.
Mobilization and concentration proceeded rapidly. The cav-
alry divisions allotted to the Prussian front were detrained
complete by the yth day of mobilization, the infantry corps by
the i^th day. On Aug. 14 the Grand Duke informed the
French ambassador that the I. and II. Armies would open their
offensive on the morrow, considerably sooner than was expected
by the French, who only began their advance on that day.
The " preventive " offensive that was to lead to Tannenberg
was thus launched on Aug. 14. Its objects were, partly, the
accelerated fulfilment of the original plan of campaign (at the
lowest, the active flank defence of the northern corridor, now
being traversed by a IX. Army as well as the IV.); and partly,
the desire to aid France by startling the German command into
making detachments to the E.
Plans of Campaign Central Powers. The problem of war on
two fronts had for many years been anxiously studied in Germany
and it had been generally accepted in principle that a simul-
taneous offensive E. and W. was impossible. In the time of
the elder Moltke, the difficulty of defending the long, open
eastern frontier, as compared with the relative ease with which
the short, strong line Thionville-Strassburg could be held, had
decided the great general staff in favour of choosing the east as
the offensive theatre; and this plan held the field, with few modi-
fications, until Schlieffen came into office as Chief of the General
Staff and reconsidered the military position. He decided that
the first offensive must be directed against France, but in such a
way as to insure the quick and complete destruction of the
French army, i.e. by using Belgian avenues for the envelop-
ment of its left. His solution of the two-front war problem,
therefore, was to prevent its happening: neither he nor his
successor, the younger Moltke, seems to have dealt exhaustively
with the case that actually arose, i.e. that of a prolonged contest
in whu:h the centre of gravity constantly required to be shifted
from E. to W. and vice versa. An important factor, perhaps the
ruling factor, in the decision was the assumption that it would
be impossible to bring the Russian army to decisive battle;
owing to its slow assembly, the distances to be traversed in
order to reach it required a time allowance which the western
defensive, at grips with the highly trained and efficient French
army, could not insure for it. Moreover, with unlimited space
behind them the Russians were regarded as having every chance
of avoiding a decision for as long as they wished to do so, and the
re-distribution of the Russian peace garrisons after 1910 (which
pointed to the choice of the rear line Kovno-Bialystok-Brcst as
the probable line of entrainment) confirmed the conclusion.
Two possible offensive directions were considered, that from the
Mlava region against the Narew line, and that from the lake
front by Wirballen and by Augustowo and Suwalki against Kovno
and Vilna. These alternatives and their meaning have been
alluded to already. The choice was a difficult one, hardly to be
settled except ad hoc; it was to be the chief bone of contention
between Falkenhayn and Hindenburg in the 1915 campaign.
But even the second, and more promising, line of operations
would not lead to the enemy's rear if he abandoned all Poland at
the outset, and concentrated between Kovno and Brest.
In fact such a course of action was provided for in the Russian
concentration scheme. But the alternative preferred by the
Russians was an offensive, or two offensives, carried out by the
readiest portion of their forces, and their alternative naturally
engaged the attention of the Central Powers in the years after
1910, when the war-readiness of the Russian army was evidently
being improved with menacing rapidity. The defence against
such an attack could not readily be combined by the two Central
Powers because of the salient W. of the Vistula ; on the defensive,
therefore, Germany and Austria-Hungary formed two theatres,
either or both of which might be the target of enemy offensives
of uncertain power. Further, the entire peace forces of the
Central Powers, taken together, were not equal numerically to
the peace forces of Russia, and the adhesion of Turkey, and still
more that of Rumania, to their side was problematical. If the
bulk of the Russian forces concentrated on the forward line,
then there were only two practical alternatives for the Central
890
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
Powers: either (a) to concentrate as much as possible of the
German army in the E. (relying upon the short and well-forti-
fied defensive line of Lorraine and Alsace, doubled by the Saar
and the Rhine, to hold up the French) , and to take the offensive
with go or 95 divisions, German and Austro-Hungarian, as
soon as possible so as to catch the enemy in the act of detrain-
ment ; or else (6) to stand on the defensive, each in his own theatre
of war, resigned to give up territory in order to gain time for the
annihilation of the French.
But that annihilation effort would require at least four-fifths
of the German mobilizable forces, if it were to be carried out in
the short time that the conditions of the E. allowed, and in the
case of Germany the territory that would have to be resigned
was E. Prussia, bound indissolubly to the Hohenzollerns and
to the Prussian army by ties of sentiment and tradition. Its
abandonment was " unthinkable." Yet the force that could be
spared to defend it was small indeed. The Reichstag had de-
clined to sanction the creation of the three new army corps
which would have eased the problem; and, in the event, one to
two corps allotted in principle to the E. were taken at the last
moment for the W. In short, the German army allotted to
the E. was a minimum force. But it was not on that account
authorized to give up any German ground.
The case of Austria-Hungary was more favourable to this
extent, that nearly the whole force of the Dual Monarchy could
be employed in the defence of Galicia, unless (as actually hap-
pened) offensive action was simultaneously undertaken in the
Serbian theatre. On the other hand, Galicia would clearly be
the enemy's principal target, and were he to leave mere flank
guards against E. Prussia, there was little doubt that even in an
accelerated offensive he could employ superior forces. Many
Austrian authorities therefore favoured a withdrawal of the line
of defence to the Carpathians, and probably the majority con-
sidered that nothing could be held in advance of the San-Dniester
barrier. The problem then was difficult and obscure, and dif-
ferences of opinion both within each country and between the
two countries themselves were- certain. Austria's strategy
even in respect of her local problems depended largely upon
Germany's, and no definite, binding convention appears to have
been negotiated, either for the case of the offensive or for that
of the defence. More, the interchange of views which did take
place led to completely disjointed action. When the inner
wing of the Austro-Hungarians was driving forward the offen-
sive on Lublin and Chelm, the Germans in E. Prussia were
under orders to retreat to the Vistula.
Conrad von Hotzendorff, the head of the Austrian general
staff, was essentially active in temperament, and the wave of
sentiment in favour of the undiluted offensive which swept
through all European armies about 1912 strongly influenced
him and his entourage. A scheme was prepared under which
the left portion of the Austro-Hungarian army was to take the
offensive from the lower San, northward on Lublin and Chelm,
flank-guarded by an echelon directed on Vladimir Volynsk,
while the right portion defended Lemberg against attack from
the E. In cooperation with this left wing, a German army was
to advance by Mlava on the Narew line, force this, and effect a
junction with the Austrian advance about Siedlce. By this
scheme it was hoped either to cut off a part of the Russian army
and beat other parts in detail as they detrained if the Russians
were attempting to forward concentration or to make good
military occupation of almost the whole of Poland in the short-
est time if they were concentrating on the rear line Kovno-
Brest. At the lowest, Conrad held, the protection of Galicia
and of E. Prussia would be best assured by the offensive.
In how far Moltke agreed to this plan is doubtful. He had
definitely committed himself to the Schlieffen scheme of putting
France out of action before an eastern front came into existence,
and though he had considerably altered its details, he had pro-
vided even less force for E. Prussia than Schlieffen had proposed.
Such evidence as is available tends to show that Moltke agreed
with the scheme as the operative idea of the eastern offensive
that was to follow the decisive defeat of France (expected to
have been sufficiently achieved by about the 3oth day of mobili-
zation), but not as a preventive offensive to be launched while
the issue in France was still undecided. Conrad, on the other
hand, was determined to carry it out the moment he was ready,
hoping, as he said, that Moltke would not "leave him sitting in
the ink too long." The scale of the operation for him was only
that of a preventive offensive, carried out substantially by about
27 Austro-Hungarian and 10 German divisions from the San
and from the Mlava region respectively. This force, if it caught
the Russians in the act of concentration, would create " favour-
able conditions for later operations " on a large scale.
Moltke, on the contrary, gave the E. Prussian Army (VIII.,
Gen.-Oberst von Prittwitz und Gaffron) nine active and reserve
divisions (I., XVII., XX. Active Corps, I. Res. Corps, 3rd Res.
Div.), for both the lake and the Mlava fronts. Apart from a
number of Ersatz and Landwehr formations, most of which were
intended for the defence of Thorn, Graudenz and Konigsbcrg,
this was all. In Posen province and in Silesia, there were only
frontier guards of Landsturm, and the Landwehr and Ersatz
garrisons of Breslau and Posen; as the salient facing these
provinces was practically evacuated, no more was necessary,
and indeed eight Landwehr regiments were grouped in Upper
Silesia as a field force (the " Landwehr Corps," von Woyrsch) to
accompany and guard the left of the Austrian offensive.
Thus, the first campaigns in the E. were distinct and without
connexion of idea or of date. The battles of both being de-
scribed elsewhere, it is sufficient here to outline the campaigns
of Lemberg and Tannenberg in succession.
The Campaign in East Prussia; August-Sept. 1914. The
first requirement of the Russian scheme of operations being free
use of the northern corridor for the assembly of forces against
the Austrian left, the troops disposed on the dangerous flank of
the corridor were, ready for action about ten days before the
date set for the completion of the Lublin-Chelm concentra-
tion. In the original scheme, their mission was primarily defen-
sive and in the second place offensive, but as early as Aug. 9
the Grand Duke determined to push forward both the I. and
II. Armies on their offensive missions, in the hope of at once
compelling the Germans to hold back forces destined for the W.
On the I4th, their concentration completed, these armies moved
out of the detrainment areas, the I. (II., III., IV. and XX.
Corps) under Rennenkampf on the axes Kovno-Gumbinnen
and Suwalki-Marggrabova, the II. (VI., XV., XXIII., XIII. and
later I. Corps) under Samsonov on the axis Przusznysz-Soldau.
Seven to eight cavalry divisions accompanied and preceded
them. At many points on the frontier from Memel to Bialla
and round to Mlava there had already been local engagements,
especially on the axis Kovno-Gumbinnen, where Rennenkampf
on the one side and von Francois (commander of the German I.
Corps) on the other had both strong motives for activity, the
Russians to thrust back the enemy's forces as far from the
" corridor " as possible, the Germans to preserve the region be-
tween the frontier and the lakes as long as possible from occupa-
tion or pillaging. On the Mlava axis these episodes were fewer,
for the Russian main bodies were more distant. The Germans
were unable to prevent the enemy's mounted troops from
ranging up to Soldau, but their Zeppelins reconnoitred the
line of advance of Samsonov's main bodies.
Gen. von Prittwitz, in spite of his small forces, was confident.
He placed the I. Corps (Francois) facing E. on and in front of
the Angerapp, the XX. Corps facing S. between Allenstein and
Soldau, the XVII. and I. Res. Corps and the 3rd Res. Div. in
the interior, waiting on events. To the left rear of the I. Corps,
the Konigsberg main reserve an Ersatz and Landwehr force
numerically, but only numerically, equivalent to a corps
moved out N. of the Pregel to Insterburg. To the right of the
XX. Corps was a frontier guard, also composed of Ersatz and
Landwehr belonging to the fortresses of Thorn and Graudenz.
On Aug. 14 v. Prittwitz, satisfied that no important threat was
impending on his S. front, turned over the defence of that front
to the Landwehr and Ersatz formations of Gen. von linger, drew
the XX. Corps to Ortelsburg, in readiness for an offensive to-
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
891
wards Johannisburg, and brought the remainder of his forces to
the E. front behind and on the flanks of the I. Corps, the 3rd
Res. Div. (reenforced by one brigade and a screen of Landsturm
posts) holding the lake barrier.
On the iyth took place the first serious encounter of large
forces. Von Francois still maintained a forward position on the
Kovno railway at Stalluponen, barely five miles inside the fron-
tier; he was determined to defend offensively, and he inflicted a
sharp blow on the central columns of the enemy before the others
became effective. But his left was driven in, and Prittwitz,
whose intention was by no means to fight so far forward, ordered
the combat to be broken off and the troops to retire to the Gum-
binnen position. There, on the igth and 2oth, the battle of
Gumbinnen was fought. Claimed by both sides as a victory
but in fact indecisive, since parts of each line gained successes
or suffered failure, it ended in Prittwitz's ordering the battle to
be broken off. To the astonishment of his corps commanders,
he announced that he proposed to retreat over the Vistula.
A grave crisis had arisen. The Russian II. Army, seemingly
quiescent on the Narew, had in fact been cautiously advancing
on the Mlava axis, which was now defended only by second-
line troops and, partially, by the XX. Corps everything else,
even mobile Landwehr brigades, having been brought over to
the E. front by the order of the i4th. Such was the situation
of the defences when, some time after noon on the 2oth, reports
reached Prittwitz to the effect that four or more Russian corps
were approaching Mlava and Ortelsburg. He had three alter-
natives to disregard the threat, win an effective victory at
Gumbinnen, and pursue the enemy in such a way as to impose
caution on all Russian forces in advance of the sensitive point
of the " corridor "; to leave a containing force about Gumbinnen,
trust to the lake barrier, and bring back the bulk of the forces
so as to strike the flank of the oncoming II. Army; or to fall
back beyond the sweep of that army's manoeuvre. The first
alternative was eagerly advocated by von Francois, but the other
corps had met with little success in the battle. It is probable
that no reasonable hope remained of winning a thorough vic-
tory on the 2ist, and nothing less would serve. The second
alternative was not, at that moment, considered and the third
was adopted in its most extreme form, retreat beyond the Vis-
tula. The I. Corps was to move by train to Bischofswerder
and Gosslershausen, in order to bar the road to the Vistula, the
XX. to fight for time, and the remainder to withdraw south-
westward under cover of these corps. A factor in the decision
was the activity of Russian cavalry which, in large and small
bodies, was appearing in the interior of the province.
In the Kriegsspiel exercises of peace-time, this problem had
often been fought out, and the idea of sacrificing E. Prussia
on paper was familiar. But, as the elder Moltke observed in
1866, "in practice one does not abandon provinces." On the
2oth, apparently on the initiative of Lieut.-Col. Hoffmann of
the staff of the VIII. Army, who sent a protest direct to supreme
headquarters at Coblenz, Moltke communicated with Pritt-
witz by telephone, and urged him to try the alternative of a
manoeuvre on interior lines. The army commander replied
that this was impossible and that he might need reinforcements
even to secure an escape to the Vistula. Thereupon Moltke
relieved him of his command, opened direct telephone com-
munication with von Frangois and von Scholtz (XX. Corps) , tele-
graphed to General-Oberst von Hindenburg, in retirement, to
offer him the command, and summoned Ludendorff (deputy
chief of staff II. Army) to act as chief of staff.
This situation, in fact, was less alarming than it had been on
the 2 1 st. Neither Rennenkampf nor Samsonov displayed any
important activity; and Prittwitz recovered confidence, decided
to hold the line of the Passarge against Rennenkampf, and
began to work out a scheme of attack against the Russian II.
Army. But the order of dismissal reached him that evening.
On the 23rd Hindenburg and Ludendorff arrived at Marien-
burg (H.Q. VIII. Army). Already, after a conversation with
Moltke, Ludendorff had (apparently on a suggestion from
Francois) fixed Deutsch-Eylau and eastward, instead of Goss-
lershausen, as the rendezvous of the I. Corps and ordered all
available Ersatz and Landwehr units from Thorn and Grau-
denz to strengthen von Unger, thus beginning to prepare a group
of two active corps and other troops to check Samsonov. The
other forces lately engaged at Gumbinnen were to remain, tem-
porarily, opposing Rennenkampf all measures designed, evi-
dently, to arrest the sense of retreat and panic. Not until the
staff of the VIII. Army had reported the situation in detail was
a clear idea of possibilities formed by the new leaders. In
principle the plan was adopted of holding up Rennenkampf,
maintaining the lake region against any break-in from Lomzha,
and concentrating offensive effort on Samsonov. Both the
newcomers and the staff already on the spot were in agreement
as to this. But it remained to be seen whether, and even how, it
was to be accomplished. On the evening of arrival, Hinden-
burg reported to Coblenz " assembly of army at XX. Corps and
enveloping attack planned for Aug. 26," but next evening,
developing the idea in some details, he added : " moral determined
but not impossible things turn out badly."
The intention was to disengage some, or even all, of the troops
opposing Rennenkampf, and with them by a flank march close
behind the lakes, to envelop Samsonov's right; to bring in the
I. Corps and the nearest portions of von Unger's force against
his left, and to hold him frontally with the XX. Corps. It
was on this last that everything hinged. Short of a simulta-
neous effort by both Rennenkampf and Samsonov the case
feared by the Germans pressure by the II. Army alone was of
greater significance than that of the I. Army alone would
be. Rennenkampf, however active, could only drive the I.
Res. and XVII. Corps south-westward towards the Passarge
(and the Konigsberg troops into their fortress) and work a
passage down the rear side of the lakes to join hands with
Samsonov, whose VI. Corps was made to diverge towards
Ortelsburg for that purpose. Samsonov, on the contrary,
could by an energetic advance bring three corps (XIII., XV.,
XXIII.) against Scholtz, and in case of success break into the
midst of the new dispositions of his opponent. On the 23rd-
24th this seemed probable, for on those days he attacked the XX.
Corps and forced it to swing back from the line Gilgcnburg-Orlau
to the line Gilgenburg-Hohenstein. At that moment the 3rd
Res. Div. at Hohenstein and even the first arrivals of the I.
Corps at D. Eylau were being drawn into the fight to assist von
Scholtz. The arrival of the rest of the I. Corps, destined for the
flank attack on the W., was delayed by misadventures; and this
western attack (I. and Unger) was itself becoming imperilled by
the advance of yet another Russian Corps, the I., from the IX.
Army forming at Warsaw. Of the other German corps not
one was disengaged for its southward march before the 24th.
On the 24th, however, the withdrawal from Rennenkampf's
front began. It was carried out in the midst of an emigration
en masse, main roads being so crowded with refugees that troops
were marched in some cases entirely by tracks and by-roads.
Russian cavalry parties were by now riding about the country
as far as the Passarge.
The Angerapp line having been given up on the 22nd, the
front of contact opposite the Russian I. Army now (24th) ran
along the Deime and the lower Alle, astride the Pregel, to
Allenburg, thence by Gerdauen to Angerburg at the N. end of
the lakes. North of the Pregel, the Konigsberg force was slowly
retiring on its fortress and had left Wehlau. South of it there
were withdrawn, each in succession and covered by the rest,
the XVII. Corps, which was directed on Bischofsburg-Ortelsburg;
the I. Res. Corps, directed upon Seeburg; and finally the 6th
Landwehr brigade from Lotzen, the key of the lakes, to the
same region. Only the Konigsberg force, one cavalry brigade
and some Landsturm, remained in front of the Russian I. Army.
Meantime, Samsonov continued his methodical advance, but
very slowly the VI. Corps on Bischofsburg via Ortelsburg;
the XIII. on Allenstein; while the other two, followed in echelon
to the left rear by the I. Corps, were sent against Scholtz (2oth
and 3rd Res. Div.), whose left was driven from Hohenstein.
But already the two wings of the envelopment were being pre-
892
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
pared and directed according to the indications of Russian wire-
less messages sent in clear. On the W., the German I. Corps,
with additional troops under Miilmann coming up on its right,
attacked towards Usdau on the 26th. On the same day
the Russian VI. Corps was met and defeated at Gross-Bossau
by the oncoming eastern enveloping wing. Von der Goltz's
Landwehr division, arriving opportunely from Schleswig-
Holstein, was added to Scholtz's threatened flank. From the
26th the battle was general. Strategy had done its part. By
the 3ist the destruction of Samsonov's army by double envelop-
ment was complete, only the attached I. Corps echeloned back
on the left being outside the ring and able to escape as a formed
body. Samsonov himself fell, and 92,000 prisoners and 300
guns remained in the hands of the victors.
Meantime the German supreme command at Coblenz had
taken a step which is generally regarded as having been fatal to
Germany's success in the war. Moltke had recognized from the
first that the strength of the VIII. Army was little above, if
not below, the safety limit, and in the background there was
Conrad's repeated demand for effective cooperation in the
Siedlce scheme. Only after much hesitation was the IX. Res.
Corps in Schleswig-Holstein taken to reenforce the W. on the
strength of Prittwitz's optimistic reports on the eve of the battle
of Gumbinnen. Two days later came the crisis which led to
Hindenburg's appointment, but at that moment the battle of
the Frontiers was developing all along the line in the W. and
Moltke did not suggest (nor did Ludendorff ask for) a reen-
forcement of the E. On Aug. 25, however, caught apparently
in a wave of optimism which pervaded the armies of the W. after
five simultaneous victories, Moltke decided to send no less than
six army corps to the VIII. Army, not so much in order to re-
establish a compromised situation there as to deal the offensive
blow in the E. that was only waiting upon a decision in France.
Two corps were to go from each portion of the western front,
and the Guard Reserve and XI. Corps, being reported by their
army commanders, after the fall of Namur, as free, were sent
first, along with the 8th Cav. Div. In the event, the other
four were never sent, as the results of Tannenberg altered the
balance of forces in the E. at the same time as a new crisis was
arising in the French theatre.
These reenf orcements arrived too late for the battle of Tannen-
berg, but began to be available in the first 'week of September.
Meantime the VIII. Army Command had to decide whether to
pursue immediately to the southward, forcing the Narew line
and making rendezvous with Conrad about Siedlce, or to deal
with Rennenkampf's army which still stood, inactive but
threatening, on the Deime-Wehlau-Allenburg-Angerburg-Bialla
line. The latter course was preferred, as was practically inevi-
table. The progress of the Austrian I. Army and Woyrsch (see
below) in the Lublin region was evidently being neutralized
by the advance of Ruzsky and Brussilov in E. Galicia, and
Rennenkampf's inactivity could hardly continue. Moreover,
he occupied a great part of E. Prussia and the call of the civil
population for rescue from the Cossacks could not be ignored.
Rennenkampf's halt on the Deime-Angerburg line, when
enemy forces were daily slipping away from him to take part in
the destruction of Samsonov's army, was and is severely criti-
cized, and exposed him to the reproach even of treason. Part
at least of the causes of this passivity lay in the inherent slow-
ness ' of Russian military practice a slowness which equally
characterized the unfortunate army of Samsonov, as we have
seen. For the rest, it is to be noted that the Grand Duke was
himself at Insterburg during the critical days. Such evidence
as is available suggests that the intention of the Russian supreme
command was not to press even Samsonov's offensive, still less
the frontal advance, farther than it would go, but to give the
whole campaign a wider sweep by means of the new IX. Army
assembling at Warsaw and intended to move on Thorn and
Posen, 1 turning the Vistula barrier from the south.
1 The I. Corps of this army was not placed at Samsonov's disposal
till Aug. 26, the Guard not at all. One cavalry division was actually
taken from Samsonov.
From the German point of view, although information was
no doubt lacking as to the large undisclosed reserves moving in
the " corridor," it must have been clear that the defeat of Ren-
nenkampf would effectively answer any renewed threat from
the S. by endangering the Grodno-Kovno artery. In the con-
ditions of the moment this defeat could best be ensured by attack-
ing his left wing, and in the first days of Sept. the VIII. Army
with the corps from the W. were disposed accordingly on a long
line from Preussisch-Eylau to E. of Willenberg: in order from
left to right Guard Res., I. Res. ; XI., XX., XVII., I. Corps and 3 rd
Res. Div. Von der Goltz with his own division and another
made up from Unger's and Mulmann's forces (called 35th Res.
Div.) watched the southern front on both sides of Mlava. The
Konigsberg force still held the Deime line. On his side Ren-
nenkampf had already brought up two of his reserve divisions
from the Niemen for the siege of Konigsberg, and he now strength-
ened his left from botn active and reserve formations assembled
about Grodno. As had been the case at Tannenberg, the forces
were numerically almost even. On neither side was any
important condensation of force at particular points effected,
and the resultant battle, known as the battle of the Masurian
lakes, or of Angerburg, was practically " linear."
The idea pursued by Hindenburg was to press the Russian
right, as far S. as Angerburg, with four corps, to break out of
Lotzen (the key of the lakes, which had been kept throughout)
with the XVII. Corps while the I. Corps and 3rd Res. Div. ad-
! vanced from their Tannenberg positions eastward along the fron-
tier railway. These 2j corps were intended to roll up the left
of Rennenkampf and press northward, with an echelon to the
right against the fresh enemy forces reported detraining about
Grayevo. The battle began on Sept. 7 and on the 8th was
general. But the lake barrier this time favoured the Russians.
The German XVII. Corps made only slow progress in advancing
from the pass of Lotzen, and most of the I. Corps was soon
drawn north-eastward. The balance, however, passing S. of
the lakes along the axis Johannisburg-Bialla, made marked
progress, and on the night of the gth-ioth Rennenkampf decided
to take down his front by successive fractions from right to left,
and retire into the Mariampol region whence he had come.
The battle then became one of tactical incidents, with all the
local vicissitudes of a general chase. At the end, thanks to the
traditional rearguard aptitudes of the Russian soldier, Rennen-
kampf's army had flowed away to safety, leaving the bulk of
the VIII. Army congested round Vladislavov and Eydtkiihnen
with the I. Corps E. of Vilkovishki and the 3rd Res. Div. at
Suwalki. Goltz's southern cordon had meantime extended
eastward as far as Marggrabowa.
The battle of the Masurian lakes freed E. Prussia, and the
victors gleaned a harvest of some 30,000 prisoners in manifold
combats amidst woods and lakes. But it was not a Tannen-
berg, and already events elsewhere were in progress which
involved the VIII. Army in a general eastern front campaign.
The Galician Campaign of August-September 1914. As has
been said above, Conrad had determined to carry out the offen-
sive in the region Lublin-Chelm, where the Russians were con-
centrated, though without definite assurances of cooperation
from E. Prussia. In the offensive, the forces to be employed
formed two armies the IV. Army (Auffenberg), consisting
initially of the II., VI., IX. and newly formed XVII. Corps, and
four cavalry divisions; and (detrainment area Yaroslav-Przemysl)
the I. Army (Dankl), I., V., X. Corps and two cavalry divisions
(detrainment area middle and lower San).
East of Lemberg it was intended to place two armies, the
II. and III. But owing to the belief that the war crisis would
be limited and localized as a campaign against Serbia, the II.
Army was assembled initially on the Danube, and could only be
brought N. by degrees. At the outset it was represented in
Galicia only by the Army-group Kovesz (XII. Corps and some
extra divisions S.E. of Lemberg and on the Dniester), but the
IV. and VII. Corps were being disengaged from the Serbian
front and sent up gradually. The III. Army (Brudermann) E t
and N.E. of Lemberg consisted of the XI., III. and XIV. Corps
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
893
and some other divisions, of which the XIV. Corps was presently
taken to form the Army-group of Archduke Josef Ferdinand
and placed N. of Lemberg to maintain liaison between the IV.
and III. Armies, intervening as required by either.-
On the left of the I. Army, along the N. side of the upper
Vistula (i.e. in the Polish salient) an Army -group under von Kum-
mer, formed of Landsturm troops, and to the left of Kummer,
the German Landwehr Corps of Woyrsch, were to advance in
the direction of Sandomir and Ivangorod respectively, driving
back such Russian mounted forces as remained in this region.
These formed an echelon protecting the left rear of the I. Army,
but were primarily intended to form a rallying-point for an
insurrection in Poland. This hope was not realized, or realized
only to a small extent, and the " Polish Legion " that was
formed in fact consisted largely of Galician Poles.
The Archduke Friedrich was commander-in-chief, with
Conrad as chief of staff and effective director of operations.
The campaign which ensued constituted in reality a chain of
battles and as such is described elsewhere. Here it need only
be summarized very broadly. Apart from the movement of
Kummer and Woyrsch, who started early, in order to be in
position at the date of the general advance, the campaign opened
on Aug. 20. Prior to that date, the Austrian cavalry divisions
had made many attempts to ascertain the Russian movements
in the " southern corridor " and the adjacent parts of Bessa-
rabia, but without obtaining much information. The Russian
masses were in fact still in the stage of rail transport, and their
mounted troops, trained to fire action and favoured by the
country, easily kept the screen intact. The Austro-Hungarian
offensive was therefore in its first stages carried out according
to the a priori scheme.
The objective of the I. Army was Lublin, that of the IV.
Chelm ; they therefore aimed at the concentration centres of the
IV. and V. Russian Armies respectively, and the conditions of
this concentration led to a series of encounter battles in which
the Austrian left was constantly echeloned forward, with the
result on the other side that the Russian V. Army's tended to
strike south-westward rather than southward, and so in turn
exposed a flank to the Austro-Hungarian IV. Army. This
army, again, depended for security on its right upon the Army-
group (Josef Ferdinand), which was itself attracted now to the N.
for intervention in Auffenberg's battle, now to the E. to protect
Brudermann's exposed left. On the one side, therefore, an
advance in echelon, on the other successive detrainments, pro-
duced a battle of marked day-to-day fluctuations. The I.
Army in a series of combats collectively called the battle of
Krasnik reached the line S. of Chodel-Borzechow-Turobin by
Aug. 26, against increasing Russian resistance especially on the
left nearest Lublin, where it was found necessary to bring
Kummer and Woyrsch E. of the Vistula in order to strengthen
the forces aiming at that place while the right advanced to
Krasnostav. On Dankl's left, meanwhile, Auffenberg was
advancing into the area between the Wieprz and the Huczwa,
and on Aug. 26 the battle of Komarov began. In this, between
Aug. 26 and Sept. i the Austrian IV. Army broke the Russian
V. Army into two fractions, the more important of which, half-
surrounded, only escaped through a maladroit withdrawal of
that part of the Austrian army which had seized its line of retreat.
The withdrawal of the one Russian fraction to Chelm and the
other to Hrubieszow on the Bug, with heavy losses, constituted
a signal victory, and would have had great results but for events
in E. Galicia.
There, in accordance with the prevailing doctrines and also
in order to keep Russian influences as far as possible from the
Ruthenian capital, Brudermann III. Army and Bohm-Ermolli
II. Army (in reality Army-group Kovesz) had been sent for-
ward to carry out an offensive defence, although in the one
army Josef Ferdinand's group was limited in its range by its
liaison task, 1 and in the other the IV. and VII. Corps were still on
their way to the theatre of war. This numerically weak offen-
1 In fact, it was wholly absorbed in the battle of Komarow.
sive encountered the Russian III. and VIII. Armies in full
force as has been mentioned above, these armies had been
given priority in equipment and otherwise and was brought
to a standstill in the battle of Zloczow (Aug. 26-27) fought on
the line upper Bug-Zlota-Lipa. On Aug. 29-30 a new battle,
defensive this time, was accepted and lost on the Gnila Lipa
(battle of Przemyslany) and the III. Army fell back on Lem-
berg itself, which the supreme command thereupon decided to
give up. It was evacuated on Sept. 2.
Thus Conrad was confronted with new problems. His left
army (I., Kummer, Woyrsch) was already close upon Lublin,
the victorious IV. Army pushing towards Chelm with its
main body and Hrubieszow with its lesser half. In the region
of Sokal and Rawa Ruska only cavalry activity had occurred,
and Ruzsky's right wing was trending to the S.W. in the Lemberg
direction. The beaten III. and II. Armies were assembled in good
order on the strong line of the Grodek lakes (near Wereszyca),
while no important attack had developed on the Dniester. There
were, substantially, three courses open to pursue the northern of-
fensive, trusting to distance and water to make interference
with the right flank impossible during the necessary time; to
take down the whole northern front and .come back to the
Vistula-San-Dniester position; and to use the advantageous po-
sition of the IV. Army for a manceuvre on interior lines against
Ruzsky's right flank. In principle, he preferred the first course,
and as we have seen, he invited Hindenburg's cooperation in
I the still valid Siedlce scheme. But Hindcnburg declined, as
' Renncnkampf had not yet been dealt with, and opposition in
| front of the I. Army had visibly stiffened. The second alterna-
tive had obvious advantages and disadvantages; in the existing
conditions, the disadvantages which had weighed heavily in
peace-time that E. Galicia was thereby abandoned no longer
applied since that region was now lost, and the preservation of
the only -available armies of the Dual Monarchy was of the
highest importance. Nevertheless, Conrad chose the manceuvre
on interior lines, as the VIII. German army had done. It may
be that Tannenberg contributed to the decision.
The germ of this idea appeared in the orders for Sept. 2, in
which the IV. Army was ordered to suspend its offensive and
change its front from N. to S. in readiness for a south-westward
attack towards Lemberg, or for a south-eastward retreat towards
the San. At the same time the lines of communication of each
army were shifted westward, so that the base of the system be-
came the region between Cracow and the Carpathians. The
effort of the I. Army to gain ground northward was not given
up, so that in effect, at this date, the supreme command had not
made up its mind. In the orders for Sept. 4, on the other hand,
the choice was definitely made in favour of a IV. Army offensive
in the Lemberg direction, though the I. Army, Kummer and
Woyrsch, were still left with their mission unchanged.
On the 6th, the complicated manceuvre of the IV. Army was
completed, but in its southward progress it had developed con-
siderable opposition on the E. flank, while the W. and centre
passing by Rawa Ruska and Niemirow met little or none. The
result was that the army practically swung into line with the
III. instead of striking from N. to S. against the assailant of
that army. On the 7th, therefore, Conrad changed his plan
again. The Austrian leader now proposed to take down the
northern front by degrees, to use the IV. Army as a fixed pivot
between Rawa Ruska and Magierow and to swing up the II.
and III. Armies against Brussilov. This plan came to nothing.
Russian pressure increased on the front of Woyrsch, Kummer,
Dankl, and the Russian V. Army, beaten at Komar6w, resumed
the offensive against the group of divisions under Josef Ferdi-
nand which had been left by the IV. Army to protect its rear.
Finally, Ruzsky's right, augmented by a process of regrouping
which had been going on at the same time as that of the Austro-
Hungarians, emerged in great strength on and beyond Auffen-
berg's left, N. of Rawa Ruska. There was no surprise, as
marked indications of such a move had been discovered in the
southward advance of the northern army. But when the
Russian V. Army, joining the general offensive, began to drive
8 9 4
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
into the weakly held gap between Dankl's right (Krasno-
stav) and Auffenberg's left rear (group Josef Ferdinand about
Lasczow), Conrad gave up the battle altogether and ordered a
retreat to the line of the San and the Carpathians. The various
forces along the Dniester retreated to the Carpathians, the II.
Army to the region of Sambov, the III. to that of Przemysl, the
IV. to Yaroslav, and the I. with Kummer and Woyrsch to the
lower San (Sept. 11-15).
On this line, however, no stand could be made. Already on
the i4th the Russian IV. Army, strengthened from the assem-
bling IX., had been able to force a passage of the San near its
mouth. The Austrians thereupon resumed their retreat south-
westward (followed up in the later stages very cautiously by the
Russians) and stood on Sept. 22 on the line of the Visloka, the
Vislok and the Carpathians. Przemysl was left to be defended
by its garrison. On the 26th the retreat came to an end on the
line of the Dunajec-Tarnow-Gorlice-Usczie-Ruskie-Carpath-
ians. But at that date, the German IX. Army was beginning to
assemble in Upper Silesia. The eastern front had come into being.
The Vistula-San Campaign (October 1(114). I n the last stages
of the Marne battle Moltke had been succeeded, in effective
direction of the German operations, by von Falkenhayn. Possi-
bly because he had held, and for a time continued to hold, the
office of war minister, certainly from judgment and temperament,
Falkenhayn took a broad view of the eastern front problem from
the first. The war, after all, had become a war on two fronts
instead of two successive single-front campaigns, as had been
hoped, and it would have to be conducted accordingly. This
involved, first, a more intimate cooperation between the Ger-
man and the Austro-Hungarian forces than had existed
hitherto; secondly, the necessity of keeping the Austro-Hun-
garian army, in spite of its heterogeneous composition and
known deficiencies, in a fighting condition similar to that of the
German forces working with it; and thirdly, constant reconsid-
eration of eastern plans, whether German or Austrian or joint,
in the light of the situation on the western front; that these three
were interdependent the first united operations clearly showed.
The immediate problem was to fulfil the second requirement
without neglecting the third. This meant, in concrete form,
the reestablishment of the Austro-Hungarian army without
bringing over forces from the west. At that moment mid-
Sept. the battles of the Aisne were developing northward into
Picardy and Artois. The " race to the sea " was in progress
and the chance of decisive victory in the W. had not been lost
on the Marne. On the other hand, it was clear that the Austro-
Hungarian army had not only lost Galicia but had suffered very
heavily in casualties and material, and was shaken by its
experiences. The retreat to the Dunajec had on two occasions
come near to disaster in the early stages when the IV. Army's
left flank was exposed and out of touch with the I. Army, and
in the later stages when strong Russian efforts were made to
drive the armies off their S.W. direction by enveloping the left
flank of Woyrsch and Kummer. After reviewing various alter-
natives offered by geography and the railways, he came to the
conclusion that to press the advance of the VIII. Army on Kovno-
Grodno, i.e. to pursue the victory of the Masurian lakes, would
not serve, and decided to form a " South Army " in Upper
Silesia as a direct support to the Austrian left. At first it was
intended that this should be a small army, practically no more
than a reenforcement of Woyrsch, but within a few days Luden-
dorff's proposal to transfer the bulk of the VIII. Army to South
Poland, with its implication of a serious counter-offensive cam-
paign, was accepted. The object of Falkenhayn in agreeing
to this was, by enabling the Austro-Hungarian army to reassert
itself in the offensive, to gain time for achieving a decisive result
in the west. The theatre in which risks were taken was, as
before, E. Prussia. Hindenburg's victories had altered the
situation there, and a sort of pursuit could still be maintained
by a small force for some time, before the inevitable reaction
set in and Rennenkampf came on again. Moreover, the barrier
of the lakes and the Angerapp was now being seriously fortified,
and it was to be expected that Rennenkampf could be brought
to a halt on that line if not in front of it. On the Mlava side,
no repetition of Samsonov's offensive seems to have been feared.
But as a precaution one of the 65 newly raised reserve corps was
sent to E. Prussia, and two more cavalry divisions were extri-
cated from the west. The forces of E. Prussia under von Schu-
bert retained the title VIII. Army. Those in South Poland
were designated the IX., under Hindenburg.
The Grand Duke Nicholas, meantime, was pursuing more and
more vigorously the idea which was first evidenced in the crea-
tion of the IX. Army behind Warsaw. This army had been
absorbed in the fighting against Dankl, but by now the more
distant active corps as well as numerous reserve divisions were
detrained and ready. Reinforcements had to be provided to
enable Rennenkampf's I. and X. Armies to check and drive back
the probable pursuit on the middle Niemen, and to reconstitute
the shattered II. Army on the Narew. But even with these
demands to be satisfied, enough remained for the constitution
of an offensive group between Warsaw and Ivangorod. \Yith
this group he meant to transfer the centre of gravity to S.W.
Poland, making Warsaw-Czenstochowa and Ivangorod-Beuthcn
the principal axes of his advance. Accordingly, in the last
days of Sept. and Oct. i, the Russian army in front of the
Austrians began to be reduced. 1 And a formidable mass the
" steam-roller " for which the world waited gathered behind
the middle Vistula. Meanwhile, lighter forces, keeping level
with the advance S. of the upper Vistula, had advanced beyond
Kielce, Petrikov and Lodz.
The Austro-German offensive thus struck the Russians in the
act of regrouping. Its plan was: the German IX. Army and
part of the Austro-Hungarian I. Army, N. of the upper Vistula,
to advance, driving back all forces met with, to the line of the
Vistula above and below Ivangorod, and there to form the pivot
of a sweep of the Austro-Hungarian IV. (Josef Ferdinand) and
III. (Boroevic) Armies which should advance to the San, relieve
Przemysl, and then strike northward and north-eastward.
The II. Army (Bohm Ermolli) in the Carpathians and the left
of the I. Army (Dankl) on the Vistula about Zawichost were to
conform to the movement as it developed. Danger of counter-
attack upon the extreme left of the IX. Army from the Warsaw
bridgehead was provided against partly by causing the various
frontier guards of Posen, Hohensalza and Thorn to advance into
Poland, partly by echeloning out a mixed force called Frommel's
corps chiefly cavalry on the middle Pilica.
Moving out from the concentration area in Upper Silesia
on Sept. 28, and joined on its right by the left of the Austrian
I. Army from Sept. 30, the German IX. Army reached the line
Klimontow (Austrian I. Army), Opatow (Woyrsch and XI.),
Ostrowiec (Guard Res.), Szydlowice and Ilza (XVII.), W. of
Opoczno and S. of Rawa (Frommel). At that date the Austro-
Hungarian I., IV. and III. Armies had also begun their advance;
and reached the Wisloka, while in the Carpathians the II. Army
and Hoffmann's Corps to the E. of it began to dislodge the various
bodies of the Russian VII. Army that had established themselves
in and beyond the passes. Along the whole front only light
troops of the enemy were met, and the advance continued during
the following days. But, almost simultaneously, the Austrian
IV. and III. Armies were brought to a standstill on the San bar-
rier and at the gap of Chyrow which gave access to the Dniester,
and both Mackensen's XVII. Corps and Frommel's mixed force
advancing north-westward, came into contact with the heavy
Russian forces now debouching from Warsaw.
This growing intensity of the fighting S. and S.W. of Warsaw
deflected the advance of the German IX. Army northward,
causing a corresponding extension of front of the Austrian I.
Army, which now passed wholly to the N. of the Vistula, its
left centre facing Ivangorod. On Oct. 10, the battle was gen-
1 The III. Army (now commanded by the Bulgarian Radko
Demitriev), minus several of its units, was employed in besieging
Przemysl; the VII. had come up from Bessarabia and taken over
the Dniester front from about Stryi eastward. Its designation was
shortly afterwards altered to that of " Dniester Group," but in 1915
a new VII. Army was formed in the same regton.
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
895
eral along the whole front from Blonie W. of Warsaw, by Kal-
varya S. of that city, along the Vistula and the San to Przemysl
(relieved on the gth) and thence across the Chyrow gap to the
Carpathians. Here and there both sides sought to force the
water barrier. In most cases no foothold was obtained, but
where a bridge-head could be established, or where it existed as
at Warsaw and Ivangorod, effort was concentrated.
By the i4th the assembly of Russian forces about Warsaw
and Ivangorod was so great that no less than three army staffs
were required to direct operations in order from right to left
the I. (brought down from Kovno region), the reconstituted II.
and the IV. (from the San): on the left of the IV. was the IX.,
on the left of this the V., while the III., VIII. and VII. (Dniester
Group) held the front of the San, Chyr6w and the Dniester
foreground. The process continued on the following days;
the V. Army, taken out of the line S. of the Vistula, was put in
between the II. and IV., the IX. was brought up to Ivangorod,
and more and more Russian troops passed the bridge-heads,
while the thinned lines of both sides contended on the San-
Chyrow-Turka front without material changes, and the opposed
detachments of the Russian Dniester Group and Hoffmann and
Pflanzer-Baltin fought local battles on the various routes be-
tween the mountains and the Dniester.
On Oct. 17, Ludendorff, already warned of the strength of
the enemy's Warsaw armies by events and by a captured order,
advised Hindenburg to retreat. The want of success on the
Chyrow front indicated that the scheme for which the German
IX. Army had been brought to the Vistula had failed, and
the IX. Army and Dankl's I. Army were now exposed to the
convergent attack, from Warsaw, from Ivangorod, and from
Zawichost, of five hostile armies, while Josef Ferdinand, Boroe-
vic, Bohm Ermolli, and the forces eastward were pinned.
The retreat after a last attempt to gather a striking force on
the Pilica for a blow against the Russian II. and V. Army
made at the expense of thinning the front of the Austrians be-
fore Ivangorod set in on the 2ist, and spread from left to right
as far as the Vistula above Zawichost. The San-Turka line,
on the other hand, continued to be held by the Austrians, fight-
ing being concentrated principally upon the right of the II.
Army, where a break-through was narrowly averted on the 27th.
During the next days, the lost ground was regained; and prog-
ress was made between the Carpathians and the Dniester by
the smaller forces operating there. But on Nov. 2, operations
were suspended on the whole front S. of the upper Vistula.
During this period, the E. front of E. Prussia had been sub-
jected to attack, as had been expected. Rennenkampf , advanc-
ing from Kovno and from Ossoviec as well as frontally, had
pressed back the VIII. Army (von Schubert, later von Francois) to
Kibarty and to the W. of Lyck. Francois, sanguine in tem-
perament, defending his own corps district, inspired by a per-
sonal order from the Kaiser to protect E. Prussian territory, and
conscious that the work in the lake defences was incomplete,
was determined to hold his forward position to the last possible
moment. Falkenhayn, objective in mind and uneasy in spirit,
reenforced him with the new XXV. Res. Corps, which retook
Lyck and Grayevo, threatening Suvalki from the south. The
front then became quiet, for the Russians had no serious offen-
sive intention. Their I. Army was already on its way to War-
saw when the German counter-advance took place, and the X.
Army left to flank-guard the northern corridor was reduced in
strength to 13 divisions, as compared with some 47 in Poland
and 30 from Zawichost to Turka. On the Mlava front, held
by von Zastrow with a Landwehr Corps called the XVII. Res.,
all was quiet in the period of the Vistula-San operations.
The Campaign of Lodz-Cracow-Limanova. The retreat had
been foreseen in time for the German IX. Army to make elabo-
rate preparations for delaying the enemy's advance along the
south-westerly railway lines by which, evidently, his intention
was to reach Upper Silesia and the Moravian gap. In the course
of the retreat the demolitions planned as well as the evacuation
of stores and supplies, were carried out, if not completely, at
any rate sufficiently for their purpose. But both Hindenburg's
and Conrad's headquarters realized that they had now to deal
with the full effort of the enemy. The " steam roller," after
breakages and delays, had started. By Oct. 31 the German
IX. Army had gone back to the line Syeradz-Szczercow, Novo
Radomsk, Wloszczowa, Chechiny, the Austro-Hungarian I.
Army to Kielce, Opatow, R. Opatowka. On Nov. 1-2 the
latter was driven back from the Opatowka line, necessitating
the withdrawal of the IV. and III. Armies from the San and the
abandonment of the offensives in progress on the E. of the
Stary Sambor region. A few days later the Russians had again
invested Przemysl and were advancing to the Dunajec. The
centre of gravity, however, was no longer S. of the Vistula.
The crisis brought out, in the three men who had to deal with
it, Conrad, Falkenhayn and Ludendorff, the characteristic
quality of each.
Conrad proposed to Falkenhayn that no less than 30 German
divisions should be brought over from the W. at once, bringing
Hindenburg's strength up to 1 about 53 divisions. Forces in the
Carpathians and in E. Prussia were to be economized, and the
bulk of the Austro-Hungarian and German Armies were to seek
decisive victory in battle in Poland. Now that the Russians
had gathered, and gathered so far W., it would be possible to
bring this about without fear of their retreating into the limit-
less interior of their own country. In short, the war could now
be won in the E. It could also be lost, for unless some such
decision were attempted, Conrad held' that it would be necessary
to retreat to the Danube. Falkenhayn, on the other hand, was
becoming convinced especially by the experience of Ypres,
that the war would be a protracted trial of endurance, and must
be handled on the principles adopted by Frederick the Great in
the latter part of the Seven Years' War, viz. a wary, economical
defensive, with offensive sorties on every favourable oppor-
tunity or necessary occasion, but no staking of all upon a throw.
If Conrad was the Lee of the Central Powers, Falkenhayn
was their Johnston. Had the Southern Confederacy possessed
a Grant, the parallel would be complete, for Ludendorff met the
problem as Grant would have met it, by a strategy that was
at once objective and grandiose. Hindenburg was now com-
mander-in-chief of the German eastern front, and his head-
quarters could deal with the situation as a whole. Ludendorff 's
plan was to transfer the bulk of the IX. Army by the Silesian
railways to W. Prussia (Thorne-Hohensalza region), whence by
a sudden advance through the north-western part of Poland,
he could strike upon the right or right-rear of the enemy's sys-
tem. Toreenforce the offensive mass, the E. front of E. Prussia
was to be stripped almost bare of troops and the country in
front of the lakes and the Angerapp deliberately evacuated and
broken up. 1 The S. front of E. Prussia (Zastrow's and other
formations) was to participate in the offensive by advancing on
Plock, Ciechanov and Przasnysz, with tha mission of flank-
guarding the main attack on the E. side of the Vistula, and of
keeping the Russian I. Army busy on the" axis Mia va-Ciechanov;
and to ensure that these forces should not be drawn away to the
E., they were placed directly under General Headquarters. To
fill the place of the IX. Army in S. Poland, Woyrsch's Land-
wehr Corps was reenforced, and by agreement with Conrad,
Bohm Ermolli with the bulk of the Austro-Hungarian II. Army,
was brought on rail from the Carpathians to the upper Warta,
while to the left of Bohm the " Posen " 2 and " Breslau " corps
of Ersatz and Landwehr were brought forward on the Kalisch .
Sieradz line. To prepare for the worst, arrangements were
made for destroying the mines of Upper Silesia. By all these
drastic measures, Ludendorff expected to obtain a partial suc-
cess that would suffice, without at present calling upon Falken-
hayn, to provide the mass of divisions asked for by Conrad. At
the moment at which the plan was put into effect, more was
scarcely possible. The continuance of the retreat, especially
on the front of the Austro-Hungarian I. Army which was taking
1 Von Frangois resigned his command in indignation and was re-
placed by von Below.
2 This was the second reserve of Posen. The first, as Bredow's
division, was already on the field.
896
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
the weight of the Grand Duke's attack on the line Kielce-
R. Opatowka, brought the enemy ever nearer to Cracow and
Upper Silesia, and the destruction of bridges and railways on
the IX. Army front could only have a temporary effect. More-
over, new dangers threatened both the eastern and the southern
fronts of E. Prussia.
On Nov. 5, the Austrian I. Army had retired behind the Nida,
Zastrow's advanced forces were retiring on Mlava, Below was
preparing to meet a new thrust of the Russian X. Army (Sievers).
On the 8th Ludendorff asked Falkenhayn for 6 to 8 more divisions
as soon as possible, and for more later. The crisis, and with it
the hope of decisive victory, was becoming more acute. On
the loth the regrouping was complete, except in the centre,
where Bohm Ermolli was not yet on the scene. Here, cavalry
alone held the country to the N. and N.E. of Kalisch. The
Posen and Breslau Corps were beginning their advance from
Kalisch and Kempen respectively. Woyrsch (Ldw. Corps,
ist Gd. Res. Div., 35 Res. Div.) was in front of Czestochova;
from Zarki to Wielun the Austro-Hungarian I. and IV. Armies
had fallen back concentrically on Cracow, in front of which they
now stood; the XI. Corps covered W. Galicia; the III. Army had
taken over the front of Bohm as well as its own and stood on the
line Virempna-Dukla Pass-Uszok Pass, and Pflanzer-Baltin,
his offensive suspended, was at Verecze, Okormezo, S. of Dela-
tyn, R. Pruth. But the offensive group (IX. Army under
Gen.-Oberst von Mackensen) was ready the XI. and XVII.
Corps astride the Warta where it enters Germany, the XX. at
Hohensalza, the I. Res., XXV. Res. and 3rd Gd. Div. between
Hohensalza and Thorn.
At that date the Grand Duke's Armies were thus disposed
X. on E. Prussian eastern front, I. (8 divisions) on E. Prussian
S. front (Plock to Mlava), with advanced troops approaching
Soldau, Rypin and Lipno and one corps S. of the Vistula about
Wloclawek; II. (6 divisions and a cavalry mass), W. of Lodz,
advancing on Kalisch, with the II. Corps between Kutno and
Lencyzka as a protective echelon; V. (8 divisions) nearing the
Widawka river, cavalry approaching the Upper Warta; IV. (6
divisions) between the Pilica and Jendnziejow, pointing towards
Beuthen; IX. (8 divisions) in the angle of the Nida and the
Vistula; III. following up the Austro-Hungarian retreat towards
and beyond the Dunajec, VIII. and Dniester Group on the
Carpathian front; XI. (newly formed) besieging Przemysl.
On Nov. ii the advance of the German IX. Army began.
On the 1 2th at Wloclawek, parts of three corps quickly over-
whelmed the corps of the Russian I. Army there, and drove it
over the Vistula. The next phase was a concentric advance on
the Russian II. Corps, right echelon of the II. Army, which held
a position from Kutno to Lenczyca; out of this position it was
driven with heavy losses on the isth, losing at Lenczyca the
gate between the Bzura and the Ner (Warta) waterlines. Then,
while part of the German army pushed forward down the Vis-
tula to intercept any assistance that might come from the I.
Army, the XXV. Res. and XX. Corps from Kutno and Lenczyca,
with the XVII. and XI. Corps from the Warta valley, advanced
on Lodz, the manufacturing centre of Poland.
The battle of Lodz, which began on Nov. 17, is described
elsewhere. In its intensity, its vicissitudes and its significance,
it was the Ypres of the eastern front. In it took place the epic
incident of the break-through, envelopment and final self-
rescue of the XXV. Res. Corps and 3rd Guard Division. No
battle of the World War shows such varied, involved and difficult
tactical situations. Here we are concerned with the results only.
From the igth the Posen Corps and Frommel's cavalry were
actively engaged on the left of the XI. Corps, thus connecting
the battle of Lodz with the fighting which went on all along the
line to Cracow, where the Austro-Hungarian I. and IV. Armies
contended without defeat or victory against the thrust of the
Russian IV. and IX. Armies. Further E., the Austro-Hungarian
XI. Corps and III. Army engaged, equally without decisive
results, the Russian III. and VIII. Armies. But Ludendorff
had undeniably won his " Teilerfolg," for the Russian onset on
all parts of the line S. of the Lodz area was partly or wholly
suspended in order to assemble all possible forces for the pre-
vention of disaster on the right wing. Pressure was relaxed
also on the two fronts of E. Prussia as the uncommitted reserves
of the attack were taken away. In his regrouping the Grand
Duke was successful; a continuous line of battle was formed
by Dec. 6 from How on the Vistula, W. of Lowicz, E. of Lodz,
W. of Petrikow, W. of Novo Radomsk, and so to the Cracow
battle-field. But the cost had been heavy, and the Russians
were unable, then or thereafter, to resume the tidal advance
on Silesia and Moravia. With the formation of this long con-
tinuous line from N.W. of Warsaw to S. of Cracow began a new
phase of the struggle, in which the battle of Lodz merges into
the battle of Lowicz, and that of Cracow develops, on its south-
ern side, into the battle of Limanova-Lapanov.
It has already been mentioned that Ludendorff had on Nov.
8 asked Falkenhayn for 6 to 8 divisions to be sent at once from
the W. and more later. At that date Falkenhayn was still con-
templating an attempt to revive the battle of Ypres, and had
not reconciled himself to position warfare. On the i8th, before
the decision had fallen at Lodz, Falkenhayn in agreeing to send
6 divisions had at the same time expressed his belief that it
would even so be impossible to bring Russia to admit defeat,
and that the outcome certainly desirable in itself would only
be to relieve Austria-Hungary by the reconquest of the Vistula-
San-Dniester line, and perhaps of Lemberg also. But a week
later, under the influence of Mackensen's victory, he said that
success in N. Poland might decide not only the Galician question
_but the whole war. He thought this might be achieved by
building up yet another striking force E. of the Vistula, where
the Russian I. Army was continually giving up divisions for
the battle of Lodz. Ludendorff, on the contrary, saw no pros-
pects in such a piecemeal building up of strength which the
Russians could answer pari passu. Power and surprise com-
bined, he held, were essential. At this moment, there were in
Germany 9 new divisions under training, but the awful wastage
of the lives and energy of their predecessors at Ypres had con-
vinced Falkenhayn that it was necessary to avoid cutting short
their training and to give them more experienced leaders before
committing them to battle. Ludendorff, in spite of the achieve-
ment of the XXV. Res. Corps at Lodz, seems to have concurred
in this view. Thus the reenforcement reduced itself to a gradual
incoming of 8 divisions from the W. (II., III. Res., XIII. and
XXIV. Res. Corps) which, with the I. from the now relieved
E. Prussian front were all absorbed in the frontal battle about
Lodz and Lowicz, save one which was sent to assist the Austrian
IV. Army S. of Cracow. The battle of Lowicz began and con-
tinued as a front-to-front battle in which each side sought to
condense enough force for a blow, now here and now there. It
ended, in mid-December, with a general withdrawal of the Rus-
sian line to a winter-position, which ran along the Bzura and
Rawka to Rawa, and thence southward, crossing the Pilica E. of
Tomaszew and following the upper course of that river, 5-15
km. E. of it, till near Jendrziejow it reached the Nida, to follow
it to the upper Vistula.
South of Cracow, in a country of hills where manoeuvre was
possible and open flanks frequent, advance and counter-advance
alternated during the month of December. In conforming to
the general retirement of the Allied forces in October, the Austrian
I. and IV. Armies had gathered about Cracow, and during No-
vember they had maintained their front against the Russian IX.
Army (battle of Cracow). At the end of the month, however,
the enemy had developed a strong attack S. of the Vistula,
which reached the line Wyelica Sieprow Droginia, and threat-
ened by turning the fortress from the S. to make the desired
breach for passage into Moravia. This danger was averted by a
regrouping of the Austrian IV. Army, which enabled an attack-
force to be assembled on the right wing about Mzana Dolina and
Dobra, almost in the mountains. On the 3rd this force attacked
northward, bringing the Russians' advance at once to a stand-
still, and forcing them to make new dispositions. The fighting
was prolonged and heavy. On Dec. 8, 'forces of the Russian
VIII. Army, condensed on the western flank of that army, be-
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
897
gan in turn to attack the flank of the Austrian attack-group,
which had gained ground northward as far as Lapanow and
Rajbrod. At Limanova, the scene of this flank attack, three
dismounted Austrian cavalry divisions had to meet the on-
slaught of more than an army corps. At the same time, the
centre of the Russian III. Army farther N. assumed the offen-
sive again, and threatened at Lapanow, to break the Austrian
main body in two. But resistance at Limanova continued till
the Austro-Hungarian III. Army, defending the Carpathians
with varying fortune, had managed to assemble a group on its
left which struck in on the flank of the Russian forces about
Limanova (Dec. n). Thereby the battle of Limanova-Lapanow
was decided. A last Russian force which was seeking to reach
the flank of this Austrian counter-offensive was itself engaged
in flank by other forces of the Austrian III. Army, and the
Russians withdrew along the whole W. Galician front to
R. Dunajec-Krzostek-Krosno-Lisko (Dec. 14-16). A few days
later the Russians launched a fresh offensive which in the battle
of Jaslo (Dec. 21-25) drove back the inner flanks of the Austrian
III. and IV. Armies to the line Zaklicyn on Dunajec-Gorlice
UscieRuske-Koniecza, and pressed the front of the former
back to some places behind the Carpathian line. Here, and
farther E., the operations were entering on the phase known as
the Battle of the Carpathians, which will be dealt with later.
But from Tilsit, to Gorlice, the campaign of 1914 closed in
" stabilization."
At this period, according to Falkenhayn, the combatant
strengths on both sides were: 105,000 Germans and 320,000
Russians E. of the lower Vistula (E. Prussian fronts); 525,000
Germans and Austrians and 847,000 Russians between the lower
and the Upper Vistula; 525,000 Austrians (including i German
division), and 521,000 Russians between the Upper Vistula and
the Rumanian frontier. In sum, 1,155,000 Germans and 1,688,-
ooo Austrians (of whom 502,000 were German- Austrian).
Acknowledgments are due to General Y. Danilov for certain
information as to the Russian plan of campaign and strategic
deployment. (C F A )
III. CAMPAIGN or JANUARY-SEPTEMBER, 1915
By the third week of December, 1914, the struggle in the
central salient had died down to a trench-warfare contest, in
which the remaining energy of the troops was devoted to con-
solidating gains or to preventing the opponent from doing so.
The situation of Ypres was reproduced in that of the eastern
front at the end of the battle of Lowicz. But there was the
important difference that on both flanks there was still room
to manoeuvre. On the N. flank, the region of Plock, Mlava
and Myszyniec was open, and the Russian army's position, in
front of the Angerapp and the lakes, reached for the third time
as the result of the battle of Rominten Heath (Nov. 13-16),
rested its flanks on no very secure obstacles. On the S. flank, the
line was continuous from Cracow to the Carpathians, but thence
eastward the position was fluid. The Grand Duke, therefore,
determined to assert his offensive will and power, and, confiding
in the hardiness of his men, for whom winter was less terrible
than for the enemy, began to group his forces with greater
density on the flanks. The first signs of this tendency appeared
in the counter-stroke of Jaslo, which nullified the reverse of
Limanova-Lapanow and initiated the battles of the Carpa-
thians. The second consequence was the reenforcement of the
X. Army, and the re-formation, under a new army staff (XII.),
of an offensive mass on the Narew.
At the outset, in the latter part of Dec. 1914, this new policy
seems to have aimed at tactical results only, but in Jan. the
offensives maturing on the outer flanks became evidently stra-
tegic. Interpreting the experience of the previous campaigns,
the Russian headquarters could see not only the insecurity of
their northern corridor, which must continue until E. Prussia
had been cleared to the Vistula, and the similar but lesser risk
to their left flank, but could also judge that the conquest of E.
Prussia and the invasion of Hungary would be very heavy
blows to the heart of the war-sentiment in Germany and Aus-
tria-Hungary. Reinforcements were constantly coming in, and
it seemed that what the Russian headquarters chose to adopt
as their plan they could impose upon the enemy. One factor,
however, was already causing anxiety, that of munitions.
Although the ammunition expenditure on the eastern front was
on a much lower scale, both then and thereafter, than that in
the W., yet even so it was far greater than had been foreseen;
and Russia, with her low industrial development and her diffi-
culties in communication with the outer world, was less 'well
equipped than either her allies or her two opponents to meet
the strain. Later, the shortage was to become disastrous and
tragic; at present it was an additional argument for transferring
operations to those parts of the line where trench warfare had
not set in. It was not regarded as a reason for suspending the
offensive, but rather for choosing for it those areas where con-
ditions favoured human manceuvring-power.
On the other side, the problem of 1915 was, like those of 1914,
viewed differently by the three men concerned, Falkenhayn,
Conrad and Ludendorff. The first named, after a moment of
enthusiasm in the Lodz period, had returned to his normal
method of conducting the war as a war of endurance, with lim-
itations on particular acts of it. One of those limitations in the
present instance was the necessity sooner or later of opening a
way to Turkey by seizing at least part of Serbia. Another, and
the principal, was the necessity of holding firm on the western
front. German strategy was now paying the penalty for ha.ving
doubled its fighting front there by bringing in Belgian territory.
Throughout 1915, the year in which Russia was the principal
theatre, just as in 1914 when it was only secondary, we find
Falkenhayn working with extremely narrow margins of free
strength. At a time when Germany alone possessed some 160
to 170 divisions, the adoption or rejection of operative schemes
of the highest importance was made to depend on availability
or otherwise of four, six or ten of them. Yet there was no remedy
for this, short of a considerable surrender of occupied territory in
the W. ; and in the war of endurance, as conceived by the Falken-
hayn school, occupied territory is an asset not to be sacrificed
for the sake of a showy, but indecisive, tactical victory. The
principle of working from situation to situation was, with Falken-
hayn, fundamental, and in the winter of 1914-5 his projects
in the east did not go beyond the formation of a German " South
Army " under General von Linsingen to aid the Austrians in the
Carpathian struggle. In this the motive was direct stiffening
and not manoeuvre in fact, only half of this army (4 divi-
sions) was German. To find these divisions, the German chief
had to postpone sine die his Serbian project, to which he attached
very great importance; but the condition of the Austro-Hunga-
rian army in the bitter winter fighting of the Carpathians left
him no alternative, especially as the prevention of a Russian
break-through into Hungary was a condition precedent of any
Danube operation.
Conrad von Hotzendorff, for his part, was sanguine as ever,
and the plight of Przemysl undergoing its second and more
terrible siege continually spurred him to activity. While
meeting, with local counter-offensives, the growing Russian
pressure on the Carpathian front, he proposed, first an offensive
in the centre of the Polish salient on Radom (scarcely a promis-
ing direction), and then a resumption of the old scheme of an
Austrian and Prussian rendezvous near Siedlce. Neither was
accepted by Falkenhayn, and Conrad then proposed the direct
relief of Przemysl by means of a great offensive from the Carpa-
thian line. It was for this offensive and this purpose that the
German South Army was formed and, later, Bohm Ermolli's
II. Army brought back from Poland. Substantially, then,
Conrad, unlike Falkenhayn, was eager for battle as such. But,
like Falkenhayn, he had no manceuvre in the true sense of the
word to propose, that was in the given conditions practicable
and worth the supreme effort.
At Field-Marshal von Hindenburg's headquarters, on the
other hand, the idea of manceuvre was always uppermost. Its
basis was the fixed conviction that it was possible not merely to
lame but to destroy Russia's fighting power on the field of battle.
898
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
To achieve this result against superior numbers, manoeuvre
was the only way, and by the term " manoeuvre " Ludendorff
understood the preparation and sudden delivery of a destructive
blow by locally superior force upon that part of the enemy's
system which was the key of the whole. In the present case,
this key position, Ludendorff held, was the Russian X. Army in
the foreground of the Masurian lakes. In this quarter, and also
between Mlava and Myszyniec, Russian offensives were matur-
ing as early as mid-Jan., and in any case Hindenburg's head-
quarters had to consider the question of a preventive offensive
in E. or W. Prussia or both. But the operative aim became
higher as soon as it was known that Conrad meant to attempt
the relief of Przemysl by winning through to the San and the
Dniester. The four new army corps completing their training
in Germany were asked for, for the purpose of a winter offensive
which should not only anticipate that of the enemy, but also,
in conjunction with Conrad's effort, " decide the whole war."
These four corps (XXXVIII.-XLI. Res.) were Falkenhayn's
cherished reserve, with which he meant to parry any great
crisis that might arise out of the " Winter Battle of Champagne "
then, in progress, and himself to attempt a decisive offensive in
France. 1 From the contemplated blow in Prussia he expected
no more than the temporary and local disablement of the enemy,
so that he did not think it necessary to coordinate the effort
closely in date or direction with Conrad's advance. Neverthe-
less, " with a heavy heart," as he says, he surrendered the four
corps to the east, though at first till the Champagne crisis cleared
in March he reserved the right to withdraw them again.
Actually, the XXI. Active Corps of Alsace-Lorrainers was sent
from the French front, the XLI. Res. Corps taking its place
there; the other three, with the XXI., went to E. Prussia at the
end of Jan. and constituted the new X. Army (General-Oberst
von Eichhorn).
The two operations with which the campaign of 1915 began
in the W. were not, in the strict sense, coordinated, though
their combined effect, owing to geographical conditions, was
expected to be the destruction, according to Ludendorff, or the
prolonged paralysis according to Falkenhayn, of Russia's offen-
sive power.
The Carpathian Winter Battles. Owing to the relatively low
development of Hungarian lateral railways the Galician laterals
were in the hands of the Russians it was not feasible for
Conrad to form a really important offensive mass in the eastern
Carpathians and the Bukovina, as Hindenburg did in the region
of the Masurian lakes, without great loss of time. The struggle
therefore resolved itself into surgings of frontally-opposed
tides, the one seeking to break into the Hungarian plain, the
other to rescue Przemysl. Although, the lines being for the most
part discontinuous, tactical and local outflanking efforts, for
the time and place decisive, were constantly made by both sides,
there was no systematic attempt at strategic envelopment on
either. At one moment indeed (Feb. 20), Pflanzer-Baltin's
army group, victorious in Bukovina, sought to wheel in on the
rear of the battle-field of the German South Army; and at a later
stage the Russian Dniester forces were heavily reenforced for
the purpose of driving Pflanzer-Baltin away and so gaining the
flank of Linsingen. But in the main the opposed tides affronted
each other and were broken, each in turn. In W. Galicia, the
Russian offensive of Jaslo came to a standstill in the first days of
January, and for the next three months nothing of importance
took place W. of Gorlice. Here the Russian III. Army (Radko
Dimitriev) and the Austro-Hungarian IV. Army (Archduke
Josef Ferdinand) were opposed. In the middle Carpathians,
where Brussilov's VIII. Army was opposed by Boroevic's III.
Army and by the left wing of the widespread Pflanzer-Baltin
group, the year opened with the evacuation by the defenders of
the important Uszok Pass, under a local threat of envelopment.
The Dukla Pass and the adjacent mountain region had already
been lost, and from the Uszok the withdrawal spread east to the
1 The German contingent of the South Army had been formed
from local reserves already in the east. Its staff was formed from
that of the II. Corps.
Volocz and Wyszkov Passes. In the eastern Carpathians and
Bukovina the Russian Dniester group (Webel) pushed back the
light forces which Pflanzer-Baltin had in the foreground of the
mountains, but in the last week of Jan. the arrival of the
Austrian XIII. Corps from Serbia gave Pflanzer-Baltin enough
forces to enable him on the 3ist to begin the reconquest of the
lost ground. Meanwhile, the right of Boroevic's III. Army had
held on, in spite of the loss of the Uszok and the Dukla Passes,
and it was now reenforced. After covering the assembly of the
German South Army about Munkacs, this wing was to consti-
tute the striking force of Conrad's offensive for the relief of
Przemysl, the South Army (including Hofmann's Austrian Corps
facing the Volocz Pass) following it in echelon on the right.
The offensive began on Jan. 23, and as usual in this part of
the eastern theatre, met at first only light forces of the Russians.
The whole Austrian line, from E. of the Dukla to the Wyszkow
Pass, moved forward, the left wing of Pflanzer-Baltin conform-
ing. The Uszok, Volocz and Wyszkow passes were retaken by
the South Army, and Boroevic's striking force reached and
passed the upper San (line Czeremcza-Baligrod-Lutowiska-
Borynia-Smorze) by Jan. 31. But the Russians had already
answered by accelerating their projected offensive against the
centre and left of Boroevic (front Mezolaborcz-Konieczna) and
especially southward and south-westward from the Dukla.
From this point the battle was a contest of will-power and man-
power. The inactive fronts were stripped of more and more
divisions. Early in Feb. Bohm Ermolli's headquarters returned
from Poland to their old place on the right of the III. Army
(front Lupkow Pass-Uszok Pass), and on the other side Letchit-
sky's IX. Army headquarters were withdrawn from the Nida
for the Dniester theatre. Between the end of January and the
end of April the strength of the opposed forces in Poland west
of the Vistula were approximately halved. In the event the
Grand Duke Nicholas not only succeeded, during the first three
weeks of Feb., in checking (and in forcing back somewhat) the
Austrians on the Upper San, but considerably enlarged his gains
S. and S.W. of the Dukla Pass, taking Mezolaborcz and the
Lupkow Pass, and penetrating the Laborcz and Ondava valleys.
On the other hand the German South Army made its way for-
ward, very slowly, astride the Munkacs-Stryi railway.
Further E., the counter-offensive campaign of Pflanzer-Baltin,
begun on Jan. 31, was successful in clearing all Bukovina and
the Carpathian foreground as far as the Pruth on the right
and the Dniester in the centre, but its left, attempting to inter-
vene in the rear of Linsingcn's opponents, was involved in heavy
fighting about Krasna on the Lomnica, and in the last week of
Feb. the heavy counter-attacks of the assembling Russian IX.
Army drove the centre from its forward position on the Dniester.
By mid-March, Pflanzer-Baltin had been forced back still farther
to a line marked by the upper Lomnica-Solotvina (on the
Bistrica)-Czernelica-Horodenka-Snyatin-Czernowitz, on which
operations came to a standstill. These operations were however
of secondary importance in which only some 10% of the whole
forces of each side were concerned.
The real crisis, which culminated in March, was on the front
between the upper San and the head of the Ondava valley, N.E.
of Bartfcld (Bartfa). As in Feb., the right of the Austrians
sought to force a way to Przemysl now in extremity and
the right of the Russians to enlarge the bridge-head in front of
the Dukla and Lupkow Passes. The fighting was again intense,
for the Austro-Hungarian II. Army had been reenforced for a
last effort; but in the main its advance on Przemysl was definitely
stayed by the middle of the month, while the Russians in the
Dukla region made continuous, if slow, progress. The German
South Army progressed along the railway to Tuchla, but at this
stage of the battle its advance had not and could not have
any great result, and its left was held up for weeks before the
strong positions known as Zwinin and Ostry, covering Koziowa.
Finally, on March 20, sure of the imminent surrender of Prze-
mysl (which in fact fell on the 23rd) the Russians launched
all along the front of the Austrian III. Army new attacks which,
fed by troops released from the blockade of Przemysl, drove that
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
899
army back to the line S. of Zboro-Kurima-Strzopko-S. of Virava-
Wola Michowa. At the same time Bohm's forces on the upper
San front were compelled to fall back to the starting line of Jan.
23, whence they were withdrawn, in a state of exhaustion, to a
line generally behind the mountain crest. The right, still in front
of the recaptured Uszok Pass, was transferred to the control of
the South Army.
Three weeks longer the battle lasted, but without material
change, though both sides were 110,000 to 120,000 stronger in
combatants than they had been in January. In the area of the
Austrian III. Army two fresh German divisions, grouped as the
" Beskiden Corps," arrived to stiffen the defence. In its new
positions the Austrian II. Army held its own. The South Army
maintained its ground also from N. of the Uszok Pass to Tuchla,
and stormed at last the positions of the Zwinin (April g) and
Ostry (April 25) and Koziowa. To the E., Pflanzcr-Baltin's
right wing and centre, reenforced by German mounted troops,
regained its positions on the Dniester and held off a new attack
which Lechitzky mounted against its outer flank between
Czernowitz and Usciebiskupicc on the Dniester. By April 20,
however, the Battle of the Carpathians was at an end, after
three months of continuous mountain fighting, in temperatures
sometimes as low as -22 deg. F.
The apparent effect of these battles was to give the Russians
more secure possession of a bridge-head S. and S.W. of the Dukla
Pass which they could not use, and to waste the remaining war-
energy of the Austro-Hungarian army in attempting to relieve a
fortress which certainly contained fewer men than the number
sacrificed in the attempt. But in reality the indirect conse-
quences of the battle were of much greater importance than the
direct. In the Carpathians, no less than in the Masurian winter
battle presently to be described, the Central Powers had managed
to snatch the initiative before the Russian offensives had got
under way, and thus put back the date and place of those offen-
sives so far that the break-through into Hungary proved impos-
sible. For the third time the " steam roller " had been brought
to a standstill. Moreover it was showing signs of wear. Man-
power had been unsparingly expended by the Russian command
in its determination to break through; the trained officers and
under-officers of peace-time were reduced to a skeleton, and the
supply of munitions and even arms was becoming a very grave
problem. In the majority of cases, it had been the Russians
who attacked and the Austrians who defended the' strong moun-
tain and hill positions, and, though specific figures are not known,
all the evidence available points to the Russian losses having
been far greater than those of the Austrians and Germans. In
sum, the Russians needed a pause even more than their opponents.
The Masurian Winter Baltic and the First Battle of Przasnysz.
The plan of campaign formed by Ludendorff for E. Prussia, as
already mentioned, aimed higher than the simple preventive-
offensive for which Falkenhayn had " lent " the four new army
corps. His line of reasoning, differing from Falkcnhayn's, was, and
remained, this: the war will be decided by military victory in
the W. ; but this victory will not be possible till after the definitive
defeat of Russia, because the degree of numerical and material
superiority required for the double task of breaking through the
strong trench-system of the W. and exploiting the break-through
in an open-field campaign was not attainable till Germany
could devote practically every battle-worthy man and gun she
possessed to the western theatre. Meantime, nothing was
gained and much lost by using up reserves in repetitions of the
battle of Ypres. Whether, in Feb. 1915, the time was ripe for
such a blow as Ludendorff contemplated is however more doubt-
ful. Both on the Mlava-Myszyniec front and on the E. front
of E. Prussia the Russians were well in advance of the natural
barriers protecting the northern corridor. Victory W. and N.
of those barriers could only lead to a limited exploitation unless
the barriers could themselves be carried in the tactical pursuit.
Victory on the barriers themselves, on the contrary, would give
an unlimited field for strategic exploitation inside them. In
the situation of Feb. igis, then, an effort to inflict a completely
disastrous defeat on the Russians required two successive efforts,
or successive maxima in a continued effort; hence a double allot-
ment of force would have to be made. A large part of the
"required divisions could have been found from the army reserves
of the central salient, or by thinning the line itself there, had it
not been for the formation of the German " South Army,"
which, raising the number of divisions absorbed in the Austro-
Hungarian front from i to 5, left only limited possibilities of
drawing on the IX. Army and Woyrsch, for the benefit of the
E. Prussian Army, which ever since Nov. had been on a very low
footing. Woyrsch and Mackensen were in fact able to provide
six free divisions. For the rest, if nothing could be spared from
France, the eight new divisions were the only available reen-
forcement. Hence Falkenhayn's well-founded scepticism as to
the scope of the E. Prussian offensive, and hence also Ludendorff's
regret, after the event, at having parted with so much of his
local reserves for the bolstering-up of a Carpathian attack.
The secret augmentation of the E. Prussian forces from the
figure of 10 divisions (8 of which were Landwehr and Ersatz)
in mid-Jan, to that of 24 in the first week of Feb. was itself no
small task, and had it not been for a very fierce diversionary
attack by the IX. Army at Bolimow, in the angle of Bzura and
Rawka, on Jan. 3i-Feb. 2 memorable as the first occasion on
which gas-shell were employed on a large scale it is doubtful
whether it would have been accomplished, for the assembly had
to be made under cover of a thin screen of mounted, troops, and
by hypothesis the opponent himself was preparing to attack.
The plan itself was comprehensive, and suggests that Ludendorff
had not given up hope of being able to extract more divisions
from Falkenhayn. It consisted in three main elements: (i) the
destruction, by means of breaking through and envelopment
combined, of all enemy forces lying between Lyck and Tilsit,
(2) the attempt to carry the Bobr line with a rush so as to break
into the " corridor " south of Grodno, and (3) an advance on
the Mlava-Willenberg front, in conjunction with (2), so as to
bind the Russian I. Army while the X. was being destroyed and
the Bobr forced.
The German forces were divided into three armies: the
VIII. (Otto v. Below) of 7 divisions (including one of the new
corps), which, after covering the whole eastern front during the
assembly was to form an attack front on its right wing (Johan-
nisburg); the X. (v. Eichhorn) of 7\ divisions, including the
XXI. active and the other two new Reserve Corps assembled
between the Nicmen and the Lakes'/and the Army Group Gall-
witz, ten divisions, of which six came from central Poland,
holding the southern front from the Orzyc to the lower Vistula.
The scheme of the German offensive, though it was to be car-
ried out over much the same ground as the September battle,
differed considerably from the plan of that battle. The winter
trench-line represented the halt of the Russians after the Romin-
ten Heath battle, in front of the Lakes-Angerapp barrier. It
ran N. to S. from the Schorellen Forest by Darkehnen, E. of
Lotzen to W. of Johannisburg, where it began to curve away to
join the southern front. The right wing therefore presented to
the Germans better chances of envelopment than Rennen-
kampf's right had shown in Sept., and it was on this flank that
Ludendorff meant to make the chief effort. But the most signifi-
cant difference was that it was now intended to treat the attack
on the Russian S. flank as a break-through and not an envelop-
ment problem. For this reason, not only was an attack-group
formed behind Lake Spirding but von Gallwitz, guarding the
S. front, was to occupy the Russians on the Narew and prevent
them from assembling large forces against the S. side of the VIII.
Army attack. Moreover the attack was to aim at seizing cross-
ings of the Bobr at and near Osowiec. Tactical cooperation in
the encirclement of the Russian forces north of Lyck was the
primary but by no means the principal task of the VIII. Army's
attack-group. If the power and speed of the X. Army's blow
from the N. proved as great as was ho'ped, the exact position of
the anvil on which it crushed the Russians was of secondary im-
portance compared with the seizure of Osowiec and the Bobr by
brusque attack in the Liege manner. On this, and on the progress
made by the XX. Corps (Gallwitz's left) by Myszyniec on
900
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
Lomzha, would depend the strategic, as against the tactical
results of the whole enterprise.
The " Winter Battle of Masuria " therefore may be regarded;
if not as the first great battle of the latter-day type, at any
rate as in a transitional style. Although an open flank existed
and was utilized to produce the tactical envelopment or " Can-
nae " of pre-war theory, yet the effective victory was intended to
be gained from a break-through 1 , tactically difficult, but aimed in
a strategically favourable direction.
The attack of the VIII. Army began on Feb. 7, that of the X.
Army on Feb. 8, in the midst of snowstorms which, during the
battle, changed to rain the worst conditions for the carrying
out of the scheme and notably its strategical part, which de-
pended on the marshes of the Bobr being frozen hard. In sum,
the X. Army drove the Russians southward without intermission
from the first day. By the roth the northern portion of the
Russian line was being taken down with all speed, and by the
1 2th the German X. Army stood on a line from Ludwinow to
Rominten Heath at right angles to the VIII. Flank guards were
put out toward Pilwiszki and Mariampol against intervention
from Kovno, but neither then nor later did anything more seri-
ous than threats by light forces develop on that side. Meantime,
however, the VIII. Army's attack (XL. Res. Corps and parts of
the I. Corps) from Johannisburg Heath and Lotzen on Lyck was
brought to a standstill in front of Lyck by the fierce resistance of
the III. Siberian Corps, which not only suspended the advance
eastward, but led the German forces that were to the S. of it to
swing north-eastward on Rajgrod so as to envelop the Lyck
position. The expected Russian counter-attacks from Lomzha
and Osowiec proved too feeble being absorbed chiefly by the ad-
vance of a division of the XX. Corps farther W. to interfere
seriously with this tactical manoeuvre. But thenceforward the
Osowiec portion of Ludendorff's scheme was doomed. The
battle became the purely tactical " Cannae." As such, it was
brilliantly successful. By Feb. 14 Lyck had fallen and the
VIII. and X. Armies had made good a semicircular position
from Rajgrod, by Raczki and Seyny to the N.E. corner of
Augustow forest. In the forest the Russians (no longer able,
for want of routes, to withdraw with speed) fought with despera-
tion to gain time for orderly withdrawal to Grodno, the one
remaining avenue of escape. But by the i8th, forces of the XL.
Res. Corps from Rajgrod reached the Bobr about Krasnybor,
and, on the other wing, part of the XXI. Corps from E. of Seyny
drove down at all risks, parallel with the Niemen and within
range of the guns of Grodno, to Lipsk, thus closing the ring
round four Russian divisions left in the forest. In this extraor-
dinary situation, the German X. Army slowly completed the
destruction of the encircled Russians, who resisted for several
days and made fierce efforts to break the ring, while small
German forces, fighting back to back with the encircling troops,
held off relief attacks from Grodno and the Bobr. Finally
but some days too late for the realization of Ludendorff's plan
the remnant of the four divisions in the forest surrendered.
In all, this astonishing victory gave the Germans 110,000 pris-
oners, over 300 guns, and a vast quantity of stores which the
Russians could ill spare.
Even before the end, Ludendorff had attempted to extricate
enough forces from the W. and N.W. portions of the ring to
form the attack on Osowiec and the Bobr. He reconstituted the
management of the mixed-up armies as best he could by putting
all forces W. of Augustowo under Below (including the XX.
Corps) and all engaged in and N. of the forest of Augustowo
under Eichhorn. But most of the troops destined for this were
involved in the forest battle, and the Osowiec groups had to be
made up chiefly out of the troops that had been crowded out of
the line as the wings converged. Of the XX. Corps only one
division was available, and this had advanced no farther S.E.
than Stawiski and Lipniki since it moved from its concentration
area three weeks before. The other division was engaged on the
Omulew river, and was connected to Lipniki by a thin screen of
Landsturm. In sum, it was impossible with exhausted and
scattered troops to force the now sodden marsh-valley of the
Bobr or to reduce Osowiec. Hindenburg therefore ordered the
attacks to be discontinued.
Moreover, the position of the X. Army, far ahead of regular
supplies, had become untenable, and as soon as the battlefield
had been cleared it began to withdraw, just in time to secure
good conditions for meeting a Russian counter-offensive from
Grodno and Olita. There the Grand Duke, " by stamping his
foot on the ground " as it seemed to his opponents had called
into being a new X. Army.
This counter-offensive penetrated through the Augustowo
forest, almost to Augustowo, and, to the N. of the forest zone, it
reached and passed Seyny and Simno (March 5-7). But,
thinking that at Simno it had found the flank of the German
defence i.e. miscalculating the promptness of the German
decision to regroup on a rear line the Simno force swung in to
the S.E. toward Lozdzieje (March 8), exposed its own outer
flank to counter-attack from Eichhorn's left, which stood between
Simno and Kalwarja, and on March 9 fell upon the flank and
rear of the Russians, at the same time as the frontal defence in
and north of the forest turned to counter-attack. The Russians
thereupon withdrew behind the Niemen again. The German X.
Army now returned to its prepared line Augustowo-Krasnopol-
Kalwarja-Mariampol-Pilwiszki-Szaki.
But the real crisis of the second half of Feb., which lasted till
mid-March, lay not on the Niemen, but on the front of the new
German VIII. Army and more particularly on that of Gallwitz.
Here with his XII. Army (Plehve) the Grand Duke had all
along intended to make the main effort of his Russian offen-
sive, as geographically dictated; and the advances of Gallwitz
and of the German XX. Corps, as diversions and flankguards
for the Masurian battle, had merely put back the Russian
preparations in time and place. Anger at the disaster to the
X. Army, and fears for the safety of the " corridor " at its
sensitive point N.E. of Osowiec, caused the Grand Duke to
divert forces from the XII. Army to form the new X., but without
affecting the mission of that army, which accordingly took the
offensive against Gallwitz about the same time as the struggle
in Augustowo forest came to an end. At the same date the
attempts of the German VIII. Army against Osowiec and the
Bobr line were dying out, and the division of the XX. Corps
north of Lomzha was pinned by heavy counter-attacks from
that place, while the other division of that corps was making head
on the Omulew against similar efforts from Ostrolenka, and the
Landsturm screen between them was holding its ground with
difficulty against other attacks from Novograd. The crisis, from
the German point of view, was so grave that even in Ludendorff's
memoirs, written four years after the event, satisfaction in the
" Cannae " of Augustowo is almost completely smothered in the
remembrance of anxieties, makeshift reenforcements, and critical
decisions concerning the S. front. All energy on both sides was
now focussed on this front.
In the winter of 1914-5, light forces of the Germans had been
advanced, originally as an element of the battle of Lodz, a
considerable distance S. of Strassburg and Mlava, and the
reenforcement of these troops to the strength of an army group
had taken place on this forward line. Gallwitz had then advanced,
in conjunction with the Masurian offensive, deep into the
concentration zone of the Russian XII. Army (Feb. 13). In
a few days he had reached the line Plock-Racionz-Przasnysz.
But by about the 24th, Plehve's interrupted concentration was
sufficiently near completion for him to advance. Pressing the
front of Gallwitz on each main route, he developed his greatest
strength in the Orzyc and Omulew valleys. In the latter, the
division of the German XX. Corps above mentioned engaged
the Russian advance in a series of combats which in the event
were undecisive; but in the Orzyc region the Russian blow upon
Przasnysz succeeded in driving back three divisions under
v. Morgen (I. Res. Corps) with very heavy losses (Feb. 25-27).
The whole centre and left of the 1 German line then fell back, pur-
sued by the Russians, to the line Radzonovo-Mlava-Chorzele.
On and about this line fighting remained severe till about
March 19, kept alive on the German side by successive reenforce-
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
901
ments from the X. Army, and by assumption of responsibility for
the Omulew front by the VIII. Army, which enabled Gallwitz to
group his forces more closely on the Chorzele and Mlava fronts.
The crisis died away in local attacks in the latter half of
March. The Russians were becoming weak in munitions; the
Germans continued weak in men. The last fluctuations of the
battle brought the Germans from Chorzele close up to Przasnysz.
Thus the E. Prussian offensive of the Russians closed, in the
same way as the Carpathian offensive was soon to close, with
little gain and great loss of leaders and of irreplaceable ammuni-
tion. The Germans, on the other hand, like the Austrians, had
failed to achieve their strategic purpose. The general results
were thus, for both sides, negative, in spite of the accomplished
" Cannae " in Masuria itself an exhausting effort.
Intentions and Plans for the Summer Campaign. On both
Prussian and Galician fronts a pause of some weeks was imposed
by the weariness of both sides. The latter part of March and
early April in the N., and the last half of April in the S. were
devoted to discussion and formation of plans. At this stage the
distribution of force was, according to an Austrian headquarters
statement of April 20, as follows, in rifles and carbines:
East Prussian fronts: 263,000 Germans of X., VIII., and
Gallwitz Armies, and 508,000 Russians of the X. and XII.
Armies. Frontage 380 km.
Central salient: 245,000 Germans and Austrians of IX.,
Woyrsch, and Austro-Hungarian I. Armies, and 436,000
Russians of the II., I., V., and IV. Armies. Frontage 275 km.
Upper Vistula to Beskidengebirge: 108,000 Austrians (IV.
Army) and 100,000 Russians (III. Army). Frontage no km.
Carpathians and Bukovina: 385,000 Austrians and Germans
(III., II., S. Army, Pflanzer-Baltin) and 496,000 Russians
(VIII., XI., and IX. Armies). Frontage 387 km.
In sum, there were 1,001,000 Germans and Austrians to
1,540,000 Russians.
According to- the distribution table given by Falkenhayn for
the end of that month, 366,000 German combatants faced 640,000
Russians between the Baltic and the Vistula; 184,000 Germans
and 54,000 Austrians, in all 238,000, were opposed to 407,000
Russians in the Polish salient; and 89,000 Germans and 610,000
Austrians, total 699,000, stood on the W. Galicia, Carpathian
and Bukovina fronts against 7 20,000 Russians. In sum, 1.303,000
soldiers of the Central Powers to 1,767,000 Russians. The differ-
ence between the two sets of figures is partly accounted for by the
fact that artillery personnel is included in the second and not in the
first set: but whether taken separately or together, the figures
throw a strong light on the state of the Russian army on the
verge of the tremendous campaign of summer, 1915. It will be
noticed that the total of 1,767,000 combatants is approximately
the same as the mean monthly strength with the colours in
peace (1,700,000). At this period no considerable forces were
maintained in any but the eastern European theatre, so that, in
effect, practically the whole of Russia's resources in men had
been absorbed in maintaining the formations existing in peace
and some 35 reserve divisions created on mobilization.
It will be noticed also that under the imperative needs created
by the two-front war the German forces in the East had trebled,
as compared with the strength at the time of the Masurian lakes
battle in Sept., but that the Austro-Hungarian forces, though
far above the nominal figure of Sept. 1914, were well below their
mobilization figure. Hitherto, it must be remembered, the policy
of "winning the war in the East" had not been accepted by
Falkenhayn, and the German increases represented simply
defensive and counter-attack requirements, and in particular the
relief of pressure on the Austro-Hungarian armies. Correspond-
ingly, German ideas and execution began from this date to
predominate over Austrian. But no effective united command was
ever created. German interferences in Austrian operations and
operative methods, imperatively necessary to the common cause,
but very often tactless, were constantly resented by Conrad and
by most Austrian leaders; and moreover great divergencies of
policy developed between the two imperial Governments in
respect of Poland, Italy, and the Balkans.
Falkenhayn neither then nor thereafter accepted the principle
that a decision could be obtained in the East. But his ideas
had undergone a change since he conceded the eight new division^
to the eastern theatre " on loan." The French attempt to break
through the Champagne lines had failed. A large number of
German divisions were being reorganized on the basis of three
infantry regiments instead of four, and the forces thus obtained
were grouped in new handy divisions of veteran troops, which
gave greater freedom in the play of reserves. He had abandoned,
after detailed study, his Jan. prospect of a break-through on
the Albert-Arras front, and therewith all offensive plans in the
western theatre, while Conrad had refused to agree to his renewed
proposal to force a way through Serbia for munitions for Turkey,
though the peril of a Dardanelles break-through was becoming
more and more evident. On the other hand, indices collected
both on the Carpathian and Prussian fronts pointed to a growing
shortage of material on the Russian side, as well as to a decrease
of efficiency owing to losses in leaders and pre-war soldiers.
Falkenhayn further thought it possible to keep both Italy and
Rumania neutral, at least for a long time. All things considered,
he came to regard a very heavy blow on the Russian front as
necessary, possible, and desirable; and on Com ad's reviving, on
April 7, the old scheme of combining blows from the lower San,
and from the S. front of E. Prussia, with a rendezvous near
Siedlce, he agreed, not indeed as to the plan, but as to the
principle. It was still only a " sufficiently " heavy blow that
he intended to deliver, but the limitation implied in the adverb
was considerably relaxed. Eight divisions (Guard and X. Corps,
XLI. Res. Corps, and two of the new divisions) were to be
brought over from the western front, this time simultaneously
and for use as an army. Of this army (XI.) Mackensen was
appointed chief, with Colonel v. Seeckt as his chief of staff,
Prince Leopold of Bavaria succeeding Mackensen at the head of
the IX. Army. To cover the withdrawal from the W., sharp local
actions were initiated at different points on the trench-line. One
of these, involving ten or more divisions, is known to history as
the Second Battle or " gas attack " of Ypres.
The theatre of Mackensen's operations was to be the country
between the upper Vistula and the mountains (Dunajec-Gorlice-
Tarnow), where the front of contact was in much the same posi-
tion as it had been at the end of the battle of Jaslo. It was held
by the Russian III. Army (Radko Dimitriev) on the one side
and by the Austro-Hungarian IV. Army (Joseph Ferdinand) on
the other, both being relatively weak. Supposing surprise to be
effected, a mass of eight first-class divisions, supported by the
troops already on the front and by artillery on a scale never
before seen in the East, had every prospect of breaking through.
Falkenhayn took many precautions to secure his surprise, and
in the main with success, although the Russians and their Allies
were well aware that a blow was impending at some point of the
eastern front. The troop trains were sent by roundabout routes,
false rumours were circulated, and Conrad himself was not
informed of Falkenhayn's decision till the movements of concen-
tration had begun. Hindenburg, whose jurisdiction only ex-
tended to the left of Woyrsch's line, was instructed to make de-
monstrative attacks at different points. One of these, the raid
of v. Lauenstein's group into Courland, had an important sequel,
and will be discussed later. The significance of the other two,
an attack at Suwalki by the X. Army and a gas attack near
Skierniewice by the IX. Army, was only momentary. In direction
the attack was partly frontal, and it has been criticized for that
reason. But a prime factor was the necessity of relieving the
situation for the Austrians on the Carpathian front as soon as
possible; and, besides in all probability compelling the Russians
to retire in the southern part of the central salient, a drive N.E.
and E. from the front Gorlice-Tarnow would make the Russian
positions in the Carpathians untenable at least as far as the
Lupkow pass inclusive. Falkenhayn went further, and proposed
to involve the Russians even more thoroughly in mountain
difficulties by retiring the right of the III., and the II. and South
Armies. To this, however, Conrad would not agree; and Mack-
ensen's blow lost part of its effect through this refusal.
902
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
The Dunajec-San Operation. Reenforced by the Austrian VI.
Corps already on the front, and placed in general charge of the
Austrian IV. Army as well as of his own, Mackensen was
himself subordinated to Conrad's headquarters, though in fact
no major decision could be taken without Falkenhayn's agree-
ment. On the Nida front the Austrian I. Army, and in the
Beskidengebirge the Austrian III. Army, stood on the flanks of
the two attack armies, and in case of success would be carried
along as supports. On May i (see DUNAJEC-SAN, BATTLES or)
Mackensen's artillery preparation began. The scale of artillery
and trench-mortar strength hardly higher than that of a quiet
sector in France in 1918 was, for the East and for 1915, over-
whelming. At night, as a final diversion, an Austrian division
crossed the Dunajec a little above its mouth and established
two bridge-heads. On May 2 Mackensen's attack was launched be-
tween Woynicz on the Dunajec and Malastov (S.-S.E. of Gorlice).
The troops of Radko Dimitriev gave ground, fighting stubbornly.
By the 6th they had retired with heavy losses beyond the
Wisloka; and the Austrian III. Army, taking up the attack in
echelon rightward, had regained the Dukla Pass. By the pth
Mackensen had forced the Wisloka, Boroevic was at the evacu-
ated Lupkow Pass, and even Linsingen's left was advancing. On
the nth, on the other flank, the Russian IV. Army evacuated the
Nida position, pivoting on Kielce. Operations were fluid, and it
was Falkenhayn's and Conrad's problem to maintain them so.
Falkenhayn's intention was to ensure this by making the
operation continue as a tactical one, with as little regrouping
as possible outside the limits of the battle that was in being.
For this reason he rejected a proposal of Conrad to reenforce,
at Mackensen's expense, the Pflanzer-Baltin group (now called
VII. Army), which by reason of its position might be enabled
thereby to reach the rear of the Russian southern wing. He
ignored the relief offensives started by his opponent against the
front of Pflanzer-Baltin and elsewhere, and he even sought to
utilize the attack upon Pflanzer-Baltin as a means of setting in
motion the German South Army and the still stable portion of
the Carpathian front, E. of the Lupkow Pass. But at first he
had no intention that the effort should go in the slightest beyond
its tactical limit, which he fixed as the San-Dniester barrier.
Conrad agreed. Both leaders were anxious to disengage large
forces for use against Serbia or Italy or both.
As foreseen, the rush of the Gorlice offensive came to a stand
on the San-Wisznia line. The Grand Duke had, under cover of
his relief offensives, collected adequate forces on the III. Army
front and was prepared to hold it firmly. By the i4th Mackensen
had taken a total of 140,000 prisoners and more than 100 guns, and
had reached the line Tarnobrzeg on Vistula (link with Opatowka
line)-Nisko on San-Sieniawa (Austrian IV. Army); Sieniawa-
Jaroslaw-Radymno (XI. Army); Magiera and Chyrow region
(III. Army) ; Stary-Sambor (II. Army). But along the lower San,
in the bridge-heads of Jaroslaw and Radymno and the fortress
of Przemysl, the Russians were ready to fight again, on the alert,
in prepared positions, and had by demolitions of all sorts made
the supply problem difficult for the Germans and Austrians.
At that date Brussilov's VIII. Army and Shtchcrbachev's XI.
on its left were intact; Szurmay's and the left of Linsingen's were
only beginning to advance; while Pflanzer-Baltin was on the
defensive along the Pruth except at Kolomea where he still
held a bridge-head. Moreover, Italy was on the point of declaring
war (as she did on the 24th) and Rumania's intentions were
impenetrable. On the western front, the French and British
had opened their relief offensives of May 9 (battles of Carency
and Festubert). The Dardanelles was under military as well as
naval attack, and the Turkish and Balkan problems, always
obscure, had thereby become acute as well.
Nevertheless, during the fourth week of May, Falkenhayn
finally determined to carry on the Galician offensive and even
to extend it. It appeared, from Mackensen's reports, that the
shortage of munitions on the Russian side, already observed
here and there, was general, and that it was possible in consequence
to keep the offensive alive till it had secured a decision " suf-
ficient for our purposes," in Falkenhayn's own words. Fresh
troops were drawn from the West in spite of the crisis north of
Arras. Hindenburg was invited to press the advance of Woyrsch's
army group which had already begun on the I2th to move
forward on the left of the Austrian I. Army and was in front of
Radom by the i6th up to the Vistula below the San confluence.
As in the Vistula-San operation of October 1914, the threat of
turning the San line by Josefow was thought to be an effective
means of weakening it against frontal attack. Ludendorff, how-
ever, declared this operation to be impossible, in spite of the
offer of fresh divisions his mind was already set upon a more
grandiose scheme. Falkenhayn thereupon gave the incoming di-
visions (25 from France and 2 from Poland) to Mackensen, and on
June 3 that general received instructions to push the XI. and
IV. Armies over the San barrier, south of the Tanev, in coopera-
tion with an eastern advance of the Austrian II. Army (now
comprising what was left of the III. after Boroevic's departure
for Italy), which should "finally " beat the enemy still remain-
ing south of the Dniester in front of the South and VII. Armies.
Hindenburg was merely " to take any chance that offered itself
anywhere of profiting by the enemy's shortage of munitions."
In sum, then, the scheme was simply a prolongation eastward
of the Gorlice-Tarnow effort by means of a fresh engagement
of reserves. No new operative idea was involved. But the
decision to continue the battle was in itself an operative decision
of the first importance, and, in view of the general war situation,
a very bold one.
Mackensen meanwhile, partly urged by his own fighting
spirit, partly compelled by Russian counter-attacks, had been
involved in constant fighting on and for the San line. The
Austrian IV. Army was strained to the utmost in holding on to
the positions it had gained on the middle San (below Sieniawa)
and in front of the link Nisko-Tarnobrzeg (or " San angle
position ") which joined Radko Dimitriev's front to that of
Evert on the Opatowka. The right of the XI. Army was simi-
larly held up by the Russian positions about the Radymno
bridge-head, and Przemysl interposed a formidable obstacle
between that army and the advancing Puhallo group (the relic
of the Austrian III. Army, which included also the German
Beskidenkorps). But the left of the XI. Army stormed the
Jaroslaw bridge-head and, crossing into the Lubaczowka valley,
pressed the right rear at the Radymno bridge-head farther up
the San.. On May 24 a general assault carried this line, and the
Russian centre, its right still holding the " San angle " position
and the San below Sieniawa, fell back to the line of the Wisznia,
the Grodek lakes, and the Wereszyca. Practically at the same
time, the right of the XI. Army, Puhallo, and the left of the II.
Army closed upon Przemysl from the N., W., and S.; after
severe fighting the fortress fell on June 3, as described under
PRZEMYSL. Farther E., the right of Bohm-Ermolli's and the
South Army, advancing in the last ten days of May x reached
the line Weliko Bloto (" great marsh ") on the Dniester-E. of
Drohobycz-S. of Stryj-Dolina, making connexion at Jasien
with the left of the VII. Army, which was holding, still with
success, the Pruth line.
The Russians, however, failing as we/e their resources, reacted
powerfully. The Grand Duke's instructions were that " for
political reasons, it is imperative to hold " the Opatowka-San-
Grodek line " at all costs," and he carried them out by a series
of heavy counter-strokes. First on the lower San against the
Austrian IV. Army, then on the Pruth against Pflanzer Baltin,
and lastly against Linsingen on the Stryj front, offensives on a
large scale were delivered in the latter half of May and the
first week of June. New masses were drawn from an army
at Odessa which was to have cooperated in the attack on
Constantinople. Even Woyrsch's advance, far away on the
Kielce-Radom railway, was opposed by stubborn defence and
sharp local counter-attacks. But in the last resort the Grand
Duke's forces were inadequate for prolonged defence. The long
exposed flank of the northern corridor compelled him to keep fair-
ly large forces inactive on the Narew, the Bobr, and the Niemen;
and the Lauenstein operation in Courland (described below)
made a continual drain on his northern resources. But above
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
903
all, the failure of munitions led to enormous losses, both in
counter-attacks and in rearguard operations. By June 16 the
Russians had lost, in the battles of Gorlice-Tarnow, the San,
Stryj and the Pruth, no less than 392,000 in prisoners alone,
besides 304 guns. The last acts of this phase were the forcing
of the Grodek lines by Mackensen's two armies on June 16-19
(seeLEMBERG, BATTLES ROUND, Sectionll.) and the successful two-
fronted battles of Linsingen's South Army about Stryj and
Drohobycz, in which his left, facing north, held off the counter-
attacks of the Russian XI. Army, while his right, by intervening
in the flank of Pflanzer-Baltin's opponents (IX. Army, Let-
chitsky), made them retreat to the Dniester (May 3 i-June 15).
The Bug and, the Narew Campaigns. Although the Russian
retirement in E. Galicia was not, as Conrad imagined for a
moment after the fall of Lemberg on June 22, a retreat in dissolu-
tion, it was definitively a retreat on the largest scale. Once the
gap between the San and Dniester had been forced, neither was
tenable by the defence. Very soon, therefore, the Russians on
the Dniester were taking down their line from right to left, to
re-form on the positions offered by one or another of the N.-S.
tributaries of that river. From the San, the Tanev and the
region of Rawa Ruska, the retreat took a northerly direction and
thtfs there came up again the same possibilities, risks and
alternatives for the Austrian offensive as those of Aug. and early
Sept. 1914. The conditions were, however, partly changed. The
Russians and Austrians alike had lost most of their peace-trained
leaders and their offensive energy. Instead of the general clash
of an encounter battle, it was now a case of retreat and of a
follow-up, upon which delay was imposed by the necessity of
restoring demolished communications, and caution by the risk
of counter-attack striking the pursuit at a weak spot as it
opened out fan-wise towards Lublin-Chelm and towards
Sokal. Such a counter-attack did in fact bring the German XI.
Army into momentary peril between July 7 and July 12.
The prospect of a slow advance of indefinite depth made it
imperative for Falkenhayn and Conrad, and especially for the
former, to reconsider the position. Hitherto the German leader
had proceeded from one limited objective to another, all along the
same general direction. Now at the beginning of July -the
choice had to be made between initiating a far larger operation
and calling a halt to consolidate gains.
There were in reality two decisions to be made, one of principle
and one of method. On the principle of continuing the offensive
against Russia, Falkenhayn's opinion was, fundamentally, un-
changed, and he foresaw new dangers in France owing to the
impending appearance there of 12 British new army divisions,
considered as heralding an attack. But deciding, on the evidence,
that the great French offensive would not take place till Sept.,
and relieved of fears for the Italian front impressed also, with-
out doubt, by the repeated counter-strokes of the Russians he
decided on June 28 to initiate a new eastern offensive effort.
The second decision, as to the form and direction of this effort,
was more difficult and controversial. Apart from Conrad's
proposal, made once again, to strike from two directions against
Siedlce, there were two schemes under consideration. One was
from Ludendorff on behalf of Hindenburg; the other from von
Seeckt, representing Mackensen. In the sequel, Falkenhayn
accepted the latter, with additions of his own.
In Section I. of this article, mention was made of the geo-
graphical barriers, both flank and transverse, of the " northern
corridor," and it was noted that the tendency of the latter was
to turn southward in their upper courses, so that a series of
gateways existed along the inner flank of the corridor. Seeckt's
proposal, first made as early as June 15, was to wheel the two
Mackensen armies sharply northward, pivoting at about the
mouth of the San, to the line Ivangorod-Wlodawa, with, as
flank-guard against dangers from the Luck direction, the Austrian
II. Army, which should advance, in echelon from the left, to-
ward Vladimir Volhynskiy, E. of the Bug. Only the South Army
and the VII. Army would remain to drive the Russians remaining
S.'of Brody outofE. Galicia. The Austrian I. Army on the other
side of the Vistula was to conform by pushing the enemy back
to about Josefow, and, itself crossing there, to come into line
to the S.E. of Ivangorod, thereby allowing Mackensen (I., IV.,
and XI. Armies and Beskidenkorps) to condense on his right
wing and drive forward on the Bug, with on his right, beyond
the river, a deep echelon which could pull out and outflank the
enemy's left wherever it was found. To this scheme it was open
to Falkenhayn to add a similar enveloping element on the
northern flank.
But, in accepting the plan, Falkenhayn and Conrad modified
it considerably. The situation in E. Galicia did not seem to them
to justify the plunge of the II. Army northward on Vladimir
Volhynskiy. They therefore reserved this army, as heretofore, for
operations in the Brody direction, and instead withdrew the
I. Army from the central salient Woyrsch extending, in place
of it, to the Vistula and reconstituted it about Rawa Ruska
with orders to line the Bug as a flank guard in proportion as
Mackensen progressed. It was during this regrouping that
the Russian counter-attack of July 7, above mentioned, was
delivered. A serious objection to Seeckt's scheme was, in
Falkenhayn's eyes and probably in Conrad's also, the fact that
the II. Army would have become involved in the marshes of the
Pripet region N. of Vladimir Volhynskiy. Both Seeckt and,
incidentally, Ludendorff considered the difficulty of this country
to be exaggerated, and Falkenhayn admitted after the event
that this was so. In any case much would have depended upon
the scale of the operations E. of the Bug, and this was just the
unknown factor in the problem.
Falkenhayn therefore limited the Mackensen operation to the
area between the Vistula and the Bug, thus turning some, but
not all, of the transverse barriers by their inner gates. Reckoning
upon obstinacy in the command and slowness of the machinery
of his opponent, he considered that it would suffice to come in
upon the rear of the Russian centre during its presumed evacu-
ation of the central salient, at some point between Siedlce and
Brest-Litovsk. But he was aware that the centre of gravity of
the whole Russian line now lay opposite Mackensen, who would
be called upon to make a purely frontal advance through country
that was destitute of railways and would certainly be devastated.
He therefore intended to deliver an additional blow from the
other wing generally in the same direction; that is, to reenforce
Gallwitz to such strength as would enable him to force, in
succession, the Russian XII. Army's Przasnysz lines and the
Narew barrier, and so to descend upon the same region from the
other side, N. of the middle Bug. Thus he expected to obtain the
maximum result that was possible, and within a time-limit set
by the forthcoming French offensive in Champagne and by the
Bulgarian peasants' harvest.
Ludendorff, on the other hand, aimed at the " annihilation "
of the Russian armies and thereby the certainty of winning the
war. He argued that Mackensen's movement on the left of
the Bug would be a slow frontal drive; that a Gallwitz offensive
toward the Narew would be brought ti a standstill, or at the
least reduced to the condition of Mackensen's, very little beyond
the Narew; that Byelostok could not be reached with certainty
by an offensive from the VIII. Army front (Osowiec), such as
had been projected in the Masurian campaign, though he and
Falkenhayn were agreed as to this being, ideally, the decisive
point; that Kovno and Grodno effectively held the middle
Niemen line ; and that, in effect, the only practicable envelopment
was one which, starting from the N. of Kovno, swept round and
invested that fortress and swung in by Vilna toward Molodechno
and Minsk. The cross-barrier of the Vilya, and that alone, was
sufficiently far back from the present Russian front to ensure
the cutting-off of the entire Russian army in Poland, Polyesie,
and southern Lithuania. To complete the "Cannae," he
proposed that the Mackensen group of armies should place its
centre of gravity on, and even E. of, the Bug, as laid down in
Seeckt's original plan.
To understand the significance of this proposal and the
arguments for and against it, it is necessary to realize the new
position of affairs on the extreme left of Hindenburg's front.
At the close of the Masurian winter operations the X. Army
904
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
leaned to the left on the lower Niemen, rather east of Tilsit. In
March there had been some advances and retreats on both
sides but no substantial change in the situation. A raid on
Memel, beyond the left flank of Eichhorn's Army, by a small
body of Russian militia from Libau (who were expelled after
doing some damage) was the only incident of importance N. of
the Niemen till, in mid-April, Hindenburg received orders to
deliver feint attacks in order to divert attention from the forth-
coming Gorlice offensive. He chose, for this purpose, the region
N.E. of Tilsit, and formed a mobile army group of infantry and
cavalry divisions under General von Lauenstein. In this quarter
the Russians had only small forces, and the advance could be
carried out in three separate columns, thus covering an enormous
front. In all, 3 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions were sent out
on April 27, by Memel toward the Vindava, by Tauroggen on
Shavli (Schaulen, Szawle), and by Yurburg on Sredniki and the
Dubissa line. A small raiding body, in conjunction with light
naval forces, took possession of Libau early in May.
Lauenstein's movement was unexpected, and his left column
penetrated to Mitau before the reaction set in. The others
made good Shavli and the line of the Dubissa, and during May
and June a series of fierce battles on a small scale took place all
along this line. The Russians brought up considerable reinforce-
ments under the V. Army staff, and the first object of Lauenstein's
enterprise thus attained marked success. But, like other wide
extensions of front in the war, as soon as serious infantry fighting
opened, manoeuvre began to call upon reserve resources for its
maintenance. Two infantry and 2 cavalry divisions were added to
the German force, which became the " Army of the Niemen " under
Otto von Below, Scholtz succeeding this officer as the head of
the VIII. Army. Thus, at the end of June, when the plan of
future operations was being settled, the ground was prepared for
the manoeuvre advocated by Ludendorff. From Shavli, with
flank guards set out successively towards Riga and Dvinsk,
the Niemen army could, after being made sufficiently strong to
defeat the Russian V. Army assembled in front of it, turn Kovno
and reach the Vilya line long before the Russians in retreat from
western Poland could do so. On the other hand, so grave a
peril would clearly bring into existence a new Russian army
of relief in the Riga-Dvinsk-Petrograd region, and this army
would make short work of a few flank-guard divisions facing
Riga, Jakobstad and Dvinsk. One necessary condition of
Ludendorff's plan, therefore, was heavy reinforcement of the
Niemen army; another 'the reduction of Kovno, so as to clear
a direct and safe line of communications Insterburg-Vilna and
to bring the X. Army into action E. of the Niemen. From
Falkenhayn's point of view, however, the eccentricity of the
whole manoeuvre was its gravest drawback. He doubted whether
so distant an operation would affect the situation of Mackensen,
but especially whether it would not become just that plunge
into the unlimited interior of Russia which, with his time-limit
fixed, he dreaded above all. Operations N. and E. of Kovno
were permissible, in his opinion, only for hunting down an army
already in dissolution, not as a preliminary to the battle that
was to bring about that dissolution.
Such, in sum, were the elements of a controversy between
Falkenhayn and Ludendorff, which in the course of the summer
created a serious breach between the Supreme Command and
the commander-in-chief East, and undoubtedly handicapped the
operations, for Falkenhayn never swerved from his intention to
close down the campaign as soon as an " adequate " result had
been achieved, and Ludendorff on his side returned to the charge
at every opportunity, with the result that the few available
reserves were handled without singleness of purpose.
The Ludendorff plan, first proposed as early as June 7, was
discussed fully at a conference on July 2, in the presence of
the Emperor William, who, bound by the practice of the German
army either to follow the counsels of his sole and responsible
adviser or to dismiss him, chose the former course.
It was decided therefore that Mackensen, after completing
his wheel-up, should advance with all possible energy against
his immediate opponents between the Vistula and the Bug,
with the reconstituted Austrian I. Army protecting his right
flank by making good the line of the upper Bug as he advanced;
and that Gallwitz's army group, reinforced, should break
through at Przasnysz and on the Narew. When Gallwitz's
operation, with its immediate relief to Mackensen, should have
been completed, then Falkenhayn was prepared to allow an
extension of the offensive to the middle Niemen region.
On Mackensen's front the wheel-up was completed in the
midst of a heavy Russian counter-attack, and the advance that
was to follow was involved in great difficulties from the outset.
His three armies from left to right, the Austrian IV. and the
German XL "and Bug Armies (the last newly formed under
Linsingen) had not moved appreciably when Gallwitz's attack
was delivered. The Russians had massed considerable forces to
deny access to the inner gates of the corridor, and under cover
of their activity had already begun the evacuation of the central
salient. There all the old line had been already given up S. of
Inowlodz on the Pilica, and, on Mackensen's intention becoming
evident, the retreat was continued to the line of the Vistula
itself, where, however, the foreground of Ivangorod and, especial-
ly, the great entrenched positions west of Warsaw continued to be
held in force. The German IX. and Woyrsch Armies in front of
this line, now constituted as a group of armies under Prince
Leopold (probably in order to give Falkenhayn a force independ-
ent of both Hindenburg and Conrad), had been weakened and
could do little more than follow up, boldly on the right but
very cautiously on the left where the Warsaw positions and
Novogeorgievsk imposed respect.
When Woyrsch reached the region of Ivangorod (July 21) so
little progress had been made on the Mackensen front that
Conrad proposed that Woyrsch should cross the Vistula above
that fortress, so as to intervene in rear of Joseph Ferdinand's
opponents. This movement, which would have thrown the axis
of Woyrsch, and eventually that of the IX. Army also, away
from the region of the middle Bug and put an end to all hopes of
cutting off the Warsaw group of the enemy, was opposed by
Falkenhayn and also by Mackensen, and Woyrsch received
orders to cross the Vistula below Ivangorod, as he did on the
night of July 28-29 near Muciejowice. The IX. Army mean-
while felt its way forward to the Warsaw lines and the S.
front of Novogeorgievsk.
Before any of these movements were under way largely
indeed with the intention of helping them to get under way
the Gallwitz group, reinforced from the central salient by
4 divisions to a strength of about 1 5, had opened its offensive on
July 13-16 by breaking through the Russian XII. Army's
trench-lines at and west of Przasnysz (see NAREW, BATTLES OF
THE). On the night of the I7th Gallwitz stood within range of
Ostrolenka on the left and the N. defences of Novogeorgievsk on
the right. But a new and more severe effort was needed for the
forcing of the Narew line itself. Russian counter-attack forces
arrived in time, and it was only on Aug. 8 more than 3 weeks
after the offensive began that the Gallwitz group, now styled
XII. Army, had made good a line E. of the river defined by
Serock-Wyszkow (on the Bug)-E. of Ostrow-R. Ruz, the
last named being occupied by the right of Scholtz's VIII. Army
which had advanced in sympathy. The right of the German XII.
Army meantime, W. of the Narew and facing S., was holding
its own, not without considerable difficulty, against repeated
counter-attacks issuing from the Novogeorgievsk defences,
where the Grand Duke maintained large mobile forces up to
the eleventh hour and indeed beyond it.
In these 3 weeks Mackensen's right, the Bug Army, had been
engaged (see BREST-LITOVSK, BATTLES OF) by the Russian XIII.
Army, at the halt on almost every line of E.-W. streams avail-
able. It had fought on the line Grabowiec-Grubieszow from
July 10-21, on that of Chelm-Annopol from the 2ist to the3ist,
and along the Ucherka river and at Sawin in the first days of
August. The XL Army, with better conditions, had advanced
first astride and then east of the Huczwa, and by Aug. 6 had
reached Lubartow-Sawin; while Joseph Ferdinand had without
the suggested flanking assistance from Woyrsch reached the
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
905
line Novo Alexandryn-Lubartow. In the centre Woyrsch had
extended his Muciejowice bridgehead and was passing all his
forces over the Vistula for the advance on Siedlce-Lukow, and
under this threat the Russians had entirely evacuated the left
of the Vistula. Warsaw city fell on the 5th, though the German
IX. Army was unable to force the river there a kilometre
broad till the 8th. Ivangorod was evacuated on the sth. Thus
the German front had assumed a still more pronounced N.E.
direction than at the beginning of the Mackensen manoeuvre;
owing to its battle and route conditions, Linsingen's Army was
back instead of forward of the alignment, and the Russians had
retreated clear of the dangerous central salient to a line marked
by the Liwiec, the Bystrica and, facing Mackensen, the middle
Wieprz, the Swinka and the Ucherka. The Austrian I. Army,
occupied principally with flank-guarding Linsingen along the
Bug, had advanced its right to Vladimir Volhynskiy but no far-
ther. On the other flank of the Russian retreat Gallwitz was firmly
held for the time being. In other words the Russians handled
with great skill by General Alexeiev, commander-in-chief of
the N.W. front, were successfully effecting their retreat to
that line (Kovno-Grodno-Brest-Litovsk-W. of Kovel-Luck-
Dubno) which had been already in peace-time regarded as the
line of safety for deployment. In territory, they had abandoned
no more than they would have been prepared to give up gratui-
tously in their pre-war concentration scheme.
But this in itself was, after a year of warfare, a confession of
defeat. The enormous losses of that year in men and material
losses such that the great army of peace-time with all its resources
had practically ceased to exist and the stocks of arms no longer
sufficed to equip even the men in action, let alone new formations,
with rifles left no doubt that as a dominant factor in the war
Russia was out of the reckoning. In the light of after events,
the decision to continue the struggle after the loss of the San
line in June is seen to be the first step to the Russian Revolu-
tion. Yet, on purely military grounds, it was justifiable on
the assumption that the French effort to break through the
Champagne front would succeed. Only this confidence in
victory in September, indeed, can explain the stagnation on
the Western front from April to August (broken only by the
May battle in Artois), enabling Falkenhayn to withdraw some
12 divisions for the Eastern operations.
By August it was evident that the chances of cutting off
any considerable formed army of the Russians in the Kielce
region was at an end, and again there came up on the German
side the controversy between Falkenhayn and Ludendorff as
to what the operations were intended to achieve. Falkenhayn
held firmly to the view that the Russian army must be beaten
before any wide enveloping movement was undertaken to
surround its debris. Writing after the war, he maintained the
same opinion, only reproaching himself with not having com-
pelled G.H.Q. East to give Gallwitz 20 divisions instead of 14.
And certainly, if prisoners and booty were considered, he had
in fact inflicted what by all military standards was a " suf-
ficient " or " decisive " blow for by the middle of Aug. the
Russian losses in prisoners alone had reached the figure of
750,000 since May I, nearly 50% of their combatant strength
as it had been at the end of April. But the time-limit was close
at hand, and the withdrawals of forces to France and Serbia,
delayed as long as possible, had now to be begun. The weeks
remaining must, according to Falkenhayn, be devoted to
inflicting as much additional loss on the Russians as was possible
by frontal pressure coupled with flank attacks on the middle
Niemen and east of the Bug, i.e. in the immediate vicinity of
the frontal fighting, and possibly raids by light forces on the
communications behind Kovno and Brest-Li to vsk. At a suitable
date the operation would be closed down, and the best line of
defence taken up as a winter front.
I^^ndorff, on the contrary, considered that the actual
annihilation of the Russian armies was the only " sufficiently
decisive result " that would give freedom of action in the West,
and with renewed insistence which went as far as a personal
appeal by the Field-Marshal to the Kaiser demanded the
reinforcement of his left (Niemen army) with a view to quick
swooping down on Vilna and Molodechno and the closing of
the " corridor. " The axis Orany-Lida, originally suggested,
was now too near for the required effect, but the principle was
the same, and the movement would originate from a more
favourable situation of the Niemen army than that existing
in June. Preparations for the attack on Kovno by the X. Army
were already well advanced, and Ludendorff considered that
even at this stage complete success would be possible.
At this period the fighting on the Vindava-Schavli-Dubissa
line had definitely turned in favour of the German Niemen
army, the Russian V. Army receiving little or no further
reinforcements when Mackensen's and Gallwitz's attacks
developed. Below was progressing beyond the line named in
each of the three directions Mitau-Riga, Poneviesh-Dvinsk,
Keidamy-Wilkomir, and about Aug. i his various columns, total-
ling about 75 inf. and 5! cavalry divisions, were approximately
on the line River Aa-R. Musha-E. of Poneviesh-Keidamy.
To the southwest, the German X. and Russian X. Armies
were still making war in the same fashion as in March, the
Germans based on the Suwalki-Schali lines, and the Russians
on their Kovno-Niemen-Grodno fortifications, making periodi-
cal thrusts in the region between. But the last important Rus-
sian thrust was delivered early in May, as a" relief offensive"
toward Schali; and the German reaction became a methodical
advance toward Kovno and Olita, which at the time here
considered brought their left almost up to their opponent's
stronghold. Behind the German advanced line preparations
had been made for the siege of Kovno, an essential part of the
scheme which Ludendorff still advocated.
The Final Phase. It was evident that the scheme of bringing
Below and Eichhorn down upon Vilna and Molodechno, and
capturing Kovno in time, would call for the reinforcement of
either or both, and, on this ground principally, Falkenhayn
preferred to continue the campaign on the same lines as before,
though a little later he conceded to Hindenburg freedom to
dispose as he chose of the forces in his own area and to Mackensen
freedom to pass to the E. of the Bug. Conrad, meantime, was
planning an operation in East Galicia with the II., South and
VII. Armies.
Thus the last phase of the tremendous campaign consists of
4 parts: (a) the frontal drive of (right to left) the Bug Army,
the XL, Woyrsch, IX., XII. and VIII., (6) the attack on the
north flank and the rear of the " Corridor " by the German
X. and Niemen Armies, (c) the N.E. swerve of the Bug Army
and the A.-H. I. Army, and (d) the autumn campaign in E.
Galicia. All these were carried out without any great regrouping
or reinforcement, and indeed, as regards (a) the forces concerned,
were gradually reduced in order to form the army for the Serbian
front and to increase the reserve in France. In the case of the
operations in E. Galicia, the Russians followed a clear purpose
and the parts of their efforts were coordinated. But elsewhere,
under the tremendous pressure of the row of hostile armies
stretching from Lomza to Wlodawa and Vladimir Volhynskiy,
the only general policy was that of gaining time at the expense
of ground and of avoiding envelopment at all costs, and the
day-to-day situations were met as best they could be. On the
German and Austrian side the offensive energy of the troops
was beginning to approach its limit, except as regards troops
N. of Grodno, so that it may be said that the allied left and the
Russian left alone retained the capacity for fresh achievement,
while the rest were wearing each other out at an increasing rate.
The central campaign, between the Bobr and the Bug, may
best be summarized by recording the battlefields of each of the
German armies in succession.
Protected on its right by the Austrian I. Army, the Bug
Army fought and won the battles of the Ucherka (Aug. 7-12)
and of Wlodawa (Aug. 13-17), and in concert with the XL
Army continued its advance northward along the Bug against
Brest-Litovsk. Meantime, the crossing of the Bug was authorized
in so far as concerned the establishment of bridgeheads; and in
carrying out orders with this object the German subordinate
906
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
leaders became involved in fighting E. of Wlodawa, which
inevitably formed the starting-point of an offensive against the
eastern communications of Brest-Litovsk. By Aug. 21, then, the
greater part of the Bug Army was engaged on the line of the
Kapajowska from its mouth to Switiaz lake inclusive, well inside
the region of the great marshes; the remainder (Beskidenkorps
only), still west of the Bug, was nearing the outworks of Brest.
To the left of the Bug Army, the XI., already being reduced
for the forthcoming Serbian campaign (for the conduct of
which its staff was presently withdrawn), moved forward cor-
respondingly against the W. of Brest. On Aug. 19 its left had
reached Janow on the Bug below the fortress, while the Beskiden-
korps stood at Koden on the same river above it. To the left
of the XI. Army, again, the Austrian IV. Army at that date
lined the Bug between Janow and Niemirow; and beyond Joseph
Ferdinand, already N. of the river, was Prince Leopold with
Woyrsch's and his own armies, which, as soon as they had
debouched from Ivangorod and Warsaw, had made rapid progress,
as the Russian centre retreated at the fastest possible pace to
escape while Gallwitz and Mackensen were still being held off.
The German IX. and Woyrsch Armies stood, on Aug. 19, N.
of Niemirow, facing the line of the Pulwa and the Nurzec on
which the Russians were preparing to make a stand.
Meantime Gallwitz, in his bridgehead position in the angle
of the Bug and Narew, had overcome the Russian counter-
attacks, but not before their purpose of keeping open the railways
and roads for the retreat of the Warsaw and Ivangorod forces
had been achieved. The battles of Ostrow (Aug. 8-10) and
Tschishew-Sambrow (Aug. 11-12) and the advance in the
direction of Bielsk which ensued were thus similar in character
to the operations of the IX. and Woyrsch's Armies, viz. : a direct
pursuit where an envelopment had been hoped for. At the date
of Aug. 18-19, Gallwitz stood between the Nurzec and the upper
Narew, facing Biala, where the Russians were prepared.
The rightmost troops of the XII. Army, viz. those which in the
battle of the Narew were facing south against counter-attacks
from Novogeorgievsk and the strong points of the lower Bug,
had now been combined with the leftmost troops of the IX.
Army for the siege of Novogeorgievsk, in an army group under
von Beseler, the captor of Antwerp; and the siege, pressed with
energy, was nearing its close. On the aoth the place, with a
large garrison, surrendered. On Gallwitz's other flank, the right
of the VIII. Army had conformed to his advance and was taking
the direction of Byelostok; its centre had mastered Lomza and
Wiszna on Aug. 10; and its left was again, as in Feb., batter-
ing Osowiec, which fell to the superheavy artillery on the 2 2nd.
Kovno, as will be seen, had already fallen on the i8th, to the
attack of the German X. Army.
Throughout these pursuit operations large numbers of
prisoners continued to be taken by the Germans, and the Rus-
sian fortress artillery swelled enormously the total of captured
guns. At Novogeorgievsk some 85,000 men and 700 guns were
taken. Shortly it was to be the turn of Brest-Litovsk and Grodno,
though these places were not defended after the withdrawal of
the battle-lines outside them.
The later stages of the frontal pursuit may be very briefly
dealt with. The general direction of the Woyrsch, IX. and XII.
Armies was eastward. From Aug. 19-24 Woyrsch and the IX.
Army were engaged in mastering the Pulwa-Nurzec line, on
which the Russians delayed their opponents long enough to
cover the evacuation of Brest-Litovsk against interference from
the N.W: or N. From the 2$th to the 3ist these two armies were
involved in a fresh series of combats in and about the " primeval
forest " of Byleovitsa. Meantime the XI. and (till its with-
drawal) the Austrian IV. Armies, with the Beskidenkorps of the
Bug Army, had attacked Brest-Litovsk concentrically from the
W. and S., and the last Russian rearguards had been driven
out of the evacuated stronghold on the 26th. The Germans and
Austrians then continued the pursuit eastward, where the
operations of the Bug Army and the Austrian I. Army (presently
to be described) came into line with theirs in the early part of
Sept. The XII. Army drove the Russians from the Bielsk posi-
tions on the 26th, from the Swislocz river a few days later, and
from the Naumka-Wereczya line on Sept. 4, at which date
the IX. Army and Woyrsch had at last debouched from the
Byelovitsa forest towards the Jasiolda river.
In general, the effort of the Bug, XL, IV., Woyrsch and IX.
Armies in the earlier stages of pursuit had tended to crowd the
Russians into the area round Brest-Litovsk, and at a certain
stage in this process the Bug Army had been authorized to
push through the marshes E. of the river so as to reach the
line of communications Brest-Litovsk-Kobrin-Pinsk. At the
same time the Austrian I. Army about Vladimir Volhynskiy
advanced to Kovel, and thence eastward (see Autumn Campaign
in East Galicia p. 907) while from Kovel its cavalry worked up
through the marshes northward to join the swinging right wing
of the Bug Army. But that army, although it drove the retiring
and diminishing forces of its opponent N.E. from the Kapajowska
to Kobrin, was unable to reach that point before the Russians
evacuating Brest-Litovsk had flowed past it. The Russian rear-
guard stood to fight on a line N.W.-S.E. through Kobrin, but,
the Austro-German Cavalry Corps of General von Heydebreck
from Kovel arriving on their flank, they soon fell back to the
oblique line of the Dnieper-Bug canal, where they were tempo-
rarily secure against all but frontal pressure. Thus in this quar-
ter too the pursuit became a direct one. The Russians were
driven by the Bug Army and by what remained of the Austrian
XL and Austro-Hungarian IV. Armies the whole now com-
manded by Linsingen out of the canal lines in the battle of
Horodec (Aug. 3i-Sept. i) and out of the defences of Drohiczyn-
Chomsk (Sept. 4-6). But Linsingen's offensive, more and more
hampered by poor communications, came to an end with the
occupation of Pinsk on Sept. 16, and positions were taken up
here which remained unchanged till the end of the war.
With the almost simultaneous capture of Brest-Litovsk,
Bielsk, and Grodno (the last named fell to the German VIII.
Army on Sept. 2-3), the Germans obtained possession of that
line across the northern corridor which had usually been re-
garded as the Russian stabilization line. Falkenhayn, however,
took full advantage of the shortening of front which resulted
from the directions taken by his armies, and then at last Luden-
dorff's scheme came into play.
Such an operation as Ludendorff contemplated, or at least
one from the middle Niemen, Falkenhayn had been willing to
agree to from the first; and as the occasion approached he re-
laxed his hold on Hindenburg's dispositions, stipulating only
for the observance of his general directions and for the release
of certain divisions for the West. In practice he approved the
attack on Kovno. Ludendorff promptly took advantage of
this, and the intended wheel-in upon the rear of the " corridor "
was already in progress before the fall of Grodno and Brest-
Litovsk. On Aug. 8 the X. Army was able to begin the siege of
Kovno. Ten days later the fortress was in its hands even
earlier than at Novogeorgievsk, Osowiec, and Brest-Litovsk.
On condition of strengthening either the Niemen army or the
left of the X., therefore, Ludendorffs plan had become feasible,
if feasible at all, while masses of the enemy were still south of
Brest-Litovsk, on the Pulwa and the Nurzec, about Bielsk and
Byelostok and Grodno. At that date, Aug. 18, the Niemen
army had pushed its left columns close up to the Riga-Uxkiill
bridgehead on the Dvina, and to Friedrichstadt on that river,
whence its centre and right ran southward along the Jara and
Sventa to the north side of Kovno. It was still very strong in
cavalry, but some of its transport had been taken for the
armies pursuing through the devastated areas to the South.
Nevertheless, no serious advance was made to the westward
from Kovno for more than a week, and even then part of the X.
Army swerved full to the south against Olita to open an advance
in the direction of Orany, and also to help the VIII. Army in
cutting off Grodno, now a pronounced salient. At this late
stage Ludendorff himself had doubts of the efficacy of the
westward movement, and for a moment contemplated taking
the direction favoured by Falkenhayn, viz.: Orany, Lida, Bara-
novichi. Not only was this the shortest route to the enemy's
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
907
heart the shortest, that is, as measured by the time necessary
for concentrations and for rebuilding routes but it offered
hopes of driving a large mass of the enemy into the marsh
region round Slonim, where the avenue of escape was nar-
rowest (whereas at the latitude of Vilna-Molodechno the cor-
ridor broadens out considerably). However, he chose, in
the end, to follow the current scheme of operations, as offering
" annihilation " of the enemy as a prize, though admittedly
that prize might escape him. On the 28th, therefore, with
the expressed or implied consent of Falkenhayn, the X. Army
was ordered forward on Vilna, with centre of gravity on the
north wing, north of the Vilya. Reinforcements were collected
from the troops lately besieging Novogeorgievsk and from the
VIII. Army, which, after the fall of Grodno, would evidently be
crowded out of the line. The Niemen army was directed to
press up to the Dvina bridgeheads and, especially, up to Dvinsk,
to cooperate with its left wing in the operations of the X. Army
north of the Vilya, and to prepare a mass of cavalry to break
through the thin line of the Russians near Swentsiany and seize
or destroy the railways at Molodechno and Minsk.
The last great battle of the campaign, known as that of
Vilna-Molodechno, began after the Grodno episode had been
closed on Sept. 9. At that date Linsingen was advancing on
Pinsk, Woyrsch and Prince Leopold driving the enemy slowly
from one river-line to the next, over the Jasiolda, in the direction
of Slonim; and Gallwitz and the remnant of the VIII. Army
were pressing slowly forward up the Niemen in the same direc-
tion. The Niemen army was, by its activity between Riga and
Dvinsk, forestalling and perhaps diverting the attack of new
Russian forces which were coming up from the Baltic provinces.
From Wilkomir, north of the Vilya, to Orany, the X. Army
engaged the very heavy forces that the Russians had collected
for the last effort to hold the flank of their corridor the final
act of command of the Grand Duke Nicholas before the Tsar
took over the control from his able hands. The German
offensive progressed slowly, like all offensives against the Rus-
sian flanks in this campaign, but after some days it was judged
that the forces on the Dvina and amongst the Dvinsk lakes
had obtained sufficient security for the left flank, and on Sept. ir
the German cavalry divisions broke through the cordon west of
Novo Swentsiany and made for Swentsiany and Molodechno.
On Sept. 14 the horsemen reached arid broke the Vilna-Molo-
dechno line at Smorgon. At Wilejka and farther north at
Glubokoye they cut the vital Lida-Plotsk line. A party even
reached the Minsk-Orsha line at Smolewice.
This last crisis was also the most dramatic. The first wave
of cavalry was followed by others till about seven divisions
were collected about Wilejka, Smorgon and Molodechno. But,
recovering from their first surprise, the Russians quickly sent
troops from Vilna and from Minsk, as well as from the south-
east of Dvinsk, to clear their intercepted lines of retreat. These
had to be recovered at all costs, for, while the forces retiring
before Gallwitz, Leopold and Woyrsch still had the lines fo-
cussed on Baranovichi at their disposal, these could not help
the northern masses, and it was in the north, towards Vilna,
that the centre of gravity lay.
Thus a race to build up forces about Smorgon, Molodechno
and Wilejka set in. The Russians, having the better com-
munications and consequently the larger forces, won it. They
drove back the German cavalry, after a continuous skirmish of
five days, to the west of Smorgon and the northwest of Wilejka.
Two days later the first infantry divisions arrived on the Ger-
man side from the left of the X. Army. The detour of these
troops along the north bank of the bending Vilya had enabled
the Russians, moving on the shorter line, to reopen their line
of communications; and, with this, the battle of Vilna became,
like the battles farther south, a slow frontal drive. There-
upon Falkenhayn ordered operations to be broken off and more
divisions to be withdrawn for other theatres, and fixed in gen-
eral the line to be taken up as a winter line. The concluding
operations of the campaign, mostly completed in early October,
consisted in the methodical advance of all armies to this line,
which, so far as the Hindenburg, Leopold, and Linsingen groups
were concerned, ran from Tuckum, on the gulf of Riga, past the
south side of Riga and parallel to the Dvina to Novo Alexan-
drovsk, and thence southward by Lake Drisvyaty and Lake
Naroch, Smorgon, Krewo and Baranovichi to Pinsk, south of
which point Linsingen's right came into touch with the left
of the Austrian operations in East Galicia.
Autumn Campaign in East Galicia. In East Galicia the
pursuit of the Russian VIII. and IX. Armies, after the Grodek-
Lemberg break-through in June, had been left by Conrad and
Falkenhayn to the Austrian II. Army, the German-Austrian
South Army, and to Pflanzer-Baltin. Although the first
impressions of the victors in that battle had been that the
Russian armies remaining in East Galicia were incapable of
more than retreat and rearguard fighting for a long time to come,
in fact it cost the Austrians and Germans much fighting and
manoeuvring to establish themselves on the line of the upper
Bug and the Zlota Lipa; and Pflanzer-Baltin was at one time
subjected to a heavy counter-attack by General Lechitsky's
Army, for in this quarter the Russians had an ample supply of
reinforcements in their Odessa army. Towards the end of July,
however, the fighting in Galicia died down.
Towards the end of August, as a part of the same final offen-
sive act which produced the battle of Vilna-Molodechno in the
other flank, Conrad initiated a campaign which was intended to
confirm the separation of the northern and southern groups
of the enemy and to clear the latter out of Austro-Rumanian
territory definitively. The thinness of the defensive cordon
in the Pripet marshes, revealed by the lack of serious opposi-
tion to the movements of Puhallo's I. Army on and beyond
Vladimir Volhynskiy, and the advance of Heydebreck's Cavalry
Corps across the swamps and forests to Linsingen's Drohiczyn
battlefield, led the Austrian command to make its effort on the
north side of the Lemberg-Brody watershed. Profiting by the
general shortness of the line between the Bug and Vistula, Conrad
withdrew the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand and the IV. Army from
the Brest-Litovsk field of operations in the last few days of
August, concurrently with the withdrawal, mentioned p. 906,
of the German XL Army for Serbia. During the gradual with-
drawal of the IV. Army, Puhallo began his offensive from the
line Vladimir-Volhynskiy-Kovel in a south-easterly direction.
The fighting which followed is described in the article ROVNO,
BATTLE OF. The incoming of the Austrian IV. Army on Puhallo's
left, on the one side, and the arrival of reinforcements for Ivan-
ov's VIII., XL and IX. Armies, on the other, led to the battle
spreading along the whole front from the Pripet to the Pruth.
In sum, the Austrians, after advancing from Kovel to the rivers
Goryn and Putilowka N.W. of Rovno, and from the Zlota Lipa
to the Galician Sereth, were checked and driven back by a coun-
ter-attack group formed by Brussilov's VIII. Army in the region
of Rajalowka. The rest of the Russian front taking up the
movement, the Austrians were driven back from the Sereth to
the Strypa, and from the Horyn-Stubiel line to the upper Styr
and Stokhod, while the centre held practically all its gains.
From the fourth week of September the battle, after some fur-
ther fluctuations on the left, became a stabilized trench-warfare
conflict which dragged on till mid-November, when both sides
settled down in their winter lines. These ran from the Pripet
along the Styr and the Kormin and thence past Dubno to
Zborow and so along the Strypa. From the Strypa mouth to
the Sereth mouth, the Austrians retained positions north of the
Dniester, and from that point Pflanzer-Baltin's front sub-
stantially followed the frontier to Rumanian territory E. of
Czernowitz. Thenceforward up to the opening of the great
Russian offensive in 1916 the only important operations which
took place in East Galicia were the relief offensive known as the
" New Year battle " (see STRYPA-CZERNOWITZ) initiated by
the Russians in the hope, which was not realized, of calling
off Austrian troops from Montenegro, and the Russian capture
of the Dniester bridgehead of Uzcieszko on March. 19 a divert-
ing attack in aid of the spring offensive of the north.
(C. F. A.)
908
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
IV. RUSSIAN FRONT, 1916-17
Operations in Russia and East Galicia, igi6 and 1917. About
the end of 1915 and the beginning of 1916 the rival belligerents
in the World War were confronted with the necessity of making
vital decisions. For the Central Powers and their allies the past
months had been rich in results. In the Balkan Peninsula
Bulgaria's entry into the alliance, and the conquest of Serbia
and Macedonia, had opened the way to Constantinople and
Asia Minor. The Allied army in the East had tried in vain at
Salonika to bring about a change in the state of affairs. The
Entente troops had been withdrawn from Gallipoli. Even the
bloody battle in East Galicia and on the Bessarabian frontier
at the New Year had had no effect upon the general situation.
Against Italy, and in the French theatre of war, the armies of
the Central Powers had successfully maintained their position.
The chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff, Gen. Conrad
von Hotzendorff , proposed to clear up the situation in the Balkans
as far as possible. Rumania must be forced to give up her
ambiguous attitude by an ultimatum, supported by the presence
in South Hungary of a powerful force of troops. Montenegro
and at least the north and centre of Albania must be occupied
by the Central Powers. These measures having been taken, an
offensive, prepared in the meantime, on Salonika would end the
campaign in the Balkans. But the chief of the German General
Staff, Gen. von Falkenhayn, had since late autumn, 1915,
remained with his plans in the West in the French theatre of
war. He pronounced against an offensive at Salonika on sev-
eral grounds, and his view of the political, military and technical
difficulties of such an undertaking could not be waived aside.
The German Gen. von Seeckt also upheld Falkenhayn in this,
on the strength of a conference with the Bulgarian Army Com-
mand. While the plan of an attack on Salonika was rejected
in this manner, pressure on Rumania was now likewise deemed
unnecessary, since the military successes of the Central Powers
had meanwhile caused a more conciliatory attitude at Bucharest.
As regards the Austro-Hungarian Army Command's plans
for dealing with Montenegro and Albania, Falkenhayn tried to
postpone these indefinitely. But Conrad clung to his point and
carried out his intentions, more or less against the will of his
German colleagues, whereupon a most acute personal quarrel
broke out between the two generals, lasting nearly a month.
This quarrel, in the course of which Gen. Conrad had the
satisfaction of seeing his troops take the Lovchen (Lovcen) and
subdue Montenegro, obviously laid no promising foundation for
their common decisions in the future.
The idea of bringing about a decision in the war by a cam-
paign against Kiev or Odessa in the spring of 1916 seems to have
engaged political rather than military circles in Vienna and
Berlin. In the latter the Russian operations in 1915 only
strengthened the old conviction that the Russian armies
thanks to the illimitable area of operations and the skill of the
Russian leaders in retreat would always slip their heads out
of the noose again, and that any further advance of the Central
Powers towards the east could only result in an inconvenient
extension of the front. The war, according to the view of both
the General Staffs, could only be won against the western
opponents. Conrad proposed a combined offensive against
Italy. An annihilating blow delivered against this enemy would
have been not only in accord with his personal feelings and
those of his armies, but was worthy of consideration on many
other important grounds. The tension on the Italian front was
increased for the Austro-Hungarians by every new defensive
battle; the Italian menace to Trieste became more intolerable
week by week. On the other hand, Italy was easier to over-
throw than France or England, for that matter; and, as often
before in history, the fate of the Rhine might be decided in the
plain of the Po. Falkenhayn did not refute these arguments;
but he was doubtful whether, in the first place, it would be
possible to force Italy to break with the Entente, in view of her
dependence on England, and, in the second, whether even if,
contrary to expectations, Italy's overthrow should be brought
about, the Western Powers would take the loss of this Ally so
very much to heart. Falkenhayn was convinced that the decisive
campaign could be fought only in the French theatre of war.
Conrad held to the other solution, but declared himself willing
to place a few particularly good fighting corps at the disposal
of the German Higher Command for use in France. This offer
was declined by Falkenhayn both on military grounds and as
a matter of prestige. He proposed as an alternative that his
allies should take over, in addition to the 400 km. of front which
they were defending between the Bessarabian Pruth and the
Pripet (Prypec) against the Russians, a further portion of the
Lithuanian front stretching towards the north. In this way
it would become possible to set free more German troops for
the attack on Verdun. But Gen. Conrad could not bring him-
self to accept this purely passive role, and the result of this
difference of opinion was that the two empires of central Europe
divided their forces, the one proceeding to the attack in France,
the other to the Venetian mountains.
The Eastern Front in March igi6. For the execution of
these attacks, forces that had been set free in the Balkans were
brought up and others from the Russian theatre. The German
eastern troops were, between Oct. 1915 and Feb. 1916, reduced
from 56 to 45 or 47 inf. divs., not to mention the exchange of other
fighting troops for less serviceable units. Heavy artillery and
technical supplies were also withdrawn and sent to France, but
these could be adequately replaced, thanks to the mechanical
power of German industry.
The Austro-Hungarian eastern front in March 1916 was so
organized as to have 6 divs. less than at the close of the fruitless
October campaign in 1915- To balance this, however, a series of
regts. and batts. were brought up from other divs., so that the
Austro-Hungarian eastern armies gave up, in all, 1 20 batts. for
the attack on Italy. The drafts for the infantry in this fighting
force were supplied mostly from home at regular intervals, the
drafting reserve being overfilled owing to the slight losses
entailed by the war of positions. Out of this superfluity of men
the regts. formed 5th and 6th Batts. Thus there could be no
question of numerical weakening on the Austro-Hungarian
eastern front. Far more heavily weighed the fact that the best
and most reliable troops had been picked for the Italian attack,
including nearly all the German-Austrians and a great propor-
tion of the Magyars. The eastern armies were seriously weak-
ened thereby on the moral side; and the militia-like character,
which the Austro-Hungarian army had begun to take on in the
Carpathian battles in the spring of 1915, now became particu-
larly apparent in the east. Still more severely felt was the
withdrawal of the whole of the heaviest artillery, and a consider-
able portion of the medium-heavy, to the Italian theatre, and
the considerably smaller share of technical supplies which had
been assigned to the eastern front when these were divided.
In the beginning of March there were about 40 Austro-Hun-
garian and 46 German divs. on the Russian front. Of -these, 42
German and 2 Austro-Hungarian held the front (Pinsk) between
Riga and the Pripet and were under the German Higher Com-
mand; the other half of the fighting forces, in the south portion
of the front, was under the orders of the Austro-Hungarian
Army Higher Command (Teschen). Each section had a breadth
of 400 km. The Austro-Hungarian divs. were on an average 14
batts. strong, the Germans only nine. The inferior rifle-shooting
of the Germans was abundantly compensated by -their superior
equipment in artillery and fighting material of all sorts. The
entire rifle strength of the forces of the Central Powers on this
front amounted at this time to rather more than a million. It
would be safe to estimate the Russian front at double that
strength. The Russian Higher Command, controlled since au-
tumn 1915 nominally by the Tsar but actually by his chief-of-
staff, Gen. Alexeiev, could draw on its drafting reserve to the
fullest extent. In the spring of 1916 the regiments, in spite
of the gigantic losses suffered in the last campaign, had been
replenished for some time. Immediately behind the army front
were enormous masses of reserves, and all the recruiting depots
were full. Half of the world's munition factories were straining
to supply equipment for the Tsar's armies. A number of En-
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
909
tente officers were instructing Russians in the western methods
of attack. Along with all this the greatest efforts were made
to raise the soldiers' moral.
By March 1916 about 130 inf. divs. and 40 cav. divs. stood on
the Russian front, the inf. divs. consisting of i6batts. almost
double the number of the German. This did not include the
draft formations standing in readiness immediately behind the
fighting reserve. The rifle strength of the front might safely be
estimated at 2\ millions. Her allies might well hope that Russia,
in spite of her defeat in 1915, would come up to expectations in
, the general offensive planned for the summer.
Battle of Lake Narocz (Naroch), March 18-29 igi6. The
German attack on Verdun in Feb. 1916 brought the Russians
into action earlier than was expected. Like Italy, who was now
making her fifth attack on the Isonzo, the empire of the Tsar
was expected to lose no time in doing its utmost for the relief of
France. Russia had already transferred her centre of gravity
to the area N. of the Pripet before this demand reached the
Higher Command. On this section, that is, opposite the German
front, were 80 out of 130 Russian divisions. Since the beginning
of March Hindenburg's general staff (Kovno) had located a
concentration of Russian troops at Smorgon, Dvinsk (Dtina-
burg) and Jakobstadt. On the other hand, the attack of the II.
Russian Army under Gen. Smirnov on both sides of the Narocz
lake on March 18 took the Germans somewhat by surprise. After
a preliminary bombardment, such as had not yet been seen on
1 the eastern front, this army flung itself upon the German XXI.
Army Corps commanded by Gen. von Hutier. It was assumed
from orders of the supreme commander of the Russian west
front (Gen. Ewerth), which were captured by the Germans,
that the Russians meant more by this attack than a mere relief
offensive. While Gen. Litvinov's I. and Gen. Plehve's V.
Armies were holding the weak German forces occupying the
trenches at Widsy. Dvinsk, and Jakobstadt, Smirnov was to
force a way through in the direction of Vilna-Kovno and then
to wheel northwards and so drive the German wing to the sea.
The " Narocz Offensive " led at first to considerable successes
for the Russians. The attack delivered between the Narocz
and Wiszniew lakes by Gen. Balujyev with 4 army corps pressed
the weak German forces backwards some miles between March
18 and 21. Though the groups attacking farther to the N. were
not so fortunate, the Russians might yet hope for success.
Then, to the rescue of the Germans, came a sudden thaw. This,
indeed, increased the difficulty of bringing up the reserves
which they had scraped together so painfully, but incomparably
worse was the plight of the attackers in this melting of snow
and ice. Their second and culminating attack on March 26,
according to the German reports, was choked literally " in mud
and blood." Towards the end of March the Russian spring
offensive of 1916 died away, without ever getting beyond the
local success on Lake Narocz. Their losses were estimated by
the Germans at 150,000 men, while the Germans sacrificed
not more than 15,000.
On April 28 1916 the troops of the German X. Army under
Gen. von Eichhorn snatched from the Russians the greater part
of that tract of country which they had captured 'during the
March battles in the confined area of Lake Narocz.
The Luck (Lutsk) Campaign, Summer of 1916. At the con-
ference held on March 18 1916 the Allies had fixed July i for
the opening of the great general offensive on all fronts. For
this the Russian Supreme Command was now making ready.
By the end of May all their preparations pointed to the proba-
bility of their decisive attack again being made N. of the Pripet
marshes, and again on the German front. Of the 130 Russian
divs., comprising over i\ million rifles, as to which the Austro-
Hungarian and the German intelligence service had accurate
reports, 74 to 77 or less than two-thirds were in the northern
section. On the side of the Central Powers there were at the
same time on the eastern front 83^ inf. divs. and about 20 cav.
divs., each cav. div. counting almost as many rifles as one regt.
of inf., and often fewer. Altogether these amounted to 600,000
fighting men for the Germans and the same number for the
Austro-Hungarians. The distribution of forces was the same
as in the beginning of March.
In the middle of May the Austro-Hungarian offensive against
Italy had started, meeting at the beginning with great success.
Once more the Russians were faced with the necessity of reliev-
ing their hard-pressed allies, and at least preventing any further
transference of Austro-Hungarian fighting forces to the Italian
front. Now the preparations for the Russian attack were not
yet complete. Also it was evident that active relief to the Ital-
ians could only ensue from an attack, not on the German, but
on the Austro-Hungarian eastern front that is, between Pinsk
and the Bessarabian Pruth. The Russian Supreme Command
were not easily induced to depart from their original plans or to
attack prematurely before July i. In the end, however, they
had to yield to the pressure of the Allies. Gen. Brussilov,
supreme commander of the Russian " south-west front," with
the Quartermaster-General, Gen. Dietrich, as the real source
of energy at his side, received the order to advance to the attack
from Rovno down to Bessarabia. The very first assault, made
with attack groups that had been got together at haphazard,
brought Brussilov great and unexpected success on both wings
in the battles of Luck and Ocna, although the defenders were
not unfavourably situated as regards numbers. Thereupon the
Russian Supreme Command decided to refrain from the great
attack on the German front altogether and transfer the centre of
gravity of their operations to the southern section. The advances
on the Russian side during the next three months, at Riga,
Jakobstadt, Dvinsk, Smorgon and Lake Narocz, were therefore
undertaken only at odd moments, without any successes worth
mentioning, and must be treated simply as demonstrations.
But meanwhile Brussilov had snatched from the Central Powers
large portions of Volhynia and East Galicia and the Bukovina.
Battles of Baranovichi (Baranowicze). On the other hand,
the objective of the Russian Supreme Command in the three
battles at Baranovichi had a close connection with the opera-
tions at Luck. In the first battle, on June 13 and 14 1916, the
attacks led by Gens. Ragosa and Lesch failed completely. Gen.
Woyrsch maintained the upper hand over the Russian grenadiers
with his Silesian Landwehr. The Germans lost 150 men, the
Russians 7,000. In the second battle, on July 2-14, the Rus-
sians put in 16 of their divs. against the 2! German and 2
Austro-Hungarian divs. holding the section Gorodishche
(Horodyszcze)-Baranovichi. The Russian main blow fell on
the Austro-Hungarian XII. Corps under Gen. von Henriquez,
and forced it back to the second position. German battalions
were hastily scraped together to reenforce their hard-pressed
allies. There were critical hours and critical days. But on the
last two days of the battle the greater part of the ground cap-
tured by the Russians was torn from them again. East of
Baranovichi Gen. Ragosa's troops were fated to achieve only
unimportant local successes. The defenders lost in dead,
wounded and missing 180 officers and 8,000 men; the attacking
Russians many times this number.
For the third time the battle of Baranovichi blazed forth on
July 25 1916, this time as an introduction to the great Russian
general attack N.W. of Luck. Once more the Russians flung
themselves against the Gorodishche section, but were driven back
by the Germans after a fierce three days' fight.
Operations in the Summer of 1916. The Russian offensive in
the beginning of June 1916 brought the attention of the Central
Powers with a jerk to the eastern front, where all at once the
situation had become extraordinarily tense, and the anxiety
became all the greater with the reflection that the results in the
other theatres of war had not come up to their expectations.
The Verdun undertaking had cost the Germans heavy sacrifices
without making them masters of the fortress, and it was but a
small consolation to know that the French had bled even more
.than they. On the Somme an English- French attacking force
of prodigious size and fighting strength was massing itself. In
the Venetian mountains at Asiago, the Austro-Hungarian corps,
though it was still attacking, had lost much of its momentum
since May 25. A pause in the fighting at the end of that month
910
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
had given the Italians an opportunity of flinging powerful
masses of troops on to the hard-pressed mountain front, thus
averting catastrophe for the time being.
The turn of events in the east called for new decisions, and
a few days after Luck the two chiefs of the General Staffs of the
Central Powers met in Berlin to form these decisions. The
idea of leaving the eastern front in Falkenhayn's words
" to look after itself " was, it may be assumed, only theoreti-
cally discussed. Neither did such resolutions come under con-
sideration, either then or later, as those executed in 1914 by the
Central Powers when they shook off the enemy by one mighty
move backwards and thus again deprived him of the initiative.
The scarcity of food alone, under which the peoples of the Central
Powers were already beginning to suffer heavily, made it imper-
ative to cling to every foot of fruitful soil in Volhynia or East
Galicia at all costs. On the other hand, the situation was so
grave on all other fronts that for the moment any assistance
proposed for the eastern front must be of a modest order. The
commanders of the armies fighting against Russia indeed
attempted, even within their own areas, to keep their forces
together for use as units rather than to use them to fill up gaps.
Gen. von Linsingen, for example, made frequent efforts in the
area of his own group of armies at Luck to concentrate strong
forces for counter-attack. But the strength of these attack-
groups, in most cases, very soon exhausted itself against the
numerical superiority of the enemy. Similar attempts were
made several times in East Galicia and also in the Carpathians.
Mention should be made in this connexion of a plan formed in
the beginning of July 1916 to form a XII. Army out of the
German and Austro-Hungarian troops in East Galicia and to
attack with it on both sides of the Dniester. This idea certainly
promised success; but the divs. selected for the purpose were,
in view of the new increase of the Russian attacks, in most cases
diverted to some particular danger-spot on the wide-spreading
defence front; and the construction of the XII. Army, together
with the task to be entrusted to it, had to be given up. There
was nothing for it but to persist in the method practised since the
middle of June, and contest every inch of ground in dogged local
defence-battles. And even this mode of warfare was conditional
on a considerable expenditure of force. Between the beginning
of June and the end of Aug. about 17 German divs. had to be
brought over from France and 8 to 10 Austro-Hungarian divs.
from Italy. In addition, the front to the N. of the Pripet
transferred a large portion of its regts. and divs. to the southern
section, receiving in exchange only worn-out troops.
Since the beginning of July 1916 the Russians had also with-
drawn strong forces from Kuropatkin's and Ewerth's fronts to
add them to Brussilov's. Finally, at the beginning of Sept. the
area S. of the Pripet, with 71 divs., had 20 divs. more than the
northern section. The attacks during the summer offensive of
1916 cost the Russians enormous bloodshed. Great as were the
results, the sacrifices far outweighed them. The Russian Su-
preme Command remained true to the methods practised in the
Carpathians. It is quite impossible to point to any great con-
ception underlying the operations of the Russian Command in
these battles. They worked on purely local considerations and
prospects, and often did not even make use of these, as for
instance immediately after the first great blows delivered at
Luck, when they gave their opponents time to close a gap of 50
km. which had been made. More than once did the Russian
Supreme Command let slip an opportunity of a mortal blow.
Creation of the " Hindenburg Front." The great crisis on the
eastern front, lasting several months, reacted strongly on the
relations between the armies of the Central Powers. The
Austro-Hungarian troops had, from the very first Russian
attacks, shown considerably less power of resistance than the
German. The Austro-Hungarian armies fighting at Luck and
Ocna had, within a few days, left a quarter of a million prison- .
ers in the enemy's hands. Even in peace-time the conditions
in the polyglot Dual Monarchy were less favourable by far than
those in the German Empire for a display of military power,
and the unexpectedly long duration of the war increased the
difficulties enormously. It should also be remembered that in
the first year of the war the Austro-Hungarian military forces had
had a considerably larger drain on their men than the German.
At the end of 1915 only a small remnant of the forces deployed
at the beginning of the war was left at the front. The rest were
dead, wounded or prisoners. In the quiet period before the Rus-
sian summer offensive of 1916 the training of the drafting
reserve was certainly better organized than in the first year,
when recruits had on occasion to be sent to the front after a
month's training. But between the young, systematically
trained peace-time forces, full of heroic self-sacrifice, with which
the war started, and the Landsturm troops of the later cam-
paigning years, some of them physically and morally unsound
to begin with and many of them far too old, there could be no
comparison. This was particularly the case with a considerable
proportion of the Slav and Rumanian forces, on whom the great
national crisis could not act as a spur but rather as the reverse,
as was not infrequently proved. Under these difficult conditions
the lack of good regular officers was most keenly felt. The
flower of these had Been left on the battle-fields of 1914.
In consequence of the internal weakening of the Austro-
Hungarian army in the east which was not noticeable in
anything approaching the same degree where the army was
opposed to its ." hereditary enemy," Italy a rule was made
that on every point of the battle-front where the Russians were
using great pressure German units should be flung in. In this
way, from the beginning of July, the whole Austro-Hungarian
section was interspersed with German troops. This system of
" stay-boning," as it was sarcastically called, naturally brought
with it a powerful increase of German influence in the combined
army. It also happened that the Austrian leading provoked
frequent criticism on the part of the German commanders.
Immediately after the first Russian assault at Luck, for instance,
the commander of the IV. Army, Archduke Joseph Ferdinand,
was relieved of his command on the explicit demand of the Ger-
man General Staff. Added to this, between the new commander
arid his Austrian subordinate commanders intermediate posts
were interposed and filled by German generals, who alone
exercised direct power of command over the troops. As the
number of German forces on the Austro-Hungarian front in-
creased, the ambition of the Germans to get the principal com-
mands into their own hands became more and more evident.
Immediately after the beginning of the Russian offensive, the
area commanded by the German Gen. Linsingen, which began
on the Pripet, was extended to the boundary of Galicia. At
the same time Falkenhayn proposed to entrust Field-Marshal
Mackensen, who was in Bulgaria, with the supreme command
of all the allied troops fighting S. of the Pripet. Conrad von
Hotzendorff was opposed to this arrangement, but offered to
confer on Mackensen the command of a group of armies in
East Galicia. This Falkenhayn declined.
In July Falkenhayn made the proposal to recall Field-Marshal
von Hindenburg from Kovno and appoint him supreme com-
mander between the Pripet and the Dniester. To this plan
Conrad agreed, though without seeing any particular meaning
in it. As a matter of fact Falkenhayn's proposal was made more
on personal than on practical grounds. The chief of the German
General Staff had from the start few friends but many enemies.
Since the failure of the attack on Verdun, Emperor William had
begun to be besieged with complaints against the man who had
his particular confidence. The Imperial Chancellor also urged
that Falkenhayn should be replaced by Hindenburg, with a
vigour quite unusual with him. The summer battle made the
situation more acute. A depression fell over Germany, the army
lost faith in the Supreme Command, and louder and louder
became the clamour for Hindenburg.
Falkenhayn, though realizing that his relations with Hinden-
burg and Ludendorff had been somewhat strained for more than
a year past, felt obliged to fall in with the general opinion. He
therefore proposed assuredly more or less against his inward
conviction that Hindenburg should receive the appointment
alluded to, that of supreme commander from the Pripet to the
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
911
Dniester. This he followed up a few days later, under pressure
from all sides, by offering to place the Field-Marshal in command
of the whole eastern front from the Baltic Sea to the Carpa-
thians. For some such unity of command there was urgent need
on military grounds. Indeed the proposal had received a passing
consideration in Nov. 1914, when the Archduke Frederick was
to have held the command with Ludendorff as his chief-of-staff.
But Conrad was opposed to this solution, arguing that the Rus-
sian assaults were not to be stopped by new commanders but
by strong battalions, that the non-German peoples and troops
of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy would regard any too con-
spicuous manifestation of German influence as a burdensome
tutelage, and finally that in the southern section of the eastern
front so many specifically Austrian interests were at stake -
in particular with respect to the danger from Rumania that
this section ought not to be withdrawn from the immediate
influence of the Austro-Hungarian Higher Command. But,
however worthy of consideration Conrad's objections may have
been, it is only human to suppose that personal grievances also
played their part. The solution proposed by Falkenhayn was
tantamount to making a clean sweep of the Austrian General
Staff from the command of the war in the east. Yet, the leader
of the Austro-Hungarian army was practically alone in his
opinion. Even in those Viennese circles most jealously con-
cerned to uphold Austrian prestige there was a pressing demand
to have the question of the command straightened out on
German lines, since Conrad's leadership no longer inspired full
confidence. In principle the old Emperor, Francis Joseph,
agreed also. Emperor William, for his part, proposed a com-
promise to his allies. Hindenburg was certainly to have supreme
command from the Baltic Sea to Lemberg, by far the greater
portion of the eastern front, but the southern portion on both
sides of the Dniester and in the Carpathians was to be placed
under the command of the Austrian heir-apparent, Archduke
Charles Francis Joseph, who later became emperor. The Arch-
duke had been fetched from the Italian front to take over the
command of the XII. Army, and now, since this army had not
come into being, was temporarily commanding a group of armies
on both sides of the Dniester. To protect German interests the
German Gen. von Seeckt, formerly Mackensen's chief-of-staff,
would be attached to the Archduke. This solution was accepted
by the Austrians and acted upon in the beginning of Aug. 1916.
It was the prelude to the establishment of a Supreme War
Command (Oberste Kriegsleitung) over all fronts.
The impulse to create a general supreme command of this
nature, to apply to all fronts, emanated from Sofia and Con-
stantinople. Germany was agreeable to the proposal, which
also gained ground rapidly in Vienna's political circles, but here
again it was Conrad who, in defiance of his superior commander,
Archduke Frederick, sharply opposed the idea, even threatening
to resign. Emperor Francis Joseph's personal intervention
alone was able to overcome this opposition. On Sept. 16 1916
the agreement on the Oberste Kriegsleitung was signed in the
German headquarters at Pless in Prussian Silesia. According
to these arrangements, shortly after acknowledged as binding
by the Bulgarian and the Imperial Ottoman Army Commands,
the German Kaiser became responsible for the higher leading
of operations in general without disturbing the relations between
the allied sovereigns and their fighting forces. The Kaiser was
assisted by the chief of the General Staff of the German armies
in the field, who before every important decision was to consult
the chiefs of the allied General Staffs and, as far as possible,
bring them to an agreement. This done, the German chief of
the General Staff would issue orders, binding on all, in the name
of the Oberste Kriegsleitung. In order to meet Conrad's partic-
ular misgiving the German Kaiser bound himself, in a special
supplementary note which was kept secret from Sofia and Con-
stantinople, that the integrity of Austria-Hungary should be
as carefully protected as that of Germany.
The institution of the Oberste Kriegsleitung was undoubtedly
an advance on the method of dealing with each case as it arose,
which had been practised since the beginning of the war. But
the undertaking, set on foot with such difficulty, still lacked one
thing to complete it the creation of a common political and
domestic policy. This was never achieved. On the contrary,
the forces involved in these matters fell farther and farther
apart the longer the war lasted, particularly after the change
of Government in Austria-Hungary. To make matters worse,
when the young Emperor Charles took over the Austro-Hunga-
rian command, alterations were made in the most important
parts of the agreement in consideration of his position as sover-
eign, so that in the end the old methods employed in the first
two years of the war came back into use.
The New German Supreme War Command (Oberste Kriegs-
leitung). The agreement on the Supreme War Command had
been signed on the part of the Germans by Field-Marshal von
Hindenburg as new chief of the General Staff. On Aug. 29 1916
Falkenhayn had left the Supreme Command. It had long been
only a question of when the Kaiser would be forced to yield
to the storm raised by Falkenhayn's critics; the immediate
cause of his dismissal was Rumania's declaration of war on
Austria-Hungary on Aug. 27 1916. Up to the last hour, in
spite of the well-founded warnings of Austria-Hungary, Fal-
kenhayn had been unable to believe that Rumania was on the
point of coming in, and had perpetually reassured the Kaiser to
that effect. When the event happened the Kaiser was thunder-
struck, and Falkenhayn's fall followed. The German nation
and its allies greeted the new men, Hindenburg and Ludendorff,
with the utmost confidence.
The first task to fall upon the new command was the organ-
ization of the Rumanian campaign (see next section). Mean-
while the defensive battle against Russia had to be carried on.
This constantly flamed up again along the whole front from
Luck to the Carpathians till the end of Oct., although the Rus-
sian attacks had fallen off in strength and determination, and no
more successes worth mentioning were gained by them. The
relief offensive, too, which the Russians undertook between Nov.
28 and Dec. 13 1916 in the Wooded Carpathians against Kovess"
and Arz's armies, to relieve Rumania, hard pressed in Wallachia,
was without results and could save neither Bucharest nor
Focshani. Neither did success attend the Russian surprise attack
on Jan. 23 1917 on the Aa at Riga, great as were the prospects of
success on the first day. The German position was indeed
rushed, but the defenders' reserves, brought up in haste, restored
the situation.
The enormous drain on Russia's forces in the summer, and
the difficulties of her interior political situation, had sapped the
marrow of her army. The armies of the Central Powers and
their allies had come through their difficult crisis. As in the end
of 1915 and the beginning of 1916, so now they experienced a
great relief in the east.
The Russian Revolution. The Austro-Hungarian chief of the
General Staff, Conrad, who since Nov. n 1916 had been a
field-marshal, was once more proposing to take the opportunity
of attacking Italy. The attack was to begin in the spring of 1917
and was to be carried out by an equal division of Auatro-Hunga-
rian and German forces. But the new German Obcrste Kriegs-
leitung in the middle of Jan. rejected the plan for the time being.
They relied on the ruthless submarine war, begun in Feb. 1917,
to bring their enemy to his knees. Gen. von Arz, who had
succeeded Conrad as chief of the Austro-Hungarian General
Staff in March 1917, received the decision of German Head-
quarters with unqualified approval. The Russian Revolution,
which broke out in the middle of March, was extraordinarily
favourable to the military situation of the Central Powers. It
could not, of course, be seen as yet whether Russia's armies
would permanently withdraw from the list of enemies, which
now included America. But for the moment the crash was so
enormous that it must be months before the Russian High Com-
mand could consider offensive operations. The Central Powers
now left nothing untried that could hasten the process of dis-
organization among their enemies. This purpose was above all
to be served by an extensive peace propaganda, which was to be
carried to the Russian trenches though Ludendorff's consent
912
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
to this step had not been easy to obtain. Meanwhile the war
fell practically fast asleep, as was natural. On April 4 1917 the
troops under Prince Leopold of Bavaria, who had taken over
the eastern front between Riga and the Carpathians from Hin-
denburg in the autumn of the previous year, captured the small
Russian bridgehead, Stochod, at Tobol in Polyesie, by a coup de
main, on which occasion the Russians gave themselves up as
prisoners in swarms. On the political circles of the Imperial
Powers this action produced a most disturbing impression, and
the troops were now ordered to suspend all hostilities against
the Russians unless they should provoke them.
In preparing the line to be taken with regard to propaganda in
the trenches, the Austro-Hungarian Government would have
liked to make use of the Petrograd catch-words, " Peace with-
out annexation or indemnity " and " the right of nations to
self-determination." But the dominating influence of the
German Supreme War Command, which was not prepared to
give up its Balkan aspirations in a hurry, prevented this. Never-
theless it was hoped, especially when the Workmen's and
Soldiers' Councils became a stronger political factor in Petro-
grad in the beginning of May, that a way might be found to
force Kerensky's Government to agree to an armistice and con-
sent to open peace negotiations. This hope was to prove decep-
tive. When at last an envoy from Prince Leopold of Bavaria
succeeded in penetrating beyond the Russian trenches to Gen.
Dragomirov, commander of one of the armies on the north front,
he was met with an absolutely unequivocal refusal. Meanwhile,
at numerous points of the front, a local truce had been declared.
But in June a remarkable change was noticeable on the Russian
side. Kerensky, relying on Gen. Brussilov and numerous
Entente military missions, succeeded gradually in converting a
considerable portion of the army to the idea of carrying on with
the war to make the world " safe for democracy," and in restoring
their fighting spirit.
Battles in Galicia and the Bukovina, Summer of 1917. By
the end of July the Army Commands of the Central Empires had
reason enough to. count upon a revival of the war in the east.
Indeed, the Russian Supreme Command, apart from the concen-
tration of troops at Riga, Dvinsk and Kriewo 1 in the Cour-
land-Lithuania section, had assembled two powerful attack
groups in East Galicia. The one, a division strong, stood N.E. of
Brzezany opposite the Austro-Hungarian II. Army (Bohm-
Ermolli); the other, 15 inf. and 2 cav. divs. strong, was piling
itself up adjacent to the first and opposite the German Southern
Army under Gen. von Bothmer. 2 These powerful attack-masses
were charged to overthrow the enemy and to take Lemberg.
The Army Higher Commands of the Central Powers did not
look on idly at the Russian preparations for attack.. By June
27 the German Emperor, in concert with the Austro-Hungarian
General Staff and Prince Leopold of Bavaria, was ready with
the order to counter-attack in case of a Russian attack in East
Galicia, and to throw back the enemy beyond the frontier of the
Austrian Empire. Besides the allied troops already on the spot,
5 divs. could be brought up from the west and 3 to 4 divs. from
that section of the eastern front which was not threatened.
Battle of Brzezany, July 1-6. The anticipated Russian attack
was launched on July i 1917 on both sides of Brzezany. The
Western Powers had supplied their Russian allies with artillery,
munitions and war supplies of all sorts in abundance. The
battle of Brzezany lasted six days with only slight interruption.
The Russians made only slight gains in fighting the German
Southern Army E. and S. of Brzezany, and these were for the
most part wrested from them again. N.E. of Brzezany, in the
village of Koniuchy, they were more successful. Here they had
brought into the fight a Czechoslovak brigade against Austrian
battalions of Slavonic speech, large sections of which surrendered,
with the result that the Austro-Hungarian line was driven back
1 At Kriewo the Russians actually attacked with 10 inf. divs. on
July 21 and 22, forcing back the German front 2 km. deep along 4
km. of front.
* The designations " Austro-Hungarian II. Army," " German
Southern Army," etc., refer only to command and staff. The troops
were thoroughly mixed on the whole of the eastern front.
some 4 or 5 km. on a front of 10 km. On the evening of the
second day of the battle, however, the Russian blow was count-
ered by the German troops. Since, to the immediate N. of the
battle-field and N. W. of Zborow, the first echelons of the German
divs. rolling up for the counter-attack had arrived, and the
Russian attack had so lost its force, Prince Leopold of Bavaria
now supposed the danger to be averted.
Far more unpleasant was the effect upon the command of the
heavy set-back to the Austro-Hungarian III. Army under Gen.
von Tersztyanszky at Stanislau only a few days later. Here
Gen. Kornilov, the ambitious commander of the Russian VIII.
Army, had advanced to the attack at 7 A.M. with an attack-
group thrown together anyhow. On the following day he
already held in his hand the key to the enemy's position the
Jutrena Gora height dominating Stanislau. Tersztyanszky
hoped at first to have to withdraw the north wing only, but
the Russians pushed the Austro-Hungarian regiments back so
vigorously that by July n the whole of the III. Army had to
be withdrawn behind the Lomnica. The town of Stryj, and the
East Galician petroleum district, Drohobycz-Boryslaw, on the
possession of which the continuance of the submarine war very
largely depended, were in the utmost danger, and Prince Leopold
of Bavaria was forced to let 3 inf. and i cav. divs. of the units
rolling up for the counter-blow be diverted to the III. Army.
When the Russians again attacked at Kalisz and made prog-
ress there, Prince Leopold and his chief of the General Staff,
Col. Hoffmann, were confronted with the difficulty of deciding
whether in the given case the counter-blow at Zborow, already
being prepared, should be given up, and help sent in haste to the
sore-pressed Gen. von Tersztyanszky. The Prince resolved to
adhere to the original plan. He proved to be right. The attacks
of Kornilov's troops lost their sting as rapidly as those delivered
at Brzezany by the Russian VII. Army. Aided by German ree'n-
forcements, Gen. Kritek, who relieved Tersztyanszky in the
command of the III. Army, was able by the i6th to prove
his troops/ newly established powers of resistance in counter-
attacks at Kalisz.
Meanwhile, between the upper Sereth and the railway line
between Lemberg and Tarnopol, immediately W. of Zborow,
8 inf. divs. (including the I. and II. Guard Divs.) and one
combined cavalry div. were deployed for the counter-blow
along 25 km. of front behind the divisions of position. The
German Gen. von Eben was in command on the battle-field.
The intention was on the first day to make a hole in an easterly
direction in the south wing of the Russian VIII. Army which
stood opposite, and then to wheel to the S.E. and grip the massed
Russians of the VII. Army standing on either side of Brzezany,
in the N. flank and in rear.
The Battle of Zbordw.This idea underlying the battle of
Zborow (July 19-26 1917) was carried out according to plan.
Early on the igth the German and Austro-Hungarian forces
drove the Russians from the Zlota Gora height, N. of Zborow,
under the eyes of Prince Leopold of Bavaria. Simultaneously
the German Guard, reinforced by a line division, broke through
the Russian front immediately S. of the Sereth. Only in places
did the Russians offer resistance. Their retreat frequently
degenerated into precipitate flight. While the Guard Div. in
the following days drove down on Tarnopol, the divs. brought
forward from the 2nd line pressed after in a S.E. direction. The
Russian masses at Brzezany were soon swept into the general
retreat. By the 22nd the German Southern Army was able to
take up the pursuit, also from the N. wing. On the 23rd the
III. Army followed S. of the Dniester, and was able on the next
day, after several fights, to push out to beyond its old positions
at Stanislau. On the 25th the German Guard took Tarnopol
in presence of the German Emperor, and on the 26th the heights
to the E. of it, thus assuring an adequate protection to the S.E.
blow by the other allied forces. The S. wing of the II. Army was
already beyond Trembowla, and the Southern Army beyond
Buczacz. They had rapidly broken the Russian resistance.
A few days after the defeat of Zbor6w the Russian command
passed out of Brussilov's hands into those of Kornilov. The
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
913
Russian General Staff reports of those days give a tragic picture
of the condition of the VII. Army and the S. wing of the VIII.
Army at that time. It was clearly out of the question to main-
tain a hold on East Galician soil in this area. The decision was
therefore made at Mohilev to withdraw the VII. Army and
those parts of the VIII. Army pursued by the enemy behind the
river Zbrucz on the frontier.
Capture of Czernowitz by the Austrians. More cheering were
the reports received by the Russian Supreme Command from
the VIII. Army now commanded by Cheremissov, which was
retiring S. of the Dniester. This army could, with some hope
of success, be charged to hold Czernowitz and as much as pos-
sible of the Bukovina. Further relief was expected from the
results of the Russian-Rumanian attack in the valley of the
upper Susita in Rumania, which had commenced on July 23
and was accompanied by demonstrations along the whole Tran-
sylvanian east front. This attack had really succeeded by July 27
in forcing back the numerically very weak defenders to a not
inconsiderable distance. But the fate of the Bukovina was
nevertheless sealed. Between the Dniester and the Carpathians
Cheremissov's troops several times put up a good resistance; in
fact, the Austro-Hungarian III. and VII. Armies (the latter
under Gen. von Kb'vess) had even to deliver counter-blows.
But on the morning of Aug. 3 1917 the Russians, threatened
on the N. and the S., had to surrender Czernowitz, and soon
to retire from the Bukovina into the frontier area. The Austro-
Hungarian III. Army pursued between the Pruth and the
Dniester and the VII. S. of the Bukovina.
East Galicia had also been swept clean of the Russians, apart
from the area N.E. of Tarnopol which had remained untouched
by the offensive. Advanced detachments of the German South-
ern Army had set foot on Russian soil on the middle and lower
Zbrucz. But here the soldierly characteristics of the Russian
people, which had survived even the unnerving influence of the
revolution, came to the fore again. The Russians not only
cleared the E. bank of the Zbrucz, but roused themselves in
an amazing manner to renewed resistance E. of Czernowitz and
in the southern part of the Bukovina. It was undoubtedly
to their advantage that the enemy in his rapid advance had come
dangerously far away from his railways. The Austro-Hunga-
rian III. Army at Czernowitz for instance was 120 km. removed
from its main detraining station lying W. of Stanislau. This
was particularly serious in view of the meagre means of transport
supplied to the Austro-Hungarian troops. Had the armies been
crossing a less fertile area the pace of the offensive must soon
have slowed down very considerably. As it was the troops
could subsist largely on the resources of the country and the
rich booty left behind by the Russians. But now, on the frontiers
of East Galicia and the Bukovina, the advance of the Imperial
forces was arrested.
The Battle of Marasesti (Marasheshti). For some weeks past
the Allied Higher Commands had been considering the idea of
combining with the East Galicia offensive an attack on the
Rumanians in Moldavia, which should drive them behind the
Pruth, thus gaining a particularly useful defence section in which
troops could be economized. Accordingly, on Aug. 6 1917 Mac-
kensen advanced to the offensive against the Rumanians N. of
Focshani. The battle of Marasesti ended unfortunately for the
forces of the Central Powers. In view of this, and of the difficulty
of obtaining fresh drafts in the Bukovina, the Central Powers
abandoned the idea of occupying Moldavia for the present, and
dropped it completely when, at the end of Aug. and the begin-
ning of Sept. the Isonzo battle led to the combined Oct.
offensive against Italy. Ludendorff lays stress, in his memoirs,
on his own reluctance to give up the Rumanian campaign.
In the Bukovina and on the Transylvanian-Rumanian front
minor operations lasted until the middle of September. Local
attacks and counter-assaults were distributed on both sides.
Then gradually the fighting died down.
German Capture of Riga. Meanwhile, in the extreme N., the
Germans had won a fresh victory over the Russians. During
the second half of Aug. they had been quietly preparing to cap-
ture Riga. By order of Gen. von Hutier, supreme commander of
the German VIII. Army, 6 divs. were placed in readiness for
crossing the Dvina opposite t)xktill, to the S.E. of Riga. Other
forces were to follow. Altogether there were 14 divs. available
for the undertaking, including the Guard and other units brought
from East Galicia.
The crossing at Uxkiill was carried out most punctually on
Sept. i 1917., By now 3 bridges had been built. The Russian
XII. Army (Parski), 20 inf. divs. strong, made only a slight
resistance, and by the 2nd had evacuated all the positions S.
of Riga. On the following day the 2nd Guard Div. and the ist
Res. Div. were able to enter the ancient Baltic trading-centre,
the one from the east, the other from the west. The Russians
now evacuated the whole N. bank of the Dvina up to beyond
Friedrichstadt. On the 4th the German infantry reached
Hinzenberg railway station, 40 km. N.E. of Riga. The perma-
nent position was now formed along a line drawn from Uxkiill
to Hinzenberg and thence westwards to the sea. Only the
German cavalry now pursued the enemy, who first came to a
stand 20 to 40 km. E. and N. of the German line.
The occupation of Riga needed to be supplemented for the
Germans by the capture of the Baltic islands, Osel, Moon and
Dago, and this was duly achieved in the middle of October.
For the first time in the war, on the side of the Central Powers,
the navy was present in some strength to assist in the operations
of the land army. The landing corps consisted of the German
42d Inf. Div. and the Cycle Bde., and was commanded by Gen.
von Kathen. The spot selected for the landing was Tagga Bay
on the N.W. corner of Osel Island. While Adml. Erhard Schmid's
German squadron penetrated through the Domesnas straits,
after silencing the coast batteries, the torpedo boats went round
Osel in a northerly direction, in order to bring their guns to bear
on the mole connecting Osel with Moon and to cut off the retreat
of the Russian troops on Osel. From the N. they were to press
on into the Moonsund. On Oct. 13 the German troops landed
in Tagga Bay. The enemy, about one div. strong, tried to effect
their escape, some southwards to the Sworbe Peninsula, others
over the mole to the island of Moon. By evening on Oct. 16 the
whole of Osel was in possession of Gen. Kathen. Ten thousand
Russians were taken prisoners, among them one divisional
and three brigade staffs. On the i8th Lt.-Gen. von Estorff,
advancing over the mole, occupied the island of Moon, and on
the 2ist Dago had also been taken by the Germans. In the
waters of Moon it came to fighting engagements between Ger-
man and Russian ships, in the course of which the Russian
battleship " Slava " was set on fire.
The Armistice. On Nov. 7 the Bolshevist Revolution broke
out in Russia. On Nov. 9 the congress of the " Workmen's and
Soldiers' Council," meeting at Petrograd, issued its proclamation
of peace " to all." In vain did Kerensky and Kornilov attempt
to give matters a different turn. An army corps sent by them
against Petrograd on Nov. 12 was defeated at Tsarkoye Selo.
On the zoth the Council of People's Commissaries gave instruc-
tions to the new Russian Supreme Commander, Dukhonin, to
offer an armistice to all the belligerents. As Dukhonin hesi-
tated to carry out the order he was replaced by Ensign Krylenko.
On Nov. 28 the troops of the Imperial forces on the eastern
front intercepted a wireless message in which Lenin and Trot-
sky invited the earliest possible preliminary arrangements for
the armistice and peace negotiations. On Dec. 2 the armistice
negotiations between the Imperial forces and Russia were begun
at Brest-Litovsk, at Prince Leopold of Bavaria's headquarters.
The only questions which caused serious difficulty were that
of the Baltic islands, which the Russians wished the Germans
to evacuate at least in part, and that of the transference of
German troops to the west. On the first point the Germans
refused to give way; on the second they compromised. After a
formal 10 days' truce had been agreed to on Dec. 5 an d the
armistice had set in on the Rumanian front on the loth, the
cessation of hostilities for one month on all the Russian fronts
against the Central Powers was declared on Dec. 15. On Dec.
22 the peace negotiations of Brest-Litovsk began. (E. G.-H.)
914
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
V. RUMANIAN CAMPAIGN, 1916-7
Operations in Transylvania and Rumania, 1916-7. After the
unexpectedly great results of the Russian summer offensive under
Brussilov in 1916 the conviction gained ground in Rumania that
the moment had now come for her intervention on the side of
the Entente Powers. In accordance with the policy pursued
since the Balkan Wars of 1912-3 of harvesting from international
quarrels the greatest practicable advantage with the least pos-
sible sacrifice, Rumania now hoped to be able to realize the
desire, cherished by the entire nation, for the enlargement of the
kingdom by the incorporation of the districts of Austria-Hungary
inhabited by her nationals.
The Austro-Hungarian Supreme Command had foreseen most
clearly the intervention of Rumania, while at German Head-
quarters the danger did not appear so imminent; and the
Hungarian Government fearing unrest among their own pop-
ulation and in the hope of not destroying the last chances of
maintaining peace with Rumania avoided taking in the
threatened frontier districts the measures necessary in the event
of war breaking out. Thus it happened that Transylvania was
quite inadequately defended from the military point of view
against the Rumanian attack, and the country was hardly pre-
pared at all as a theatre of war. On account of the pressing need
for all effective units on the Russian and Italian fronts, the
Austro-Hungarian Supreme Command could transfer to Tran-
sylvania in the beginning of Aug. only the seriously reduced 6ist
Div., the sist Honved Div., and the 82nd Inf. Regt., troops for
which an urgently needed rest had been intended. The nth
Honved Cav. Div., disentrained in Transylvania, was at once
constituted the southern wing of the VII. Army. The removal
of the war-worn 39th Honved Div. began in the last days of
Aug. 1916. In addition there were in Transylvania, at the end
of Aug., 8 newly formed inf. batts., 2 Landsturm batts., 10 com-
munication batts., 3 mining batts. (armed coal-miners from
Petrozseny), 9 "alarm" batts. (march batts. not yet fully
trained), about 5,000 frontier police, 3 Landsturm squadrons
and 9 field batteries, which were formed into newly created
larger units whose formation was, with many changes, only
completed in Oct. 1916. All the troops above mentioned, in the
areas between the Hungarian frontier of the Bukovina and the
Danube at Orsova, were from Aug. 13 onwards under the newly
created Austro-Hungarian I. Army headquarters, under Gen.
Arz von Straussenburg, at Klausenburg (Kolozsvar). Prepa-
rations were also made for the thorough destruction in the
passes, of the roads and railways leading to Rumania.
At the end of July a convention was concluded at Pless between
the German, Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian Army Commands
for common action in case of hostile Rumanian intervention,
and to this Turkey shortly afterwards became a party. The
plan of campaign was laid down in its main outlines and the
contingents to be provided by the separate States agreed upon.
The Germans allotted 5 to 6 inf. and i to 2 cav. divs., which,
however, the German Supreme Command in expectation of
coming events did not yet wish to place in reserve in Transyl-
vania, as they would certainly be missed at critical points on the
other battle-fronts. They therefore confined themselves for the
time being to sending German construction troops to strengthen
the existing railway lines in Transylvania, S.E. Hungary and
northern Bulgaria for the advance of larger bodies of troops.
The German detachment under Kauffmann, already placed in
northern Bulgaria with a view to the creation of a German-
Bulgar-Turkish army on the Dobruja frontier, was reenforced,
and had heavy artillery, mine-throwers and flying formations.
Bulgaria placed on the Dobruja frontier the III. Army, com-
manded by Gen. Toshev, consisting of the ist, 4th and one-third
of the 6th Inf. Divs., 1 one cav. div., the garrison of Varna, and a
part of the Kauffmann detachment, while the Danube was
guarded from Tekija (opposite Orsova) to the mouth of the Vid
by the Bulgarian i2th Inf. Div., and from there eastwards as
far as Ruschuk by the German Kauffmann detachment. At
1 A Bulgarian inf. div. had 3 bdes. of 8 batts., i.e. 24 batts. in all.
Sistova there was a heavy Austro-Hungarian bridging train
with its complement of men, some heavy batteries, and the
Austro-Hungarian Danube flotilla. The supreme command over
all the troops in Bulgaria for operations against Rumania was
exercised by Mackensen, with headquarters at Tirnovo.
It was considered most probable that Rumania, when she
struck, would begin by invading Transylvania, in order to gain
possession of the country and to use it as a base from which
completely to shatter the Carpathian front, which the Austro-
Hungarians, as it was, were only maintaining with difficulty,
while comparatively weak forces only would be employed against
Bulgaria. On this assumption it was proposed to surprise and
overrun the Rumanian positions in the Dobruja with the German-
Bulgar-Turkish forces, in order to penetrate to the narrowest
part of the district between the Danube and the Black Sea.
The strongest possible forces would then be collected, and held
ready at Sistova, where the heavy Danube bridging train was
already placed, for a forward push in the direction of Bucharest.
In Transylvania the Austro-Hungarian forces were to hold up
the Rumanians in the mountains on the frontier if possible, but
at latest on the position prepared on the upper Maros and the
Little Kukullo (Kleine Kokel), until the attacking troops being
concentrated meanwhile could be marched up. These, and
Mackensen's troops to be held ready at Sistova, would then
proceed to the reconquest of Transylvania and the overthrow
of Rumania. In this case the unusual happened, and the actual
operations' in their main lines were successfully executed as had
been proposed in the discussion of war plans at Pless.
Rumania had pushed forward her mobilization, and by con-
tinuously reenforcing the troops on the Transylvanian border
had so nearly completed their concentration that operations
could begin immediately on the declaration of war, which was
handed in at 9 P.M. on Aug. 27. It was intended first to conquer
Transylvania. For this purpose strong forces were to push
forward from the E. over the mountains on the frontier, and
advance westwards through the valleys of the Kukullo, the N.
Kukullo and the Maros. The calculations included a simulta-
neous push forward of the Russian front adjoining on the N.,
whose advance would be greatly facilitated by the offensive of
the Rumanian army S. of the chain of the Carpathians stretching
from Hungary into the Bukovina. The forces which penetrated
the passes on the Transylvanian southern front were then to
hold these by means of positions in the nature of bridgeheads,
and to join the forces of the main offensive from the E. as these
advanced.
On the Rumanian side expectation of an easy victory prevailed.
In conformity with the plan of operations there was a concentric
advance. The I. Army (Gen. Culcer), with about 4$ inf. divs.
and 3 cav. bdes., and a stronger group on the E., advanced
through the Roter Turm pass on Hermannstadt (Nagy Szeben),
and with a weak group on the W. over the Vulkan and Szurduk
passes in the line Petrozseny-Hatszeg (Hateg). The Orsova
group (about one reenforced div.) on the Danube defended the
left flank and the rear communications of the portions of the I.
Army fighting in Transylvania against any advance from the
Banat. The II. Army (Gen. Grainiceanu), with about 4 divs.
and 4 cav. bdes., operated from the Torzburg to the Ojtoz pass
through all the defiles leading into the Kronstadt (Brasov)
basin and the Haromszek. The IV., or Northern Army (Gen.
Presan), with about 4 divs. and I cav. bde., operated N. of the
II. Army and in connexion with the Russian Carpathian front
through the Uz, Gyimes, Bekas and Tolgyes passes into the
basins of the Csik and the Gyergyo. The III. Army (Gen.
Averescu), with about 4 inf. divs. and a cav. bde., faced Bulgaria
on the Dobruja frontier in strong, well-fortified positions, and
was to maintain the defensive. On the stretch of the Danube
from Turnu Severinu to the mouth of the Alt stood protecting
troops, one div. strong. In the district S. of Bucharest the
Rumanians assembled a group of several res. divs. and other
new formations for disposition as reserves.
The Rumanian Invasion. The Rumanians crossed the
frontier on the night of Aug. 27-28 over all the passes into
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
9*5
Transylvania, driving back the weak Austro-Hungarian defence
troops in numerous small engagements, not without suffering
appreciable losses at many points. The Rumanian advance was
substantially delayed by the destruction of roads and bridges
effected by the Austro-Hungarian frontier troops, and especially
by the bad roads of the mountain country.
By Sept. 3 the Rumanian Orsova group reached the lower
course of the Cerna, and the western group of the I. Army
occupied the important coal area between Urikany and Petro-
seny and had driven back the ineffective Landsturm and miners'
battalions of the i44th Inf. Bde. over the saddle of Merisor.
The eastern section of the I. Army, which had penetrated by the
Roter Turm Pass, occupied positions S. of Hermannstadt,
without attempting to take the town though it was garrisoned
only by a weak Landsturm detachment. They were plainly
apprehensive that by occupying Hermannstadt they would have
to extend their bridgehead-like formation beyond capacity.
The II. Rumanian Army deployed cautiously in Burgenland
and in the Haromszek, allowing their columns to close up, and
receiving fresh reinforcements. The IV. Army forced their way,
in continuous fighting touch with the 6ist Inf. Div., through the
narrow mountain valleys, and on Sept. 3 their advanced troops
reached the eastern edges of the basins of the Gyergyo and the
Csik. Meanwhile the first troops sent by the Central Powers
were rolling up towards Transylvania. Gen. von Arz was
instructed not to use the forces assembling on both army wings to
strengthen the covering troops with them as they arrived, but
first to concentrate them and hold them ready for wider action.
In view of the expected continuation of the Rumanian advance
he directed the 3pth Honved Inf. Div. and what eventually,
after many changes, became the Sgth Inf. Div., to the dis-
trict half-way between Szasz Regen (Reghina-Sas) and Klausen-
burg (Kolozsvar); the i8;th Inf. Div. and 3 German cav. regts.
of the 3rd Cav. Div. were to be disentrained at Maris Illye;
the ist Austro-Hungarian Cav. Div. S. of this place between
Hatszeg (Hateg) and Karansebes; the ist Royal Hungarian
Landsturm Hussar Bde. at Tovis. The first of the two German
General Commands to arrive, Lt.-Gen. von Morgen, took over
the command of the 6ist and 7ist Inf. Divs., the ist Landsturm
Hussar Bde., the newly arrived 3gth Honved Inf. Div. and the
Sgth German Inf. Div., while under Lt.-Gen. von Staabs were
placed the 5ist Honved Inf. Div., the iSyth Inf. Div., the ist
Cav. Div. and the 3rd Cav. Div., together with the covering
troops at Hermannstadt, Hatszeg and Mehadia. The very
slow progress of the Rumanians made it possible for the incoming
divs. of the Austro-Hungarian army to move forward their
disentrainment stations. Accordingly the following disentrain-
ment arrangements were made: the 3gth Honved Inf. Div. at
Szasz Regen, the Sgth Inf. Div. at Marosujvar, the ist Cav.
Troops Div. and the 3rd Cav. Div. (which had been united in
the Schmettow Cav. Corps) at Mediasch and Elisabethstadt, the
iSyth Inf. Div. at Piski with a regt. intended for Hermannstadt
at Alvinez.
Since the Rumanian group pushing northwards over Petroseny
might endanger the transport of further reenforcements on the
Maros Valley railway, the bulk of the i8;th Inf. Div. was
directed against Merisor, in order, in conjunction with the
Austro-Hungarian i44th Inf. Bde., and strengthened by the
3 first arriving German Jager batts. of the Alpine Corps, to
throw back the Rumanian Mountain Corps over the frontier;
and this task was accomplished between Sept. 14 and 22.
The Schmettow Cav. Corps, linking up on the E. with the 5ist
Honved Inf. Div. standing directly N. of Hermannstadt, was
posted on the heights N. of the Alt as far as Fogaras (Fagara).
The Alpine Corps, which was only one div. strong but consisted
of excellent troops, equipped for mountain warfare, was dis-
entrained with the main body at Miihlbach. The German 76th
Res. Div., which was on its way, was to be assembled at Karls-
burg (Gyula Fehervar). The Austro-Hungarian I43rd Inf. Bde.,
which had been stationed at Hermannstadt, was moved behind
the N. wing of the I. Army, and there formed into the 72nd Inf.
Div. These measures, taken by the I. Army Command, on the
one hand averted the menace to the Maros Valley railway
at Piski, and on the other established the operative basis on
which the battle of Hermannstadt was afterwards fought.
Bulgarian Offensive in the Dobruja. Meanwhile events of
far-reaching importance had taken place in the Dobruja. On
Sept. i the III. Bulgarian Army crossed the Rumanian-Bulga-
rian frontier. The aim of the operation was the conquest of the
Dobruja. After the capture of the bridge-heads of Turtucaia
and Silistra the advance was to be made by the Cernavoda-
Constantsa railway to the narrowest part of the territory lying
between the Danube and the Black Sea. The fortress of Turtu-
caia consisted of a girdle of 15 forts on the S. bank of the Danube,
which were connected by strongly built field positions. While
very great care had been bestowed on the technical develop-
ment of the place during the 3 years of preparation, the arma-
ment, consisting of only about 100 guns, including the field
artillery, was inadequate. Artillery fire against Turtucaia
began on Sept. 3; in the comprehensive attacks following on
Sept. 4-5 and carried out by the 4th and sections of the ist Bul-
garian Inf. Divs. and the German detachment under Hammer-
stein, the bridge-head was stormed. The capture of this place
by a coup de main was an admirable feat of arms. Only a very
small portion of the garrison of the place, the I5th and i7th
Rumanian Inf. Divs., which suffered heavy and bloody losses,
escaped. Many soldiers were drowned in trying to swim the-
Danube, across which there remained no bridge. Twenty-one
thousand men and 400 officers, including 3 brigade commanders,
together with the whole armament, were captured.
While the remainder of the Bulgarian ist Inf. Div. pushed
forward by Akkartynlar and the ist Cav. Div. by Kurtunar,
the 2nd Bde. of the 6th Inf. Div. and the garrison of Varna
attacked the Rumanian igth Div. on the plateau N. of Dobric
(Hagi-Oglu) on Sept. 4 and threw them back northwards.
In contrast to Turtucaia the bridge-head of Silistra was in a
state of unpreparedness. It fell on Sept. 9 into the hands of the
cavalry of the ist Div. after a short bombardment directed
against the Rumanian cavalry.
While the Bulgarian III. Army was pressing forward success-
fully on the whole front, the retreating Rumanians were reen-
forced by the Russian Expeditionary Corps under Lt.-Gen.
Zajanczkowski, which consisted of the XLVII. Corps with 3,
and later 4, inf. divs., among them the ist Serbian Div. (formed
from Austro-Hungarian deserters) and the VI. Cav. Corps.
The Bulgarian III. Army put their main weight in the advance
in the space between the Danube and the Dobric-Medzidie
(Hagi-Oglu-Megidia) line, while E. of the railway on the right
wing only sections of the ist Cav. Div. drawn from the centre
of the army front operated.
On Sept. 15 the Rumanian-Russian fighting forces, which
attempted to offer resistance on the line Lake Markeanu-Teke
Deresi-Karalij-Kara Omer-Mangalia, were attacked by the
Bulgars and compelled to retreat along the whole line. The
III. Rumanian Army, reenforced by hurriedly-brought-up
Russian and Rumanian units, prepared to fight again on the
position Rasova-Copadin-Toprai Sari-Urtukioj, which immedi-
ately protected the Cernavoda-Constantsa railway and had
been partially prepared in time of peace. The attacks executed
by the Bulgarians on Sept. 19-20 did not penetrate the line
this time. Instead, the III. Bulgarian Army Command were
compelled to withdraw their troops some kilometres, to wait for the
bringing up of munitions and the arrival of sections of the
Bulgarian i2th Div., and the VI. Turkish Corps (25th and isth
Divs.). But the counter-attacks undertaken by the Rumanian
eastern wing on Sept. 22 were repulsed by the recently arrived
25th Turkish Div., and the Bulgarian-Turkish front was again
established on the line N. of Amuzacia.
In the Dobruja generally operations for the time being came
to a standstill.
The Liberation of Transylvania. In Transylvania the IV.
Rumanian Army advanced from the basins of the Gyergy6 and
the Csik through the Maros valley, then over the Gorgeny and
Hargitta mountains, and continuously pressed back the 6ist
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
Inf. Div., subsequently reenforced by the ist Landsturm Cav.
Bde. It was feared that it would all too quickly reach the inner
region of Transylvania, with its excellent communications. In
that case it would threaten the rear of the 7 ist Inf. Div. which
occupied positions on the W. bank of the Alt (Oltu) between
Fogaras and Reps, and farther N.E. to Homorod and Okland,
at the weak angle where the front of the I. Army from a direction
W. to E. bent sharply from S. to N. Generally, too, it would
deprive the covering troops of the possibility of protecting
according to plan the picked attacking troops coming up to the
front. The commander of the east front, Lt.-Gen. von Morgen,
therefore, planned to make a surprise attack on the Rumanian IV.
Army on its emergence from the Gorgeny and Hargitta mountains,
using for the purpose the concentrated strength of newly
arrived units. He proposed to attack either from the area N. of
Szasz Regen (Reghina-Sas) southwards or from the upper
course of the Great and Little Kukiillo valley in a N. E. direction,
and by pressing on the Rumanian communications to prepare an
annihilating defeat for them. This plan, however, was not
approved in higher quarters; it was determined merely to
strengthen the E. front by hurrying up the Austro-Hungarian
72nd Inf. Div., and a more active conduct of the defence was
recommended. Both Supreme Army Commands adhered to
the original plan of concentration and to the idea of striking
first at the inactive enemy S. of Hermannstadt.
Before daybreak on Sept. 15 the Rumanian II. Army crossed
the Alt between Fogaras and Reps in several columns, for the
most part without bridges or river transport, and advanced
farther N. from Barot, through Homorod-Okland-Draas
towards Katzendorf . In order to make a mobile defence possi-
ble the yist Inf. Div. had left only weak covering troops (about
3,000 rifles) on the 6o-km. front, placing the main force in readi-
ness in the district Petek-Mehburg. The weak defence naturally
had to give ground before the far superior weight of the Ruma-
nian attacking columns. But in the afternoon the main force
of the div. made a surprise attack, advancing southwards through
Palos and struck the 6th Inf. Div., marching as the most north-
erly column of the II. Army, in flank and rear. The surprise
and confusion of the Rumanians were so great that the II. Army,
which had only just crossed the Alt, ceased to advance, and
remained inactive for a week.
The Rumanian IV. Army, on the other hand, continued to
advance steadily, thereby compelling the command of the I.
Army to support the Landsturm Cav. Bde. by 4 newly formed
Bosno-Herzegovinian inf. batts., which really belonged to the
unit of the yist Inf. Div. In addition the 39th Honved Inf.
Div., N.E. of Maros Vasarhely, was pushed up to the front;
the 8gth Inf. Div. was advanced to Maros Vasarhely, and an
inf. bde. of the 37th Honved Inf. Div., coming up without
artillery, was placed in readiness at Teke, N.W. of Szasz Regen.
The newly arrived Austro-Hungarian VI. Corps Command
took over the command of the N. wing (72nd Inf. Div., half the
6ist Inf. Div. and half the 37th Honved Inf. Div.), while the I.
Res. Corps Command retained command of the Landsturm
Hussar Bde., the 39th Honved Inf. Div., the 7ist Inf. Div.,
supported by the igth Mountain Bde. of the 6ist Inf. Div., and
the 8gth Inf. Division.
At the end of Sept. the IV. Rumanian Army in the N., with
the reenforced i4th Div., had reached Deva in the Maros valley
and Kasva in the Gorgeny valley, and with sections of the 8th
Div., was already pressing at Kibed on the Kukullo position.
With the reenforced 7th Div. the west of Szekely-Keresztur was
reached, where the ipth Mountain Bde., already much weakened,
could only defend itself with difficulty against the overwhelm-
ing pressure, while the yist Inf. Div. on their left wing had def-
initely to give way.
On the evening of Sept. 17 Gen. Erich von Falkenhayn, with
the staff of the newly formed German IX. Army, arrived at
Deva, and took over the command of Gen. von Staabs' troops,
and of all the reenforcements coming into this district. His
commission was, in conjunction with the I. Army, to throw the
enemy out of Transylvania, and for this purpose, while masking
the Vulkan and Szurduk passes, to surround the enemy posted
at Hermannstadt, with a double ring, and beat him. Gen. von
Falkenhayn first ordered Lt.-Gen. Sunkel, commanding the
i87th Inf. Div. in the neighbourhood of Petroseny, who was
about to push the Rumanians back to the frontier passes, after
reaching this line to send all the troops he could spare from his
div. and the Alpine Corps towards Hermannstadt; he ordered the
assembly of the i87th Inf. Div. at Reussmarkt, of the Alpine
Corps at Sinna, and the disentrainment of the 76th Res. Div. at
Markt-Schelken. Finding by a reconnaissance in the direction
of the Roter Turm Pass that the road was practicable for moun-
tain troops without wheeled transport, he decided to direct the
Alpine Corps by way of Cindrelu and Prezbe towards the Roter
Turm, in order to hinder the retreat of the Rumanians by this
route, while the iSyth Inf. Div., the sist Honved Inf. Div., the
76th Res. Inf. Div., and sections of the Schmettow Cav. Corps,
were to attack W. and E. of Hermannstadt in the direction of
the northern outlet of the pass. This was not indeed a double
encirclement of the enemy, as had been ordered by the Supreme
Command, for which the forces of the eastern wing, where only
a few squadrons could be made available, were insufficient. It
was, however, a far-reaching enveloping movement against the
one passable rearward communication of the enemy, in coopera-
tion with an energetic attack on the front, of which the object
was to destroy the group composed of the 2nd and I3th Ruma-
nian Inf. Divs., under Gen. Popovici commanding the I. Corps.
On Sept. 22 Gen. Popovici attacked, but only attained success
southward of Cornaticlu against the extremely thinly held posi-
tions of the 7th Cav. Bde. of the ist Div., being everywhere
else completely repulsed. The expected continuation of the
Rumanian attack on Sept. 23 did not take place, and it was
possible to issue orders for the projected battle. By Sept. 25
the XXXIX. Res. Corps with the iSyth Inf. Div. were able to
be assembled at the foot of the mountains S.W. of Hermann-
stadt, the 5 ist Honved Inf. Div. to the N.W., and the 76th Res.
Inf. Div. to the N.E. of the town, while the Alpine Corps was
to be within a day's march of the Roter Turm Pass. The general
attack in the direction of the pass was to begin on Sept. 26; the
Alpine Corps was to endeavour to reach the E. side of the pass
in order there also to block the bridle-tracks leading over the
mountains. The Schmettow Cav. Corps might, in the event of
further pressure by the enemy, give way with its right wing, but
with its centre on the Alt and its left wing towards Fogaras it
was to hold its ground obstinately, and, in addition, if the opera-
tions proceeded according to plan, to arrange to push forward
from the N.E. over the river towards the entrance of the pass.
The I. Army Command was asked, as soon as possible, to place
the 8gth Inf. Div. in readiness at Schassburg (Segesvar).
The Rumanians standing at Hermannstadt did not interfere
further with the preparations for the attack; on the other hand
the nth Rumanian Div. stationed at the Szurduk Pass attacked
again on Sept. 25, and regained possession of Petroseny. The
I44th Inf. Bde., reenforced by two German battalions and two
batteries, held the heights N. of the place. The IX. Army Com-
mand did not contemplate further reenforcement, but the unat-
tached staff (i.e. without troops) of the German 3013! Infantry
Div. was sent there, under the direction of which were placed
the I44th Inf. Bde. and the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Mountain
Bde., which had arrived on the 28th; and with these forces the
Rumanians were again compelled to give up the extremely val-
uable coal basin.
The Battle of Hermannstadt (Nagy Szeben). On Sept. 26,
favoured by beautiful autumn weather, the attack began, and it
continued with undiminished violence against the obstinate
defence of the Rumanians until the evening of Sept. 28. It ran,
on the whole, the course intended by Gen. Falkenhayn.
The Alpine Corps had already reached Roter Turm, Riu
Vadulin and Caneni with their advanced troops on the road to
the pass, early in the forenoon of Sept. 26. The Rumanians
indeed now thoroughly realized the magnitude of the danger
which threatened them, and delivered the most violent counter-
attacks from N. and S. against the detachments of the Alpine
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
917
Corps. These troops might be temporarily pushed back at one
point or another, but the road over the pass now lay contin-
uously under German fire, which inflicted heavy losses on the
Rumanian columns still attempting to break through. The
Alpine Corps, however, did not succeed in reaching the E. bank
of the Alt, and sections of the Rumanians were thus able to
escape the threatened encirclement, and to cross the western
spurs of the Fogaras Mountains.
The three divs. of the XXXIX. Res. Corps made a concentric
attack between Orlat-Hermannstadt and the heights to the E.
of it. It was only with difficulty that they at first gained ground,
and not till Sept. 28 did they succeed in breaking the Rumanian
resistance; but then, in consequence of the heroic endurance of
the Alpine Corps, which made both escape and the bringing up
of reenforcements from the S. impossible, the Rumanian defeat
became a complete collapse. This collapse was precipitated
when on Sept. 27 the 3rd Cav. Div. had succeeded, with two
regts. of light horse, in crossing the Alt and narrowing S.W. of
Porumbacu the circle of fire round the Rumanians, while the i8th
Hussar Regt. of the 3rd Cav. Div. at Chertisjora secured the
front towards the E., whence there had been since Sept. 27
increasing indications of an advance by the Rumanian II. Army.
As the bringing up of reenforcements through the Roter Turm
Pass from the S. failed, the Rumanian Command were compelled
to set the II. Army on the march towards Hermannstadt to
relieve the seriously threatened group under Gen. Popovici.
The II. Rumanian Army executed their movements slowly and
with difficulty, and since an advance on the shortest line in the
Alt valley from the N. over Fogaras from the Agnetheln-
Henndorf district might easily have been threatened on the
flank, the Rumanian Army Command thought themselves
first compelled to secure freedom of movement N. of the Alt
river. The sections of the 7ist Inf. Div. in the forward positions
were therefore first pressed back, and then the 6th Cav. Bde. of
the ist Cav. Div. standing N. of Klein Schenk were thrown
back westwards. Meanwhile, the Austro-Hungarian I. Army
Command had sent from Schassburg to Henndorf the greater
part of the 8gth Inf. Div., one infantry regt. and one light field-
howitzer detachment going off by rail as army reserve to
Salzburg (N. of Hermannstadt). Pushing between the 7ist Inf.
Div. and the Cav. Corps, they made on Sept. 28 a successful
attack in a. southerly direction, and so put the brake on the
advance of the Rumanian troops N. of the Alt. The I. Army of
Gen. Arz had to withdraw steadily westwards under the superior
weight of the IV. Rumanian Army, and as the seriously weak-
ened igth Landsturm Mountain Bde. especially had great diffi-
culty in withstanding the continued Rumanian attacks in the
direction of Schassburg, the I. Army Command considered it
necessary to withdraw the 7 ist Inf. Div. to the Little Kukiillo
(Kokel). Gen. Falkenhayn urgently dissuaded them from this
move, as it would expose his eastern flank to an unbearable
threat. He also expressed his doubt as to the ability of the I.
Army, when once it had been pressed back behind the line of the
Maros and the Little Kukiillo, to maintain that position perma-
nently with its present forces. Thereupon the withdrawal of
the southern wing of the I. Army was delayed.
On the afternoon of Sept. 28 the Rumanians again attacked
the ist Cav. Div. N. of the Alt,, and pressed them back to the
heights E. of the Haarbach; the reserve, not required at Her-
mannstadt, was hastily sent with heavy motor wagons through
the Haarbach valley to the aid of the heavily engaged Schmettow
Cavalry Corps. Meanwhile, however, the fate of the Rumanians
in the Roter Turm Pass was sealed, the attacking troops of the
XXXIX. Res. Corps ceasing to meet with serious resistance in
the early morning of Sept. 29. Those who were not able to
escape through the forests over the mountains fell a sacrifice to
the inexorable onslaught. The bulk of the Rumanian I. Army
was destroyed. Three thousand prisoners a relatively small
number were taken, but the whole of the artillery and the
whole train fell into the hands of the victors.
It was now necessary rapidly to take new decisions for fighting
the II. Rumanian Army, the threat of whose approach was im-
minent. In accordance with the instructions received, the IX.
Army was to gather all its strength, and to deliver an enveloping
attack from the S. against the southern wing of Rumanian main
forces pushed forward W. of Fogaras. Falkenhayn intended to
relieve the Alpine Corps for this purpose by the 5 ist Honved Inf.
Div., to assemble the ;6th and i87th Inf. Divs. on the heights of
Scorei on both sides of the Alt, and then to push forward in an
easterly direction, an enveloping attacking movement in the
Fogaras mountains being assigned to the Alpine Corps. But
the rapid and violent push of the Rumanians in the space
between the Haarbach and the Alt on Sept. 29 entailed changes
in the plan of operations. The relief of the Alpine Corps had to
be given up, as involving too much time; instead, the 5ist
Honved Inf. Div. and the 76th Res. Div. were to reach as rap-
idly as possible the Alt valley S. and N. of Avrigu and the i87th
Inf. Div. Cornatielu in the Haarbach valley. The seriously
weakened Cavalry Corps was to attach itself for the forward
movement to the N. wing of the iSyth Inf. Div. Of the I. Army,
the Sgth Inf. Div. and the strongest possible sections of the 7 ist
Inf. Div., under the command of Lt.-Gen. von Morgen, were
asked to attack in the direction of Bekokten. The beginning
of the attack was proposed for Oct. i.
To the surprise of their enemy the Rumanians did not continue
the attack N. of the Alt on Sept. 30, but withdrew a little from
the Cavalry Corps. With this object they attacked S. of the Alt
and drove back the i8th Hussar Regt. westwards of Chertisiora.
The weariness of the troops and the almost impassable state of
the roads, owing to the rain which had set in, delayed the for-
ward movements, and it was agreed to begin the attack on Oct. 2.
The Rumanians did not take advantage of the loss of time this
entailed on the German-Austrian side, but entrenched them-
selves in the positions they had reached.
The unification of the command in Transylvania was estab-
lished by placing the Austro-Hungarian I. Army from Oct. i
under the operative control of Falkenhayn.
On Oct. 2 began the advance of the XXXIX. Res. Corps,
the Schmettow Cav. Corps and the I. Res. Corps. South of the
Alt the Rumanians offered no resistance, but retreated accord-
ing to plan before the German advanced troops. North of the
Alt, after strong forces had been brought up by way of Gross
Schenk in a westerly direction, the advance also began. The
Sgth Inf. Div. attacked in the direction of Bekokten, and at
first obtained a great success, but was thrown back to its point of
departure by a Rumanian counter-attack. The 7 ist Inf. Div.
had not been able to join in this attack because its artillery was
not yet in position on account of the softness of the chalky roads
after rain. Lt.-Gen. von Morgen thought the situation of these
two divs. so endangered that he intended to withdraw them as
far as the sector Henndorf-Jakobsdorf. On Oct. 3, however,
this idea was abandoned, as the enemy themselves had with-
drawn eastwards. Owing to this movement touch with the
Rumanians became extremely loose, which made it exceedingly
difficult for the Austro-German Command to discover betimes
the measures taken by them.
On their side the Rumanians had obviously abandoned as
early as Oct. 2 the idea of continuing the offensive. Impressed by
the annihilating defeat at Hermannstadt and recognizing the
impossibility of attacking in a tactically unfavourable situation
the IX. Army, rapidly advanced eastwards, they had decided
to withdraw betimes in order to defend the frontier passes. In
order to secure the time necessary for the threading of the march-
ing columns into the passes of the Geisterwald, the Hargitta
and the Gorgeny mountains, the Rumanians undertook a series
of forward pushes: on Oct. i S. of the Alt, and on Oct. 2 against
the Sgth Inf. Div. Against the I. Army these attacks continued
until Oct. 5, and during them the Rumanians, especially on Oct.
3, obtained a fresh success against the igth Landsturm Mountain
Bde. and the Landsturm Hussars.
Though the IX. Army Command could not yet fully discern
the intentions of the enemy, the puzzling behaviour of their
opponents seemed no reason for delay, and the advance was
therefore pushed forward with the utmost speed. The 3 divs. of
9i8
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
Lt.-Gen. Staabs were taken into the space S. of the Alt, the I.
Res. Corps was to reach the passages over the Alt at Comana
and Heviz, while the Cav. Corps was to reach the N. wing of
the IX. Army.
The Battle in the Geisterwald. The Rumanians retired on the
whole E. front, without being brought into action by the pur-
suing troops of the Austro-Hungarian I. Army and the German
IX. Army. It was only after dusk on Oct. 4 that the XXXIX.
Res. Corps was able to bring the Rumanians to a stand on
the western slope of the Geisterwald in a prepared position
behind the Sinca brook. The corps were ordered to attack early
on Oct. 5, while the 76th Res. Div. was to advance along the
high road to Volkany, the sist Honved Inf. Div. to Vledeny,
and the iSyth Inf. Div. over the mountains, enveloping the
enemy on the N., in the direction of Krizba. The 8th Mountain
Bde., just arrived at Hermannstadt, was ordered to follow the
XXXIX. Res. Corps forthwith in the Alt valley. It was intended
to allow them to advance W. of the Konigstein towards the
road Kronstadt-Campolung.
Morning mists and the time taken by the enveloping move-
ment of the iSyth Inf. Div. in roadless mountain country
delayed the beginning of the attack on Oct. 5. In order to lose
no time Lt.-Gen. von Staabs ordered the 76th Res. Div. and
the sist Honved Inf. Div. to attack alone in the forenoon;
they soon captured the Rumanian positions, the Rumanian 4th
and 3rd Inf. Divs. suffering heavy and bloody losses in their
violent counter-attacks. But when the enveloping movement
of the i87th Inf. Div. became effective the Rumanians began
their retreat into the Kronstadt basin with the utmost haste,
at the cost of a great part of their artillery. Close upon them
followed the victorious divs. of Gen. von Staabs. Meanwhile
the advance guard of the 8gth Inf. Div. had reached Comana on
Oct. 5, after, by quick action, succeeding in putting out the fire
which the Rumanians had set to the bridge. After a stiff pur-
suing action the 715! Inf. Div. took Reps, but, N. of Heviz, met
with strong resistance from the enemy which was only broken
down on the morning of the 6th. The 8gth Inf. Div. which had
been brought up here, was marched through Heviz in front of
the 7ist and directed over the Bogat saddle towards Foldvar.
The Schmettow Cav. Corps had assigned to it the task of throwing
back the 2nd Rumanian Cav. Div. over the line Mehburg-Palos.
But the Rumanian Horse escaped attack by a hasty retreat
towards the N.E., and established temporarily contact in the
Upper Alt valley between the two Rumanian armies, which
were diverging more and more.
The Battle of Kronstadt (Brasov). On Oct. 6 the divs. of the
XXXIX. and I. Res. Corps in their marching lines sought to
reach the western outlets of the defiles of the Burgenland. The
attack on the 3rd, 4th and 6th Divs. of the Rumanian II. Army,
crowded together around Kronstadt and entangled with one
another during the retreat, was fixed for Oct. 7. The 76th Res.
Div. was to reach the Torzburg Pass by way of Tohanulu-
Torzburg. Kronstadt was the goal fixed for the sist Honved
Inf. Div., advancing by Feketehalom, while the i87th Inf. Div.,
attacking to the N. of it, was to wheel inwards, its flank pro-
tected from the N.E. in order to envelop Kronstadt and the
entrance to the pass S.E. of it. On Oct. 7 the 8gth Inf. Div. was
to reach Foldvar and the 7ist Inf. Div. Miklosvar. Of the Cav-
alry Corps the 3rd German Cav. Div. was to push forward
through Barot towards Mikoujfalu, to hinder Rumanian move-
ments of troops in the Alt valley; the ist Cav. Div., pressing
forward towards Szt. Egyhazas-Olahfalu, was to bar the retreat
of the rear sections of the Rumanian troops still on the Szekely-
Udvarhely-Csiksereda road.
On the early morning of Oct. 7 the vanguard of the 76th Res.
Div. emerging from the mountains at Tohanulu was caught by
the Rumanian artillery fire, and could penetrate no farther.
The main body had therefore to make a wide detour by Zernesti
against the Rumanian left flank, and a pause was made for the
arrival of the heavy artillery. Thus this div. could make no
further progress on the 7th. But the sist Honved Inf. Div. and
the iSyth Inf. Div. rapidly approached Kronstadt, meeting,
however, with violent resistance from the Rumanians on the N.
and W. sides of the town, so that it was not until evening that
the vanguard of the i87th succeeded in penetrating into the
northern part of the town, where an obstinate street fight raged
all night. Next morning the sist Honved Inf. Div. also won
their way in and stormed the heights S. of the town.
In consequence of the enveloping movement through Zerneste
and the threat exercised by the 8th Mountain Bde. approaching
W. of the Konigstein it became possible for the 76th Res. Div.
on Oct. 8 to seize Torzburg and the heights on either side of it,
together with the entrance to the Torzburg Pass. The advance
against the pass was continued, and, in addition, a detachment
was pushed forward through the Klein Weidenbach valley towards
the Tomos Pass in order to bar the Rumanian retreat here.
Although this div. failed to reach the road, its appearance in
threatening proximity caused a panic-like flight of the troops
and transport hastening southwards.
Meanwhile the Rumanians tried to hold up the German
advance N. of Kronstadt, and, with reenforcements hurried up
partly by rail from Sepsi-Szt. Gyorgy, delivered violent counter-
attacks against the E. wing of the i87th Inf. Div., standing at
Szentpeter, which was hard pressed till the attack of the 8gth
Inf. Div. from the N. struck the Rumanians unawares.
Early on Oct. 9 the victory of the IX. Army was complete.
The beaten troops of the 3rd, 4th and 6th Rumanian Divs.
retreated hurriedly throu|h the passes, so that, supported by
the loth, 2ist and 22nd Inf. Divs. brought up for the purpose,
they might undertake the defence of their country against the
pursuing German and Austro-Hungarian divs. in fortified posi-
tions on the frontier prepared during peace.
Gen. von Falkenhayn in his pursuit tried to cross the
mountains simultaneously with the Rumanians, and by a fresh
distribution of his army, the I. Res. Corps with the 76th Res.
Div. and the 8th Mountain Bde. attacked over the Torzburg
Pass in the direction of Campolung. Through the encircling
movement of the 8th Mountain Bde. the pass was soon success-
fully opened, and the 22nd Inf. Div. which had arrived to support
the seriously exhausted Rumanian 4th Inf. Div. was repulsed.
But the attack of the I. Res. Corps was held up by the strongly-
fortified positions N. of Campolung.
The XXXIX. Res. Corps had orders to push forward through
the Tomos Pass with the sist Honved Inf. Div., and through
the Altschanz Pass with the i87th Inf. Div. towards the line
Sinaia-Isorele. The sist Div. did indeed succeed in storming
the summit of the pass, but could not penetrate the 2ist and
loth Rumanian Inf. Divs. in their strongly constructed posi-
tions. The i87th Div. had a similar experience against the
Rumanian 3rd Inf. Division.
The 8gth Inf. Div. had to attack through the Tatarhavas and
Bodza passes. After reaching the basin lying S. of the frontier,
it was held up by the main body of the Rumanian 6th Inf. Div.
and by separate regts. of the 3rd, isth and 22nd Inf. Divisions.
As the German Supreme Command urgently demanded that
the strongest possible infantry and cavalry forces should be
directed towards Ocna, to control the communications from
there northwards by rail, road and telegraph, the 7ist Inf. Div.
was put under the command of Gen. Count Schmettow, com-
manding the Cav. Corps, who led the div. in forced marches to
the Ojtoz Pass. On the summit of the pass the div. overran a
position held by the Rumanian 2nd Cav. Div. and forced their
way over the frontier. Recognizing their peril the Rumanians
rapidly pushed up the 38th Inf. Bde. and sections of the 7th,
8th and the newly formed isth Inf. Divs., and after long engage-
ments with many vicissitudes prevented the 7ist Inf. Div.
from reaching its goal.
The 3rd Cav. Div. assembled first in the basin of Kezdivasar-
hely, where the ist Cav. Div., which had pursued the Rumanian
7th Inf. Div. up to the Uz Pass, had also been brought up. As
the employment of cavalry on the route by way of Ocna into
Moldavia had become impossible, the ist Cav. Div. established
communication in the forest-clad mountains, with their lack of
roads, between the Spth and the 7 ist Inf. Divs. The three regts.
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
919
of the 3rd Cav. Div. were later on stationed between the Torz-
burg and the Tomos passes as the Transylvania Cavalry Brigade.
At the Roter Turm Pass the Rumanians the remainder of the
I3th and 23rd Inf. Divs. and the 2nd mixed Brigade of the i8th
Div. had discontinued their attacks against the Alpine Corps,
reenforced by the loth Mountain Bde. At Petroseny the nth
Rumanian Inf. Div. had again been pressed back to the frontier,
whereupon the 2nd Mountain Bde. was shifted to the Roter
Turm Pass. This was subsequently merged with the loth Moun-
tain Bde. in the 73rd Inf. Division.
In the Austro-Hungarian army the VI. Corps, with the 39th
Honvedlnf. Div., reached the frontier in the Uz valley and with
the 6ist Inf. Div. and the ist Landsturm Hussar Bde., in the
Trotus valley advanced far over the frontier and, after fighting
with varying success against the Rumanian -jtii Inf. Div.,
occupied positions on the height of Sulta. On the N. wing the
XXI. Corps with the 72nd Inf. Div. reached the Bekas Pass, and
with the 37th Honved Inf. Div. the Tolgyes Pass. Thus Transyl-
vania, six weeks after the invasion of the Rumanians, was again
freed from the invader.
Plans for the Continuation of Operations. New plans had now
to be agreed upon, in order to beat the Rumanians in their own
country. Naturally the centre of gravity of the operations
against Rumania lay in the first instance in Falkenhayn's IX.
Army. His attempt to push forward on the shortest line to
Bucharest with the troops he had in hand in the pursuit over
the passes S. of Kronstadt had not succeeded. The Rumanians
now defended themselves much more obstinately, and the German
and Austro-Hungarian troops, wearied with their rapid opera-
tions, and with their war establishments weakened, had suffered
temporarily in buoyancy from this victorious career. Events
moved slowly also on the Roter Turm Pass, from which, after
crossing the mountains, the main push directed towards Bucha-
rest ought to have been supported by an advance of the reen-
forced Alpine Corps through Pites.ti. The pursuit on all the
many passes radiating from the Kronstadt basin had dissipated
strength, and made the assembly of a strong main force impossi-
ble. New forces had to be brought up. These rolled up in
Transylvania in the middle of Oct. the 8th Bavarian Res.
Div., the nth and I2th Bavarian Inf. Divs. and the 6th German
Cav. Div. ; towards the end of Oct. two further German inf. divs.
(the 4ist and logth) and the 7th Cav. Div. were to follow.
Moreover, the Austro-Hungarian Higher Command intended to
transfer the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and loth Cav. Divs. to
Transylvania, but these would first have to be equipped and
organized for employment in the intended offensive.
The 8th Bavarian Res. Div. was sent to the Transylvanian
E. front to reenforce the I. Army. The I2th Bavarian Inf. Div.
was placed by Falkenhayn under the I. Res. Corps on the Torz-
burg Pass, the nth Bavarian Inf. Div. was to attack over the
Szurduk Pass with the I44th Inf. Bde., and the group of Lt.-Gen.
von Krafft at the Roter Turm Pass was strengthened by 2
Bavarian inf. regts. and 2 German Landsturm regts. At the
Tomos, Torzburg, Roter Turm and Szurduk passes the attacks
were to be continued, and wherever a gap was first effected
Falkenhayn intended to bring up the mass of cav. and the two
later arriving inf. divs. to open up the remaining passes south-
ward and in conjunction with Field-Marshal Mackensen's
troops, to push forward towards Bucharest.
Both the Supreme Army Commands agreed to this plan. But
the Higher Command at Teschen maintained in this connexion
that it was desirable for the main pressure to be directed on the
line Kronstadt-Bucharest. There the strongest opposing Ruma-
nian and Russian opposing forces were to be expected; moreover,
here they had to reckon with a threat of a Russian relieving
offensive, urgently asked for by the Rumanians, coming from
Moldavia in the general direction of Csik-Szereda. Falkenhayn
therefore rather favoured a push through the Szurduk Pass,
where, owing to the smaller width of the mountain chain, the
Wallachian Plain would be most quickly reached.
On the E. front, meanwhile, the headquarters of the Army
Front Commander, Archduke Charles Francis Joseph, in the
arrangement of the commands, was moved from East Galicia to
Grosswardein, as from Oct. 13, and the German IX. and Aus-
tro-Hungarian I., VII. and III. Armies were placed under him.
The Conquest of the Dobruja and of Wallachia. After the
battle of Kronstadt the Rumanians were entirely reduced to the
defensive. On the Transylvanian front they limited their
activities to attempts to win back the lost frontier heights
commanding important roads of invasion. The Rumanian
Army Command also tried to induce the Russians to relieve the
Rumanian troops in the Dobruja and on the Transylvanian E.
front in order thus to set free forces for the defence of Wallachia.
On the Danube front the Rumanians on Oct. i had crossed
the river at Rahova (S. of Bucharest) with a div., and had
temporarily gained a firm footing. German and Bulgarian
troops, rapidly assembled, compelled the Rumanians to return
to the N. bank, the latter suffering severe losses, as the Austro-
Hungarian Danube monitors had shot to pieces the Rumanian
pontoon bridge. Rumanian forward pushes against the Bulga-
rian III. Army brought no success. On Oct. 19 an attack by Gen.
Toshev's Army (Bulgarian ist, 4th, 6th Divs., and sections of
the 1 2th Inf. Div., ist Cav. Div., Turkish VI. Corps, with the
15th and 25th Inf. Divs., German 2i7th Inf. Div.), broke
through the Russo-Rumanian front on their E. wing, and drove
the opposing army far over the Cernavoda-Constantsa railway,
Rumania thereby losing her only rail connexion with the sea.
While the bulk of the Bulgarian III. Army followed only as
far as the line Lake Tasaul-Bazanliia-heights of Kualnik-Dan-
ube S. of Topal, and settled themselves for the defence on this
shortest line between the Danube and the sea, the reenforced
cav. div. pursued the retiring Rumanians and Russians as far
as the line Sariuri-Sarighol-Docuzaci. Gradually the Russians
again slowly pushed forward southward against the new position
of the Bulgarian III. Army. The Rumanian troops were with-
drawn in Nov. from the Dobruja into Wallachia. Of the Rus-
sians there were in the Dobruja the VI. Cav. Corps, the XL VII.
and IV. Siberian Corps, with 6 inf. divs. and i cav. div. in all,
which were placed under the command of the newly formed
Russian Danube Army (Gen. Sakharov).
In the new defensive position of the Bulgarian III. Army,
which was by this time under the command of Gen. Neresov,
there remained the 4th and the combined 6th Inf. Divs., then
the ist Cav. Div. The Turkish VI. Corps stood for the time
being at Medzidie in reserve. The other troops in the Dobruja
and northern Bulgaria, together with the expected Turkish 26th
Div., were collected in the district around Sistova, and were
placed in readiness for crossing the Danube as the new Danube
Army under the command of Gen. Kosch.
On the Transylvanian S. front the obstinate struggle for the
passes was continued. The I. Res. Corps succeeded in reaching a
point just N. of Carnpolung after the arrival of the I2th Bavarian
Inf. Div. and with the assistance of the enveloping movement
in the mountains of the 8th Mountain Bde. on the W. wing. At
that point irruption into the basin of Carnpolung was barred by
a new strongly constructed position in which the newly brought-
up Rumanian i2th Inf. Div., in addition to the 22nd Inf. Div.,
offered the most obstinate resistance.
At the Roter Turm Pass Lt.-Gen. von Krafft intended to force
an exit from the mountains by enveloping on two sides, with
the 2nd Mountain Bde. eastwards with the loth Mountain Bde.
westwards, and the Alpine Corps in the centre. The attack
began on Oct. 16. After easy initial successes the weather broke
on Oct. 18, and this circumstance, together with hastily executed
Rumanian counter-attacks, prevented complete success.
South of Petroseny the group of Lt.-Gen. Kneusel, with the
nth Bavarian Inf. Div., the I44th Inf. Bde., and the 6th Cav.
Div., began the attack in numerous columns through the Szurduk
and Vulkan passes and over the heights to the west. In spite
of the fall of snow the advance began on Oct. 23.
News had been received that, under pressure of the preceding
attack by Krafft's group and the I. Res. Corps, the Rumanians
had deflected against these reinforcements which had been sent
up, and that it would therefore be easier to break through. At first,
92O
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
indeed, complete success attended the attacks of the Kneusel
group. The troops, forcing back the Rumanian nth Inf. Div.,
had worked their way to the foot of the mountains N. of Targu
Jiu, and were to fight their way out to the plain on Oct. 27.
At this point, however, a counter-attack by the' hurriedly sum-
moned Rumanian 2ist and 22nd Inf. Bdes., and a regt. of the
ist and 3rd Inf. Divs., struck the W. wing. After losing many
in prisoners and guns the German detachments had again to
withdraw to the frontier heights, whither the Rumanians pur-
sued them only with skirmishing detachments. In spite of the
defeat he had suffered Falkenhayn held fast to the idea of a
break-through by way of Targu Jiu, and directed the newly
arriving troops Uist and logth Inf. Divs. and 7th Cav. Div.)
to Petroseny. After the experience just gained the most thorough
preparations were to be made for this operation, which was to
begin on Nov. n, Lt.-Gen. Kiihne of the LIV. Res. Corps being
chosen for the command of this strengthened group.
Urged by the Rumanian Army Command, the Russians
relieved the Rumanian troops facing the Austro-Hungarian I.
Army, beginning from the N. , and pushed the southern boundary
of their IX. Army in the middle of Nov. to a point just N. of the
Gyimes Pass. Simultaneously with the III. Cav. Corps and the
XXXVI. Corps, they attacked in this new sector the Austro-
Hungarian XXI. Corps on Nov. 6. In expectation of this
Russian push forward the army front command had placed in
reserve the Brudermann Cav. Corps (3rd and loth Cav. Div.)
in the district Olah-Toplica-Gyergyo-Szt. Miklos, the loth
Bavarian Inf. Div.. brought southwards from the VII. Army in
the district around Csik-Szereda, and the bulk of the 8th Bava-
rian Res. Div. at Kezvivasarhely. The Russian forward move-
ment obtained small successes on both sides of the Tolgyes and
Bekas Pass. After the bringing up of the loth Bavarian Inf. Div.
and the 3rd Cav. Div. the situation was once more restored.
In the Ojtoz Pass also, where the 7ist Inf. Div. and the ist
Cav. Div. were once more placed under the I. Army as from
Oct. 29, and in the Trotus valley, the Rumanians, partly mixed
with Russian units, attacked on Nov. 5 without obtaining
noteworthy successes.
The Break-through at Targu Jiu. According to plan, the
attack of the group of Lt.-Gen. Kiihne began on Nov. n S. of
the Szurduk and Vulkan passes. They were to force their way
into the Wallachian plain before the approach of winter made
mountain operations impossible. Simultaneous attacks on
all the other passes of the Transylvanian S. front and at Orsova
were to distract the attention of the Rumanians and divert
their reinforcements from the principal theatre of attack, an
intention which was successfully accomplished.
Protected by the 4ist Inf. Div. on the W., with the ropth
and 3Oist Inf. Divs. E. of the river Schyl, on the W. flank by
sections of the 6th Cav. Div. and the gth Regt. of the Hungarian
Landsturm, the troops [ought their way out of the mountains
in an obstinate struggle lasting from Nov. n to 14, and on Nov.
15 reached Targu Jiu. The Rumanian nth Inf. Div., seriously
weakened, retired to the heights S. of the town, where it again
gave battle with rapidly brought up new forces of about the
strength of two divisions. In the Kiihne group the Schmettow
Cav. Corps (6th and 7th Cav. Divs.) was brought along the
road over the pass and placed on the W. wing for the envelopment
of the enemy; the nth Bavarian Inf. Div., hitherto in reserve,
was placed on the front E. of Targu Jiu, while the 30ist Inf. Div.
acted as covering troops on the east.
On Nov. 16 the Kiihne group attacked once more. On Nov.
17 the Rumanians, in spite of the most courageous defence,
were decisively beaten. The road into Wallachia lay open.
The pursuit was undertaken without delay. With the right
wing (6th Cav. Div. and behind that the 4ist) in the Jiu valley
through Craiova, the centre (lopth and nth Bav. Inf. Divs.)
towards Slatina, and the left wing (3015! Inf. Div.) in the di-
rection of Dragas.ani, the group swerved eastwards and made rap-
idly for the Alt. On Nov. 21, Craiova, the capital of Wallachia,
was reached. The rapidly attacking vanguard of the 6th Cav.
Div. succeeded on the 23rd in seizing the bridge E. of Caracalu,
which had remained undamaged, over which the main body of
this division on Nov. 24 and the 7th Cav. Div. on the 2sth
crossed the Alt, in order to push on against the Vede sector.
The Rumanians, repulsed from Targu Jiu (nth and i7th
Inf. Divs. and parts of other divs.) placed themselves after the
destruction of the bridges on the E. bank of the Alt between
Slatina and Dragas.ani, in order to bar at this point an advance
by Lt.-Gen. Kiihne's troops. Farther N. too, opposite the
group of Lt.-Gen. von Krafft, the Rumanians had evacuated
the W. bank of the Alt, so that the German troops were able
to occupy Rimnik Valcea on Nov. 25. The attempts of the
4ist and nth Bav. Inf. Divs. on Nov. 25 and 26 to cross the
Alt at Slatina failed, in spite of the support of some squadrons
of the 7th Cav. Div., which had already come into action from
a S.E. direction. The zogth Inf. Div. was now sent in support
of the Cav. Corps by way of Caracalu, and was soon followed
by the nth Bav. Inf. Div. and the iisth Inf. Division.
In consequence of the rapid break-through at Targu Jiu the
retreat of the Rumanian Orsova group, 3 regts. of the ist Inf.
Div. with artillery, was cut off. Held in front by violent attacks
on the part of the group of Col. Szivo, they were shut in on the
rear by detachments of the Kuhne group. In a series of engage-
ments in which at one time they threatened the rear communica-
tions of the Kiihne group, this Rumanian group went down
along the Danube, until, completely surrounded at the mouth
of the Alt, they laid down their arms before their pursuers on
Dec. 6. Ten thousand men and 40 guns fell into the hands of
the much weaker Szivo group.
In front of the group of Lt.-Gen. von Krafft, reenforced by
the newly arrived 21 6th Inf. Div., the Rumanians also could
not hold their own on the E. bank of the Alt in spite of the
participation of the 7th and parts of the 8th Inf. Divs.; they
retreated as far as Curtea' d'Arges. and behind the Topolog
sector, where they offered a temporary resistance.
The I. and XXXIX. Res. Corps (under which latter the
8gth Inf. Div. in the Bodza Pass had been placed) maintained
undiminished pressure on the Rumanian groups opposed to them.
With the aim of building up a further reserve of the army front,
the i87th Inf. Div. was relieved by the approaching Austro-
Hungarian 24th Inf. Div., and placed in readiness in the
Haromszek. The Ojtoz group now under the command of
Gen. von Gerok, of the XXIV. Res. Corps, was on Nov. 12
again placed under the IX. Army Command. On the E. front
the Russians continued the relief of the Rumanians as far as
the road over the Ojtoz Pass.
Crossing of the Danube Army at Sislova. On the side of the
Central Powers the Army Command now thought the moment
had arrived for the Danube Army in position at Sistova to cross
the Danube and push forward towards Bucharest, in order, in
conjunction with the approaching IX. Army, to effect the com-
plete conquest of Wallachia. The Danube Army consisted of the
2i7th German Inf. Div., the ist and I2th Bulgarian Inf. Divs.,
the combined Cav. Div. of Maj.-Gen. Goltz, German and
Bulgarian Landsturm troops, German and Austro-Hungarian
heavy artillery, the 26th Turkish Inf. Div. and Austro-Hungarian
pioneer formations. At 4 A.M. on Nov. 23, favoured by thick
mist, and supported by the Austro-Hungarian Danube monitors
and the German motor-boat flotilla, the transport across the
river of the 2i7th Inf. Div., unnoticed by the enemy, was
successfully accomplished without delays. Zimnica was occupied.
Then the ist Bulgarian Inf. Div. and the Landsturm formations
crossed; the resistance of Rumanian detachments brought up
was rapidly conquered.
On Nov. 24 the bridge-head was widened, and the construction
of a pontoon bridge by the Austro-Hungarian pioneer group of
Maj.-Gen. Gaugl was begun, and finished in the afternoon of
Nov. 25 at 6 o'clock. The remaining troops were now brought
over the bridge in unbroken sequence, and the advance was
begun; on the left wing the cav. div. towards Alecsandri, on
its right the 2i7th Inf. Div., then the I2th and ist Bulgarian
Inf. Divs. The Turkish 26th Inf. Div. followed as Army
Reserve behind the left wing. Rapidly advancing, and quickly
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
921
"breaking the resistance of the Rumanian i8th Inf. Div. and
the ist and 2nd CaV. Divs. sent against them, the heads of the
columns had already on Dec. i reached the Arges.u, S.W. of
Bucharest. But in this hurried forward movement the Danube
Army, after establishing only slight contact by means of cavalry
at Ros.i de Vede, again lost touch with the main body of the
IX. Army, held up on the Alt sector; their left flank lay open.
Battle of the Arge^u. The Rumanians recognized the op-
portunity offered them of falling on the rashly advanced Danube
Army. They endeavoured, with their I. Army, to keep the
Ktihne and Krafft groups as far to the W. as possible, and also
made violent frontal attacks across the Argesu on the isolated
Danube Army, and on Dec. 2 from the N.W., completely en-
circling the left wing of the Danube Army, with the Rumanian
ist Cav. Div., then parts of the 2nd, 5th, oth and igth Inf.
Divs. The Danube Army was thus placed in an extremely
critical position. Rapidly brought-up Landsturm battalions,
a few pioneer companies and the 26th Turkish Inf. Div.,
advancing in the second line, compelled a pause in the Rumanian
enveloping movements. This Rumanian manceuvre, which
only failed of success because it was not executed with sufficient
energy, was coincident with violent pushes carried out by the
Russians on the Carpathian front, from the Tartar Pass south-
wards to the Ojtoz Pass and on the Dobruja front, and also
with attacks by Gen. Sarrail's Army on the Salonika front,
by which it was hoped to relieve the hard-pressed Rumanian
Army and to snatch from the Central Powers the advantage
developing in this area. Yet all efforts were in vain.
The right wing of the IX. Army, which had been placed from
Nov. 30 under the army group command of Field-Marshal
von Mackensen, was brought up with the utmost haste. The
logth Inf. Div., advancing northward on Nov. 27 and 28
on the E. bank of the Alt, had at last succeeded in compelling
the Rumanian I. Army to abandon the Alt sector. The 4ist and
3oist Inf. Divs. could then cross the river at Slatina. The
pursuit towards the E. was conducted in the following groups:
along the projected Craiova-Bucharest railway the nth Bavarian
Inf. Div.; behind that the nsth Inf. Div.; N. of the Bavarians
the logth, 4ist and 30131 Inf. Divs. The Schmettow Cav.
Corps had ridden in advance of the right wing. Thus the IX.
Army approached the seriously threatened left wing of the
Danube Army. On Dec. 2 parts of the Cav. Corps, and on
Dec. 3 the nth Bavarian and logth Inf. Divs., swerving south-
wards, were able to participate in the battle. The Rumanians,
now themselves enveloped, turned back with heavy losses to
Bucharest. For the Danube Army the crisis was over.
While on Dec. 2 and 3 the main body of the Schmettow
Cav. Corps and the tooth Inf. Div. covered the road to Bucharest,
Lt.-Gen. von Krafft at the same time, with the 21 6th, 73rd
and 3oist Inf. Divs., struck the remnant of the Rumanian I.
Army on the middle course of the Arges.u, and pushed forward
with the Alpine Corps and the 2nd Mountain Bde. towards
Tirgovis.te, which, after the capture of Campolung, the I. Res.
Corps was also approaching.
Attacks by the just arrived Russian 4oth Inf. Div. and the
8th Cav. Div. on Dec. 4 and 5 against the Bulgarians on the
S. wing of the Danube Army gave no results. The violent
attacks delivered by the Russians against the Austro-Hungarian
Army and against the Bulgar-Turkish Dobruja front in the
beginning of Dec. were also continuously repulsed.
The Capture of Bucharest. On the evening of Dec. 5, after
successful engagements, the Danube Army stood. E. of the
Argeu and S.W. of Bucharest, and the IX. Army in close touch
N. of the town as far as the Prahova valley. Since it was doubtful
whether Bucharest would be defended as a fortress, heavy
artillery and all the means of attack were placed ready to
hasten its capture. In the night of Dec. 5-6 cavalry of the
Schmettow Corps rode up towards the N.W. front, and found
the works blown up and ungarrisoned. The Rumanians evacuated
their capital almost without fighting. On the night of Dec. 6
the troops of the Danube Army and parts of the S. wing of
the IX. Army entered Bucharest, while on the same day
Falkenhayn's N. wing captured Ploesci, and with it the im-
portant petroleum area, where English hands had previously
rendered the boring apparatus useless for a considerable length
of time. Two days later, as the result of rapid enveloping
movements carried out by Lt.-Gen. Morgen's group, the
4th Rumanian Div., left stranded in the mountains, were sur-
rounded in the district N. of Ploesci, and were taken prisoners.
The road to the S. now also lay open to Lt.-Gen. Staabs'
group. The 5 ist Honved Inf. Div. was able to occupy Sinaia.
Pursuit to the Danube-Sereth Line. Field-Marshal von Mack-
ensen now received the order to push forward with his army
group (III. Bulgarian Army, Danube Army and IX. German
Army) to the shortest line of communication between the sea
and the Carpathian front, that is the Danube mouth-Galatz-
Sereth to Ajudumiu-Trotus river. The IX. Army was to advance
between the mountain river and the projected railway line
Bucharest-Urziceni-Foreivechii-Tecuciu; the Danube Army be-
tween this line and the Danube; the Bulgarian III. Army to
advance in the Dobruja.
On Dec. 12 the IX. Army threw the Rumanian I. and II.
Armies, reenforced by the Russian IV. Inf. and VI. Cav. Corps,
out of a fortified position on both sides of Mizil, and on Dec.
15 took Buzeu. There the 8gth Inf. Div., which had advanced
south-eastward from the Bodza Pass into the Buzeu valley,
joined Falkenhayn's army. The Danube Army on Dec. 14
won the way through the Jalomitsa sector against the Russian
VIII. Inf. Corps and III. Cav. Corps. On Dec. 17 the two
armies faced a Russo-Rumanian position running along the
line from the lower course of the Calmatuciu by Foreivechii
along the heights W. of Rimnicu-Sarat.
Meanwhile the Bulgarian III. Army had begun to clear the
Dobruja and, meeting with little resistance, had soon reached
the Danube estuary; turning towards the eastern bridge-head
from Braila at Macin it transferred the Turkish VI. Corps to
the Danube Army.
At Christmas the IX. and the Danube Armies broke through
the enemy positions, and threw the Russians and Rumanians
back northwards. On Jan. 4 1917 the Danube Army captured
Braila, and pressed forward as far as the Sereth; on Jan. 8
the IX. Army took Focs.ani and the country N. of it as far as
the Putna. On the S. wing of the army front the Archduke
Joseph launched to the attack against the Russians in the last
days of Dec. the Gerok group with the 2i8th Inf. Div., the ist
Cav. Div., the 7ist Inf. Div. and the iSyth Inf. Div. The S.
wing fought their way through the extensive wooded moun-
tain district, and effected a junction with the IX. Ar.my. South of
the Ojtoz road the attack came upon the Russians who were
relieving the Rumanians. The Rumanian i$th Inf. Div. was
again thrown into the action. The attack of the Gerok group
only succeeded in winning a little more ground here. Fall of
snow and sharp frost made further operations impossible.
The actual line won was fairly near the sector it had been
intended to reach. On the side of the Central Powers it was
decided to go into permanent positions here. There was reason
to be satisfied with the success of the campaign. Transylvania
was liberated; a country rich in resources, Wallachia, had been
conquered; the Rumanian Army had been thoroughly beaten,
and had for the most part ceased to be a factor in the fighting
for a long time to come. The Russian Army, instead of giving
the hoped-for support, had had in addition to take over another
400 km. of front. The Russians, too, were glad after a year too
full of fighting to be able to rest. Besides the IX. Army (i6th
Inf. Div. and 2nd Cav. Div.), extending from the Bukovina to
the Casinu valley south-eastward of Ocna, the Russian new
IV. Army stood here from Racos.a on the Susita to Suraia
E. of Focani (6th Inf. Div.) ; from there eastwards to the Black
Sea the VI. Army (g\ inf. divs. and 3 cav. divs.). Of the Ruma-
nians only from 5 to 6 divs., reenforced by Russian troops,
remained on the front as the Rumanian II. Army, between the
Russian IX. and IV. Armies. The remnant of the Rumanian
Army, saved with difficulty, was transferred to the district be-
tween Jassy and Targu Frumos to recuperate. A French mil-
I
922
EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
itary mission undertook to reorganize the army, and to give it a
thorough education based on the principles of the conduct of
modern warfare. This task it had finished by the summer.
The Battles N. of Focgani in the Summer of 1917. In the
spring of 1917 events took place of the most far-reaching
significance for the conduct of the war in the East : the deposition
of the Tsar, the outbreak of the revolution in Russia and
the beginning of the collapse of the Russian army. As on all
parts of the eastern front, so in Rumania, the Russian infantry
had no more desire for fighting; the Russian artillery, left to
carry on alone, were threatened by the infantry; indeed it came
to regular battles between the two arms. It was only with
difficulty that the numerous officers of the Western Powers
distributed among the higher commands could prevent the
collapse of the eastern front. The fighting value of the Russians
did indeed improve at the time of the Kerensky offensive of
June 1917, but the improvement was not a lasting one. The
Rumanian troops remained untouched by all these happenings.
Indeed it seemed as if Rumania's fighting strength increased
in proportion as her ally became less reliable.
In the second half of July the reorganized Rumanian I. Army
was placed between the Russian IV. and VI. Armies from a point
E. of Nemoloas,a to S. of Tecuciu on the Sereth front.
In connexion with the operations in East Galicia the Central
Powers intended to strike a decisive blow against the Russians
and Rumanians in Rumania, in order to shake the whole
Carpathian front and if possible to gain Moldavia. The opera-
tion planned across the Sereth at Nemoloa^a was to begin in
August. The preparations for this were in train when the
Rumanians anticipated the attack.
Rumanian Attack at Soveja. On July 25 the Rumanian
II. Army, with the IV. and II. Corps, and tfie Russian VIII.
Corps on the N. wing of the Russian IV. Army, broke through
the weak front of the 21 8th Inf. Div. and the ist Cav. Div.
and threw them far beyond Soveja back into the mountains,
the wing division of the IX. Army being thereby surrounded
on the N. and N.W. by the Russian VIII. Corps. Even though
there was little need to fear Rumanian advance against
Kezdivasarhely in the rear of the I. Army, on account of the
width and impassable nature of the mountains, there was all
the more danger that, after the capture of the Mt. Odobeshti
(Odobeti), the whole front of the IX. Army, which covered the
sphere of the earlier Danube Army and was commanded by
Gen. Kosch, might be rolled up from the north. This was
obviously the intention of the Rumanians and Russians, but
the troops in carrying out the operation did not strike hard
enough. Precious time was thereby lost. On account of the
want of roads direct support of the 21 8th Inf. Div. was hardly
possible. It was only slowly that one regiment of the ii7th
Inf. Div., and then half the 37th Honved Inf. Div., which had
been set free from the N. wing of the I. Army, could be brought
up. The 2 1 7th Inf. Div. was supported by single regiments
and battalions of 5 different divs. of the IX. Army, and the
attack was thus barred.
In the counter-operation planned by the Central Powers it
was intended to take up again the original plan of penetrating far
into Moldavia. For this purpose the IX. Army was to con-
duct the main attack from Focsani W. of the Sereth in the
direction of Ajudu Nuou, and simultaneously to cover this
attack by the construction of a bridge-head on the E. bank of
the Sereth in the direction of Tecuciu. A second push was to
be delivered by the Gerok group from the Ojtoz valley on
Onesci. By this means the Rumanian II. Army, which had
advanced into the basin of the Soveja, was to be cut off.
Engagements North of Focsani and South of Ocna. For the
attack which was to start from Focsani the following were
placed in readiness under the command of Lt.-Gen. von Morgen
(I. Res. Corps): the i2th Bavarian Inf. Div., 76th Res. Inf. Div.,
and the 8gth Inf. Div., to be followed in second line by the
2i6th Inf. Div. As army reserve there stood at Focsani the
2 1 2th and usth Inf. Divs. On Aug. 6 the attack began, and
had indeed the desired success on the first day in a N.W.
direction. The attempt to cross to the E. bank of the Sereth,
however, failed.
The Russian Corps which were attacked (the VII. and behind
that the XXX.) put up a surprisingly obstinate defence. It
was only after throwing in the army reserves that the German
I. Res. Corps succeeded in overrunning the Susita sector.
Moreover, the sth and gth Rumanian Divs. of the Rumanian
I. Army also came forward to face the attacking Germans, and
caused considerable delay, especially at Marasesti (Marasheshti),
by their violent, deeply echeloned counter-attacks.
On Aug. 10 the VIII. Corps with 3 (partly combined) divs.
reenforced the attack of the Gerok group on both sides of the
Ojtoz valley. They attacked the Rumanian IV. Corps (6th
and 7th Inf. Divs.), and gained ground as far as just S. of
Ocna and Grozesci. But on account of the obstinate resistance
of the Rumanians the objective, Onesci, could not be reached.
Left of the I. Res. Corps the XVIII. Res. Corps, reenforced
by the Alpine Corps, once more in action, had meanwhile
joined in the attack with their left wing, and after heavy engage-
ments had taken Panciu N. of the Susita. On Aug. 15 the S.
wing of the Gerok group (2i8th Inf. Div. and sections of the
nyth Inf. Div., half the 37th Honved Inf. Div. and the Sth
Mountain Bde.) and the 2i7th Inf. Div., standing on the left
wing of the XVIII. Res. Corps, also joined the attack and
slowly drove the Rumanians out of the basin of the Soveja.
A bridge-head on the W. bank of the Sereth threatening the
German flank, held by the Rumanian 5th Div., was stormed by
the 2 1 6th Inf. Div. of the I. Res. Corps on Aug. 14, severe
losses being inflicted on the Rumanians. The further attempts
of the I. Res. Corps, under which was placed the newly arrived
i3th Rifle Div., to advance over the line Marasesti-Panciu,
failed through Russian and Rumanian counter-attacks.
In consequence of the events in East Galicia and in the
Bukovina, where the Russians were driven back to the old
boundary of the Empire, a regrouping of troops and new distri-
bution of the armies in Moldavia was effected. The troops of
the Russian IV. Army were withdrawn to the N. to the VII.
Corps, and the Russian IV. Army Command took over from the
IX. Army Command the sector on the Transylvanian E. front
as far as the Slanic valley. The Rumanian I. Army also took
over the sector held earlier by the Russian I. Army, so that the
two Rumanian armies now stood side by side.
On Aug. 28 the XVIII. Res. Corps, with the 2i6th Inf. Div.
and the Alpine Corps, attacked from the line Panciu-N. edge
of the Mt. Odobeshti in a N.W. direction, to gain the upper
course of the Susita. After stubborn engagements lasting for
m'any days against the Rumanian II. Corps, Jresci and the heights
S. of the Susita were captured, upon which practically the old
line, as it stood before the Rumanian attack, was reached. On
Sept. 3 attacks from the German side were again suspended.
At the beginning of Sept. the Rumanians with the IV. Corps
conducted a series of violent attacks against the advanced
positions of the VIII. Corps, especially against the 225th Inf.
Div. standing just S. of Ocna, but they were bloodily repulsed.
On the side of the Central Powers, after this unsuccessful
enterprise, the troops which could be spared (the Alpine Corps,
the i3th Rifle Div., the ii7th Inf. Div. and much heavy artillery)
were withdrawn for transfer to other theatres of war. The
remaining units again went into permanent positions. On the
Rumanian side the fruitless attacks ceased. They had suffered
heavy losses in killed and wounded, and important loss in
prisoners and material. The newly formed Rumanian divs., in-
structed by the French, had succeeded in defending their
country from complete conquest. The battle of Marasesti, as
it was called by the Rumanians, is the most famous page of
the Rumanian Army in the World War.
Armistice of Focsani. On Dec. 5 the commander-in-chief
of the Russian S.W. front, Gen. Shtcherbachev, asked for an
armistice. On Dec. 7 the negotiations began at Focs,ani under
the presidency of Lt.-Gen. von Morgen; representatives of
all the participating armies took part, and they were concluded
on Dec. 10. (R. K.)
EASTMAN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY
923
EASTMAN, GEORGE (1854- ), American inventor and
philanthropist, was born at Waterville, N.Y., July 12 1854.
He was educated at Rochester and early became interested in
photography. In 1880 he began to manufacture dry plates and
four years later produced the first practicable roll film. In 1888
he invented the " kodak." In 1900 he gave $250,000 to the
Rochester Mechanics' Institute. He has given laboratories to
the university of Rochester and has donated $500,000 toward
that university's endowment. To its school of music he has
given $3,500,000 and to its medical school $4,000,000 (1920).
In 1920 it became known that he had given at various times
large sums to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
amounting to $11,000,000.
EBERT, FRIEDRICH (1871- ), first president of the
Reich or German Federated Republic, was born Feb. 4 1871
at Heidelberg, where he attended the national elementary
school and then learned the trade of a saddler; after he had
become a journeyman he migrated, according to the German
custom, from place to place in Germany, seeing the country
and learning fresh details of his work until he finally settled at
Bremen. There he became interested in the agitation of the
Social Democratic party, obtained in 1893 an editorial post on
the Socialist Bremer Volksieitung and in 1900 was appointed
a trade-union secretary and ultimately elected a member of
the Bremen Bttrgerschaft (comitia of citizens) as representative
of the Social Democratic party; in 1905 he was elected to the
presiding board of his party and was returned as a deputy to
the Reichstag in 1912. In 1913 he was chosen as successor to
Bebel to preside over the whole Social Democratic party. Dur-
ing the World War he endeavoured by negotiations with the
Dutch and Swedish Social Democrats to prepare the way for
united action by all the Socialists in the belligerent countries.
He took part in 1917 in the Stockholm conference, which, how-
ever, had no practical result. He likewise endeavoured without
success to bring about a German understanding with Russia.
After the revolution he was one of the six commissaries of the
people who formed the first provisional Government, in which
he shared the presidency with the Independent Socialist Haase.
His influence among the commissaries became predominant, and
he rendered eminent services in conjunction with the Socialist
War Minister, Noske, and the Socialist leader, Scheidemann,
in the restoration of tranquillity and orderly administration.
He was a keen opponent of all varieties of the Spartacist, Com-
munist or Bolshevist movements, and bore a leading part in
the suppression of the Spartacist insurrections. He was elected
president of the Reich by the National Assembly at Weimar
on Nov. 12 1919. (C. K.*)
EBNER-ESCHENBACH, MARIE, FREIFRAU VON (1830-
1916), Austrian novelist (see 8.843), died in 1916. (See also
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE: Literature.)
ECHEGARAY, JOSE (1833-1916), Spanish author and play-
wright (see 8.870), died at Madrid Sept. 16 1916. Together with
Frederic Mistral, he was awarded the Nobel prize in 1904.
ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY (see 8.896). During 1910-21 the
value of economic entomology as an essential part of applied
science had been definitely realized throughout the civilized
world (for MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY, i.e. insects in human disease,
see, under that heading, a separate discussion as an independent
science). In the United States alone had the conditions of agri-
culture and horticulture previously been such that the farmers
and fruit-growers were compelled to deal with their pests if
they were to obtain crops at all; and economic entomology was
then developed in America to an extent unknown elsewhere.
But this limitation is no longer in effect, and the factors that
have combined to bring entomology to its proper place in the
sciences that underlie the practice of agriculture and horticul-
ture are simple and clear. So far as relates to the older coun-
tries, with an established and ordered system of crop-growing,
whose stability and perseverance make in themselves for the
minimum of insect prevalence, the comparatively small losses
due to pests have now become important owing to the keener
competition in crop production, the lowering of values and the
greater care that has to be exercised to make a profit; when
agriculture flourished the margin of loss due to pests could
be neglected; but this had often approximated, in the last
ten years before the World War, so closely to the actual profit
that the losses, small though they might be, had of necessity
to be checked. In the tropics, the opening up to cultivation of
increasing areas in cotton, tea, sugar, coffee, palms, citrus and
specially rubber has brought in its train insects which may
entirely inhibit the successful cultivation of the crop if they
are not dealt with.
The decade 1910-20 was one of extraordinary developments
in the trials of new crops in fresh areas, and it is one of the
cardinal principles of modern entomology, as explained below,
that the introduction of new crops to new areas stimulates the
outburst of immense insect epidemics; the British Dominions
and colonies have followed the lead of Cape Colony and the
West Indies, and have found the entomologist a necessary
officer on the staff of the agricultural department. The first
entomologist appointed from the United Kingdom to such
work took up his duties at the close of 1899; now a number
leave England yearly to replace the vacancies or to fill new
posts in the agricultural departments of the Dominions and the
colonies of the Empire. A third factor, and one that will increase
in importance, has been the immensely increased facilities for
the rapid transport of plants and pests from one country to
another, and also the increased desire to obtain the new varieties
of tropical crops produced by the economic botanists of the
topical agricultural stations. Formerly the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, were the British centre of plant distribution, and
while Kew was the home of many introduced scale insects, few
pests were distributed apart from these; but the new varieties
of cane from Java and the West Indies, the cottpn seed from
Egypt, Cambodia, Australia, the mango seed from the East,
the rubber plants that circulated over the tropics, the count-
less shipments of tropical plants, have been the means of intro-
ducing pests to new countries, where, freed from the control of
nature by means of natural enemies, they have bred and multi-
plied to their full extent and so constituted a very serious
menace to cultivation. Experience has also shown that the new
applied entomology is as practical a science as any other upon
which the practice of agriculture depends. This was not always
the case, and the amateur entomologist, whose interests were
primarily confined to collections and nomenclature, did not
impress the practical farmer as able to help him in his fight
against enemies; this phase (from Great Britain and India
notably) has not wholly passed, but it has so largely given place
to the practical entomologist whose object is to eliminate the
pest and thereby also the loss, that the entomologist is now
recognized as necessary. A final factor is the growing recognition
of the value of " team work, " that is, of the cooperation of
the plant breeder, plant physiologist, mycologist, bacteriolo-
gist, and " soil condition " expert, in tackling problems of
plant hygiene, and their demand for the collaboration also of
the entomologist able to deal with that aspect of the problem.
Many insect problems are cases solely of gross damage by feed-
ing insects; but many are tangled up with other disease phenom-
ena, and in many cases an insect is the transmitter from plant
to plant of virulent disease organisms. It will be evident that
the older type of entomologist, whose interest in the insect
ended with its classification and the enumeration of the syno-
nyms under which it was known in the literature, must be re-
placed by the more widely trained man capable of collaborating
in these complicated problems.
Training. In 1900 there were few facilities for training out-
side of the colleges and experiment stations of the United
States, and the entomologist selected for responsible work in
the colonies was required to have taken a degree in zoology
and to have an amateur knowledge of entomology as then
understood. Even in 1910, the English universities provided
no better training, and the groundwork of a very thorough edu-
cation in comparative anatomy and zoology was regarded as
the one essential upon which could be laid a small amount of
924
ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY
entomological knowledge. A single British college established
in 1911 a fuller course of specialized training, and has since
provided a four-year course, designed to teach not only ento-
mology but also so much of allied subjects as to enable the
entomologist to collaborate readily and intelligently with his
colleagues in plant physiology, plant breeding, mycology, bac-
teriology; it embraces some training in all these; it is divorced
from zoology and the comparative anatomy of animals, except
in so far as these are necessary to a wide comprehension of bio-
logical questions, and it provides a full and complete training
in all aspects of applied entomology; further, a feature is the
inclusion of research on some problem of applied entomology
as part of the actual training, so that the trained student has
had some experience of the kind of problem he will spend his
life solving. Progress in this direction was being slowly made
up to 1921 at other teaching institutions in Great Britain, but
it contrasted poorly with the progress made in the United
States in the provision of full facilities for training at many
colleges and experiment stations. The problem of economic
entomology in England had been to escape from the dominion
of the zoologist; the problem in America had been to incor-
porate sufficient science and to escape the anti-academic demands
of the " practical man," to whom science as such did not appeal.
It is probably true to say that both countries err, the English
in being still too academic, the Americans in being too practi-
cal and too little sympathetic with the value of the " scientific "
method of thought. This question was discussed at the Confer-
ence of Agricultural Entomologists arranged by the Colonfel
Office in England in June 1920, and while this Conference did
not express any definite opinion, feeling was general that the
ideal training was a groundwork of general horticultural or
agricultural science, with the special training of the entomolo-
gist thereafter, and this is very nearly a mean between the
present training of the Imperial College in London and that
of most of the American colleges. The total number of ento-
mologists required for science in the British Empire was not in
1921 sufficient to justify the provision of facilities for training
at a number of universities, and it was possible that the estab-
lishment of tropical agricultural colleges might lessen the need
of facilities in Great Britain, while providing better training
for tropical problems. Careers in entomology had become far
wider in 1921 than they were in 1900; in 1910 there was no
official entomologist employed in England. The entomologist
attached to the Ministry of Agriculture was in 1921 stationed
at Harpenden, where he was in close touch with the Phyto-
pathological Institute, with several entomologists employed
upon research, and a beginning had been made with the appoint-
ment of local entomologists, each to advise a small group of
countries and to work on the staff of the institutes designed to
assist the progress of agriculture and horticulture. There are
entomologists attached to the departments of almost every
British colony, and the Dominions of Canada and South Africa
maintain larger departments with considerable staffs. India
was in 1921 still provided only with a small number of ento-
mologists attached to some of the provincial governments, and
had a small teaching and publishing section, not directly con-
cerned with the checking of insect pests, at the Agricultural
Research Institute. The most complete economic entomology
department in India was that of the Madras Government, but
entomologists were attached also to the agricultural depart-
ments of the Punjab, United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa, and
Burma. A recent phase in the development of this subject is
the increasing utilization of entomologists by companies engaged
in the cultivation of tea, rubber, sugar-cane and similar prod-
ucts, or by associations of such companies. The Indian Tea
Assn., the United Planters' Assn. of South India, the Colonial
Sugar Co., and similar organizations in Malaya, Fiji, Jamaica,
etc., maintain scientific staffs usually with entomologists, and
there are considerable developments probable, now that the
commercial community is realizing that economic entomology
can be a sound, practical affair, and not an amateur scientific
business of naming insects. In the United States, the develop-
ment of entomology as a career for trained men has probably
reached its limit; as the conditions of agriculture stabilize
themselves, as the proportion of each crop becomes fixed, so
the immense incidence of crop pests characteristic of America
will diminish, and it is now probable that the main concern of
the entomologist in that continent will be to safeguard the
industry against the incursion of fresh pests from abroad.
European countries have been developing very much as described
above. Before the revolution in Russia, there had been an
immense impetus to the development of entomology in that
vast country; in France and Italy the entomologist is now being
increasingly utilized, and while in Germany the subject had
been neglected, since the war the Association of Economic
Entomologists has stimulated the development of practical
applied entomology. In Japan the development of the sub-
ject has come with the increase in scientific departments, and
especially with the immensely valuable results derived from
research on the silkworm-rearing industry.
Control of Pests.- The principles on which it is sought to
control and check insect outbreaks developed very markedly
during 1910-20 from " artificial control " based upon direct
remedies and insecticides, to " natural control " based upon
an understanding of the factors that produce outbreaks of
pests and action arising from that knowledge. The first essen-
tial is a really intimate knowledge of the pest itself, its habits
in all its stages, its senses and sense organs, its (almost) daily
ways in the most minute particulars. It is now recognized that
this must be carried to a degree of detail not contemplated
before, and that upon the intimacy of this knowledge depends
the successful application of any direct method. It is not
sufficient to know that eggs are laid in such a way, in such num-
ber, at such a time, that the larvae moult so many times, feed
in such and such a way and pupate, that the pupa takes a cer-
tain time, and then the adult emerges to mate, lays eggs and
dies. An instance may be taken from the Codlin moth, whose
larva hibernates in the winter in shelter; the full-grown larva
leaves the fruit, crawls about, and for shelter will get under a
flake of bark, spin a light cocoon and there remain. Will it do
this on the trunk and branches, on the north (exposed) or the
south (sunny) side, must the bark be dead or alive, will it pre-
fer a band of bast, cotton, jute, wool, silk or what? Must this
be double or single, tied on tightly or loosely, all round, at
what height, when put on, when taken off? The investigator
has to try to put himself as far as he can into the mentality of
the insect, and the success of the entomologist depends much
upon this instinct, which will yet be much developed. The
second essential is a study of controls; what is it that, in its
native habitat, checks the increase of the insect? Is it climate,
food, plant scarcity, parasites, predaceous insects, birds, bats,
lizards, frogs, etc., or disease due to fungi or bacteria? Usually
it is direct parasites, predaceous insects, and perhaps, under
suitable climatic conditions, disease due to fungi, bacteria or a
virus. It is these natural checks which, in natural conditions,
balance the rate of increase of the insect, which is large. The
third essential is the nature of the conditions which produce an
increase of the insect to such a point that it becomes a pest,
that is, so injurious as to affect the crop yield materially. Nor-
mally there is under undisturbed natural conditions a balance
of life; the checks and the natural increase of the insect are so
balanced, in nature, that the insect never increases to a point
of being destructive. But under artificial conditions of culti-
vation, man disturbs this balance; he clears land, disturbing
the ratio of plant life; he interferes with the bird life particu-
larly; he plants areas with crops, i.e. an unmixed plant area,
which favours the increase of any insect capable of feeding
upon that crop, since the parent insect has not to undergo a
precarious hunt from plant to plant for the proper food plant
for its young, but finds an unmixed block, thereby escaping
many dangers. In addition, man introduces blocks of new
crop plants, which have not acquired protection against indige-
nous insects, and which are at once attacked, lacking the protec-
tion they will in time develop. These are some of the factors
ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY
925
by which man's artificial cultivation of crops disturbs the deli-
cate balance of life, and produces those fluctuations or " waves "
of insect abundance which the entomologist recognizes as pest
outbreaks that he has to deal with. If he can he has to trace
to their origin these waves of increase, and the modern science
of entomology is to do this as far as may be. In many cases
the problem is the simple one of determining if the insect is
an introduced one; if it is, it has probably been introduced
without the natural enemies that checked it in its original
home; and it is due to the work of an Englishman, R. C. L.
Perkins, that this principle was applied in the Sandwich Is.
against the insect so seriously destructive to the sugar-cane
crop, the Cane-leaf-hopper (Perkinsietta saccharicidd) . Its
natural home is Australia. Study of the insect there showed it
to be kept in check by a variety of insects, some of which were
introduced to the Sandwich Is., eventually reducing the insect
to the status of an ordinary insect, not a pest. This principle
has been followed in other cases, notably the Fluted Scale of
Orange (leery a purchasi), the Gipsy Moth in the United States
(Porthetria dispar), the Brown-tail Moth (Euproctis chrysor-
hoea) in the United States, the Sugar-cane Cockchafer of
Mauritius (Phytalus Smithii); it is the natural principle to pro-
ceed upon in the case of introduced insects and it has been
developed especially in the United States, which owes to importa-
tion so many of its principal pests.
In other cases the disturbance and consequent occurrence of
pests is due to violent alterations in the proportions of the
crops grown. Where there has been, as in England, a fairly
uniform mixed cultivation of many crops over a long period,
a balance of life has been established as under natural condi-
tions; but where the variations in supply cause fluctuations in
prices and large areas are put under other crops, this balance
is disturbed, and there are waves of insect pests; naturally
this manifests itself far more quickly under tropical conditions,
where there are several broods of an insect a year, than under
temperate conditions, where there is only one brood a year
with a long resting period, and it is partly this factor which
makes for the very great loss from insect pests in the tropics.
Having obtained any data as to the factors producing an
outbreak, it is to be seen whether there is any way of quickly
restoring the balance of life, or of so modifying cultural prac-
tice as to avoid the outbreak, and it is to this that the ento-
mologists' attention is specially directed. The nature of the
rotation of crops, the time of sowing, the use of early or late
maturing varieties, these are important points; a further point
is on what food plants or under what conditions the insect
spends the time when the crop is not on the ground or is not
fruiting, and modern entomology emphasizes more definitely
the value of the old maxim of clean cultivation, of growing
only crops, with nothing on the land besides no weeds, no
alternative food plants, no " volunteer " plants. This is par-
ticularly the case with permanent cultivation such as fruit or
such tropical crops as tea, coffee, cacao, rubber and the like.
A point of great interest, which has as yet been scarcely
touched, is that of " immunity," whether natural or induced.
The discovery that American vine stocks were immune to
Phylloxera, since they had always been exposed to it in America,
whence Phylloxera came, did much to save the European vine
industry; there are stocks of apple which are apparently immune
to the root forms of woolly aphis (Schizoneum lanigera) ; vigor-
ous plants growing under good conditions are frequently " im-
mune " to attacks of such sucking insects as Leaf-hoppers
(Jassidae), Scale Insects (Coccidae), Psyllidae and White Fly
(Aleurodes), This question is far more developed in the case
of Fungi (e.g. rust in wheat) than in that of insects; but it is a
question which has come more definitely to the front during
the past few years. It is not at present possible to induce
immunity, but it may soon be possible to do so.
The fourth point in the entomologists' plan is that of the
utilization of direct remedies, such as insecticides, fumigants,
and soil insecticides. There was a considerable modification in
opinion during 1910-20, and but for the large propaganda by
insecticide firms, the use of these artificial methods would
have considerably declined. In the actual practice of spraying
there have been few improvements and no radical changes.
The arsenates, nicotin, lime, sulphur, soaps, these are still the
principal insecticides; heavy oil emulsions have replaced paraffin,
and the present tendency is to seek farther afield for new and
more toxic substances. But progress has been small, there has
been little systematic investigation, and there are only differ-
ences in detail in the use of insecticides and spraying-machines.
A feature of the development of the subject has been the
broadening of knowledge among farmers, fruit-growers and
even the general public, particularly in the United States, but
also in Europe. In England, publicity and propaganda cam-
paigns have been mainly concerned with the house fly, and
there is still great ignorance about other pests; but this is
passing with the increase of nature-study and the greater devel-
opment of natural-history societies in schools.
Legislation. Experience of the value of legislation in regard to
the spread of plant pests and to their destruction has resulted in a
very definite simplification of the laws and enactments relating to
insect pests, and a conference of delegates of 26 nations in Feb.
1914 at Rome formulated the Rome convention, which still further
simplifies the principles governing the regulation of plant traffic
from country to country.
Almost every country now seeks to protect itself against new
pests, which, introduced without natural checks, become immensely
active and destructive in a new habitat. These measures were
very varied and are now simpler, and when a convention is estab-
lished finally, it will probably rely upon one definite principle; but
there is still some variety. Countries seek to protect themselves
by prohibiting the import of plants from a specified locality, of
specified plants, of anything likely to cause disease, of insects, or
of packing with infested articles ; so, for instance, a sugar-growing
country prohibits the importation of canes, and also, perhaps, of
all plants from an area in which a virulent insect pest is active.
An alternative is to permit importation under conditions; ports
of entry may be designated at which alone plants come in, the
plant imports may be limited to special times, or must be in new
packages, or only in postal packets. The most general condition is
inspection on arrival by a competent officer, who may order their
destruction if infested with a pest, or the plants must be fumigated
on arrival, this being done usually with hydrocyanic-acid gas gen-
erated from potassium cyanide and sulphuric acid, the amount
used being about 2 oz. cyanide per 100 cub. ft. space for half an hour.
Formerly great stress was laid on the value of quarantine; all
plant imports were grown in a quarantine ground under the super-
vision of a Government botanist until it was certain that they had
no disease. The objection was that if the plant was diseased the
disease was brought into the country and, whatever the supervision
of the botanist, might get loose and spread ; an alternative to quar-
antine was "following up"; the importer notified the arrival of
plants and the exact spot where he planted them ; an inspector saw
them at intervals in order to destroy them if any disease developed.
A more recent principle is that of admitting plants without delay
if they were accompanied by a certificate that they had been in-
spected by an official of the Agricultural Department of the export-
ing country, and were declared free of pests scheduled by the
importing country, or that they had been grown in an area declared
free of the scheduled pest. The latter applied particularly to
Phylloxera of vine; the former applies to the schedule of pests
drawn up in each country, and this is the principle accepted by the
Rome convention of 1914. Each country is to draw up a schedule
of pests which are not epidemic in that country but which are
recognized pests, and any country sending plants will have an ade-
quate service of trained inspectors to give certificates that either
the nursery sending the plants, or the actual consignment, is free of
pests. This cannot be done without a " Phytopathological Service,"
so that the consenting countries bound themselves to create
this, and this has to some extent been done in Great Britain,
France, Italy, Holland, Belgium. The United States refused even
to discuss the question, and has adopted drastic inspection and
certificates of freedom from pests, but experience has shown it
that few certificates are reliable and it is not willing to receive
consignments from any country whose certificates are not really
of established value (e.g. those of Holland are accepted).
A further difficulty is that plants may come from countries not
able to give certificates, e.g. Tibet, and these plants are very liable
to introduce disease. Inspection on arrival is the usual method but
an effort has been made to enable such plants to be grown under
quarantine when imported by a firm of established reputation in
Great Britain, so as to avoid the risks of unpacking at the port.
Internal legislation, prescribing action on the part of growers,
has made progress during recent years, and has been very much
simplified. In Great Britain the sale-of-diseased-plants order of
1921 puts a penalty on the sale of plants " substantially attacked "
926
ECUADOR
by a number of common insects and fungi. The actual enforcement
of the order generally would require the services of many thousands
of officials, and would be impossible, but it is designed to give powers
to the Ministry of Agriculture to proceed against any nursery notori-
ous for distributing diseased plants, and also to enable the Ministry
to act freely in case of a new pest being introduced.
In America and the British Dominions such legislation is com-
mon. It prohibits the possession of diseased plants, the sale of
infested plants, the sale of plants from an infested area, the removal
from declared areas of plants, cases, bags, packages, earth, manure
and even of persons; it is often aimed entirely at nurseries and
seeks to control the distribution of plants; nurseries must be regis-
tered, must be inspected at fixed intervals, must send out certifi-
cates of inspection with all consignments, and may, if infested with
a scheduled pest, be quarantined ; and there are the usual provisions
as to entry, to prescribing remedies, to penalties for non-compliance.
The treatments of infested plants by the owner or by the State are
prescribed, or the destruction, isolation or confiscation of infested
plants. Further provisions are to compel destruction of insect
breeding-places, and to prohibit the planting in infested land or
within a certain distance of infested land.
In many countries, as in Great Britain, the occupier of land has
to notify the occurrence of any of the scheduled pests to the Min-
istry of Agriculture and in some tropical countries there is a specific
prohibition of the practice of driving locusts to one's neigh-
bour's land. The tendency is to rely less on legislation, compulsion
and penalties, and to move more towards education and reason.
The spirit which enabled a Government to close all schools, courts,
places of business, etc., while a whole province fought locusts,
exists only in the least civilized areas of the earth, and the cam-
paign against pests is carried on by propaganda, education and
the arousing of public spirit.
Insects and Crops. -The importance of insect attacks as factors
in the growth of crops varies from the case of cotton, where the
insect is a dominant factor, equal in value to soil and climate, to
that of rubber, where as yet scarcely any serious insect pest has
arisen, certainly none equivalent to the fungoid diseases.
Cotton was formerly produced mainly in the southern United
States. There the bollworm was the chief pest, causing loss that
now averages some 2,500,000 annually, but in 1894 the Boll
Weevil appeared in Texas, and in 1905 Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief
of the Entomological Bureau of the United States Department of
Agriculture, wrote: -"The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil has the
unique record of developing in less than 20 years from a most
obscure species to undoubtedly one of the most important economi-
cally in the world. There was a hope that the increase in cotton in
the United States would keep pace with the world's demands ; now
the weevil has rendered this impossible."
The damage is now averaged at about 5,000,000 annually.
But there is worse to come. Another pest has been known in India
since 1844; this is the Pink Bollworm, which reached Egypt between
1903 and 1910. There they already had another bollworm; but by
1917 the Pink Bollworm was destroying on the average 17% of
the crop, causing a loss of 8,000,000 a year, and this pest reached
Texas in 1917. In spite of the efforts of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture it was established there in 1921, and in a few years
it seems likely to destroy 2,000,000 bales, worth, say, 60,000,000.
Nor are these the only pests of first-rate importance. In India
the Spotted Bollworm is a pest which also attacks Egyptian cotton.
In 1905 this pest almost entirely destroyed the cotton crop of the
Punjab and Sind, and it was known in 1921 only in India, Egypt,
the Sudan and British East Africa.
The chief cotton-producing countries are listed here with the
pests they have; what if the pests spread to all? The output is
that of 1917:
Acres
Bales
Pests
United States of America .
33,841,000
".302,375
H.A.P.E.
India
24,781,000
3,228,800
H.E.
Egypt
China
1,761,000
1,287,000
830,000
P.E.
Russia
(840,000)
578,000
Brazil
400,000
A.P.
Mexico
125,000
A.P.
Peru
110,000
Indo-China ....
20,000
P.
Corea
200,000
Nigeria
2,621
P.
Nyasaland ....
4,448
H.E.
Uganda
20,000
E.
West Indies ....
3,000
P.H.
H Heliothis armigera, the American Bollworm It attacks cot-
ton in America but, while it occurs universally in the tropics, does
not, in India, attack any cotton but Cambodia.
A Anthonomus grandis Mexican Boll Weevil.
P Platyedra (Gelechia) gossypiclla Pink Bollworm.
E Earias insulana Spotted Bollworm.
Apart from cotton, the actual limiting effect of insect pests is less
definite but it is a notable factor in many tropical crops : sugar-cane
suffers heavily from two pests, moth-borers and cane-leaf-hoppers ;
the loss from one species alone is, in Barbados, estimated at over
I5%- With sugar selling at 15 per ton, this means a loss of 6
per acre, and this loss is avoidable by a small expenditure; but the
crop is grown, the expenses of rent, management, cultivation, manur-
ing, harvesting, manufacturing are all incurred, on canes diseased
and affected by this pest, and the net result is a decreased yield,
expenses being still the same, of some 6 per acre.
A similar situation occurs with nearly all crops, but it is difficult
to say definitely what proportion of the loss is due to insects. In
England, Green Fly may ruin the hops, frequently ruins the plum
crop; in America a long cold spring gives the Spring Grain aphis
scope to increase, and decreases the yield of wheat and reacts on
every wheat sale in the world, or a wet summer destroys Chinch
Bug, and the wheat crop increases next year with bigger supplies
and lower prices. Of the many factors influencing wheat prices,
insects are only a small one, but they may be, in some years, just
the determining factor, since the factors of climate, rainfall, weather,
production, transport, speculation may all be steady.
Stock Raising, Building and Grain Storage.- Insects are not only
factors in crop production but in stock raising, in building protec-
tion, and in grain storage. The best example of the first is in the
Blowfly pest of sheep in Europe, Australia, S. Africa, Argentina
and other places. The loss of stock in Australia in 1916 amounted
to 3,000,000, and the production of wool and meat in Australia
will depend very much on whether control is obtained over this
pest. In 1921 no real effort had been made to control it; but it
will eventually be controlled, probably by the introduction of
natural enemies and by the employment of substances protecting
the animal from attack.
The importance of insects in buildings in Great Britain has been
emphasized by the discovery that the glorious timber roof of West-
minster Hall was in a dangerous condition owing to the attacks of
the Death Watch (Xestobium rufovillosum, or tesselalum). It was
found that the timbers were destroyed to a very remarkable extent,
and H.M. Office of Works embarked on a scheme of strengthening
the roof with an invisible steel frame while preserving intact as
much of the timber as possible. It was essential not only to stop
the activity of insects but to protect the timber from further
infestation, and the solution was found in a treatment by which all
infested timber is freed of the pest by dichlorbenzene, and all sur-
faces are impregnated with a coat of soap, paraffin wax and cedar-
wood oil, which prevents further insect attack. This method has
been applied to other buildings, notably St. Paul's Cathedral.
A war problem of importance in which entomology was concerned
was connected with the preservation of the accumulated wheat
stocks in Australia. In 1917 there was a stock of some three million
tons of wheat in bags in Australia, with another similar amount to
be harvested. All was stored in the open, since no other storage
was possible, the wheat usually being shipped immediately, and the
result of storage under bad conditions was an immense infestation
by weevil (Calandra oryzae), threatening the complete loss of a stock
of wheat urgently required for the Allied countries. Two problems
needed to be solved, the storage of wheat and the freeing from weevils
of the already infested wheat harvested in 1916 and 1917 and then
awaiting shipment. Since the Australian Government were unable
to deal with this problem it was necessary for the British Wheat
Commission to undertake it, and the solution was found in a method
of storage which prevented access of weevil and in a treatment by
heat on a large scale, so that in a single plant 1 ,000 bus. per hour
were heated for three minutes to I4OF., killing all stages of the
weevil and giving a weevil-fr^f wheat suitable for milling and
baking. This treatment cost less than one penny per bus. and
enabled Australia to ship 200,000,000 bus. of wheat which was
otherwise becoming totally unsalable or unusable. (H. M. L.)
ECUADOR (see 8.910). The population of Ecuador was not
altered much during the period 1910-20. Immigration was very
slight. No census had been taken. In 1920, an official estimate
gave the pop. as 1,500,000.
Government. In a message to Congress in 1914 President
Plaza G. raised the question whether or not presidential govern-
ment in Ecuador had met the test of experience. Upon that
subject he held conferences with the members of a special com-
mittee of the Chamber of Deputies and hoped that, as a result
of its report, a joint committee from both Houses of Congress
would be appointed to draw up a project for the reform of the
constitution of 1006. The Senate, however, did not favour this
action. President Plaza G. again mentioned the urgent need
of constitutional reform in his message to Congress of Aug.
10 1915. Upon the following day he addressed a special message
to Congress proposing the political reorganization of Ecuador
by the introduction of the parliamentary system. Annexed to
his message were certain proposed amendments of Ecuador's
fundamental law which were framed to accomplish this end.
ECUADOR
927
These, however, were not accepted by Congress. On June 28
1917, President Baquerizo M. promulgated a decree regulating
the duties of his Cabinet. The Minister of the Interior was to
be charged with internal administration, municipalities, police,
prisons, houses of correction, public works, railways, sanitation,
concessions, and with government of the province of Oriente
and the Galapagos Islands. The Minister of Foreign Relations
was to have direction of international affairs, consuls, post-
offices, telegraphs, telephones, immigration, and colonization.
The Minister of Public Instruction was to be charged with
public instruction, statistics and civil registry, fine arts, theatres,
charity, justice, religion, agriculture, improvements and national
forests. The Minister of Finance was to supervise the collec-
tion of the national revenues, the auditing of accounts, public
credit, the administration of national property, commerce,
public lands and trade marks. The Minister of War and the
Navy was to control the regular army, reserves, war vessels
and lighthouses. By a decree of Sept. 22 1919, the control of
the province of Oriente and the Galapagos Islands was trans-
ferred to the Minister of Foreign Relations.
Communications. In recent years measures were taken by the
national Government for the improvement of roads, most of which
were merely trails or bridle-paths. Some internal traffic was carried
on by the rivers, especially by the Guayas river and the tributaries
of the Amazon. The most important railway was the Guayaquil
and Quito railway, opened to traffic in 1908. To shorten the route
between these two cities the Government planned a railway between
San Juan Chico and Riobamba. Other short railways were pro-
jected, and in some cases partly completed. A contract was signed
whereby a railway was to be built from Quito to Ibarra, thence to
Tulcan, and to the coast in the province of Esmeraldas. Surveys
were made and construction was begun on a section of the roadbed
near Ibarra in Aug. 1917. Construction was begun also on a railway
between Ambato and Curaray in Jan. 1913. By June 1918, the sec-
tion between Ambato and Pelileo was practically completed. In
1914 work was begun on a railway between Huigra and Cuenca.
After some preliminary surveys had been made the Government
decided in Aug. 1915 to build it from Sibambe to Cuenca, and actual
construction began the following month. A railway projected be-
tween Bahia and Quito had, by 1917, been built and opened as far
as Chone. In 1913, one was completed between the seaport of Manta
and Portoyiejo, and by 1915 that road had been opened to Santa Ana.
A short railway was begun in 1914 between Guayaquil and Salinas,
and another was being constructed in 1920 between Babahoya and
Guaranda. During a large portion of the year 1920 Ecuador was almost
isolated from the world by sea; for, because of the prevalence of the
bubonic plague and of yellow fever at Guayaquil, that port was
avoided by large vessels. In April 1914, a radio station was officially
opened at Quito and wireless communication was established with a
small station in Guayaquil.
Sanitation. Sanitary work was begun seriously when, in Dec.
1913, a contract was signed between the Ecuadorian Government
and White & Co., of London, for the paving of Guayaquil and the
instalment of a modern water system. A yellow-fever commission
of the Rockefeller Foundation made a scientific study of Guayaquil
in 1916. A fight against the fever was, however, postponed because
of the World War. In 1918 squads of men under Col. Gorgas began
a scientific attack upon the stegomyia mosquito in Ecuador. So suc-
cessful was this campaign that, on May 27 1920, the director-general
of public health at Guayaquil issued a statement that yellow fever
had been eradicated from that city as well as from the towns in the
provinces of Guyas, Los Rios, and El Oro, where it had been endemic.
Foreign Commerce. There was some fluctuation in Ecuador's
imports and exports from 1910 to 1918, but not much increase.
Figures compiled by the Pan-American Union show that in 1913 the
imports of Ecuador amounted to $8,836,689 U.S. currency; and
that her exports in that year amounted to $15,789,367. In 1918 her
imports amounted to $8,111,690, while her exports came to $13,364,-
774, in both cases a decrease. Her import and export trade with the
United States had grown greatly at the expense of trade with Euro-
pean countries. In 1913 imports from the United States amounted to
$2,817,754; in '9i8 they aggregated $4,632,761. In 1913, out of a
total export trade of $15,789,367 her exports to the United States
came to $3,833,728, while in 1918 they amounted to $10,429,150.
Among Ecuador's most important imports in 1918 were textiles
(other than silk), food-stuffs, hardware, machinery, paper, and per-
fumes; while her most important exports were cacao, ivory nuts,
Panama hats, coffee, gold and wool.
Army and Navy. In 1917 the navy of Ecuador was composed of
a destroyer, a cruiser, a coastguard vessel, a submarine, a launch,
and a tender, with a small personnel. The territory of the republic
had been divided into six military zones which were in charge of
army officers. A general staff was in control of the regular army,
made up of 10 battalions of infantry, two squadrons of cavalry, three
regiments of artillery and a company of engineers. The regular army
including officers, numbered 5,200.
Education. Although by a law of Ecuador primary education
was free and attendance compulsory, the percentage of illiteracy
was high. In 1914 an Ecuadorian writer estimated that over 70% of
children from 5 to 14 years of age were illiterate. In a message to
Congress in Aug. 1915, the President stated that there were in Ecua-
dor 1 ,054 primary schools with an attendance of 95,019 pupils. Second-
ary education was being conducted in 1 3 national cotegios (academies)
with 1,778 students. In addition there were schools for professional
or technical training: normal schools, a school of agriculture, schools
of arts and trades, a school of fine arts, and a national conservatory
of music. Later commercial schools were founded in important cities.
In 1916 and 1917 decrees were issued reorganizing the curricula of
normal schools, of the school of arts and trades at Quito, and of the
national military academy. In 1917 the President decreed the estab-
lishment at Quito of a museum of archaeology and of a national
gallery of painting and sculpture. Higher education is carried on in
universities at Cuenca, Guayaquil and Quito. The central university
of Ecuador at Quito is composed of colleges of science, medicine and
law. The younger universities at Guayaquil and Cuenca have colleges
of law, medicine and pharmacy.
Finance. In Ecuador's budget for 1914 the revenues and the
expenditure were balanced at 20,441,955.92 sucres (nominal value
$0.486 or one-tenth part of l sterling); the income for that year,
however, amounted only to 16,913,768.97 sucres, while the expendi-
ture came to 20,220,794.83 sucres. Revenues from import duties
which were estimated at 10,883,055.02 sucres came only to 7,707,-
191.26 sucres. The end of the year left the Government with a
deficit of 3,307,007.86 sucres. This deficit would have been larger
but for certain economies and the postponement of some payments.
In 1915, partly because of the decrease in import revenues due to
the World War, Ecuador had to borrow 20,000,000 sucres from local
banks. The Minister of Finance announced that on Dec. 31 1917,
her domestic debt amounted to 34,001,651.04 sucres, while her for-
eign debt came to 18,923,508.10 sucres, making the total debt
52,925,159.14 sucres. Of the domestic debt 131,547.27 sucres and
of the foreign debt 6,618,115.04 sucres were interest unpaid. The
minister stated that up to Dec. 31 1917, the service of the foreign
debt in interest and amortization was in arrears 10,710,276.55 sucres,
because of the decrease in revenues.
History. Gen. Eloy Alfaro's term as president expired Aug.
31 1911. On Aug. 12, however, he resigned the presidency
and his resignation was accepted by Congress two days later.
Emilio Estrada, who was elected in Jan. 1911, was inaugurated
Aug. 31, but died Dec. 21 following. Dr. Carlos Freile Z.,
president of the Senate, who had served as chief executive upon
the resignation of Alfaro, again assumed executive authority
which he exercised until March 5 1912. Meantime a revolt,
having as its object the overthrow of the legal Government and
the establishment of Gen. Alfaro as supreme magistrate, was
quelled. That leader was taken out of the penitentiary at
Quito by the infuriated populace and killed in Jan. 1912. Act-
ing President Freile Z. was succeeded by Dr. Francisco Andrade
Marin, speaker of the Chamber of Deputies, who exercised
presidential authority from March 6 to Aug. 10, when Dr.
Alfredo Baquerizo M., president of the Senate, took the reins
of power and served as president until Aug. 31 1912. Upon
that day, as the result of a special election held in April, Gen.
Leonidas Plaza G. was inaugurated as president for his second
term. He selected Alfredo Baquerizo M. as his Minister for
Foreign Affairs, who was succeeded by R. H. Elizalde. The
first years of his administration were stormy, being marked by
revolts and civil wars. Even after a troublesome insurgent
leader, Gen. Carlos Concha Torres, was captured by Govern-
ment soldiers in Feb. 1915, his followers were loath to lay down
their arms. In elections held in Jan. 1916, Alfredo Baquerizo
M., a Liberal, was elected president: he was inaugurated on
Aug. 31. Various steps were taken by the President and Con-
gress to lessen the economic and fiscal strain due to the World
War. Embarrassing disputes arose between Ecuador and the
Guayaquil & Quito Railway Co. about the execution of their
engagements. On Aug. 31 1920, Dr. Jose L. Tamayo was in-
augurated as president for the term to Sept. i 1924.
International Relations. Part of the territory claimed by
both Ecuador and Peru has been occupied by Peruvians. Provi-
sion was made for the settlement of the boundary dispute
between Ecuador and Colombia by a treaty signed at Bogota
July 151916. This treaty drew a boundary line between Ecuador
and Colombia; it also stipulated that a mixed commission
928
EDINBURGH EDMONTON
should be appointed to place marks along that line where natural
boundaries were not sufficient and to make such minor reciprocal
compensations of territory as might be necessary to fix the
boundary exactly. That commission began the delimitation of
the Colombian-Ecuadorian frontier line about a year later,
and it completed the task by July 1919.
The World War. On Aug. 17 1914, the Ecuadorian Govern-
ment issued a decree announcing that it would observe the
strictest neutrality in the World War and stating that it would
adhere to the Hague Convention of 1917 and to the general
principles of international law. Soon afterwards France and
England complained that Ecuador had permitted violations
of neutrality, allowing German war vessels to use the Galapagos
Is. as a naval base. On Nov. 21 1914, Minister Elizalde issued
a justificatory circular to American chancelleries about the
neutrality of his Government. Seven days later President
Plaza G. issued a decree containing certain regulations that
were to be observed by all neutral vessels reaching Ecuador.
In Oct. 1917, when the ex-German minister to Peru, von Perl,
who was also representative of his Government to Ecuador,
expressed his intention to proceed from Lima to Quito, he was
informed by the Ecuadorian minister at Lima that his reception
by Ecuador would be incompatible with the principles of
American solidarity. On Dec. 8 following, the Minister of For-
eign Relations sent cablegrams to Ecuadorian legations stating
that Ecuador had severed relations with Germany. As a party
to the Treaty of Peace with Germany, Ecuador had the oppor-
tunity of becoming a member of the League of Nations. At
the instance of its committee on foreign relations, on Nov. i
1920 the Ecuadorian Senate postponed action upon the League
until the next meeting of Congress.
See Annual Report of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign
Bondholders (London, 1910 ); Amiario de Legislation Ecuadoriana
(Quito, 191 1 ) ; Boletin Estadistico Comercial y de la Hacienda Publica
(Quito, 1910 ); Circular a las Cancillerias americanas acerca de la
Neutralidad del Ecuador (Quito, 1914 ) ; El Ecuador Guia Comercial,
Agricola e Industrial de la Republica (Quito, 1911); A. Espinosa
Tamayo, El Problema de la Ensenanza en el Ecuador (Quito, 1916);
Informe del Ministro del Hacienda y Credito Publico a la Nation
(Quito, 1915) ; Injorme del Ministerio de Obras Publicas (Quito, 1918) ;
Mensaje del Presidente de la Republica al Congreso National (Quito,
1910 ) ; Monthly Bulletin of 'the International Bureau of the American
Republics (Washington, 1910 ); Pan-American Union, Ecuador,
General Descriptive Data (Washington, 1909 ) ; Proceedings of the
First Pan-American Financial Conference (Washington, 1915); The
Rockefeller Foundation. Annual Report (New York, 1916).
(W. S. Ro.)
EDINBURGH, Scotland (see 8.937*). By the passage of
the Edinburgh Boundaries Extension Act of 1920 Edinburgh
has become, as far as area is concerned, the second largest city
in the United Kingdom, through an amalgamation with Leith,
and the absorption of the suburban districts of Liberton,
Colinton, Corstorphine, and Cramond. The municipal area
was increased from 10,597 to 3 2 >4 2 acres.
The number of municipal wards has been increased from 16 to 23
and the number of members of the town council from 50 to 71
three representatives of each ward in addition to the two ex officio
members, the dean of guild and the convener of the trades. The
four Leith wards form the parliamentary division of Leith, and the
four new suburban wards are in the northern division of Midlothian
and Peebles. The powers of the board of trustees under the Edin-
burgh Waterworks Acts of 1869, 1874, and 1896 and of the Edin-
burgh and Leith corporations gas commissioners are now exercised
by the town council. The total valuation, as extended, is 4,696,504.
The pop. of Edinburgh by the 1911 census was 320,315, of Leith
80,488, of Liberton 8,360, of Colinton 6,664, of Corstorphine 3,870,
and of Cramond 3,763 a total of 423,460 for the extended city.
The estimated pop. in 1920 was 450,000. In 1917, the corporation
agreed to purchase the plant of the Edinburgh Tramway Co., for
50,000, and the transfer took place in July 1919, at the expiry of
the company's lease. The work of replacing the system of cable
cars was begun in 1910. A tramway extension to South Queensferry
and Port Edgar was sanctioned by the town council in 1917. The
most important addition to the public parks was the establishment
by the Zoological Society of Scotland, in conjunction with the town
council, of a zoological park at Corstorphine hill, which was opened
in July 1913. The site, which extends to 74 ac., was purchased by
the town council and feued to the society. About 27 ac. have been
laid out in a manner designed to give expression to the latest ideas
about the acclimatization and exhibition of wild animals, and to
show the inmates living under conditions which invite them to dis-
play their normal instincts and habits The park contains a large
and varied collection, and when completed will rival the London
" Zoo." Large corporation markets and slaughter-houses were
opened in 1910, and in March 1914 the Usher hall, bequeathed to
the city in 1898 by Mr. Andrew Usher, was completed and opened.
Additions to the large number of public memorials in the city
include a Black Watch memorial (1910), a statue of Dr. Guthrie
(1910), a life-size statue of Thomas Carlyle (by Boehm) presented
to the National gallery by Lord Rosebery in 1916. and a Gladstone
memorial (1917). In 1913, Lord Rosebery presented to the city the
historic house in the Lawnmarket known as Lady Stair's house ; and
in 1920. the birthplace of Robert Louis Stevenson. 8. Howard Place,
was purchased as a memorial by the R. L. Stevenson club. In 1911,
the King and Queen dedicated the new chapel of the Order of the
Thistle, in St. Giles' cathedral. The new Freemasons' hall was
opened in the same year. The western spires of St. Mary's cathedral
(carrying out the original plan of Sir Gilbert Scott) were completed
and dedicated in 1915 and 1917. Reconstructions of the national
museum of antiquities and of the national portrait gallery were in
progress in 1920. and a scheme for a national war memorial provided
for the utilization for this purpose of Edinburgh castle, which was
to be disused as barracks.
Royal residence at Hplyrood had emphasized the social position of
Edinburgh as the capital of Scotland, and its importance as an
administrative centre tended rather to increase than to diminish, as
new government departments were established. Its commercial
importance depends upon its being the headquarters of many of the
Scottish banks and insurance companies and of the North British
Railway Co., upon the continuance of its traditional position as the
chief centre for the administration of Scottish landed estates and
upon its preeminence in the legal world. Apart from the business
of the high courts, Edinburgh firms of writers and chartered account-
ants are entrusted with a large proportion of Scottish legal and
administrative work.
During the World War the proximity of Edinburgh to Queens-
ferry and Port Edgar and the great battle cruiser and destroyer base
in the Firth of Forth gave it strategic importance in the naval
operations, and its position as the headquarters of the Scottish
command made it a centre of military organization. Preparations
for defence against an invasion by sea were made in its vicinity as in
other coastal districts, but no serious anti-aircraft protection was
given until after a Zeppelin raid, on April 2 1916, in which ten people
were killed and eleven seriously injured and damage was done to
warehouses, private houses, and public buildings including Donald-
son's hospital. In the later stages of the war Edinburgh became a
favourite leave centre for colonial and American troops.
EDISON, THOMAS ALVA (1847- ), American inventor
(see 8.946), made great progress after 1910 in perfecting a
battery of large storage capacity for propelling vehicles. This
proved of great service, for example, in moving baggage trucks
at railway stations. He hoped to produce, with Henry Ford,
an automobile so propelled. He was specially interested in the
cinema, and early in 1913 displayed the first talking pictures,
produced by synchronizing the motion-picture and the phono-
graph. Although as yet unperfected, the inventor believed
that such pictures were destj*ied largely to replace text-books
in the schools. On the outbreak of the World War he urged
" potential preparedness " through mobilizing facilities for
research in America, on the ground that " future soldiers
will be machinists." In 1915 he was awarded a Nobel prize for
physics and the same year was made president of the Naval
Consulting Board. After America's entrance into the World
War he was in charge of several plants manufacturing chemicals
used in warfare. In 1916 he announced a portable searchlight,
fed by a storage battery, far more powerful than the acetylene
lamp, for use amid smoke in mine rescues, train wrecks, etc.
EDMONTON, the capital of the province of Alberta, Canada (see
8.946), first established as a trading post by the Hudson Bay Co.
in 1795, remained little more than a village until 1901. Since then
its growth has been rapid, and in 1920 it had a pop. of 67,000.
Edmonton has 5 railways with 13 radiating lines, and is the
terminus of the Calgary and Edmonton branch of the Canadian
Pacific Railway. The city council consists of a mayor and 10
aldermen elected from the city at large the mayor for one year
and aldermen for two and the mayor and two commissioners
act as a board for administration. There is also an elected board
of six public school trustees, and another elected board of
trustees for the separate (Roman Catholic) schools. The Su-
preme Court sits at Edmonton several times a year. Edmonton
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
EDMUNDS EDUCATION
929
is the chief educational centre of the province, and besides the
university of Alberta has a branch of the Normal school, Alberta
College, Westminster Ladies' College and a Presbyterian college.
Edmonton has extensive live-stock, dairy, milling and packing
industries. There are g coal mines within the city limits and 24
on the outskirts, giving a yearly output of 1,680,000 tons. Gold,
silver and oil are also found in the neighbourhood.
EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN (1828-1919), American
lawyer and political leader (see 8.949). died in Pasadena, Cal.,
Feb. 27 1919.
EDUCATION (see 8.951). In the sections on Education, in the
articles on various countries, mention is made of the progress
made there during 1910-20. Here a general account is given of
progress in the United Kingdom and the United States.
(i) UNITED KINGDOM
The first two decades in the 2oth century opened a new era in
the history of education in the United Kingdom. In England
and Wales the Act of 1902 not only combined in a national sys-
tem of elementary education both voluntary and state schools,
but laid a wider foundation for a national system of secondary
education. It was an Act which represented the spirit of com-
promise. It gave a new expression in one most important group
of institutions to the English genius of harmonizing diverse
elements within the State. At the same time the Act marked a
great experiment in local government, by transferring the re-
sponsibilities for education, elementary and secondary, from
the ad hoc school boards in England and Wales to the municipal
and county councils, and bringing education thereby into closer
relations with the other sides of civic policy.
It is necessary to the understanding of the development of
English education between 1910 and 1920 to keep in view this
fundamental change at the beginning of the century. For during
these first 10 years the system of education was taking on a new
character, which reflects a wider conception of education. The
school becomes more publicly recognized as a great centre of
social influence. Provision is made by statute to secure in
necessitous cases that school children shall be properly fed.
Inspection of the health of school children becomes a responsi-
bility of the local education authorities. Increased attention is
directed to the special problems of physically and mentally
defective children. The care also for the leisure hours of the child
and the provision of play centres become part of school life; and
the creation of juvenile employment organizations, in connexion
with the school, express the continuity of the elementary school
with the after life and care of the child. Side by side with these
developments there can also be observed a remarkable growth
of corporate life amongst school children themselves, and of
voluntary organization of social workers, anxious to help in the
ways of the juvenile community. It is not too much to say that
a broader human outlook marks English and Welsh elementary
education in the first 20 years of the 2oth century. And this is
no less true of education in Scotland.
Meanwhile, a deeper sense of the need for secondary and con-
tinuation education was also awakened. The growth in the num-
ber and variety of continuation classes under the local education
authorities, the rise of the Workers' Educational Assn. and of
the university tutorial classes system are all signs of the new
order in education. What this means in progress can only be
realized by looking backward and reflecting how modern is the
growth of the system of English public education. When the
mind follows the story of education in England from 1831, when
first small grant was made by Parliament for public education,
the opening decades of the 2oth century stand out above all as
calling into consciousness a deeper and wider idea of national
public education.
The second decade of the 2oth century rrfarks in a very pecu-
liar degree the continuation and working out of the movements
which had manifested themselves in the preceding 10 years. The
great Act of 1918, with the corresponding Education (Scotland)
Act, extended and deepened the work of the 1902 Act in England
and Wales and of the 1908 Act in Scotland. The principles of
organization and the ideas of the relationships between the school
and society, developed in the legislation and administration of
the period 1907 to 1910, were being progressively carried out in
the years immediately following. But the second decade of the
2oth century is broken and deeply affected by the years of war.
In these 10 years three periods may be distinguished. The first
from 1910 to the outbreak of war in 1914; the second from 1914
to the Armistice period in 1918; the third from 1918 onwards,
the opening of the period of reconstruction and reaction. The
first period, from 1910 to 1914, was marked by the steady prog-
ress of the new order. The sectarian controversy which had
raged round the Act of 1902 had subsided; a wider and deeper
conception of educational relationships was growing steadily
with a more general acknowledgment of the truth, that national
education in England must combine a wide variety of opinions
and a large freedom of curriculum. There was a new spirit of
tolerance. The administrative authorities, central and local, had
set themselves seriously to carry forward the extension upwards
of the educational structure on the basis of the 1902 settlement.
These are years of steady progress and widening outlook.
The second period is that of four years of war, a period in
which there was much less check to the continuous work of
school education than might have been expected. But necessa-
rily the schools suffered by reason of the war. The young male
teachers went off on service, many school buildings were re-
quired for military and emergency purposes, the restrictions as to
the employment of children were relaxed. Yet the war gave a
new impulse to school life. Examples of service and sacrifice
were present to the mind. There was a strain and seriousness
which affected both teachers and scholars, and gradually, too,
there came to the nation a fresh realization of the value of educa-
tion in developing individual and national life. Already in the
early years 01 the war expression was given to the demand for
a wider and fuller system of national education, and steps were
taken for the systematic consideration of the problem of " con-
tinuation education " and later of " adult education." Before
the conclusion of hostilities the Departmental Committee on
" Juvenile Education in Relation to Employment after the War "
had presented its report and the Minister for Education had
framed, and Parliament approved, a measure which ranks with
the great Acts of 1870 and 1902. Moreover the army itself had
become a great school or university and the experiments carried
out with the forces at home and overseas in adult education were
fruitful in stimulating new ideas as regards the scope and method
of national education and in directing attention to the place
which education should have in the life of men engaged in the
military and naval services.
The third period from the Armistice onwards, presents, in less
than three years, marked contrasts. In the first enthusiasm for
reconstruction there was a vigorous forward movement with the
view of bringing into operation as rapidly as possible the provi-
sions of the 1918 Acts. It was more than a period of reconstruc-
tion; it was a time of new national ideals. Then came the ebb,
with economic pressure, industrial unrest, high costs of construc-
tion and equipment, and financial stringency, and the larger
educational programme has been temporarily suspended. In
the grey morning of reparation and economic reconstruction
after a World War education had suffered, and there was some
receding of the high hopes and feelings. But the check could only
be regarded as temporary, and the ideas born in war and in the
early days of peace were in 1921 already reasserting themselves.
In considering the period from 1910 onwards it must also be
borne in mind that the educational movement has been increas-
ingly closely interwoven with other developments. Thus the
public library organization in the years immediately preceding
the war was being linked more closely than before with the edu-
cational system. It must also be remembered that already be-
fore the war a stronger national spirit had been evincing itself
in education in the several parts of the United Kingdom. Eng-
land, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, each was shaping on its own
lines its national system, and the comparison of the development
in the several states is rich in instruction for the student of mod-
930
EDUCATION
ern education. But while there has been an increasing measure
of administrative devolution in education the main lines of prog-
ress are common to all parts of Great Britain, though to a less
extent to Ireland. England, which had been in the past more
backward in its general education provision of elementary and
secondary education than Scotland or Wales, has perhaps shown
a greater advance during these years than any other part of the
United Kingdom, and has not only led the movement for an
obligatory system of continuation education to the age of 18, but
has opened a wider vision of adult civic education and culture.
Education in England. When the position of education in
England was reviewed at the opening of the second decade of the
2oth century, it could be seen that the system established by the
Act of 1902 had become firmly established. That Act had done
three noteworthy things. First, it had abolished the school
boards and transferred their powers as regards education to the
county and municipal councils. Secondly, it brought the volun-
tary elementary schools under the local education authority and
assisted them by support from local rates, while leaving them a
large measure of control in management. Thirdly, it had given
the new local education authorities power to provide for schemes
of secondary education and to levy rates for this purpose. Since
1902 there had been no important change in the constitutional
machinery of the educational system in England. The Act of
1918 in England called into being no new order of local education
authorities, as had been done by the corresponding Act in Scot-
land. In 1921 there were in England nearly three hundred local
education authorities, with powers of making schemes and levy-
ing rates, standing in direct relation to the Board of Education,
whereas in Scotland the number of local education authorities
had by the Education Act (Scotland), 1918, been reduced to
under 40. The consolidating movement had, therefore, pro-
gressed much further in Scotland than in England.
As regards elementary education, already in 1910 the system
in England had become well established. Attendance at school
was required up to the age of 13, and by the Act of 1918 is obli-
gatory on all up to the age of 14. The average attendance has
varied from 86% to 89%. Apart from the abnormal period of
the war there has been a gradual diminution in granting of
exemptions from school, and the Act of 1918 abolishes whole or
partial exemption under 14 years. There has been little change
in the number of public elementary schools in England. In 1903
there were 18,487, and in 1919-20 their number was 19,070.
But there has been a considerable change since the Act of 1902
in the number of council and voluntary schools respectively.
Since 1903 the number of voluntary schools has fallen from
13,438 to 11,635, whereas the council schools have increased in
number from 5,049 to 7,435 in 1920. The total average attendance
of pupils in public elementary schools in England, in 1920, was
4,795,672. In respect of the provision of teachers the period also
shows relatively little change, but gradual improvement. The
number of teachers, per 1,000 pupils in average attendance, in
1910-11, was 30-9, of whom 19-01 were certificated, 8-10 were
uncerti Seated, and 2-98 other adult teachers. In 1919-20 the
number of teachers per 1,000 scholars was 30-4, of whom 21-8
were certificated, 6-3 uncertificated, and 2-3 other adult teachers.
In certain other matters, however, there had been very marked
advance. In the years 1907-10 steps had been taken to secure to
the local education authorities in England and Wales powers to
establish medical inspection, to provide meals for school children
where this was considered desirable, and to organize information
in cooperation with the labour exchanges for the guidance of
children in the choice of employment on leaving school. Provi-
sion had also been extended for the purpose of dealing with the
mentally and physically deficient and a much wider recognition
was secured for " after care " work among school children. A
wider conception of the school and its responsibilities was thus
steadily emerging. The Act of 1918 has carried the movement
forward and has converted these powers of local education au-
thorities into a duty to look after the health and physical condi-
tion of the children in public elementary schools. A system of
school health services providing not only medical inspection, but
also treatment, is now well on the road to accomplishment.
Again, as regards the physically and mentally defective and
epileptic children, the Act of 1918 requires that the local educa-
tion authorities shall ascertain what children in their areas are
thus afflicted and shall make provision for their education.
It is also worthy of note that the Act of 1918 lays particular
emphasis on the great importance of healthy recreation. The
Act enables local education authorities, with the approval of the
Board of Education, to supply, or maintain, or aid (a) holiday or
school camps especially for young persons attending continua-
tion schools, (6) centres and equipment for physical training,
playing fields, school swimming-baths, (c) other facilities for
social and physical training in the day and evening. A very
large proportion of the proposals already submitted have been
concerned with holiday and school camps. In this connexion it
may be noted that the 1918 Act specially encourages local educa-
tion authorities to avail themselves of voluntary services,
particularly in the development of the recreative side of school
life, and the work of the Juvenile Organizations Committee in
promoting healthy recreation is a sign of the new spirit which is
now steadily pervading the educational system. Thus with the
great development in State action, the sphere of voluntary action
is also increasing. The ideal education policy requires volun-
tary and state agencies acting in close cooperation.
Secondary education in England presents a very different
situation. It might almost be said that, until the opening of the
2oth century, there was no national system of secondary educa-
tion in England. The number of secondary schools, apart from
the residential public schools and the old grammar schools, were
few and the gateway from the elementary schools was very nar-
row. But the Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary
Education in 1895, the Education Act of 1902, and the Regula-
tions for Secondary Education in 1907, are stages in the founda-
tion work of a new order, and during 1910-20 considerable prog-
ress was achieved in building up the framework of a national
system of secondary education. The great public schools and
grammar schools which have been so distinguished a feature of
English higher education retain their independence and their
well-deserved prestige. Like the ancient residential universities
of Oxford and Cambridge, their position has been strengthened
rather than weakened by the growth of new institutions. But
the public schools (as the term is understood in England, mean-
ing Eton, Harrow, and so forth) can only supply education to a
very limited number and at a high cost, while there is a steadily
increasing demand that there shall be easy provision of second-
ary education for all children who are willing and able to avail
themselves of it. By 1911 there were 862 secondary schools on
the Board of Education grant list, with 141,000 pupils; in 1920
there were 1,021 schools, with 282,005 pupils. There were also
in 1911 96 secondary schools recognized as efficient but not on
the grant-earning list, with over 17,000 pupils while in 1920
there were 201 of these schools with 36,271 pupils. In the case
of the schools on the grant list normally 25% of the places must
be free; the actual proportion was considerably higher.
In considering however such figures of secondary education a
caution is necessary. By far the greater number of pupils attend-
ing these schools are under 16 years of age. In the session 1910-
20, out of the total of 282,005 pupils in the secondary schools 83,-
386 were under 12 years of age, 177,988 were of 12 and under 16
years, while only 20,631 were 16 years of age and over. Thus
for all except a very small percentage, secondary education ends
before 16 years of age. When it is recalled that there are close
on 5 million children in the public elementary schools of England,
and that the number leaving the elementary schools each year
must be close on 600,000, it is evident how restricted the national
provision of secondary education still remains. This in itself
emphasizes the importance of the step taken in 1918 to provide
obligatory continuation education. It is the case that in England
the demand for secondary education has considerably exceeded
the supply, but it is also true that the pressure of economic cir-
cumstances and the tradition of getting to work early will prevent
a very large number of children in the elementary schools from
EDUCATION
continuing or desiring to continue as full-time secondary school
pupils. For the immediate future, therefore, a general system
of continuation schools is the best hope of imparting the benefits
of higher education to the majority of young people.
Already for many years local education authorities have been
providing increased facilities for evening students especially in
technical and manual instruction. The circumstances of the war,
however, stimulated greatly the public sense of the value of a
much more complete system of continuation education, and
brought into relief the defects of this side of educational organiza-
tion when compared with the system of continuation education in
Germany. Accordingly in 1916 the Minister of Education (Mr.
Arthur Henderson) appointed a Departmental Committee on
Juvenile Education in relation to Employment after the War.
This committee submitted in its final report, in 1917, recommen-
dations which the then Minister of Education (Mr. H. A. L.
Fisher) largely embodied in a bill. Modified in certain particu-
lars, this bill became the Education Act of 1918.
The Education Act of 1918 is, however, much more than a
measure establishing an obligatory system of continuation educa-
tion. It affects the whole scheme of elementary, secondary, and
continuation education. It aims at the establishment of a " na-
tional system of public education available for all persons capable
of profiting thereby," and local education authorities have,
under the first section of the Act, been called upon to prepare
schemes setting out the provisions which they have made and
propose to make towards this great end. The Act makes im-
portant specific changes in respect of elementary education,
including the provision of " nursery " schools for children be-
tween 2 and 5 years, the raising of the compulsory school age to
14, with power to the local education authority, by by-law, to
extend the compulsory age to 15, the abolition of part-time
attendance, the provision of central schools and special classes
of more advanced and more practical instruction for the older and
more intelligent children in the elementary schools, and it em-
phasizes the social welfare side of education.
In respect of secondary education, the Act requires local
education authorities to cooperate in providing for the purposes
of Part 2 of the Education Act of 1902 (i.e. higher education),
particularly in respect of (i) the preparation of children for
further education in schools other than elementary, and their
transference at suitable ages to such schools, and (2) the supply
and training of teachers. Also the very important duties and
powers with reference to provision for medical inspection and
treatment of children in elementary schools are extended by the
Act to secondary and continuation schools. The Act removes
the limitation, under section 2 of the Education Act of 1 902 , on the
amount to be raised by the council of a county out of rates for
the purpose of education other then elementary. The Act of
1918 is thus built on the foundations of the Act of 1902 and does
much to complete the educational ladder.
But important as are these provisions, the main feature of the
Act of 1918 is the institution of a compulsory system of part-
time continuation education after the close of the elementary
school period. " Young persons," between the ages of 14 and 18,
are required to attend a continuation school for 3 20 hours a year
unless able to claim exemption under the Act. This is the cardi-
nal fact of the new Act. For the first period of seven years com-
pulsory attendance applies only to pupils between the ages of 14
and 1 6 years and a local education committee may reduce the num-
ber of hours' attendance to 280 modifications which give time to
the authorities to make provision of schools and teachers where-
with to meet the new situation. Owing, however, to contingen-
cies, mainly financial, the operations of the Act have to a con-
siderable extent been postponed. But these difficulties are
temporary, and the experience of a national system of part-time
work and part-time education will presently begin to furnish
instructive evidence on the value of secondary education and
continuation education respectively. It is a matter which merits
the most careful observation in the next period.
In connexion with this very important subject it should be
stated that, in the session 1918-9, 125,000 students were in
attendance at technical and special schools in England, while
the number attending evening schools, chiefly under the local
education authorities, exceeded 465,000. Attention should also
be directed to the very notable and encouraging growth of
classes under the Workers' Educational Association and the
university tutorial classes. England has been the home of this
development, which is one of the most significant and encourag-
ing signs of the times. In 1918-9 there were 87 one-year
classes organized by the Workers' Educational Association and
132 tutorial classes which are three-year courses. In 1910-20,
the number of one-year courses had increased to 159 and of three-
year courses to 182. These classes have been concerned mainly
with economic history and theory, political and social science,
history, literature, and in some cases philosophy. Summer
schools are now held at many of the universities, for students
from the tutorial classes. The growth of the movement opens
out a new vista for democratic education in and from England.
Education in Wales. In considering the development of
education in Wales, it will be remembered that while English and
Welsh education have been under one Ministry there has been a
growing movement towards Welsh autonomy in education. In
1889 Parliament passed the Welsh Intermediate Education Act
which provided for separate local committees to make provision
for secondary education in Wales. In 1896 the Welsh Central
Board was established a representative body with the duty of
inspecting and examining the intermediate schools. In 1907 there
was constituted a separate Welsh department within the Board
of Education, with a permanent secretary and a separate in-
spectorate for Wales. But the great educational Acts of 1902
and 1918, together with minor educational measures, have in the
main applied alike to England and Wales. Thus in Wales the
system of elementary education broadly corresponds to that in
England. In 1920 the number of elementary schools was 1,901,
of which 1,270 were council schools and 631 voluntary schools.
Education is compulsory up to 14 years of age, and in 1919 the
average attendance out of a total of approximately 464,000
scholars on the register was 389,000.
The position as regards secondary education deserves more
particular notice. There are three groups of secondary schools in
Wales which are on the grant-earning list or are recognized by
the Board of Education as efficient. The first and largest group
is that of the intermediate schools numbering 101 in 1920. They
are examined and inspected by the Welsh Central Board, but
they are also reported upon and certified by the Board of Educa-
tion in respect of qualification for the Treasury Grant. Secondly,
under the Act of 1902 the local education authorities have es-
tablished, particularly in the large centres of population, 12
secondary schools, which are not under the Welsh Central Board
but are examined and inspected by the Board of Education.
Thirdly, there are a few endowed schools, six of which in 1920
were on the grant-earning list and five were recognized by the
Board of Education as "efficient." The total number of schools,
intermediate and secondary, eligible for grants in Wales in 1919-
20, was thus 119, and the number of pupils 25,754, while in
the five efficient schools, not on the grant-earning list, there were
788 pupils the total number of pupils in secondary schools
recognized by the Board of Education being 26,542. Thus the
situation with regard to secondary education has been compli-
cated in Wales and has suffered from dualism of control.
The constitutional powers of the Welsh Central Board have not
been such as enabled it easily to make provision for the increas-
ing demand for secondary education and recourse has been
necessary to the municipal and county authorities established
under the 1902 Education Act. Accordingly in 1919 a committee
was appointed by the Board of Education " to inquire into the
organization of secondary education in Wales and to advise how
it can be consolidated and coordinated with other branches of
education with a view to the establishment of a national system
of public education in Wales regard being had to the provisions
of the Education Act of 1918 and to the recommendations of the
Royal Commission on University Education in Wales." In
their report this committee, while recognizing the valuable work
932
EDUCATION
achieved by the Welsh Central Board, drew attention to the fact
that the system of secondary education as it has developed in
Wales has, owing to the division of authority, provided an organi-
zation which " is less elastic and less adaptable than that of
England to the new demands likely to be made upon it by the
Act of 1918." They therefore recommend that the Welsh Inter-
mediate Act, which being a " temporary " act has been peri-
odically renewed, should be allowed to lapse, and that the inter-
mediate schools and the municipal secondary schools should be
brought under one local county education authority which
should make provision for a completely coordinated scheme of
secondary education within its area, and that a National Council
of Education for Wales, representative chiefly of the Welsh
universities and of the education authorities in Wales, should be
set up under the Ministry of Education to which wide powers
should be devolved in relation to the whole field of education,
elementary, secondary and university. The aim is thus to pro-
vide in Wales a national educational authority more complete in
its scope, and more representative in its constitution, than
exists at present in any part of the United Kingdom. Meanwhile,
as in England and in Scotland, there has been in Wales, espe-
cially since the war, a marked increase in the demand for higher
education. The proportion of scholars who pass from the ele-
mentary to the secondary schools has, in nine years, risen from
35% to 53%. The further problem of the relation between the
secondary schools and the university of Wales has received par-
ticular attention from the Royal Commission on University
Education in Wales, and a scheme has been recommended
whereby the county authorities shall assume greater responsi-
bilities towards and receive increased representation in the Na-
tional University, so that elementary, secondary and university
education may be three closely related parts of one common
system. The object in view is that no child on the ground of
lack of means may be debarred from receiving the very highest
education the nation can supply. Wales is thus in a most inter-
esting and progressive stage of development towards a complete
national scheme of democratic education. The growth of Welsh
education is reflected in the great increase in the estimates of
educational expenditure. In the year 1921-2 the estimates of
net expenditure on elementary education in Wales amount to
4,999,804, while the estimates for higher education are stated at
846,716. Thus in Wales, elementary and secondary including
continuation education already claim 5,845,00x3. So also in
England the latest corresponding estimates (i92r-2) provide
for a net expenditure of 58,648,916 on elementary education and
of 12,622,015 on higher education the total figures for elemen-
tary education thus exceeding 71 millions. When it is remem-
bered that considerably increased sums will be required for con-
tinuation education, and for further extension of university
education, it will be seen how great and growing is the recognition
of the service of education in England and Wales.
Education in Scotland. The progress of education in Scotland
in the period 1911^-20 is in many respects similar to that which
has been seen in England and in Wales. There was no Act for
Scotland corresponding to the English Act of 1902, 'because condi-
tions were different and at that time, as now, the local education
authorities in Scotland were considerably in advance of those in
England particularly as regards aiding, maintaining, and con-
trolling secondary education. Scotland also did not follow the
example of England by transferring the control of education
from the school boards to her county and municipal councils.
But at the close of 1908 the Education (Scotland) Act was passed,
which can properly be regarded as marking an important stage
in the development of Scottish education. For while it made
no fundamental change in the educational system of Scotland the
Act enlarged the powers and duties of local education authorities,
and laid the foundations for the even greater Act of 1918.
In the history of education in Scotland, more than in any other
part of the United Kingdom, there may be seen a steady direction
of the national system along clearly marked lines, and the Act
of 1908 and, later, that of 1918 illustrate this character. First,
the idea of separate ad hoc local educational authorities has been
maintained and Scottish education thus continues to present an
interesting comparison with the system in England established
since 1902. But while the school board system was maintained
in Scotland until 1918 the need of larger areas has steadily made
itself felt, and in the Act of 1908 powers were given to school
boards to combine for various purposes. This immediately took
effect and in the report of the Scottish Education Department
for the year 1910-1 it is stated that 13 unions of school boards
have already been effected by voluntary arrangement, or by
order of the Department. It was pointed out, however, in the
same report that it was doubtful whether this policy of combina-
tion of school board areas could be carried very far, and that,
however active individual school boards might be within their
own areas, it was clear that there are educational functions which
transcend the sphere of the ordinary school board. This is par-
ticularly the case in respect of secondary education, where for
effective work authorities controlling wider areas are necessary.
The Act of 1918 carries out the work of enlarging areas and
consolidating local organization, which had been thus tentatively
advanced by the earlier Act of 1908. Secondly, as in England
and Wales, there has been a continuous movement of transferring
voluntary schools to the control of the statutory local education
authorities. Such schools have not been so many or so important
in Scotland as in England, but there has been a growing apprecia-
tion of the value of a national system which leaves room for
variety of type and which recognizes the place of the denomina-
tional school within the national system. The Act of 1 908 assisted
the transfer of voluntary schools to the school boards, and the
completion of this movement has been secured under the Act of
1918. Thirdly, there has been a steadily widening conception of
the educational duties of local authorities. The Act of 1908
enabled school boards to make provision, either by themselves
or in combination with other school boards, for the supply of
meals to pupils attending school within their district, to provide
conveyance and travelling expenses in order to help children in
outlying districts to attend school, to extend information as to
employment open to children on leaving school, and to make
provision for the maintenance and education of physically or
mentally defective children. It gave powers also to school boards
to secure medical inspection and supervision of children attending
school. A special Act of 1913 added medical treatment to medi-
cal inspection, and the Act of 1918 made such duties obligatory
on the local education authorities. Fourthly, there has been a
consistent policy of building up a complete national system, not
only of primary and secondary education but of continuation
education, and of increased facilities of university or other spe-
cialized higher training. The Act of 1908 made important pro-
vision for the extension of the system of continuation schools
above the age of 14 years, requiring school boards to make suit-
able provision for such schools, and it thus prepared the way
for a universal system of continuation education.
In two other respects also the Act of 1908 made a notable
contribution to the better organization of Scottish education.
It made provision for a national system of pensions and super-
annuation of teachers, and it consolidated and simplified the
financial arrangements for the control and distribution of State
grants by the constitution of the Education (Scotland) Fund.
The Education (Scotland) Act, 1918, which in many respects
corresponds to the Education Act for England and Wales of the
same year, may be regarded as the most important measure re-
lating to education in Scotland since r87o. In one sense the Act
only carries out developments which had been making themselves
evident even before and especially after 1908. But the new
stage marks the transition from tentative and partial efforts to
that in which a wider envisagement of the whole field of national
education is realized. A new order of local education authori-
ties is called into being, in order to carry forward the work
of developing the larger policy. In place of the 945 school
boards and 38 secondary education committees, 38 local edu-
cation authorities have been established, elected under the sys-
tem of proportional representation, known as the transferable
vote. To these local and county education authorities are
EDUCATION
933
committed the powers of determining and controlling the
whole system of primary, secondary and continuation education
within their respective areas. To aid them in their work a
system of school district management committees has been
provided, each county being left to determine the number of
such committees within its area. At the same time a repre-
sentative National Council for Education has been constituted
under the Act with the view of advising the Scottish Department
of Education an important step in bringing the central admin-
istrative organization into more direct touch with a representa-
tive body. Locally, also, provision has been made for the estab-
lishment of advisory councils, which may stimulate on the one
hand public opinion and on the other assist the local education
authorities on special questions, particularly such as relate to
economic and industrial conditions. The value of such local
councils has yet to be proved, but the step taken is significant
of the desire to bring the administrative system both centrally
and locally as closely as possible into touch with public opinion.
In considering the great change which the Act of 1918 has made
in the representative machinery of Scottish education, it may be
well to point out that the working of the new machinery of
government will demand close attention. It is permissible to
doubt whether the Act has not gone too far in abolishing the
local school boards and in constituting in their place county
authorities with school management committees, which latter
bodies frequently are concerned with an area larger than that of
the former school board. The school management committees
are selected in a variety of ways, but they do not have behind
them the simple strength and influence of popular election. The
measure of the success or failure of this step will be found in the
extent to which local interest in educational matters is sustained
or weakened. That statutory bodies, exercising wide powers and
controlling larger areas, were necessary does not admit of doubt,
but the sweeping away of the local school boards may be found
to have removed the most effective agency of stimulating local
interest in education. The problem of securing the best form of
representative machinery to deal with modern educational prob-
lems is a matter of very great importance, and its solution is yet
by no means reached. For that reason the variety of experience
presented in the United Kingdom is of peculiar interest. It may
be added that, at the election for the new local education authori-
ties in Scotland under the Act of 1918, only some 30% of the
electorate recorded their votes. This in itself is a significant
and disappointing fact, and indicates the need, even in Scotland,
of stimulating local interest in education. Another important
constitutional aspect of the Act of 1918 was the change made in
respect of financial administration. The Education (Scotland)
Fund, as established under the Act of 1908, is by the Act of 1918
so regulated that the distribution of grants will give to the local
education authorities greater discretion and flexibility in the
expenditure of the moneys entrusted to them by Parliament.
Instead of earmarking particular grants for particular services,
the earning powers and claims of the local education authority as
a whole are assessed by the Department of Education, and great
latitude is allowed to the authorities in the disbursements of the
sums, provision, however, being required for the maintenance of
secondary education. There has resulted thereby a simplification
of finance and an increase in the responsibilities of local education
authorities. Apart from these important changes in the repre-
sentative system and in financial administration the chief fea-
tures of the Act are the raising of the full-time school age to 15
years and the requirement of obligatory continuation education
up to 1 8 years of age. For the period of three years from the
passing of this Act, the compulsory age for continuation educa-
tion is limited to 16 years, whereas in England seven years elapse
before the full policy of the Act can take place. The 1918 Act
carried out to its logical conclusion a development which had
been steadily advancing for many years throughout Scotland.
Under the Act of 1908 it was lawful for school boards with the
consent of the Scottish Department to make a by-law, requiring
attendance up to the age of 16 at continuation classes. Already
in the session of 1913-14, before the war interrupted normal devel-
opment, 18 school boards in Scotland had availed themselves of
this power, and in the Education Report for the year it is observed
" that the need is apparent, after a lapse of five years since the
Act of 1908 came into force, for more vigorous steps to be taken
to interest and make more effective the provision of continuation-
class instruction particularly in the rural districts," and it is
pointed out that compulsory methods have stood the test well in
the few districts where by-laws have been made.
The educational ladder in Scotland is now strongly established.
There is an excellent system of primary education for children
to the age of 14, and powers have been taken to raise the com-
pulsory age to 15, while for those who have the ability to profit,
and the desire to do so, there is a generous system of bursaries
and maintenance grants from the elementary to the higher grade
and secondary schools. It is claimed that any child of ability
can now obtain higher education and in turn secure the further
opportunity of a college and university education. In 1920 there
were 3,019 primary schools in Scotland, with effective accommo-
dation for 947,125 scholars, 104 intermediate schools or depart-
ments with accommodation for 16,420 scholars, 148 secondary
schools or departments and 134 preparatory departments of
secondary schools with total accommodation (including that of
the preparatory departments) for 108,085 scholars, and 51
special schools for blind, deaf, mute or defective and epileptic
children, having accommodation for 6,658 scholars. The total
number of scholars in the register at the end of the school year
1919-20 was in primary schools (or departments) 760,343,
intermediate schools (or departments) 11,909, preparatory
departments of secondary schools 49,159, secondary schools or
departments 44,095, special schools and classes 7,266 making a
total of 872,772 scholars on a total estimated population of just
over five millions. If the table of ages of scholars is examined it
appears that rather more than a total of 20,000 pupils of 15
years of age or over were enrolled in the session 1919-20 in these
various classes of schools. The proportion of secondary scholars
to population is higher than in any other part of the United
Kingdom, but it indicates how limited still is the number who,
even in Scotland, receive full-time education beyond the age of
fifteen. But there has been a steady increase in the total number
of pupils attending intermediate or secondary departments.
Even in the period of 1913-4 to 1918-9 the number of pupils
enrolled in these schools rose from 47,742 to 58,948, and in the
year 1919-20 the rate of increase has been fully maintained. As
regards continuation classes the number of these in the session
1919-20 was 1,083, with 166,461 students. A feature, particularly
of the last sessions, has been the development in Scotland as in
England of classes organized by the Workers' Educational
Association for adult pupils. As regards financial provision, the
income of the education authorities under the Scottish Educa-
tion Department was for the year ending May 15 1920 9,629,-
430, in this total the chief items of interest being grants from the
Scottish Education Department 5,409,078, local education
rates 3,973,531, school fees 119,046. Great as have been these
advances in the sphere of education there remains one matter
which is always of the highest concern, namely, the training and
provision of teachers. Powers may be extended and equipment
improved, but the most vital problem is the supply of teachers
and of the spirit in which they carry out their work. In the past
in Scotland the teachers' training colleges owed their foundation
to provision made by the churches. The training colleges have
gradually shed their denominational character, and in 1905 they
passed under national and undenominational control. There
has been a steady requirement of a higher standard of training
and, to-day, practically all teachers in Scottish schools under the
Department of Education are certificated. In 1920 the number
of fully qualified teachers in State-aided day schools was 24,782
the proportion of teachers to pupils being in primary and inter-
mediate schools i to 37, in secondary schools i to 23, and in
schools and classes for blind, deaf, mute, defective and epileptic
children i to 17. A particularly satisfactory feature is that,
despite the losses and difficulties of recent years, the proportion
of teachers to pupils is considerably higher in 1920 than it was in
934
EDUCATION
1913-4. The Scottish educational system is thus, to-day, strong
and progressive and it maintains its distinctive independence.
But it is a striking evidence of the way in which autonomy tends
to follow similar lines of development, that at no time has there
been so much in common between English, Welsh and Scottish
education as at the present day. Left free, each system develops
its own peculiar spirit and traditions, but it also tends to assimi-
late itself to the standard of other progressive systems.
Education in Ireland. The system of education in Ireland has
undergone no such marked development as was seen in England
and in Scotland during the years 1910-20. Educational progress
in one part of the United Kingdom must always affect the other
parts to some extent, and steps have been taken in Ireland as in
other parts of the United Kingdom to make better provision for
medical inspection, for the care of physically and mentally
defective children, and for attending to the feeding of school
children. But the condition of affairs has remained far from sat-
isfactory in both primary and secondary education, and this is
even more the case as regards continuation education.
In Ireland the control of education is divided between three
public departments. The Commissioners of National Education
deal with primary education, the Intermediate Board with
secondary education, and the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction, with agricultural and technical education.
To a limited extent coordination is secured between the several
departments, and the Consultative Committee of Education, on
which all three departments are represented, is an evidence of
this. But the autonomy of the several departments remains the
outstanding fact. Education undoubtedly suffers from this divi-
sion of control, and from time to time the question has been
considered of uniting the various boards of educational adminis-
tration in one system. In Nov. 1919 a comprehensive Education
(Ireland) Bill was introduced by the Chief Secretary for Ireland,
which among other things proposed to set up a single Depart-
ment of Education in Ireland, but it failed to become law. In
the past the educational problem has been constantly over-
shadowed by political considerations and no effective step has
yet been made towards that unity of direction and completeness
of supervision which can only be secured either by a single de^
partment or by the closest cooperation and harmony between
the separate departments. The difficulties and disabilities arising
out of division are further accentuated by the widely different
systems represented by the three boards. The Commissioners of
National Education who are responsible for the position of pri-
mary education in Ireland, and who, therefore, have by far the
greatest task placed upon them, represent a centralized and
bureaucratic system of administration such as cannot be paral-
leled in any other part of the United Kingdom. As primary and
secondary education are not matters which have been handed
over, as in England and Wales, to the local county and municipal
authorities or to local education ad hoc authorities as in Scotland,
the only local control rests with the school management of the
individual school and the local attendance committees. It fol-
lows, so far as primary and intermediate or secondary education
are concerned, that there are no local rates. The financial re-
sources required for this most important part of national educa-
tion have, therefore, to depend upon moneys voted by Parliament,
or upon the yield of endowments, contributions, and school fees.
The result of this is that, so far as primary and intermediate
education in Ireland are concerned, the financial position is
most unsatisfactory. The resources for the maintenance, and
still more for the improvement, of national education are very
inadequate, and the old order has continued to exist at a time
when great measures of educational advancement are being
carried out in the other parts of the United Kingdom. The day
has passed when grants from a central department, supplemented
by voluntary contributions, can be equal to the burden of a na-
tional system of education, and Ireland is constantly suffering
from the fact that she has not faced the responsibility of estab-
lishing a system of local education authorities, and of charging
the local rates with a share of the burden of primary and inter-
mediate education. The problem in Ireland is complicated by
the denominational character of the schools and by the strong
element of clerical control in local educational matters. But, if
education is to advance, local and lay control must share the
burden of responsibility, and developments in England, Wales
and Scotland prove that alike the central Department of Admin-
istration and the local authorities can find a place in the national
system for denominational schools. Until the people of Ireland
locally and directly show their zeal for education by securing
the establishment of local educational authorities with powers to
rate, Irish elementary and secondary education cannot keep pace
with the progress which is being made in the sister countries. The
question is so fundamental that it must always be in view, as
during the past ten years the difficulties inherent in the present
system of primary and secondary education have been making
themselves increasingly felt. In 1913 a Viceregal Committee of
Inquiry into Primary Education was appointed to report upon
the system of inspection of primary schools, the relations be-
tween teachers and inspectors, and the system of promotion of
teachers in national schools, and both the evidence and the re-
port illustrate how difficult is the problem of encouraging and
remunerating teachers, and of giving scope for educational
development where there are no local representative authorities
and where promotion depends upon the report of inspectors and
the decision of the National Board. Alike in Scotland, England,
and Wales experience has proved how necessary it is to have
wide areas and to link education closely with the interests of the
community. In Irish primary education, the absence of local
representative authorities controlling large areas with a wide
range of schools accounts for much of the present stagnation of
education, and places upon the Central National Board the in-
creasingly invidious task of a bureaucratic system. Nor can it
be said that there is any effective parliamentary control over
Irish primary education. The system is thus constitutionally
weak and fails to stimulate alike local interest and national
public opinion in the vital question of education.
What is true of primary education in Ireland is also true in
respect of intermediate education, though owing to the much
more limited number of schools the problem is less acute. One
of the most serious aspects, however, of Irish education remains
the very inadequate provision which is made for secondary educa-
tion, other than agricultural and technical education. The supply
of schools, and the financial provisions for such as exist, fall far
short of what modern Ireland should have. In Ireland, as in
Great Britain, there is an increasing demand for higher education
and with the change in the value of money the situation of the
secondary schools is especially precarious. In their report for the
year 1920 the Intermediate Education Board commented severe-
ly on the fact that the grants in aid of Irish secondary education
from the Treasury are considerably less than the proper share
which should have been allocated for this purpose when compared
with the grants in England, Wales, and Scotland, and they con-
clude their report with the grave words "... remembering also
the scanty funds with which our admittedly successful efforts
were achieved, it is difficult for us at this juncture when the
whole edifice of secondary education in Ireland is toppling to
destruction to refer to these matters in language of moderation
and restraint. Of one thing, however, we feel quite certain, and
that is, that if something is not done immediately to place Irish
secondary education in the position of financial equality with that
of Great Britain, it is impossible to see how the complete disrup-
tion of the system can be avoided." In one respect improvement
has been made in recent years in the work of the Intermediate
Education Board, by the belated establishment of a system of
local inspection. The Intermediate Board system has been in the
past too much a central examining body rather than an educa-
tional department, and even with the limited step which has now
been taken to secure supervision of the intermediate schools and
their work by the board's inspectors, control is largely exercised
through the medium of written examinations. Thus both in re-
spect of primary and intermediate education, Ireland has pre-
sented a very unprogressive form of organization and even with
the improvements made in recent years, the system remains very
EDUCATION
935
far from satisfactory. There is no part of Irish public adminis-
tration in which reconstruction is more vital or more urgent. Ac-
cording to the Commissioners of National Education in 1918-9,
the average number of pupils on the rolls of the 8,802 primary
schools in Ireland was 708,353, and the average attendance
488,031 or 68-9%. The highest average yearly attendance in
the past ten years has been 72-6 per cent. These figures are in
themselves eloquent as to the very backward state of Irish
primary education. The State expenditure on Irish primary edu-
cation amounted in 1918-9 to 2,375,362. In respect of second-
ary education, 386 schools in Ireland received grants under
the Intermediate Education Board in 1920, the total number
of pupils between 12 and 19 years of age in these schools being
27,250. The number of pupils between the ages of 14 and 19 years,
who presented themselves for examination under the Interme-
diate Board, was 11,948, of whom 6,002 passed. The grants to
intermediate or secondary schools from the statutory funds and
the parliamentary grants of the Intermediate Board amounted
in 1920 to rather less than 142,000.
The third department responsible for a part of Irish education
is the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, and
at least in this field of agricultural and technical instruction Ire-
land can claim to have a system which is worthy of comparison
with that of any modern state. The importance of the system
established in respect of agriculture and technical instruction
lies not simply in the merit of the education provided in the
schools and colleges under the Department's supervision, but in
the improved representative relationships between central and
local authorities provided by the constitution of the Department.
The Agriculture and Technical Instruction Ireland Act of 1899
provided for the appointment of local statutory committees of
the county councils and municipal councils of Ireland to deal
with the subjects of agriculture and technical instruction, in-
cluding the raising of local rates for these purposes. It also
brought about the establishment of a central Council of Agri-
culture, consisting in respect of twa-thirds of its membership of
representatives of county councils, the remaining third being
nominated by the Department. At the same time provision was
made for the appointment of a Board of Agriculture chosen in
respect of two-thirds of its membership from the Council of
Agriculture, the remaining third being nominated by the De-
partment, and of a Board of Technical Instruction representing
chiefly municipal and borough authorities concerned in technical
education. Important functions and powers were given to these
bodies of shaping the policy and the administration of the Cen-
tral Department. The result of this representative machinery has
been a closer harmony between central and local authorities than
has been secured in any other field of public administration in
the United Kingdom, and the great progress which has been
made in Ireland in the two decades of the 2oth century, both in
agricultural education and technical instruction is in no small
measure due to the admirable constitutional organization which
was laid by the founders of the Department. The close relation-
ships between central and local authorities have, even in a diffi-
cult period of national affairs, led to increased interest in the
progress both of agriculture and of technical instruction, and no
part of government in Ireland has succeeded in so fully associat-
ing the people with the work of administration and in educating
public opinion and eliciting local financial support. The work
which thus centres round the Irish Department of Agriculture
and Technical Instruction has exercised a great influence on
modern Ireland. It has given a much needed impetus and direc-
tion to science teaching and research, to agricultural study and
investigation, to manual training and craftsmanship, to commer-
cial and industrial subjects in relation to the economic conditions
of the country and to domestic economy and public health educa-
tion all of which are peculiarly vital to a community in which
education has suffered from a too narrow and bare curriculum.
But it has done more, and has suggested, by experience, the pos-
sibilities of a much wider reestablishment of Irish education in
which all parts will be brought into closer relation one with the
other and strengthened by association with central and local
representative committees. In the year 1918-9 the grants made
out of the parliamentary vote to technical schools and classes of
science and art amounted to 114,210 while a further expendi-
ture on technical instruction, amounting to 65,867, was made
out of endowment funds. In addition to these sums the sum
contributed from local rates amounted to 36,518. The number
of students attending technical schools and classes was 37,241,
and the number of students recognized for grants in connexion
with technical instruction in day secondary schools was 14,822.
Conclusion. Looking back over the period from 1910-20 and
across at the varied developments in the countries which make up
the United Kingdom, the year 1918 stands out as summing
up the effort of the preceding years and projecting the task which
succeeding years have to fulfil. Nineteen-eighteen is the sym-
bolic year, and the place which education then filled in the thought
of the nation is itself a revealing fact. There has been a great
widening of the horizon. The school now goes down to the nur-
sery school, and the leaving age rises. The defective children are
being treated, and the child life of the nation is its care. Slowly
but surely a national system in the full sense is evolving in Eng-
land and in Wales, no less than in Scotland. Ireland still has to
solve her educational problems and must do so in her own way
and by her own genius.
The great task is now the building up of higher education
on lines which call out and use the talent and spirit of the nation.
The problems are vastly more complex and difficult than those
of primary education. But they are being solved, and increasing-
ly generous financial provision for education is forthcoming. The
education estimates already bid fair to rival the place which the
naval and military estimates have taken, and before long it may
prove true that in no field of public expenditure has the State to
shoulder so large a responsibility as in education. But education
is not only a means but an end. And a Nation like an individual
has to work and save in order that it may enjoy the fullest educa-
tion. One can discern the coming of this spirit in England, and
it is a sign of hope for the future. Nothing but a united communi-
ty and the combined strength and experience of central and of
local authorities, of state and of voluntary organizations, can
provide a solution to the problems which the higher education of
youth and adult life has in store. Nor must it be forgotten that
social institutions are a great factor in national education. The
Boy Scouts, and Girl Guides, the Women's Institutes, the village
clubs, the allotments movement, the cooperative societies,
these and many other voluntary agencies are growingly powerful
factors in national development and education. And judged by
the progress of such movements, the second decade of the 2oth
century and the closing years of that decade will stand out in the
annals of English education. (W. G. S. A.)
(2) UNITED STATES
Each state in the American Union has its own system of educa-
tion, which includes elementary and secondary schools, and, in
all except the states of the extreme north-east, state institutions
of higher learning. All of the 48 states have enacted compulsory
school laws, but in their standards, and in the enforcement of
them, they vary widely. School attendance is (1921) generally
required of children between the ages of 8 and 14 or 16 during
from 6 to 8 months in the year, and many states further require
attendance upon part-time or evening classes by those who have
not acquired a prescribed minimum of education or who can not
adequately speak, read and write the English language. The
National Government, through Congress in 1916, notably
reenforced the compulsory school laws of the states by an enact-
ment prohibiting the shipment, in interstate commerce, of any
articles in the manufacture of which children under 14 have been
employed. In place of the almost universal requirement of eight
years in the elementary school and a nearly uniform curriculum,
there is manifest a tendency to group together as a " junior high
school " the seventh, eighth and ninth grades, which otherwise
would constitute the last two years of the elementary school and
the first year of the secondary school. The purpose of the re-
arrangement is to facilitate departmental teaching, to free the
936
EDUCATION
child from the rigid grade system of promotion, by which a
failure in one subject necessitates the repetition of the whole
year's work, to permit earlier a choice of courses and thereby
prepare the pupil for greater accomplishment in his chosen
field during the later high-school years. The public secondary
schools have grown by leaps and bounds in numbers and re-
sources. Their enrolment doubled in the 10 years 1908-18 and
between the years 1918 and 1920 there was a proportionate in-
crease. They are no longer essentially stepping stones to college;
they represent the continuation of the common schools, and their
function is to complete the formal education of that vast majority
which will never enter institutions of higher learning.
Colleges and Universities. Throughout the country, but espe-
cially in the west and middle west, so called "junior colleges"
are becoming numerous. The term is somewhat a misnomer.
Some of these institutions are derived from small, non-tax-sup-
ported colleges which, finding themselves financially unable to
continue satisfactorily the full four-year course, limit themselves
to two years, and others, more significantly, from the upward
extension of the vigorous public high schools. This type not only
brings the opportunity for higher education within the reach of
many who could not leave the immediate vicinity of their homes,
but also reacts favourably on the pupils and teachers of the
secondary schools from which it grew. The college remains the
most characteristically American feature of educational develop-
ment in the United States. In 1920 there were enrolled more than
250,000 college students. Entrance requirements have become
less rigid, as indicated by the recommendation of the conserva-
tive Association of New England Colleges: that its members adopt
" a system of tests for admission in which a certificate shall be
taken for the quantity, and examination shall be held in a limited
number of subjects for the quality, of school work." The cur-
riculum covers a very wide range of subjects, but experience has
shown that it is unwise to permit the student to exercise un-
trammelled freedom in the choice of his studies, and most colleges
now limit the selection of courses in such manner as to prevent
too great concentration and too great dispersion as well. The
universities, though not more numerous, have in recent years
grown stronger. Their graduate departments, better manned,
attract more students. In this respect the development of the
state-supported institutions has been remarkable. A few years
ago only three had achieved distinction in this, field; by 1921, 12
had qualified for membership in the Association of American
Universities, and constituted one-half of its members. The
enrolment of graduate students in all universities was in 1916
11,215; in 1920 it was upwards of 16,000. So great has become
the demand among women for higher education that the colleges
exclusively for women are no longer able to provide for the rapid-
ly increasing number of applicants for admission. Bryn Mawr,
Vassar, Wellesley, Smith and Mt. Holyoke have been forced to
establish waiting lists. The doors of the universities for the most
part stand open to women upon an equal footing with men. By
1920, 44% of the students, graduate and undergraduate, en-
rolled in the universities, colleges and technological schools,
were women, and it may confidently be predicted that they will
soon outnumber the men. The general admission of women to
courses in medicine removes practically the last barrier dis-
criminating between the sexes.
Professional Education. Schools -for professional training
have grown rapidly. Whereas a century ago professional educa-
tion comprised little more than preparation for the ministry, it
now includes theology, medicine, law, the new profession of
engineering, and two offshoots of medicine, dentistry and
veterinary medicine. Pharmacy and nursing are sometimes re-
garded as professions because a specialized education is pre-
scribed for those who would practise them.
Theology. The colleges first founded in what is now the
United States, Harvard, William and Mary, and Yale, were
established to train men for the Christian ministry. As the
colleges have developed into universities the original aim has
been merged into the broader purpose of providing liberal educa-
tion for all, while influential schools of theology have grown up,
for the most part, as strictly denominational institutions inde-
pendent of the universities. During recent years the content of
the curriculum and methods of teaching have been revised.
Formal theology is emphasized less, a first-hand knowledge of
human relationships more; Hebrew is not always obligatory,
while the results of literary and historical criticism are fully dis-
cussed. Freedom of thought in some institutions has completely
liberalized the training and greatly modified the traditional
theology. During the years 1870-95 the number of theological
students increased more rapidly than the general population.
During the next 25 years the figures show marked fluctuations,
but for the period as a whole neither student enrolment nor the
number of graduates kept pace with the increase in population.
Medicine. The medical schools of the United States were
slow to adjust themselves to the new conditions brought about
by the growth of medical science. They followed the model of
continental Europe rather than that of Great Britain, in that
the teaching was almost exclusively by lectures but imposed no
definite requirement as to preliminary education. There was
lacking also, for the most part, stimulating contact with colleges
or universities of high academic ideals; and therefore there
developed an organization which lent itself readily to com-
mercialism. In recent years, however, medical teaching has been
revolutionized, and now exemplifies the highest standards of
professional education. The rapid development of physiology,
pathology, embryology, chemistry and hygiene has necessitated
the enlargement of the curriculum to include these subjects.
Laboratory methods of teaching have been introduced at very
great cost for buildings and equipment. Teachers qualified by
training and experience have superseded practising physicians as
instructors in the fundamental sciences; in the clinical branches
also pedagogical standards have been raised. Satisfactory pre-
liminary education is regarded as essential, and all recognized
medical schools (1921) require of candidates for admission the
completion of the four-year secondary school course and at least
two years of college work, including physics, chemistry and
biology. Cornell, Western Reserve, and Leland Stanford require
three years of college for entrance; Harvard a degree from, or
two years of high rank in, a college or scientific school; Johns
Hopkins a Bachelor's degree or its equivalent. Most significant
of all, the student is again brought into intimate contact with
the sick; hospitals and dispensaries are used as laboratories where
the prospective physician may acquire skill in examining patients
and familiarity with the manifestations of disease. The degree of
Doctor of Medicine is conferred on completion of the medical
course, which in nearly all schools is four years in length. A few
institutions require also a fifth year, spent as an interne in a
hospital, before granting the degree. Advancing educational
requirements, the consequently greater cost of medical training,
and the increasing knowledge and interest of the public in mat-
ters of public health have combined to reduce the number of
medical schools from its maximum of 162 in 1906 to 85 in 1920;
of medical students from 28,142 in 1904 to 14,088 in 1920; and of
medical graduates from 5,747 in 1904 to 3,047 in 1920.
Law. Legal education in the United States began in a kind
of apprenticeship, an intimate personal relationship with a
practising lawyer. The increasing complexity of legal machinery
and the resulting specialization on the part of legal practitioners
rendered it impossible for a student to gain a complete education
in a single office. Schools were therefore established offering
systematic courses of lectures, and attendance on such schools,
in addition to a clerkship in a law office, is now required for
admission to the bar. The length of the law course has been
increased from one to two and from two to three years and the
curriculum correspondingly enriched. In some instances the
student is permitted a choice of elcctives. Most schools have
adopted the " case method " of teaching, which consists in
presenting to the student the records of selected cases. These
records he analyzes, and from them deduces the legal principles
involved. Lectures and moot courts are also employed. The
minimum of preliminary training required for admission to a
recognized law school is the completion of the four-year secondary
EDUCATION
937
school courses, but many of the universities demand in addition
two years or more of college work. In 1921 the number of law
students was more than 27,000, an increase of nearly 20% over
the pre-war figures.
Engineering. The beginnings of American technological train-
ing were made, not in the long-established colleges, but in a group
of special schools, independently founded, such as the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology in Boston and Stevens Institute
in Hoboken, N.J. Later the universities took up engineering
education with avidity, built up elaborate departments and
offered the greatest variety of courses. Another type of technical
school is the state college of " Agriculture and Mechanic Arts "
supported by land grants from the Federal Government. Engi-
neering schools require of applicants for admission the completion
of the four-year secondary school course. Instruction is largely by
means of laboratory courses. The university of Cincinnati has
gone a step further and perfected an arrangement by which
students spend half their time outside the college, actually
employed in some form of engineering work; periods of two weeks
of study alternate with like periods of practice in a shop. The
degree of Bachelor of Science, with or without specification of the
branch studied, is commonly conferred after four years of college
work. Those of Civil Engineer, Mining Engineer, and so forth,
are awarded for undergraduate work by some schools in place
of the B.Sc. ; by others reserved for more advanced study.
Dentistry. Since 1900 there has been increasing uniformity
among dental schools until in 1921 all recognized schools required
for admission at least the completion of a four-year secondary
school course, and gave four full years of professional training.
It was even proposed that beginning in 1926 the entrance re-
quirement for dental schools be raised to include two years of
college work. The growing appreciation of the value of dentistry
is indicated by the increase in the ratio of the number of dentists
to the total population. In 1850 this ratio was 12 for 100,000;
in 1910 it was 43; in 1920, 56.
Veterinary Medicine. In this, as in other professions, there
has come a realization of the necessity for a/- solid foundation of
general education on which to base special training. The accept-
ed standard in 1921 was the completion of a four-year secondary
school course and three years in a college of veterinary medicine.
In 1900 13 schools enrolled 362 students and graduated 100
veterinarians. In 1916 the numbers had increased to 22 schools,
3,064 students and 759 graduates. The war brought about a
great reduction in the number of those choosing veterinary
medicine as a career. In 1921 the number of veterinary schools
declined to 14 and the student enrolment to 849.
University Extension. Under this head are grouped all those
activities of institutions of higher learning which are carried on
for the benefit of people unable, through lack of time or training,
to matriculate in the regular college or university courses, but
who still desire some form of higher education, and this extension
of facilities is designed to include in its scope persons many years
older than the ordinary undergraduate. Originally no more than
a series of public lectures on topics of literary, historical or
scientific interest, this extra-mural teaching has extended its
range, diversified its method, and multiplied its activities, until
it has become, in some instances at least, an important function
of the university. The spirit of service to the community which
it embodies was expressed by the late President Van Hise in
these words: " So far as the university of Wisconsin is concerned,
we propose to take up any line of educational work within the
state for which the university is the best fitted instrument," and
again, " It is my ideal of a state university that it should be a
beneficent influence to every citizen of the state." In such a
programme the whole realm of human knowledge is included,
from sewing to Sanskrit and from plumbing to philosophy. Sum-
mer sessions, of from six to eight weeks' duration, provide valua-
ble opportunities for those, chiefly teachers and students, whose
work allows a long vacation. Varying standards prevail in the
summer schools; in not a few the amount and quality of the work
render it acceptable as part of the requirement for a degree.
The university of Chicago has made its summer session the full
equivalent of one of the winter terms and operates on a four-
quarter schedule. Teaching by mail is another method em-
ployed by some universities to widen their spheres of influence.
Extension teaching is also carried on by local boards of education,
especially in large cities. Much of it takes the form of part-time
classes for children who have left school prematurely and for
immigrants who lack command of the English language. Private
enterprise outside of academic circles has contributed to exten-
sion teaching along two distinct lines. The Chautauqua Assem-
bly is the prototype of the summer school, and has exerted a
very wide influence through the thousands who each year attend
its courses. Quite different in scope, but not less valuable, is the
kind of work done by other institutions which provide opportuni-
ties and incentives for continuous and serious study as well as
lecture courses and concerts having a wider appeal. Perhaps
the most valuable extension teaching is that which reaches into
the home, bringing to the mother such information as will aid her
in solving her manifold and peculiar problems. The U.S. Govern-
ment prepares and distributes upon request a comprehensive
series of pamphlets containing instruction regarding the selec-
tion and preparation of food, infant feeding, child hygiene and
many other subjects. Whenever possible, nurses and women
trained in the household arts visit the homes and, by personal
directions and demonstration, often succeed in promoting the
welfare of the family where print alone would fail. Intellectual
development is stimulated by courses of home reading. The
recognition of the importance of home influences as factors in the
child's success at school has led to the formation of " parent-
teacher associations," from which the teachers gain a knowledge
of the home environment of their pupils and the parents learn
how best to cooperate in the education of their children.
Vocational Training. This term denotes training of less than
college grade, designed to fit the individual to earn a livelihood.
Its beginning in the form of manual training may be traced back
as far as 1880, but except for a few isolated experiments it is a
development of the 2oth century. Phases in the progress toward
an understanding of the problem have been:- (i) attention was
focussed on " misfits "; based on what might be called a ' niche "
theory of society, the problem was stated as that of finding the
particular place or station in life that exists somewhere for each
individual; (2) it was held to be the duty of society to regard with
earnest concern and in some way to aid those that are defective;
(3) then came the idea that the schools might prevent individual
and perhaps unusual types from being spoiled in the making;
(4) next came a shift in emphasis to the necessity for vocational
training; and (5) finally has come a recognition of the necessity
for an educational survey of the community in order to deter-
mine what opportunities are already available and what its
industrial needs really are. The so-called Smith-Hughes Act
passed by Congress in 1917 authorized appropriations which
will aggregate $7,000,000 a year for promoting, in cooperation
with the states, special training in schools designed to meet the
needs of those who are preparing to enter agriculture or industry;
provision is also made for training teachers for this work by
industrial or commercial corporations and by the cooperative
effort of the schools and the corporations. The teaching of
domestic science was begun in the schools of Framingham, Mass.,
in 1898. The desirability of such training for every young girl
has led to the inclusion of one or more courses in home economics
in the curriculum of every girls' high school and also in the upper
grades of the better-organized elementary schools.
Agricultural Education. Training for agricultural pursuits,
more than any other branch of education, has been fostered by
the Federal Government. Its development manifests several
stages, each characterized by a different method. The land
grants of 1862 led to the establishment of state colleges of
" Agriculture and Mechanic Arts," which, however, for a
generation at least, were predominantly schools of engineering.
In 1887 Congress authorized subsidies to agricultural experiment
stations under state control, a policy the wisdom of which was
quickly demonstrated. In a few years these stations accumulated
a wealth of exact knowledge relating to farm problems which
938
EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES
would have been of inestimable value if it could have been applied.
Then came the development of agricultural extension education
employing agencies such as lectures, bulletins, correspondence
courses, reading courses, farmers' institutes, short courses at
agricultural schools, travelling libraries, educational trains,
demonstration farms, educational exhibits at fairs and moving
pictures. This phase culminated in the Smith-Lever Act of 1914,
which appropriated more than $4,000,000 annually to be appor-
tioned among the states for agricultural extension work. Such
activity, creating a great demand for teachers and farm demon-
strators, reacted beneficially upon the agricultural colleges.
Meanwhile another tendency was becoming manifest. The
science of farming was being taught in the secondary schools.
This plan possessed so many obvious advantages and showed
such satisfactory results, that during the decade following 1910
it was widely adopted. In 1920 1,797 public secondary schools,
with an enrolment of 27,755 pupils, provided vocational instruc-
tion in agriculture. In most schools the boy or girl is required to
carry out, under supervision, some definite enterprise such as the
cultivation of a small plot, the raising of pigs or poultry or the
conduct of a miniature dairy. A detailed record of the under-
taking, including a financial statement, is required and affords
a basis for grading pupils' work.
Certain private corporations, not directly engaged in teaching,
have influenced education in the United States. The General
Education Board, incorporated by Congress in 1903, has em-
ployed the funds at its disposal in assisting institutions of higher
learning throughout the country, and in the southern states it
has also promoted the development of the secondary schools and
the teaching of agriculture. Recently it has entered the field of
medical education. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advance-
ment of Teaching, incorporated in 1906, starting with a pro-
gramme of pensions for retiring college professors, has been led
into the field of investigations and surveys. The published reports
of its findings have contributed in large measure to educational
progress. The Russell Sage Foundation performs similar service.
Statistics. The magnitude of educational work may be indicated
by figures from the report of the Commissioner of Education for the
year 1918. The total enrolment of pupils amounted to 23,433,726,
and the estimated total cost $1,059,934,803, making the average
outlay 845 per pupil enrolled and $10 the cost per capita of the
whole population. Teachers and supervisory officers numbered
769,763, of whom 23 % were men. The bureau reported 670 col-
leges, universities and professional schools, with an enrolment of
355,131. For the public schools of elementary and secondary grade
the following figures were given :
Number of pupils
Average number of days schools open
Average days' attendance by each pupil
Number of male teachers ....
Number of female teachers ....
Number of school-houses ....
Average annual salary of teachers . ;
Value of all school property ....
Income from permanent funds and rents
Income from local taxes . .
Income from state taxes ....
Income from other sources ....
Expenditure for sites, building and equipment
Expenditure for salaries ....
Expenditure for other purposes .
Expenditure per capita of whole population
Expenditure per pupil in attendance .
Expenditure per pupil per day
20,853,516
160-7
119-8
105-194
545,515
276,827
(A.
$1,983,508,818
$21,517,04
$580,619,460
$101,305,057
$33,434,885
$119,082,944
8436,477,090
$208,118,055
$7-26
$49-12
$-37
S. D.; N. M. B.)
EDWARD (EDWARD ALBERT CHRISTIAN GEORGE ANDREW
PATRICK DAVID), Prince of Wales (1894- ), eldest son of
King George V. and Queen Mary, was born June 23 1894,
at White Lodge, Richmond Park, and baptized twenty-five
days later by the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1902, Mr.
H. P. Hansell was appointed his tutor, and remained with
him from that time until Aug. 1914. During 1902-7 the Prince
was prepared for the navy, and in the spring of 1907 he entered
Osborne, where he remained for two years before going on to
the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth. During his time at
Osborne, Capts. E. Alexander-Sinclair and A. H. Christian
were in command, and Capts. T. D. L. Napier and H. Evan-
Thomas at Dartmouth. On June 24 1910 he was confirmed in
the private chapel at Windsor Castle. While still a cadet at
Dartmouth he performed his first public duty on March 29
1911, by presenting to the mayor and corporation of that town
the silver oar which they held formerly as a symbol of the rights
associated with the Bailiwick of the Water of Dartmouth. At
the close of his Dartmouth training in June 1911 he was in-
vested as a Knight of the Garter, and on July 13 1911 he was
created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester. He was shortly
afterwards invested as Prince of Wales in Carnarvon Castle,
of which Lloyd George was at that time constable, and on this
occasion for the first time an English prince addressed the
Welsh people in their own tongue. Shortly after this event
the Prince became a midshipman, and was appointed to H.M.S.
" Hindustan," in which ship he served for three months under
Capt. Henry Campbell. The months which followed this cruise
were spent quietly at' Sandringham in preparing for Oxford, but
during the spring of 1912 the Prince spent five months in Paris
as the guest of the Marquis de Breteuil, during which period
he was ably coached by M. Maurice Escoffier in the language
and history of the country. In Oct. 1912 the Prince, accom-
panied by Mr. Hansell and Maj. the Hon. William Cadogan
(loth Hussars), who had recently been appointed his equerry,
became a freshman at Magdalen College, Oxford. During his
time at Oxford the Prince entered heartily into the corporate
life of his college and the usual athletic amusements of the
undergraduates. The Prince resided in college rooms, dined in
hall or at one of the university clubs, and mixed freely with
his fellow undergraduates. Some of his vacations he spent in
European travel, visiting Germany twice, in 1912 and 1913,
and Denmark and Norway in 1914. The Prince's university
career was ended by the outbreak of the World War in Aug.
1914 on the eve of his third year. On Aug. 7 he was gazetted
and lieutenant in the Grenadier Guards, and on the nth he
joined the ist battalion at Warley Barracks, Essex.
In Nov. 1914 the Prince, who had been appointed aide-de-
camp to Sir John French, arrived in France and took up his
new duties at British G.H.Q. at St. Omer. During the next
1 8 months he served with the Expeditionary Force in Flanders
and in France in various parts of the line, being first attached
to the 2nd division under Maj.-Gen. Home, to the I. Corps
under the command of Lt.-Gen. Sir Charles Monro, and later
to the Guards division under Maj.-Gen. the Earl of Cavan.
In March 1916 he was appointed to the staff of the G.O.C.
the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, and proceeded at
once to Egypt. He took the opportunity of seeing the troops
in various parts of the line on this front, and also went as far
south as Khartum. On his return journey he paid a visit to
the Italian headquarters at Udine, and by the middle of June
had returned to the British armies in France. He was then
attached to the XIV. Corps (Lord Cavan) in Flanders and
France, taking part in the battles of the Somme and Passchen-
daele, and subsequently proceeded with this corps, in Oct.
1917, to the Italian front, where he remained till Aug. 1918.
In May 1918 the Prince paid a semi-official visit to Rome. The
Prince then returned to France and was attached to the Canadian
Corps, with whom he was serving at the time of the Armistice.
He was attached to the Australian Corps in Belgium till the
beginning of 1919, after which he visited the Army of Occupa-
tion on the Rhine, spending a few days with the New Zealand
division, and paying a short visit to General Pershing at the
American headquarters at Coblenz.
On his return to England at the end of Feb. 1919 the Prince
almost immediately took up a number of public duties which
had of necessity been deferred during the war, and on May 29
was admitted to the freedom of the City of London. On Aug.
5 1919 he left Portsmouth in H.M.S. "Renown" for New-
foundland and Canada, first setting foot on Canadian soil on
Aug. 1 5 at St. John, New Brunswick. His tour extended through
the entire Dominion from E. to W., and five days after reaching
Victoria on Sept. 23 the return journey began by a slightly
EDWARDES EGYPT
939
different route. The Canadian tour ended at Ottawa, and on
Nov. 10 the Prince left for Washington to pay a short official
visit to the President of the United States. New York was
subsequently visited, and after a long series of official engage-
ments, the Prince sailed for Halifax, where he bade good-bye
to Canada, and reached Portsmouth on Dec. i.
After a short stay in England the Prince sailed again in'
H.M.S. " Renown," on March 16 1920, for New Zealand and
Australia. The first port of call was Barbados, and then, passing
through the Panama Canal, short visits were paid to San Diego
(Cal.), Honolulu and Fiji, Auckland being reached on April 24
after a voyage of 14,000 miles. A month was spent in New
Zealand, visiting all parts of the North and South Is., and on
May 26 the Prince landed at Melbourne. During his stay in
Australia he visited all states of the Commonwealth, and
eventually sailed from Sydney harbour on Aug. 19. On the
return journey stops were made at Fiji, Samoa, Honolulu and
Acapulco, and, after passing once again through the Panama
Canal, three weeks were spent in the West Indies. The last
port of call was Bermuda, and H.M.S. " Renown " eventually
reached Portsmouth on Oct. n 1920. The Prince received a
magnificent reception on his arrival in London, and, as had
been done on his return from Canada and the United States,
the conclusion of his world-tour was celebrated by the King
and Queen at a banquet at Buckingham Palace, and the Prince
was shortly afterwards entertained by the Lord Mayor at
the Guildhall, where he gave an account of his travels.
After a brief holiday, spent for the greater part in the hunt-
ing-field, he resumed his public duties after Christmas, 1920.
During the first six months of 1921 H.R.H. was occupied
chiefly in London, but found time to visit, among other places,
Oxford, Cambridge, Glasgow and the Clyde; his Duchy of
Cornwall property in Devon, Cornwall and the Scilly Is.;
Cardiff, Newport and Bristol. On June 23 1921 the Prince
spent part of his 27th birthday with 1,000 East End children
who were entertained by the Fresh Air Fund in Epping Forest.
On Oct. 26 he sailed in the "Renown" on a State visit to
India.
EDWARDES, GEORGE (1852-1915), English theatrical mana-
ger, was born in Ireland Oct. 8 1852. He was educated for the
army but deviated into theatrical business and became manager
successively to Michael Gunn at the Theatre Royal, Dublin,
and to D'Oyley Carte at the Savoy theatre, London. In 1885
he joined John Hollingshead at the Gaiety theatre, London,
and the next year took over the sole management of that
theatre, which he ran with striking success up to the time of
his death. He also built and managed Daly's theatre, was
managing director of the Empire theatre and at different times
acted as manager, or producer, at a number of other London
theatres. Incidentally he was well known as an owner of race-
horses. He died in London Oct. 9 1915, never having quite
recovered from the effects of confinement in Germany, where
he was interned on the outbreak of the war.
EDWARDS, ALFRED GEORGE (1848- ), first Archbishop
of Wales, was born at Llanymawddwy Nov. 2 1848, and was edu-
cated at Jesus College, Oxford. He was ordained curate of Lland-
ingat, Carmarthen, in 1874, and became warden and head-
master of the college, Llandovery, in 1875, holding this position
until 1885, when he accepted the living of Carmarthen. In
1889 he became bishop of St. Asaph. In 1920, after the dis-
establishment of the Welsh Church, of which measure he had
been one of the most active opponents, he was created Arch-
bishop of Wales, and was enthroned by the Archbishop of
Canterbury at St. Asaph cathedral June i.
Amongst his publications may be mentioned The Church in Wales
(1888); Common- Sense Patriotism (1894); and Landmarks in Welsh
Church History (1912).
EDWARDS, ENOCH (1852-1912), British Labour politician,
was born at Talk-o'-the Hill, Staffs., April 10 1852. He was the
son of a pitman, and worked as a boy in a coal-mine. In 1870 he
became treasurer of the North Staffordshire Miners' Association
and was elected secretary to the same body in 1877. In 1884 he
went to Burslem, where he became a member of the school board
and town council in 1886, and later he became alderman and may-
or. In 1880 he became president of the Midland Miners' Associa-
tion; he was later president of the Miners' Federation of Great
Britain and a member of ^he Staffordshire county council. He
was elected to Parliament in the Labour interest as member for
Hanley in 1906. He died at Southport June 28 1912.
EDWARDS, JOHN PASSMORE (1824-1911), English news-
paper proprietor and philanthropist, was born at Blackwater,
Corn., in 1824, the son of a carpenter, and was mainly self-
educated. In 1844 he became London representative in Man-
chester of the Sentinel, an anti-Corn Law weekly newspaper.
A year later he went to London and began lecturing, together
with the practice of journalism, starting several small period-
icals which in succession failed, until in 1862 he bought the
Building News, which by 1866 had made a handsome profit. In
1876 he bought the London halfpenny evening newspaper, the
Echo, and controlled it for 20 years. He was an ardent peace
advocate, and supported a number of humanitarian and phil-
anthropic objects, endowing various libraries and other in-
stitutions which bore his name, notably the settlement in
Tavistock Place, Bloomsbury, now called, in memory of Mrs.
Humphry Ward, the Mary Ward Settlement. He also founded
a Passmore Edwards scholarship at Oxford for the conjoint
study of English and classical literature. He published privately
an autobiography, A Few Footprints (2nd ed. 1906). He died
in London April 22 1911.
See E. Harcourt Burrage, /. Passmore Edwards (1902).
EFFICIENCY ENGINEERING: see SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.
EGGLESTON, GEORGE CARY (1830-1911), American journal-
ist and author (see 9.17), died in New York April 14 1911.
EGYPT (see 9.21). Turkish suzerainty over Egypt was
formally abolished in Dec. 1914 when a British protectorate
was proclaimed, while the acquisition of Tripoli and Cyrenaica
by Italy and the establishment of Palestine as a separate state
under a British mandate cut Egypt off from all territorial con-
nexion with the Turkish Empire. 1
Population. At the census of March 1917, the inhabitants
numbered 12,750,918, as contrasted with 11,287,359 in 1907,
an increase of 12-9% (compared with an increase of 14-9%
for 1897-1907). The number of foreigners in the country in 1917
was 238,661, a figure which owing to war conditions did not
represent the normal foreign population. While the area of
Egypt is some 350,000 sq. m., the cultivated and settled area
the Nile valley and delta covers only 12,226 sq. m., and in this
restricted area the inhabitants in 1917 exceeded 1,000 per sq.
mile. The number of nomads and semi-nomads was estimated
at 452,263. The pop. of the chief towns in 1917 was: Cairo,
790,939; Alexandria, 444,617; Port Said (including Ismailia),
91,090; Tanta, 74,195; Mansura, 49,238. Classified by religions
there were in Egypt in 1917: Moslems, 11,658,148; Copts,
854,778; other Christians, 155,168; Jews, 59,581, and " others,"
23,243. On July i 1919 the pop. was calculated at 12,878,000.
General Economic Conditions. By 1911 the State finances had
recovered from the effect of the economic crisis of 1907 a crisis
due to over-speculation and extravagance following a period of
much prosperity. But at the opening of 1914 the liabilities left
over from 1907 still weighed heavily on private finance. The
outbreak of the World War in Aug. 1914, just when the cotton
crop was about to be harvested, threatened once more to place
1 The question as to how far Egyptian territory extended along
the Mediterranean W. of the Nile was settled in 1911. The Italians
upon declaring war on Turkey in that year proclaimed a blockade
of the coast as far E. as Ras el Kanais, thus reviving the Turkish
claim as to the limits of Cyrenaica. The British Government on
behalf of Egypt protested, maintaining that, as both Turkey and Italy
had been notified in 1904, Egyptian territory extended to the Gulf
of Sollum, 150 m. W. of Ras el Kanais. In this contention Italy
acquiesced and the frontier between Italian territory (Cyrenaica)
and Egypt was fixed at the head of the Gulf of Sollum, the small
port of that name being left to Egypt. The British Government
further announced that inland they regarded the oasis of Jarabub
as part of Egypt. In 1919, however, it was agreed to transfer Jarabub
to the Italian sphere (see SENUSSI AND SENUSSITES).
940
EGYPT
Egypt in great economic difficulties. The price of cotton fell by a
third and a panic was averted only by drastic measures taken by
the Government. As part of these measures a general morato-
rium was proclaimed and an emergency currency obtained by
making the notes of the National Bank of Egypt temporarily
legal tender and inconvertible. But cotton, stimulated by war
demands, had again risen to pre-war prices by the end of 1915,
and this, together with forced economy and the large sums spent
by the army stationed in the country, restored the situation.
Taking the country as a whole a new period of prosperity set in,
chiefly due to the soaring price of cotton which in April 1920
was almost ten times its value in 1913. During the war exports
greatly exceeded imports in value, and, deprived of normal means
of employing capital in the country itself, the Egyptians sought
foreign investments, putting their money to a large extent into
British war securities. It was calculated that between Aug. 1914
and April 1920, as much as Ei 50,000,000 ' had been invested
abroad. Yet at the same time Egypt (apart from the public debt)
was still a debtor to foreign countries for a still larger sum, chiefly
loans on mortgage and capital invested in industrial, transport
and other companies. But the wave of prosperity which de-
pended to an unhealthy extent on the inflated price of cotton
was accompanied by very real distress among the fellahin (peas-
antry). The great increase in the cost of living acted upon this
class (who form 62% of the pop.) with extreme severity, and
their plight was accentuated by the natural tendency to extend
the area under cotton cultivation at the expense of the area under
cereals. The poorer classes in the big towns were even more
affected than the fellahin; in Cairo in 1920 the cost of living was
thrice as high as in the beginning of 1914. An attempt by the
authorities to fix maximum prices was found to do rather more
harm than good. The Government was reduced to seeing that
certain staple articles of food chiefly wheat, flour and maize
were supplied at reasonably cheap rates. Wheat had to be im-
ported for this purpose and sold at prices involving a loss.
As one result of the increased cost of living there was a general
demand for higher wages and improved conditions, and labour
organizations resembling trade unions made their appearance.
Many strikes occurred, some of long duration and some political
rather than economic. A Labour Disputes Conciliation Board,
established in Aug. 1919, did much good work in regulating
questions of pay, hours of work, payments for sickness, etc.
The great drop in the price of cotton during the last half of
1920 naturally affected Egypt, and 1921 proved a year of con-
siderable stringency. The restriction in the purchasing power
of the community was a reflex of the fall in cotton. The price of
Egyptian cotton (sakel) on the Liverpool market was 84 -sod.
in April 1920 and but I7'75d. in April 1921. The fall came too
late to affect the trade returns of 1920, which were the highest
recorded. The figures were largely delusive, as they were mainly
the result of higher prices and not of increased production.
To a certain extent the poorer fellahin enjoyed advantages
which protected them against the worst effects of bad harvests
and low prices. By a law of 1912, passed at the instance of Lord
Kitchener, holdings up to five feddans 2 were secured from
distraint for debt, and as native owners of land of five feddans
or less numbered at the 1917 census over 1,500,000, or about one-
tenth of the total population, the benefit of the Five Feddans
law was very appreciable. Moreover, the peasantry could ob-
tain loans from the Agricultural Bank at the fixed rate of 8 %
interest.
Agriculture, Mining and Trade. The Agricultural Department,
established by Sir Eldon Gorst in 1910, was in 1913 transformed by
Lord Kitchener into a Ministry of Agriculture. Cotton maintained
its position as the mainstay of Egyptian prosperity. The crop of
1910 realized 35,840,000, being 5,700,000 above the previous
best. The crops of 1908 1909, and 1911 were, however, poor or
medium, and steps were taken to put the industry on a sounder basis.
Reclamation of land had been pushed northward in the Delta into
low-lying areas where there was no natural drainage, while a middle
zone had become salted and water-logged. Thus arose the necessity
1 i os. 6d. approx.
1 One feddan = I -038 acres.
of drainage works on a large scale. Undrained soil, indiscriminate
destruction of bird life 3 and the loss in seven years of a quarter of a
million head of cattle through disease had led to a great increase in cot-
ton pests, while a harmful system prevailed of mixing different varieties
of cotton-seed for sowing. In Nov. 1912 a cotton congress wa? held
in Cairo, representatives of master cotton-spinners from every
European country and Japan being present. At this congress Mr.
, Dudgeon, director-general of the Agricultural Department, out-
lined a scheme whereby in five years seed for producmg species
approved by spinners could be obtained for the whole of Egypt. A
Cotton Research Board was created in 1919 and in that year Mr.
H. M. Leake, a leading authority on cotton-breeding, visited Egypt
with the object of improving the quality and increasing the yield of
the cotton crop. From 1916 the crop had represented practically
only two varieties of cotton, sakel (72 %) and ashmuni (20 %)
the latter grown in Upper Egypt. The Mitafifi and Nubari varieties,
26% and 15% respectively in 1913, had shrunk in 1919 to 2-2 % and
i'5%- The pressing and baling of the cotton are done almost ex-
clusively at Alexandria.
The attraction of cotton caused the cultivator to restrict the areas
under food crops; so much so that in 1915 and again in 1918 the
Government was compelled to limit the area under cotton. The
chief food crops are wheat, barley, maize, rice and sugar-cane. In
1919 the area under cotton was 1,573,000 feddans as against 1,274,-
ooo under wheat. In 1916 the figures had been: cotton 1,677,000
feddans, wheat 1,075,000. The figures for the 1920 wheat crop were,
however, illusory; in many instances wheat sown was rooted up, or
allowed to be grazed by cattle, and cotton planted in its place.
While the cotton crop varied considerably in amount the average
annual production was about 315,000 tons. The crops of 1920
realized the unprecedented price of 75,096,000, an increase of
15 % in value over 1917, though a big decrease in quantity.
With a view to broadening the basis of the agricultural resources
of the country decrees were issued (Dec. igao-May 1921) pro-
hibiting for the three years 1921-3 the planting of more than one-
third of each holding with cotton. This action was taken at the
request of the provincial councils.
From 1912 onward there was a notable development in the
mineral wealth of Egypt. Nitrates and phosphates, the last-named
from the Red Sea coast, together with a little gold, were up to then
the chief mineral exports. Petroleum was known to exist on both
shores of the Gulf of Suez but it was not till 1912 that the export of
crude oil began. This oil was from the Gemsa mines. In 1914 a
new oil-field was discovered at Hurghada and the oil from this field
did much to save Egypt from a fuel famine during the World War.
This led the Government to undertake drilling operations on its own
account, but up to the close of 1920 the stage of production from
Government mines had not been reached. The value of the mineral
output (in its raw state) rose from 400,000 in 1914 to 1,420,000
in 1919. Oil refineries were erected at Suez where, in 1916, harbour
extensions were carried out to provide for the increase in the oil
trade and the bunkering of oil-burning ships. The output of pe-
troleum rose from 12,700 metric tons in 1913 to 281,800 tons in 1918.
Phosphate was next in importance among minerals. The output^
varied greatly; it was 104,000 metric tons in 1913, rose to 125,000
in 1916, fell to 31,000 in 1918 and was 78,500 in 1919. Manganese
ores have been exported since 1913 but the mines were much damaged
by the Turks in 1915-6. In 1918 the manganese ore mined was 27,-
498 tons, the export 9,400 tons.
Of other industries cigarette-making at Alexandria from imported
tobacco a business almost entirely in the hands of Greeks and
Armenians showed wide fluctuations. Before the World War the
tobacco was obtained chiefly from Greece, Turkey and Russia.
During and after the war the place of Turkey and Russia was taken
by China, India and Japan. The tobacco imported in 1913 was
7,269,000 kilogrammes; in 1919 it was 8,350,000 kgm. The export
of cigarettes, 493,000 kgm. in 1913 fell to 285,000 kgm. in 1917, but
rose to 561,000 kgm. in 1919.
The external trade of Egypt in the decade 1911-20 rose from
55,826,000 to 187,348,000, the figures for 1920 being the
highest recorded. Imports in that year were 101,880,000 and
exports 85,467,000. They compared with the previous highest
returns of 51,156,000 imports in 1918 and 75,880,000 exports
in 1919. There was a great increase of imports, following the removal
of war restrictions, in 1918-20, but the rise was more in values than
in quantity. In 1911 the balance of trade had been almost even,
exports bemg#E28, 598,000 and imports 27,227,000.
As to exports, cotton, throughout the decade, represented 90%
of the total; the other chief exports were cereals and vegetables,
sugar, cigarettes and, from 19134, minerals. The largest exports
in 1920, after cotton, were cotton seed and cakes, 4,087,000;
sugar, El, 144,000; and cigarettes, 951,000. The chief imports
were cotton textiles (valued at 18,771,000 in 1920), metal and metal
ware (11,842,000), coal (8,315,000), wheat and flour (9,443,-
* In 1912 a law was passed for the protection of birds useful to
agriculture. Many of these birds, such as the buff-backed heron
(egret), had been almost exterminated. The new law proved effec-
tive and these birds again multiplied.
EGYPT
941
ooo), and tobacco (3,184,000). Much of the coal imported in
1919 and 1920 came from South Africa and Australia.
Alexandria is the principal centre of trade, taking normally over
90% of the total. Its share in 1913 was 91-8%. In that year Port
Said had 1 1 % of imports and I % of exports. War conditions caused
Port Said (and Suez) to obtain, temporarily, a much larger share
25% of the trade, but in 1919 Port Said had dropped to 18% of
imports and under 4% of exports. In that year Alexandria took
87-9 % of the total trade.
The following table of the trade of Alexandria for 1913 and 1919,
showing the chief importing and exporting countries, may be taken
as showing the economic relations of Egypt as a whole. The most
noticeable features of the table are the entry of Japan into the
Egyptian market and the increasing competition of the United
States. Japan first appeared as a customer in 1916.
(Values in round numbers of El,ooo.)
1913
1919
Imp't
from
Export
to
Total
Imp't
from
Export
to
Total
United Kingdom
7,700
13.500
21,200
21,800
40,000
61,800
Germany
1,500
4,000
5.5oo
ro
240
250
France
2,300
2,800
5,100
2,400
5.900
8,300
Austria-Hungary
1,900
1,700
3,600
Russia ....
900
2,200
3,100
United States
500
2,500
3,000
2,900
16,700
19,600
Italy ....
1,400
1,000
2,400
2,500
3.5oo
6,000
Turkey
1,900
500
2,400
Switzerland
130
I, OOO
1,130
430
650
i,o8
Belgium
1,100
IOO
1,200
Greece
500
50
550
1,900
700
2,600
British India
500
30
530
2,350
ooo
2,950
Japan ....
1,700
1,900
3,600
The share of the United Kingdom and of British possessions in the
import trade of Egypt as a whole was 37-6 % in 1913 and 58-2 % in
1919. In the last-named year the United States came next with 6-1 %
of imports, being followed by Italy, France and Greece. In 1913 the
United Kingdom took 43-1 % of exports, Germany I2'8%, Austria
5-6 % and the United States 7-9 %. The British share of the exports
in 1919 was 54-3 %, that of the United States 22 % and of France
7-7%. The increase of United States trade was largely due to the
demand for cotton; of the ig2Otrop the U.S. took 35%, compared
with 42% taken by the U.K. and 10% by France.
The value of merchandise in transit during 1920 was 13,000,000
as compared with 21,000,000 in 1913. It consisted almost entirely
of coal and petroleum and passed largely through Port Said. Re-
export trade (entrep&t), to which the geographical situation of
Alexandria is peculiarly favourable, was valued at 2,500,000 in
1920 compared with 500,000 in 1913, and consisted mainly in the
export of textiles, metal goods, kerosene, oil fuel and vegetable oils
to adjacent countries of the Levant, notably Syria and Palestine.
Shipping. The tonnage of ships entering Alexandria in 1911 was
4,095,000, the British share being 39 %, Austria-Hungary coming
next with 10%. In 1913 the tonnage was 3,718,000, a figure nearly
maintained in 1914. During the World War the commercial ton-
nage greatly dwindled and in 1918 was 738,000 tons, of which 527,000
tons were British. The British passenger services were completely
disorganized and this traffic was in 1919 almost wholly absorbed by
Italian companies, notably the Lloyd Triestino (formerly Austrian
Lloyd). Including vessels in transit through the Suez Canal, but ex-
cluding warships and all vessels on military service, the shipping
figures for 1918 Alexandria, Port Said, Suez and all minor ports
combined were: Steamers entered, 2,108; tonnage, 5,329,000;
steamers cleared, 2,161; tonnage, 5,489,000. Sailing vessels en-
tered, 422; tonnage, 20,000; cleared, 463; tonnage, 25,000.
War and post-war developments included the establishment of
regular lines of cargo steamers by Japan, Norway and the United
States. Trade with the United States was still, however, maintained
mainly by British ships.
Railways, Telegraphs, etc. In 1915-6 the Egyptian railway system
was prolonged from Salhia to Qantara on the Suez Canal, whence a
line was built (originally for military purposes) across the Sinai
Peninsula parallel to the coast, and was later continued to Jerusalem
and Haifa. A steel swing-bridge over the Suez Canal at Qantara,
completed in May 1918, gave through communication between
Cairo and Jerusalem, but at the end of 1920 the Suez Canal Co.
pressed for the demolition of the bridge on the ground of its inter-
ference with the canal traffic. The bridge was taken down by May
1921 ; while the question of a permanent alternative means of transit
was being studied, a floating transporter carried goods across the
canal in the railway trucks without break of bulk.
The railways suffered severely during the war owing to heavy
military demands and had not in 1921 recovered from the overwork
and arrears of maintenance. There was no considerable renewal of
permanent way in the period 1914-20. This caused increased use of
the canals, notably the Mahmudia Canal, which runs from the Nile at
El'Atf to Alexandria. It is open to navigation throughout the year
and has wharfage at Gabbari (the Alexandria goods station). In
1919 the building of short lines to give the Delta towns better access
to Alexandria and Port Said was under consideration.
Wireless telegraph stations were erected at Cairo and Assiut and
aerodromes laid out at Alexandria, Cairo and other towns, some of
which served as stations on the trans-African route. In April 1919, a
Ministry of Communications was formed, which took over control
of railways, telegraphs, telephones, the post-office, ports and lights,
etc., including air service. The telephone system had then recently
been purchased by the State from a private company.
Irrigation. The task of raising the Assuan dam was completed
in 1912. The regulator at the head of the Menufia Canal built
about 1850 having suddenly collapsed in Dec. 1909, a new regulator
had been built by Messrs Aird & Co. by July 1910, in time for the
Nile floods. In 1912 extensive works for improving the irrigation and
drainage of the Delta were begun ; their completion was delayed by
the financial stringency caused by the outbreak of the World War.
In 1916 the Egyptian Government in conjunction with the Sudan
Government began investigations for new irrigation works on a
larger scale. The scheme, approved in 1920 after much criticism, in-
cluded the construction of a dam at Gebel Aulia, near Khartum,
with a storage capacity double that of the Assuan dam, and of a
barrage near Nag Hamadi in Upper Egypt. The object as defined by
Lord Allenby in 1920 was to " permit the perennial cultivation of
the remaining waste or basin areas of Egypt, amounting to some
1,900,000 ac. which are now uncultivated, and 1,200,000 ac. which
under basin irrigation produce one crop a year." The works were
also intended to reduce danger from floods. (See SUDAN.)
Education. In 1917 census returns showed that 8 % of the
population over five years of age could read and write as against
6% in 1907. These figures hardly reflect the desire for education
among all classes. The provincial councils, which since 1910 have had
part control of elementary education, showed in many instances
keen interest in their work. A commission presided over by Adly
Pasha, then Minister of Education, reported in 1918 that the exist-
ing schools were inadequate and outlined a scheme for sites and
buildings costing over 12,000,000, with an ultimate maintenance
cost of some 2,000,000 a year. In 1916 higher elementary vernacular
schools were established by the Ministry of Education; in 1920 the
Ministry maintained 6 and the provincial councils 18 such schools.
In that year the Ministry of Education had 54 girls' elementary
schools increased interest by mothers in the education of their
daughters was a feature noted by the authorities in the report for
1919. " A few years ago," it was recorded, " it was rare to find a
mother taking a direct personal interest in the welfare of her daughter
at school ; this was left to the father who . . . often had to overcome
maternal opposition to (his daughter's) education." In 1917, 18
per 1,000 of the female population above five years could read and
write compared with 3 per I, ooo in 1907. The corresponding figures
for males were 85 per 1,000 in 1917 and 120 per 1,000 in 1907. In
Feb. 1920 219,642 boys and 42,911 girls attended maktabs (elemen-
tary schools) under Government control or inspection.
In secondary and higher education there were no great develop-
ments during 1910-20, and no effective steps were taken to found the
proposed State university. Much injury to education was caused
by the strikes, for political reasons, which began among the students
in many higher and secondary schools in March 1919.
Finance. The revenue in 1911 was 16,793,000, exceeding
that of 1910 by 827,000 and that of 1907 (the highest figure pre-
viously recorded) by 425,000. Expenditure in 1911 was 14,-
872,000. During 1913 the Domains loan was extinguished and the
profit on the working of the domains became available for general
purposes. The revenue had increased to 17,368,000 by 1913 and
expenditure to 15,728,000. The effect of the outbreak of the
World War was seriously to contract revenue and to necessitate
great economies and the finding of new sources of income. The ac-
counts for 1914-5 showed a deficiency of 1,468,000. The re-
covery in the price of cotton and the expenditure of the British
army stationed in Egypt, however, enabled the Finance Ministry
to show a surplus of 1,165,000. By 1919-20 the revenue had risen
to 33,677,000 in which year expenditure was 28,991,000. On
April I 1920, the general reserve fund stood at 15,576,000. Mean-
time, in 1917-8, the Egyptian Government had taken over charges
amounting to about 3,000,000 incurred by the Egyptian Ex-
peditionary Force. The budget for 1920 I (the financial year ending
March 31), framed when cotton was at its highest price and trade
increasing, was estimated to balance at the unprecedented figure of
40,271,000. This included a sum of 5,654,000 on new works.
During the year the great fall in the price of cotton occurred, with
a general contraction of trade, while food subsidies and emergency
purchases of coal were a great drain on the revenues. The year
closed with a deficit of 12,900,000. This was made good out of
the general reserve fund, which in April 1921 was reduced to 3,-
000,000. The budget for 1921-2 was framed to meet the altered
economic position. Revenue was estimated at 36,701,000, and
expenditure at 38,682,000 with a draft on the general reserve
fund to balance accounts.
The public debt stood on Dec. 31 1919 at 93,299,000 sterling, of
which 5,282,000 was held by the Government and 88,017,000
was in the hands of the public. Interest on the debt was 3,550,000.
942
EGYPT
Administration. In 1913 the two legislative bodies, the
General Assembly and the Legislative Council, were replaced by a
single body called the Legislative Assembly consisting of (i)
Cabinet ministers; (2) 66 elected members; and (3) 17 members
nominated to represent minorities. Members were to hold their
seats for six years, one-third being elected every two years. The
Legislative Assembly met in 1913 and had a somewhat stormy
session. In 1914 martial law was proclaimed and there were no
further sittings of the Assembly.
On the proclamation of the British protectorate (Dec. 4 1914)
a High Commissioner replaced the British consul and agent-
general. The then ruler, the Khedive 'Abbas Hilmi, was deposed
and his cousin Husein Kamel, a son of the Khedive Isma'il,
was placed on the throne with the title of sultan; on Husein's
death his brother Ahmed Fuad Pasha became sultan (Oct. 9
1917). The capitulations continued in force pending the elabora-
tion of measures which satisfied foreign Powers that under a new
judicial system the interests of their subjects would be safe-
guarded. (See below, History.)
The most useful records of the finances, administration and social
and economic condition of Egypt are the Reports of the British
Agent-general published annually in London down to 1914. In
1920 appeared a Report from the High Commissioner covering the
period of 1914-9, a report to which the present writer is indebted.
Detailed information is given in annual reports of the various
Egyptian ministries issued at Cairo. For a recent study of the
Copts see S. H. Leader, The Modern Sons of the Pharaohs (1918).
See also M. S. Briggs, Through Egypt in War Time (1918).
(F. R. C.)
POLITICAL HISTORY 1909-21
The Pre-war Period. The policy of entrusting the Egyptians
with a larger administrative responsibility was initiated under
Sir Eldon Gorst, who succeeded Lord Cromer as British Agent
and Consul-General in 1907. Considerable success attended
the extension of ampler powers to provincial councils, which in
1909 took over the direction of elementary education. But a
sufficient period of time did not elapse before his premature
death in 1911 to give the experiment a fair trial, and the new
policy, which was generally interpreted in Egypt as an attempt
to conciliate opposition by concession, rather stimulated than
discouraged Nationalist agitation. In Feb. 1910 Boutros Ghali
Pasha, the first Copt to attain the rank of Premier, was assas-
sinated by a young Egyptian of the Nationalist party, which
proclaimed the murderer a patriot and provoked demonstra-
tions during his trial. Their influence had affected the General
Assembly, which displayed its anglophobia by rejecting a pro-
posal to extend the existing concession of the Suez Canal Co.
after its expiry in 1968. The British Agent was compelled to
recommend drastic measures to stop anti-British manifesta-
tions and Sheikh "Abd el 'Aziz Shawish, the moving spirit
behind them, was expelled from Egyptian territory. It is sig-
nificant that he established his residence in Berlin. Mohammed
Said Pasha became Prime Minister and Jusuf Saba Pasha, hither-
to Director-General of Posts, joined the Cabinet. A long-felt
want was supplied in 1910 by the creation of an Agricultural
Department under the Minister of Public Works. After the
murder of Boutros Pasha the tension between Copts and Mos-
lems increased and a Coptic Conference held at Assiut in March
1911 drew up a memorandum preferring complaints of unfair
treatment which the British Agent was unable to regard as
justified. Sir Eldon Gorst, who had long been in failing health,
requested to be relieved of his functions early in July 1911 and
a few days afterwards he died. His long and intimate knowledge
of the country lends special importance to his final report for
1910, in which he recognized that the Legislative Council and
General Assembly had become instruments of agitation against
the occupying Power and that the new policy had failed.
It might be open to question how far it would generally be
opportune to appoint a former servant of the Egyptian Govern-
ment to be representative of Great Britain in Egypt. An excep-
tion was, however, certainly justifiable in the case of Lord
Kitchener, who had, moreover, been employed for many years
elsewhere and who enjoyed exceptional prestige. He arrived
in Egypt at the end of Sept. 1911. A fortnight later the Italian
landing in Tripolitania followed a declaration of war with
Turkey. Egypt was at once declared neutral. H.M. Govern-
ment contested on behalf of Egypt the claim of Italy to block-
ade the coast up to a point 100 m. E. of Sollum, that post,
which was occupied by an Egyptian force, being regarded as the
limit of her western frontier. In spite of a general feeling of
sympathy with a Moslem belligerent, intensified by geographi-
cal proximity and racial kinship, the Egyptian people displayed
self-control, and neutrality was strictly observed. But the
Libyan War had the effect of stimulating the patriotic
sentiment which is largely a patriotism of Islam. The anarchical
spirit displayed by the murder of Boutros Pasha was again
revealed in July 1912, when a plot was detected to murder
the Khedive, Lord Kitchener and the Prime Minister.
Lord Kitchener's energies were first devoted to the needs of
the Egyptian peasantry. A law was introduced exempting
small holdings up to 5-15 ac. from distraint for debt, while
usurious money-lending at more than 9% was made punish-
able by fine and imprisonment. Boards of local magistrates
were instituted to summarily decide trivial cases and avoid
costly suits. Steps were taken to preserve the bird life so neces-
sary to keep down cotton pests. Thanks to his efforts the
beautiful egret, which was rapidly being exterminated, has
once more become conspicuous in the fields. A representa-
tive international cotton congress was summoned to meet at
the end of 1912. In that year Mohammed Said lost the serv-
ices of Sa'd Zaghlul Pasha, his Minister of Justice, who subse-
quently became the leader of the Nationalists. But his admin-
istration was strengthened in 1913 by the formation of two
new ministries, those of Waqfs (see 17.413) and Agriculture.
Tension with the Khedive, however, led to his resignation in
1914. He was succeeded by Husein Rushdi Pasha, who remained
in office throughout the period of the World War.
New Legislative Assembly. The salient measure of Lord
Kitchener's administration was a revision of the Organic Law
of 1883 and the institution of a Legislative Assembly on a
broader electoral basis than that of the old Legislative Council
and General Assembly. Under the previous system the villages
appointed representatives by manhood suffrage to elect pro-
vincial councils. The provincial councils returned 14 mem-
bers from their own body to represent the provinces in
the Legislative Council, to which 12 more were nomi-
nated by the Khedive. The council of 26, with the ministers
and 46 other delegates elected by the village representatives,
constituted the General Assembly. All laws and decrees before
approval had to be submitted to the Legislative Council, which
could invite information, submit petitions and criticize the
budget. The General Assembly, with similar powers of dis-
cussion and criticism, met at rarer intervals. Its concurrence
was necessary for any measures involving fresh taxation, but
it had no power to initiate legislation. There was no justifi-
cation for the existence of two bodies performing practically
the same functions, and the inclusion of members of the pro-
vincial councils, whose duties were entirely different, was an
anomaly. A single Legislative Assembly was now substituted
for these two bodies, with considerably extended powers, includ-
ing that of initiating measures on its own responsibility. It was
made incumbent on the Government to justify persistence in
legislation disapproved by the majority, and machinery was
also introduced enabling the Government to directly consult
the electors in regard to proposals rejected by the Assembly.
The electorate was based on the old register, with the addition
of all newly qualified voters, and numbered some two millions.
Electors were divided into groups of 50, which returned dele-
gates to carry the vote of each group to the poll.
Three weeks elapsed between the choice of delegates and the
final elections. The first Assembly consisted of 49 landowners,
2 lawyers, 3 religious dignitaries and one engineer. The presi-
dent and one vice-president were appointed by the Govern-
ment. As elective vice-president Sa'd Zaghlul Pasha, who was
already hailed by the opposition press as the champion of
EGYPT
943
Egyptian liberty, was chosen by an overwhelming majority.
He led a bitter attack against Mohammed Said and indirectly
against the British Agency in the early debates. The hostility
of the new Assembly received encouragement from the Khedive,
who now acted in complete understanding with the Nationalists.
Egypt during the War. On the outbreak of the World War in
1914, and the change that was made in the status of Egypt, the
sittings of the Assembly were suspended, and the term of its
mandate expired without their having been renewed. Lord
Kitchener was absent from Egypt on leave when Great Britain
entered the war, and he never returned there, his services being
demanded at home, where he was appointed War Minister.
On Oct. i 1914 enemy subjects were ordered by the G.O.C. in
chief, Sir John Maxwell, to register themselves, and German or
Austro-Hungarian male subjects of military age, or under suspi-
cion, were deported to Malta. A proclamation of Nov. 2 placed
Egypt under martial law. This enabled administrative measures
to be enforced without reference to the Legislative Assembly
and, where foreign subjects were concerned, without the elab-
orate procedure for obtaining the consent of foreign Powers.
A further proclamation on Nov. 6 notifying a state of war with
Turkey announced that Great Britain would take upon herself
the sole burden of the war " without calling on the Egyptian
people for aid therein." A number of Egyptian artillery never-
theless volunteered for service in defending the canal and took
part in the repulse of the German-Turkish offensive, which
was not supported by any movement in Egypt itself. Volunteer
labour battalions were also raised, which played an important
part in the conduct of the war. From 1917 onwards an Egyptian
force, enrolled under the Frontier Districts Administration
with British officers, maintained security and suppressed con-
traband in the Arabian and Libyan desert zone, hitherto
patrolled by the coast-guards.
As the Egyptians were nominally subjects of the Sultan the
entry of Turkey into the World War as the enemy of the occu-
pying Power created an intolerable situation which demanded
immediate settlement. Turkish suzerainty might have been
determined by the annexation of Egypt to the British Empire.
But it was decided rather to proceed along existing lines and to
place Egypt under British protection. By a proclamation issued
Dec. 18 the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs gave notice
that, " in view of the state of war arising out of the action
of Turkey, Egypt is placed under the protection of His Majesty,
and will henceforth constitute a British Protectorate. The
suzerainty of Turkey over Egypt is thus terminated and His
Majesty's Government will adopt all measures necessary for
the defence of Egypt and protect its inhabitants and interests."
A second proclamation issued the following day announced
the deposition of the Khedive, "Abbas Hilmi, who was in
Constantinople, on the ground of his adherence to the King's
enemies, and the acceptance of the succession by his uncle
Prince Hussein Kamel, who was henceforth to bear the title of
Sultan of Egypt. The arbitrary and corrupt methods of the
deposed Khedive had rendered him generally unpopular with
Egyptians, who had also little reason to regret the severance
of the last link with Turkey. At the same time Mussulman
feeling could not be indifferent to the danger which threatened
the caliphate, and German agents had freely promised the even-
tual liberation of Egypt from British control after the victory
which they confidently predicted. Sultan Hussein's position
was therefore no easy one, in spite of the personal respect which
he commanded.
Sir H. McMahon, High Commissioner. The new status of
Egypt was nevertheless introduced without disturbance, if
without enthusiasm, under the direction of Sir Milne Cheetham
as acting High Commissioner, pending the arrival early in
1915 of Sir Henry McMahon, who had been selected for that
post. The British representative now took over the direction
of foreign affairs and the Egyptian minister disappeared.
The complete failure of the Turkish attack on the Canal had
its effect on public opinion, and as time went on the Sultan's
personal popularity increased. On the other hand the Russian
retreat, the failure of the Dardanelles attack and the final with-
drawal produced some reaction and confirmed the general
impression of German invincibility. In April and again in
July 1915 attempts were made on the life of the Sultan. In
justice to the Egyptians, however, it should be recorded that,
whatever anticipations had been raised among them as to the
outcome of the war, they bore with patience and goodwill the
unwelcome disabilities which it entailed, and laid Great Britain
under obligations both moral and financial. Requisitions of
cereals and of live stock, the control imposed on the price of
cotton, recruiting for the labour and the camel transport corps,
without which the Palestine campaign could not have been
brought to a successful conclusion, and finally the assumption by
the Egyptian Government of the whole liability for expendi-
ture on services connected with the war, held over in a sus-
pense account which reached 3,000,000, constituted a British
obligation for which too little credit was given.
Nationalist Propaganda. The war had entailed the recall
of a great number of British officials from Egypt for service
elsewhere, and not only was much abusive action by uncon-
trolled local agents ascribed to British pressure, but a free field
was left open for Nationalist propaganda, which had grown
ever-increasingly active as the generation died out which had
experienced the pre-occupation regime. Nationalist sentiment,
legitimate and worthy of sympathy in itself, might have as-
sumed a moderate and healthy form had it not from the first
received an anti-British impulse from rivalries and jealousies
among the Western Powers, making use of the indeterminate
position of Great Britain as a serviceable political weapon.
The situation was considerably modified by the Anglo-French
understanding of 1904. But the Nationalist movement founded
by the late Mustafa Kemal and fanned by Sheikh Shawish and
others, had assumed a definitely anti-British colour, which the
ex-Khedive had at one time exploited for his own personal ends.
The members of a dissatisfied civil service, who regarded the
presence of an ever-growing number of British officials in the
higher posts as a bar to their promotion and interest, swelled
the ranks of the Nationalists, reinforced by the students, who
felt that their prospect of obtaining State employment, to
qualify for which they had often made real sacrifices, was
diminished by the competition of the foreigner. The lawyers, a
very numerous class, who anticipated that the protectorate
would entail a modification of the judicial system prejudicial
to their situation, were unanimously hostile, as indeed were
the members of all the professional classes. Not only had
British officials increased in a manner which seemed dispropor-
tionate to the expanding activities of the departments and hardly
consistent with the principle of training Egyptians to manage
their own affairs, but, in contradiction of that very principle,
they had tended to absorb administrative functions and not
merely to advise. With increasing numbers they had become a
community living their own lives, wholly aloof from the Egyp-
tians and the other foreign communities, and with this loss of
contact their influence and moral control had weakened. Finally,
the war between Great Britain and Turkey, the seat of the
caliphate, had emphasized the latent but always present
impatience of the Moslem under Christian rule. The strength
which the Nationalist movement continued to acquire during
the earlier and middle phases of the war does not seem to have
been sufficiently realized.
Sir R. Wingate, High Commissioner. In Dec. 1916 Gen.
Sir Reginald Wingate, who had filled the posts of Sirdar of the
Egyptian army and Governor-General of the Sudan since
Dec. 1899, was called to Cairo as High Commissioner in suc-
cession to Sir Henry McMahon. The health of Sultan Hussein,
which had for some time caused anxiety, did not improve and
it became urgent to settle the question of succession, left in
abeyance in 1914. Prince Kamel ed Din, his only son, who had
married the sister of the ex-Khedive, finally declined the posi-
tion of heir-apparent, which was then offered to Prince Ahmad
Fuad, the sixth son of the Khedive Isma'il. He had been
educated at Turin, where he passed through the military school.
944
EGYPT
Sultan Hussein died Oct. 9 1917. The removal from the scene of
a ruler remarkable for his character, public spirit and thorough
knowledge of his own country was a misfortune for Egypt.
Certain modifications in the Ministry, in which it was proposed
to include Sa'd Zaghlul Pasha, were considered after the acces-
sion of the new Sultan. But eventually only one resignation took
place, Fathi Pasha, Minister of Waqfs, being replaced by
Ziwar Pasha, the Governor of Cairo. But the discussions engaged
in made it clear that the Prime Minister intended on the conclu-
sion of peace to raise the question of autonomy and the regu-
lation of Egypt's relations with Great Britain by convention.
After-war Plans. As the World War drew to a close the prin-
ciples formulated by the President of the United States, to which
Great Britain and her Allies subscribed, had a far-reaching and
even a decisive effect on educated opinion in Egypt. The numer-
ous declarations of British statesmen, disclaiming any inten-
tion of permanently occupying the country, were insistently
recalled, and the aspirations of the Egyptians to govern them-
selves were represented as having received international sanction
through the acceptance of the principle of self-determination.
Such sentiments were by no means confined to the discontented
and the ambitious, who in the furtherance of their political aims
would even have welcomed a German victory. Moderate opin-
ion also adopted the view that the attitude of Egypt during the
war and the sacrifices made by her people justified a claim for
special consideration and that the time had come to reconsider
the relations between their country and Great Britain. When
in Nov. 1918 an Anglo-French declaration was published an-
nouncing that the policy of the Allies in the East contemplated
the complete enfranchisement of the peoples so long oppressed
by Turkish rule and the " institution of national Governments
and administrations deriving their authority from the initiative
and free choice of the local populations," Egyptians felt their
title to manage their own affairs to be as good as that of Syria
and Mesopotamia. They, moreover, regarded their own coun-
try with its progressive organization and western methods as
far ahead in development of Arabia, where an independent king-
dom had already been established. At the moment when con-
crete expression was being given to these sentiments certain
other factors combined to excite public opinion. Early in 1918
a commission had been appointed under the presidency of the
Prime Minister to consider the future organization of the Legis-
lative Assembly in Egypt. Sir W. Brunyate, the Judicial
Adviser, who during the long illness and after the death of Lord
Edward Cecil also acted as Financial Adviser, was requested
by the commission to prepare a basis for discussion and to con-
sider the question of the participation in legislation of the
foreign colonies, in view of an eventual abolition of the Capitu-
lations. Another commission had already for some months been
discussing the judicial reforms which such a measure would
entail, and an impression which gained ground that in any new
courts replacing the mixed tribunals the English language and
legal procedure would predominate had confirmed the hostility
of the legal profession in Egypt. The memorandum regarding
the Legislative Assembly was submitted to the Prime Minister
in Nov. 1918. Though only intended as a basis for confidential
discussion its contents became known and were regarded as
having the approval of H.M. Government. The project was
interpreted as restricting the Assembly to consultative func-
tions while all legislative power was to be vested in a Senate,
in which the members officially appointed with a group of
elected foreigners would constitute a majority. Its divulgation
roused a storm of indignant protest.
Aspirations for Autonomy. A Nationalist committee was
formed at the end of 1918, under the chairmanship of Zaghlul
Pasha, who now definitely became the leader of the party.
On Nov. 13 he paid a visit to the High Commissioner and
expressed the desire to go to London to put forward a pro-
gramme of complete autonomy, a proposal which was rejected
as calculated to serve no good object. At the same time the
Prime Minister, with the approval of the Sultan, proposed that
be should himseif proceed to London with the Minister of
Education, Adli Pasha Yeghen, to discuss the affairs of Egypt,
urging that, as the Peace Conference would give official sanc-
tion to the protectorate, its nature could not be left indetermi-
nate. Sir R. Wingate appealed for their reception with some
insistence. But as the Foreign Secretary and other Ministers
were shortly leaving for the Peace Conference and would be
unable to devote sufficient time and attention to the prob-
lem of Egyptian internal reform, they were invited to defer
their visit which would not at that moment be opportune.
The real urgency of the issue and the danger involved in post-
poning its consideration appear still not to have been fully
appreciated. Rushdi Pasha together with Adli Pasha then
tendered their resignations. Every effort was made to induce
the two ministers to remain in office and an approximate date
was eventually suggested for the visit. But the ministerial
crisis was still unsolved when in the middle of Jan. Sir R. Win-
gate was summoned to London to report personally on Egyptian
affairs. He pressed for the immediate reception of the min-
isters and the withdrawal of restrictions on the movement of
Nationalist leaders. The contentions of the Nationalists, to
whom many of the moderates had rallied, were now receiving
so much general support in the country that the ministers were
only disposed to repair to London provided similar facilities
were accorded to Zaghlul and his colleagues. As the latter were
now openly engaged in a campaign aiming at the severance of
all connexion "between Egypt and Great Britain, their recep-
tion by the Foreign Office could not be entertained. On the
other hand the invitation to the ministers was renewed. Rushdi
Pasha, however, adhered to his resignation, which was accepted.
Meanwhile documents addressed to the foreign representa-
tives and residents in Egypt announced that a delegation of 12
members, under the presidency of Sa'd Zaghlul, had been
formed to lay before other countries the legitimate aspirations
of Egypt. On March 3 this delegation forwarded to the Sul-
tan, who had declined to receive them, a petition which, though
drafted with all the forms of oriental courtesy, maintained the
nullity of the protectorate and was clearly designed to intimi-
date His Highness and to prevent the formation of a new Gov-
ernment. Vigorous action was therefore taken without delay.
On March 8 Zaghlul Pasha and three of his principal adherents
were arrested and deported the following day to Malta.
Disturbances in 1918-9. The immediate effects of this asser-
tion of authority revealed the gravity of the internal situation.
Anti-British demonstrations by the students in Cairo rendered
military intervention necessary. On March 12 there were serious
disturbances at Tanta and during the following days similar
outbreaks occurred in the Delta provinces, characterized by
looting and attacks on British soldiers and civilians. Railway
lines were simultaneously torn up in different places, in accord-
ance, it would appear, with a plan originally prepared for a
rising had the Turkish attempt to cross the Canal proved suc-
cessful. On the i6th Cairo was isolated by the severance of
railway and telegraphic communication both with the Delta
and with Upper Egypt, where foreign colonies were besieged
in the quarter where they had taken refuge. On the i8th the
fanaticism roused by the reports of unscrupulous agitators led
to the brutal murder and mutilation at Deirut station of a Brit-
ish inspector of prisons, two officers and five of other ranks.
Mobile columns had been dispatched with all possible expedi-
tion to the disturbed areas and by March 26 the main lines of
communication were reestablished, the danger points were in
military occupation and the situation well in hand. But it
required the employment of considerable forces and stern
methods of repression to restore order and prevent further
bloodshed. The leaders had probably never contemplated such
a serious upheaval and were alarmed at a situation which had
passed beyond their control. But the Nationalist committee,
which continued to sit after the deportation of Zaghlul Pasha,
cannot escape responsibility for the effects of their propaganda.
During these and subsequent manifestations the Egyptian police
in the great cities carried out their duties in an exemplary man-
ner. The army, with the exception of a few units, was in the
EGYPT
945
Sudan, which remained entirely unaffected by events in Egypt.
The extent and influence of the Nationalist organization appear
to have been underestimated, and the British authorities evi-
dently did not anticipate that within a week after the deporta-
tion of the leaders the anti-British agitation would develop
into a national movement, supported by elements from every
class, including the Copts, many of whom were no doubt
prompted by prudential considerations to proclaim their soli-
darity with the Mussulman. That the fellahin, a pacific peasan-
try which had derived the greatest benefits from the British
occupation, should have been so readily led by agitation to
commit acts of savage violence had occasioned some surprise.
The movement among the fellahin was only of a very partial
character, and generally restricted to the neighbourhood of
large centres. At the same time several factors had by the end
of 1918 combined to create a spirit of discontent and some loss
of confidence in the British administration, which was made
responsible for all the grievances experienced during the war.
Recruiting for the labour and camel transport corps was in its
earlier and really volunteer stage not unpopular, as the good
wages paid were a boon to the poorer people, who enlisted
again and again on the termination of their engagements.
But when the voluntary system ceased to produce a sufficient
number of men administrative pressure was exercised and the
local officials took advantage of the absence of control. Unscru-
pulous Omdas in many cases abused their position, accepting
bribes for exemptions and sending their enemies to serve under
methods resembling those of the press-gang, while alleging
British pressure as their excuse. In spite of the good prices
paid, the requisition of domestic animals pressed hardly on the
small farmers, who had to part with their only means of trans-
port. Still more resented was the requisition of cereals and the
manner in which it was enforced. Requisition rates ranged
lower than market rates, which tempted local officials to collect
larger amounts than they were required to furnish in order to
sell the balance at the higher price, while cultivators who grew
no wheat had to buy their quota at the market rate and sell at
requisition rates. The process of verification and repayment
was inevitably slow and opened the door to abuses. Collec-
tions for British Red Cross Funds, intended to be purely vol-
untary, were enforced by officials seeking to acquire merit for
the amounts realized in their districts, and were often regarded
by the ignorant fellah as a contribution imposed upon him to
the British war-chest. The prices of food, clothing and fuel
rose to an unprecedented degree during the war, and the aver-
age wages of the labouring class became inadequate to meet
the enhanced cost of living and supply the necessaries of life.
Meanwhile the fortunate producer of cotton and the privileged
foreigner were seen to be accumulating fortunes. The discon-
tent thus engendered among the poorer peasantry created a
favourable field for the agitator, who proclaimed that the removal
of the British occupation would ensure prosperity.
Lord Allenby's Regime. Lord Allenby, the C.-in-C. in
Egypt, who had left for Paris on March 12 1919, was directed
to return at once as special High Commissioner during the
absence of Sir R. Wingate, with instructions to restore law and
order and " to administer in all matters as may be required
by the necessity of maintaining the King's Protectorate on an
equitable basis." The situation now passed from one of active
to one of passive resistance. A general strike was maintained
for only a few days, but students, lawyers and a large number
of public officials declined to resume their activities. Lord
Allenby adopted a policy of conciliation and, notwithstanding
the dangerous interpretation to which such a rapid change of
policy was liable, the removal of the embargo on the free move-
ment of Egyptians was approved. This entailed the liberation
of Zaghlul and his associates interned at Malta, who left for
Paris, where their arrival almost coincided with President
Wilson's recognition of the British protectorate. Their efforts
to obtain a hearing at the Peace Conference were disappointed.
Punitive measures for the outrages perpetrated during the
outbreak inevitably tended to maintain embitterment.
On April 9 Rushdi Pasha reconstituted a Ministry with Adli
Pasha as Minister of the Interior. An additional Ministry to
take charge of all communications was now instituted. But
the life of the new Government was ephemeral and, having
failed to terminate the official strike while deprecating inter- -
vention by the High Commissioner, Rushdi once more resigned
on the 2ist. A stern proclamation by Lord Allenby, acting as
C.-in-C. under powers of martial law, which announced that
all officials not returning to duty forthwith would be struck off
the lists, had the desired effect.
Appointment of the Milner Mission. H.M.'s Government now
decided to send to Egypt a mission, under the chairmanship of
Lord Milner, " to inquire into the causes of the recent dis-
orders, and to report on the existing situation in the country
and the form of the constitution which, under the protectorate,
will be best calculated to promote its peace and prosperity,
the progressive development of self-governing institutions,
and the protection of foreign interests." Such were the terms
of reference eventually drawn up. It would have been well if
such a commission could have proceeded at once, while the
impression of repressive measures was still strong, before the
Nationalist movement had completed its organization, had
exploited industrial unrest and extended throughout the coun-
try a propaganda which now received open encouragement
from sections of the Arab university of El Azhar. But cir-
cumstances rendered its departure impossible before the autumn.
A month after Rushdi's resignation, Mohammed Said Pasha
(Prime Minister 1910-3) formed a new Ministry, in spite of the
opposition which was henceforth to be anticipated to any com-
bination from the Nationalists. Certain changes were also
regarded as opportune in the British personnel. Sir Paul Harvey,
who had resigned the position of Financial Adviser during
Lord Kitchener's administration, returned. Sir W. Brunyate,
who had acted in that capacity since the death of Lord Edward
Cecil, also resigned his position as Judicial Adviser. Mr. Doug-
las Dunlop, Adviser to the Minister of Education, whose depart-
ment had been much attacked, was replaced by Mr. R. S.
Patterson, the Director-General of Accounts, as was Mr.
Haines, the Adviser to the Interior, by Brig.-Gen. Sir G. F.
Clayton, chief political officer to the Egyptian Force. A period
of drift now ensued during which, though conditions appeared
outwardly calm, the Nationalists continued to be active and to
advocate a boycott of the Mission.
Among the arguments used to discredit the British admin-
istration much capital was made among the small landowners
by the allegation of an intention to curtail the water-supply of
Egypt in favour of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. A project had
been adopted, for the construction of barrages at Gebel Aulia
and Sennar on the White and Blue Niles respectively. The
former was designed to create a reservoir which would enable
the remaining waste lands of Egypt, some 1,900,000 ac., to be
cultivated, while extending perennial irrigation to some 1,200,-
ooo more, now under basin cultivation, and therefore restricted
to one crop in each year. The Blue Nile dam to be constructed
near Sennar contemplated the raising of the river to a level
necessary to feed a great canal which would irrigate the triangle
south of Khartum known as the Gezira, approximately equal
in area to the Egyptian Delta, and suitable for raising cotton.
The unfortunate attacks made by Sir W. Willcocks and Col.
Kennedy on Sir Murdoch Macdonald, Adviser to the Ministry
of Public Works, which were shown by the report of the eminent
irrigation experts serving on the Nile Projects Commission to
be unfounded, did much to encourage these misrepresentations.
Charges repeatedly preferred against the Adviser of having
falsified figures to justify his proposals rendered inevitable a
prosecution for criminal libel which ended in conviction.
The proposal to boycott the Milner Mission gained strength
from the protest of the Prime Minister against its arrival before
the signature of peace with Turkey, and his resignation which
followed. Wahba Pasha, who had acted as Minister of Finance
in the last two Cabinets, consented with no little courage to
preside over a Ministry of Affairs.
946
EGYPT
Reception of the Mission. The special mission to Egypt was
thus composed: Viscount Milner (chairman), Sir J. Rennell
Rodd, Gen. Sir John Maxwell, Brig.-Gen. Sir Owen Thomas,
Sir Cecil Hurst, and Mr. J. A. Spender, with A. T. Loyd and
E. M. B. Ingram as secretaries. The mission arrived in Egypt
on Dec. 7 1919. Every possible measure had been taken for
its security in view of the attitude of organized antagonism which
was at once openly manifested by strikes and street demon-
strations in which even the Cairene ladies emerged from their
seclusion to take part. Every effort was made to prevent
Egyptians of note from coming into contact with the mission
and those who did so were denounced in the local press. The
headquarters of the mission were watched by pickets and the
movements of individual members carefully followed, even
into the provinces, with a view to preventing any contact with
the people. Serious riots at Tanta followed a visit to that city,
where military intervention became necessary.
During their stay in Cairo there was a series of attacks on
British soldiers and no less than three attempts were made to
assassinate Egyptian ministers by bomb-throwing. Soon after
the arrival of the mission the chiefs of El Azhar University
identified themselves with the Nationalists by a manifesto
addressed to the High Commissioner, setting forth the claims
of Egypt to complete independence and demanding the with-
drawal of the British. A somewhat similar declaration signed
by six princes of the khedivial family was sent in a letter to
Lord Milner and simultaneously published in the press. The
denunciation of the protectorate was the prevailing note.
The general hostility displayed was to some extent mitigated
by a declaration issued on Dec. 29, in which the real aims of
the mission were clearly stated. The belief that its object was
to deprive Egypt of rights hitherto possessed was declared to
be without foundation, and free expression of all opinion with-
out limit to the field of discussion was invited. But the rela-
tions of the mission with the Egyptians were confined to informal
discussion and conversations with individuals. These as time
went on became so general that its members were able to thor-
oughly ascertain the current feeling of the country. A visit
was paid by the mission to Alexandria, where its members were
enabled to hear the views of the French, Italian and Greek as
well as of the British Chamber of Commerce. An exhaustive
inquiry was made into the working of every public depart-
ment. The principal British officials were consulted, as well as
the leading members of the non-official British community.
Sir Cecil Hurst devoted a great part of his time to an investiga-
tion of the judicial system and the reforms which would become
necessary to meet new conditions. Sir John Maxwell and Sir
Owen Thomas also visited the Sudan. Before the departure of
the mission in March 1920 a large volume of material had been
collected, and certain propositions, on which remarkable unanim-
ity was displayed, were provisionally drafted with a view to the
preparation of a final report in England. While there had been
no means of ascertaining how far a settlement on the lines con-
templated would command general support in Egypt, it was
clear that on certain points both extreme and moderate opin-
ion were at one, and a solution on the basis of mutual agreement
was obviously preferable to an imposed arrangement.
Milner-Zaghlul Agreement. An opportunity presented itself
in April, largely through the good offices of Adli Pasha, of which
advantage was taken, to enter into relations with the Egyptian
Delegation in Paris, who were now disposed to meet the mission
in England. Meanwhile Wahba Pasha, whose health no longer
permitted him to stand the strain of office, resigned on May 19
and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Tewfiq Nessim Pasha.
Zaghlul with seven other delegates reached London on June 7
1920. Friendly relations were established with them and, after
deliberations which extended to the middle of August, the gen-
eral lines of an eventual settlement were drafted. But Zaghlul
and his friends were not prepared to commit themselves to
acceptance without reference to their supporters in Egypt, and
four members of the delegation accordingly returned to Cairo
with a memorandum outlining the bases on which an agreement
might subsequently be framed. This memorandum, which came
to be known as the Milner-Zaghlul Agreement, was in general
accordance with the conclusions adopted by the mission in
Egypt, though it went somewhat further, especially as regards
the right of Egypt to foreign representation. A letter handed
to Adli Pasha together with the memorandum made it clear
that the latter had no reference to the Sudan, which lay out-
side the scope of the suggested agreement.
The proposals embodied in the memorandum may be sum-
marized as follows:
In order to establish the independence of Egypt on a secure and
lasting basis it is necessary to define precisely the relations between
Great Britain and Egypt and to modify the privileges and immuni-
ties now enjoyed by capitulatory Powers. Negotiations between
accredited representatives of the Governments should contem-
plate: a Treaty of Alliance between Great Britain and Egypt
under which Great Britain will recognize the independence of
Egypt as a constitutional monarchy with representative institu-
tions, and Egypt will confer upon Great Britain the rights neces-
sary to safeguard her special interests and to enable her to give
foreign Powers guarantees which will secure relinquishment of
capitulatory rights; Great Britain will defend the integrity of
Egyptian territory, and Egypt will, in case of war, render Great
Britain all assistance in her power within her own borders. This
Treaty will stipulate that Egypt will enjoy right of representation
in foreign countries, and in absence of an accredited representative
confide interests to the British representative; Egypt will not adopt
an attitude inconsistent with the alliance, or enter into any agree-
ment with a foreign Power prejudicial to British interests; Egypt
will confer on Great Britain the right to maintain a military force
on Egyptian soil for the protection of her Imperial communica-
tions; Egypt will appoint, with concurrence of H.M. Government,
a financial adviser, who will take over powers now exercised by com-
missioners of debt and be generally available for consultation;
Egypt will similarly appoint a British official in Ministry of Justice,
with access to minister, to have cognizance of all matters affecting
foreigners and be available for consultation regarding maintenance
of law and order; Egypt will recognize right of Great Britain to
intervene in case of legislation operating inequitably against foreign-
ers; British representative will have a special position and precedence
over other foreign representatives ; engagements of British or other
foreign officers and officials may be terminated by either party
within two years after the Treaty comes into force, with pension
or compensation to be therein determined.
Further provisions contemplate: approval by a Constituent
Assembly of the Treaty, which would only come into force after
foreign Powers have agreed to close their consular courts; a new
organic statute securing ministerial responsibility to legislature,
religious toleration and protection of rights of foreigners; conclu-
sion by Great Britain of agreements with capitulatory Powers, ren-
dering possible the extension to foreigners of jurisdiction of mixed
tribunals and of Egyptian legislation; transfer to H.M. Govern-
ment of rights exercised by foreign Governments under capitula-
tions; maintenance of existing treaties to which Egypt is a party
on matters of commerce and navigation; liberty to maintain foreign
schools and organize religious and charitable foundations; elimina-
tion of international element in Alexandria Board of Health; valida-
tion of all measures taken under martial law; reorganization of mixed
tribunals to undertake all jurisdiction hitherto exercised by foreign
consular courts; communication by Great Britain of terms of
Treaty to foreign Powers and support of application by Egypt to
be admitted as a member of the League of Nations.
The four delegates returned from Egypt in Oct. and accom-
panied Zaghlul and his colleagues to London. They reported
that the proposed settlement had been well received by the
Egyptian public and that any attempted opposition had met
with complete failure. At the same time they had been urged
to support modifications of certain specific points. These con-
templated a limitation of the functions of the Financial Adviser
and of the officer attached to the Ministry of Justice; abandon-
ment of a provision postponing the coming into force of the
contemplated Treaty until agreements had been concluded
with the Powers for the modification of the Capitulations, and a
formal abolition of the protectorate.
The mission adopted the view that no good purpose could
be served by further discussion of details at that stage. These
points, on which they preferred to express no opinion, as well
as others, could be raised when negotiations were opened.
Zaghlul Pasha stated that his efforts to create a favourable
atmosphere for settlement would be weakened if he could give
no undertaking with regard to these reservations and especially
the abolition of the protectorate. The Egyptian delegates then
EHRLICH, PAUL
947
left England and the mission concluded their report, which was
forwarded to the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs on
Dec. 9 1920 and presented to Parliament as Egypt. No. i (1921).
After the M Utter Report. A period of suspense ensued during
which the report was translated into Arabic. Its recommenda-
tions reestablished the ascendancy of a moderate party in
Egypt. After an effort to constitute a ministry representing a
coalition of all parties, Adli Pasha accepted the task of forming
an administration. His selection was in accord with the desire
of the majority of the delegates who had visited London. It
was then announced that " H.M. Government, after a study of
the proposals made by Lord Milner, have arrived at the conclu-
sion that the status of protectorate is not a satisfactory relation
in which Egypt should continue to stand to Great Britain. While
they have not reached final decisions with regard to Lord Mil-
ner's recommendations, they desire to confer with a delegation
nominated by the Sultan with a view, if possible, to substi-
tute for the protectorate a relationship which would, while
securing the special interests of Great Britain and enabling her
to offer adequate guarantees to foreign Powers, meet the legiti-
mate aspirations of Egypt and the Egyptian people."
Zaghlul Pasha returned to Egypt from France on April 5
1921 and was received with great demonstrations of welcome.
He at once took up a position of hostility to the new Govern-
ment, and, though offered a place in the official delegation, was
only willing to take part in it if he were himself appointed presi-
dent. The majority of his former colleagues of the unofficial
delegation then separated themselves from him. He declared
the new Government not to be representative of opinion and a
campaign of protest against the departure of the delegates was
inaugurated. Moderate opinion in Egypt was unfavourable
to his attitude and he only retained the support of the extremist
and the turbulent elements in the country, who were, however,
successful in producing demonstrations in Cairo and in Alex-
andria, in which city very serious riots took place on May 20,
continuing through the two following days. They assumed the
form of an anti-European outbreak, intensified by the nervous-
ness of the European colonies and retaliation on their part
against the demonstrators. The situation in Alexandria passed
beyond the control of the Egyptian police and order had to be
restored by British military intervention. Some 68 Egyptians
and 19 Europeans were killed during the disturbances, and 162
Egyptians and 66 Europeans were wounded, the principal suffer-
ers among the latter being Greeks. The effect of these riots,
which were deplored by the majority of Egyptians, was to
bring the question of the adequate protection of foreigners once
more into prominence. Zaghlul Pasha indeed issued a mani-
festo deprecating attacks on foreigners and protested that the
riots at Alexandria had nothing to do with politics. But the
general tone of his subsequent utterances, his continued efforts
to undermine the Ministry and to discredit the official delega-
tion, only tended to bring home to him the responsibility for
these unfortunate events. In the autumn of 1921 Adli Pasha
visited London, where discussions took place between him and
the Government as to the proposed new constitution; but an
agreement was not reached, and he returned to Egypt without
any further progress having been made.
Economic Situation 1909-21. From the time of the economic
crisis of 1907 the record of Egypt had been one of reviving and
ever-increasing prosperity. The failure of the Bank of Egypt in
1911 and other failures about the same time were due to antecedent
causes. The last of a succession of lean years with low Nile levels
in 1910 was surmounted by the Government without recourse to a
loan. The disabilities of the World War were more than com-
pensated by the enormous prices realized for Egyptian cotton,
which at one moment, in Feb. 1920, rose to 95d. per lb., ten times
its pre-war price. The majority of Egyptian fortunes were invested
in real estate and the competition for cotton land made 400 a
not uncommon price per feddan, while instances may b quoted of
land which reached 500 and even E6oo. Previously to the
war the Egyptian financial year ran from Jan. I to Dec. 31. It was
then modified to bring it into conformity with the British financial
year and has since run from April I to March 31 of the following
year. In 1910 the budget figures were: revenue, 17,177,107;
expenditure, 17,077,207. Five years later, for the financial
year 1915-6, the increase was not very marked, the figures being:
revenue, 17,759,418; expenditure, 16,594,666. But subse-
quently they rose by leaps and bounds, until for 1920-1 revenue
and expenditure were both estimated at 40,271,000. On the
revenue side of this total 35,675,000 represented ordinary
receipts, while the balance of extraordinary revenue anticipated
was derived from the sale of land and profits from the control of
cotton. On the expenditure side 32,616,920 represented recur-
ring obligations; 5,654,080 was assigned to new works and
2,000,000 to loss on the purchase and distribution of articles of
prime necessity. Upwards of seven millions of the increased expendi-
ture was accounted for by the higher scale of remuneration assigned
to all classes of government officials and the enhanced cost of mate-
rials. The estimated increase on state railways and the expansion
of the police forces accounted for nearly two millions more.
In the course of 1920 the universal crisis in production and the
cessation of demand for Egyptian cotton caused its price to drop
precipitously and in March 1921 it stood at only a little above the
pre-war figure. In spite of the fall of price there were few buying
orders, less than 50 % of the crop was shipped, and serious economic
disturbance ensued. Tenants were unable to pay rents which had
soared up with the high price of cotton, and landowners who had
speculatively increased their acreage had to mortgage their estates.
Goods, which had in 1919-20 been imported on a scale unprece-
dented in Egypt's foreign trade record in anticipation of a contin-
ued high purchasing power, remained unsold, and the bonded
warehouses were overstocked with uncleared merchandise. On the
other hand the general drop in the price of commodities relieved
the situation of the labouring population, and the position was
rendered less acute by the large profits accumulated during the
preceding period by the class most affected by the paralysis of the
cotton market. It was calculated in 1920 that Egyptian savings
invested abroad, largely in British Treasury bills, might be reck-
oned at 150,000,000, more than the whole public debt.
The break in cotton prices inevitably affected receipts from cus-
toms, sales of land and other sources. At the same time the reduc-
tion in the acreage devoted to cereals had entailed large purchases
abroad, while the menace of a fuel famine had made it incumbent
on the Government to ensure the coal supply in spite of the high
prices prevailing. The result was that, while the financial year 19201
closed with a revenue somewhat short of that estimated, approxi-
mately 40,100,000, expenditure rose to 53,000,000, of which
8,940,000 was due to food supplies and 6,460,000 to pur-
chases of coal. Egypt was thus faced with a deficit of 12,900,000,
to be met by a draft on the Reserve Fund, which had greatly
increased in the prosperous years 191720, and amounted, after due
deductions for depreciation of stock, to 15,942,866, leaving some
three millions in hand to face a deficit on the budget for 1921-2.
While Egypt was enabled to meet this formidable deficit thanks
to the accumulations of former years, the expansion of revenue had
for a long time past fallen far short of the legitimate capacity and
requirements of the country. The Egyptian financial system was
inequitable and remained inelastic, owing to the impossibility of
imposing taxation in proportion to wealth and of making it inci-
dent on foreign as well as on local subjects. The land-tax, when
reassessed under the scheme of 1895, was fixed for a period of 30
years from the date of valuation. It was then calculated to repre-
sent about 28 % of the rental value. Before many years had
passed it had ceased in any way to approximate to that figure, but
it could not be altered until the prescribed term had expired. Egypt,
one of the richest countries of the world, remained, owing to a com-
bination of circumstances, one of the most lightly taxed. Limita-
tions on local taxation have similarly arrested municipal develop-
ment. These disabilities have indirectly contributed to the increase
of criminality by restricting the extension of the police force, while
expenditure on public health and education has been inadequate.
The Egyptian debt on Dec. 31 1919 stood at 93,299,640, dis-
tributed between the three categories as follows: guaranteed loan,
6,199,900; privileged debt, 31,127,780; unified debt, 55,971,-
960. The Government and the commissioners of the debt held
5,282,260. The amount held by the public was thus reduced to
88,017,380. (J. R. R.)
EHRLICH, PAUL (1854-1915), German bacteriologist, was
born in Silesia March 14 1854, of Jewish parentage. He was
educated at Breslau and Strassburg, where he studied medicine.
He was soon drawn towards research in chemistry, and in his
earlier years carried out various important investigations in
aniline dyes. He was at the same time winning fame as a
bacteriologist, and in 1907 discovered a red dye, known as
" trypan red," which effected the complete sterilization of
animals infected with trypanosomes, a work of enormous im-
portance for the treatment of diseases caused by these par-
asites. He considerably improved the technique of serum
preparation, and also discovered a method by which the potency
of the anti-diphtheria toxin could be tested. He also investi-
gated the problems of cancer. Ehrlich's most famous dis-
948
EICHHORN EISNER
covery, however, was made in connexion with his researches
into venereal diseases. It was announced in 1910 that he had
prepared an arsenical compound, known as salvarsan or " 606,"
which was a cure for syphilis. He lectured in London in 1907,
and in 1913 attended the medical congress held there. He
received many honours from his Government and marks of
distinction from almost every university and scientific society.
He died at Homburg Aug. 20 1915.
See Paul Ehrlich: eine Darstellung seines wissenschaftlichen
Wirkens, Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstage des Forschers (1914).
EICHHORN, HERMANN VON (1848-1918), German field-
marshal, was born at Breslau Feb. 13 1848. He took part, as a
young officer, in the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-1. In 1897 he
was appointed chief of the staff of the VI. Army Corps at Breslau,
in 1901 divisional and in 1907 corps commander. In 1905 he
was promoted to the rank of general of the infantry and in 1913
to that of Generaloberst, while in the same year he was appointed
inspector-general of the VII. Army Inspection at Saarbriicken.
At the outbreak of the World War he was incapacitated in
consequence of an accident, but was able to play a part in the
battle of Soissons in Jan. 1915. In that month he was appointed
to the command of the X. Army, which was engaged in the
great battle of the Masurian Lakes in the following February.
In Aug. he took Kovno and afterwards the fortresses of Grodno
and Olita, and continued his victorious advance into Russia.
From 1916-8 Eichhorn was in command of the army group
known by his name in Courland. In Dec. 1917 he was raised to
the rank of field-marshal and was sent to the Ukraine as chief-in-
command of the German troops on the eastern front. He was
assassinated at Kiev July 30 1918.
EINEM, KARL VON (1853- ), Prussian general, was born
at Hertzberg in the Harz Jan. i 1853. He entered the Prussian
army in 1870 and rose to the rank of major-general in 1900. In
the same year he was entrusted with the organization of the
German section of the international military expedition to Peking.
In 1903 he was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general and
appointed Minister of War, an office which he held till 1909.
He had meanwhile been promoted to be a general of the cavalry,
and in 1909 he was placed in command of the VII. Army Corps,
which under Kluck he led in the advance through Belgium in
1914. In Sept. 1914 he was appointed to the command of the
III. Army (the army of the Aisne), which he successfully handled
throughout the heavy fighting in Champagne in Feb. 1915.
He continued his defence of his section of the German position
with this army throughout 1917 and the early months of 1918.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT (1879- ), German-Swiss physicist,
was born of Jewish parents at Ulm in the kingdom of Wiirttem-
berg on May 14 1879. His boyhood was spent at Munich where
his father, who owned electro-technical works, settled in the early
'eighties. The family migrated to Italy in 1894, whilst Albert
Einstein went to the Cantonschule at Aarau in Switzerland,
where he passed the abiturienten examination, the indispensable
preliminary to any professional career in Central Europe, two
years later. He attended lectures while supporting himself by
teaching mathematics and physics at the polytechnic school at
Zurich until 1900 and finally, after a year as tutor at Schaffhausen,
was appointed examiner of patents at the patent office at Berne,
where, having become a Swiss citizen, he remained until 1909.
It was during this period that he took his Ph.D. degree at the
university of Zurich and published his first papers on physical
subjects. These were so highly thought of that in 1909 he was
appointed extraordinary professor of theoretical physics at the
university of Zurich. In 1911 he accepted the chair of physics in
Prague, only to be induced to return to his own polytechnic
school at Zurich as full professor in the following year. In 1914
his preeminence had become so evident that a special position
was created for him in Berlin, where he was elected a member of
the Royal Academy of Sciences and given a sufficient stipend to
enable him to devote all his time to research without any re-
strictions or duties whatsoever. He was elected a foreign member
of the Royal Society in 1921, having also been made previously a
member of the Amsterdam and Copenhagen Academies, while
the universities of Geneva, Manchester, Rostock and Princeton
conferred honorary degrees on him.
Einstein's work is so important and has proved fertile in so many
various branches of physics that it is not possible to do more than
enumerate a few of the most salient papers. The work by which
he is best known, the theory of relativity, was begun in 1905 with
the publication of the restricted principle with its consequences (see
RELATIVITY). Though considered fantastic by many, it had
secured fairly general acceptance in Germany in 1912, and was fol-
lowed by the generalized theory in 1915. But Einstein's work has
been by no means confined to such abstract questions. One of his
earliest publications gave the complete theory and formulae of the
phenomenon known as Brownian motion, which had puzzled physi-
cists for nearly 80 years. He showed that the heat motion of particles,
which is too small to be perceptible when these particles are large,
and which cannot be observed in molecules since these themselves
are too small, must be perceptible when the particles are just large
enough to be visible and gave complete equations which enable the
masses themselves to be deduced from the motions of these particles.
Much of his time again was spent on the obscure problems usually
combined under the heading " quantum theory." The importance
of these has become more and more evident, and the difficulty of
reconciling the apparently inevitable discontinuities of the product
of energy and time which experiment indicates, with our accepted
habits of mind, always had a peculiar fascination for Einstein.
Sooner probably than anybody else he realized the far-reaching impli-
cations of the theory propounded by Planck. His paper on the varia-
tion of the specific heat with temperature, which appeared in 1907,
was the first extension of Planck's fuadamental hypothesis, and its
verification in essentials is one of the most convincing arguments in
its favour. Numerous other papers on molecular physics, including
an experimental research on magnetism, appeared in the Proceed-
ings of the Russian Academy of Science, the Physikalische Zeit-
schrift, the Proceedings of the German Physical Society, the Annalen
der Physik, etc. (F. A. L.)
EISNER, KURT (1867-1919), Bavarian Socialist politician
and author, was born in Berlin on May 14 1867. He became a
journalist, and at an early stage of his career had the first of his
many experiences of imprisonment for the subversive tendency
of his writings. He was successively on the editorial staff of the
Vorwaerts in Berlin 1898-1905 and of other socialist newspapers
at Niirnberg and Munich. On the outbreak of the World War he
at first seemed to be going to side with the Government, but,
after having obtained some private knowledge of the way in
which German public opinion had been duped, he turned against
his own party, the Social Democrats, and attacked them for
supporting the war. In Jan. 1918 he was prosecuted at Munich
on a charge of treason for inciting munition workers to strike.
He was released from prison on the ground that he was a candi-
date for the Reichstag, and recovered his liberty in time to
arrange the mass meeting on the Theresienwiese at Munich on
Nov. 7 1918, which the same day led to the overthrow of the
Bavarian monarchy, the flight of the King, and the institution of
a Bavarian revolutionary Government under the presidency of
Eisner. A red-haired Jew, he possessed a magnetic and artistic
temperament, and had various special methods of arousing and
restraining the revolutionary masses, including orchestral and
vocal concerts of high excellence in the formerly royal theatres
and the opera house of Munich. His policy followed extreme
lines in the sense of furthering the Workmen's and Soldiers'
Councils system, while at the same time he manifested a Bava-
rian particularism of his own in his efforts to maintain his con-
ceptions of republican government in conjunction with the
Councils in Bavaria as against the centralizing tendencies of the
Berlin policy. It was with difficulty that he was induced to agree
to the arrangements for reestablishing the Federal system of the
German Reich and for the election of a National Constituent
Assembly. Meanwhile a Bavarian Assembly had been elected,
and the Bavarian reactionaries feared that, when it assembled,
Eisner's influence might continue to predominate Or might even
be fortified. He was, further, obnoxious to them on account of
his revelations as to the origin of the war, and at an interna-
tional Socialist conference at Berne he had urged the German
delegates to make a clean breast of Germany's war guilt. He
was on his way to open this Assembly, when he was shot dead
in the street by a young Count Arco on Feb. 21 1919. This
crime was speedily followed by the Bolshevist chaos into which
Munich was for a brief period plunged in April.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
949
Eisner was the author of various books and pamphlets, which
display considerable literary faculty. They include Psychopathia
Spiritualis (1892); Eine Junkerrevolte (1899); Wilhelm Liebknecht
(1900); Fesle der Festlosen (1903), and Die Neue Zeit (1919).
(G. S.)
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (see 9.193). In the articles on
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY, ELECTROMETALLURGY AND ELECTRO-
CHEMISTRY, TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY, PYROMETRY, ELEC-
TRIC LIGHTING, WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY, various
important applications of Electrical Engineering, as developed
since 1910, are separately dealt with. This article deals with devel-
opments connected with the dynamo (see 8.764), and with prog-
ress as regards power stations and electric traction generally.
LARGE ELECTRIC SUPPLY STATIONS
Technical advances on the generation side of the electrical
industry have been mainly in connexion with the wider use of the
steam turbine on the one hand and with alternating-current
transmission on the other. Thus the large turbo-alternator has
become the standard machine for all important central stations
dependent on steam. A further factor in this development has
been the tendency towards the linking-up of supply stations in
large areas in order to obtain increased economy a matter
which has so much importance for industry as to call for the
appointment in Great Britain in 1919 of special Electricity
Commissioners to deal with it. In other countries also the statu-
tory regulation of electric supply has been seriously discussed
and in Germany state control has been adopted.
Perhaps the most important feature which affects linking-up
problems and standard lines of manufacture is the question of
the system, or rather of the frequency, to be adopted. In the
course of natural development, the 3-phase alternating current
system at a frequency of 50 cycles per second has been more and
more widely used until it can now be regarded as the standard
throughout Europe. On the Continent, apart from traction work
for which 50/3 or 1 5 cycles per second have been adopted, a few
stations only still operate at 42 cycles per second. In Great
Britain the chief exceptions are to be found in the use of 40
cycles in the N.E. coast area, and of 25 cycles in Birmingham
and the Clyde valley, the 3-phase system being still retained.
With 50 cycles as the standard the turbo speeds become fixed
at 3,000 revolutions per minute (a-pole machines) and 1,500
revolutions per minute (4-pole machines). Units up to 20,000
kva. have been built at the former speed, and at the latter up to
40,000 kva. In the United States the standard frequencies are
60 and 25 cycles per second, the latter being essentially used for
traction purposes. The higher frequency makes the construction
of large 2-pole units more difficult, but nevertheless the success-
ful development of high-speed machinery and of reduction gear-
ing is having a marked influence towards the higher frequency.
Even 6o-cycle rotary converters for traction work are becoming
common. Four-pole turbo-alternators running at 1,800 revolu-
tions per minute to give a frequency of 60 have been built up to
a capacity of 33,333 kva. Steam-turbine units of as much as
60,000 kw. are in use, but in this case the high-pressure and two
low-pressure turbines each drive a separate 20,000 kw. generator
at 1,500 revolutions per minute.
Thus the alternator has been able to keep pace with the de-
mands of the steam turbine as regards large powers at high speeds
with high thermal efficiencies for the combination. Even com-
paratively small units of 6,000 to 7,500 kw. have shown an ef-
ficiency from the thermal units of the coal to the net kilowatt-
hour of 18 per cent. It is possible that the normal units of the
future will be in the neighbourhood of 25,000 rather than of
50,000 kw. if an output of 100,000 to 150,000 kw. should come
to be regarded as the maximum desirable for any one station.
A longitudinal section throitgh a large 2-pole turbo-alternator of
modern type is shown in fig. I, wherein will be seen the channels
provided for air to ventilate both rotor and stator. A fan is attached
to each end of the rotor to blow air through the stator channels, and
the heated air is discharged at the top of the outer casing.
The design of large turbo-alternators presents many difficult
problems. The rotor (particularly at 3,000 revolutions per
minute) is commonly of the cylindrical type made from a solid
steel forging, the exciting winding being accommodated in slots
and the coil ends secured by means of covers forged from special
alloy steels. It is only by the most rigid construction that suc-
cessful rotors can be made to withstand the enormous stresses
set up at peripheral velocities in the neighbourhood of 25,000 ft.
per minute. The adequate ventilation of such rotors is not
easily obtained, and, while both air and water ducts are used,
there is a strong tendency to dispense with ducts altogether and
rely on non-combustible insulation (mica) for preventing injury
from high temperature. The stator also needs especial care
not only is the cooling problem difficult, but the bracing of the
coil ends has to be such that no movement of the conductors
is possible even under conditions of sudden short circuit.
It has doubtless been due to the rapidly increasing demands for
large powers and high speeds, and the success achieved therewith,
that the frequency of 50 cycles has come to be more widely adopted
|
FIG. I. Longitudinal Section of Large 2-Pole Turbo-Alternator (Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical Co., Ltd.).
950
than the frequency of 25 cycles. Where the latter frequency has
been retained it has been found preferable to use mechanical redui
tion gearing up to capacities of about 5,000 kw. Reduction gear may
indeed be said to have revolutionized turbine driving tor small
outputs, the loss in the gearing being more than compensated by
the increased efficiency of the high-speed steam turbine. It has
further to be remarked that the application of reduction gearing to
electrical work is still in its infancy. The greater expense of the
geared drive is considered by many to be justifiable on account ot
its greater reliability and the higher efficiency of the plant.
The development of the continuous-current turbo-generator could
not keep pace with the demand for increased output. Though satis-
factory units up to 1,000 kw. were built, continuous-current turbo-
generators are seldom built at the present day, except for installation
on board ship. The demands of large users of continuous-current
power such as railways, chemical works, etc., are best met either
bv geared generators (steam turbines driving continuous-current
generators through double helical reduction gearing) for moderate
outputs, or by rotary converters for large outputs. Units of 2,000
to 15,000 kw. are not uncommon.
Both machines and transformers owe much of their development
to the further utilization of the means for reducing the losses which
occur in the iron and the copper. The use of silicon and other
elements in alloy with steel in order to increase the resistance to the
flow of eddy currents in iron is the factor which has been mainly
responsible for the reduced weight per kva. of transformers, whilst
the devices adopted for diminishing the unequal distribution of cur-
rent in machines and transformers have rendered possible many
modern designs. .
As an instance of a modern power station may be cited that at
Zschornewitz (Golpa), which at the present time (1921) is the largest
steam-driven station in the world. This was erected in 1915 during
the course of the war at the instance of the German Government for
the supply of power for the production of nitrate of calcium in order
to ensure a sufficient home supply of nitrates for agriculture and
other necessary purposes. The engine-room contains 8 steam-
turbine sets, each of 22,000 kva. capacity at 1,500 revolutions per
minute, and the magnitude of the output may be judged from the
daily consumption of about 7,000 tons of coal obtained from the
lignite coal-field in the area of which the station is situated. There
are 64 very large tubular boilers with 9 chimneys, each 328 ft. high,
and II large cooling towers. Current is generated at 6,600 volts; of
the total output 6,400 kw. are supplied at 6,000 volts to the nitrate
works, while 33,000 kw. are supplied to Berlin, 95 m. distant, through
a loo,ooo-volt double transmission line to a receiving station at
Rummelsburg. The State is erecting at Friedrichsfelde a large dis-
tributing station for Berlin and adjoining districts, and at this
station the combined outputs of the power stations at Lauta (40,000
kw.) and Spremberg (20,000 kw.) and from the Golpa transmission
will be dealt with, while a third generating station in the Lausitzer
lignite coal-field is in contemplation.
The lay-out of the plant in modern stations has been mainly
governed by principles of economy. Larger boilers, higher steam
pressures, greater superheat, the substitution of a small number of
large turbine-driven sets for a large number of small slow-speed sets
have all helped in this direction. The design and arrangement of the
switch-gear have also been matters on which much care has been
bestowed, particularly in countries where high transmission pressures
up to 100,000 or even 150,000 volts have been adopted. In this con-
nexion more efficient protection against lightning, pressure surges,
short circuits, faults to earth, etc., may be particularly mentioned.
The transformer is now built for such large powers and high pressures
that, as with the switch-gear, separate housing is essential.
The cooling of the machinery and transformers calls for special
consideration in the lay-out of large plants. Air is still the common
cooling medium for machines, but the quantities needed by modern
turbo-generators are so large that special intakes and outlets have
to be provided. In addition, measures have to be taken for cleaning
the air, particularly near towns or industrial centres. For this pur-
pose dry filters were first tried, but were rapidly replaced by wet
niters; that a completely satisfactory solution has not been attained
thereby is evident from the experiments now being made to circulate
the same air through the machine and a refrigerator. With trans-
formers the case is somewhat different ; oil is here the cooling medium,
and air-blast transformers are now seldom called for. With natural
oil-cooling no special provision has to be made, but in larger trans-
formers usually the oil is water-cooled either by passing water
through a cooling coil immersed in the upper part of the oil or by
pumping the oil through a cooling chamber.
When continuous current is required it is often customary to
generate 3-phase alternating current at the pressure required at the
slip rings of the rotary converters, thereby dispensing with trans-
formers. An important feature in connexion with modern switch-
gear is the mistake-proof devices for preventing wrong connexions or
danger to the operators.
RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION
The valid reasons upon which the electrification of railways
may be advocated have now become more clearly defined,
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
and progress has been made as these reasons have shown them-
selves to be applicable to specific cases. Before the World War
there was a pronounced desire in certain countries to make them-
selves economically independent, and therefore to utilize avail-
able water-power rather than to import coal, although it was
not always easy to show that any appreciable saving would
accrue from electrifying railways under these conditions. The
countries chiefly concerned in this way were Italy, Switzerland
and Sweden. A.great impetus, however, was given to this move-
ment during the war on account of the scarcity and high price
of coal, and a stage has now been reached when it is safe to say
that whatever the cost of coal may be in the future, certain rail-
way lines will no longer be worked by imported coal. Another
great factor has been the difficulty of dealing with increased
traffic. The introduction of the electric locomotive by in-
creasing the average speed, especially on inclines, and by render-
ing heavier train loads feasible has in several cases proved a
cheaper solution than doubling or quadrupling the track. The
tunnel and terminal advantages will also be recognized.
As an indication of the importance that the electrification of
main lines has assumed, reference may be made to the fact that
in many countries the question has been taken up by the states
concerned. The outstanding feature of all the reports and dis-
cussions that have appeared has been the debatable question
of the best system. As far as can be seen at present, different
countries will ultimately decide in favour of different systems.
The three systems which call for discussion are:
(a) The three-phase system;
(b) the single-phase system;
(c) the continuous-current system.
From a technical standpoint, all three systems may be said
to be satisfactory. It will now be convenient to deal with the
several countries separately.
Great Britain. The general electrification of railways has been
discussed, but has hardly received serious consideration. In 1920, a
committee was appointed to advise the Ministry of Transport, and
in its interim report advocated as the standard system the con-
tinuous-current system at 1,500 volts, the mode of generation of
the power to be that prevailing in the district. Up to the present,
practically the only lines that have been electrified have been city
and suburban railways in and around London, Liverpool, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne and Manchester. Until recently, the 6oo-volt continuous-
current system, as used on tramways, was adopted for the railways,
but with a third rail instead of an overhead conductor. There are
now two exceptions the Newport-Shilton mineral line 18 m. long
at 1,500 volts with an overhead conductor, and the Manchester-
Bury line 10 m. long with 1,200 volts and a third rail. There are only
two examples of the single-phase system the important electrifica-
tion of the suburban system of the London, Brighton and South
Coast railway, with an overhead conductor at 7,000 volts and a
frequency of 25 cycles per second, and the small Morecambe-
Heysham experimental line on the Midland railway. Extensions on
the Brighton system were in progress before the World War, but
these were not completed in 1921. With the exception of a few
electric locomotives for hauling passenger coaches and goods trucks
over the electrified sections, motor coaches are used entirely on the
English electric railways. Amongst recent extensions ol the 6oo-volt
system in and around London may be mentioned the electrification
of the suburban lines of the London and South-Western railway, the
extension of the London and North-Western railway electrification
to Watford, and the extension of the Central London railway on
the Great Western railway from Shepherd's Bush to Baling.
United States of America. In the United States where so much
has been done to develop both the continuous-current and the single-
phase systems, many important electrifications have been earned
out on both systems; but of late years, the leading firms, the General
Electric Co. and the Westinghouse Co., appear to have favoured t
continuous-current system. In America a break away from 600 vo ts
was made long ago, and electrifications with 1,200 and 1,500 volts
became quite common. Of recent years, the Butte-Anaconda min-
eral line was equipped on the continuous-current system at 2,400
volts and served as an experiment for the electrification of the
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railway at 3,000 volts. This line,
over 655 m., was in 1921 the longest in existence, but conditions
on this mountainous line through the Rockies differ considerably
from conditions in densely populated areas. With the possibility
of one train in about every two hours , it is hard to draw com-
parisons with the New York Central, the Pennsylvania and the
New York, New Haven and Hartford lines.
The single-phase system has also been extensively applied in t
United States, particularly on the Philadelphia section of the
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
95i
Pennsylvania railway and on the Norfolk and Western lines, where
the traffic is very heavy. There is a marked difference between the
types of locomotives and of motors developed in America and those
developed in other countries, and it is possible that the direction
along which designers have gone in the United States has not on the
whole been the most favourable for the single-phase system. At the
same time it would be wrong to assume that America as a whole is in
favour of the continuous-current system. The use of 165 cycles in
Europe as compared with 25 cycles in America has been much to the
advantage of the former continent in single-phase work.
Italy. Italy was one of the first countries in Europe to consider
and adopt the electrification of its railways. At that time (1902) the
three-phase system was practically the only one available for main
lines, the position in this respect being somewhat akin to that on the
Brighton railway when the single-phase system was chosen. The one
serious drawback to the three-phase system is the need for two
overhead wires at different potentials, which makes the overhead
construction at points and crossings very complicated. Also the
profile of certain tunnels renders the adoption of this system difficult.
One undesirable result of the overhead complications is the limita-
tion of the pressure to 3,000 volts. The objectionable double over-
head potential and the choice of two other satisfactory systems have
prevented the extension of the three-phase system to other countries.
At the same time it should not be supposed that less success has been
obtained with this system than with either of the others indeed,
the whole technical world must view with admiration the ability
shown by the Italian engineers in carrying out the system. Many
important State lines are now worked electrically, among which may
be mentioned the pioneer Valtellina line (opened in 1902), the Giovi
tunnel and the Mont Cenis tunnel lines. For mountain lines the
three-phase system is peculiarly well adapted, because of the auto-
matic regenerative braking action which occurs as soon as the
motors run above synchronous speed. The original locomotives had
two speeds obtained by the cascade arrangement of two motors;
while the newer locomotives have four speeds, the cascade con-
nexion being combined with pole-changing devices. The power for
the Italian lines is obtained from hydraulic stations, the use of water-
power being important in a country without native coal.
Switzerland. To Switzerland belongs the credit of much pioneer
work in railway electrification ever since the Oerlikon Co. equipped
an experimental line from Seebach to VVettingen. The piercing of
the Simplon tunnel in 1907 was followed by the adoption of the
three-phase system so as to utilize available plant as far as possible.
This tunnel is 14 m. long (from Brigue in Switzerland to Iselle in
Italy), and insulation difficulties were experienced with both over-
head conductors and locomotives on account of the hot springs,
which produced a very humid, warm atmosphere. On a cold day, a
locomotive entering the tunnel from Brigue became rapidly covered
with moisture. The earlier locomotives were provided with slip-ring
induction motors, two speeds being obtained by changing the
number of poles ; the later locomotives have squirrel-cage rotors and
are arranged for four speeds, the stators being provided with two-
pole changing windings. The three-phase electrification has now
been extended to Sion in the Rhone valley. In 1912 the Loetschberg
railway from Berne to Brigue (Simplon tunnel) was opened and from
the outset this line was operated electrically. The system chosen was
the single-phase system at 15,000 volts and 15 cycles. (This may be
changed later to 165 cycles, the frequency used on the Federal rail-
ways.) After the initial difficulties had been overcome, both in the
overhead system and in the locomotives, the Swiss Government
decided to apply the same system on the St. Gothard railway. In this
connexion mention may be made of the important official com-
mission which was appointed in 1904 to study the electrification of
the Swiss railways. Several reports were issued by this commission,
the labours of which were concluded in 1914. It has been claimed
that the economy and efficiency of the single-phase system are
greater than those of other systems, and this was particularly the
case on the Loetschberg railway, where the single-phase overhead
line is fed directly from the single-phase generating station at Spiez
at the working voltage without transformers. Not only did the
commission report strongly in favour of the single-phase system, but
also advocated the generation of single-phase power at railway
frequency (163 cycles) rather than 3-phase generation at the indus-
trial frequency of 50 cycles and conversion to single-phase at rail-
way frequency. If the over-all cost of energy delivered to the
locomotive, including attendance, be reckoned as unity when the
current is converted from one system to another, this may be reduced
to about 0-6 when conversion is dispensed with, and the latter figure
can again be reduced still further when the intermediate link of trans-
formers is eliminated. Extensions have been made on the lines
adjoining the Loetschberg line as far as Berne, and the St. Gothard
line (Lucerne-Chiasso) is now working electrically from Erstfeld to
Bellinzona. Several of the lines subsidized by the 'Canton of Berne
have recently been electrified and linked up with the Loetschberg
railway, while many other important projects are also under con-
sideration. It is estimated that about 30 per cent of the Swiss
railways are now worked electrically.
Doubtless one of the chief causes of the success of the single-phase
system in Switzerland arises from the successful development of the
single-phase commutator motor for traction work. In Europe there
has always been a tendency to use fewer and larger motors and to
mount them higher in the locomotive than is the case in America.
Though this construction has introduced new problems with connect-
ing and coupling rods, it has permitted the logical development of
the single-phase motor. Of all the different types of commutator
motor the repulsion motor with fixed and movable brushes (Deri
motor), 'the repulsion motor with phase compensation (Winter Eich-
berg Latour motor as used on the London, Brighton and South Coast
railway), and the various forms of series repulsion motor the suc-
cessful survivor is doubtless the compensated series motor, the
excitation required to give the E.M.F. to neutralize the transformer
E.M.F. in the coils short-circuited by the brushes being obtained by
suitable winding on auxiliary poles. Though such motors can be
built for low terminal pressures only (200 to 500 volts) and therefore
necessitate step-down transformers on the locomotive, advantage is
taken of this to obtain economical and ample speed control by provid-
ing suitable tappings on the secondary of the transformer.
Germany. Tn Germany the single-phase system has also been
adopted where main lines have been electrified. The chief elec-
trified lines are the Dessau-Bitterfeld section of the Magdeburg Hall
line, the Silesian mountain lines and the Wiesental railway in Baden.
Early in the present century trials had been made on the Berlin
Zossen experimental line, and it would appear that the single-phase
system at 15,000 volts, l6 cycles, will be adopted as the standard
system for the German railways. The power for several of these
lines is generated at 60,000 to 80,000 volts in steam stations. The
electrification of the Dessau-Bitterfeld line was the alternative
chosen in preference to quadrupling the tracks in order to cope with
the increasingly heavy demands on this section.
Many different types of electric locomotive have been built in
Germany, some of which were in accordance with the specifications
of the railway engineers. Much adverse criticism was raised owing
to important troubles in several constructions, arising mainly from
failures in the driving mechanism. Many problems, both in Germany
and Switzerland, concerning vibrations set up by the natural
frequency of the system, deformation of the several parts and the
play in the bearings, had to be investigated before successful solu-
tions were found. In some cases it was found that an elastic member
between the driving and the driven parts proved effective in damp-
ing the oscillations.
Sweden, like Italy and Switzerland, is a country without coal but
with ample water-power. The first important electrification in
Sweden was the Riksgriins railway, the most northerly railway in the
world, situated entirely within the Arctic Circle. This railway ex-
tends from Lulea in the Bothnian Gulf to Narvik, an ice-free port
on the Norwegian coast, and is used for transporting mineral ores to
the latter place for export. Since the original electrification was
carried out in 1910 extensions have been made, and it is hoped that
the whole line will shortly be worked electrically.
The high price and great scarcity of coal towards the end of the
war, and afterwards, made the consideration of the utilization of
water-power extremely urgent. The expert commission appointed
to study the question confined its attention to the problem of imme-
diate urgency the Stockholm-Gothenburg line. A careful com-
parison was made between the continuous-current system at 3,000
volts and the single-phase system at 15,000 volts, and it was shown
that the latter was slightly better from an economic standpoint, in
addition to which the Swedish railway administration and manu-
facturing firms were fairly well acquainted with the actual working
of the single-phase system. The proposals for this scheme were
accepted by the Riksdag in 1920.
France. A commission was also set up in this country to study
the electrification of the French railways. Before the war certain
short sections had been electrified on the single-phase system, but
as a result of a post-war visit to the United States, the commission
appeared to be whole-heartedly in favour of the continuous-current
system, at a pressure of 1,500 volts in this respect agreeing with the
findings of the British advisory committee. It is intended to make
use of the waterfalls for supplying energy to the railways.
Austria. Prior to the war, the Mittenwald railway between
Austria and Bavaria had been electrified, and it has now been de-
cided to adopt electrification on a general scale. The system adopted
is the single-phase at l,ooo volts and i6 cycles. Locomotives were
ordered in 1920, and it was hoped to commence running in 1925.
General. As general problems connected with electric traction on
railways may be mentioned interference with communication cir-
cuits, regenerative braking and speed control.
In most countries telegraph and telephone lines run alongside the
track, and all systems have created disturbances in these circuits
from electromagnetic or electrostatic influence. Some of these dis-
turbances are periodic and traceable to harmonics in the current in
the power circuit ; others, perhaps the most violent, arise from pres-
sure surges, earths, short circuits, etc. Numerous remedies have been
adopted, most of which are more or less costly. Thus the avoidance
of close parallels by removing the communication circuits to a
distance or placing them in underground cables is an expensive
expedient. To say, as is usual, that the single-phase system causes
worse disturbances than the continuous-current system could not
be accepted as a general statement ; some of the most troublesome
cases have occurred in continuous-current systems fed from rotary
952
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
converters. However, the causes are now better understood and
successful remedies are in sight. It may be mentioned that, while
the French commission in their decision in favour of the con-
tinuous-current system were largely influenced by the interference
question, the Swedish commission regarded it as no better in this
respect than the alternating-current single-phase system.
FIG. 2. 300-Ampere Mercury-Vapour Rectifier.
All three systems used for traction are capable of regenerative
braking, by which is meant the use of the electric machine as a.
generator absorbing the mechanical energy from the train and
returning it to the supply system as electrical energy. In this re-
spect the three-phase system is simplest, for all that is necessary
here is that the speed should exceed synchronous speed, in which
case the induction machines act as generators. Obviously the method
is not suited for bringing trains to rest. With the other two systems
special devices are requisite, and though regenerative braking was
first developed for continuous-current traction, successful solutions
have now been developed and applied on single-phase locomotives
in Switzerland, which enable the train to be brought to rest by re-
generative braking. Hitherto, in the matter of regenerative braking,
economy in power has usually been of less importance than the sav-
ing in wear and tear of tires, brake blocks and rails. On the lines
where such braking is applied, it is frequently impossible to utilize
the returned energy, which is accordingly consumed in resistance.
Speed control can be obtained with all systems. With a continu-
ous-current supply series, parallel connexion and field weakening
together provide a limited number of economical running speeds.
It must be borne in mind, however, that weakening the field reduces
one of the torque-producing factors, which may entail serious in-
crease in armature heating when the torque rises rapidly with the
speed. With three-phase supply two or four speeds are obtained by
cascade connexion or pole-changing devices. The single-phase
system, by means of a variable-ratio transformer, provides most
easily a large number of economical speeds.
Large mercury-vapour rectifiers have recently been constructed
and put into commercial use ; these entail further auxiliary apparatus
as vacuum and water pumps, and their relative advantage or dis-
advantage as an alternative to the rotary converter for traction
work remains to be decided in the future. Fig. 2 shows a small
3OO-ampere rectifier as made by Messrs. Power Rectifiers, Ltd.,
which can supply the rectified current at any voltage up to 750 volts.
The arc operates in the lower chamber A, between the mercury
cathode D and anodes C, of which there are usually six connected
to the six-phase secondary of a transformer. The neutral point of
the secondary is brought out and forms the negative pole of the con-
tinuous-current system, the cathode being the positive pole of that
system. The arc is struck by means of the ignition anode E, which
is connected by a long rod with the solenoid mounted on the top
of the condensing chamber B. This solenoid is controlled by a
push-button ignition switch, and the connexions are so arranged
that when the anode E touches the mercury a portion of the current
which was previously flowing through the solenoid coil is diverted;
this allows a spring acting in opposition to the solenoid to raise
again the ignition anode. The rectifier is cooled by water circulated
through the base of the cathode, through a jacket round the arc
chamber, and thence through the plate in which the anodes are
mounted and the jacket round the condensing chamber. Larger
sizes dealing with 600 and 1,000 amperes are manufactured, and
for larger outputs two or more rectifier cylinders are placed in par-
allel and connected to a single transformer.
HYDRAULIC ELECTRIC STATIONS
Probably in no direction has greater progress been made of
recent years than in the utilization of water-power. In all civilized
countries throughout the world plants have been installed and
projects drawn up for utilizing this natural source of energy.
An idea of what is possible and of what has been done in this
direction is obtained from the following approximate table,
taken from a paper by E. M. Bergstrom (Inst. Mech. Eng.
1920): B.H.P.
Country
Available
Developed
Per Cent
U.S.A
28,100,000
7,000,000
24-9
Canada A ....
18,803,000
1,735.000
9-2
" B . . . .
8,094,000
1,725,000
21-3
Austria-Hungary
6,460,000
566,000
8-8
France .....
5,587,000
1,100,000
u-6
Norway ....
5,500,000
1,120,000
20-4
Spain .....
5,000,000
440,000
8-8
Sweden
4,500,000
704,000
15-6
Italy
4,000,000
976,000
24-4
Switzerland ....
2,000,000
511,000
25-5
Germany ....
1,425,000
618,100
43-4
Great Britain
963,000
80,000
8-3
Low, medium and high falls, ranging from 4 ft. (e.g. on the
river Main) to 2,700 ft. of head (e.g. at Luchon on the French
Pyrenees) have all been brought into service. To take one in-
stance only, the modern water-power station on the river Dal,
about 80 m. from Stockholm, contains four turbines, each of
10,000 H.P. coupled directly to dynamos at 125 revolutions per
minute, and larger sets up to 20,000 H.P. are not uncommon.
The latest (1920) station of the Southern Power Co., operating
in S. Carolina, U.S.A., has been installed on the Wateree river
for 90,000 H.P. and contains five turbines, directly coupled to
generators each of 14,000 kva. The extension of station No. 3
of the Niagara Falls Power Co., developing an additional 100,000
H.P. at Niagara, is noteworthy for the inclusion of 32,500 kva.
i2,ooo-volt three-phase alternators running at 150 revolutions
per minute and a frequency of 25 cycles per second. One of these,
manufactured by the Allis Chalmers Mfg. Co., is shown in fig. 3.
For high falls Pelton wheels are employed, and in the case of
Luchon, quoted above, each Pelton wheel develops 6,200 H.P. at
the high speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute. Still higher heads
are being utilized, and owing to the high costs of material and
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
953
FIG. 3. 32,50o-kva. Combined Water-Turbine and Alternator.
labour, the tendency is to favour the development of high-head falls
which require less civil engineering owing to their smaller volumes
of water. The chief problem in the design of water-wheel alter-
nators is in the construction of the rotor. Owing to the possibility
of racing, water-turbine-driven sets have to be capable of with-
standing qverspeeds of 80 to 100%. In many cases the peripheral
speed is high on account of the large output, while large diameters
become necessary to meet the demands for fly-wheel effect. The result
is that a very rigid construction is necessary for the rotor, usually
embodying some modification of the dovetail for securing the poles
and field windings. The stator windings also, as in turbo-alternator,
have to be securely braced in order to withstand the severe conditions
of sudden short circuit. It is customary to make water-wheel al-
ternators totally enclosed to reduce windage losses, to assist arti-
ficial ventilation and to protect the machine against possible leaks
from the turbine.
Small hydro-electric stations are now in action which are either
entirely automatic and actuated by a change of water level, or set
in operation by remote control in accordance with the demands
for power from the network. A case of interest as involving the ex-
port of energy is the hydro-electric transmission of power up to
20,000 H.P. from the power-station of Gosgen on the river Aar in
Switzerland to a distributing station situated in France, where the
supply is placed in parallel with the steam-driven station of Vincy.
Transmissions from Norwegian waterfalls to Denmark and Sweden
are also contemplated.
One reason for the comparatively small amount of power utilized
in Great Britain has been the abundance of coal. In many cases
the development of water-power has only become possible since coal
became dear and scarce, for it must not be forgotten that hydraulic
installations are frequently very costly on account of the civil en-
gineering works that have to be constructed in places difficult of
access, and of the long high-tension transmission lines.
In many countries water-power is now being developed in accord-
ance with definite policies. Thus in Switzerland, where the linking-
up of stations has been adopted on a wide scale, the low-head pow-
er stations in the valleys, which utilize river energy, are designed
to supply the mean power and therefore to run on practically con-
stant load, while the "peak" loads are supplied by the high-head
stations in the hills, which are fed from natural lakes or reservoirs
in which the water is impounded by means of dams.
In Italy power is available from the Alps in summer from the
melting of ice and snow, and from the Apennines in winter from
rain. By linking up the several stations a continuous supply of
energy is assured. In Germany the canalization of rivers is carried
out hand-in-hand with the supply of electric energy by building
power-stations at the weirs.
Wave-power, tidal rise and fall, and tidal currents in estuaries
have all received attention, especially in France, as possible sources
of power in the future, and a large scheme for utilization of the water-
power available from the Severn has been proposed, but in no case
have the projects advanced beyond the stage of discussion.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC MOTORS
One of the main factors in the development of electrical supply
has been the extended use of electric motors for driving machi-
nery of all kinds. In addition to the numerous class of simple,
straightforward drives, the electric motor has been applied with
success under more difficult conditions, demanding large starting
torque, considerable powers and wide variations of speed. Along
with this development has been the extension of the three-phase
system, in consequence of which there has arisen a wide demand
for variable-speed, alternating-current motors. Some directions
of their application may be dealt with.
954
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY
Considering first of all continuous-current motors, it may be said
from a theoretical standpoint that the possibilities of continuous-
current motors are almost unlimited. The speed of such motors
may be economically regulated by varying either the applied pres-
sure or the exciting current. In the case of a constant-voltage
supply, the usual method of varying the supply voltage consists in
the use of series-parallel connexion. This involves the use of at least
two motors and finds its commonest application in traction.
Occasionally, however, some form of the Ward-Leonard system of
control is adopted. This, however, entails the use of a variable-
voltage generator, which in turn needs an electric motor or a prime
mover to drive it. Since each conversion of energy is associated
with loss, such systems are not only costly but eventually become
more or less wasteful. This is particularly the case when the Ward-
Leonard control is used on an alternating-current system of com-
paratively small power (e.g. that of a private installation) in order
to drive, say, a rolling-mill or a winding-engine where the peak load
is much in excess of the mean load. Here it often becomes needful
to supply a fly-wheel converter set consisting of an induction motor
with slip regulator (see below), a variable- voltage generator and a
fly-wheel, in addition to the driving motor, the armature of which
has often to be divided into two or three parts in order to reduce
inertia when rapid reversals are necessary. The function of the slip
regulator is to allow the speed of the induction motor to fall when a
heavy load comes on, and so to permit the excess load to be taken up
by the stored energy in the fly-wheel. Such sets often have to deal
with peaks of 20,000 H.P. and may give an overall efficiency of
50-70 %. Where the supply systems are sufficiently large, as on the
Rand, the fly-wheel can be dispensed with, but the induction motor
must then be able to cope with the peaks. The electric winder
affords a good example of the problems that have to be met in many
cases in order to replace a steam-engine drive.
A much simpler method of controlling the speed of a continuous-
current motor is to vary the exciting current. This can be done
automatically or manually, and it may be made dependent on or
independent of the load ; but in every case a single machine only is
necessary. The usual continuous-current motor for different speeds
is the shunt motor; in this, with a given excitation, the speed is
practically independent of the load ; but by increasing or decreasing
the exciting current the speed is lowered or raised respectively. By
this method of shunt control it is possible to obtain speed ranges as
high as i -5 or 1-6. Such wide ranges, however, make the design
difficult. At the lowest speed the ventilation is usually very poor,
while the exciting current is highest, but fans built on the shaft of
the armature can usually overcome any difficulty arising therefrom.
It is at the higher speeds that the design becomes a serious prob-
lem. In addition to the high peripheral speeds of armature and com-
mutator the very weak field may render the motor unstable, while
the commutating poles which are essential to prevent sparking
may produce hunting. It becomes necessary therefore to provide
such motors with compensating windings in order to neutralize
armature reaction. Thus despite the economy of this method, the
motors become costly when wide speed ranges are demanded.
Series motors in which the exciting winding is in series with the
armature winding, and in which in consequence the speed becomes
a function of the load, are widely used for drives where there is no
danger of the load being removed e.g. for traction or for fans,
cranes, etc., but the only common application of voltage and field
control of series motors is for traction work.
The compound-wound motor combines the shunt and series
characteristics in varying degree, according to requirements. If a
series characteristic is required with merely a limiting top speed, it
is only necessary to provide the motor with a small shunt winding
in addition to the series winding in order to prevent racing. When,
however, an increased torque at starting or a fall in speed in the case
of overloads is demanded, a small series winding is added to the
shunt winding. In the former case the series turns may be short-
circuited if desired after a definite speed has been reached.
Except in cases where a variable voltage is applied to the motor,
starting resistances are necessary with continuous-current motors,
so that continual starting becomes wasteful. For general speed
control the continuous-current motor is doubtless unrivalled, and
where circumstances justify the outlay conversion from alternating
to continuous current is the best solution. A typical case would be
a factory in which several variable-speed motors are installed.
Coming to the alternating-current side, mention must first be made
of the question of power-factor rectification. The alternating-
current, three-phase system having established! itself as the standard
method of transmission, vigorous attempts are being made in every
country to keep the power-factor of such systems as high as possible,
in order to secure the minimum outlay in transmission and genera-
tion. Obviously, with three-phase supply it becomes highly impor-
tant to emplciy wherever practicable three-phase motors, but in any
such application the power-factor must not be overlooked. Broadly
speaking, the user does not stand to gain by ignoring this question,
for whether the rectification is achieved by him or by the power
company, or is not done at all, the consumer has to pay.
Though with alternating current there are more types of notors
available than with continuous current, speed control presents a
more difficult problem. From the point of view of power-factor
correction, the synchronous motor can be regarded as ideal, but here
speed control is not available, while there are the additional diffi-
culties of providing facilities for starting and for separate (con-
tinuous-current) excitation. Where the conditions at starting do not
call for a large amount of torque, it is often possible to bring the
motor up to speed as an induction motor by means of eddy currents
induced in the pole shoes or by using the damping winding as a
squirrel-cage winding. The next stage consists in the provision of a
starting motor in the form of an induction motor with two poles less
than the synchronous motor. For severe starting conditions, such
a starting motor would become too costly, and the present solution
is being sought by building the synchronous motor itself as an
induction motor. The machine then runs up to speed as an induction
motor, is excited by continuous current and pulls into synchronism,
whence it continues running as a synchronous motor. In addition
to meeting severe starting conditions, this arrangement is also
replacing the induction motor where power-factor correction is
important. By its simplicity the induction motor is doubtless the
alternating-current motor that finds most favour. Where repeated
starting or where speed control is necessary the motor is uneco-
nomical, because the input to an induction motor depends on the
torque, and is independent of the speed. Nevertheless it is often
preferable to incur this waste rather than to install converting sets.
It is possible, however, to obtain economical speed control with an
induction motor by changing the number of poles or by connecting
two induction motors in cascade in each case, however, with a
certain sacrifice in power-factor as well as through the extra cost
incurred. There are numerous ways of effecting a change in the
number of poles e.g. by regrouping the coils, by varying the num-
ber of phases, by using two or more windings, etc. and generally
it becomes needful to employ a squirrel-cage rotor. Such a rotor,
however, does not necessarily mean a low starting torque, for some
of the locomotives used on the Simplon tunnel railway have such
windings. Generally speaking, it is not usual to obtain more than
six speeds with induction motors, while two and four are more usual.
The commutator motor offers theoretically the best solution for
obtaining speed control with alternating current, and the possibil-
ities here are the same as with continuous current. Actually,
however, the limitations are more severe, because not only do
commutation conditions limit the pressure as in the continuous-
current motor, but the transformer pressure induced by the alter-
nating flux in the coils undergoing short-circuit imposes further
limitations which result in a comparatively small output per pole.
The reduced commutator pressure usually entails a transformer
between supply and motor, but where speed control is required
advantage can be taken of this to vary the applied pressure by using
a variable-ratio transformer. The real trouble occurs when the
E.M.F. in the short-circuited coils depends upon synchronism, as
in three-phase commutator motors and single-phase commutator
motors of the repulsion and shunt types. The practical result is
that the speed of such motors never varies greatly from synchronous
speed, and that their limiting output is a few hundred horse-power.
On the other hand, types like the single-phase series commutator
motor, free from this restriction, have been successfully built for
outputs of over 1,000 H.P. and speed ranges up to four or five times
that of synchronism. Despite limitations, alternating-current com-
mutator motors are becoming more widely used, particularly for
small outputs; while as cascade or auxiliary motors they have been
successfully applied for utilizing the slip energy of large induction
motors. Variable-speed sets of this kind will probably be more widely
developed in the future, particularly when the properties of alter-
nating-current commutator motors come to be better understood.
AUTHORITIES. As additional authorities may be consulted : Miles
Walker, The Specification and Design of Dynamo-Electric Machinery
(1915); Hawkins, Smith and Neville, Papers on the Design of Alter-
nating Current Machinery (1919) ; Alexander Gray, Electrical Machine
Design (1913) ; A. T. Dover, Electric Traction (1917), and G. Klingen-
berg, Bau grosser Elektrizitatswerke (1920). (C. C. H. ; S. P. S.)
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY (see 9.198). UNITED KINGDOM. In
its commercial aspects the history of electricity supply in the
United Kingdom from 1910 to 1914 was comparatively un-
eventful. No fresh legislation was passed; no new supply
schemes of the first magnitude were brought forward. The sup-
ply undertakings were in the main content with steady develop-
ment among both industrial and domestic consumers. Advances
were more rapid in the lighting field on account of the appear-
ance of the drawn-wire tungsten lamp, first in the vacuum type
and later in the gas-filled type. Improvements in cooking and
heating apparatus also stimulated the domestic day load. The
war, however, arrested the growth of the domestic demand and
brought an urgent and practically unlimited call for electric
power in factories and workshops extended for war purposes
and in new factories erected for the production of munitions of
war. During the first months of war the need was met by run-
ning all the plant (including reserves) available in public general-
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY
955
ing stations to its full capacity. The margin of power thus pressed
into service was of great value in accelerating the output of
munitions, and when the Ministry of Munitions was formed
in the spring of 1915 no special department to organize the
supply of electric power was thought necessary. Within a few
months evidence of the vital importance of electricity for almost
every war demand had become so strong that a department was
formed to deal with all electrical engineering questions. All
proposals for the extension of generating stations and mains had
to be brought before the Electric Power Supply Department of
the Ministry, which issued priority certificates for those judged
to be most urgent. The output of electrical manufacturing firms
was likewise controlled, so that the production of both electric
power and electric plant was centrally organized to meet the
ever-increasing demand for current.
Between June 1914 and Oct. 31 1918 the plant capacity of 327
municipal undertakings rose from 705,000 kilowatts (K.W.)
installed to 1,490,000 K.W. installed or on order, and of 230
company-owned power stations from 430,000 K.W. installed to
788,000 K.W. installed or on order. Thus the additional gene-
rating plant installed or on order during the war aggregated
1,143,000 K.W., and was almost exactly equal to the total plant
capacity existing at the outbreak of war. Further, considerable
orders were placed for private electric generating plants, particu-
larly in connexion with the extension of iron and steel works,
where waste heat was available. All of the additional power was
required for power, smelting, and other industrial purposes. New
connexions for domestic purposes were not made, and owing to
military requirements, coal shortage, and other causes restric-
tions were placed on public and private lighting and.on the general
domestic consumption of electricity. Exact statistics of total
domestic demand are not available, but in this direction there
was a substantial diminution in output during the war.
The capital cost of these extensions, including mains and sub-
stations, was about 23,000,000. They were financed, where
necessary, by Treasury issues of interest-bearing loans, repay-
able by annual instalments over 15 years or so. Further, the
Ministry of Munitions was empowered to guarantee to bear
the difference between the cost of carrying out extensions during
the war and the estimated cost of the same work if carried out at
a period, generally one or two years, after the period of hostilities,
and also to meet the cost of any portions of extensions found to
be in excess of the post-war needs of the undertaking. The object
of this arrangement was to put the undertakings in the position
they would have occupied if they had not extended during the
war, but had waited until their post-war requirements had to be
met. About 3,150,000 out of the total of 23,000,000 was thus
advanced by the Ministry of Munitions. Some applicants
pressed for definite Government grants, but these were refused
on the ground that electric supply undertakings enjoyed a
monopoly with perpetual or lengthy powers for the supply of a
commodity required after the war, and were therefore in a dif-
ferent position from manufacturers called upon to undertake a
form of production not needed under peace conditions.
The general policy of the British Government was to encourage
power users to take current from the public mains rather than
to erect separate small generating stations. Even where private
plants were sanctioned, as in the special cases mentioned above,
linking-up with an adjacent public service undertaking was
arranged wherever possible. Public supply undertakings were
also in some cases linked together for mutual assistance.
During the war there was a marked increase in the average
size of generating units, an improvement in load factor, and a
reduction in the costs of generation. Before the war the average
size of generating unit installed was 522 K.W., with 8,000
K.W. as the capacity of the largest unit. At the end of Oct.
1918 the average size was 7,044 K.W., and units of 25,000
K.W. and 30,000 K.W. were being built. In 1914 the coal
consumption per unit sold was 4-1 lb.; in 1918 it fell to 3-75
Ib. in spite of the very inferior fuel then in use an improvement
due to the larger and more efficient plant and the rise in load
factor resulting from concentration of load.
Two special control orders were imposed on the industry by
the Ministry of Munitions. The first Converter Plant Control
Order, 1918 (issued April 5 1918 and cancelled Feb. 28 1919)
was designed to reduce- the demand for converter plant and to
assist supply engineers in persuading customers (especially ship-
building firms) that the alternating current available was quite
suitable for their requirements. The second was the Electricity
(Restriction of New Supply) Order, 1918, issued on Nov. 8. A
shortage of coal had arisen in the early part of that year owing
to large withdrawals of miners for active service, and from other
causes; and the coal controller accordingly rationed the use of
coal. As the Ministry of Munitions undertook to limit new
electrical connexions to consumers wholly engaged on urgent
munitions work the rationing was not applied to power stations.
Concurrently with the issue of this order the coal controller
rationed the use of both electricity and gas for domestic purposes.
On Jan. 10 1919 the order was revoked.
In spite of the enormous increase in output, which made
the four years of war equivalent in electrical growth to the pre-
vious 32 years of industry, the financial condition of the under-
takings did not on the whole improve. Very few undertakings
paid excess profits, and most of them had to raise their prices
substantially in order to keep receipts above the rising tide of
costs, due to increases in wages and the higher cost of coal,
stores and repairs. The position of the smaller provincial under-
takings, which had practically no industrial load, became especial-
ly difficult. Maximum prices are scheduled in every provisional
order, and in many cases they proved too low in the abnormal
circumstances created by the war. The Statutory Undertakings
(Temporary Increase of Charges) Act, 1918, was passed to afford
relief. The Board of Trade was empowered, after inquiry into
applications for relief, to permit increases in maximum charges
sufficient, in the case of companies, to enable three-quarters of
the pre-war dividend to be paid, and, in the case of municipalities,
to not more than 50% above the pre-war charges, or more than
sufficient to enable the undertaking to be carried on without loss.
Committees on Electricity Supply. The proof afforded early in the
war of the great national importance of electricity supply led to a
series of official investigations into the question of reorganizing the
industry on broader and more efficient lines. The Reconstruction
Committee (later the Ministry of Reconstruction) formed a Coal
Conservation Sub-Committee which discussed the subject chiefly
from the standpoint of the more economical use of fuel. The supply
industry was also touched upon by the committee formed by the
Board of Trade to consider the position of the electrical trades after
the war. As the result of a recommendation by this committee a
Departmental Committee of the Board of Trade on electric power
supply was formed. A report on the same subject was prepared by
the Committee of Chairmen of the Advisory Council of the Ministry
of Reconstruction. These reports, particularly that of the Board of
Trade Committee on electric power supply, led up to the appearance
before the House of Commons in the 1919 session of the Electricity
(Supply) bill. In its original form the bill provided for the appoint-
ment of electricity commissioners and for the constitution of district
electricity boards to secure a cheap and abundant supply of elec-
tricity by : (a) the acquisition of generating stations, (b) the acquisi-
tion or use of main transmission lines of any authorized undertakers,
(c) the supply of electricity within their district (including the
construction of generating stations, main transmission lines, and
other works required for the purpose), and (d) the acquisition of the
undertakings or parts of the undertakings of authorized distributors
and power companies. At dates to be specified all the public gene-
rating stations and main transmission lines in a district were to vest
in the board subject to the payment of the " standard price." In the
case of municipal undertakings the standard price was defined as
one or more annuities sufficient to indemnify the local authority
against their liabilities for interest and sinking fund. In the case of
a company it was to be " the cost of and incidental to the construc-
tion of the generating station or main transmission line, and the
acquisition of the site thereby, less depreciation." Boards were to
be empowered to borrow for these purposes on terms to be fixed by
the electricity commissioners, who were also to be empowered to
lend to boards or authorized undertakers, subject to Treasury
approval, money up to a total of 25,000,000, if they were satisfied
that the boards or undertakers could not otherwise raise the money
on reasonable terms. A sum of 20,000,000 was also to be made
available out of the consolidated fund to enable the Board of Trade
to construct interim works during the first two years.
Opposition to the bill was directed chiefly against the compulsory
character and operation of joint electricity control, the magnitude
956
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY
of the sums of public money involved and the inadequacy of the
" standard price " in the case of supply companies. In order to meet
the first point clauses were introduced by the House of Commons to
enable joint electricity authorities to be constituted on a voluntary
basis to undertake duties similar in the main to those of district
electricity boards. The formation of a board with compulsory powers
was retained as an alternative to an authority where voluntary action
failed to carry put the intention of the Act.
As the bill did not reach the House of Lords until shortly before
the end of the parliamentary session, the contentious parts of the
bill were withdrawn by the Government.
Electricity (Supply) Act, 1919. The Electricity (Supply) Act,
1919, was therefore essentially a voluntary measure. It provided
for the appointment by the Board of Trade of not more than five
electricity commissioners, three of whom were to be selected for
practical, commercial, and scientific knowledge and wide business
experience, including that of electrical supply. The five com-
missioners appointed were Sir John Snell (chairman), Mr. VV. W.
Lackie (formerly chief engineer and manager of the Glasgow
Corp. electricity department), Mr. A. Page (formerly general
manager of the Clyde Valley Electrical Power Co.) ; Sir Harry
Haward (formerly comptroller of the L.C.C.), and Mr. H. Booth,
of the Board of Trade. Their general duties are defined in the Act as
" promoting, regulating, and supervising the supply of electricity ";
and they are empowered to conduct experiments for the improve-
ment of electricity supply or the utilization of fuel or water-power,
and to appoint committees to advise them on matters connected
with the general improvement and development of the supply of
electricity. Their first specific duty was to determine provisionally
" electricity districts " for the purposes of the Act and to hold a local
inquiry in each suggested area to determine the area finally, and to
hear and consider schemes for improving the existing organizations
for the supply of electricity. Such schemes might provide for the
establishment and incorporation of a district electricity authority
representing authorized undertakers in the district, county councils,
local authorities, large consumers of electricity, and other interests
within the district, and for the exercise by that authority of the
powers of the authorized undertakers, and for the transfer to it of
any of the undertakings by consent and on terms provided by the
scheme. Effect is given to a scheme by its embodiment in an order
presented to the Board of Trade for confirmation and, when con-
firmed with or without modification, laid before Parliament for
approval, whereafter it has the effect of an Act.
The duty of a joint electricity authority is to " provide or secure
a cheap and abundant supply of electricity within its district," and
for that purpose it shall have such powers as may be embodied in the
scheme as regards: (a) the supply of electricity within the district
(including the construction of generating stations, main transmission
lines, and other works), and (6) the acquisition of supply under-
takings. No generating station or main transmission line can be
established or extended without the consent of the electricity com-
missioners, except in the case of a private station, which must
comply with regulations as to the type of current, frequency, and
pressure laid down by the commissioners. Each joint authority is
given power to supply electricity within its district except in the
area of an authorized distributor or a power company for any save
certain specified purposes, unless consent is given, such consent not
to be unreasonably withheld. Local authorities are given power to
transfer their supply undertakings or their rights of purchase over
supply companies undertakings to joint authorities by agreement.
Similar provision is made for the transfer of company undertakings
to joint authorities. Under the heading of " Transitory Provisions "
the Act enables the Board of Trade, at any time after an electricity
district has been provisionally determined and until two years after a
joint authority has been established, to carry out interim works, for
which purpose the Treasury may issue out of the consolidated fund
sums not exceeding 20,000,000 in the aggregate, such works to be
vested later in the joint authority on repayment of capital cost and
interest. Several amendments to the Electric Lighting Acts are
made, notably with regard to overhead lines and wayleaves, all
absolute vetoes being abolished. Joint authorities and municipal
supply authorities are authorized to provide, let for hire, and con-
nect, but not to manufacture or sell, electrical apparatus.
The Act applies to Scotland and Ireland with slight modifications,
and provides that all the powers of the Board of Trade relating to
electric supply shall be transferred to the Minister of Transport, to
whom the electricity commissioners shall be wholly responsible.
(These powers were formally transferred to the Minister of Trans-
port on Jan. 23 1920 by an Order in Council, entitled the Ministry of
Transport [Electricity Supply] Order, 1920.) In the 1920 session,
and again in 1921, the Minister of Transport brought in a bill the
Electricity (Supply) bill to amend the Act, with the chief object of
conferring financial powers on joint electricity authorities. These
authorities are to be empowered to borrow on the security of their
revenues and property; and authorized undertakers, county and
local authorities, and any local authority, company, or person
receiving or intending to receive a supply of electricity are to be
authorized to lend money, subscribe for securities, guarantee pay-
ment of interest, or give financial assistance in any other approved
form to the joint authorities. The prices charged by a joint author-
ity are to be so fixed that the receipts shall be sufficient to cover
expenditure with such margin as the electricity commissioners may
allow; and the commissioners may require such modifications in
prices charged by authorized undertakers as will secure that the
benefit of any reduction in the cost of electricity to the undertakers
or in the capital employed shall accrue to consumers. Clause 14
makes the ordinary period of revision of maximum prices three
years (instead of five under the Electric Lighting Acts, 1882 to
1909), and the provisions are extended to local authorities.
In pursuance of Section 5 (l) of the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1919,
the electricity commissioners issued, during 1920, notices of the
provisional determination of 13 electricity districts, as follows:
(l) Lower Severn; (2) Mid-Lancashire; (3) S.E. Lancashire; (4)
W. Riding (Aire and Calder) ; (5) Mersey and W. Lancashire;
(6) N. Wales and Chester; (7) London and Home Counties; (8)
N.W. Midlands; (9) N.E. Midlands; (10) S.W. Midlands; (n) E.
Midlands; (12) S. Wales; (13) N. Lancashire and S. Cumberland.
For the guidance of organizing committees of supply engineers and
representatives of local authorities and others interested, the com-
missioners had previously issued a statement on the procedure to be
adopted at local inquiries into the delimitation of areas, and a
memorandum setting out the technical and other particulars
required in connexion with proposals for the formation of joint
authorities. The holding of local inquiries was begun in 1921.
Growth of Associated Effort. Apart from the Electricity (Supply)
Act, 1919, and the changes wrought by the war, the most notable
feature in the electric supply industry was the growth of representa-
tive associations. The municipal undertakings are represented in
the Incorporated Municipal Electrical Assn. (founded in 1895);
the electric power companies by the Incorporated Association of
Electric Power Companies (registered in 1905) ; and the provisional
order companies outside London by the Provincial Electric Supply
Committee of the United Kingdom (formed in Jan. 1917). The
majority of the metropolitan electric supply companies are repre-
sented by the London Electricity Joint Committee (1920), Ltd.,
and there is also a conference of local authorities owning electricity
undertakings in Greater London. Similar associated effort has been
manifested in other branches of the electrical industry, and the
Institution of Electrical Engineers has provided a common plat-
form upon which all sections could meet for the discussion of legisla-
tive and other problems. In June 1919 the British Electrical
Development Assn. (director and secretary, Mr. J. W. Beau-
champ) was formed (incorporated Jan. 17 1920) to further the
interests of electrical progress by means of organized propaganda.
This association is supported by the Institution of Electrical Engi-
neers, the main associations representing the electricity supply
industry, the British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers' Assn.,
the Electrical Contractors' Assn., and kindred electrical associ-
ations. During 1921 the British Electrical Development Assn.
submitted to the electricity commissioners a lengthy memoran-
dum on the subject of tariffs for electric supply undertakings.
Multi-part tariffs, in which the flat rate per unit is replaced by
a fixed charge intended to cover the capital cost of service and by
a running charge, were strongly advocated as a means of stimulating
the use of electricity for cooking, heating, and other purposes apart
from lighting, and also of putting the finance of supply undertakings
on a more satisfactory footing in view of the abnormal increases in
the cost of plant, fuel, and labour brought about by the war. The
commissioners were asked to include in the Electricity (Supply)
bill a clause authorizing multi-part tariffs. At present such tariffs
cannot be enforced, as the undertakings must offer, at least as an
alternative, current at a flat rate with a maximum charge.
Joint Industrial Councils. For the purposes of " Whitley "
Councils to deal with questions of wages and conditions of labour in
electric supply undertakings, the country has been divided into 13
districts, each with a district council representing employers and
employed. The district councils are in turn represented on a national
joint industrial council for the electricity supply industry (formed
May 1919). There was also instituted, on Dec. 12 1919, a national
joint board of employers and members of staffs for the electricity
supply industry, to deal with all matters affecting salaries and
conditions of employment of technical engineers. This board
proposed to set up 13 district joint boards corresponding to those
constituted by the national joint industrial council mentioned above.
Statistics. The total British capital involved in 1920 by 334
electricity supply companies (this being the number for which
returns were available) is given in Garcke's Manual of Electrical
Undertakings and Directory, Vol. 24, as 72,812,872. In 1910 the
corresponding figure for 239 companies was 47,047,847. Loans
authorized to be raised by municipalities for electricity amounted to
70,836,470 (308 undertakings) in 1920 and to 42,617,969 in 1910
(316 undertakings). Over trie same period the average dividend
(on the whole of the capital) of electricity supply companies rose
from 4-32% to 5-58%, the major part of this increase being due to
the ordinary shares, which returned 6-51 % in 1920 as compared with
3-91 % in 1910. During 1920 the municipal undertakings showed a
trading balance of 5,828,432. After providing for special charges,
interest on loans, sinking fund, and depreciation and reserve, there
was among the more successful undertakings an aggregate surplus
of 621,385 and among the others a deficit of 260,850.
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY
957
The total capacity of plant installed by companies and municipal-
ities was, so far as could be definitely ascertained, 2,546,000 K.W.
in 1920, with a load connected (equivalent 3O-watt lamps') of
144,274,800, and an aggregate maximum load of 1,372,548 K.W.
The Board of Trade units of electricity are recorded for 1920 as
3,086,382,748, and in 1910 as 1,027,420,254.
Further information on the above subjects may be gathered from
the following publications : " Electric Power Supply during the Great
War" (Part I.) by (Sir) A. B. Gridley and A. H. Human (Jour. Inst.
Elec. Engrs., vol. Ivii., No. 282, May 1919); Interim Report of
the Coal Conservation Sub-Committee of the Reconstruction Committee
on Electric Power Supply in Great Britain (Cd. 8,880) ; Report of the
Board of Trade Committee on the Electrical Trades after the War (Cd.
9.072) ; Report of the Board of Trade Committee on Electric Power
Supply (Cd. 9.062) ; Report of the Committee of Chairmen of the Ad-
visory Council of the Ministry of Reconstruction on Electric Power
Supply (Cd. 93); The Manual of Electrical Undertakings, vols.
xiii-xxiv. (A. G. W.)
UNITED STATES. The decade 1910-20, perhaps not so rich as
its predecessor in fundamental electrical invention, showed so
greatly increased a demand for electric current that much effort
was applied to improving methods of production and supply.
In many sections of the country all sources of water-power
nearby were already employed so that it was necessary to transmit
power two and three hundred miles. The highest voltages used
in 1910 would be too low to be economical for such distances; dur-
ing 1910-20 the use of transmission voltages in excess of 100,000
became fairly common; in 1921 22o,ooo-volt lines were being
completed. Larger generating units also became necessary.
There were in operation in 1921 35,ooo-K.W. water-wheel units,
and 5o,ooo-K.W. units were to be used in Canada in 1922. Steam
turbines of the multiple-unit type as large as 72,000 H.P. were
operating in New York City and single-unit types up to 35,000
H.P. were operating successfully.
Because of the better light and smaller consumption of the
tungsten lamp, which was made practicable by the discovery of a
process for drawing tungsten wire, the demand for electric current
grew rapidly. This lamp, by using less current, reduced the
expenditure of every establishment using electric light, and it
became necessary to develop a commercial organization to sell
service. By 1921 virtually every electric light and power com-
pany maintained a selling organization. Much of the new de-
mand was due to the war. The orders of the Allies for munitions
in and after 1915 found the factories of North America ill-equipped
to undertake so sudden an increase of production. It was quicker
to buy electric power than to procure and install additional
generating equipment. Then, later, a serious coal shortage made
it apparent throughout the country that a central power-dis-
tributing organization was more economical and reliable than a
number of small isolated plants. Added to the industrial de-
mand thus suddenly thrust upon the power companies came a
heavy demand from households for current for appliances.
Domestics had been enticed from service by the munitions plants
and electric labour-saving devices replaced them.
There were in 1921 nearly 7,000,000 homes in the United
States wired for electric service, served by 5,600 electric light
and power companies, the output of which for that year was
expected to be about 42,000,000,000 K.W.-hours. From the
sale of this current $1,050,000,000 would be obtained. The
capital invested in these plants then amounted in round num-
'bers to $4,500,000,000. The growth of retail outlets per capita
for electrical merchandise increased nearly 400% during 1910-20,
and the output of central power plants nearly 300%.
In spite of the lower consumption of current by the tungsten lamp
the prices for electric current decreased steadily until 1916, when
higher wages and costs of materials offset economies of efficient op-
eration. About that time a number of supply companies initiated
what is known as the " coal clause " in their contracts with con-
sumers, under which the rate varied in a fixed ratio to the fluctuating
price of coal. By the end of 1921, however, these clauses had begun
to disappear. Household rates were not raised during the war, but
later there were many increases. There was some urging of the Lon-
don sliding scale of rates but in 1921 only two or three companies
were using it. In fact, while during the first ten years of the century
a great variety of rate-schedules was proposed and put into use, the
second decade was free, comparatively, from such activity except
perhaps for a form of household schedule which based the rate on
the number and type of rooms plus a charge for current.
State regulation, which had appeared in a few states before 1910,
by 1921 was found in nearly all states, and any attempt to substitute
local regulation was opposed bitterly by the power companies. State
regulation did more than anything else to free electricity supply from
political interference. As a result term franchises were fast disappear-
ing and were being replaced by indeterminate franchises.
No review of the decade's progress of electricity supply would
be complete without reference to the great expansion of syndicate
operation and management. Through the control by one company,
usually known as a holding company, of numerous properties, a
great saving was made. Central organizations have applied to
small properties better engineering and management than they
otherwise could have had. This also resulted in the discontinuance
of small uneconomical plants and the substitution of large unified
systems supplying many communities.
The advantages derived from unified systems became so significant
that " super-power " projects began to be agitated. The United
States Government became interested and an appropriation was
made for an investigation of the power resources of the industrial
region of the Atlantic seaboard, from Washington to Boston, under
the auspices of the U.S. Geological Survey. This report was not
yet published in Oct. 1921. It was known, however, that a
vast network fed by a number of " super-power " plants would be
recommended. Other surveys were being made by those locally
interested in the South and in the North-West.
A little more than half of the current sold by power companies in
the United States is generated by water-power. The development
of the water-power resources of the country, however, was greatly
retarded during 1910-720 by the threat of unfavourable Federal
legislation. Congress considered for twelve years a water-power bill
which was finally passed in 1920. Since its passage there has been a
water-power stampede similar in many ways to the 1849 gold stam-
pede to California. Applications were on file in 1921 for more than
51,000,000 H.P. and preliminary permits and licences had been
granted to develop 2,255,696 H.P. The bill creates a Federal water-
power commission, comprising three cabinet officers, the Secretaries
of War, Agriculture and the Interior, to which is given authority over
all matters over which the Federal Government has jurisdiction,
pertaining to the development of water-powers in navigable streams,
on the public domain and in the national forests.
The features of the bill are: (i) the erection of a commission (The
Federal Power Commission) ; (2) the granting of a 5O-year lease ; and
(3) the ability of the Government to resume control of the project
on the payment of just compensation at the termination of the lease.
Priority is given to national, state and municipal governments.
On the Colorado river alone one company was planning to develop
between three and four million H.P. of electrical energy.
In order further to assure continuity and reliability of central
service, and also to make certain economies possible, the intercon-
nexion of large power systems was introduced. One such system
extends along the Gulf states, from Alabama to Georgia, through
the Carolinas and into Tennessee. Another interconnects mosf of
the important New England systems, and a third covers the great
industrial region of Pennsylvania. California is connected from end
to end, and the Rocky Mountain states are similarly linked. In
addition there are other important but less extensive interconnex-
ions; it would be possible by spanning a few gaps to interconnect
almost the whole country.
Embraced in these interconnexions are certain large industrial
plants. They interchange current with the public utilities under an
arrangement beneficial to both. The tendency, however, is un-
mistakably toward service of all manufacturing plants by central
stations. The only reason this has not gone further is that the power
companies during 1915-21 were generating to their full capacity.
A survey made by the Electrical World of New York City shows
that in 1920 there were 326,840 consumers of electric power in the
United States. These were divided by sections as follows: New
England, 35,300; Middle Atlantic, 50,950; South Atlantic, 19,200;
North Central, 133,730; South Central, 22,370; Mountain, 10,690;
and Pacific, 54,600.
Seventy-one central power companies had in 1921 an output of
more than a hundred million K.W.-hrs. and nine in excess of a
thousand million K.W.-hours. The three companies having the
largest output were in 1920 the Niagara Falls (N.Y.) Power Co.,
2,328,326,064 K.W.-hrs. ; . the Commonwealth Edison Co., Chicago,
111., 1,883,570,000 K.W.-hrs.; and the Pacific Gas & Electric Co.,
San Francisco, Cal., 1,475,678,673 K.W.-hrs.
Municipal ownership sustained a great setback during the war
because high costs of production added too much to city budgets.
As a result a great many municipal plants went out of existence,
their service being replaced by that of large transmission systems.
Just before the war, however,' there were some important additions
to municipal operation, particularly in California and Ohio.
Another activity curtailed by the war was the organized sale
of electric ranges. The provision by central stations of current for
cooking before the war was becoming extremely important. Many
cities had established a special range rate as low as 3 cents per K.W.-
hour. High first cost, however, interrupted this activity, but in 1921
it seemed to be reviving. The practice in street lighting had been
that the public utility service should own and maintain the lighting
958
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
system, but during 1910-20 there was a marked tendency toward
municipal ownership of the system. The energy is purchased at
the substation in bulk.
The latest statistics available for Canada are as of Jan. I 1919
and show 795 central electric power stations in which the capital
invested was $401,942,402. The total revenue from the sale of
power was $53,549,133, for lighting purposes $16,952,512, and for all
other purposes $36,596,621. The generating capacity at that time
was 1,433,722 kva.
In Canada private operation seemed to be gradually giving way to
provincial operation. The largest single system was that of the
Ontario Hydro Electric Power Commission which with its latest
acquisitions supplied about 1,000,000 horse-power. In 1921 this,
the largest single electrical system in the world, developed under the
direction of Sir Adam Beck, was being copied in other parts of Canada
and was finding admirers in different parts of the United States,
particularly California, where a similar system was proposed. The
provincial systems were equivalent in effect to municipal control.
The domestic rates were very low and as a result electricity was
used quite extensively in the homes. A rate as low as one cent a
K.W.-hr. was charged for electric cooking. (S. B. W.)
ELECTROCHEMISTRY (see 9. 208) and ELECTROMETALLURGY
(see 9.232). Although these subjects are essentially connected,
it will be convenient here to group separately the principal
headings in each case under which notable advances had been
made during 1910-21.
I. ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Alkalies and Chlorine. The electrolytic methods of producing
alkalies and chlorine by the decomposition of brine made re-
markable progress during the period 1911-20. Electrolytic
alkali works are now being operated in all the leading manufactur-
ing countries where the raw materials of the industry are found;
and even those who control the operation of the old Le Blanc
process of alkali manufacture in the United Kingdom have
found themselves at last compelled, by the force of circumstances
and by the changing conditions of the trade and industry, to
adopt the newer method of decomposing salt.
The cells now being operated industrially may be classified as
diaphragm and non-diaphragm cells. In the former class, a porous
diaphragm, composed of cement, asbestos or other material unacted
upon by the electrolyte (or by the ions produced by the electrolysis),
is employed to separate the cell into two or more compartments,
and in this way the chlorine liberated at the anode is to a large
extent prevented from taking part in secondary reactions with the
sodium or potassium hydrate formed at the cathode.
The " Elektron," Hargreaves-Bird, Outhenin-Chalandre, Basel,
Billiter-Siemens, Nelson, Allen-Moore, Gibbs and Townsend cells
are all of this type, the chief difference between them being in the
construction or design of the diaphragm and in the arrangements
made for withdrawing the sodium-hydrate solution from the cathode
compartment of the cell, before it has had time to be decomposed
by the electric current. The defects of all diaphragm cells are the
higher voltage required per cell, and the increased costs of main-
tenance, due to the lack of durability on the part of the diaphragm.
For these reasons the other class namely, non-diaphragm cells
always attracted the electro-chemist, and many of these have been
patented and tried. Only two types have survived industrial trial
namely, (i) the Castner-Kellner, Whiting and Solvay cells, which
employ a moving mercury electrode in the cathode compartment of
the cell, and thus produce an amalgam of sodium which can be
removed from the cell before it is decomposed; and (2) the " bell "
type of gravity cell, which makes use of the different specific gravi-
ties of the brine, and of the newly-formed sodium or potassium
hydrate solution, in order to effect a separation of the two. The
Aussig " bell " cell and the Billiter-Leykam cell are the only two
representatives of this class in actual operation ; the Richardson and
Holland cell, which was tried on a large scale at St. Helens in the
years 1896-1900, having proved a failure.
The attempts to use molten lead in place of the more expensive
mercury in the liquid or moving electrode cells have also failed,
after trial upon an industrial scale; the wear and tear of the cell
structure, and the fire dangers with this type of cell, having caused
the suspension of operation of the Hulin cell at Les Clavaux in
France, and of the Acker cell at Niagara Falls in America. The
works where the latter cell and process were operated was, in fact,
burnt down some few years ago, and has not been rebuilt.
The World War caused a considerable increase in the number and
capacity of the works for the electrolytic decomposition of brine,
liquid chlorine being required in very large amounts by the military
authorities, not only for gas-warfare but also for sterilizing water
supplies. The U.S. Government in 1918 planned and erected a
large works of this type at the Edgewood Arsenal, equipping it
with 3,552 cells of the Nelson (diaphragm) type in order to provide the
army authorities with all the liquid chlorine they required. At the
ii 1
^
a
8
IN
>s|
Type of Cell
|;0 ?
|i
1
III
^ 60
o , ~
Finlay
98
75
3-0
80
2-O
Billiter-Siemens
92
68
3-1
I2O
2-3
Vorce ....
97
62
3-6
2-5
Billiter-Leykam
95
59
3-7
I4O
2-6
Allen-Moore
91
59
3-5
IOO
2-6
Whiting
92
53
4-0
20O
2-9
Hargreaves-Bird
* .
3-7
1 2O
*
Nelson
86
53
3-8
I2O
2-9
Castner (rocking-cell)
92
50
4-2
200
3-1
Kellner (C. Anodes)
95
49
4'5
22O
3-1
Bell-jar (Aussig)
85
49
4-0
80
3-1
Griesheim (Carbon) .
70-80
45-51
3-6
60
3-0-3-4
Wilderman
97
45
5-0
22O
3'4
Kellner (Pt. Anodes)
97
45
5-o
22O
3-4
Townsend .
94
45
4-8
1 6O
3'4
Griesheim (Magnetite)
Outhenin-Chalandre
70-80
66
40-46
4-0
60
80
3-3-3-8
3-7
Theoretical figrres .
ICO
100
2-3
i-54
date of the Armistice, this plant could have produced TOO tons of
chlorine gas per day of 24 hours, if worked to the full.
The figures in Table I are drawn from the most reliable sources,
and give a useful summary of the comparative efficiencies of the
various cells as operated in 1921, and the strength of the caustic-
soda solution they produce. It will be noticed that the cells with the
highest current and energy efficiencies give the weakest solution of
sodium hydrate at the cathode, and that in order to obtain a fairly
concentrated cathode liquor, one must sacrifice to some extent the
electrical efficiency of the process.
TABLE I.
Comparative Efficiencies of the Leading Types of Electrolytic Alkali
and Chlorine Cells.
(Attmand's and Kershaw's Figures.)
This cell produces Na.C0 3 not NaOH.
To produce one ton of solid caustic soda from a solution containing
only 80 grammes per litre of NaOH (the strength produced by the
Finlay cell) means the evaporation of over 12 tons of water; whereas
with a cathode liquor containing 240 grammes NaOH per litre
(the strength produced by the mercury cell processes), only one-half
this weight of water will have to be evaporated to obtain the solid
product, and the fuel consumption will thus be reduced 50%.
The answer to the question which cell is the best for the production
of solid caustic soda or potash depends, therefore, largely upon the
relative costs of electric power and of solid fuel in the locality where
the cell is to be operated. The Whiting, Castner-Kellner, and
Wilderman mercury cells, as shown by the table, all yield cathode
liquors of fairly high concentration 200 to 240 grammes NaOH
per litre. If the cost of mercury were not so high, they would be
generally adopted for the production of caustic hydrates and
chlorine, in spite of their rather low energy efficiencies, since they
also yield a specially pure product at both the anode and cathode.
Of the diaphragm types of cell, the Billiter-Siemens, Billiter-
Leykam, Townsend and Nelson cells all yield a liquor containing
120-160 grammes NaOH per litre, and, therefore, come next to the
mercury cells. No figures for the concentration of caustic liquor
or the efficiency of the Gibbs cell are available.
The Aussig bell, Griesheim, and Outhenin-Chalandre cells, on the
other hand, yield a liquor containing only 60-80 grammes NaOH
(or under) per litre, and in view of the amount of fuel required to
produce solid caustic from such weak liquor, it is surprising that
these cells have attained so wide a use on the continent of Europe.
Chlorates, Pcrchlorates and Persalts generally. The electro-
lytic method of manufacture of chlorates and perchlorates of
potash and soda was in 1921 being worked in all countries
where cheap electric power was available, the most notable works
being that of Messrs. Corbin & Cie, at Chedde, in the Haute
Savoie department of France, and at Trollhattan in Sweden.
The cells used at Chedde are constructed of cement, and are
arranged in terraces so that the electrolyte flows through them
by gravity. Very thin sheets of platinum-foil fixed in ebonite
frames act as bipolar electrodes in series, the number of electrodes
per cell and of cells in a circuit being arranged to suit the voltage
of the generators. The electrolyte used is a 25 to 30% solution
of KC1 or NaCl; a current density of 100 to 200 amperes per
sq. ft. of anode surface is employed. This leads to a high E.M.F.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
959
being required, even though the electrolyte is heated to 70 C. and
the bipolar electrodes are only % in. apart.
When potassium chloride is employed as electrolyte, the chlorate
can be easily separated by crystallization on cooling from the
mother-liquor containing the unaltered chloride: but when sodium
chlorate is being produced, different treatment is required to obtain
separation of the chloride and chlorate, since the sodium salt is
much more soluble than potassium chlorate. The current efficiency
when producing either sodium or potassium chlorate can be raised to
90%. when the process is well-managed; and the conversion of
chloride into chlorate is completed in one operation.
Were it not for the fact that no satisfactory substitute for plati-
num can be found as electrode material for chlorate cells, and that
consequently the capital costs of the cell installation are very high,
the electrolytic process of chlorate manufacture would before now
have quite supplanted the older chemical process, which is still
operated in the few places where the Le Blanc process survives.
The conditions required in order to obta_in perchlorates, and other
highly oxidized salts such as persulphates, in an electrolytic cell are:
(l) Insoluble electrodes; (2) a high current density at the anode;
(3) the prevention of any reducing action by the hydrogen liberated
at the cathode. This latter condition is obtained, either by the use
of a diaphragm between the two compartments of the cell, or by the
employment of salts, such as chromates or cyanides, which serve to
suppress the cathodic reduction.
According to the most reliable information, perchlorates are now
produced by electrolyzing a concentrated solution of sodium chlorate,
containing 600-700 grammes per litre of this salt, at a temperature of
10 to 30 C. with a current density of 400-500 amperes per sq. foot.
When the chlorate content of the electrolyte falls below 100 grammes
per litre, the resistance of the bath increases considerably, and the
temperature rises to 45 to 50 C. with a reduction of the current
density to 270 amperes per sq. foot. If the chlorate concentration of
the electrolyte falls below ip grammes per litre, much ozone is given
off, and the evolution of this gas may increase to such an extent that
the workmen in the cell rooms are affected injuriously. Under
normal conditions, however, the conversion of the chlorate into
perchlorate proceeds without evolution of ozone, and with an
average efficiency of 85%; the power required to produce I kgm. of
sodium perchlorate from chlorate being 35 K.W.-hrs. As the
sodium salt is deliquescent it is not worked up as such, but the
potassium salt is precipitated by adding potassium chloride. The
ammonium salt is prepared similarly, by treating the sodium
perchlorate solution with ammonium chloride; or the ammonium
salt can be produced by starting with calcium chloride, and by
converting this by successive stages of anodic oxidation into calcium
perchlorate, which is finally decomposed by the ammonium chloride,
to yield ammonium perchlorate.
Sodium perborate is produced in a similar manner, by electrolyzing
solutions of sodium borate ; and as this salt has found a wide applica-
tion in the arts and industries, some further details of its method of
manufacture may be given here. The process employed is based on
the use of a mixed solution of sodium borate and an alkaline car-
bonate as electrolyte, with the addition of some substance which
will coat the cathode with a colloidal or other deposit that lowers
'the reducing action of any hydrogen liberated at this point; chromic
acid being most suitable for this purpose. During the electrolysis,
the strength of the alkali carbonate solution must be maintained,
preferably by the presence of the solid salt ; but towards the end of
the electrolysis this solid carbonate can be allowed to go into solu-
tion. Sodium borate must also be present in the solid state during
the electrolysis, in order to keep up the concentration of the elec-
trolyte. The presence of magnesium silicate, stannic acid and alkali
bicarbonates is said to accelerate the conversion of the borate into
the persalt. The latest theory of the conversion is, that percarbonate
is first formed, and that this salt then reacts with the sodium borate
to yield sodium perborate during the course of the electrolysis; in
any case, for the success of this method of production, the presence
of solid perborate in the cell appears to be necessary.
Persulphates and Hydrogen Peroxide. Persulphates are an-
other class of highly oxidized salts which are finding a wide
application in the arts and industries, especially in photography,
and here again the electrolytic method of production is the
simplest and most efficient.
As a practical matter, in 'judging the comparative merits of
the chemical and electrolytic methods for producing these per-
salts and compounds, it is necessary to note that the cost of
the electric current, when producing pure chemicals of this type,
is not a very serious item in the total cost of production. As a
rule, the desired salt can be produced in a pure state by one
simple operation in the electrolytic cell or bath; and this of
course is a factor in the economy of the electrolytic methods
which must not be overlooked in judging the comparative cost
of electrolytic and chemical methods of manufacture of what
are usually classed as " fine " chemicals.
The method of producing persulphates in the electrolytic cell is
based upon the discharge of SO 4 ions at the anode of the cell. The
conditions required to effect this discharge are the same as in the
case of the production of perchlorates: (a) A low temperature;
(6) a high current density with a smooth platinum anode; (c) an acid
solution, or one at least free from alkali.
When employing a diaphragm type of cell, a concentrated solution
of ammonium sulphate is employed in the anode compartment of the
cell and sulphuric acid of medium strength in the cathode compart-
ment. Smooth platinum must be employed as anode material, but
lead can be employed as cathode ; and the cathodes may be of much
larger surface area than the anode.
Two methods have been employed for the production of hydrogen
peroxide by electrolysis ; the one based upon the use of persulphuric
acid as intermediate product, and the other upon the use of potas-
sium or ammonium persulphate. The conditions which necessarily
should be observed in the first method are as follows: (i) The
density of the sulphuric acid should be between I -35 and 1-50; (2) the
electrolysis should be carried out as rapidly as possible; (3) the cur-
rent density should be high, about 950 amperes per sq. ft. ; (4) the
solution must be cooled, or a hollow anode may be used, cooled
internally by the circulation of water at 15 to 20 C.
Hypochlorites. It is noteworthy that Charles Watt, in his
very remarkable patent No. 13,755 of 1851, clearly explained
all the conditions which must be maintained in the cell in order
to produce hypochlorites by the electrolytic decomposition of
sodium or potassium chloride solutions. The advances that have
been made since that year have been simply in the form and
design of the apparatus used for carrying out the electrolytic
method. The leading features of the modern cells, designed
specially for hypochlorite production, are, however, very
similar. They all possess graphite or platinum electrodes, placed
close together so that the chlorine liberated at the anode reacts
at once with the alkaline hydrate formed at the cathode; and
they possess also some mechanism for promoting the rapid
circulation and cooling of the electrolyte, in order to avoid the
formation of chlorate. The three leading types of electrolyzer,
for the production of bleaching solutions, are: (i) the Haas and
Oettel (or " Manchester," as it is now called), (2) the Kellner,
and (3) the Mather and Platt.
The latest form of the Manchester electrolyzer, as operated in 192 1 ,
makes use of carbon as electrode material, and of the liberation of
hydrogen at the cathode, to effect automatic circulation and mixing
of the liquid. The inner or working cell is a rectangular stoneware
tank, divided by the carbons into 30 narrow compartments or cells.
The first and last carbons of the set form the main electrodes of the
cell; the intervening carbons act as secondary electrodes, i.e. as
anodes on the one face and cathodes on the other. This electrolyzer
holds 750 litres of 15% brine, and takes 75 to 80 amperes at no
volts. Its output in 10 hours equals 10-5 kgm. of active chlorine.
The Kellner electrolyzer consists of a shallow stoneware tank,
divided into a large number of narrow cells by means of vertical glass
plates, so arranged that the electrolyte is obliged to take a zig-zag
course in its passage through the electrolyzer. The electrodes are
formed of platinum-iridium gauze and are arranged horizontally,
with the anodes below the cathodes, so that the chlorine liberated at
the former may be absorbed by the supernatant liquid. This elec-
trolyzer is constructed usually to take a current at 1 10 volts, and has
only two terminal electrodes; all the intervening electrodes function
as secondary electrodes. The Kellner electrolyzer holds 820 litres
of brine testing 15%, and requires a go-ampere current at Iio volts.
Its output in 10 hours equals 15-0 kgm.
The Mather and Platt electrolyzer is constructed on the filterpress
principle, with a trough for supply of the brine running along the
top of the frame. The frame holds 22 separate cells fixed transversely,
and the brine feeds these through a perforated tray in fine streams
which break up into drops on falling and thus prevent current leak-
age. The 22 cells forming one electrolyzer are placed in one frame,
and are connected in series. They take a current of 250 amperes at
no volts. The salt consumption is 10-3 Ib. salt, and the power
consumption is 2i K.W.-hrs. per Ib. of available chlorine produced.
In recent years the direct production of hypochlorites and
bleaching solutions by electrolysis has been curtailed. It has been
found more economical to use the chlorine gas obtained from the
electrolytic alkali cells for this purpose, and to absorb this either in
the milk of lime, or in the hydrate solution produced at the cathode,
the absorption taking place in a separate vessel outside the cell.
Oxygen and Hydrogen. The electrolysis of acidulated water
to show that it is composed of two gases, and the recombination
of these gases by explosion to form drops of water, is one of the
oldest of chemical lecture-table experiments; and it is not sur-
prising, therefore, that cells for producing oxygen and hydrogen
upon a commercial scale, by electrolytic methods, have been
960
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
patented and operated. The Schoop, Garuti, and Schukert cells
were the best known of these. The first-named used sulphuric
acid, while the remaining two employed caustic potash as
electrolyte; the power consumption being 5-9 and 4-1 K.W.-hrs.
respectively per cubic metre of the mixed gases.
In recent years, however, oxygen has been more economically
obtained by the fractional distillation of liquid air, which can
now be produced very cheaply; and hydrogen is obtained either
from electrolytic alkali cells (as a waste product), or from blue
water gas, by improvements of the old iron-contact process.
By means of this, the carbon monoxide is first oxidized to C02
and is then removed from the gas mixture by absorption.
The electrolytic production of hydrogen and oxygen is, therefore,
now carried on in only a few localities, and for the few industries
where both gases are required for immediate use in their relative
combining proportions, as in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe.
Ozone. Since most of the early patents for ozone apparatus
have lapsed by efflux of time, the general type of apparatus for
the production of ozonized air, as placed on the market in 1921
has been standardized.
Ozonizers now usually consist of an inner cylinder of sheet copper
or aluminium, connected to the high-tension side of the transformer
and well insulated, and an outer metal cylinder which is connected to
the casing of the ozonizer, and is kept at zero or earth-potential.
The two cylinders are separated by a glass tube through which the
air is passed, and the silent discharge takes place in the annular air-
space between the two metal sheets. The outer sheet of metal is
water-cooled, and thick glass windows at each end of the ozonizer
tube enable the operator to see if the discharge through the air-gap
is occurring in a proper manner. Alternating currents with fre-
quencies up to 60 cycles are employed for these installations ; and the
practical limit of E.M.F. has been found to be 10,000 to 12,000 volts.
Ozonized air has been employed for bleaching wax, textiles, paper-
pulp and sponges; for the sterilization of air and food; and also for
the acceleration of the drying and hardening processes in paints and
varnishes, and for the rapid oxidation of oils.
Organic Products. It is difficult to obtain any information as
to the extent to which electrolytic methods have been and are
being applied in 1921 outside the laboratory in the field of
organic chemistry; but there is reason to believe that in Germany
considerable progress had been made in this direction, and that
not only bromoform and iodoform but also anthraquinone and
other organic products have been produced electrolytically.
Phosphorus. At one time the electrothermal process for the
production of phosphorus from bone-ash was being employed at
Oldbury, near Birmingham, and at Niagara Falls, and an output
of 30 tons per month was reported to have been attained. The
bone-ash was mixed with silicic acid (sand) and carbon, and
the mixture was then heated to between 1300 and i5ooC. The
phosphorus commenced to distil over at nsoC. and was all
expelled from the mixture before a temperature of i45oC. was
reached. According to Hempel, this method of manufacture
had also been used in Germany, gas-tight iron cylinders lined
with fire-clay being used as the furnaces in which the raw
materials were heated. The use of silicic acid (or sand) to
produce a calcium-silicate slag, it must be noted, is only practic-
able with methods of reducing calcium phosphate which render
this slag quite fluid, a result that can be attained only by aid of
electric heat. Molten calcium silicate is also very corrosive, and
the advantage of the internal system of heating is that the outer
walls of the furnace can be artificially cooled, and a layer of cold
slag can be formed to protect the refractory lining from the
action of the slag.
A process very similar to that described above, for the manu-
facture of phosphorus, was brought out in- America and patented
some years ago in the name of Machalske. The furnace used for
operating this process possessed an internal chamber, measuring
12 in. x 18 in. and was provided with a carbon bottom, sides of
calcined magnesia, and a cover of fire-clay and red brick. Two
electrodes, each 8 ft. in length by 4 in. in diameter, passed through
holes in the cover. With electric power at 3 cents per e.h.p.-hr.,
Machalske claimed that yellow phosphorus could be produced by
this method at a total cost of 7 cents per pound.
' From 80 % to 92 % of the phosphorus can be recovered by this
method of manufacture; the balance remains in the furnace or retort
as calcium silico-phosphate, and it cannot be expelled by any increase
of the temperature.
II. ELECTROMETALLURGY
Aluminium. There were no discoveries or marked advances
during the period 1910-20 in the development of new sources of
aluminium, and the mineral bauxite remains the chief raw material
of the industry. The increased demand for bauxite, however, has
led to several new deposits being opened up and worked, and
although none of these equal in purity the French bauxite
deposits, the mineral has been found to be much more widely
distributed over the world than was at one time supposed. With
the aim of reducing the cost, numerous attempts have been made
to dispense with the preliminary purification of the alumina
(see 1.767-770) and to operate the baths with the raw bauxite,
but these so far have not proved successful. In time this im-
provement in the electrolytic process and reduction in cost of
aluminium manufacture will no doubt be achieved.
The world's production of bauxite in recent years is given in
Table I, which is taken from a pamphlet published in 1921 by the
Imperial Resources Bureau. As regards alternative sources of
supply, silicate of aluminium or clay is one of the most widely dis-
tributed materials which occur in the crust of the earth. Weaver, in
a recent Canadian patent (No. 190,054 of 1919), proposes toopenup
this source of aluminium and its salts by treating the clay with
chlorine in the presence of carbon. This leads to the formation of
A1C1 3 , S1CJ4 and CO, and with cheap supplies of liquid chlorine the
method might be practicable. The chlorides are separated, and the
metal is extracted by the electrolytic method described below.
Whether this suggested process of using A1C1 3 in place of Al 2 Os as
raw material for the aluminium industry will prove successful
remains for the future to disclose.
Production and Output. The electrolytic process by which
aluminium is produced from alumina, as worked in 1921, differed but
little from that by which Heroult, at Neuhausen in Switzerland, and
Hall, at New Kensington in America, first started the manufacture
upon an industrial scale in 1889. The production, however, is now
concentrated in the hands of a small group of powerful companies.
As regards the growth of the industry, the figures in Table II,
taken from the pamphlet already referred to, indicate very clearly
the remarkable expansion which has occurred in the manufacture
during the period 1910-20. Compared with the figures compiled by
J. B. C. Kershaw some years previously for the period 1893-9, the
expansion of the industry becomes even more striking:
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
Total World
Output (tons)
713
1,057
1,129
i. 755
3,327
3,953
5459
In twenty years, therefore, the world's output of aluminium had
increased from 5,000 to 150,000 tons, and the metal had come to
rank 4th in the list of nonferrous metals, when judged by the
standard of consumption ; for only copper, zinc and lead are employed
in larger amounts in the arts and industries. The remarkable in-
crease in production which marked the war period was of course
due to war requirements; aluminium being used in enormous amounts
not only in the powdered form for paints, and as an ingredient of
certain forms of explosive (such as " ammonal "), and of pyro-
technical materials, but also being employed, either as pure metal or
in the alloyed state, for the construction of airships, aeroplanes,
motor-cars, fuses, bombs, radiators and many forms of measuring
instruments. The close of the war occasioned, therefore, a very
considerable drop in the demand for the metal but there was
little doubt that later the demand for aluminium in the arts and in-
dustries would more than absorb the production of the increased plant.
As regards the localities and works where aluminium is now pro-
duced, these are in every case operated by water-power, and the
names of the companies and locations of the works are as follows:
United Kingdom.
British Aluminium Co. Foyers and Kinlochleven, Scotland (Stang-
fjord, Vigelands, Norway).
Aluminium Corporation Ltd. Dolgarrog, North Wales.
France.
Soc. Electrometallurgique francaise. Le Praz, Gardanne.
Compagnie des Produits chemiques d'Alais. Calypso, St. Jean de
Maurienne, St. Felix.
Switzerland, Germany and A ustria.
Aluminium Industrie Aktien-Gesellschaft. Neuhausen, Rheinfelden,
Lend Gastein.
United States of America and Canada.
Aluminium Co. of America. Niagara Falls, Massena, Shawinigan
Falls.
Italy and Norway also possess aluminium works, and during t
war two or three factories were started in the highlands of Bavaria
for the production of the metal, by the Allgemeine Elektricitats
Gesellschaft, of Berlin. The figures given in Table I show that
during the last year of the war Germany produced 25,000 tons of
aluminium, and was second only to the United States in her output
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
961
of this metal ; while Norway and Switzerland came next in producing
capacity, with 15,000 tons to their credit.
As regards further development of the producing capacity of the
works located in the United Kingdom, the British Aluminium Co.,
which had already developed 25,000 H.P. from water-power at
Foyers and Kinlochleven in Scotland, was in. 1921 seeking to obtain
the necessary parliamentary sanction for developing the much
greater water-power of the Lochaber district of Inverness-shire.
Concerning the use of aluminium chloride in place of the oxide for
the electrolytic bath. Weaver, in U.S. patent No. 1,297,946 of
March 1919, states that if aluminium chloride be fed into a bath con-
taining sodium and aluminium chlorides in the molten condition, at
such a rate that the molten chloride is replaced as fast as it is decom-
posed by the current, the process can be made a continuous one;
and the aluminium and chlorine, which are the two products of the
electrolysis, can be separately drawn off. An apparatus is described
in the patent, by which this method can be carried out.
The application of aluminium has grown enormously in recent
years. One very large and increasing field of the metal is in the
electrical trade, in which it is used for transmission lines, bus bars,
field coils and windings, etc., etc. Its applications in the motor-car
industry are well known, for not only is it employed in sheet form
for gear and crank cases and for body work, but it is also employed
largely for engine castings. Aluminium is being used to an ever-
increasing extent in the chemical, brewing, sugar-refining, mar-
garine, dyeing and soap industries, and the manufacture of cooking
utensils affords another large outlet for the metal.
carbide are recognized, and the attempts to apply carborundum
wheels to the grinding and finishing of fine steel goods have ceased,
the artificial abrasive industry is on a very sound footing.
Silicon carbide is intensely hard and very brittle, and it is most
suitable for grinding and finishing similar materials such as cast
iron and marble, and for the finishing of leather goods; while arti-
ficial corundum has taken the place of the natural variety (emery)
where it has been found more suitable than carborundum.
Brass and Bronze. There have been many attempts in the
past to apply electric methods of heating and refining to the
melting and casting of brass. Until recent years none of these
attempts were successful, but during the World War a large
amount of experimental work was carried out in America with
various types of electric furnace, and the difficulties that surround
the electric melting and refining of brass and bronze appeared
in 1921 to have been overcome.
At the commencement of the World War, there were, accord-
ing to H. W. Gillett of the U.S.A. Bureau of Mines, no electri-
cally heated brass furnaces in commercial operation in the United
States. By the end of 1919 there were 40 American firms using
or installing such furnaces, and over 100 of these were in opera-
tion. One brass-rolling mill is stated to have installed 30 fur-
naces, though these were chiefly of small capacity; one smelting
TABLE I.
World's Production of Bauxite,
(long tons)
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
United Kingdom
British Guiana
India
France
Hungary
Italy
Spain
United States
6,055
1,184
304,323
6,840
210,241
8,286
5H
3,843
219,318
",723
876
55,6i4
58,118
5,805
297,041
10,329
750
104,493
8,744
425,100
14,724
2,037
1,363
"8,973
7,664
568,690
9,589
4,199
1,192
7,675
453
605,721
9,221
1,682
160,820
2,924
1,751
376,566
TABLE II.
Estimated World's Production of Aluminium,
(long tons)
United Kingdom
7,500
7,400
7,000
7,600
7,000
8,200
8,000
Canada
6,000
6,500
6,000
7,500
8,000
8,000
8,000
Austria
2,000
2,000
France*
13-283
9,803
5,920
9,447
10,886
11,826
12,000
Germany
1,000
1,000
1,000
8,000
20,000
25,000
12,000
Italy*
860
922
889
. 1,108
1,712
1,687
2,OOO
Norway
2,000
4,000
8,000
12,000
15,000
15,000
IO,OOO
Switzerland
10,000
15,000
10,000
12,500
15,000
15,000
15,000
United States
29,000
41,500
44,500
62,500
80,000
85,000
8O,OOO
Totals
71,643
88,125
83,309
120,655
157,598
169,713
I47,OOO
*Official figures. 1919 figures estimated.
Artificial Abrasives Carborundum and Corundum. The man-
ufacture of carborundum or silicon carbide (SiC) in the electric
furnace did not undergo any particular change during the period
1910-20, although the industry had developed considerably.
The electrometallurgical manufacture of artificial corundum,
i.e. impure fused alumina, is new, however, and has become one
of great importance in Canada.
Bauxite and coke are smelted in an arc furnace, the proportions
used being as follows: Calcined bauxite 1,750 parts; coke 100 parts;
iron borings 350 parts. The furnaces used for the manufacture are
mounted on water-cooled tracks, and when one is full it is removed
on the rails, and another is inserted in its place under the electrodes.
The furnace body is merely a rectangular iron frame lined with
fire-brick, with a hearth made from pitch and carbon. The furnaces
operate at 100 volts and 5,500 amperes; about 18,000 K.W.-hrs.
being required to produce an ingot of 4 to 5 tons in weight. The
reduction must not be carried too far, otherwise the product will be
too brittle; the presence of I to 2 % of iron, silicon, and titanium
oxides, as impurities, improves the toughness of the abrasive.
Brockbank gives this typical analysis of a high-grade artificial co-
rundum : Al,Oj 97-40%; SiO ? -90%; Fe 2 O 3 -32% Tid 1-38%.
The manufacture of artificial abrasives is confined chiefly to
North America. In the year 1918, Canada alone produced 70,000
tons of these materials; while the value of the total exports of the
nited States was 1,000,000. Now that the limitations of silicon
and refining company was employing four i-ton and four J-ton
furnaces, while another firm had four i-ton furnaces, and batteries
of two or three furnaces were quite common.
The following types of furnace were stated to be in successful
use:
1. The direct arc furnace, of which the Snyder is the only repre-
sentative.
2. The indirect arc furnace, of which the Rennerfelt and the
Detroit are the most successful examples.
3. The vertical ring induction furnace, of which the Ajax-Wyatt
is the best known and most successful.
4. The granular resistance furnace, of which the Baily is the
only example.
For rolling-mills using yellow brass, the direct and indirect arc
furnaces are quite unsuitable, since they would lead to high zinc
losses. Likewise the induction type of furnace is unsuited for
foundries where alloys high in lead are made, or where frequent
changes in composition are necessary. The type of furnace to be
installed, therefore, is determined largely by the alloy or metal
which is to be produced, and each works will have to be guided by
expert and skilled advice in the selection of the type of furnace best
suited to its needs and requirements. The question of power-costs
also enters into the matter, and where cheap power is available the
granular resistance type may be chosen in preference to the more
efficient arc type of furnace, because of the savings which follow
from the absence of electrodes. Bronze manufacturers who take
962
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
power from some small central station plant may be compelled to
select the two-phase Rennerfelt arc furnace instead of the single-
phase Rocking Detroit furnace, because the latter type of current
cannot be economically provided for one power user alone.
The figures in the accompanying table are given by Gillett for the
output and power consumption of the various furnaces named above,
when melting brass and bronze.
The electrolyte contains 30 % free HC1 and 80 to 85 grammes of gold
per litre, with varying amounts of platinum and palladium. When
the amount of these latter two metals in solution is sufficient to
render it worth the expenditure of time and chemicals, a portion is
withdrawn, and the platinum and palladium are then separated
and can be refined by the appropriate chemical and metallurgical
methods of treatment.
Type of Furnace
Power required
K.W.
Charge of
metal
in Ib.
Output per day in tuns
Power consumption in
K.W.-hrs. per tori
10 hrs. 24 hrs.
i. Ajax-Wyatt
30
300 l-ll 3-32
325 267
(Yellow brass)
60
600 2^-3 6-7
275 218
2..Baily ....
105
800 to 1500 2j~3i 6-10
475 338
(Yellow and red brass)
3. Snyder ....
100
600
3
1 J
380
(Leaded bearing bronze)
300
2000
12-18
290
4. Rennerfelt . . . 100
500
1 J
475
(Red brass and bronze 125
IOOO
2-2! 7-10
400 350
and bearing metal) . 300
2OOO
10-16
325
5. Detroit rocking
40
125
J
400
(Yellow and red brass) .
225
1300
3i 8|
332 262
300
2000
6-7 16-20
287 237
Nos. 3, 4 and 5 use from 2 J Ib. to 6 Ib. of graphite electrodes per ton of metal charged.
Bullion. " Bullion " is the technical term for the alloys of
the precious metals silver and gold; the name is also applied to
the bars or ingots in which these metals are sold (for coinage
purposes) to the mint authorities of the various countries of the
world. Although chemical and metallurgical methods are still
employed for separating or " parting " the silver and gold
in bullion from one another, and from the baser metals with
which they are often associated, since the year 1895 electrolytic
methods have been making steady progress, and at the present
time a very large proportion of the silver output of the world is
electrolytically refined by aid of the Moebius process. As
regards gold, the electrolytic method is also making progress; and
electrolytic refineries for treatment of gold bullion by the
Wohlwill process have been operated at Frankfort, Hamburg,
Paris, New York, Philadelphia and San Francisco.
The chief disadvantages of the electrolytic methods of bullion-
refining are those resulting from the value of the gold and silver
locked up by the processes; and the latest improvements, there-
fore, are directed chiefly towards reducing the volume of the
solutions in the tanks, and also the time required for the refining.
The Moebius process of silver-refining has already been fully
described (see 25.1 15). The following description of one of the latest
plants erected is of interest, since it shows that the horizontal system
of travelling belts which act as cathodes has been dropped, and
that the vertical type of anode, enclosed in bags, has teen rein-
troduced. The plant is attached to the Amboy Refinery of the
American Smelting & Refining Co., and consists of 144 stoneware
tanks, grouped in 2.1 sections of 6 tanks each. The anodes weigh
100 oz. and are cast by hand in the lead refinery. The cathodes are
made from cold-rolled silver sheets 3^ in. thick. Each tank contains
4 anode bags and 5 cathodes, the bags each holding 4 anode bars.
The electrolyte is a neutral nitrate solution, containing, per litre,
1 5 to 20 grammes silver and 30 to 40 grammes copper ; 75 %of the silver
in the anode can be deposited in 24 hours. The deposit upon the
cathodes is continuously removed by means of wooden sticks
attached to a frame which has a reciprocating motion. A current
density of 40 amperes per sq. ft. can be maintained under these
conditions since no treeing of the silver can occur, owing to the
continuous removal of the crystalline deposit.
The bags which surround the anodes receive all the slime, and
are removed at regular intervals for recovery of the gold and other
precious metals. The slimes are first boiled with sulphuric acid of
1-842 Sp. Gr. in order to remove copper and silver, the residue is
then washed, dried, and cast into anodes for treatment by the
Wohlwill process.
The gold-recovery installation at Perth Amboy is equipped with
5 earthenware cells, and a current density of 150 amperes per sq. ft.
is employed. This density is considerably higher than that used in
the early trials of the Wohlwill process, the object of the increase
being, of course, to reduce the standing charges for interest per
unit of output. One special feature of this installation is the use of
mercury cups on the ends of the copper bus-bars. By aid of these
cups, and cross bars of copper with bent ends to fit into these cups,
any unit can be quickly cut in or cut out of the circuit. The cathodes
are thin sheets, rolled from electrolytic gold, and are connected to
the contact bars by bending one end of the sheet round them, and
by fastening this down with a clip.
Cadmium. This metal was produced during the World War
period in America, by the electrolysis of acid solutions of the
sulphate, freed from all impurities by chemical treatment.
The electrolysis was carried out in semi-circular lead-lined tanks,
provided with rotating disc-shaped cathodes of aluminium sheet, J
in. in thickness. Under these conditions, smooth coherent deposits
of metallic cadmium could be obtained, when using a current density
of 15 amperes per sq. ft. of immersed cathode area. The average
weight of cadmium deposited per 24 hours in the plant referred to
above was 113 ib. per tank, and the current efficiency was 85%.
As regards output in 1914, 91,000 Ib. of metallic cadmium were
produced in the United States, and the total had increased to 207,000
Ib. in 1917. No figures were yet available in 1921 for the German
output during the war years, but it was known that they also pro-
duced large amounts of cadmium and used it as a substitute for tin,
in the manufacture of solders. The low melting-point of cadmium
renders it useful also in the manufacture of fusible plugs in sprinkler
systems of fire protection; and it has also been employed in con-
junction with lead for the manufacture of bearing metals.
Calcium. The method of Rathenau and Suter for production
of metallic calcium upon a commercial scale, by electrolysis of
the fused chloride, has already been described (see 4.971).
Up to 1921 no important uses had been found for calcium;
consequently there was little demand and the price of the metal
remained comparatively high. Before the war calcium was
quoted in Germany at M.S. 50 per kgm., equivalent to a price of
35. to 35. gd. per pound. It could still be produced at this
price, if a large demand for the metal were created.
The only application so far suggested for calcium is as an
absorbent for the occluded and trapped gases in molten metals;
and in this direction it comes into competition with the cheaper
and lighter metal aluminium. Soddy, in a Royal Society paper of
1906, referred to the use of calcium for removing the last traces
of O. and N. from rarefied gases, and stated that by its use very
high vacua could be obtained, but no practical industrial appli-
cation of this suggestion appears to have been made.
Calcium Carbide and Calcium Cyanamide. The manufacture
and application of these two products of the electric furnace have
been described (see 1.138). Whereas the use of calcium carbide
for generating acetylene for domestic or public lighting purposes
is not extending, its manufacture and use as an absorbent for
nitrogen increased rapidly after 1910. The cyanamide process,
in fact, when operated in favourable localities, seems likely to
remain one of the chief competitors of the Haber and electric-arc
processes for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. According to
reliable authorities, the relative power consumption for the
three processes is as follows:
Haber (taken as unity) . . . . . . I
Cyanamide 8 to 10
Arc processes ... .... 25 " 30
Regarding power considerations alone, therefore, and ignoring
technical questions, it is clear that the Haber process is of
universal application while the cyanamide process will only
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
963
advantage over the arc processes if its greater complexity can be
counterbalanced by its greater efficiency. There is good evidence,
however, for the belief that cyanamide costs have been very
substantially reduced recently, and whereas in 1908 about 0-75
E.H.P.-year was required to produce a ton of cyanamide, the
present energy consumption at Odda is believed not to exceed
0-6 E.H.P.-year per ton.
As regards the progress of the three processes, Landis has pub-
lished the following comparative figures for the years 1913 and 1916:
Installed Capacity for Nitrogen Fixation Throughout the
World in Short Tons of Fixed Nitrogen
Cyanamide Process
Arc Processes
Synthetic Ammonia Processes .
I9'3
65,590
18,650
X.ooo
1916
209,510
29,400
60,000
92,240
298,910
Most of this increase was made in 1915, and 1,000,000 H.P. is now
consumed in the three groups of processes.
Before the war, there were 16 calcium cyanamide factories in
existence utilizing about 200,000 H.P. in the manufacture. Even
at that time, however, the larger proportion of the calcium carbide
manufactured was utilized in the cyanamide industry. According
to official reports, Germany possessed in 1920 plant with an annual
capacity of 600,000 tons of calcium cyanamide, equivalent to 120,000
tons of combined nitrogen. This plant was distributed among six
firms, the largest works being that of the Mittcldeutsche Stick-
stoffwerke A. G. Piesteritz, with a tonnage of 175,000 per annum.
Other large works for production of calcium carbide and cyanamide
are located at Odda in Norway, where an annual output of 300,000
tons eventually will be realized; at Piano d'Orte in Italy, and at
Niagara Falls, where the American Cyanamide Company is oper-
ating on the Canadian side of the Falls.
Copper. The very remarkable growth of electrolytic methods
in the copper industry is, of course, due to the presence of small
amounts of silver, gold and other precious metals in the original
copper ore. These " impurities " accumulate in the slime from
the electrolytic vats, and in most cases the value of this mud more
than covers the whole cost of the refining operations. In 1913,
the last year for which reliable aggregate statistics were available
in 1921, over 1,000,000 tons of copper were produced by the
copper mines and smelters of the world; and of this total it is
probable that from 70% to 80% had been electrolytically refined.
In mere tonnage capacity and in the capital sunk in the industry,
the electrolytic copper-refining industry, therefore, easily ranks
first among electrometallurgical industries; for the refineries
cover immense areas and many millions of pounds' worth of
copper and precious metals are locked up in the vats during
the refining process.
The greater number of the electrolytic refineries are located
in the United States, because the States still produce between
50 and 60% of the world's output of copper. The largest refinery
is that of the United Metals Selling Co. at Perth Amboy. At
Port Kembla in New South Wales, a new refinery has been built
to refine the metal produced by the Mt. Morgan and other copper-
mining companies of the Australian continent; and a production
of 44,000 tons per year had already been attained by 1921.
The improvements made in the electrolytic refining process since
1910 have been directed chiefly towards the reduction of refining
costs; and the method of operation is so well established that the
only improvements possible are those based upon the substitution
of mechanical for hand labour. Travelling cranes, by aid of which
the whole of the anodes can be charged and the cathodes removed
at one operation, are now used in all up-to-date refineries; and
casting machines are also employed for casting the anode plates
from the blister copper which constitutes the raw material of the
refining process.
Addicks, in a recently published article upon the design of copper
refineries, discusses the size and capacity of the anode melting
furnaces, and states that for smooth and safe operation there should
be at least six furnaces (three for anodes and three for wirebar units),
two of each set being in service and one out for repairs. The limit of
size in the past has been the ability to charge, refine and cast the
charge in 24 hours. With hand-charging and ladling, using the same
men for both operations, 60,000 Ib. is regarded as a large furnace.
If a fresh set of men be used for charging, and as many ladlers
employed as can be accommodated at the ladle door, 100,000 Ib.
can be reached. With hand-charging but mechanical ladling 300.000
Ib. is possible; and with full mechanical charging and ladling 500,000
Ib. is easily reached. A furnace casting a charge of 300,000 Ib. or
more, according to Addicks. may be considered however, a thorough-
ly economical unit ; but he is insistent that all the impurities possible
should be eliminated at this stage of the process, for it is much more
costly, in practice, to throw this burden upon the tank-house and
silver refinery. It is also important, he states, to do all that is possible
to facilitate uniformity of operating conditions. As a general rule,
anodes of constant composition, a uniform current density and a
single electrolyte should be used throughout the tank-house.
Graphite. The production of artificial graphite by the Acheson
process has grown into one of the most flourishing of the electro-
metallurgical manufactures. The original Acheson patent which
protected the process was dated 1896, and as the 1 7-year period
allowed by American patent law had elapsed, the process after
1913 could be employed in all countries without payment of
patent royalties. Consequently, there was a great expansion of
the industry in countries where the demand for artificial graphite
existed; and the manufacture is now carried on in the United
Kingdom. The method described by Acheson in his original
patent has undergone little alteration or modification in its
general features, since it was first worked upon an industrial
scale at Niagara Falls, in the year 1897.
The growth of the industry is shown by the following com-
parative figures of output at Niagara, for the two periods 1898-
1900, and 1915-7 respectively:
1898 . . 185,647 Ib. 1915 . . 5,084,000 Ib.
1899 . . 405,870 " 1916 . . 8,397,681 "
1900 . . 860,750 " 1917 . . 10,474,649 "
These totals do not include graphite used for electrodes, but
only the artificial graphite which comes into competition with
the natural variety.
The artificial graphite can be employed for any of the purposes
for which natural graphite is used, with the exception of the manu-
facture of crucibles, and it is of interest to note that a recent Ameri-
can patent covers its application to this purpose also. The chief
application of artificial graphite, however, is its use for electrodes,
for which its high electrical conductivity renders it specially suitable.
Its further advantages are that it can be produced in large blocks
which can be sawed, tapped or screwed, and turned in the lathe to
any desired shape. Some of the artificial graphite electrodes manu-
factured for electric furnace work have been of enormous size,
namely 24 in. in diameter and 72 in. in length; and these could not
possibly have been produced from natural graphite.
The production of artificial graphite was greatly stimulated during
the war period by the increase in the number and capacity of the
electric furnaces used for steel production and in the number of
new installations of electrolytic .cells for decomposition of brine; and
there was a notable falling-off in the demand for these two purposes
after the Armistice. In other directions, however, the use of arti-
ficial graphite has been growing, and of these applications the most
notable are its use for the manufacture of lubricants, paints, dry-
batteries, engine-gland packings, and boiler-scale preventives.
Electric Steel Furnaces. Since 1910 a very remarkable increase
has been seen in the number and capacity of electric furnaces,
both for the purpose of refining the higher grades of steel and
for the production of ferro-alloys, in the leading industrial
and manufacturing countries of the world. This increase, no
doubt, has been due very largely to war conditions. Every country,
engaged in the struggle, was thrown upon its own resources with
regard to the production of iron and steel; and as electric heating
offered the quickest and most efficient method of converting
ordinary carbon steel and scrap from the shell factories into the
special steels required for the manufacture of shell billets, guns,
armour plates, etc., etc., as well as for various other military
purposes, electric furnaces were installed in all centres of the
steel industry.
Descriptions have been given (see 14.824) of the Heroult arc
furnace, and of the Kjellin and Rochling-Rodenhauser types of
induction furnace. The latter type of furnace has not survived in
the iron and steel industry, for the temperature attained in it has
been too low to effect any useful refining work, and as a simple
melting furnace for production of special alloy steels it is handi-
capped by the fact that some portion of the last charge of metal must
always be left in the furnace ring to maintain the current. The
Kjellin type of induction furnace as modified by Hiprth, however, is
now used for the production of a specially pure iron for dynamo
construction, the principle being to encase the whole secondary of
964
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
the furnace in a gas-tight ring, and to melt and cool the metal in
vacuo. In this way all occluded gases are removed, and the magnetic
permeability of the metal is greatly increased. With this exception
the successful electric steel melting and refining furnaces are now all
of the arc, or combined arc and resistance heating type. Detailed
figures for all countries are not available, but the following com-
parative figures for the United Kingdom are striking. In the year
1912, only nine electric furnaces were operating, or in course of
erection, in the iron and steel works or foundries of Great Britain;
Messrs. Edgar Allen & Co. of the Imperial Steel Works, Sheffield,
being the pioneers in the introduction of electric steel refining into
Sheffield. Six years later, in October 1918, when the Armistice was
declared, the number had grown to 123 (see Table III).
TABLE III.
Electric Steel Furnaces in Operation or in Course of Erection in the
United Kingdom in November 1918
Type of furnace
No.
Average
capacity
tons
Average
monthly
output
Average
current
consump-
tion
I. Heroult .
2. Electrometals
3. Greaves-Etchells .
4. Stobie
5. Snyder
6. Rennerfelt
7. Stassano .
8. " Special "
50
26
24
8
6
5
2
2
2^
2
10
I
ii
2
I
9595
3097
1109
1010
918
419
136
204
992
1031
1 122
880
787
1495
1770
769
I-M
4
16,488
1105
The average monthly output of these 123 furnaces was 16,500 tons
of steel, in the form of ingot-metal, special alloys and castings.
Further particulars of the types of furnaces installed, with figures
for the average monthly output and current consumption, are given
in the table. It must be pointed out here, however, that the figures
for the average current consumption of each type of furnace cannot
be used as the index of their respective thermal or electrical effi-
ciencies, since, in the absence of information concerning the physical
state and the chemical composition of the charge, and the amount of
refining work carried out in the furnace, average figures of current
consumption cannot be considered a safe guide to relative furnace
efficiencies.
The largest number of furnaces at the end of 1918 were installed
at the East Hecla Works, Sheffield, of Messrs. Hadfields, Ltd.
These works were equipped with 1 1 Heroult arc-furnaces chiefly of
6 to 7 tons, capacity. The largest furnaces erected in England were
the 12- and 15-ton furnaces of the Stobie type at Dunston-on-Tyne,
and at the Openshaw works of Armstrong Whitworth & Co.
As regards the lines along which progress occurred during 1911-20,
the tendency in the United Kingdom was to increase the power of
the transformers, rather than to follow the American plan of reduc-
ing costs by the erection of larger furnaces. When large tonnages of
electrically refined steel have been required, it has been the custom
to employ molten steel, which has been previously treated by the
Bessemer or open-hearth process. This method of working is
known technically as the " duplex " or " triplex " system, and it
leads to a great reduction in the consumption of electric current per
ton of metal refined. Three-phase current is also now generally
employed for ehectric steel refining in place of single-phase current,
since the use of three electrodes with the molten steel as the common
neutral point of the system leads to much more uniform heating of
the bath. As regards regulation of the load on the generators and
transformers, the Thury system of automatic regulation of the arc
gap is generally employed in the United Kingdom, and by an elec-
trically operated device the total load of a battery of furnaces can
be kept within any desired limits.
In the United States, for electric steel melting and refining, the
tendency is to employ larger furnaces than in Great Britain, with
improved mechanical equipment for charging and discharging the
furnaces. Automatic apparatus for regulating the arc gap and
power factor has also been coming into general use, the Thury system
of current regulation being widely adopted. As regards electrode-
holders and cooling-boxes, the tendency in American practice has
been to substitute cast-steel holders and boxes for the bronze ones
which have been hitherto used, since there is less risk of contamina-
tion of the charge with impurities, should there be a stoppage of the
flow of cooling water and fusion of the metal. The mechanism for
tilting the furnaces is also receiving attention: controllers of the
reversing type now being employed with a motor brake to prevent
" overtravel " of the furnace, and to hold it stationary in any posi-
tion. The largest electric furnaces erected up to 1921 in America for
steel melting and refining are the 25-ton Heroult three-phase arc-
type furnaces at the South Chicago works of the Illinois Steel Com-
pany. In 1918 this company was stated to be producing electric
steel at the rate of 16,500 tons per month, using the " triplex "
system referred to above. The other types of electric furnace used
in the American steel industry are: Booth-Hall, Girod, Greaves-
Etchells, Gronwall-Dixon, Ludlum, Snyder and Von Baur.
Ferro- Alloys. Applications of ferro-alloys in the iron and steel
industry have increased enormously since 191 1, and in 1971 the
Sheffield tool-steel trade was dependent for some of its most
valuable products upon the ferro-alloys obtained by aid of electric
heat. The discovery made many years earlier, that small per-
centages of chromium, nickel, manganese, vanadium and other
rare metals, either separately or in combination, caused profound
changes in the physical properties of steel, has in fact revolution-
ized modern steel manufacture; and the production of a rustless
or " stainless " steel was one of the most notable advances of the
war period. Molybdenum is the latest rare metal to be added to
the list of those employed now in steel manufacture; and Prof.
Arnold's molybdenum-vanadium steel was expected by some
authorities in 1921 to have a great future.
The special steels are called binary, ternary or quaternary,
according to the number of elements (other than impurities) which
are present, and it is the quaternary steels, which contain carbon
and two other elements, that are now finding the widest applications
in the arts and industries. The ferro-alloys used in their manu-
facture have in the past been supplied chiefly from the large elec-
trometallurgical works located in the French and Swiss Alps. The
war showed, however, that dependence upon an overseas power for
supplies of these essential raw materials for the steel industry was
not a wise or safe arrangement. The production of ferro-alloys,
therefore, was commenced in England at Widnes, Newcastle and
other places, and has come to be regarded as a " key industry."
The furnaces used for the production of ferro-alloys are of the
resistance type, and their design is based on that employed for the
furnaces used in the manufacture of calcium carbide, but they
have been modified considerably both in form and in other details
of construction. The use of the electric arc for heating is not con-
ducive to efficient working except in the steel and alloy refining
processes, since the temperature required for reducing the ores lies
between that of the ordinary metallurgical furnace and that pro-
duced by the electric arc. Furnaces working on the resistance prin-
ciple have, therefore, been most successful in the manufacture of
ferro-alloys, and arc furnaces are used only for refining. The ferro-
alloys made in these furnaces in the early days of the manufacture
were very impure, and the first ferro-chrome placed upon the market
by a French firm contained from 7 to 9 % carbon. Improvements in
the design and method of working the furnaces, however, have led
to the production of alloys containing a much lower percentage of
this element ; the percentage of carbon in some of the ferro-chrome
now produced having been reduced to under two per cent. By
treatment in a refining furnace this percentage can be still further
reduced to under '50%, or to any lower limit demanded by the steel-
maker, but this of course adds considerably to the cost of the ferro-
alloy. The use of pure raw materials, the avoidance of excessive
heating of the charge, and the prevention of contact between the
molten ferro-alloys and the electrodes or the walls of the containing
vessel are the means by which this improvement in the purity of the
product has been attained.
Electric Iron Smelting. Electric heat for smelting iron ore is
now employed at various centres in Sweden, Norway, Italy,
Japan and Brazil, where the local conditions favour the use of
electrically generated heat for this purpose. The furnace em-
ployed is an improved type of the shaft-furnace originally
tried in the year 1911 at Domnarfvet and Trollhattan in Sweden,
by the Swedish Iron and Steel Makers' Institute.
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys. Magnesium and its
alloys have come to the front as metals of considerable industrial
value and importance in recent years, owing to the demands of
the aeroplane and motor industries for a light metal which will
combine with this quality strength, toughness and ability to
resist the effects of vibration and shock. The alloys of magnesium
and aluminium which contain from 5 to 30% of Al have ap-
proximately the same mechanical properties as brass, and can be
employed for the manufacture of screws, nuts, wire, tubes and
sheets. The hardness of these Al Mg alloys increases with the
proportion of the latter metal present in the alloy, and with 70%
Mg the hardness is equal to that of mild steel. An alloy contain-
ing 92% Mg and 8% Al has been patented by a German firm,
and is stated to have a strength equal to that of gun metal, with
a specific gravity of only 1-75. If its claims are substantiated,
the demand from aeroplane and motor-car manufacturers ought
to result in manufacture on a large scale.
In the manufacture of the Mg Al alloys it is of great importance
that the metals should be pure. The aluminium is first melted in a
raphite crucible, and a small amount of cryolite is added as a flux.
e magnesium in the required amount is then introduced and in
gra
Th
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
965
order to prevent loss by oxidation is held beneath the surface of the
molten aluminium by tongs until it is melted. As regards the best
contents of Mg for alloys designed for various uses, Klaudy states
that a 2 to 5 % Mg alloy is best for wire-drawing; 5 to 8 % for rolling;
12 to 15% for casting, and that the average strength of a cast 10%
Mg alloy is 20,000 Ib. per sq. inch. An alloy he recommends for
aeroplane construction work has the following composition : Al 80
parts; Mg 12 parts; Cd 8 parts.
The Al Mg Cu alloys are stated to be useful for chemical work, as
for example the alloy containing 96 % Al, 2 % Cu and 2 % Mg.
This alloy is very dense, machines well, and has been used with
success for the construction of a 3-in. flanged valve, designed for
work with acetic acid.
As regards the methods of manufacture adopted for producing
pure magnesium, it is known that before the war the Germans were
manufacturing the metal by the electrolysis of fused " carnallite,"
a naturally occurring salt containing potassium and magnesium
chlorides. The position at the commencement of the war was,
therefore, that Germany had practically a monopoly of the manu-
facture of magnesium, and supplied the whole world with its require-
ments of the metal. It was only under the stress of war conditions
that English and American manufacturers commenced to take an
interest in this very interesting metal.
As regards America there were, in 1921, two plants at Niagara
Falls producing magnesium, under the control of the American
Magnesium Corporation, and there was also one at Rumford Falls,
controlled by the Rumford Metal Co. The latter plant employed
as raw material a pure magnesia obtained as by-product from some
other process. The Dow Chemical Co. of Midland and the General
Electric Co. of Schenectady are two other firms which produced
magnesium in America during the war. Concerning the process of
reduction or extraction used by the plants at Niagara Falls, very
little information is available. There is no doubt, however, that the
process used is an electrolytic one, and that the electrolysis takes
place in a bath of fused chlorides with aluminium present when an
alloy is desired. At Rumford Falls, where MgO is used as raw mate-
rial, the method in fact is exactly similar to that used for the manu-
facture of aluminium.
Quartz-Glass and Fused Silica Ware. This electric-furnace
product has been manufactured since 1904 at Wallsend-on-Tyne
by the Thermal Syndicate, and at Hanau in Germany by He-
raeus. Quartz is an impure form of silicic acid (Si02) ; and quartz-
glass is, therefore, a glass consisting chiefly of silicic acid, whereas
ordinary glass contains silicic acid in combination with lime, soda,
potash or lead. The great advantages of quartz-glass as compared
with ordinary glass are that it has a much higher melting point
and that it is not fractured by sudden changes of temperature.
Other important properties are that it is neither hygroscopic nor
soluble in acids, and that alkalies affect it less than ordinary
glass except at the higher temperatures. It is, therefore, of
great value for chemical and research work.
In the early days of the manufacture only tubes were made. The
method of production was to embed a graphite rod in sand, and to
heat this with a current of high amperage. A white opaque tube of
quartz was obtained in this way, of much greater diameter than the
graphite core. The opacity was due to the air entangled in the raw
material, this air being imprisoned as minute air bubbles in the
pasty mass when it softened under the application of heat. The
latest method of overcoming this defect is to heat the fused tube a
second time quickly up to 1800 C. by aid either of an oxyhydrogen
flame or of the electric arc. The cellular structure then collapses, and
a semi-translucent tube is obtained which is not only stronger but is
a better conductor of heat than the original opaque tube. The
highest grade of glass-sand and modern methods of blown-glass
manufacture are now employed, with the aid of iron moulds similar
in construction to those used for glass bottles, to produce any hollow
kind of fused silica ware.
Sodium. The Castner cell and process for the production of
metallic sodium by the electrolysis of fused sodium hydrate has
been generally adopted.
In a recent American patent, No. 1,334,179 of March 1020, and
assigned to the Dow Chemical Co., A. W. Smith and W. R Veazey,
of Cleveland, proposed to substitute a mixture of 35-6 parts of sodium
chloride and 64-4 parts of sodium carbonate for the more expensive
sodium hydrate. This mixture melts at 600 C. and yields a product
equal in quality and purity to the present commercial sodium.
application of electrolytic or electrothermal
methods in connexion with the tin industry has been confined
to the recovery of the metal from tin scrap and from the old tin
cans found in the refuse of all large towns. At one time the
electrolytic recovery of tin from these two sources became a
branch industry of some importance; but these electrolytic
methods of treating tin-scrap metal and refuse had in many places
been displaced by 1921 by newer methods, depending upon the
use of liquid or gaseous chlorine. The electrolyte methods,
however, continued to be carried on by some municipalities.
The alkaline process of electrolytic tin-stripping was patented first
in the United Kingdom, by an Englishman named Beatson ; but the
German firm, Th. Goldschmidt & Cie., of Essen, Germany, was the
first to see and to turn to good account the possibilities of the
process. This firm, by organizing the collection of the waste scrap in
all countries and its transport on a large scale to their works at
Essen, obtained at one time almost a monopoly of the raw material
of the industry. The scrap, after cleaning and freeing from grease
and fat, was employed as anode material in baths which contained
a 10% sodium-hydrate solution as electrolyte. Under the influence
of the current the tin was dissolved as sodium stannate, and was
deposited at the cathode as metallic tin, with reformation of the
sodium hydrate. The chief chemical, therefore, was continuously
regenerated, and the only drawback of the process was that the solu-
tion of the tin was not quite complete, and the iron-tin alloy, which
existed on the plate under the coating of tin, was not dissolved by
the sodium salt. The residual iron left in the vats still carried, there-
fore, measurable and variable amounts of tin, which diminished its
value from the steel-melters' point of view.
At one time before the war, the alkali process of tin-stripping was
being worked at seven different centres in Europe and at one or
two in America, and over 40,000 tons of tin scrap was treated annu-
ally by the process. A plant which operated in Limehouse, London,
was reported to be using the same process.
Electrolytic tin-stripping methods, which are based upon the use
of ferric and stannic chlorides as solvent for the tin, have been
patented and tried also upon a commercial scale. Their great
advantage is that the solder and hard alloy of iron and tin, under
the tin coating, is removed by the chloride treatment; and that
only one-half the electric current required by the alkali process
suffices to deposit the tin from the chloride electrolyte. The Bergsoe
and Browne & Neil processes of tin-scrap treatment were the most
notable examples of this method in the past. More recently, Walter
and Lodge have patented the use of a stripping solution consisting
of a 7 % solution of caustic soda or potash, with I % of stannous
chloride, heated to l8oF. The scrap is placed in bags in a per-
forated revolving drum, which is rotated or oscillated within the vat,
and is divided into longitudinal compartments by the cathode plates
which project into it internally. The method is protected by British
patents Nos. 122,025 and 122,618 of 1918, and is reported, to have
been operated in Birmingham.
Zinc. The many different processes which had been patented
or experimented with, up to the year 1910, for the electric
deposition of zinc from sulphate or chloride solutions of the
metal paved the way for the improved methods and processes of
the later period, and there were in 1921 many large plants in
operation in America and Australia, producing electrolytic zinc
upon an industrial scale. Success depends upon freeing the
electrolyte supplied to the depositing vats from all impurities
more electro-negative than zinc copper, cadmium, lead, anti-
mony and arsenic. The presence of even very minute amounts of
the two last-named impurities (arsenic and antimony) is found, in
fact, to lead to low-current efficiencies. The non-recognition of this
fact led to the failure of many of the electrolytic processes that
were tried upon an industrial scale in the past. The other
essential of success is to prevent " treeing " of the deposited
zinc, since this leads to short-circuiting in the vats; and " treeing "
has been overcome by stripping the cathodes every 48 hours,
and by not attempting to form thick sheets of zinc.
The most modern and largest plant in which electrolytic zinc
was being produced in 1921 was that erected in 1918 by the Anaconda
Copper Co. at Great Falls, Mont., for recovery of the zinc from
the complex zinc-lead ores of the Butte district, by a sulphate leach-
ing process. The tank-house of this plant contains 864 vats, each
10 ft. long by 3 ft. wide by 5 ft. deep; and each vat will hold 28
anodes and 27 cathodes. The latter are of rolled sheet aluminium
from which the deposited zinc can be stripped easily. The anodes
are of chemical lead. The current for each unit of 144 cells is supplied
by a rotary converter of 5,800 K.W. output, 10,000 amperes at 580
volts being required to run this number of cells. At full load the
current density employed is 30 amp. per sq. ft. of cathode area, but
22 to 25 amp. yields the most satisfactory deposit.
Similar plants have been erected and operated at Park City,
Utah, by the Judge Mining and Smelting Co. for treatment of the
concentrates from a sulphide ore containing zinc, lead and silver;
and at Trail, B.C., by the Consolidated Mining & Smelting Co. of
Canada. This latter company claims to have been the first to put
electrolytic slab zinc on the market at a cost which left a profit to the
producer. The average composition produced at Trail, B.C., is
Zn, 99-93%; FeO, -005%; Pb, -038%; Cd, -027%.
966
ELGAR EMBRYOLOGY
Electro-galvanizing. The electrolytic deposition of a coating of
zinc, from sulphate solutions, upon iron articles is now a well-
established industry in all the leading manufacturing countries.
AUTHORITIES. Apart from articles in technical journals refer-
ence may be made to the following books : A. J. Allmand Principles
of Applied Electrochemistry; B. Blount, Practical Electrochemistry;
A. J. Hale, The Applications of Electrolysis in Chemical Industry;
J. B. C. Kershaw, Electrometallurgy; idem, Electrothermal Methods of
Iron and Steel Production; Jean Escard, Les Fours Electriques in-
dustrielles; idem, L'Electrometallurgie du Per et sesAUiges;V<J. Roden-
hauser and I. Schwonawa, Electric Furnaces in the Iron and Steel
Industry. (J. B. C. K.)
ELGAR, SIR EDWARD (1857- ), English composer (see
9.266), received the O.M. in 1911. His first symphony, produced
at Manchester 1908, created a furore and was played upwards of
100 times in a twelvemonth. It was followed by the violin con-
certo; Falstaff (Leeds); the 2nd symphony in E flat; and all
these by a wonderful series of compositions written during the
World War. The Spirit of England (poems by Lawrence Binyon),
Carillons, a pianoforte quintet, a string quartet in A minor
and a 'cello concerto were produced between 1914 and 1920.
His wife, Caroline Alice Roberts, the daughter of Maj.-Gen.
Sir Henry Roberts, whom he married in 1889, was herself an
accomplished musician and linguist. She was the author of
various poems, including In Haven, set to music by her husband
in Sea Pictures. She died at Hampstead April 7 1920.
ELGIK, VICTOR ALEXANDER BRUCE, 9 xH EARL OF (1840-
1917), British statesman (see 9.268), died at Broomhall, Fife,
Jan. 18 1917.
ELIOT, CHARLES WILLIAM (1834- ), American educa-
tionist (see 9.274), was offered the post of ambassador to Eng-
land by President Taft in 1909, but preferred to serve his
country in a private capacity at home. The same position was
tendered him in 1913 by President Wilson and again declined.
He continued to take an active part, by writing and speaking,
on all the important public questions of the day. His theories
as to needed changes in education toward the concrete and
practical had great influence upon American schools. The
vocational movement, so marked after 1910, was without
doubt accelerated by his continued insistence upon the training
of the senses of sight, hearing and touch, as being the sources
of the best part of knowledge. In 1914 he was elected president
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
In his educational writings he maintained that the traditional
systems had dealt too exclusively with language and literature.
In 1916, however, he was awarded a gold medal by the American
Academy of Arts and Letters for his literary influence in his
educational work. In the field of religion he was an author-
itative spokesman on the Unitarian faith. In his later books,
The Religion of the Future and Twentieth Century Christianity,
he rejected obscure dogma, emphasized freedom in place of
authority, and held that the teaching of Jesus had been " the
undying root of all the best in human history since He lived,"
and that He would be the supreme teacher in the new religion,
the outcome of which would be the brotherhood of man. Dr.
Eliot gave much attention to labour problems and declared
that " profit-sharing, combined with cooperative management,
in which the employees take active and reasonable part, with
cooperative care of health, education and happiness of employees,
and with full knowledge by employees of the employers' account,
is the only road to industrial peace." He condemned limited
output by labour as well as uniform hours and wages. The
settling of industrial strife he considered the next important
thing after the establishment of a league of nations. He was a
strong supporter of President Wilson's administration, and
approved his personal appeal to the country in 1918 to return
a Democratic Congress. He favoured prohibition as a war
measure, and later as an amendment to the Constitution. He
wrote in favour of military training after the Swiss method, but
maintained that, after a league of nations was formed, no
country should be allowed to have an army " whose officers
have entered for life the profession of soldier." In 1920 he was
an active worker for the Democratic party because he regarded
the immediate adoption of the Covenant of the League of
Nations as a moral obligation. He was the author of The
Conflict Between Individualism and Collectivism in a Democracy
(1910, lectures delivered at the university of Virginia); Some
Roads Towards Peace (1914) and numerous articles on educa-
tional, religious, political and social questions.
ELLIOTT, HOWARD (1860- ), American railway manager,
was born in New York Dec. 6 1860. After graduating from
the Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard (C.E. 1881), he was
for several years a clerk in various offices of the Chicago, Bur-
lington & Quincy railway. Later he was appointed general
freight agent and then general manager of several lines belonging
to the Burlington system. In 1902 he became second vice-
president of the company and the following year president of
the Northern Pacific. In 1913 he was made president of the
New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and at the same
time chairman of its board of directors. In 1917 he resigned and
was made chairman of the committee on intercorporate rela-
tions of the New Haven system. The same year he was named
by the American Railway Association as one of the six mem-
bers of the Railroads War Board. He was again president of
the Northern Pacific 1919-20, and then became chairman of
its board of directors. He opposed the eight-hour law, urged
higher freight rates, and suggested the creation of a depart-
ment of transportation, with a secretary in the Cabinet.
ELLIS, ROBINSON (1834-1913), English scholar (see 9.294),
died at Oxford Oct. 9 1913. Among his later publications were
editions of the Amores of Ovid (1912) and the second book of
Ovid's Tristia (1913).
ELWES, GERVASE GARY (1866-1921), English vocalist, son
of Valentine Gary Elwes, of Billing Hall, Northants., and
Brigg, Lines., was born at Billing Nov. 15 1866. Educated at
the Oratory school, Edgbaston, and at Christ Church, Oxford,
Gervase Elwes married Lady Winefride Feilding, daughter of
the 8th Earl of Denbigh, in 1889, and two years later, on ap-
pointment to the diplomatic service, he became honorary
attache at Munich, then at Vienna and finally at Brussels.
Possessed of a charming tenor voice, he became known as an
amateur singer of exceptional ability, and in the three cities
named he studied music assiduously, in Vienna under Mandy-
czewski-and in Brussels under Demest, while he also paid fre-
quent visits to Paris from Brussels in order' further to study
under Bouhy. He entered the musical profession while still in
the diplomatic service, which he finally abandoned in 1895.
As a professional singer he made his first public appearance at
the Westmorland Festival in 1903, and in London at a concert
of the Handel Society. In London he continued his studies
under Victor Beigel, sang with conspicuous success at the
Monday " Pops," at the Kruse festival and at provincial
festivals. His first representative festival engagement was at
Leeds in 1904. In 1907 he toured Germany with Fanny Davies;
two years later he sang with the Oratorio Society of New York
in Bach's St. Matthew Passion and The Dream of Gerontius,
the ,latter a work with which his name became indissolubly
associated. He took part in upwards of 150 performances of it.
His intensely deep religious convictions undoubtedly aided him
in this work, for he was a very devout Catholic, and in Bach's
Passion his performance was exalted. As singer of songs Elwes
held an unique position. He excelled in the lieder of Brahms;
and to him such English composers as Roger Quilter and
Vaughan Williams owed a fair proportion of their success, at
least in the beginning. Elwes left England late in 1920 for a
long-promised tour of the United States, and he was accident-
ally killed at the railway station at Boston on Jan. 12 1921.
EMBRYOLOGY. In the earlier article (see 9.314) the growth
of the science of embryology was traced from the period of the
Renaissance until the beginning of the 2oth century. It remains
here to deal with the more recent discoveries as to the nature and
meaning of the developmental process.
The Cell. We take for granted (see CYTOLOGY) a general
acquaintance with the structure of the bodies of adult animals.
It is now a matter of universal agreement to conceive the active
EMBRYOLOGY
967
living parts of these bodies, which are included under the general
name protoplasm, as built up of a series of units termed cells,
each normally containing a single nucleus and separated from
one another by quasi-solid membranes termed cell-walls.
The doubts as to the validity of the concept of the cell, which
were raised in the later years of the ipth century, have not been
sustained by later discoveries. A more refined technique has
enabled us to demonstrate a cell-wall in cases where it was
supposed to be absent; and where it really is absent, as for
instance in the ectoderm of the Nematode worms, it has been
proved that this is a secondary state of affairs, due to the de-
generation of a well-developed layer of cells, which in younger
stages of the life-history are clearly and sharply delimited from
each other. It is true that in many, perhaps in most, cases the
cell-walls are perforated so that adjacent cells are connected by
bars of protoplasm, but this circumstance in no way invalidates
the idea of the cell as the unit of structure.
Scope of Embryology. The lowest grade of animals, termed
the Protozoa, do not exhibit cellular structure. Either their
bodies are so small that they possess only one nucleus, and in this
case they may be regarded as free-living cells; or they contain
more than one nucleus and attain a greater size, and then their
protoplasm is not divided into compartments in accordance with
the distribution of these nuclei.
Some of the largest of the Protozoa such as the extinct genus
Nummulites were disc-like in form and attained a size of an inch in
diameter; the bodies of these animals were divided into thousands
of compartments by calcareous septa. To judge from what we
know of the structure of their nearest living representatives they
must have possessed numerous nuclei; but these nuclei were not
distributed in accordance with the divisions of the protoplasm.
Some compartments contained several nuclei, some one nucleus
only and many none ; so that true all-structure was absent.
In other cases the protozoon may be described as a colony of
small uninucleate forms, connected together either by strings of
protoplasm or by stalks springing from a common base. But all
these more complex Protozoa are distinguished from the true higher
animals or Metazoa by the fact that when reproduction takes place
the whole body of the parent breaks up into germs, each containing
a single nucleus, whereas in true Metazoa small portions only of the
parent's body are set aside for reproductive purposes; in other words,
in the Metazoa there is a persistent " soma " or body distinct from
the germ-cells. Now of course the development 01 the Protozoa
ought to form part of the subject matter of embryology, but in the
case of the smaller species it is exceedingly difficult to say which stage
corresponds to the adult condition of Metazoa, since reproduction
by the division of the mother's body into two, can take place at
various periods in the life-cycle, and therefore purely as a matter of
convenience it is customary to confine the subject matter of embry-
ology to the study of the life histories of the higher animals which
exhibit definite cellular structure, in a word to the Metazoa.
Metazoa. If we now examine the development of the Metazoa
we find a few cases where, side by side with other methods,
reproduction by fission, that is by the division of the mother's
body, does actually take place.
Thus in the marine annelid Procerastes described by Allen 1
the mother worm breaks up into groups of one, two or three seg-
ments and each of these groups regenerates the missing parts and
thus constitutes a new worm. In much more numerous cases an
outgrowth of the mother's body, termed a " bud," is produced. The
bud consists from the beginning of several tissues, and is slowly
moulded into the likeness of the parent and when fully grown
separates from it, or in the case of a colonial animal remains con-
nected with it and helps to build up a compound organism. Such
compound creatures are found amongst the sponges, the Coelenterata,
the Polyzoa, and the Aseidians, the last-named group being de-
generate allies of the Vertebrata.
The laws of bud-development have not been as clearly
elucidated as those of the germ-cells. Development by germ-
cells is universal amongst the Metazoa; and in all but two phyla
the form in which they appear is remarkably constant. They
are of two kinds, viz. male and female, and are normally incapable
of development unless they have previously united in pairs to
form what are called " zygotes " (Gr. ir/ov, a yoke).
The male cell or spermatozoon consists of a head which is a con-
densed nucleus made up of a compact mass of chromatin, and a tail
1 E. J. Allen, " An Autotomy and Regeneration in the syllid
worm Procerastes." Proc. Roy. Soc. Land., Series B,vol. xcii., 1921.
which is a vibratile filament, Amongst the nematode worms, how-
ever, the male cells. are devoid of filaments and appear under the
form of small amoeboid cells, whilst amongst the higher Crustacea
(i.e. the shrimps, lobsters and crabs) the tail is replaced by a peculiar
vesicle, which under certain circumstances absorbs water and ex-
plodes, thus propelling the head forwards and in this way bringing
about the union of the two germ-cells.
The Germ-cells. The female cell or ovum (egg) is typically
rounded and motionless but it is of very different sizes in different
species of animals. These differences in size depend entirely on the
varying amounts of food-yolk i.e. reserve material deposited in
the cytoplasm ; that is to say, in the extra-nuclear protoplasm. The
food-yolk in turn differs in amount according to the extent to which
the young organism must grow before it can obtain nourishment for
itself. Thus the human egg is only about ! mm. in diameter since
at a very early period of its development it becomes attached to the
wall of the womb and subsequently draws all its nourishment from
that source. The egg of the ostrich on the contrary is one of the
largest known, being about 15 cm. in diameter, since it has to provide
all the food necessary to build up a good-sized chick.
Eggs which have a very small amount of yolk and in which this
is evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm are termed " aleci-
thal";such are the eggs of Hydrozoa, Echinodermata, Brachiopoda
and of Amphioxus and Mammalia amongst Vertebrata. Eggs in
which the yolk is concentrated at one pole of the egg are termed
" telolecithal " ; this pole is termed the "vegetative pole," whilst
the opposite pole where the bulk of the cytoplasm is concentrated
and where the polar bodies (see below) are given off is termed the
" animal pole." The eggs of most Annelida and Mollusca and of
Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves amongst Vertebrata are telo-
lecithal. Eggs in which the yolk is massed in the central part of the
egg and is surrounded by a layer of cytoplasm almost free from
yolk are termed " centrolecithal." To this class belong the eggs of
nearly all Arthropoda.
_ Both types of g-crm-cell before attaining maturity undergo two
ripening (maturation) divisions, so that in each case four daughter
cells are produced. Whereas in the case of the male germ-cell all
four daughters become fully formed spermatozoa, in the case of the
female germ-cell only one daughter is converted into the ripe egg;
the remaining three are small vestigial cells destined to perish, which
are termed the " polar bodies." During the maturation divisions
the number of chromosomes in the nuclei of both male and female
germ-cells is reduced by one-half (for details of this process see
CYTOLOGY). When the spermatozoon enters the egg, the head, which
is a condensed nucleus, swells up and assumes the ordinary nuclear
structure and is termed the "male pronucleus"; behind it is
situated a very active centrosome (see CYTOLOGY) which produces a
series of radiating rays termed the " spermaster." The nucleus of
the ripe egg is termed the " female pronucleus." The male pronu-
cleus approaches the female pronucleus, and the spermaster con-
stitutes the groundwork of the first mitotic spindle by becoming
divided into two asters connected with one another by longitudinal
fibres; this spindle initiates the development of the egg by bringing
about the first division of the combined male and female pronuclei
and of the fertilized egg (zygote) itself. The tail of the spermatozoon
is either left outside when the head penetrates the egg, or if it
penetrates the cytoplasm it degenerates there; its remnants can
sometimes be detected in one cell of the embryo, up till the stage of
32 cells has been attained, but it takes no part in cell-division and no
portion of it is transmitted to any other cell, the conclusion being
that it plays no part in the transmission of hereditary qualities.
The nucleus of the zygote, as we have just seen, has double the
number of chromosomes which are present in the nucleus of the
ripe egg but half of these are of male origin. Every nucleus of the
developing embryo therefore inherits from the zygote nucleus an
equal number of male and female chromosomes, so that the body of
the embryo has with justice been likened to a tissue of which the
warp is paternal and the woof maternal.
Parthenogenesis. In the earlier article it was pointed out that
the unfertilized egg could be induced to develop by a variety of
agencies varying from the addition of a small quantity of butyric
acid to the sea- water in which it is placed, followed by exposure
to the action of hypertonic (i.e. over-salted) sea-water in the
case of echinoderm eggs, to the prick of a pin in the case of the
eggs of Amphibia. This is termed artificial parthenogenesis.
In the case of the eggs of the sea-urchin (Echinus') parthenogenesis
has been minutely studied by Loeb 2 who has put forward various
theories as to the action of the agents which he employed. He
imagined that the action of the butyric acid was to start cytolysis,
one result of which was the formation of a definite egg membrane,
but which if unchecked destroyed the egg, which became resolved
into a mass of globules. The exposure to hypertonic sea-water was
supposed to arrest this injurious action. This explanation was
obviously not applicable to the parthenogenesis of the frog's egg.
2 J. Loeb. Numerous papers summarized in his book Die chemisette
Entwicklung des tierischen Eies (1909).
968
EMBRYOLOGY
The whole subject has been attacked from a new point of view by
Herlant 1 and Brachet 2 who have pointed out that the agent em-
ployed to provoke parthenogenesis does not exercise a specific
chemical action on the egg but merely acts as a stimulus to which the
egg as a living organism responds. Whether butyric acid or a needle
be employed the response is the same; the egg " wakes up " so to
speak, the nucleus emits something which acts as a centrosome and
from this is developed a great series of radiating rays traversing the
cytoplasm, a huge " monaster " in fact. The chromatin of the
nucleus becomes resolved into chromosomes which are split longitu-
dinally and which become adherent to the rays of the " monaster."
In the case of the egg of the sea-urchin it is only extremely rarely
that the monaster becomes changed into an ordinary mitotic spindle
by the division of the centrosome. In most cases after persisting
for about an hour the monaster disappears; the nucleus returns to
the resting condition and then after a short interval it passes through
the same phases, a monaster being again formed. After this process
has been repeated about six times over a period lasting twelve hours
the egg dies and cytolysis supervenes. If, however, after the egg has
been exposed to the action of the butyric acid and then washed in
sea -water it is placed in hypertonic sea-water, and then after a limited
period of immersion in this fluid replaced in ordinary sea-water,
additional asters are formed in the cytoplasm. When the egg forms
a monaster this becomes connected with these other asters by
longitudinal fibres so as to form a complex spindle. By properly
choosing the period of immersion in hypertonic water it is possible
to arrange that only one additional aster should be formed; this
then joins with the monaster to form a normal mitotic spindle on to
which the egg chromosomes migrate; a regular division of the
nucleus follows and thereafter a division of the whole egg into
two cells and so parthenogenetic development is initiated.
The course of events in the frog's egg is fundamentally similar
to the process which we have just described, although there are
differences in detail. A prick with a sterilized needle induces the
formation of a huge monaster, which then divides into two forming a
short mitotic spindle on to which the chromosomes of the egg
migrate. Since, however, the length of the spindle stands in relation
to the number of chromosomes in the nucleus and as these chromo-
somes are only present in half the number found in the nucleus of
the fertilized egg, the spindle which is formed is only four-fifths of
the length of the first spindle formed in the fertilized egg. The
length of spindle in turn determines the length of the actual rays
from its poles, and if these are too short to reach the periphery of
the egg the spindle is unable to bring about the division of the egg
into two cells. This is the case with the spindle formed in the
parthenogenetic egg, and although abortive and transitory furrows
on the egg's surface are formed no division into cells results; the
nucleus, it is true, divides and a multiplication of nuclei fojlows in
which the numerous short spindles formed interfere with one
another and make orderly development impossible and so after a
short time the egg dies.
If , however, the needle be " infected " by being dipped into frog's
blood before being used to prick the egg, then the foreign substance
thus introduced produces additional asters in the cytoplasm just
as did the hypertonic water in the sea-urchin's egg. These asters
have a tendency, as their rays develop, to repel one another, and
they push the mitotic spindle developed around the egg nucleus
over to the one side. // this side happens to be the side of the egg at
which the cytoplasm is concentrated, then the spindle is able to start
the formation of a furrow which cuts right through the egg and
divides it into two cells, and so parthenogenetic development is begun.
We see then that the difficulty of initiating parthenogenesis de-
pends on two factors, viz. (i) the quiescent condition of the egg
and (2) the small amount of chromatin present in the nucleus. If
we choose the unripe eggs of the sea-urchin as the subjects of our
experiment then it is sometimes possible to induce them to develop
by the use of one reagent alone, such as hypertonic sea-water; since
in these eggs the " reducing " division of the nucleus has not occurred
(see CYTOLOGY) and the chromatin is consequently present in un-
diminished quantity.
Parthenogenetic development is closely related to the problem
of heterogeneous fertilization. It has been shown that under
certain circumstances it is possible to fertilize the eggs of the sea-
urchin with the sperm of creatures so diverse in zoological affinity
as the annelid worm (Chaetopterus) and the sea-mussel (Mytilus).
In the first case the male and female pronuclei fuse but the male
chromatin falls out of the zygote nucleus before the first division
takes place. In the second case the male pronucleus refuses to
enter into union with the female pronucleus at all, but the sperm-
aster brings about the division of the egg. When the eggs of
the sea-urchin (Echinus) are fertilized with the sperm of the
1 M. Herlant, " Ld Mecanisme de la Parthenogenese Experi-
mentale." Bull. Scientifique de la France el de la Belgique. 7th
Series, vol. 1., 1917.
2 Brachet, " L'CEuf et les facteurs de 1'Ontogenese." Encyclo-
pedie Scientifique, Paris, 1916.
heart-urchin (Echinocardium) , in the vast majority of cases
cytolysis results exactly as it does after the exposure of the
echinus eggs to the action of butyric acid, but in some few cases
the egg develops and produces a hybrid. We conclude that in
most cases the sperm of Echinocardium is so alien to the cytoplasm
of the egg of Echinus that it is not even able to bring about the
formation of a spermaster.
Under certain circumstances (slight staleness of the egg, excess
of sperm, etc.) more than one spermatozoon may enter the egg.
In large eggs such as those of cephalopoda, reptiles and birds this
seems to be a normal occurrence ; only one of these nuclei unites with
the female pronucleus and forms the zygote nucleus from which
begins the cell-division which initiates development ; but the other
spermatozoa also form centres for cell-division which gives rise to
the so-called free cells which are characteristic of these eggs. These
free cells are gradually crushed out and destroyed by the developing
cells produced by the activity of the zygote nucleus.
Brachet, however, has shown 3 that when the frog's egg is entered
by spermatozoa in moderate numbers, whereas only one fuses with
the female pronucleus, the others form centres for the formation of
cells which are built up into the body of the embryo. As these
sperm-heads, however, contain only half the quantity of chromatin
contained in the zygote nucleus, the cells to which they give rise
are markedly smaller than those which contain nuclei descended
from the zygote nucleus, and so it is possible to distinguish in the
growing tadpole the regions which contain cells which have nuclei
derived from the zygote nucleus from those which contain cells having
nuclei derived from the supernumerary spermatozoa.
Brachet's observations prove in the clearest manner that the
differentiation of organs in the frog's egg is due to the differentiation
of regions in the cytoplasm and not to the differentiation of the
nuclei produced by the division of the zygote nucleus as Weismann*
had supposed, for some of these nuclei can be replaced by sperm-
nuclei each of which carries in it the potentiality of producing the
whole organism not a mere region of it and yet no dislocation of
development results.
The entry of two or more spermatozoa into small eggs such as
those of the sea-urchin usually produces abnormal development
followed by early death. The reason is that the centrosomes which
are carried into the egg by these spermatozoa are so near each other
that instead of leading to the formation of separate spindles they
give rise to three- (triaster) or four-poled (tetraster) spindles along
which the chromosomes are arranged in an irregular manner. This
causes the formation of abnormal nuclei incapable of properly
fulfilling their functions and the embryo dies.
Development of the Egg. If we now turn to consider the normal
development of the egg we find that this can be divided into three
stages which in primitive forms are sharply delimited, but which
in more modified forms tend to overlap one another. These
stages are (i) segmentation, or the division of the egg into a
number of indifferent cells or blastomeres; (2) the formation of
the so-called germ layers, i.e. the differentiation of the blasto-
meres into the primitive organs viz: (a) the ectoderm (or
epiblast) which is the primitive skin, (b) the endoderm (or
hypoblast) which is the primitive lining of the gut, and (c) the
mesoderm (or mesoblast) which is the primitive peritoneum or
lining of the body-cavity; (3) organogeny, i.e. the formation of
the separate organs of the body, such as brain, liver, kidneys, etc.,
from the germ-layers.
Segmentation of the Egg. -Considering first the process of seg-
mentation, we find, as Balfour 6 pointed out long ago, that the effect
of the accumulation of yolk in the egg is to impede cell-division. It
acts exactly as if it were a dilutant of the cytoplasm in lowering sur-
face tension. Cell-division is accompanied by a great increase in
surface tension as is obvious from the way each daughter cell
rounds itself off from its sister. This is particularly evident in the
segmentation of alecithal eggs, for in them, in the early stages of
segmentation, all the blastomeres divide simultaneously, and just
after each period of division these take on the appearance of a
pile of balls only touching each other in points; whereas during the
interval between two such periods the surface tension diminishes and
the blastomeres become flattened out against each other.
In all alecithal and telolecithal eggs there is a pole (see above)
from which the polar bodies are given off which is termed the animal
pole of the egg. This pole is the region of the egg which contains
least yolk; here cell-division is most rapid and the smallest blasto-
meres are produced, whereas as we pass towards the vegetative
pole of the egg, where the yolk is concentrated, the blastomeres be-
come fewer and larger.
3 Brachet, loc. cit.
4 A. Weismann, The Germ-Plasm. A Theory of Heredity (1893).
6 F. M. Balfour, Treatise on Comparative Embryology, vol i., p. 95.
EMBRYOLOGY
969
When the yolk is very much increased in amount, the nuclei
produced by the division of the zygote nucleus are unable to bring
about a surface tension sufficient to divide the cytoplasm, and so we
get a multiplication of nuclei without the formation of blastomeres.
When this happens segmentation is confined to the animal pole of
the egg and results in the formation of a thin disc of blastomeres
termed the " blastoderm," resting on an unsegmented " yolk."
Such eggs (for instance the hen's egg) are termed " meroblastic "
(gr. yuepos, a part) in contradistinction to eggs, like those of the
frog, which are completely divided and are termed " holoblastic."
In centrolecithal eggs, like those of the crayfish, the egg appears
to be completely divided into cells, but although division may at first
be complete, the lowered surface tension of the inner yolky ends of
the blastomeres is unable to keep them apart and they flow together
so as to form a common inner yolky mass. Such eggs are said to
exhibit superficial segmentation. Later, the outer protoplasmic ends
of these incomplete blastomeres become completely cut off, so as to
form a skin of cells of blastoderm surrounding a central " yolk."
A still further modification of this type is found in the eggs of insects
in which the yolk is so abundant as to prevent all segmentation. The
zygote nucleus alone divides and gives rise to daughter nuclei each
surrounded by an island of protoplasm; these are at first dispersed
throughout the " yolk " but they gradually migrate to the surface
and here form a blastoderm.
In primitive alecithal eggs segmentation results in the formation
of a hollow ball of cells one layer thick. This ball is termed the
" blastula " and its cavity the " blastocoele," " segmentation-cav-
ity " or " primary body-cavity." The formation of the blastula
marks the accomplishment of an important step in development.
Although typically formed only in alecithal eggs, it appears in a
modified form in telolecithal eggs, even in those in which there is
so much yolk that they have meroblastic segmentation. Thus in
the case of the frog the blastula is a hollow ball of which the roof is
two <?ells thick and the floor is many cells thick, whilst in the case of
the pigeon the blastula is represented by a stage in which the
blastoderm is one layer thick and forms the roof and is separated by
a slit-like cavity from the immense mass of the unsegmented yolk
forming the floor in the uppermost layer of which are a few nuclei.
These nuclei are representatives of the cells which should constitute
the vegetative pole of the blastula but they are utterly unable
to cut the yolk up into cells.
Formation of Germ Layers. As soon as the blastula stage has
been attained, the " formation of layers " begins. The cells at the
vegetative pole become turned inwards, forming a tube-like structure
which projects into the blastocoele and partially obliterates it.
This tube is the primitive gut or " archenteron " and the cells form-
ing it are termed " endoderm," whereas the cells forming the outer
wall of the blastula give rise to the primitive skin and are termed
" ectoderm." Driesch 1 has shown that until the archenteron begins
to be formed all the cells of the blastula of Echinus are alike in
their potencies; any sufficiently large piece of it, if cut off, will
round itself off and form a blastula and ultimately a perfect larva of
diminished size; after a region has been delimited as the centre of
the formation of the endoderm the rest of the blastula wall, if cut
off, can no longer form an archenteron and so it follows that when the
endoderm is differentiated at one place, the rest of the blastular wall
becomes changed into definitive ectoderm.
When the archenteron has been formed the developing egg has
assumed the shape of a double-walled cup, the opening into which
is termed the " blastopore." This stage is clearly and sharply marked
in the development of almost all eggs in which the yolk is small in
amount, and it can be recognized in an obscured and altered form in
the development of large yolky eggs. It is of equal importance to
the blastula stage, and it is termed the " gastrula."
The primary body-cavity has now become reduced to the slit
intervening between the wall of the archenteron and the outer wall
of the gastrula and this slit becomes largely filled up by the de-
velopment of the third germ layer, the " mesoderm." We have
defined this layer as the primitive peritoneum or lining of the body-
cavity, but the body-ca'vity now indicated is termed the " coelom "
or " secondary body-cavity " in order to distinguish it from the
primary body-cavity. In the eggs of primitive animals, where the
yolk is small in amount, the coelom is always formed as a series of
pouch-like outgrowths of the archenteron which become cut off from
this tube. It follows that the mesoderm is differentiated from the
primary endoderm. Driesch 2 has shown that if the front half of the
gastrula of the starfish which includes the apex of the archenteron
be cut off, the hinder half will heal up and will form a perfect larva,
forming, of course, the coelom in the normal way. If, however, this
operation be performed after a swelling of the tip of the archenteron
the first rudiment of the coelom has appeared, then, although the
hinder half will heal up and form a larva, it never forms a coelom.
Driesch concludes from this experiment that at first all parts of the
archenteric wall have the power of giving rise to a coelom, that
is of forming mesoderm, but that later a definite portion of this
wall becomes set aside as the rudiment of the coelom and that then
1 H. Driesch, " Zur Analysis der Potenzen embryonaler Organ-
zellen," Archiv fur Entwicklungsmechanik, vol. ii., 1896.
2 loc. cit., p. 20.
the rest of it becomes the definitive endoderm devoid of this coelom-
forming power. In Echinodermata the coelom arises as a single
pouch from the apex of the archenteron ; in primitive Vertebrata it
originates as five pouches of which one is apical and four are paired
and lateral ; in Chaetognatha and Brachiopoda as a lateral pair of
pouches. The remnant of the primary body-cavity becomes almost
filled up with cells budded from the wall of the coelom which are
termed " mesenchyme." These cells may become joined to one another
by their processes and thus constitute a network which becomes
converted into connective tissue by the secretion of fibres; or they
may remain separate from one another, and then they become
developed into blood and lymph cells, the remnants of the primary
body-cavity constituting the blood-spaces. In the Coelenterata, in
which no coelom is formed, similar cells are budded from both ecto-
derm and endoderm; in Annelida and Mollusca, in addition to the
mesenchyme given off from the coelomic wall, some is likewise
budded from the ectoderm, and to this the name " mesectoderm "
has been given. In Vertebrata the most recent research indicates
that no mesenchyme is given off from the ectoderm.
Organogeny. Turning now ,to the third stage of development,
viz. the formation of special organs, we find that from the ectoderm
are derived the central nervous system and the sense organs, and
also the lining of the mouth-cavity and of the terminal portion of
the alimentary canal near the anus. The endoderm gives rise to the
middle portion of the gut and to the glands which are developed from
it, and in Vertebrata to the primitive elastic axis of the back-bone
or " notochord." From the mesoderm arise the majority of the
muscles, the connective tissue, and, in Vertebrata and Echinoder-
mata, the internal calcareous skeleton which is derived from the con-
nective tissue. The mesoderm also gives rise to the genital organs
and their ducts in all Metazoa above the rank of Coelenterata and in
Mollusca and Vertebrata to the kidney tubules.
Now we have pointed out that, in telolecithal eggs, segmentation
proceeds most rapidly at the animal pole; here the second stage of
development rapidly supervenes, and the archenteron is begun
before segmentation is even initiated at the vegetative pole. In
meroblastic eggs the upper pole of the egg may become converted
into an embryo in which all the important organs of the adult are
mapped out before the lower pole is even invested with cells. Finally
in Amniota (reptiles, birds, and mammals) the lower pole of the egg,
after all the yolk has been absorbed from it, is torn from the rest of
the embryo at birth and cast off as a useless embryonic membrane.
In the earlier article a strong attempt was made to show that the
primitive germ-layers do not correspond to one another in different
eggs ; in a word, that the same name has been given to different things.
Some of the arguments adduced are the diverse origins of the
mesoderm in various animals, and the alleged origin of the epithe-
lium of the alimentary canal of insects and some other Arthropoda
from the ectoderm. The result of the labours of embryologists
during the last 15 years has been to establish the universal homology
of the germ-layers on an ever firmer basis, and to show that the
difficulties alluded to were based on faulty observations.
If, for instance, we define the mesoderm as the wall of the coelom
then it is found that this organ originates in one of two ways, viz. :
either as a pouch or a mass of cells. The pouch (recognizable in
Chaetognatha, Brachiopoda, Echinodermata, Enteropneusta and
the lowest Vertebrata) quite clearly originates as an outgrowth
from the endoderm ; the mass of cells can be traced back to its
source in one large cell, the mother mesoderm-cell. This cell, as
was first shown by Shearer 3 in the annelid Hydroides and by Con-
klin 4 in the mollusc Crepidula, originally forms part of the wall of the
archenteron and its ejection from this wall is evidently a modifica-
tion of the more primitive method of coelom-formation by the
outgrowth of a gut-pouch. Attempts which have been made by
Meissenheimer 5 and Harms 6 to show that in Mollusca the coelom
originates from cells budded from the ectoderm are based on ob-
vious blunders in missing out stages in reconstructing the life-his-
tory that most fertile source of error in embryology. Later workers
have exposed this error and have shown that in the Mollusca, with
which Meissenheimer and Harms dealt, the mother mesoderm cell
gives rise to the pericardium which is representative of the coelom
in these animals. We have already alluded to the presence of
mesectoderm in Annelida and Mollusca; this gives rise to some
superficial muscles, but to confound this with the coelomic wall and
its derivatives by calling both mesoderm and then to complain that
the mesoderm is not an homologous structure in various groups of
animals is to introduce a perfectly gratuitous confusion.
We may now turn to the alleged origin of the gut epithelium of
certain Arthropoda from the ectoderm. In the earlier article the state-
ment was made that in the embryo of that most primitive of all land
Arthropoda Peripatus there is a large slit-like blastopore which later
8 C. Shearer, " On the development and structure of the Tro-
chophore of Hydroides," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,\o\. xiii. (N.S.), 1911.
4 Conklin, " The Embryology of Crepidula," Journal of Mor-
phology, vol. xiii., 1897.
6 Meissenheimer, " Entwicklungsgeschichte yon Dreissensia poly-
morpha," Zeitschrift f. wissenschaftliche Zoologie, vol. Ixix., 1901.
6 Harms, " Postembryonale Entwicklungsgeschichte der Unioni-
der," Zoo/. Jahrbucher (Abt. fur Ontogenie), vol. xxviii., 1909.
970
EMBRYOLOGY
becomes divided by a constriction into mouth and anus, and that a
portion of the gut epithelium, viz. that forming the midventral
portion, is formed from ectoderm turned in round the edges of the
slit. It is practically certain that this last statement also rests on an
error of observation. In the primitive annelid Polygordius, VVoltereck '
has described a similar slit-like blastopore and he has followed the
process of its closure in great detail describing the division of every
cell involved. In this case the midventral epithelium of the gut is
formed by the union of endoderm cells lying at the sides of the blasto-
pore whilst the ectoderm cells lying in the blastopore lips by their
union reconstitute the midventral skin. No reasonable doubt can be
entertained that a renewed investigation with a more modern tech-
nique would show that this is also true of Peripatus.
It must never be forgotten that embryological research is based
on a comparison of embryos of different ages with one another not,
as would be the ideal method, on a continuous observation of the
progress of one and the same embryo. It follows that too large an
age-difference between the embryos examined may give rise to
a totally wrong conception of the process which is taking place.
So are to be explained the statements which crop up from time to
time, such as those of Heymons 2 that the mid-gut of the higher in-
sects is entirely formed from ectoderm, and of Watase 3 who made a
similar assertion about the mid-gut of the cephalopod Loligo. Hirsch-
ler 4 has shown how the error of Heymons originated, and Watase
has been corrected by Faussek 6 ; and should further statements of
this kind occur in the literature the strong presumption is that they
also are founded on mistakes.
Organ-forming Substances. We have arrived at the conclusion
that the establishment of the validity of the germ-layer theory is
one of the great achievements of embryological research, and we
now turn to the question of how the differences which distinguish
the layers from one another are brought about. We have learnt
that in primitive alecithal eggs like those of Echinodermata all
portions of the blastula wall are alike in their potencies and that
the differentiation of ectoderm from endoderm only begins when
the first traces of gut-formation are visible. We have likewise
learnt that all parts of the primitive gut or archenteron are alike
in their powers, and that the separation of endoderm from
mesoderm only becomes apparent when the first indication
of the coelom appears. But this progressive differentiation of
the embryo might be due to a differentiation of the nuclei of
various regions or of the cytoplasm or of both. We have, however,
learnt from the development of the polyspermic frog's egg that
there is a strong presumption that the nuclei of the embryo are
alike in their nature and that the differentiation of the layers
must be due to the separation of organ-forming cytoplasmic
substances from one another. This conclusion is confirmed by a
large number of observations on many different kinds of eggs;
a few of the more striking may be given here.
Hertwig allowed frogs' eggs to develop under pressure between
glass plates and in capillary tubes. Under these circumstances the
divisions took place by planes normal to the pressure and flat plates
and rows of cells were produced. When the pressure was removed,
however, these deformed embryos recovered, multiplication of cells
took place and the normal form was regained and normal develop-
ment proceeded. It was easy to show that nuclei which under
undisturbed conditions would have occupied certain definite regions
of the embryo had been forced into quite other regions, and yet per-
fectly normal embryos resulted. Hertwig concludes that the nuclei
could be juggled about like a handful of balls without affecting the
formation of the embryo.
In many eggs the differentiation of the layers is indicated at a
far earlier period than that at which it occurs in the eggs of the
Echinodermata or even of the lower Vertebrata like the frog. The
egg of the ascidian Cynthia partita which has been studied in great
detail by Conklin 7 may be adduced as an example. This egg when
it develops becomes converted into an elongated blastula consisting
1 Woltereck, " Beitrag zur praktischen Analyse der Polygordius-
entwicklung," Archiv f. Entwicklungsmechanik, vol. xviii., 1903.
2 Heymons, " Uber die Bildung der Keimblatter bei den In-
secten," Sitzungsb. der Preussischen Akad. der Wiss., vol. i., 1894.
* Watase, " Observations on the Development of Cephalopods,"
Studies from the Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore., vol. vi.,
1888.
* Hirschler, " Die Embryonalentwicklung y. Donacia crassipes,"
Zeitschrift fur ivissenschafUiche Zool., vol. xcii., 1909.
' Faussek, " Untersuchungen uber die Entwicklung der Cepha-
lopoden," Mitteilungen a. d. Zool. Station zu Neapel, vol. xiv., 1920.
6 Hertwig, " Ueber den Werth der ersten Furchungszellen fur die
Organbildung des Embryos," Archiv f. mikroscopische Anatomic,
voK xlii., 1893.
7 Conklin, The Orientation and Cell-lineage of the Ascidian
Egg," Journ. Acad. Sciences, Philadelphia. Series 2., vol. xiii., 1905.
of few cells; this blastula changes into a gastrula in the typical
way, and though no distinct coelomic pouches are formed large
portions of the archenteric wall are directly converted into muscles
which lie at the sides of the tail of the tadpole-like larva. In this
species the nucleus of the unripe egg is as usual a vesicle filled with
fluid (the so-called germinal vesicle). The cytoplasm contains
numerous yolk globules of a slaty-blue colour and also larger yellow-
ish globules which are concentrated in its superficial layer. When the
maturation divisions of the nucleus occur the nuclear wall is dis-
solved and the fluid contents escape and form a cap of clear material
at the animal pole of the egg. When fertilization takes place pro-
found rearrangements of the substances in the cytoplasm are effected.
The yellow globules stream downwards to meet the spermatozoon
which enters at the vegetative pole, and they finally form a cres-
centic layer of yellow material round the lower pole of the egg. As
the egg develops first into a blastula and then into a gastrula, and
finally into the characteristic ascidian tadpole, it becomes evident
that the clear substance forms the ectoderm, the slaty-blue material
the endoderm, whilst the yellow material forms the masses of meso-
derm which give rise to the tail muscles. When the egg is in the four-
cell stage the yellow material is confined to the two posterior cells;
if one of these be killed the remainder of the egg will give rise to a
larva with muscles only on one side of the tail. That the nuclei
have nothing to do with this separation of substances is shown by
what occurs at the lip of the blastopore. Here we find an arc of
what Conklin calls " neurochordal " cells. Each of these has of
course a single nucleus, but the cytoplasm of each consists of two
zones, one clear and one slaty-blue. At the next division two daughter
cells are produced from each neurochordal cell ; one of these contains
the clear substance and is added to the nerve plate which is a part
of the ectoderm; the other is composed of the blue substance and
forms part of the notochord which in Cynthia as in other Vertebrata
is a derivative of the endoderm.
From this development we conclude that the germinal layers owe
their origin to the segregation of cytoplasmic substances in the growing
e &&! that these substances assume their final arrangement under the
influence of the spermatozoon, which thus on its path to meet the
female pronucleus determines the symmetry of the embryo. Brachet 8
has shown that this is also true of the frog's egg. It was for long a
puzzle why competent observers like Roux 9 and Hertwig 10 should
differ so profoundly on the results of killing one of the first two blasto-
meres of the frcg's egg. Roux asserted that the surviving blasto-
mere gave rise to a half blastula which developed into a half tadpole,
whilst Hertwig maintained that it tended to form a normal tadpole,
being only impeded in its development by the mass of dead material
constituted by the other blastpmere. Brachet has shown that both
are right, for the plane separating the first two blastomeres need not
by any means coincide with the future median plane of the embryo,
but may make any angle up to a right angle with it. If it coincides
with this plane by killing one blastomere Roux's result is obtained;
if it is oblique the result accords with Hertwig's researches.
Thus the potency of each of the first two blastomeres of the frog's
egg depends entirely on the cytoplasm it happens to include and in
no way on the nucleus. Brachet " has shown that the fixing of the
median plane of symmetry in the frog's tadpole, as in the ascidian
tadpole, is effected by the spermatozoon. As the spermatozoon
penetrates the egg in its path towards the female pronucleus, it
leaves behind a trail of pigment which persists for a considerable
time and can be detected at a much later period in the development
of the egg. It is found that on the opposite surface of the egg to that
at which the spermatozoon enters it, there is formed the so-called
" grey crescent." This is in reality the upper lip of the blastopore;
it is here that the differentiation of ectoderm from endoderm begins.
Therefore we conclude that the arrangement of the organ-forming
substances in the frog's egg is caused by the spermatozoon.
In the mollusc Dentalium when the egg has reached the four-cell
stage one of the blastomeres emits a protuberance termed the
" yolk-lobe " or " polar lobe." This lobe is devoid of a nucleus and
before the attainment of the eight-cell stage is reabsorbed into the
blastomere. Nevertheless, if this lobe be cut off, the remainder of
the egg develops into a larva which is fatally devoid of mesoderm.
That the materials which form the basis of the different substances
embodied in the germinal layers are formed in the growing egg under
the influence of emissions from the nucleus is rendered certain first
by the close relationship of the nucleus to assimilation and secondly
by the fact (see CYTOLOGY) that the nucleolus of the unripe egg
breaks up into fragments and is extruded into the cytoplasm. It is,
however, a surprising fact that the nuclei of the segmenting egg are
alike and apparently without influence on the differentiation of the
primary organs. In fertilization a second nucleus of alien origin is
introduced and portions of this nucleus, as we have already seen, are
8 Brachet, loc. cit.
* Roux, " Uber das entwicklungsmechanische Vermogen jeder
der beiden ersten Furchungszellen des Eies," Verhandlungen der
anatomischen Gesellschaft, 1892.
10 Hertwig, " Uber den Werth der ersten Furchungszellen fur
Organbildung des Embryos," Archiv fur mikroscopische Anatomic,
vol. xlii., 1893.
11 Brachet, loc. cit.
EMBRYOLOGY
971
incorporated in all these " segmentation " nuclei. Now it is common
knowledge that the influence of the father is as potent as that of the
mother in heredity and therefore there must arrive a period of
development at which the nuclei again influence the cytoplasm.
An attempt to determine this period was made by the writer 1
by fertilizing the eggs of Echinocardium with the sperm of Echinus.
As we have seen, the result of this cross is in most cases to produce
cytolysis of the egg. but in a minority of cases a hybrid develops.
The egg of Echinocardium is oval whereas that of Echinus is
spherical and the shape of the blastula of each species follows that
of the egg. The blastula of the hybrid is oval, like the maternal
blastula, and the gastrula is also like that of Echinocardium. But
the typical larva (the four-armed echinopluteus) resembles in several
points the larva of Echinus; in the vast majority of cases it is totally
devoid of a large aboral club supported by a special skeleton which
is characteristic of the larva of Echinocardium. It is clear therefore
that at this stage the paternal nucleus is influencing the structure
of the organism. When the eggs of Echinus are fertilized with sperm
of a still more divergent character, such as that of the crinoid Antedon,
a hybrid occasionally develops as far as the gastrula stage, but it
always resembles the larva developed from the normally fertilized
egg in every detail and shows no trace of paternal influence.
Nuclei and Cytoplasm. We are thus led to the conception of an
intermittent action of the nuclei on the cytoplasm, and in this it
seems as if we had reached the deepest point to which analysis of
development will lead us. Perhaps it would be more accurate to
speak of an intermittent reaction between cytoplasm and nucleus,
for in some embryos there is evidence that the nuclei undergo al-
teration as development proceeds. It is on cases like these that
Weismann's 2 theory of development was founded. According to
this theory, as growth proceeds, differential division of the nuclei
takes place, some becoming specialized as ectodermal nuclei, others
as endodermal nuclei and so on, whilst some retain the constitution
of the original zygote nucleus; these last give rise by division to
others like themselves which eventually engender the nuclei of the
germ cells. The lineage or line of descent leading from these germ-
cell nuclei back to their ancestors amongst the nuclei of the first
blastomeres is termed the " germ-track." Now in the Nematode
worm Ascaris megalocephala the zygote nucleus contains only four
chromosomes, but as the egg divides into blastomeres, the nucleus
of one blastomere after another undergoes the change termed
diminution of the chromalin. This change involves the nipping-off
of the ends of the chromosomes, and these portions are ejected into
the cytoplasm and are absorbed ; the remainder of each chromosome
becomes fragmented into a large number of minute granules.
These granules act as chromosomes in the next nuclear division.
The nucleus of one blastomere remains exempt from this change
and this blastomere eventually gives rise to the genital organs.
Boveri 3 has shown that the fact that one nucleus undergoes
diminution of the chromatin whilst another does not is not the
consequence of a differential division of the mother nucleus of them
both, but is due to the fact that one nucleus takes up its position in a
region occupied by a particular cytoplasmic substance. This he
proves in two ways, viz. (i) by considering the case of eggs fertilized
by two spermatozoa, and (2) by the results obtained by subjecting
eggs about to segment to the action of strong centrifugal force.
In doubly fertilized eggs the extra spermatozoon forms an in-
dependent nucleus whilst the other fuses with the female pronucleus
to form the zygote nucleus. The first division of the egg results in
the formation of four nuclei and four blastomeres. In the develop-
ment of the normally fertilized egg one of the two first nuclei under-
goes diminution, and the cell containing it gives rise to a large part
of the dorsal ectoderm; the other nucleus remains undiminished
and amongst the progeny of the cell containing it are found the
genital cells. Now amongst the four cells produced by the division
of the doubly fertilized egg, three may contain nuclei which undergo
diminution, and one may remain undiminished in such cases the
egg develops into a single embryo with an unusually abundant
ectoderm. In other cases only two of the nuclei undergo diminution
such eggs form twin embryos of normal aspect ; whereas in still
other cases one nucleus alone may undergo diminution and in these
cases a monstrous triple embryo is formed. These differences are
accounted for on the assumption that one region of the egg contains a
substance which induces diminution and one, two or three nuclei
of the doubly fertilized egg may be in it.
When eggs about to segment are exposed to the action of long-
continued and intense centrifugal force the plane separating the
first two blastomeres will in some cases be found to lie along a radius
of the circle of rotation, and in these cases a small mass of material
will be found to be ejected from the egg which then becomes divided
1 E. W. MacBride, " Studies on the Development of Echinoidea,"
(II) " The early larva of Echinocardium cordatum and the result of
crossing this species with Echinus esenlentus," Qitarterly Journ. Micr.
Science, vol. Iviii., 1912.
2 A. Weismann, The Germ-Plasm. A Theory of Heredity (1893).
8 Th. Boveri, " Die Potenzen der Ascaris-Blastomeren bei
abgeanderter Furchung," Festschrift zum 60 ten Geburtstag Richard
Hertwigs, vol. iii., No. 8, 1910.
into two appreciably equal and similar blastomeres, the nucleus of
neither of which undergoes reduction. This suppression of reduction
must be attributed to the even distribution of the cytoplasmic
materials under the stress of the centrifugal force, so that no region
of the egg contains more of the peculiar substance than any other.
Diminution of the chromatin apparently results from the action of
an excess of this substance on any nucleus contained in it.
Regeneration. In the phenomena of regeneration and of bud-
ding we meet with evidence of the renewed influence of the nuclei
in causing the formation of cytoplasmic substances.
We have already learnt that when one of the first two blastomeres
into which a frog's egg divides is killed the survivor frequently
develops into a half gastrula which may even grow into a half tad-
pole. Roux, 4 however, has shown that if this half tadpole survives it
becomes a whole tadpole by what he calls the " post-generation "
of the missing half. This is effected by the multiplication of the
cells lying at the- edges of the half embryo. The nuclei increase in
number and confer on the cytoplasm in their neighbourhood new
powers. In this case it might be objected that each kind of tissue in
the old half gives origin only to the same kind of tissue in the new
half. But Morgan 6 has shown that if the head (including the
pharynx) of the annelid Nereis be cut off, a new head with pharynx
will be regenerated from the stump ; whereas, however, the original
pharynx was formed by an intucking of ectoderm, the new pharynx
is formed by an outgrowth from the endodermal tube in the stump.
The new powers thus conferred on the cytoplasm of the endodermal
gut can only be explained as the result of the calling-forth of new
potentialities in the nuclei lying in the cut edge. More remarkable
evidence still has cropped up in connexion with the regeneration of
the lens of the eye of the newt. In the embryo the lens is formed as a
thickening of the ectoderm on the side of the head. But if the original
lens be torn out, a new lens is developed either from the edge of the
iris or of the retina tissues that have no connexion with the skin of
the head. Some try to meet this difficulty by the phrase that in
these cases the organism acts as a whole, independently of the germ-
layers into which we analyse it. But what meaning can be attached
to this phrase, except that the organism under different circumstances
uses different means in order to effect a restoration of its integrity,
it would be difficult to say. In fact we approach very closely to the
celebrated " entelechy " 6 of Driesch; that is an indwelling " some-
thing " in an organism which strives to realize a purpose.
Vitalism, and the Theory of an Entelechy. It may be argued that
such an idea is unscientific, because it introduces " vital force "
and similar mystical ideas amongst our biological conceptions. It
may be answered that in the last resort all explanation is comparison,
and that those who reject vitalism seek to compare all the activities
of living beings to phenomena which go on outside the body in test-
tubes. But this is equivalent to referring all the phenomena of
life to structure, in other words the juxtaposition of definite chem-
ical substances in a definite spatial arrangement; in regeneration,
however, we encounter phenomena where structure appears to be
irrelevant. If we are to do justice to such phenomena we must have
some working hypothesis similar to that of Driesch. Whether the
assumption of an " entelechy " is better or worse than the statement
that all the nuclei in the body are totipotent and that varying
potentialities are called forth seems to be a matter of taste.
Budding. Regeneration is in many respects akin to budding,
since buds in many cases may be regarded as portions of the
mother organism restored after natural amputations.
In the growth of buds we often meet with a wide divergence
between the materials used to build up certain organs, and those
used to construct similar organs in the embryo. To give an example
the bud of the ascidian Botryllus begins its existence as a little
two-layered vesicle very similar to the gastrula of the same species.
But in the embryo the central nervous system is developed from
the outer layer as it is in all other Vertebrata. In the bud, on the
contrary, it is formed as an outgrowth from the inner layer. Hjort, 7
who described this phenomenon, suggested as the explanation for it
the fact that the outer layer of the bud is an outgrowth of the adult
maternal ectoderm, which is specialized for the secretion of the
cellulose " mantle " and not sufficiently plastic to be turned into
nervous tissue. This is only another way of saying that the forma-
tive nuclei act differently in different cases and distribute the organ-
forming cytoplasmic substances in a different manner in the bud
from their arrangement in the egg.
One or Two Embryos. The primary organs, i.e. the germ-
layers, are the material out of which the higher organs are built
up, and one of the most remarkable of recent discoveries in
embryology is the fact that the question of whether this material
4 Roux, loc. cit.
6 Morgan, Regeneration (1901).
6 H. Driesch, Zwei Vortrdge zur Naturphilosophie (1910) ; see
also Gifford lectures for 1907 and 1908.
7 Hiort, " Germ-layer Studies based on the Development of
Ascidians," Zoo/. Results Norwegian N. Atlantic Exped. (1896).
972
EMBRYOLOGY
shall be used to build up one embryo or two depends on the
special relations which these primary cytoplasmic substances
sustain to one another.
If the eggs of a frog be placed dry on the surface of a slide with their
animal poles uppermost and fertilized in that position by the
addition of small quantities of the fluid extracted from the seminal
vesicles of a male ; if then another slide be placed on top of them and
the two slides clamped together by rubber bands; if when the eggs
have divided into two blastomeres the whole preparation be in-
verted and left in water in a shallow dish for five or six days tadpoles
with two heads or two tails will be developed. The materials in the
unsegmented egg are of different specific gravities; the first furrow
often (see above) divides them into two symmetrical halves; when
the two-cell stage is inverted they tend to rearrange themselves in
each cell in the same manner as they would have in the whole egg
had it been inverted. Nothing has been added or taken away, yet
the altered position of the materials in each cell has led to the forma-
tion of two organs where normally only one would have been formed.
In the case of the newt's egg a similar procedure leads to the forma-
tion of two complete embryos, whilst if the blastula of the newt
be constricted longitudinally by a hair a two-headed monster is
formed. When a lizard's tail is broken off, if the little regenerating
bud which forms at the wounded surface be indented the animal
will regenerate two tails instead of one.
Internal Environment. When the higher organs begin to
develop we can in many cases prove that the whole course of
their growth is governed by what may be called their internal
environment, i.e. by influences emitted by other organs.
This may be clearly seen in the development of the common
sea-urchin Echinus miliaris. The " echinopluteus " larva of this
species is a transparent bilaterally symmetrical free-swimming
creature. It is provided with a complete alimentary canal consisting
of oesophagus, stomach and rectum, and at the sides of the oesophagus
are situated two flattened coelomic sacs. As development proceeds
each sac becomes divided into anterior and posterior portions, and
the latter move backwards so as to be pressed against the stomach.
Still later from the posterior end of the left anterior sac a little
bud termed the " hydrocoele " grows out. This is the rudiment of the
water vascular system of tubes in the adult. The ectoderm lying
over this bud becomes depressed so as to form a sac (the " amniotic
cavity ") from the floor of which grow up the spines which will cover
the test of the future sea-urchin.
The hydrocoele bud overlaps the front end of the left posterior
sac, and from this part of the sac there grow out five pockets from
which will be developed the dental apparatus the so-called " Aris-
totle's lantern." From the outer wall of the right posterior coelomic
sac cells are given off from which are developed a pair of " pedi-
cellariae " (pincer-organs) which will be situated on the upper
surface of the future urchin. If we now allow * the young larvae at
the time the coelom is being formed to grow in hypertonic water,
then many of them will develop from the right anterior coelom a
second hydrocoele bud. If this bud develops and it does so if
plentiful nourishment be supplied to the larva then a right amniotic
cavity is formed from the overlying ectoderm, whilst the right poste-
rior coelom gives rise to a second Aristotle's lantern. If the develop-
ment of the second hydrocoele bud be slow then one or even two
pedicellariae may be formed on the right side as in normal larvae,
but if it be rapid the formation of pedicellariae may be inhibited
altogether; If after the bud has appeared the larva is nearly starved
for a time, both this abnormal bud and the normal hydrocoele may
remain small and undeveloped and then pedicellariae may be formed
on the left side as well as on the right.
We conclude from these facts that the hydrocoele bud tends to
inhibit the formation of pedicellariae on its own side of the larva
but to cause their production on the opposite side, and we see further
that the right hydrocoele bud can totally alter the development of
the right side of the larva, forcing the right ectoderm to form an
amniotic cavity and the right posterior coelom a dental apparatus.
Another still more striking case of the influence of the internal
environment is afforded by the results of experiments performed on
the tadpole of the frog. 2 The vertebrate eye consists of two main
parts, viz. : (a) the retina, formed as an outgrowth from the brain ; and
(b) the lens, formed as a thickening of the ectoderm of the side of
the head. If before the lens is formed the skin of the head of a tad-
pole be slit open and the retina cut off from the brain and pushed
back till it occupies a position in the region of the shoulder or even
farther back, and the slit in the skin sewn up, then the tadpole will
recover; the cut-off retina will continue to live and grow in its new
position, and it will force the ectoderm covering it to form a lens
although never in the history of the race has a lens been normally
formed in this position. Numerous other similar instances could be
'E. W. MacBride, "The Artificial Production of Echinoderm
Larvae with Two Water Vascular Systems," Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lon-
don), Series B, vol. xc., 1918.
2 W. H. Lewis, " Studies on the Development of the Eye in Am-
phibia, I. The Lens," American Journ. Anal., vol. iii., 1904.
adduced did our space permit of it suggesting the conclusion
that in many embryos the primary organs are indifferent material
and that the manner in which the secondary organs will develop out
of them is fundamentally a matter of their spatial relations.
External Environment. We now approach the subject of the
possible influence of the external environment on the course of
development. In the earlier article the attention of the reader
was called to the fact that development presents itself under two
principal aspects, viz. the embryonic and the larval. In the
embryonic phase the young organism is sheltered from the
external world, either within an egg-shell or in the mother's
womb, whereas in the larval phase it leads a free life, using its
larval organs to seek its own food and escape its enemies.
It was further pointed out that if we compare two nearly
allied animals such as Salamandra alra and Salamandra maculosa,
in the first of which development is mainly embryonic whereas
in the second it is largely larval, we arrive at the conclusion that
the embryonic phase is secondarily derived from the larval phase,
since the organs such as gills which are functionless in the
embryo are functional in the larva. It was also pointed out that
larval organs frequently resemble the adult organs of other
animals of simpler and more primitive structure.
On these facts was founded the celebrated biogenetic law first
enunciated by Haeckel 3 which affirms that " the embryo in its
development recapitulates the ancestral history of the race."
It is the law which provides a large part of the fascination of
embryological research, but it was vigorously attacked in the
earlier article and an effort was then made to show that it is not
valid, since it was maintained that whilst it is true that larvae
retain ancestral characters, the same is true of adults, and that
larvae in their structure are not more reminiscent of the former
history of the race than are adults.
Now the outcome of recent investigation has in large measure
tended to reinstate the doctrine of recapitulation in its former
position of preeminence, to show in fact that recapitulation forms
the central thread in every life history, although it has been
blurred and deflected by secondary influences, as indeed all
believers in the biogenetic law have from the first admitted.
The first point to which we wish to direct the reader's attention
is that larval and embryonic phases occur in all life histories. Every
animal begins its existence as an egg which is quite incapable of
feeding or of defending itself and this egg is always protected by an
egg-shell although this shell may be very thin, and no animal upon
leaving its early shelter and beginning to seek its own food attains
at once the structure of the sexually ripe adult. Hence every animal
in the course of its development may be said to pass first through an
embryonic and then through a larval phase, although the latter
phase may be very short and the difference in structure between the
larva and the adult inconsiderable. Now, the larval phase being the
later is the most recent addition to the life history and therefore
the least likely to be modified by secondary factors; if therefore the
biogenetic law be valid, it is the larval phase which will possess
most ancestral significance. But in the earlier article attention is
called to the fact that the identification of a larva as the representa-
tive of an ancestor must always be hypothetical because we have
no direct knowledge of what the ancestor of any living animal was
like. It behooves us therefore to look a little more closely at the rea-
sons which actually do induce us to regard a given stage as ancestral.
First, it has been claimed quite recently that direct experimental
proof of the validity of the bicgenetic law has been obtained.
Kammerer 4 placed young specimens of Salamandra maculosa which
had just completed their metamorphosis in cages the floors and
walls of which were coloured differently in different cases. The larva
of this species has a skin of a uniform dark-greyish tint, but the skin
of the adult is gaily coloured with bright yellow patches on a black
background. The salamanders which were confined in cages having
a floor of moist yellow loam and walls coloured yellow became yel-
lower as they grew to maturity a process which occupies between
three and four years. The yellow patches, in a word, increased in
number and size and tended to become joined together in bands.
Those confined in cages with blackened walls and a floor of black
garden earth became darker since the yellow patches dwindled in
size. When the salamanders had attained sexual maturity and were
allowed to pair, it was found that the offspring of two which had
been reared in yellow surroundings, if they continued to live in the
3 Haeckel, Allgemeine Morphologic (1866).
4 P. Kammerer, " Vererbung erzwungener Farbveranderungen.
IV. Das Farbkleid des Feuersalamanders (Salamandra maculosa)
in seiner Abhangigkeit von der Umwelt," Archiv fur Entwicklungs-
mechanik, vol. xxxvi., 1913.
EMBRYOLOGY
973
same environment, became still yellower than their parents until
the black pigment had been almost entirely displaced; whilst the
offspring of two which had become darker, if reared in cages with
black walls and floor, became practically completely black by the
time they reached maturity so that they came to resemble the
mountain species Salamandra atra. If, however, the offspring of two
salamanders reared in yellow surroundings were allowed to grow up
under black surroundings, they nevertheless for the first six months
of their lives became progressively yellower; then and only then did
the influence of the black environment begin to tell the yellow
patches became invaded by numerous small black spots and grew
smaller. In short, the young recapitulated the process of " yellow-
ing " that their parents had undergone.
If these results are confirmed the doctrine of recapitulation will
change its status from that of an hypothesis to that of a proved
fact ; and further proof will be furnished that changes acquired by
the individual in response to the demands of the environment are
to a certain extent at least inherited.
The Recapitulation Theory. Once we have grasped the mutual
relationship of the embryonic and larval phases of development,
indirect proofs of the reality of recapitulation begin to crowd in on
us. If we find, for instance, one or two aberrant forms in an order
or even a family the majority of whose members have a uniform
type of structure, no reasonable doubt can exist that the an-
cestors of these aberrant forms had the typical structure of the
group. If this conclusion be admitted and we find that the young-
er stages of the aberrant species also show the typical structure,
does any one seriously question that these young forms recapitu-
late the history of the race? Two very striking instances of this
kind have come to light within the group Ctenophora.
The typical Ctenophora are ovoid organisms of a glassy trans-
parence which swim in a vertical position in the sea. Their locomotor
organs are eight vertical rows of vibratile combs, each comb consist-
ing of a short horizontal row of powerful cilia fused together at their
bases. A certain creeping organism resembling a flat worm, named
Coeloplana, had been believed by some zoologists to exhibit cteno-
phore affinities but its relationships were very obscure. Quite
recently a Japanese zoologist 1 has described its development. Its
larva is a small typical ctenophore with eight rows of perfectly
formed combs ; these it discards after swimming for a few hours
it sinks to the bottom and flattens put and gradually assumes the
adult structure. Another extraordinary organism, named by its
discoverer Tjalfjellia, 2 was discovered amongst dredgings collected
in the Arctic Ocean. This creature superficially resembled a sponge
or an ascidian. It was gelatinous and sessile and seemed to consist
of a pair of upright tubes like towers whence proceeded smaller
tubes which ramified in its substance. In pockets connected with
these smaller tubes were discovered groups of the larvae. These
were small ovoid creatures of typical ctenophore structure with the
eight vertical rows of combs.
If recapitulation of ancestral history forms an unquestionable
element in the life history of some animals, is it not probable that
it constitutes a factor in all life histories ? To this question it
seems to us only an affirmative answer is conceivable.
Change of Habits. If we then regard the reality of recapitula-
tion as proven we may now reflect on its meaning. We have seen
that the recapitulatory element is most obvious in the latest
larval stage of development, the most recently added page of the
life history. Now the organs of the larva are adapted to its
environment; therefore this environment in its broad outlines
at least must represent the ancestral environment .of the race.
The present condition of the race both as regards structure
and habits has been produced as a consequence of migration from
the original haunts of the race. Change of habits therefore re-
veals itself as the great driving-force in evolution, and change in
habits usually means the choice of a different type of food.
We may conclude that the period of life at which this change
most frequently occurred was when the adult organs had de-
veloped but before sexual maturity had been attained in a word,
at the stage of what we may call the young adult. As one change
of habits succeeds to another in the course of evolution, the life
history is not lengthened in the same proportion, since the new
phase takes the place of the sexual phase in the previous
condition of the race. In some Crustacea, e.g. in the shrimp
Penaeus, at least four larval stages are passed through before the
1 Taku Komai, " Notes on Coeloplana bocki and its development,"
Annotationes Zoologicale Japonenses, vol. ix., 1920.
1 Mortensen, " Ctenophora," Danish Ingolf Expedition, vol. v.,
No. 2, 1912.
adult stage is attained, but in the majority of life histories when
a new phase is added there is a tendency for some of the older
phases to be pushed back into the embryonic period, so that as an
animal passes from stage to stage in evolution it leaves behind a
trail of stages at first larval and then becoming embryonic.
Secondary Modifying Factors. We may now glance at the
principal factors which modify and tend to obscure the re-
capitulatory factor. It is only possible to define these factors
by a truly comparative embryology based on a wide survey.
One of these factors is " tachygenesis " or precocious development ;
that is to say, we find that organs originally developed as a response
to the stimulus of a new environment come in course qf time to be
developed before the habits to which they correspond can be ex-
ercised in fact acquired habits tend to become innate. Thus the young
hermit crab when adult thrusts its abdomen into the cavity of a
spirally coiled gastropod shell, and in this way imposes a twisted
form on this part of its body. But if all such shells be removed from
the hermit crab's neighbourhood at the time of its metamorphosis,
it will still develop a curved abdomen although the extent of the
curvature will be less than that which occurs normally. When the
tadpole of the frog acquires limbs, these do not develop in the form
of fins from which they have been undoubtedly evolved,, but grow
directly into the ordinary type of five-toed limbs, although weeks
must elapse after their form is fully defined before they can function
as the limbs of land animals. The tendency to hurry on development
may be compared to the increasing facility with which a difficult
operation is performed after long practice, but this tendency obvious-
ly tends to obscure the distinctive features of early development.
A second powerful modifying factor is the change from the larval
to the embryonic phase, so far as the development of a particular
organ is concerned. This change of phase is sometimes caused by
an unfavourable alteration in the environment of the larva. It was
actually effected artificially in the development of Salamandra
maculosa by Kammerer. 3 This species is viviparous and normally
gives birth to between 30 and 40 young which are provided with gill-
slits and long gills and which live in the Water for six weeks before
they metamorphose into land animals. If the parents are exposed
to successively colder and drier conditions, the number of young
produced at a birth diminishes with each breeding-period, and these
young are born at a progressively more advanced stage of develop-
ment. If these young are reared to maturity under similar conditions
of coolness and dryness, they will in turn give birth to young which
will be still fewer in number than those produced by their parents
and which are born at a still more advanced stage of development.
The process goes on till only three or four are born at one time and
these are provided with the merest stumps of gills ; such young never
enter the water at all but at once take up the adult mode of life.
This is the normal mode of development of Salamandra atra.
The change of phase from the larval to the embryonic type entails
many other changes. The embryo must be fed and it obtains its
food from one of three sources, (a) devouring its sisters ; (b) secretions
from the mother's womb ; (c) inclusions of yolk in its own cytoplasm.
When the embryo devours its own sisters, this, as in the case of
Salamandra atra, may entail little change of structure because the
habit is one recently acquired ; but where, as in the case of the play-
helminth worms, the habit is of old standing then the embryo may
be distorted out of all recognition. In these worms one viable egg is
shut up in a capsule along with thousands of small sterile ones ; and
it is difficult to find in the embryo any vestige of resemblance to the
larva of these Playhelminthes which lay their eggs singly.
When the embryo derives its nourishment from the mother's
womb then it frequently develops organs of adhesion to the wall of
this. To this category belongs the placenta which profoundly dis-
torts the ventral surface of the human embryo, so that this surface
gives rise to a treelike outgrowth whilst the dorsal surface is moulded
into a ludicrously exact copy of the early tadpole of the amphibian.
When the embryo is fed by yolk, this, as we have already pointed
out, modifies all the processes of development ; cell division becomes
slow and the cells produced few and large, and folding which plays
a large part in the development of small alecithal eggs becomes
impossible and is replaced by solid outgrowths of cells.
Still a third factor which tends to hide the recapitulatory element
is the development of special larval adaptations. This occurs when
the larva retains its free life but when its circumstances become
changed. These special adaptations have been developed in thou-
sands of insect larvae. So generally is this the case that Half our*
denied to these larvae any ancestral significance at all ; but modern
research has succeeded in revealing the original ancestral larval type
beneath the secondary modifications.
All the evidence at our disposal points to the conclusion that the
ancestors of insects were creeping myriapod forms scavengers
3 Kammerer, " Vererbung erzwungener Fortpflanzungsanpas-
sungen I & II. Die Nachkommen der spatgebprenen Salamandra
maculosa und der fruhgeborenen S. atra," Archiv fur Entwicklungs-
mechanik, vol. xxv., 1908.
4 Balfour, Comparative Embryology, vol. ii., p. 365, 1881.
974
EMBRYOLOGY
which fed on the debris of both animal and vegetable nature in the
undergrowth of primeval forests. Such is in fact the life of the lowest
insects known to-day, some of which, such as Machilis, nourish them-
selves on the decaying sea-weed on the sea-shore, and retain through-
put life vestigial limbs attached to the abdominal segments which
aid them in their crawling movements. Now the myriapod or poly-
pod larva survives as the caterpillar of the Lepidoptera and the
primitive Hymenoptera. It is also found amongst the primitive
Meuroptera and amongst the may-flies (Ephemeroplera). These
last-named insects were supposed to possess a larva showing great
secondary modifications, for it is provided with leaf-like gills at-
tached to its abdominal segments; but Heymons 1 has shown that
these gills are nothing but modified abdominal legs. It is a curious
fact that amongst the lower insects, such as the cockroach, this
polypod stage is passed through during the embryonic phase of
development. The reason for this change is that these insects lay
their eggs in situations where a grub-like larva would perish, whereas
the higher insects, in which the stage is larval, are gifted with in-
stincts which lead them to lay their eggs in situations where an
abundance of easily procured and easily masticated food is available
and a scavenging existence like that of the ancestor is possible.
A fourth factor which modifies development, and which is potent
in its effect although it is usually overlooked, is loss of size in the
larva as compared with the ancestor which it represents. As conditions
change and the larval life becomes more dangerous there arises a
tendency in which we may trace the influence of tachygenesis to
pass quickly through the larval stage and to metamorphose at as
early a period of growth as possible into the adult condition. A
consequence of this change is that the larva assumes a new relation
to its environment, for many qualities of the surrounding medium,
such as the viscosity and support ing- power of water, acquire an
altered importance as the organism decreases in size. If the an-
cestral organs were reduced in the same scale as is the whole body of
the larva, this would in many cases result in their becoming in-
capable of being used. As a consequence we find that In many cases
where the ancestor had a series of organs, this series is represented
in the larva by fewer members or only one member of larger relative
size, and that where in the ancestor there was a pair of organs there
is frequently only one in the larva, but this is on a larger scale than
the rest of the body. If we now select a few examples to illustrate
this principle, we may consider the free-swimming larva of that most
primitive of all vertebrates Amphioxus. This larva has only a
single series of gill-slits which are so enlarged as to occupy the whole
ventral surface of the body. If the double series of slits, which the
ancestor in common with all other fish possessed, had been developed
in the larva, they would necessarily have been of such minute size
that the capillarity of the water would have prevented them from
being functional. Similarly there is no doubt that the eyes of verte-
brates were from the beginning paired structures, but they are repre-
sented in the ascidian tadpole by a cup-like outgrowth of one side
of the brain. Again no serious doubt can be entertained that the
primitive arthropod was evolved from a long many-segmented
annelid with flexible parapodia. But the most primitive larval form
of the Crustacea is the nauplius which is a little, oval, unsegmented
creature with but three pairs of legs. The existence of this larva was
a great stumbling-block to the earlier embryologists. It seemed
to indicate that the Crustacea must have been derived from an
unsegmented animal totally distinct from the ancestor of other
Arthropoda, for the progenitor of these must have been long and
segmented since the embryos of all these Arthropoda have many
segments. But if we look at the nauplius larva from the standpoint
of function rather than of structure we have no difficulty in seeing
in it the recapitulation of the first step in the " arthropodization "
of the annelid. This step was a change of habits which consisted
in using the foremost parapodia as oars to propel the animal and as
organs to seize food. As a consequence in the front of the body the
cuticle was thickened and the " arthropodous " type of limb pro-
duced, whilst in the rest of the body the annelid condition of affairs
persisted as indeed it may be almost said to do in the posterior
portions of the bodies of this most primitive of Crustacea, the long-
bodied Phyllopoda such as Artemia. Once begun in front, this
" arthropodous " modification was gradually propagated backwards
so as to involve the hinder segments of the body and in this way the
higher Crustacea were evolved. In the nauplius larva, the anterior
arthropodized portion of the ancestor with its appendages is alone
represented; the hinder annelid portion in which function was less
intense and less important is not developed.
One last instance of the principle may be adduced which we select
from the embryology of the higher vertebrates. In the development
of those types of Vertebrata in the life history of which there is a long
larval phase (Cyclostomata, dipnoan, "ganoid" and teleostean
fish, Amphibia), a larval excretory organ termed the pronephros
makes its appearance. Its duct later becomes the duct of the perma-
nent kidney, but the pronephros itself consists of very few tubules
and these originate from the wall of the general body cavity and
not, as do the tubules of the permanent kidney, from special sacs
1 R. Heymons, " Cber die Lebensweise und Entwicklung von
Ephemera vulgata," Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft der Natur-
forschenden Freunde zu Berlin for 1896.
(the malpighian capsules). The earlier workers regarded the pro-
nephros as a last trace of a primeval excretory organ of quite different
structure to the permanent kidney by which it is later superseded.
The works of Hatta 2 on the development of the lamprey and of
Kerr 3 on the development of the Polypterus have proved that the
pronephros is nothing more than the foremost section of the perma-
nent kidney, early called into action and enlarged whilst the hinder
section of the metamerically repeated series of tubes of which the
kidney consists remains undeveloped. These investigators have fur-
ther proved that the portion of the general body cavity from which
the pronephric tubules arise consists of several malpighian capsules
fused together and secondarily communicating with the general
body cavity.
Life History of Animals. It might be supposed that with so
many modifying factors at work it would be a hopeless task to
attempt to disentangle the recapitulatory element from them,
and that therefore the ancestral history of animals except in its
latest and least modified chapters would remain a closed book.
But when we recollect that the life history of every species con-
stitutes a separate edition of this history, and that the modifying
factors have affected no two of them to the same extent, it be-
comes evident that comparative embryology built on a broad
basis can attack the problem with a fair prospect of success.
Bearing in mind the priority of the larval over the embryonic
phase, and beginning therefore our survey with the larvae of the
simplest metazoa, we are able to recognize the first step in the
evolution of the metazob'n from the protozoa in the blastula, the
hollow ball of cells which may be regarded as representing a
colonial protozoon like the living Vohox. This stage was followed
by the formation of a gut by the intucking of one side of the ball;
and this second step is represented in the life histories of all the
lower and simpler animals by the gastrula stage. Following on
this stage came the formation of the coelom as a series of pouch-
like outgrowths of the gut, and the change of the single opening
of the gastrula, the blastopore, into two openings which became
the mouth and the anus by the constriction of its middle portion.
It has been possible to show that two groups so utterly diverse
in appearance as the Annelida and the Mollusca have originated
from a single group of free-swimming ancestors represented by
the trochophore larva, and since Arthropoda are admitted by
all to be descended from Annelida this conclusion involves the
ancestry of four-fifths of the animal kingdom.
We can form a very plausible guess as to the nature of the diver-
gence of habits which led to the differentiation of the Annelida and
Mollusca from one another. The original stock was free-swimming
but both groups derived from it are typically bottom-dwellers. Two
modes of seeking their food were open to them ; they could either glide
over the bottom by means of their cilia as young Gastropoda and
Lamelli branchiata still do, or they could burrow into it. The first
led to the evolution of Mollusca, the second to that of Annelida.
Two other groups of very diverse structure, which embryology
has given strong reasons for believing to have been derived from a
single race, are the Echinodermata and the Vertebrata. The lowest
form which gives distinct evidence of the vertebrate affinities is the
worm-like creature Balanoglossus. The larval form of Balanoglossus
is a free-swimming organism called tornaria which shows the closest
resemblance to the typical larva of Echinodern'ata, the dipkwvla.
The recognition of this affinity has assisted in the elucidation of a
difficult subject to which considerable space was devoted in the
llth ed., viz. the origin of the central nervous system.
It is characteristic of the most primitive Annelida and Arthropoda
that this system develops as a ring round the blastopore and an
endeavour was made in the nth ed. to prove that this was originally
true of vertebrate embryos also. But it is a peculiarity of the verte-
brate-echinoderm alliance which is still unexplained that in them
the blastopore gives rise to the anus alone, whilst the rronth is
formed as an apparently independent perforation at a considerably
later period of development. A long succession of embryologists,
with their eyes fixed only on the embryos of Annelida, Arthropoda
and the higher vertebrates, have held that the vertebrate month is
a new structure formed by the fusion of a pair of gill-slits and have
prosecuted vain searches for traces of the old mouth. Others
have imagined that the mid-dorsal line of the vertebrate embryo
along which the nerve-cord develops corresponds to the line joining
mouth and anus in the arthropod, the line in fact which is occupied
by the slit-like blastopore in Peripatus. They hold that the nervous
system of the vertebrate originally extended round -the front end of
2 Hatta, " The Development of the Renal Organs in the Lam-
prey," Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokio, 1912.
3 Kerr, " Vertebrata with the exception of Mammals,' Textbook
of Embryology, vol. i., pp. 223-237 (1919).
ENCEPHALITIS LETHARGICA
975
the embryo so as to include the mouth. But the independent and
late development of the mouth is as marked a feature in the echino-
derm larva as in the vertebrate embryo and there are no gill pouches
in the echinoderm on which we could fall back to explain the phenom-
enon. Further, in the adult echinoderm the whole of the ectoderm
is underlain by a nervous plexus of which the central nervous system
is only a specialized and intensified portion, and the same thing
is true of the anterior region of Balanoglossus. It is therefore futile
to look for exact correspondence between the central nervous systems
of two stocks which diverged from one another at such a primitive
level as did the Vertebrata and the Annelida. In fact the descendants
of the trochophore stock (Annelida, Arthropoda and Mollusca)
on the one hand and the original Vertebrata on the other seem to
have adopted two different modes of life which led to concentrations
of the nervous system in different parts of the body. The trocho-
phore stock took to crawling on their ventral surfaces and their
locomotor organs were developed in this region of the body and in
connexion with them the motor ganglia which make up the ventral
nerve-cord ; whereas the vertebrate stock took to swimming by
lateral blows of their blade-like bodies and this led to the concen-
tration of the central nervous system in the mid-dorsal line.
Enough has been said to give evidence for our belief that the
most recent research has tended to reestablish the recapitulatory
element as the fundamental factor in life-history, and if this be
admitted the study of comparative embryology opens up a
means of investigating the early history of life at a stage long
before it left evidence of its existence in the stratified rocks; and,
further, the acceptance of recapitulation involves a conception
of the laws of heredity entirely distinct from and supplementary
to that suggested by Gregor Mendel and his followers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. R. Bailey and A. M. Miller, Textbook of Em-
bryology (1909) ; F. M. Balfour, A Treatise of Comparative Em-
bryology, vols. i.andii. (1881) ; A. Brachet, " L'CEuf et les Facteurs de
1'Ontogenese," Encyclopedic Scientifique, Paris (1916); J. C. Heisler,
Textbook of Embryology for Medical Students (1907); H. Driesch,
The Science and Philosophy of the Organism; Gifford lectures for
1907 and 1908; O. Hertwig, Lehrbuch der Entwicklungsgeschichte des
Menschen und der Wirbelthiere, Jena, 18901920; J. W. Jenkinson,
Vertebrate Embryology (2nd ed. 1921), Experimental Embryology
(1909), Three Lectures on Experimental Embryology (1917); J.
Graham Kerr, Textbook of Embryology, vol. ii., Vertebrata (exc.
Mammalia) (1919) ; Korschalt and Heider, Textbook of the Em-
bryology of the Invertebrates, translated by E. Mark, Ph.D., and W.
McM. Woodworth (1895); Lillie, The Development of the Chick;
E. W. MacBride, Textbook of Embryology, vol.i., Invertebrata (1914);
A. Milnes Marshall, Vertebrate Embryology (1893); T. H. Morgan,
Regeneration (1901). (E. W. MAcB.)
ENCEPHALITIS LETHARGICA (from Gk. ifKipaXov, a portion
of the brain, and Ai70a/ryos, forgetful), a specific infectious dis-
ease of the nervous system, of which the most frequent, though
by no means invariable, symptom is drowsiness or lethargy,
often associated with paralysis of the muscles of the eye, pro-
ducing diplopia or double vision.
In recent years this disease first appeared in epidemic form in
Austria in the winter of 1016, and was described and named by C.
von Economo in Vienna in 1917. It reappeared in the following
winter, and was recorded in France in March 1918 by A. Netter.
In England it was first recorded in April 1918, independently
by Wilfred Harris and A. J. Hall. These earlier epidemics were
all recognized by the combination of lethargy and diplopia.
Subsequently the same seasonal incidence has prevailed, the
number of cases diminishing in summer and increasing in winter
and spring. In the United States it was reported in March 1919,
the epidemic having spread from east to west.
The literature of medicine has been ransacked to ascertain
whether or not previous records exist of the occurrence of the
characteristic combination of symptoms. In 1890 a small epi-
demic occurred in North Italy, and later in Austria and other
countries, which may be accepted as Encephalitis Lethargica.
At the time it was known as Noma. It attracted little attention.
The evidence for sporadic cases since then is doubtful.
Previous records are all doubtful. Hippocrates, Sydenham and
other less-known authorities have described conditions which
may or may not have been Encephalitis Lethargica. Stahl in
1779 recorded more fully an outbreak characterized both by
lethargy and diplopia, and with other very suggestive symptoms.
Franck in 1837 divided Encephalitis into various types, including
a lethargic form which he stated occurred frequently as a result
of epidemics of influenza.
Whether or not the observed combinations of symptoms have
ever occurred before, the question early arose whether the
syndrome should be regarded as a clinical entity or as a special
manifestation of some disease previously known in other forms.
The three diseases with which its relations have been more
particularly considered are botulism, influenza and acute polio-
myelitis or Heine-Medin's disease. Botulism results from the con-
sumption of infected meat or other food, usually ham, and is espec-
ially characterized by paralysis of the eye muscles. The disease
is due to infection with a specific bacterium the bacillus botu-
linus. Since the most careful search has invariably failed to
detect the presence of this bacillus in Encephalitis Lethargica
botulism can be finally excluded. With regard to influenza,
the appearance of Encephalitis Lethargica, including Noma as
such, has approximately coincided with epidemics of influenza
in 1889 and at the present time. On the other hand, there is
considerable evidence against their identity. Influenza is highly
contagious, while the clinical appearance of Encephalitis Le-
thargica occurs in an irregular manner and has not attained any
great magnitude as an epidemic. When Encephalitis Lethargica
commenced in Austria influenza had not yet appeared. There
are also histological differences, since in influenzal encephalitis
there is marked oedema of the brain and an absence of the two
special characteristics of Encephalitis Lethargica vascular
congestion and infiltration of the perivascular lymph spaces.
Pfeiffer's bacillus, the so-called influenza bacillus, is not found
in Encephalitis Lethargica.
The relations of Encephalitis Lethargica to Heine-Medin's
disease have led to much discussion. Unusual forms unquestion-
ably occur in which the diagnosis is doubtful, both on clinical and
pathological grounds, but, considering typical forms, there are
striking differences between the two diseases. Heine-Medin's
disease particularly attacks persons under 20 years of age, and
tends to increase in frequency in summer. The onset of the
general symptoms and of the paralysis is acute, the course is
brief and the spinal cord is mainly affected. In Encephalitis
Lethargica, on the other hand, persons of all ages are liable to
attack, and the frequency is greatest in winter and spring.
The onset is usually insidious, the course is lengthy, and the
mid-brain is especially affected. Histologically there are also
important differences. Microscopic haemorrhages are constant
in Heine-Medin's disease, while perivascular infiltration is
slight, the reverse being true of Encephalitis Lethargica.
Symptoms. Encephalitis Lethargica was primarily recognized
by the occurrence of the combination of lethargy and double vision,
the latter being due to paralysis of the muscle of the eye. While
pathological drowsiness in varying degrees is probably present in
70 to 80 per cent of cases at some stage of their course, further ob-
servation has revealed the occurrence of numerous other mani-
festations. The disease is widespread through the nervous system,
and the complexity of the structure of the nervous tissues, together
with the high degree of specialization of the functions of its various
parts, explains the protean nature of its symptoms. Numerous
" types " have been described, but the value of these is slight, as
a single patient in the course of a few days often exhibits the char-
acteristics of many such types. The clinical manifestations are
probably best classified as Walshe suggested, according to the broad
scheme proposed for other nervous diseases many years ago by
Hughlings Jackson. In the following description based on this
system, " positive " symptoms denote exaltation of function, which
may be due either to irritation of nervous tissue or to a loss of the
control exercised normally by the higher centres of the brain,
while " negative" symptoms denote depression or loss of function
principally due to destruction of nervous tissue.
A. General Symptoms Due to Toxic Infection. These include
weakness, headache, often occipital with some stiffness of the
neck, shivering, vertigo, muscular pains and vomiting or other gas-
tro-intestinal disturbances. The pulse may be rapid and eruptions,
usually resembling measles, occasionally occur. The temperature is
variable, and it has no characteristic course. It often rises after
some days from 101 to 105 F. for a short period, but may be more
prolonged, or pyrexia may be absent throughout.
B. Nervous Symptoms. These are general and focal, the latter
being due to affection of highly specialized portions of the brain.
(I) General Nervous Symptoms. Positive symptoms are delirium,
mania, restlessness and various degrees of excitement, while the
more common negative manifestation is the characteristic lethargy,
in all grades from simple apathy to complete coma. Innumerable
degrees occur of these two extremes, or even combinations. The
976
ENGINEERS, MILITARY
patient may slowly drift into a somnolent state or may not un-
commonly combine somnolence by day with insomnia or restlessness
by night. Rarely an attack commences suddenly with the wildest
delirium or mania.
(II) Focal Nervous Symptoms. The positive symptoms include
the following :
(1) Convulsions, which are occasionally generalized, resembling
the epileptiform fit.
(2) Involuntary movements. These may develop during the
attack or several months later in the course of convalescence. Nu-
merous forms occur. The " myoclonic " type is characterized by
short, rapid, rhythmic contractions of muscles, especially affecting
the abdominal muscles and also the diaphragm, but the entire
musculature or any group of muscles, or even a part of a single muscle
may be affected. The contractions are 30 or 40 to the minute.
Epidemic hiccough is possibly a variety of this type. Tremors,
choreiform, athetoid and other movements of muscles may develop
after the attack, some causing coarse spontaneous movements of
large amplitude.
(3) Rigidity. This group includes the " Parkinsonian mask "
and catalepsy, the latter being a condition of rigidity in which the
limbs are retained for long periods in the position in which they are
placed by an observer. The Parkinsonian mask, an expressionless
facies, is common, and combined with rigidity produces the ap-
pearance of acute paralysis agitans, or Parkinson's disease.
(4) Muscular pains. These may be severe.
The negative symptoms are represented by paralyses. The com-
monest of these is the characteristic affection of the muscles of the
eye, especially those innervated by the third pair of cranial nerves.
The principal clinical symptoms are ptosis or drooping of the eyelids,
double vision and paralysis of the muscles of accommodation.
The pupils are often unequal and their reaction altered, the most
common change being loss of reaction to accommodation while
still reacting to light; but in rare instances the Argyle- Robertson
reaction may be present. Optic neuritis is extremely rare, and never
advanced. Less common are affections of the remaining cranial
nerves, producing facial paralysis, difficulty in swallowing or in
production of speech, etc. No portion of the nervous system is
immune, and instances occur with paralysis of limbs and other
parts, producing monoplegia, hemiplegia, diplegia, or aphasia.
The sensory system is much less frequently affected. The deep
reflexes are commonly but not invariably absent.
Morbid Anatomy. The small vessels of the brain and meninges
are dilated, the congestion often being visible both to the eye and
under the microscope, but the most characteristic change is infiltra-
tion with small round cells of the perivascular lymph spaces, sur-
rounding the capillaries. Other less constant and less conspicuous
changes include degeneration of the nerve cells and destruction of
neurons, proliferation of the mesoblastic cells lining the vessel walls
and of the glial cells, and the occasional occurrence of haemorrhages
and of thrombosis of veins. The lesions are most common in the
mid-brain and basal ganglia, but any portion of the nervous system
or meninges may be affected.
Prognosis. Excluding mild and abortive cases, and the so-called
formes frustes, the mortality is about 33 per cent. Including all
cases it is under 20 %, but the exact figure is doubtful. Deaths usually
occur within three weeks from onset. The duration may be many
weeks or even months. Alteration of the mental functions may be
prolonged, and paralyses, aphasia and other changes have per-
sisted long enough in some instances to be regarded as permanent,
but when recovery takes place, it usually becomes complete.
Treatment. This ft on the general lines of treatment of acute
febrile disease. Hexamine is usually administered. Netter strongly
advocates the production of a local abscess by the injection of
turpentine, 1-2 cc., into the thigh, but the value of this is not yet
confirmed. (H. L. T.)
ENGINEERS, MILITARY (see 9.406*). In the earlier article
it was pointed out that in the early days of warfare, and in Great
Britain up to the wars of Marlborough, the engineers of an army
were the builders of fortifications, and also the manufacturers and
directors of engines of war. In 1716 the first separation of
specialists occurred when the Royal Artillery was definitely
formed into a separate regiment. British engineer officers, left
to their more specific duties of defensive works and of military
surveys, were, until 1757, frequently holders of commissions in
the infantry, and it was not until the siege of Gibraltar, towards
the end of the i8th century, that any nucleus of enlisted rank
and file was added to the corps of officers, who by that time were
called Royal Engineers. This creation of specialist branches of
military engineers naturally continued with the progress of
engineering in civil life, and its application to military needs.
Thus, after the experience of the American Civil War in 1861-5
had brought to light the extreme value of the electric telegraph
in military operations, a telegraph troop was added to the Royal
Engineers in 1870. This unit was shortly afterwards utilized
by the British Post Office in connexion with civil telegraph duties,
and for many years afterwards the connexion between the army
and the civil department concerned was maintained in Great
Britain to the great advantage of the military engineers, who
by constant practice in the working of civil lines of telegraph were
being prepared for this task in war. Gradually, however, the
military specialties tended to develop, and the units concerned
came to have a somewhat special equipment and to be divided
into air-line companies (where the wires are carried on light
poles rapidly erected), cable companies (where insulated cable
is laid in any ground in any convenient way), and wireless.
Prior to the outbreak of the World War the signal service in
the British regular army consisted of one signal squadron, 5
signal troops (for one cavalry division and 5 cavalry brigades),
6 divisional signal companies, and 4 other units. Some 20 more
units were formed on mobilization, the total establishment for
the Expeditionary Force being 78 officers and 2,367 other ranks.
In the Territorial Force there were 5 army troops and 14 division-
al signal companies, the former units being subdivided into wire-
less, air-line and cable companies. In 1918 the total numbers had
increased to 2,499 officers and 69,264 other ranks, exclusive of
Dominion forces and those on the Indian establishment. The
number of units was upwards of 400, operating at home and in
practically all the theatres of war, and including despatch riders,
messenger dog service, carrier pigeons, wireless motor sections,
and subsections attached to field and garrison artillery. The
materials were partly obtained from the G.P.O. in England, but
also from sources under the direct control of the director of
fortifications and works who had under him five factories for
the manufacture of special wireless sets, telephones and cables.
The scale of supply may be inferred from one item alone, viz.,
insulated cable, of which enough was sent to France in one year
of the war to go 10 times round the globe. Such an immense
development as this, however successfully it was carried out
(and there is no doubt on this point), evidently demanded an
organization of its own, and consequently, after the war, a new
branch was formed called " The Royal Corps of Signals."
In like manner the British Air Service, in 1912, was separated
from the Royal Engineers. The first steps to form an aerial
observation corps were taken about 1878, although individual
officers had taken up the subject at a much earlier period. Aerial
observations and photography from balloons were carried out
on active service in the Sudan and Bechuanaland in 1884-5
and throughout the South African War 1899-1902. The devel-
opment of the internal combustion engine, however, in the early
part of the present century, made the dirigible balloon possible,
and the application of this engine to heavier-than-air machines
in 1907 introduced into war a new factor of the utmost impor-
tance. The Air Battalion of the R.E., which in 1911 was mainly
occupied with balloons, kites and airships, and had made some
progress in developing the new inventions, became early in the
following year the military wing of the Royal Flying Corps.
To some extent the work of submarine mining, brought to
great perfection by the R.E. in connexion with coast defence,
in the closest cooperation with garrison artillery and defence
electric lights, belongs also to this category. It was abolished,
in so far as its connexion with the army is concerned, in 1905, its
work being handed over to the Royal Navy. In this transfer,
however, the cooperation between guns, lights and mines could
not be carried out as before, and the reason for the change is not
that of the two other instances, viz. the great growth and im-
portance of the branch of engineering concerned.
While, however, the growth of special branches necessitated
their severance from the parent corps, the exigencies of war
brought into being other branches of a nature previously un-
foreseen. Besides signal units, the normal composition of the
R.E. before the World War included field, fortress and railway
companies, with field squadrons for the cavalry, and bridging
trains with armies. Although these still continued, with num-
bers enormously increased, other special branches soon began
to be formed. Army troops companies (formed out of the fortress
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
ENGINEERS, MILITARY
companies), were needed to carry out work behind the field
companies in the front line, electrical and mechanical companies
to deal with machinery of all sorts, army workshops companies,
base park and advanced park companies to feed the insatiable
demands of the fighting line for prepared trench materials and
other such requirements. For mining warfare, tunnelling com-
panies, officered by mining engineers, were enlisted and did
magnificent service. For water supply, boring sections were
needed, and in Egypt water-supply companies; for surveying,
field survey battalions and companies, and for sound-ranging
and observation (in conjunction with artillery) special sections
and groups were formed. The inundation of some parts of the
line and the land drainage of others demanded special sections,
mostly enlisted in the English Fens. Field and anti-aircraft
searchlights absorbed a large number of sections. Timber supply
became a matter of urgent importance in the second year of the
war, and forestry companies had to be formed to fell and prepare
the quantities of timber needed for field engineering. The science
of camouflage called for special units to deal with the provision
and erection of concealing material. Chemical warfare demanded
specialists both in preparing and projecting the new element
of war. Meteorology played a new and important part, and it
too required special units to take and record observations. The
army post-office work devolved on the Royal Engineers. All
these were altogether apart from the signal units, already touched
upon. There was, further, the transportation branch, which
formed a large and important feature in the area behind the line,
and was divided into two main organizations (subsequently
combined under one director-general), viz. Roads and Rail-
ways, and Inland Water Transport.
The former had railway construction companies, survey and
reconnaissance section, a railway signal and interlocking company,
wagon erecting companies, broad gauge workshop companies, and
miscellaneous trades companies, with electrical sections; light rail-
ways operating companies, train crew companies, and forward
companies, also miscellaneous trades companies, workshop com-
panies, and light tractor repair companies. There were also training
schools, chiefly for light railway work. There were numerous traffic
sections, and broad gauge operating companies ; there was a trans-
portation stores company, and a steam boiler repair company. In
connexion with roads there were several road construction companies,
and quarry companies with a quarry maintenance section, most of
these enlisted in the Welsh quarries.
The Inland Water Transport had headquarters' units at various
places in England Richborough, where a magnificent new port was
built, Southampton and Poplar. There were workshops and ship-
yard companies, and construction companies at Richborough and
several other places in England, and port construction companies
at many ports in France. There were marine companies, traffic
companies and train ferry companies in England, while in France
there were sections working all over the canals on the army areas,
with headquarters at Aire.
In Egypt there were sections at Alexandria, on the Suez Canal,
and at various places on the Nile; in Italy at Taranto; in E. Africa
at Dar-es-Salam and some other ports; in Russia at Murmansk.
But perhaps the greatest work done by this branch, except in France,
was in Mesopotamia, where the organization at Basra included
vessels, marine engineering, accounts, dockyards and shipbuilding,
native craft, I.W.T. Stores, buoyage and pilotage, conservancy and
reclamation, camps, coal depot, barge depot and construction H.Q.,
both on the Tigris and Euphrates. There were detachments at
various places on each of the great rivers, and on the Persian lines
of communication at Karun and Ahwaz, and also at Muscat.
At the outbreak of war the corps of R.E. consisted of 1,831
officers and 24,172 other ranks. On Nov. n 1918 there were
17,711 officers and 322,739 other ranks. The above figures in-
clude regulars, special reserve, territorials, and all signal and
transportation units, but not from overseas or India.
As regards troops from overseas it is perhaps sufficient to say
that their strength was in proportion normally to the total
numbers of all arms, but that in addition there were tunnelling
companies from the Australian and Canadian mines (who did
good service in France and in Palestine) , and forestry battalions
from the backwoods of Canada, who did most useful work in
France, and also in Cyprus for the supply of timber to the armies
operating in the eastern Mediterranean littoral.
Mention may here be interposed of two cognate organizations,
one of which never was actually incorporated in the R.E. ; the other
977
was part of the R.E. at one time, but was allowed gradually to
disappear, or be merged in corps raised for work other than R.E.
The former were the pioneer infantry battalions, to be supple-
mentary to R.E. labour, on the principle well known in India,
where such battalions, officered by infantry officers, and trained to a
greater extent in field engineering than the average line battalions,
had proved most useful. There was one such battalion per division,
and the intention was that they should normally be associated, much
more closely than other infantry, with the field companies Royal
Engineers. The labour battalions, n of which were raised, were
all of the professional navvy class, all over military age, and
officered by civil engineers, architects, surveyors, etc. They did
excellent work and of a nature which was by no means unskilled.
Whether the later policy of absorbing the personnel into labour
companies, who did absolutely unskilled work (unloading ships,
etc.), was wise, cannot be here discussed, but it had the effect of re-
moving from the engineers' control a very valuable body of men.
One other Indian innovation was also introduced, viz., the ap-
pointment to corps and armies of field engineers and assistant
field engineers, i.e. officers of civil-engineering experience (either
R.E. or civilian) whose business it was to execute works, in the area
of their corps or armies, by means of civil labour.
Organization at Headquarters and in the Field. At the War
Office the organization for developing and controlling not only
the personnel, briefly indicated above, but also the design and
execution of works and the design and provision for engineering
equipment and plant, was divided among three of the principal
branches of the Department, viz., one section under the adjutant-
general had to raise and maintain all the above units; under the
quartermaster-general the director of movements had to or-
ganize and control the transportation branches (railways and
I.W.T.), while the director of fortifications and works and the
branch of the master-general of the ordnance were responsible
for all the technical design and execution of engineering works
at home, and for supplying the varied and complicated machinery
and plant for the engineering needs of the armies in the various
theatres of war. This involved also the carrying-out of a series
of experiments on all sorts of inventions, though after the war
had progressed for some time this duty was partly taken over
by the Ministry of Munitions, which in other respects did not
supply military engineering needs.
The works directorate was divided into 12 branches, each under
a senior officer of engineers: (i) Rifle ranges, artillery practice
grounds and lands generally; (2) hutted camps and barracks; (3)
coast fortifications (on the E. coast of Great Britain especially);
(4) ordnance store buildings; (5) aviation buildings, until Jan.
1918, when the Air Ministry was formed; (6) design branch, for
evolving and coordinating all designs; (7) personal matters arising
out of the employment of civilian engineers, electricians, foremen,
surveyors, etc., on military works, in themselves a large host; (8)
mechanical engineering and supply of stores connected therewith
to armies; (9) electrical stores and experiments, which included the
inspection branch, also telephone factories, and a wireless experi-
mental station; (10) liaison branch with all armies in field, dealing
with all miscellaneous needs; (ll) experimental and equipment
section; (12) contracts, schedules of prices, and quantity surveying.
Temporary training schools and depots were found, not only at
Chatham and Aldershot for dismounted and mounted men as
usual, but at Longmoor for railway men, at Hitchin and Bedford for
signallers, at Newark, Deganwy (N. Wales), Irvine (Ayrshire),
Buxton, and Brightlingsea (Essex) for training sappers. The wireless
experimental section at Woolwich and the electric light school at
Portsmouth also were valuable training depots.
As regards the organization in the field there was at first neither
an engineer-in-chief nor a chief engineer for each army. There were
senior engineer officers, one at G.H.Q. and one at the H.Q. of each
corps, but their duties were advisory only, and they had no power
of purchase, or of engaging civil labour. This organiz3tion was a
deplorable legacy from the S. African War, when the nature of the
campaign was so different from that in Europe.
On the lines of communication, on the other hand, there was a
director of works, with a proper staff and adequate powers, but he
had no part in any military operations, nor, judging from the
Field Service^ Regulations, was it contemplated that, except in the
rare possibility of a siege, there would be anything in the nature of
engineering in war that could not easily be done by the field com-
panies under their divisional generals. These numbered two per
division under a lieutenant-colonel. In 1911 a committee under
Lord Kitchener had recommended raising the number to three.
But in 1914 this had not been carried into effect, many officers of
experience considering that such increase, though possibly desirable,
was not a matter of urgency. The first few weeks of the war altered
all this. A new organization became imperatively necessary, and
the increase of personnel was nowhere more marked than at G.H.Q. ;
978
ENGINEERS, MILITARY
whereas in 1914 the entire staff of engineer officers at G.H.Q. was
one brigadier-general, in 1918 this staff was one major-general, two
brigadiers and 19 other officers. Similarly the engineer staff of each
army was increased from one to 1 1 officers one for water supply,
another for bridging, others for mining, camouflage, stores and so on.
The field companies, whose losses in the first few weeks of the war
were very great, were increased at once from two to three per divi-
sion, and a pioneer battalion in addition gave each divisional-
general a sufficient supply of both skilled and unskilled labour for
him to make tactical use of engineering works. It was not intended
that these troops should be used as infantry except in the gravest
emergency, although in some cases this was not borne in mind, and
the casualties which resulted made the want of such technical troops
more acutely felt than ever.
Under the direct orders of the chief engineer of an army corps
there were two or three army troops companies R.E., two or three
tunnelling companies, a company or two of a labour battalion, and
miscellaneous working parties and transport lorries.
Field Companies. As the field companies were the most numerous
of all the RE. units (there were some 160 of them in France in
1918) as well as being the normal organization of military engineers
corresponding to a battalion of infantry, a squadron, of cavalry and
a field battery of artillery it may be as well here to say a little
about their organization. The field companies of the regular army
(of which there were 13 in 1914) were formed about 1879 by adding
to a few selected fortress companies a section of mounted drivers
with transport to carry ordinary entrenching tools, and the special
tools needed for the various tradesmen of which the company was
composed. At that time the companies were almost exclusively em-
ployed on barrack maintenance, and, while subject to military
discipline and trained as infantry in drill and musketry, they were
given little or no special training as field engineers. But from the
experience of the Egyptian and Sudanese campaigns of 1882-5
there began a steady improvement in their r&le as a valuable tactical
arm. About 1885 each company was taken off the works annually
for a course of field work instruction. In 1 889 continuous engineer s
pay, instead of working pay for actual hours spent on works, was
introduced, a matter of the utmost importance, for it enabled men
to be taken for military training without penalizing them in respect
of pay, while their trade skill could still be economically utilized on
works when they were not otherwise employed. The gradual im-
provement in the military training of this arm, and its cooperation
with other arms, was, after the S. African War, still further developed
by having the companies posted to army divisions under the direct
responsibility of division headquarters, and by the participation,
by all ranks, in the divisional training schemes. Further, young civil
engineers were, by arrangement with the Institution of Civil En-
gineers, given commissions in the R.E. Special Reserve, and after
some preliminary training were attached to field companies.
Each company ccnsisted of six officers, all mounted, with about
220 other ranks, of whom about 75 % (dismounted) were tradesmen,
the remainder being drivers. There were some 60 horses and mules,
with the following vehicles: four double tool carts for tools and
equipment, three pontoon and trestle wagons for bridging plant,
and a special vehicle for explosives, sandbags, cordage, etc., with the
general transport vehicles appropriate to a unit of this size and com-
position. The company was organized in four sections, each under
a subaltern, so that each section could be detached, with its own tools,
for some specific task. There were also some pack animals to take
tools, etc., to places where wheeled vehicles could not go. A certain
number of the dismounted men were cyclists whose business it was
to reconnoitre ahead and bring in information.
Although the greater part of the sappers (dismounted men) were
skilled tradesmen, there was introduced, shortly before the outbreak
of war, a certain dilution of skilled labour in the form of " pioneers,"
men who were trained in ordinary field work, but had not been taught
a trade before entering the army. Whether this dilution was on the
whole satisfactory is a matter on which there is difference of opinion.
There is, however, no doubt that as regards the officers, the greater
their knowledge and experience of engineering work the better,
owing to the variety of the work that falls on a field company in war.
Moreover, the development of weapons and the weight of guns,
tanks, etc., -which came to be used in the war revolutionized much
of the previous practice. No longer were combinations of timber,
brushwood and earth sufficient for field defences, nor pontoons and
spar bridges sufficient to cross rivers. Concrete and steel had come
into the field, and the engineers accustomed to use these in peace
had to take them in hand for war, and to see that rapidity of con-
struction was combined with stability and strength.
Broadly speaking, the duties of the field companies were field
defences, mining, demolitions, water supply and distribution, and
temporary roads and bridges, in the fighting zone. Behind these
came the army troops companies R.E. and the many special units
whose duties are indicated by their nomenclature.
The School of Military Engineering. It is evident that to train
officers and men the former especially for the varied tasks that
lie before them in war, some very special instruction is needed in
peace. This is supplied by the School of Military Engineering at
Chatham, to which every R.E. officer after receiving his first com-
mission is sent for a course of instruction, lasting normally two years.
This school owes its origin to the Peninsular War. In that cam-
paign at first there were no trained sappers, and the officers of the
R.E. were woefully ignorant of such military subjects as the de-
molition of bridges. As a result of Lord Wellington's representations,
and the advocacy of an able engineer-officer, Col. Pasley, a school of
instruction in siege works was begun in 1812 at Brompton barracks,
Chatham. In course of time instruction in other branches, e.g.
construction, surveying, electrical and mechanical engineering,
chemistry, astronomy, etc., was added; and in spite of certain dis-
advantages, e.g. the growth of houses and establishments round
the school, and the absence of troops of other arms with whom com-
bined training could be carried out, the work done at this school
has been of the utmost value both in war and in peace, for
officers and men trained there have gone to all parts of the Empire
and made their mark in works of public utility and permanent value.
The training in the pre-war period was as follows : The two years'
course is approximately divided into four equal parts under each of
the chief instructors, in field fortification, construction, surveying and
electricity. The officers are attached to depot companies in one
or other of the battalions of R.E. under training, and thus, con-
currently with their technical training, they learn the routine of
military administration, discipline and drill. As regards the four
main courses of instruction it is evident that in the short time
available only the rudiments of each subject can be taught. In a
profession which admits of so many different avenues of service to
the country it is evident that the preliminary course of instruction
should include that which is likely to be of value in each and every
capacity. There must be a difficulty in arranging such a course
when it is borne in mind that one officer may devote his life to purely
military studies, another to the scientific work of, say, the Survey
of India, another to railway constructions, another to electric de-
velopments and so on. Yet there is doubtless some common ground
in which all must be trained before diverging, and this is the object
of the Chatham training. In field fortification, besides the prin-
ciples of defence, already learned by the officers in the cadet stage
of their career, there is the practice of entrenchments, redoubts,
military mining and demolition; there is, further, construction of
light railways and of field shelters, water-supply expedients, and other
miscellaneous subjects. This course is largely out of doors, and is
specially valuable in teaching young men how to organize and handle
skilled and unskilled labour. The survey course includes instruction
in all surveying instruments and in the practice both of large sur-
vey operations and of the rapid operations frequently necessary in
military exploration, and in combining the work of several observers
in an unknown country. In the construction course lectures are
given on building materials and builders' trades, on applied me-
chanics and hydraulics, on water supply, sanitary engineering,
roads and railways, the design of structures, including bridges,
reservoir walls, etc., and the ordinary methods of execution. Visits
to engineering works in progress are included in the course.
Theory and practice are combined in this as well as in the mechani-
cal and electrical engineering courses, the details of which are
on similar lines. Care is taken to keep in close touch with the
best civil-engineering practice in the country; eminent civil en-
gineers are invited every winter to deliver lectures, and after the
completion of the course selected officers are sent to work for six or
eight months on one of the great railway lines, either to learn traffic
control, or to be more thoroughly equipped in mechanical engi-
neering in the railway workshops. Other officers go to the electric
light school at Portsmouth for special training. (G. K. S.-M.)
United States. The army which in its circumstances bears
the closest resemblance to the English is that of the United
States. Both countries recruit their armies by voluntary enlist-
ment, and both use to some extent their military engineers, after
completion of their training at a military school, in some form
of civil-engineering service in peace.
From 1901 to 1916, the maximum authorized strength of the
Corps of Engineers was 248 officers of all ranks, and 1,968
enlisted men forming 3 battalions of 4 companies each. The
officers not needed for service with the troop units were employed
on civil public works, inasmuch as the Corps of Engineers is
charged with the improvement of harbours and rivers, both
coastal and inland. As in the case of English officers in the civil-
engineering departments in India and the colonies, this employ-
ment proved to be of great value in war in that it had trained
them " to take heavy responsibilities; in the habit of making
weighty decisions; meeting sudden emergencies; in the organiza-
tion, operation and care of large bodies of men; and working
with men not familiar with or subject to [army] discipline."
In the United States, officers for the Corps of Engineers are
obtained from two principal sources, namely, the U.S. Military
Academy at West Point, and the leading civilian engineering
colleges. The Military .Academy is not an engineering school,
and, although the course furnishes a good foundation for an
ENGINEERS, MILITARY
979
engineering education, its graduates appointed to the Corps of
Engineers nevertheless require additional instruction in engi-
neering subjects. To that end they are detailed as special
students for about a year at the more advanced civilian en-
gineering schools.
Graduate engineers appointed from civil life need military instruc-
tion and are sent to the Engineer School of the U.S. army immediate-
ly upon being commissioned. Subalterns of both classes, after com-
pleting their basic military education, are assigned alternately to
duty with troops and on civil construction, where their training is
continued for several years in accordance with a scheme formulated
by the chief of engineers. This whole procedure, which is possibly
more formal than that prevailing in the British service, has the same
end in view, namely, to give the officer a " well-rounded mental and
professional development " which fits him for any service that war
may entail. Selected officers of more mature age pursue advanced
courses at the Engineer School and become eligible for the School
of the Line, the General Staff School, and the Army War College,
where they are instructed in the combined use of all arms of the
service and the various duties of the general staff and the high
command.
Under legislation effective June 3 1916, the Regular Army of the
United States was reorganized and expanded. Provision was also
made for a reserve to be composed of (a) local forces in each state,
and (b) a reserve corps of officers and of enlisted men. The former
were the state National Guards, but in an emergency were subject
to service under the Federal Government. The Reserve Corps was
answerable directly to the Federal Government. Under this Act the
Corps of Engineers of the regular establishment was to consist of
505 officers of all ranks, and one band; 7 regiments (foot), and 2
battalions (mounted) of enlisted men. The increase was to be made
by five successive increments, so that on April 6 1917, when the
United States declared the existence of a state of war, the Corps of
Engineers numbered only 256 officers and 2,228 enlisted men, the
latter being organized in 3 regiments and one mounted company.
There were, in addition, a few engineer troops organized as com-
ponents of the National Guard.
During the World War, Congress passed a series of Acts affecting
the military establishment and created a fourth element called the
National Army, which name was applied to the organizations raised
especially for the emergency, partly by voluntary enlistment and
partly by the selective service law. In Aug. 1918, the distinctive
appellations were discontinued and the 4 elements, viz. : the Regular
Army, the National Guard, the Reserve Corps and the National
Army, were merged and the single term " The United States Army "
was applied to the entire military force.
At the time of the Armistice, Nov. II 1918, the standard combat
regiment with its train had a strength of 49 officers and 1,695 en-
listed men. At that time the engineer establishment consisted of 7
regiments (foot), 2 battalions (mounted), and 8 engineer trains
derived from the regular establishment; 17 regiments with trains
derived from the National Guard, and 31 regiments derived from
the National Army, a total of 55 regiments, all assigned to divisions.
There were also 6 regiments assigned directly, one to each corps
headquarters. These 6 1 regiments were all of the pioneer-sapper
type; but there were also special engineer troops allocated to various
headquarters, both at the front and on the lines of communication,
for the construction, maintenance and operation of railways; for
the assemblage and maintenance of railway equipment ; for the con-
struction, operation and maintenance of light railways; for the con-
struction and maintenance of highways; for the construction of
barracks, quarters, storehouses, wharves and other miscellaneous
structures; for the production of lumber and timber products; for
camouflage; for flash- and sound-ranging; for water supply, mining,
quarrying, electrical and mechanical installations and operations;
for surveying, printing, and the reproduction of maps and charts;
for the operation of port facilities; for the operation of searchlights;
for motor transport, chemical warfare, and " general service."
The " general service " force was composed of whites and cor-
responded to the British labour battalions. There were in addi-
tion certain labour units, called Pioneer Infantry, composed of ne-
groes officered by whites. The special engineer troops were variously
organized into regiments, independent battalions or independent
companies, the strength of which was that of corresponding units
of the standard Pioneer-Sapper regiments. The labour battalions
usually consisted of 1,000 men with a proper complement of officers.
Though originally organized under the Engineer establishment, the
Motor Transport Corps, the Chemical Warfare Service and the
Armoured Tank Corps later became separate organizations. The
Railway Transport Corps was established as a separate service in
France, but in America this branch remained under the general
supervision of the chief of engineers.
During the war 13,527 commissions were issued to officers of
engineers, and on Nov. II 1918 there were 10,886 officers holding
such commissions. The approximate total enlisted strength of
engineer units was 285,000, of whom 233,000 were overseas, and
52,000 were in the United States and its insular possessions. Com-
paring this with the British strength it must be remembered that,
on the one hand, in the American army the signal service is entirely
distinct from the engineers; on the other hand, a certain amount
of mechanical transportation is included, and the Americans made,
early provision for a large number of navvies for general engineering
operations. The strength of the latter are included in the figures
given for the American engineering service. The Quartermaster
Corps of the American army, which constitutes its general supply
service, had also a large number of labour units, generally composed
of negroes with' white officers.
The training of officers and enlisted men at temporary instruction
camps was simplified by the fact that the officers were, in general,
drawn from the engineering professions, and the enlisted men were
drawn from various classes of artisans. The compulsory selective
service law facilitated the assignment of each individual to that
place in the military establishment for which he was best fitted by
his peace-time occupation. The training in the instruction camps
was therefore largely military, qualifying the personnel to appjy
to their military tasks the knowledge they had acquired as civil-
ians in their peace-time vocations. As in England, the voluntary-
enlistment principle permitted a number of well-qualified en-
gineers and technicians to join, early in the war, the infantry, artillery
and other combat units where their special training did not come
into play. Their services would have been of far more value in the
engineering or other specialist units. (G. A. Y.)
Wessons from the War. It is possible to sum up a few of the lessons
which the experience of the World War has taught.
There must be on the one hand the closest connexion and coopera-
tion between the general staff and the engineers. The intentions of
the commander must dominate the situation, and the engineering
work must be coordinated so as to further such intentions, assist
and develop them as far as possible. There must therefore be, on
the part of the general staff, such early information on the subject
to the chief engineer that he may not only work out his technical
plans, but may consider whether the possibilities of engineering
science may not be used to forward the end in view to an extent
hitherto unsuspected by the general staff.
There must be constant cooperation with other arms, especially
infantry, and this must form part of the training in peace.
There must also be close touch with the great civil-engineering
institutions of the country. Apart from their great knowledge and
experience of the developments of the profession of engineering they
are in touch, in a way that can hardly be expected from military
engineers, with the very latest developments of technical science,
and with the ablest practical exponents of it on a large scale.
There must be the recognition that field defences, as such, are
not the monopoly of the engineers. It is the business of the general
in command, through his general staff, to decide when and where
such defences should be constructed, and the senior officer of en-
gineers should have a voice in the matter, but only in respect of
technical matters involved. The training and duties of modern
infantry enable that arm to carry out much of the required defensive
work entirely without any engineer supervision or assistance, and
they should be held responsible for such work. There is sure to be
some work which is beyond the scope of infantry training, such as
reinforced concrete, or the construction of " dug-outs," and this is
clearly the business of the engineers, but in ordinary entrenchments,
wiring and other obstacles, revetments, and light bridging, infantry
must be trusted to do their own work.
The supply of engineering plant and stores must be under the
engineers, and other arms should draw on them as required.
There should be both at the War Office and in the field a branch
of the Intelligence Department dealing specially with engineering
information. While there must be cooperation between the general
staff, other arms and engineers in the fighting line, there must be
the closest cooperation between the engineers there and the higher
engineering authorities immediately in rear, i.e. the corps and
army chief engineers, whose business it is to coordinate all technical
operations.
As regards execution of work, whether by engineers or infantry,
there must be (l) a carefully prepared scheme to ensure that each
unit receives in good time clear instructions as to the nature and
scope of work devolving on it; (2) rendezvous points must be care-
fully selected, notified to all concerned, and reliable guides told off
to lead the working parties to the proper place by the best routes;
(3) a proper scheme for issue of tools and plant, with definite
responsibility for the return of tools in due course.
As regards the tactical employment of engineers the following
points are worth noting:
In the encounter battle it may be advisable to attach either an
entire field company, or a large portion of one, to the troops making
the attack, just as some engineers are always told off to accompany
an advanced guard on the march, in order to clear away obstacles
and to ensure that, while progress is not arrested, important tactical
points gained are consolidated. But, inasmuch as once an engineer
unit begins a work, it should not hand it over to another unit while
under construction, it is best that as further engineer assistance is
required, it should be done by engineer units being pushed forward,
" leap frog " fashion, from reserves. Close watching of the tactical
situation by the commanding engineer is a vital necessity.
In the deliberate attack, as in trench warfare, there are the three
980
ENGLISH FINANCE
phases preparation, assault, and following up. In the preparation
the works are so numerous that the utmost care must be taken by
the commanding engineer and the general staff that the engineer re-
sources are devoted to the most important objects. Then in the
assault, the engineers should never be sent with attacking infantry
except with specific instructions for definite work for which they
can prepare beforehand, e.g. the consolidation of tactical points
or opening up a forward communication. Even then they should
not follow the leading waves of attack too closely, as they get mixed
up with the fighting line, and do not accomplish their actual work.
The engineer-commander should retain within his immediate con-
trol as much of the personnel as possible for the all-important work
of rapidly opening up forward communication during the attack,
and also for the disposition of the engineers in the phase following
up a successful attack, when the work is similar to that of the
encounter battle, viz. securing the fresh objectives gained.
As regards defence there are (l) advanced works in close contact
with the enemy the " outpost zone " ; (2) the main position of
resistance; (3) one or more rear systems. The first of these will
ordinarily be carried out by infantry, with possibly some engineer
assistance. The main position will be developed by the divisional
engineers, with such additional labour from other arms as may be
possible to allot. Rear defensive positions will be undertaken, usual-
ly, under the orders of corps and army commanders.
In position warfare the engineer duties also include preparation
for attack, arrangements for the comfort, security, and efficiency of
the troops behind the line, development of communications, and
duties in connexion with raids. It is essential that all the engineer
units should be under the control of the commanding engineer, and
that he should maintain a programme of the necessary works
to be carried out, and obtain the orders of the divisional general
as to the order of urgency. It must, however, be always borne in
mind in this as well as in other defensive work that the responsibility
for construction and maintenance of works on any sector of the
system rests with the commander of the troops in that sector.
In the case of a forced retreat in the presence of a pursuing enemy
the work of the engineers will be mainly the delay of the pursuit
by demolitions, and the erection of obstacles, but will include also
the preparation of successive defensive positions, and the con-
struction of special communications to allow the withdrawal of
troops and guns. The work requires careful coordination and control
under great difficulties. As the movements of the engineer-units
depend on the localities where the works are required, they will not
usually correspond with the movements of infantry in touch with
the enemy. The officers of engineers must keep in close touch with
the situation, act with initiative and readily assume responsibility,
keep their superior engineer-commanders informed of the situation
and progress of work, and be ready to respond to any call for assist-
ance, provided they are satisfied that such a call is warranted and
is relatively more important than other orders.
Efficient liaison is of the utmost importance.
In all operations of war it is imperative that the engineers should
have: (i) A close and accurate knowledge of all developments of
the tactical situation ; (2) a thorough comprehension of the needs
of the other areas ; (3) definite schemes and estimates of men, time
and materials, sufficiently accurate for practical purposes; (4)
well-prepared arrangements for materials and for passing informa-
tion to other divisions or corps adjutant or in rear. Having de-
veloped these, an engineer-commander should be able to furnish the
general staff with sound and competent advice on the engineering
aspect of the operations, and should be able to utilize to the best
advantage the available resources. (G. K. S.-M.)
ENGLISH FINANCE (see 9.458). In the period from 1910
to 1921 English national finance underwent changes of a very
far-reaching character.
Pre-War Period. When Mr. Asquith succeeded to the Chan-
cellorship of the Exchequer under Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's
administration in 1906 he found that public expenditure had
increased rapidly in the previous decade. In 1895-6 the total was
97,7oo,ooo; in 1905-6 it had risen to 150,400,000. Mr. Asquith
was responsible for the Budgets for the three years ended 1908-9.
His policy was one of consolidation and retrenchment, which
was necessary in view of the costly character of the S. African War
and the gradual rise of expenditure generally. On the whole his
record at the Treasury during his period of office was good. He
managed to check the growth of expenditure, but his work was
chiefly distinguished by successful efforts to reduce the National
Debt. In the three years ended 1908-9, he reduced the dead-
weight debt by 43,500,000 to 711,400,000.
The social reform programme initiated by Mr. Asquith in the
Old Age Pension scheme was greatly developed by Mr. Lloyd
George when he took over the reins of finance, and its effects were
so stupendous that it affected in profound degree the national
finances for the ensuing decade. Mr. Lloyd George's first
measure of expenditure was the National Insurance Act of
1911. In 1911-2 the total expenditure rose to 178,545,000, and
in 1912-3 to 188,622,000 or 90,922,000 more than in 1908-9,
when Mr. Lloyd George assumed office. The great increase in
the Post Office estimates at this period was due to the acquisition
of the National Telephone Company's undertaking.
The policy of the Liberal administration, which at first was
economy, was turned by the pressure of political events into a
policy of growing expenditure and taxation. In the period from
1909-10 to 1913-4, the expenditure on the navy rose from 35,-
807,000 to 48,833,000, on the army from 27,236,000 to 28,346,-
ooo, while that of the Civil Service jumped up from 40,010,000
to 53,901,000- Original estimates of the cost of Old Age Pensions
were hopelessly wrong, and the total in 1913-4 had risen to 12,-
600,000 or double the cost as estimated in 1908. About 2,500,-
ooo of the increase was due to the amendment of the law in 1911.
Part of the excessive outlays on pensions was attributed to
absence of compulsory registration in the first half of the igth
century. A large number of people in the rural districts were
able successfully to claim the right to the pension, not because
the claim was correct, but because the pension officers were
unable effectually to contest the claim.
The policy of social reform to which the Liberal administra-
tion was committed produced, in 1909, a Budget, which will rank
as famous in English financial history on account of the con-
stitutional changes which it produced, and because events showed
that Mr. Lloyd George's programme of land taxation, based upon
an alleged appreciation of Henry George's theories, proved to be
unworkable and fallacious. The Finance bill of 1909-10 was
read a third time in the House of Commons on Nov. 4 1909,
and was rejected by the House of Lords on the 3oth of the same
month. The Budget statement anticipated a revenue of 162,500,-
ooo, or about 11,000,000 more than in the previous year. It
actually produced 131,696,000, largely because on the Lords'
rejection of the bill the collection of income tax and tea duty
was suspended. After the general election in Jan. 1910 which
kept the Government in office, the Finance bill of 1909-10 was
reintroduced on April 20 1910, and the Lords passediton April 29.
The principal features of this Act were that it made the estate
and inheritance duties much heavier, that it raised income tax from
is. to Is. 2d. in the , abolished the abatements granted to
those resident out of the country and imposed a super-tax (an
additional rate of income tax) of 6d. in the on incomes over
5,000, the first 3,000 being excluded from the assessment to this
duty. But the big novelty ofthe Budget was the land value duties,
which were chiefly responsible for the conflict with the second
chamber. Four duties were imposed: the increment value duty of
20% on the increase in the value of land sites payable on land
changing hands, the undeveloped land duty of Jd. in the pound on
capital value; the reversion duty of 10% on benefits accruing from
the termination of a lease of land; and the mineral rights duty of
Is. in the on mineral royalties, way leaves, etc. Agricultural
land was excluded from the land value duties. The bill naturally
involved a valuation of all land in the United Kingdom.
In the end the land duties were found to be very difficult to col-
lect, and the advanced political assumption that there was some-
thing wrong about profits derived from the appreciation of the
value of land had some extraordinary consequences. It certainly
led to the break-up of big estates, but it wholly failed to produce
revenue. The land value duties were originally estimated to yield
600,000 in the first year and a great deal more in future years.
But these forecasts were woefully wrong. In 1910-1 the yield was
520,000; in 1911-2 481,000; in 1912-3 455,000; in 1913-4
715,000; in 1914-5 412,000; in 1915-6 363,000; in 1916-7 521,-
ooo; in 1917-8 685,000; in 1918-9 664,000; in 1919-20 663,000;
and in 1920-1 20,000. Their abandonment in 1920 was the inevi-
table result of their disappointing yield. Of course the yield of the
duties depended a great deal upon the valuation of land establish-
ing a datum line for the duties, and that could not be completed for
many years. In 1920-1 it had not been finished. Meanwhile the
larger proportion of the land value duties was derived from the
mineral rights duty. The growth of mechanical transport, follow-
ing the introduction of the internal combustion engine, led to the
imposition of duties on motor vehicles, a part of the proceeds of
which was allocated to a Road Development Fund, established in
1909. At the same time a development fund was set up for the
purpose of promoting, by Government Departments, colleges,
institutions, or persons not trading for profit, by means of loans or
grants, agriculture, forestry, drainage, harbours, fisheries, trans-
port by experimental work.
ENGLISH FINANCE
981
The National Debt, which had been reduced from 762,463,000
in 1909-10 to 707,654,000 in 1913-4, was destined to grow at an
enormous rate during the European War. Figures showing the
form of the debt are set out below:
The average British National Expenditure in 1914-5 was
1,500,000 a day; it grew to 3,750,000 in 1915-6, to 6,587,000
in 1916-7, and to 6,986,000 in 1917-8. A rule was laid down by
Mr. Reginald McKenna, who succeeded Mr. Lloyd George as
British National Debt in million .
Aug. i
1914
March
31 1915
March
31 1916
March
31 1917
March
31 1918
March
31 1919
March
31 1920
March
31 1921
Funded Debt
Term. Annuities
3i % War Stock .......
588
30
584
28
?49
3i8
26
6-1
3i8
24
61
3i8
22
63
3i8
22
63
315
'9
6-z
315
19
67
4-2 % War Stock
ooo
2O
16
14
11
ii
4 & 5 % War Stock
I.Q62
2,091
2,068
2.O4.O
I Q7I
National War Bonds
4 % Funding Loan
4 % Victory Bonds
649
1,636
1,476
409
357
1,441
407
358
22
Treasury Bills . ...
Exchequer Bonds
Nat. Savings Certs.
15
20
77
67
567
177
I
464
320
75
24.
961
392
138
2 3
957
384
227
1,107
319
274
1,121
292
28 3
Foreign Debt
Anglo-French Loan (British Portion)
Temporary Advances
I
9
51
20
317
51
218
944
5i
204
1,241
5i
455
1,181
51
205
1,136
155
654
1,105
2,132
3,856
5-872
7,436
7,829
7,596
War Period. The outbreak of war in Aug. 1914 was followed
by a number of emergency regulations which were destined to
have a profound effect upon the national finances during the war
period. The Government decreed a general moratorium, and
agreed to advance currency notes to bankers at Bank Rate to the
extent of 20% of their deposits. At first the banks availed them-
selves of this facility to relieve the shortage of cash to the amount
of 13,000,000, but by the end of Nov. 1914, when the mora-
torium expired, this amount had virtually been repaid. The
banks found that Government expenditure provided them
indirectly with all the currency they required, this of course
being the inevitable effect of inflation. On Aug. i 1914, the
Government gave the Bank of England authority to suspend the
Bank Act of 1844, but it was never acted upon, because the pas-
sage of the Currency and Bank Notes Act on Aug. 6 1914 rendered
the suspension of the Bank Act unnecessary. The excess fiduciary
issue was always turned into the currency note issue. The next
step was the undertaking of the Government to discount at 2 %
above Bank Rate all pre-moratorium bills of exchange. The
amount discounted was nearly 200,000,000, of which about
35,000,000 remained in cold storage until after the war.
The war was financed by means of Votes of Credit. There
were 25 Votes of Credit, as set out below:
Votes of Credit in the War.
1st Aug. 6 1914
2nd Nov. 15 1914 .
3rd March I 1915 .
4th March I 1915 .
5th June 15 1915 .
6th July 20 1915 .
7th Sept. 15 1915 .
8th Nov. II 1915 .
9th Feb. 21 1916 .
loth Feb. 21 1916 .
nth May 23 1916 .
I2th July 24 1916 .
I3th Oct. n 1916 .
I4th Dec. 14 1916 .
I5th Feb. 12 1917 .
I6th March 15 1917
100,000,000
. 225,000,000
37,000,000
(Financial year) 362,000,000
. 250,000,000
. 250,000,000
150,000,000
. 250,000,000
. 400,000,000
120,000,000
(Financial year) 1,420,000,000
. 3*0,000,000
. 300,000,000
. 450,000,000
. 300,000,000
. 400,000,000
. 200,000,000
60,000,000
(Financial year) 2,010,000,000
. 350,000,000
500,000,000
I7th March 15 1917
i8th May 9 1917
igth July 24 1917 650,000,000
2oth Oct. 30 1917 400,000,000
2ist Dec. 12 1917 550,000,000
(Financial year) 2,450,000,000
22nd March 7 1918 600,000,000
23rd -June 18 1918 500,000,000
24th Aug. I 1918 700,000,000
25th Nov. 1918 700,000,000
(Financial year) 2,500,000,000
Total (1914-8) 8,742,000,000
Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1916, that the Budget should
provide for all normal expenditure and the war debt charge.
This standard of finance was high higher than that aimed at
by any other belligerent. Thus in the year 1915-6, expenditure
amounted to 1,559,188,000, of which 336,737,000 was provided
by revenue. Tax revenue amounted to 290,088,000 or 18-6%
of the expenditure. In 1916-7, 573,428,000 was raised by
revenue, or 26% of the total expenditure, tax revenue being
514,105,000, or 23-3 per cent. In 1917-8 tax revenue contrib-
uted 22-7% to the expenditure, the total revenue being 26-2 per
cent. In 1918-9 tax revenue yielded 29-7 per cent.
Increased taxation was imposed in each War Budget. As far
as possible the Government relied upon screwing up existing
taxation, and avoided as far as possible the imposition of new
taxes. The only new tax of any great importance was the Excess
Profits Duty. This duty (see EXCESS PROFITS) was extraordina-
rily prolific and ranks as one of the most skilfully-devised fiscal
measures of the war; it was largely imitated abroad. It sought
to appropriate for national purposes a large slice of the exceptional
profits secured by those engaged in business, and at the same
time to provide a big new additional source of revenue. The duty
was first imposed in 1915, and was applied for a period of seven
years to all businesses. At first the rate was 50 %; it was increased
to 60% in April 1916, and from 60 to 80% in May 1917. No-
change was made in 1918, but in 1919 the rate was reduced ta
40%; and raised again to 60% in 1920. In the budget of 1921 it
was brought to an end.
Income Tax (see INCOME TAX) was doubled in the first War
Budget introduced on Nov. 17 1914 by Mr. Lloyd George.
It was raised from is. 3d. to 2s. 6d., and the rate for earned
income was hoisted up from gd. to is. 6d. in the pound. Super
Tax was also doubled. In the third War Budget introduced in
Sept. 1915 (the second was in May, 1915), 40% was added to
income tax, the exemption limit was reduced from 160 to 130,
and abatement limits from 160 and 120 to 120 and 100
respectively. The reduction made in Sept. 1915 in the limit of
exemption to incomes below 130 increased the number of
taxpayers by a very large figure, practically every working man
being rendered liable to the tax. To meet the convenience of the
working class taxpayers' quarterly assessments were introduced.
These classes insisted upon a differentiation between married
men and bachelors. This was made in 1918-9 and subsequent
Budgets, the differentiation taking the form of an abatement in
income of 25 in respect of a wife living with her husband.
An " entertainments tax " was introduced in the Budget for
1916-7, the tax ranging from Jd. on a 2d. ticket to is. on a
I2S. 6d. ticket, with an extra shilling for every IDS. over ias. 6d.
In the following year this tax, which proved successful, was
increased by 50 per cent. Other new taxes imposed in 1916
982
ENGLISH FINANCE
included a Customs and Excise Duty on matches, which was
increased two years later. In 1918 the stamp duty on cheques
was increased from id. to 2d., despite considerable protest from
bankers and others that it would produce very undesirable con-
sequences. A still more important change affecting the customs
of the people was the abolition of the id. postage on letters. In
1918 the minimum charge for letter carrying was raised to ijd.,
and that for postcards to id. In 1920 the minimum postage for
inland letters was raised to 2d. for a weight not exceeding 3 oz.,
an extra d. being charged for every additional ounce. For inland
newspapers the charge for postage was fixed at id. for weights
not exceeding 6 ounces. Inland parcel rates were raised to gd.
for weights up to 2 lb., and is. for weights between 2 and 5 pounds.
In the three financial years ended March 31 1918 indirect
taxation actually diminished, the yield in the last of these years
being smaller than in the first. In 1915-6 the produce was 1273
millions, in 1916-7 134! millions, and in 1917-8 n8j millions.
But direct taxation, which in 1915-6 yielded 1313 millions, gave
348 millions in 1916-7, and no less than 473 millions in 1917-8.
In the 1918 Budget indirect taxation was screwed up. The duty
on spirits was raised from 145. gd. to 305., while the beer duty
was increased from 255. to 503. per standard barrel. Tobacco
duty, which was raised by is. iod. per lb. in 1917, was increased
from 6s. sd. to 8s. 2d. in 1918.
In 1916 there was much criticism of the Government's financial
methods. Bank Rate was raised to 6%, and Treasury Bills
were put " on tap " at 6 % discount. Six per cent Exchequer
Bonds were also put on sale. But the payment of these high rates
for money (see MONEY MARKET) at a time of active inflation when
money was abundant met with severe criticism. It was ostensibly
designed to attract foreign money to London, but eventually it
was decided to abandon the " dear money " policy and to
offer a special rate, above the domestic rate, for foreign moneys.
The year 1916 witnessed a new innovation in borrowing. What
was described as the " continuous loan " principle was introduced
in that year namely, the daily offering of war securities instead
of the flotation of fixed period subscription loans of the old fash-
ioned variety. At first this type of borrowing was not very suc-
cessful, but with the introduction of modern publicity methods in
1917 the continuous loan plan became a very remarkable success.
The following are the aggregate figures for the British financing
of the war from Aug. i 1914 to Nov. 16 1918, five days after the
Armistice was signed:
Total expenditure 8,656, 198,215
Balance . . 6,141,062
Yield of revenue 2,220,235,719
Net borrowings 6,442,103,558
iotal
.8,662,339,277
Total
. 8,662,339,277
In the tables below and on the next page are shown revenue
and expenditure for the 12 years ended March 1920-1.
An important feature of English finance during the war period
was the borrowing of money abroad, especially during the period
of actual hostilities. The first loan was raised in the autumn of
1915, when the British and French Governments jointly and
severally issued a loan for 500,000,000 dollars in New York.
The position of Great Britain's foreign debt on March 31 1921
is shown below:
Foreign Debt, 1921.
Debt to :
In Currency.
In Pounds Ster-
ling at Par of
Exchange.
U.S.A. Government
Total to U.S.A.
Canadian Government
Total to Canada
Sweden ...
Straits Settlements.
Mauritius.
Allied Government.
$4.196.818,000
4,733,214,000
132,326,000
257.326,000
Kr. 12,500,000
Rs. 8,071,300
862,362,000
972,704,000
27,190,000
53.339,000
826,000
7,656,000
538,000
126,500,000
The total foreign debt, expressed in pounds sterling at the par
of exchange, was, on March 31 1921, 1,161,563,000, a decrease
of 117, 151,000 on the total as on March3i 1920, and of 23,287,-
ooo from the highest point reached on March 31 1919.
The figures of the deadweight debt, which included the foreign
debt, were as follows in each of the financial years 1909-20:
1909-10
1910- I
I9II- 2
1912- 3 .
1913- 4
1914- 5
713,245,000
685,232,000
674,744,000
661,474,000
651,270,000
1,108,817,000
1915- 6 .
1916- 7 .
1917- 8 .
1918-9 .
1919-20 .
1920- i .
. 2,140,749,000
. 4,011,446,000
. 5,871,851,000
7,434.949,000
7,829,000,000
7.573,000,000
The amount of advances and loans to the Allies on March 31
1921 was made up as follows:
Russia ....
France ....
Italy .
561,400,000
557,000,000
Belgium (war) .
Belgium (reconstruction)
Serbia ....
Portugal, Rumania, Greece
nd c
ther
:s
94,400,000
9,000,000
22,100,000
66,200,000
TOTAL
1,786,900,000
Loans to the Dominions were made up on the same date as
follows:
Australia .
New Zealand .
Canada
S. Africa .
Other Dominions
TOTAL
90,000,000
29,600,000
13,800,000
7,500,000
3,100,000
144,000,000
Further tables show income-tax rates, and the yield for total
direct taxation, 1910-21.
Revenue 1910-21 (ooo's omitted).
1>)(X) I<>
1910-1
1911-2
I9I2-3
I9I3-4
I9H-5
1915-6
1916-7
1917-8
1918-9
1919-20
1920-1
Cus'o.ns
30,348
33,HO
33,649
33,4*5
35,450
38,662
59,606
70,561
71,261
102,780
149,360
134,003
Excise ....
31,032
40,020
38,380
38,000
39,590
42,313
61,210
56,380
38,772
59,440
133,663
199,782
Motor Vehicle Duties .
-
7,073
Estate, etc., Duties
21,766
25,452
25,392
25-248
27.359
28,382
31,035
^1,232
31,674
30,262
40,904
47,729
Stamps (exclusive of Fee &
Patent Stamps)
8,079
9,784
9,454
10,059
9,966
7,577
6,764
7,878
8,300
12,438
22,586
26,591
Land Tax ....
150
1,220
750
700
700
630
660
640
665
630
680
650
House Duty ....
560
3,080
2,130
2,000
2,000
1-930
1-990
1,940
1,960
1,850
1,960
1,900
Property & Income Tax (inc.
Super Tax) ....
13,295
61,946
44,804
44,806
47-249
69-399
128,320
205,033
239,509
291,186
359,099
394,146
Excess Profits Duty
140
139,920
220,214
285,028
290,045
219,181
Corp. Profits Tax .
650
Land Value Duties
520
481
455
715
412
363
521
685
664
663
20
TOTAL ....
105,230
175,162
155,040
154,753
163,029
189,305
290,088
514,105
613,040
784,278
998,960
1,031,725
Postal Service
18,220
I9,22O
19,650
20,300
2I,I9O
20,400
24,100
24,350
25,260
29,400
31,000
36,100
Telegraph Service .
3,090
3,175
3.105
3,100
3,080
3,000
3,350
3.350
3,500
3,800
4,850
5,200
Telephone Service
Crown Lands (Net Receipts)
1,720
480
i,955
500
2,945
530
5,775
530
6,530
530
6,250
545
6,450
550
6,400
650
6,600
690
6,800
760
8,300
680
8,200
660
Receipts from Sundry Loans,
"
etc. ....
1,269
1,234
1,281
i,4i9
1,580
1,277
2,432
8,056
'6,05-6
11,679
14,952
30,771
Miscellaneous.
1,688
2,604
2,539
2,925
2,304
5,917
9,797
16,517
52,148
52,303
280,829
313,329
TOTAL REVENUE
I 51,696
203,851
IT,(K)()
188,802
198,243
226,094
336,767
573-428
707,235 | 889,021
1,339,571
1,425,985
ENGLISH FINANCE
983
Income-tax rates, 1910-21.
Nominal rate
Rate on earned income
Rate of Super Tax
1909-10 to
I9I3-4
I9H-5*
I9i5-6f
1916-7 and
1917-8
1918-9 and
1919-20
1920-1
IS. 2d.
gd. to is. 2d.
6d.
is. 3d.
gd. to is. 3d.
5d. to is. 4d.
2s. 6d.
is. 6d. to2s. 6d.
lod. to2s. 8d.
5s-
2s. 3d. to 53.
lod. to 33. 6d.
6s.
2s. 3d. to 6s.
is. 1043. 6d.
Changeable on
incomes over
2,500.
6s. (Standard Rate)
33. (Half Rate)
is. 6d. to 6s. Limit re-
duced to 2,000.
*The rates for 1914-5 were doubled for the last four months of the Income Tax year.
fThe rates for 1915-6 were increased by 40% for the second half of the year and Super Tax extended to 33. 6d.
Expenditure, 1910-21 (ooo's omitted).
1909-10
1910-1
I9II-2
1912-3
1913-4
I9H-5
I9J5-6
1916-7
1917-8
1918-9
1919-20
1920-1
Total National Debt Services
Payments to Local Taxation
Accounts, etc.
Other Consolidated Fund Serv-
ices (Civil List, Annuities
& Pensions, Salaries & Al-
lowances, Courts of Justice,
& Misc. Services)
21,758
9,445
1,654
24,554
9,882
1,664
24,500
9,636
1,693
24,500
9,653
1,692
24,500
9,734
1,694
22,669
9,529
I,6Q3
60,249
9,757
2,788
127,250
9,895
i,974
189,851
9-731
1,670
269,965
9,681
1,699
332,034
10,746
1,948
349,599
10,785
1-796
Army
Ministry of Munitions .
Navy
Air Force
27,236
35,807
27,449
40,386
27,649
42,858
28,071
44,365
28,346
48,833
28,886
5L550
ti5
L?
f'
T*7
fi5
t i
TI/
ti5
f i
T'7
t 7
395,000
156,528
52,500
X X
X X
X X
X X
TOTAL CIVIL SERVICES .
40,010
43,09
46,OOI
51,944
53,90i
56,956
54,7i8
54,113
61,242
67,988
569,054
X X
"Customs and Excise .
*Inland Revenue .
Post Office Services
2,116
1,226
18,693
2,211
1,708
I9,68l
2,297
1,654
20,547
2,324
1,876
23,024
2,43i
2,052
24,607
2,479
2,123
26,060
2,5H
2,089
26,673
2,397
2,331
26,454
2,473
2,683
25,738
2,562
2,970
26,396
4,992
4,430
48,064
X X
X X
X X
TOTAL SUPPLY SERVICES
125,088
134,533
141,006
151,604
160,170
168,054
86,018
85,328
92,169
99,956
1,230,568
817,381
Votes of Credit (Naval and
Military Operations, etc.)
.
357,ooo
1,399,652
1,973,665
2,402,800
2,198,000
87,000
TOTAL EXPENDITURE
CHARGEABLE AGAINST
REVENUE ....
157,945
171,906
178,54^
188,622
197.493
560.474
155.158
2,198,113
2,696,221
2,579,301
1-665,773
1,195,428
t Nominal amounts, the substantive issues being made under Votes of Credit.
j Included under Civil Services (Unclassified), in 1919-20.
x x Figures not available. * Excise transferred from Inland Revenue to Customs in 1909-10.
Direct Taxation, 1010-21.
Years ended
March 31.
Land Tax.
Inhabited
House
Duty.
Property and Income Tax and Super Tax.
SuperTax.
Total.
Excess Prof-
its Duty.
Schedules.
A. | B.
c.
D.
E.
i
1909-10
118,108
521,932
1 ,560,000
50,000
2,085,000
7,907,048
1,150,000
12,752,098
1910-1
11,209,648
13,212,026
15,802,000
316,000
2,530,000
37,439,439
4,418,000
2,891,000
t63, 396,439
-
1911-2
747,377
2,109,877
10,164,000
207,000
2,768,000
25,285,043
2,892,000
3,018,000
44.334,043
1912-3
687,173
,955,887
10,003,000
203,000
2,794,000
25,203,392
2,909,000
3,600,000
44,712,392
I9I3-4
690,007
,994,400
10,304,000
214,000
2,867,000
27,293,763
3,223,000
3,339,008
47,240,771
I9H-5
661,376
,886,692
13,391,000
273,000
3,724,000
37,639,831
4,396,000
10,121,023
69,544,854
1915-6
679,797
,975,068
24,287,000
617,000
9,377,000
69,785,936
8,306,000
16,787,654
129,160,590
187,846
1916-7
653,480
,887,793
37,100,000
3,120,000
18,500,000
116,898,039
10,920,000
19,140,411
205,678,450
141,614,932!
1917-8
682,737
-941,396
39,000,000
2,820,000
15,000,000
139,036,990
19,000,000
23,278,704
238,135,694
223,116,090^
1918-9
642,760
,859,526
21,900,000
4,820,000
19,700,000
185,647,799
25,640,000
35,560,083
293,267,882
283,976,861!
1919-20
671,200
,935,413
44,000,000
7,900,000
22,000,000
209,829,475
32,800,000
42,404,597
359,434,072
289,208,046::
1920-1
650,000
,900,000
394,146,000
219,181,000!
NOTE. The figures in the above table give the amount of the actual net receipts derived from the Revenue due to the Exchequer.
*The net receipt of Property and Income Tax, etc., represents the amount of tax actually collected within the year (irrespective of
the year of assessment) less the amount of Tax refunded, etc., within the year. The amounts under the several schedules show the approx-
imate net receipt of the Tax based on the assessments of property and income under each schedule.
flncluding arrears of 1909-10.
! Includes Munitions Levy.
After the War. With the termination of the war, taxation in
some directions was stiffened, and the revenue continued to
expand until it reached the unprecedented figure of i ,425,985,000
in 1920-1. In the 1919 Budget death duties on estates over
2,000,000 were raised to 40% and the tax on the larger incomes
was raised slightly, thus hastening the break-up of the historic
country estates, which became a feature of the social changes in
the post-war period. The tax on beer was raised from 2 1 55. 6d.
per 36 gal. to 3 ios., and that on spirits from i tos. to 2 tos.
for proof gallons. It may be explained here that the highest pre-
war rate of income tax was is. 3d. in the pound, in 1919-20 it
was 6s. In 1914 an earned income of 600 paid i 8 in income tax ;
in 1910-20 it paid 75, which shows that roughly the income
tax was multiplied by four. A feature of the 1919-20 Budget was
the introduction of a form of Imperial Preference. In 1920 a
Royal Commission which had been appointed to consider the
question of income tax made certain recommendations of reform.
Some of these were incorporated in the Finance Act of 1920,
whereby a radical alteration was effected in the method of
granting relief in favour of earned income, and of the method of
graduating the burden of the tax . Exemption from tax was granted
to single persons up to 135 (and up to 150 in the case of earned
incomes) and to married persons (without children) to 225
(and up to 250 if wholly earned). In arriving at assessable
income a person was allowed to deduct one-tenth of all earned
income, up to a limit of 200. That is to say, a person with an
ENGLISH HISTORY
Liabilities and Credit (ooo's omitted).
Year
ended
March 31.
Gross Liabilities
of State.
Assets Estimate.
Loans to Allies.
Loans to Dominions.
Loans for Relief
to European
Countries.
Suez Canal Shares
Market Value.
Other Assets.
1910
762,463
35-295
i 4,118
1911
733,072
37,608
4,003
1912
724,806
44,046
3,704
-
1913
716,288
39-015
3-707
"
~^
"
1914
707,654
34-929
3-350
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1,165,802
2,197-439
4-063,645
5,921,096
7,481,050
7,875,642
7,619,000
29,993
24,858
27.404
29,628
32,818
23,192
3243
3-419
3-216
70,673
54,216
82,831
14.170
288,481
827,835
1,335-425
1,570,254
1,724,562
1,786,900
39,532
91,161
146,778
194-439
170,890
"9.597
144,000
8,074
16,700
*Figures not available.
earned income of 2,000 was entitled to deduct 200, but if the
earned income exceeded 2,000 not more than 200 was deducti-
ble. On the first 225 of taxable income arrived at after deducting
the various allowances provided for such as one-tenth in respect
of earned income, wife and child allowances, insurance premium,
dependent relief, etc. tax was imposed at half the standard
rate; namely 33. in the pound and at 6s. on each pound in excess
of 225. Thus the various rates of tax previously in use were
abandoned and two rates of tax put in their place. Super-tax
was stiffened and regraduated.
The table above shows the aggregate gross liabilities of the
State on March 31 in each of the years 1910-21, together
with figures of assets, loans to countries allied to Great Britain
during the war, and also to the Dominions, and advances for
European relief granted after the termination of the hostilities:
To sum up, the World War cost Great Britain over 10,000,-
000,000, while if allowance be made for the expenditure of the Do-
minions the total would be very much greater. An analysis of the
expenditure of the United Kingdom from 1688 to 1920 disclosed
the fact that in the six financial years from March 31 1914 to
March 31 1920, Government expenditure exceeded the total
expenditure for the 2j centuries preceding 1914. The figures are:
for the 226 years 1688 to 1914, 10,944,000,000; for the six years
1914-20, 11,268,000,000. Thirty-six per cent, of this latter sum
was paid in revenue, and the remaining 64% was borrowed.
The British people provided about 9,900,000,000 out of their
own resources towards the six years' expenditure, or 215 per
head. Though this vast expenditure was really the outcome of
inflationary methods of finance, the system of inflation was not
the same as that practised on the continent of Europe but was
based on Treasury Bills or Ways and Means advances. These
credit instruments were based not upon gold but upon currency
notes. Inflation had the effect of reducing the pre-war unit of
value: before the war the unit of value was the sovereign contain-
ing 123-274 grains troy of gold; in 1920 the unit of value was a
paper pound representing no definite weight in gold, but vary-
ing in gold value from day to day. (C. J. M.)
ENGLISH HISTORY, 1910-1921 (see 9.466-582). I. BEFORE
THE WAR, 1910-12. At the death of Edward VII. on May 6
1910, he was succeeded on the throne by his only surviving son
as George V. (see GEORGE V.). The coronation at Westminster
Abbey took place on June 22 1911, and was followed by State
visits to Ireland, Wales, and Scotland; but an even more im-
portant act in the public assumption of Imperial authority was
undertaken during the winter of 1911-2 in the visit paid by the
King and Queen to India. At the Delhi Durbar (Dec. 12 1912),
at which the King was crowned as Emperor of India, His
Majesty announced that in future Delhi would replace Cal-
cutta as the capital, and that Lord Curzon's unpopular parti-
tion of Bengal would be annulled. No hint of such an im-
pending coup d'etat as was represented by the latter announce-
ment had previously leaked out, and no single act of Govern-
ment in the history of the British constitutional monarchy had
ever exhibited so strikingly the latent resources of the Throne
as an extra-parliamentary factor in Imperial administration.
Without sending any communication to Parliament, the home
Government had deliberately utilized the King-Emperor's
authority to carry out an autocratic act of State policy in
India, which otherwise could not have been accomplished without
considerable friction.
(For a full account of the action here involved, see INDIA.)
It is only right to emphasize the interest attaching, at the
opening of the new reign, to the position of the British Throne,
as such. In the varied and exacting functions which it is expected
to perform, much inevitably depends on the extent to which
popular respect and affection surround the royal family. King
George was able to benefit, in this respect, from a long growth
of public confidence, and from the general acceptance of the
theory that, so far as possible, the Crown should be kept out
of politics in the party sense. It was all the more important,
at King George's accession, that the personal popularity of the
royal family should have been unquestionable, because of the
political crisis amid which King Edward's death had occurred.
Since the Lords' rejection of the budget in 1909 the whole course
of domestic politics had been quasi-revolutionary; as between
the contending political parties the impasse had become com-
plete when the conference of 1910 broke down, and when
immediately afterwards the second general election of that
year gave the Liberal Government once more a majority. But
the Crown remained by universal consent an imperial and social
factor of all the more potential value as a moderating influence
because of the warring of political factions.
" English " history to-day cannot indeed be written without
reference to the British Empire, as a unit greater than is repre-
sented by " home " (i.e. English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish)
politics (see BRITISH EMPIRE). The Imperial " idea," to which
Mr. Chamberlain's administration of the Colonial Office and
the emergency of the Boer War had given such a pronounced
impetus, was already progressing with rapid strides at the open-
ing of the new reign both in Great Britain and the Dominions.
After 1909, moreover, the question of Imperial Defence had
become acute, in consequence of the rapid increase of the Ger-
man navy and its manifest challenge to British sea-power.
The most remarkable incident during the Imperial Conference
of 1911 was the confidential discussion of British international
policy, at which the Colonial representatives were addressed
by Sir Edward Grey with a detailed account of the situation
in foreign affairs. For the first time, it was felt, the Empire
as a whole had been taken into the counsels of the statesmen
of the mother country. A naval defence scheme was adopted,
providing for the maintenance of the various naval services and
forces under the control of their respective Governments, but
for making the training and discipline uniform with those of the
fleet of the United Kingdom and for arranging an interchange
of officers and men, while in war-time the Colonial ships placed
at the disposal of the Crown would be under the British Ad-
miralty. The movement for increasing the Colonial naval
forces, as part of an Imperial navy acting as a single unit, was
also notably forwarded by the visit to England of the Canadian
Premier, Mr. Borden, with other Canadian ministers, in 1912,
ENGLISH HISTORY
985
for the purpose of discussing the whole subject with the home
Government and the Committee of Imperial Defence.
In connexion with the Imperial Conference of 1911 it may
also be noted that resolutions were adopted by it in favour of:
(i) an Imperial Naturalization Act, based on a scheme to be
agreed upon, but still undefined, for conferring an uniform
British citizenship throughout the Empire; (2) the appointment
(carried out in 1912) of a royal commission, representing the
whole Empire, to investigate and report on its natural resources,
and the possibility of their development; (3) the establishment
of a chain of British State-owned wireless telegraphic stations
within the Empire (under the Marconi agreement of 1912).
The history of domestic British politics up to the outbreak
of war in 1914 continued to be dominated by the state of the
->, , parties resulting from the general election which was
Parties la , V-,
Pariia- precipitated in Dec. 1910 when the pnvate conference
meat, between the Liberal and Unionist leaders on the con-
stitutional crisis broke down (see 20.846, 847). The
result of this second appeal to the constituencies showed that
the short interval since the general election of Jan. 1910 had
made practically no difference in the balance of party power.
The new Parliament opened in Feb. 1911 with a ministerial
majority of 122, the combined forces of the Liberals under the
leadership of Mr. Asquith as Prime Minister (270), with the
Labour party (42) and the Irish Nationalists (84), numbering
396, while the Unionists numbered 274. In the Cabinet, Mr.
Asquith, Mr. Lloyd George (Chancellor of the Exchequer),
Mr. Winston Churchill (Home Secretary from Feb. 1910 till
Oct. 1911 and then First Lord of the Admiralty), Sir E. Grey
(Foreign Secretary), and Mr. R. B. Haldane, who was created
a peer as Viscount Haldane in March 1911 (War Minister till
July 1912, and then Lord Chancellor), stood foremost in dom-
inating the manoeuvres of the Liberal party. Behind them in
the House of Commons the most prominent members of the
Ministry holding major offices were: Mr. Birrell (Irish Secretary
since 1907); Mr. John Burns (President Local Government
Board since 1905); Mr. Sydney Buxton (President Board of
Trade since Feb. 1910); Mr. L. V. Harcourt (Colonial Secretary
since Nov. 1910); Mr. Reginald McKenna (First Lord of the
Admiralty from 1908 till Oct. 1911, and then Home Secretary);
Mr. J. A. Pease (Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster from
1910 till Oct. 1911, then Education Minister); Mr. Walter
Runciman (Education Minister from 1908 till Oct. 1911, then
President Board of Agriculture); Mr. Herbert Samuel (Post-
master-General); Sir Rufus Isaacs (Attorney-General since
March 1910) and Sir John Simon (Solicitor-General since March
1910). The Labour party was led by Mr. J. Ramsay Macdonald,
and the Irish Nationalists by Mr. John Redmond.
In the Upper House Liberalism had but a small following,
under the leadership of Lord Crewe (Sec. of State for India
Nov. 1910), but it included Lord Morley (Lord President of
the Council, Nov. 1910) and Lord Loreburn (Lord Chancellor
since 1905). Lord Rosebery continued to plough a lonely fur-
row, and Lord Courtney of Penwith to play the part of a
political Aristides.
On the Unionist side, Mr. Joseph Chamberlain being phys-
ically incapacitated and now only an abiding inspiration to
his political followers, Mr. Balfour had no rival as a parliamen-
tary figure. He was loyally supported in the House of Commons
by ex-Ministers in Mr. Austen Chamberlain, Mr. Walter Long,
Mr. Bonar Law, Mr. H. Chaplin, Mr. G. Wyndham, Mr. A.
Lyttelton, Sir R. B. Finlay and Sir E. Carson (leader of the
Irish Unionists). In Mr. F. E. Smith, K.C. (afterwards Lord
Birkenhead), who had made a rapid and brilliant success both
at the bar and in politics, the party had an indefatigable worker
and an audacious orator, a good foil to Mr. Churchill.
In the House of Lords Lord Lansdowne was the recognized
Unionist leader, actively supported by such ex-Ministers as
Lord Halsbury, Lord Londonderry, Lord Curzon, Lord Midle-
ton, Lord Selborne, Lord Cawdor, Lord Salisbury, Lord St.
Aldwyn; and the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Cromer and Lord
Milner were other important figures on the same side.
The Unionists were now united by the common bond of re-
sistance to the Radical-Socialist programme of their opponents.
The precise form which the tariff-reform policy would take if
the party were returned to power was debated according to
varieties of opinion on electioneering tactics; but it was sufficient
for the moment for those Unionist politicians who had opposed
it altogether, or still wavered as to details, to await events.
While a protective national economic policy was advocated
by the Tariff Reformers as an essential condition of the im-
provement of industrial and social conditions at home, the
Unionist leaders were looking anxiously to the wider Imperial
issues beyond the solution of immediate domestic problems.
Hopes were still entertained that, either by agreement between
the parties or through the failure of the Ministry to obtain the
King's consent to actual coercion of the House of Lords, the
immediate constitutional crisis might be solved or the Govern-
ment forced to resign or once more dissolve in circumstances
more favourable than before to a Unionist success at the polls.
It was clear from the first that the Government could rely on
the support of the Irish Nationalist party. The passing of the
Parliament bill was an essential preliminary to the sue- The posl _
cessful accomplishment of Home Rule, and it had tioa of the
been Mr. Redmond's policy ever since the elections Oovera-
of Jan. 1910 to press the destruction of the peers'
veto to its final issue for that purpose. The only doubtful
element in the situation was the Labour party. Its parlia-
mentary programme included a " Right to Work " bill which
the Liberal party could no more support than the Unionist;
and having successfully extorted the Trade Disputes Act
from Parliament in 1906, it was set on obtaining from the
Government a bill for reversing the " Osborne Judgment "
and freeing the employment of trade-union funds for political
purposes. The fact, however, that the " independence " of
the Labour party was dominated by reluctance to put Liberal-
ism in a minority, is so far as it stood for causes with which
the Labour party also identified itself, made its parliamentary
position one over the manoeuvring of which the Govern-
ment's Whips had the upper hand.
On Feb. 6 1911, the first Parliament of George V. was opened.
On Feb. 21, the Parliament bill was reintroduced in the
House of Commons, and had a first-reading majority The
of 124 next day; the second reading was carried on Pariia-
March 2; and on the isth the third reading was ment Bl "-
carried by a majority of 362 to 241, and the bill was sent up
to the House of Lords. A few trivial changes had been accepted
in its wording, but all the substantial amendments proposed
by the Opposition had been negatived. A Labour party amend-
ment to omit the words in the preamble, pledging the Govern-
ment to set up a reformed Second Chamber, was rejected
(May 2) by 218 to 47, Mr. Asquith declaring that the Govern-
ment regarded it as an obligation, if time permitted, to propose
a scheme for reconstituting the Upper House within the life-
time of the existing Parliament.
Every attempt of the Opposition to modify the operation
of the Parliament bill was met by dogged resistance. The
principal demand of the Opposition, that important con-
stitutional changes should not become law, if rejected by the
House of Lords, until they had been submitted to the judgment
of the country, was of no avail. The Government's reply was
that the country, in giving them a majority, knew quite well
what the Parliament bill would be used for, and that the two
years' interval it allowed for delay was an ample safeguard
against legislation to which the people were opposed.
Meanwhile the alternative policy of the Unionist party was
being made clearer in the more congenial atmosphere of the
Upper House. A bill proposed by Lord Lansdowne f^g^dio,,
for reforming its constitution was read a second time of the
on May 22. The whole principle of this scheme of re- ?JJJ 0/
form was that, while the composition of the Up-
per House would be changed and put on a representative
basis, in accordance with the policy of Lord Rosebery's reso-
lutions in 1910 (see 20.847), its powers would remain as they
986
ENGLISH HISTORY
were. Under it, the reconstituted House would consist (ex-
cept for royal princes) of " Lords of Parliament," summoned
as such and not because of any hereditary title; 100 would
be elected by the hereditary peers from such among their
number as were qualified, under a schedule to the bill, by
having held various public positions or ranks in the public
services; 120 would be elected to represent different districts of
the United Kingdom by colleges of electors consisting of the
members of the House of Commons for the constituencies with-
in those districts; too would be appointed by the Crown (i.e.
the Ministry) so as to represent the proportional strength of
parties in the House of Commons; seven would be "spiritual
lords," i.e. the two archbishops and five bishops to be elected
by the Anglican Episcopate; and 16 would be peers who had
held high judicial office. Except for the law lords, who would sit
for life, and the spiritual lords, who would sit while they occupied
their sees, the lords of Parliament would sit for 1 2 years, subject
to one-fourth in each class (selected by ballot) retiring every
third year. Peers who were not " Lords of Parliament " would
be eligible for the House of Commons, but the creation of new
hereditary peerages for commoners other than past or present
Cabinet ministers was to be limited to five a year. In Lord
Lansdowne's view, such a reform of the constitution of the
Upper House, which followed on the lines of suggestions already
thrown out by Lord Curzon and Lord Selborne, would provide
a representative Senate, of which the existing Unionist party
preponderance would no longer be characteristic.
So long, however, as the Government flatly declined to accept
any reconstruction of the Upper House as a substitute for
the Parliament bill, any such proposals were mere beating of the
air. The actual scheme excited no particular interest on the
Unionist side, and was assailed by Liberals on the ground that,
according to their calculations, while pretending to be repre-
sentative, it would simply stereotype a Tory majority. On
the day after it was read a second time, the second reading of
the Parliament bill was taken (May 23), and the real issue had
to be faced; but the approach of the coronation, and the prev-
alence of a feeling that, in spite of bellicose utterances in the
Liberal press as to the creation of 500 new peers for swamping
opposition, the Government might still be forced to a com-
promise, made the debate still only a manoeuvre for position,
and Lord Lansdowne decided not to divide against the bill
but to propose amendments in committee.
The real fight only began when the coronation was over.
The committee stage of the Parliament bill lasted from June
28 to July 6, and, in spite of warnings from Lord Morley that
the Government would refuse, in the House of Commons, to
accept them, Lord Cromer's amendment (June 28), substituting
a joint committee for the Speaker in deciding what a " Money
bill " was, and Lord Lansdowne's amendment (July 5), pro-
viding for a referendum in specific cases of measures attacking
the existence of the Crown, the Protestant succession, or the
establishment of national parliaments with legislative powers
in Ireland, Scotland, Wales or England, were carried by large
majorities. On July 20 the bill, so amended, was read a third
time without a division, Lord Lansdowne declaring that the
principal amendments were " so essential that we should
certainly not be prepared to recede from them so long as we
remain free agents." Lord Halsbury went still further: " but
for the existence of the amendments, he would have himself
moved the rejection of the bill on the third reading, and unless
those amendments were accepted in substance, in meaning,
and in operation, he would never consent without a division to
the passing of the bill."
The next day the Government exploded their bombshell.
It had been a mystery up to this moment whether Mr. Asquith
The Vie of na< ^ btained f rom tne King a definite assent to
the Royal the use of the royal prerogative for creating peers,
Pnroza- and the question whether such a course could possibly
be resorted to had 'been freely discussed from the
time when the Parliament bill was first proposed. All doubts
were now set at rest. On July 21, a letter from Mr. Asquith
to Mr. Balfour in the following terms, written the day before,
was published:
I think it courteous and right, before any public decisions are
announced, to let you know how we regard the political situation.
When the Parliament bill, in the form which it has now assumed,
returns to the House of Commons, we shall be compelled to ask that
House to disagree with the Lords' amendments. In the circum-
stances, should the necessity arise, the Government will advise the
King to exercise his prerogative to secure the passing into law of the
bill in substantially the same form in which it left the House of
Commons, and His Majesty has been pleased to signify that he will
consider it his duty to accept and act on that advice.
In the subsequent debates in both Houses of Parliament
(Aug. 7 and 8) on votes of censure moved by the Unionist
leaders, the course taken by the Government was more fully
explained. It appeared that the Cabinet had presented a
memorandum to the King on Nov. 15 1910, before the general
election, as follows:
His Majesty's ministers cannot take the responsibility of advising
a dissolution unless they may understand that in the event of the
policy of the Government being approved by an adequate majority in
the new House of Commons, His Majesty will be ready to exercise
his constitutional powers, which may involve the prerogative of
creating peers, if needed, to secure that effect shall be given to the
decision of the country. His Majesty's ministers are fully alive to the
importance of keeping the name of the King out of the sphere of
party and electional controversy. They take upon themselves, as
is their duty, the entire and exclusive responsibility for the policy
which they will place before the electorate. His Majesty will doubt-
less agree that it would be inadvisable in the interests of the State
that any communication of the intentions of the Crown should be
made public unless and until the actual occasion should arise.
The King had felt that he had no alternative except to assent,
though he did so, as Lord Crewe now stated, " with natural
and legitimate reluctance." The Government had hoped that,
as the result of the general election, the Parliament bill would
be allowed to pass without amendments which would be fatal
to its purpose, and therefore without a disclosure of the con-
fidential understanding which all the time existed as to the
use of the prerogative, but this was no longer possible; the only
question now was whether the threat was to be sufficient.
It was clear that, in the House of Commons, the Lords'
amendments would be summarily rejected by the Government
majority. The further developments of the political The Die-
crisis depended, therefore, on what would happen hard
in the House of Lords when the bill was sent back *
to it. A hurried meeting of Unionist peers was held (July
21) at Lansdowne House, at which Lord Lansdowne informed
them that the Government had told the Opposition leaders
that their intention was not to send the bill up from the House
of Commons unless an assurance was given that it would
be passed, the assumption being that, in the absence of this
assurance, peers would at once be created in sufficient num-
bers for the purpose; and it was freely stated in the Liberal
press that the Government Whips had a list ready of persons
who were prepared to accept peerages on condition that they
voted for the Liberal programme. A state of extreme exas-
peration prevailed, but a considerable majority of Unionist
peers agreed with Lord Lansdowne's view that, if this crea-
tion of peers were proceeded with, not only would the Par-
liament bill be passed, but even such opportunities as it left
open for subsequent resistance to Home Rule and similar meas-
ures would be nullified; the only prudent course, in the interest
either of the Unionist party or of the peerage, was to sink further
opposition, now that they were no longer " free agents." On
the other hand a minority, whose view was strongly expressed
by Lord Halsbury, bitterly opposed such a surrender; in their
view they did not cease to be " free agents " until they were
actually out-voted. It was in this sense that they had under-
stood Lord Lansdowne's use of the phrase on the third reading
and it was only on that condition that they had not rejected
the bill then. They still regarded the Government threat as a
piece of bluff. It was asked whether it could be regarded as
certain that, when the 500 eligible magnates who were willing
to take Liberal peerages had voted for the. Parliament bill,
they would not take a more independent view of their position
ENGLISH HISTORY
987
so far as Home Rule and other measures were concerned. The
class of men whom Mr. Asquith was prepared to nominate for
the purpose would hardly be different from those who in recent
years had been added, quite acceptably, to the House of Lords
by Liberal initiation in considerable numbers, and who had in
many cases come round there to a different way of thinking. 1
A further argument was that if a creation of peers was avoided
now, it would not prevent its being resorted to if the House
of Lords subsequently rejected the Home Rule bill.
Between these opposing views of the situation, a cleavage
in the Unionist ranks was at once manifest. Mr. Balfour de-
cided to " stand or fall " with Lord Lansdowne's advice, and
they were followed by much the larger numbers; but public
interest centred in what was known as the " Die-Hard " move-
ment, which was actively organized under Lord Halsbury's
leadership and initiated at a largely attended and enthusiastic
dinner in his honour at the Hotel Cecil on July 26, at which
Lord Selborne presided, supported by Lord Salisbury, Lord
Milner, the Dukes of Northumberland, Marlborough, Bedford
and Somerset, Mr. Austen Chamberlain, Mr. George Wyndham,
Sir Edward Carson, Lord Hugh Cecil, Mr. F. E. Smith, Lord
Willoughby de- Broke, and other prominent men. How many
peers would follow the lead given by Lord Halsbury and vote
against the unamended bill when it was again sent up was
still uncertain, but as Lord Lansdowne and the bulk of those
who accepted his advice were only prepared to -desist from
further opposition, and would not assist the Government affirm-
atively by voting for a measure they detested just as much as
the " die-hards," it was impossible for him to give Mr. Asquith
the assurance he had demanded. A period of extreme tension
and uncertainty followed. On July 24, when Mr. Asquith
was to move in the House of Commons that the Lords' amend-
ments be disagreed with, he was howled down from the Unionist
benches, amid a scene of great disorder, which was repeated
next day, and it was not till Aug. 8 that the motion for disagree-
ing with the Lords' amendments was carried by 321 to 215,
after the Government had agreed to introduce a few minor
changes. Meanwhile Mr. Balfour had endeavoured to placate
the whole of the Unionist party by moving a vote of censure
(Aug. 7), which was rejected by 365 to 246, and in the House
of Lords a similar vote of censure moved by Lord Curzon
(Aug. 8) was carried by 282 to 68.
The Parliament bill was sent up again to the Lords for their
acquiescence in the striking-out of their amendments, and the
crucial debate there took place on Aug. 9 and 10. In answer to
Lord Rosebery, Lord Morley made the precise statement that
if the bill was defeated " His Majesty would assent to a creation
of peers sufficient in number to guard against any combination
of the different parties in Opposition by which the Parliament
bill might again be exposed to defeat." This declaration had a
marked effect on the result. Up to the last moment the figures
on the two sides were in doubt, but the division showed 131
in favour of passing the bill, and only 114 for insisting on the
amendments. The Government had won the day by the help
of enough votes from peers who usually acted with the Opposi-
tion to counterbalance the " die-hards." Thirty-seven Unionist
peers, the two archbishops, and n bishops voted with the
Liberals; but Lord Halsbury's followers were more than had
been expected, several peers, including the Duke of Norfolk,
joining them in protest against the action of the Unionists who
helped to carry the bill. Lord Cromer, who had been active in
getting Unionist peers to support the bill on the ground that
only in this way could the damage likely to accrue from a crea-
tion of new peerages be avoided, was absent through illness;
and Lord Curzon's was eventually the most powerful influence
exerted in this direction, his action being all the more hateful
1 It is worth noting in this connexion that between 1868 (when
modern Liberalism and Conservatism practically started as organized
parties) and Oct. 1912, the new peerages created by Liberal Govern-
ments numbered 164 and those created by Conservative Govern-
ments 149. Mr. Asquith alone had created 52 new peers up to Oct.
1912 since he became Premier in 1908.
to the " die-hards " because earlier he had been specially
prominent in counselling resistance to the bill at all costs.
The Parliament bill thus became an Act and duly received
the royal assent; and a statutory enactment defining the rela-
tions between the two Houses of Parliament was
substituted for an unwritten British constitution. J*g s *j" as
As compared with the original form in which it
was introduced (see 20.846, 847), various small drafting
alterations were made, including an improved definition of
a " money bill," and a more definite exclusion of private bills
from the scope of the measure; but the only changes of any
substantial importance were the following, (i) A provision
by which the Speaker, before giving his certificate (to be en-
dorsed on every money bill sent up to the House of Lords)
that a bill is a money bill, " shall consult, if practicable, two
members to be appointed from the chairman's panel at the
beginning of such session by the committee of selection."
(2) Provisions excluding from any public bills, as to which
the Lords' consent would not be required after being sent
up in three successive sessions, " a bill containing any
provision to extend the maximum duration of Parliament
beyond five years," and also " any bill for confirming a pro-
visional order." (3) A provision altering the limits of the two
years which must have elapsed during the three successive
sessions to " between the date of the second reading in the
first of those sessions of the bill in the House of Commons and
the date on which it passes the House of Commons in the third
of those sessions." (4) A provision requiring a certificate
signed by the Speaker, stating that the provisions of the Act
in this respect had been complied with, to be endorsed on any
bill so presented to the King for his assent notwithstanding
the opposition of the House of Lords. (5) A provision that " in
every bill so presented to the King, the .words of the enactment
shall be as follows: ' Be it enacted by the King's most excel-
lent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Com-
mons of this present Parliament assembled, in accordance with
the provisions of the Parliament Act, and by authority of the
same as follows.' "
In all vital respects the Parliament Act remained as orig-
inally introduced in 1910. Though its preamble declared that
reform of the House of Lords itself still remained a task for the
future, the supremacy of the House of Commons, both for
purposes of finance and for public legislation, was definitely
enacted. While the Act, however, on the face of it, made the
Government masters of the situation, it was recognized by
people who looked a little ahead that in practice it might not
work quite as its authors contemplated. In order that its
provisions should apply, to the extent of bills becoming law
over the resistance of the Lords, these bills had to be sent up
in time for two years to elapse during the same Parliament,
and during these two years they had to be sent up again and
again without being changed from their original form. As
the duration of Parliament was cut down to five (practically
four) years, this rreant that nothing not sent up in the first
year or two would benefit by the Act; and apart from that, it
would be difficult to avoid changes in bills sent up year after
year. Even as regards " money bills," which the House of
Lords was now to have no power of rejecting at all, the prospect
was uncertain. The Budget of 1909, the rejection of which was
the cause of the whole revolution, was probably considered
a money bill by most Radical politicians; but the Speaker
(Mr. J. W. Lowther) upset any such calculations in Dec. 1911
by ruling, in answer to a question, that the Budget of that
year was not a money bill within the Parliament Act a fortiori,
therefore, neither was that of 1909.
On the very day that saw the triumph of the Parliament bill
(Aug. 10) yet another great alteration was being made in the
essential conditions of parliamentary life. Following payment
an invitation already given by Mr. Lloyd George, a of mem-
resolution was carried in the House of Commons by
256 votes to 158, providing "for the payment of a salary
at the rate of 400 a year to every member of the House, ex-
988
ENGLISH HISTORY
eluding any member who is for the time being in receipt of
a salary as an officer of the House or as a minister, or as an
officer of His Majesty's Household." Most of the Unionists
were opposed to the proposal, and a good many Liberals did
not like it, but the Government had determined to introduce
payment of members as a way out of the difficulty they had
with the Labour party, owing to the Osborne Judgment hav-
ing made illegal the payment of salaries to working-class
members out of trade-union funds (see 27.143). To legislate
in the way the Labour party demanded, so as directly to
reverse the Osborne Judgment, was impossible, though the
Government were prepared with a bill unsatisfactory to the
Labour party and not proceeded with, a second edition being in-
troduced in 1912 for enabling trade unions to make special
provision for voluntary political funds, separately from the
general funds to which every member of the union had to con-
tribute; but it was hoped that payment of all M.P.'s out of
public money would do away with the particular grievance of
the Labour members. In the country generally a good deal of
disgust was felt at the calm way in which M.P.'s had voted
themselves 400 a year, and some members who were too well-
off to want the subsidy declined to take it.
Further complications with Labour were being threatened
all this time outside Parliament. Industrial unrest was taking
a peculiarly acute and dangerous form. Though trade
"Barest." g enera lly was busy, and " unemployment " steadily
diminished, 1 the demand of the wage-earning classes
for a proportionately larger share of the good things of life
better pay and less work for it had become more articulate
and better organized. Socialist and particularly " Syndi-
calist " theories had for some time been getting a strong
hold of the younger generation of trade unionists; and a grow-
ing sense of the impotence of the Labour members in Par-
liament, added to increasing suspicion that Liberals and Tories
alike were in league with the " money power," encouraged
the idea that " direct action " by means of strikes was the
only way of successfully asserting the claims of the operatives
to a larger share of the profits of industry. The fact that wages,
under existing agreements, practically remained stationary,
while the cost of living, owing to higher prices, was going up,
gave a solid basis for discontent. The result was seen, not
only in numerous local conflicts between Capital and Labour,
but in the threat of more extended " general " strikes, which
aimed at holding up whole industries throughout the country
and compelling parliamentary intervention.
For the first time in the history of English labour troubles
a " national " strike was precipitated in 1911, and private war
Railway was ma de on the whole community by the members
strike, of the railway unions. Since 1907 there had been a
continual agitation among members of the Amalga-
mated Society of Railway Servants for better wages and
shorter hours, and for " recognition " of their trade union
by the railway companies, which had been steadily refused
by all except the North Eastern Company (after an arbi-
tration in 1897). A general railway strike was only averted
in 1907, as the result of negotiations carried on by Mr. Lloyd
George as president of the Board of Trade, by an agreement
between both sides to accept a scheme of conciliation and
arbitration proposed by him. But the actual working of the
conciliation boards then set up proved very disappointing
to the railwaymen; and the movement came to a head again
in Aug. 1911. Strikes had been going on in Liverpool, Man-
chester, London and elsewhere, among various other classes
of transport workers seamen, dockers and carters. In Lon-
don a violent dock strike was only terminated early in Aug.
by an award of Sir Albert Rollit, increasing wages; and a
carmen's strike, which had been accompanied by serious dis-
order and had driven the Government to order troops from
Aldershot, was brought to an end with considerable difficulty
1 The only official figures for " unemployed " issued by the Board
of Trade were for the trade unions. In these the percentage,
which was 9 in 1908 and 1909, fell to 5 in 1910 and 3 in 1911.
at the same time by the intervention of the Board of Trade,
the men securing concessions both as to hours and wages.
At Liverpool a protracted dock strike had driven the ship-
owners on Aug. 3 to agree to " recognize " the Dockers'
Union and make other concessions; but a number of strikers
refused to go back to work; and the ship-owners then an-
nounced a general lock-out to begin on Aug. 14. The answer
of the dockers' strike committee, led by Mr. Tom Mann, was to
call on all transport workers to assist them by striking in
sympathy, and wild scenes of rioting resulted, requiring the
introduction of troops to help the Liverpool police. The general
unrest now spread in an active form to the railwaymen too. At
Liverpool the goods porters at the Lanes. & Yorks. stations;
struck on Aug. 5 because of the delay in dealing with their
grievances, and at other stations the men came out in sympathy.
On Aug. 15 the joint executives of the four railwaymen's
unions Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, Associ-
ated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen, General
Railway Workers' Union, and Signalmen's and Pointsmen's
Union decided to order a general strike unless in 24 hours
the companies agreed to meet them and discuss terms. The
companies at once refused to do so, or to admit that the con-
ciliation scheme of 1907 could be thrown over in this way.
The leaders of the men on the other hand contended that the
spirit, if not the .letter, of the agreement of 1907 had never
been carried out, and that they must have direct recognition
of their unions. The machinery of the Board of Trade was set
to work to try to delay a rupture, but meanwhile the com-
panies were guaranteed military protection, and preparations,
were made for placing soldiers along the lines.
On Aug. 17 Mr. Asquith had an interview with the men's-
representatives, and offered a royal commission to inquire into
the working of the conciliation scheme, but at the same time
he warned them gravely and firmly that the Government could
not allow the railway service of the country to be paralysed..
Resenting the tone of his speech, and suspicious of a royal
commission as simply a means of shelving the whole matter,
they refused this offer and ordered the strike, which began next
day in spite of continued efforts by Mr. Lloyd George (Mr.
Asquith having left further action to him) to overcome what
seemed to be a misunderstanding. As the result of his explana-
tions to the men's leaders negotiations still went on; a vote of
censure on the Government which the Labour party at first
decided to move in the House of Commons was not proceeded
with; and instead of Parliament being adjourned on Aug. 18
until the autumn session, as had been arranged, it was decided
to meet again on Aug. 22 in order to deal with the situation.
The strike was in actual operation for practically two whole
days and did not terminate till Aug. 20. On the igth, however,
a settlement was effected. It was agreed that a special com-
mission should at once investigate the working of the con-
ciliation scheme and report quickly what changes were de-
sirable, and that the trade-union leaders should persuade the
men to return to work, the strikers being reinstated. The
special commission started work on Aug. 23 and took evidence
from both sides up to Oct. 3, its report being issued .on Oct. 20.
It was unanimously recommended that the conciliation scheme
should be amended in various ways, the central board being
abolished and any differences within the sectional boards being
settled by an independent chairman chosen from a panel
drawn up by the Board of Trade; trade-union "recognition"
by the companies was not directly conceded the commissioners
pointed out that the companies could not permit intervention
on the subject of discipline and management but some satis-
faction was given in this direction by a recommendation that
the men should have anybody they wanted (e.g. a trade-union
official and not actually an employee) on the sectional boards
as their secretary and advocate. The Labour party and trade-
union leaders were by no means satisfied, however, with the
result of the commission. The union leaders decided to take a
ballot in Dec. on the question whether the findings of the com-
mission should be accepted or another strike for " recognition "
ENGLISH HISTORY
989
started; and when the report of the commission came up for
discussion in the House of Commons on Nov. 22 the situation
was still a very difficult one. A resolution was moved by Mr.
Lloyd George asking the Government to bring about a further
meeting between the representatives to the agreement of Aug.
19; but this was only carried after a contentious debate dis-
playing obstinacy on both sides, Mr. Ramsay Macdonald in-
sisting that the men had not agreed to accept the report and
that " recognition " was indispensable, while the view of the
companies was that the Government ought to hold the report
as binding on both parties. It was not till Dec. n that, after a
good deal of diplomacy on the part of the Board of Trade
officials, a compromise was arrived at. Both parties agreed to
accept the report of the commission as a basis for modifying
the future working of the conciliation scheme, " recognition "
being accepted to the extent of allowing the men to have their
trade-union secretary as adviser. Various concessions as to
wages and hours were also made by the companies.
As regards the strike itself, while in actual operation, the
state of the railways during those two or three days was un-
precedented. Some 220,000 men altogether, about a third
of the workers, were out, and traffic was much restricted, the
worst dislocation being in the N. of England, round Liverpool
and Manchester. Troops were employed freely to guard the
lines and give protection against violence, and in consequence
there were only certain particularly disturbed districts where
serious mischief occurred. On Aug. 19 an attack was made by
rioters on a train at Llanelly, and the soldiers had to shoot, two
men being killed, while an explosion due to the mob setting fire
to some trucks containing gunpowder resulted in five more
deaths; and at Liverpool, on the isth, two men were shot in a
riot. The employment of the military was furiously denounced
by the Labour agitators, but the intimidation practised against
non-unionists and the danger of extended sabotage were such
that, on the whole, the comparative peaceableness of the stop-
page, which occurred in a summer of unexampled heat, was
rather remarkable. To a great extent, and particularly on the
lines nearer London, this was due to the fact that a large pro-
portion of the union men who went out (a certain number
remaining loyal to the companies) only did so because they
dared not disobey the union orders. One outcome of the railway
strike, and of the general unrest of which it was a symptom, was
an addition made by the Government to the official machinery
applicable at the Board of Trade to the working of the Concil-
iation Act of 1906. In Oct. 1911 an Industrial Council, rep-
resentative of employers and workmen, was instituted as a
permanent body for considering and inquiring into matters re-
ferred to them concerning trade disputes, and for taking suit-
able action (but without any compulsory powers) on the same
lines as the conciliation boards already adopted in particular
industries. As chairman of this Industrial Council and " Chief
Industrial Commissioner," the Government chose Sir George
Askwith (b. 1861), head of the Labour Department of the Board
of Trade, who had just been knighted in recognition of the
valuable work he had done in recent industrial conflicts.
Meanwhile the National Insurance bill, introduced into the
House of Commons by Mr. Lloyd George on May 4 1911, had
brought new issues into the parliamentary con-
aace Act?" mct - This elaborate measure covered two distinct
subjects, one being national health insurance, under
newly constituted insurance commissioners for England, Wales,
Scotland and Ireland (with a joint committee, formed from
among them, for adjusting common affairs), assisted in each
case by an advisory committee, with county and county
borough committees for local administration, and the other
unemployment insurance, directly under the Board of Trade.
(l) Unemployment insurance, administered largely through the
labour exchanges, was applied to certain trades building, construc-
tion of works (railways, docks, etc.), shipbuilding, mechanical engi-
neering, iron-founding, construction of vehicles and saw-milling
with power for the Board of Trade to extend the scheme to others.
Workmen in these trades (others than foremen, clerks, indentured
apprentices, and persons under 16) would be entitled under various
restrictions to unemployment benefit (up to a standard of 73. a
week for not more than 15 weeks a year, starting at the second week
of unemployment), out of an unemployment fund formed by each
workman compulsorily contributing 2|d. a week (paid by employer
and deducted from wages), employers 2%d. a week per man, and the
State adding an amount equal to a third of their total contribution.
(2) For national health purposes, compulsory insurance was im-
posed on all persons (between 16 and 70) under contracts of service,
with certain exceptions (including those employed otherwise than in
manual labour, and paid over 160 a year, or possessing 26 a year
from property), provision being also made for certain classes of
employed persons to come into the scheme as voluntary contributors.
Under the compulsory insurance (except for certain lower rates)
male contributors were to pay 4d. a week, female 3d. (employers
making the payments and deducting them from wages), and em-
ployers 3d. for each male or female employed (special stamps for
each amount having to be affixed to cards for this purpose), the
State adding to the National Health Insurance Fund an amount
(two-ninths in the case of men, and one-fourth in the case of women,
of the cost of benefits and administration) reckoned at 2d. a week
per head. The benefits primarily secured were (i.) free medical
treatment at home; (ii.) sanatorium treatment for tuberculosis and
other diseases specified by the Local Government Board, the Govern-
ment allocating 1,500,000 for the building of sanatoria; (iii.)
payment during sickness of IDS. a week for men and 73. 6d. for women
up to 26 weeks ; (iv.) subsequent payment during disabldtnent of 55.
a week, and (v.) maternity bonus of gos. to women (including
wives of insured persons) on confinement ; provisions being made for
granting these benefits (medical attendance, sickness, and maternity
benefits not till six months, disablement not till two years after
payments started) or modifying and extending them as funds per-
mitted. The agencies for administering the benefits were made (i.)
" approved societies," i.e. the Friendly Societies, trade unions and
such similar bodies as the insurance commissioners approved, the
intention of the Government being to have as many as possible of the
insured included as members of " approved societies "; (ii.) the post-
offices, which would deal with those who would not join societies
or whom societies would not admit, and who thus became " deposit
contributors." The local health committees, among their other
duties (including the administration of sanatorium benefit), were
left to arrange for the service of medical practitioners for insured
persons, preparing lists of doctors from among whom the patients
were to have their own choice, payment to the doctors from the
general fund being estimated for at the rate of 6s. (including cost of
drugs) per head per annum. This feature of the bill, as explained by
Mr. Lloyd George, quickly aroused the opposition of the doctors,
who were organized under the British Medical Association to refuse
their services unless a larger payment was made ; and as a body the
doctors stood out for better terms. As medical " benefits " under
the Act became due on Jan. 15 1913, it became a question for the
Government whether, if no terms could be arranged, a regular State
medical service would not have to be started. On Oct. 23 1912 Mr.
Lloyd George announced the Government's "final" offer to increase
the capitation fee to gs. (including drugs and extras) ; but on Nov. 19
the offer was rejected by an overwhelming majority of the profession
at a representative meeting of the British Medical Association.
The second reading of the Insurance bill was carried without
a division on May 29, and the committee stage went on in-
termittently from July 5 to Aug. 4, when, with the discussion
on the 1 7th clause finished, Mr. Lloyd George was still able to
regard the Opposition as favourably disposed towards the bill.
Its remaining stages were then left over for the autumn session,
which began on Oct. 24. But in the interval opposition had been
growing, and the political situation in other respects was such
that genuine cooperation with anything proposed by the Govern-
ment was hardly possible if party capital could be made for the
Unionists by what was unpopular in its programme. Not only
were the doctors in full revolt against the terms proposed for
their remuneration, but the working classes themselves were
found to dislike exceedingly being taxed for benefits they were
not able to appreciate. Mr. Lloyd George, ever an ardent
electioneer, exasperated the Unionist party by his description
of the bill as giving the working classes " ninepence for four-
pence." Among domestic servants the scheme was cordially
disliked. Though the bill was planned so as to involve financial
cooperation between the State and the Friendly Societies, there
was considerable uncertainty, moreover, as to how far a great
many of the latter, especially the smaller local societies, would
reap advantage rather than loss. Public discussion concen-
trated on the difficulties and objections. It was inevitable there-
fore that, so far as the political aspects of the bill were con-
cerned, the attitude of the Opposition should be affected by the
discovery of its wide unpopularity.
990
ENGLISH HISTORY
The result was unfortunate for a scheme which aimed at
accomplishing so important a work of social reform. The Gov-
ernment had its programme for 1912 full, subject
to the wa y bein S cleared by the Parliament Act,
by the political necessity of proceeding with Home
Rule and Welsh Disestablishment; and Mr. Lloyd George,
whose influence on the parliamentary tactics of the Coalition
was now supreme, determined to force the Insurance bill
through before 1911 ended. When the House of Commons
resumed on Oct. 24 Mr. Asquith carried a time-table resolu-
tion for closuring the remainder of its stages; and by this
drastic method the bill passed through committee on Nov.
21 and was read a third time on Dec. 6. Under such con-
ditions the opportunity for effective Opposition criticism and
amendment was so limited that very little was possible, in spite
of the activity of Mr. Worthington Evans and other Unionist
members, and towards the end it became a question whether
the Unionist leaders would actually divide against the third
reading, a course to which they were openly challenged by Mr.
Lloyd George. Instead of this, an Opposition front bench
amendment was moved by Mr. H. W. Forster, proposing that
the bill should be postponed for further discussion, and this was
defeated by 320 to 223, the third reading then being carried in
a division in which the Opposition as a whole took no part,
21 members recording their votes against it. On Dec. n the
bill was read a second time in the House of Lords, and, after
various Government amendments had been inserted in com-
mittee on Dec. 14, it was passed and received the royal assent
next day, when Parliament was prorogued.
During all this time, both inside and outside Parliament,
opinion as to the scheme and its prospects had become more
clearly crystallized. While Mr. Lloyd George and his
supporters proclaimed it to be the most beneficial
reform ever conceived in the interest of the working-
classes, and taunted the Opposition with attempting to de-
stroy it, the Unionists dwelt on the injury done by forcing
through a measure which ought to have been more carefully
considered before it became law, and threw the responsibility
on the Liberal party for everything that was objectionable
and unworkable in it. The by-elections showed that its un-
popularity was continually growing; and under the arrange-
ment made in the Act, that the insurance commissioners should
during 1912 make regulations as to details, nobody knew
yet what procedure would be adopted to overcome count-
less points of difficulty which under the Act itself remained
quite unsettled. The medical profession, without whose co-
operation, so far as could be seen, the Act would not work
at all, continued to refuse it unless they were given better
terms, to which Mr. Lloyd George was still unable to agree;
and " passive resistance " was organized on their behalf by
the British Medical Association.
It was, however, not only the stimulus given by the antag-
onism to the Insurance Act that was causing a revival of Union-
ist confidence after the defeat over the Parliament Act. During
the autumn session of 1911 the Unionist party had started
afresh under a new leader in the House of Commons. The
" die-hard " revolt had been a final illustration of the dissatis-
Mr. Bal- faction within the party at the way it had been
four's res- led by Mr. Balfour for some time past. Had the
tenatioa. p ar ii amen t bill been defeated in the House of
Lords by the " die-hards, " it was an open secret that both
Lord Lansdowne and Mr. Balfour intended to, retire from
their positions at the head of the party, and it was largely
the dislike of acting disloyally by them that confined the
open revolt to a comparatively small section. Exasperation
at the result, however, was general. Mr. Balfour himself did
his best to smooth matters over, declaring in a public speech
(Haddington, Oct. 7) that the question of the peers' tactics
was now a dead issue, of no more practical importance than
the controversy as to the identity of Junius; and the " die-
hards," though they started a Halsbury Club and kept their
organization in being, protested at the same time that the
differences within the party were ended with the cause of them,
and that they only meant to work for the common good. But
after some weeks of reflection, when the hubbub was all over,
Mr. Balfour made up his mind that the right moment had
arrived, for him to retire from the leadership, though not from
Parliament, in view of the arduous political struggles still
impending, and the unlikelihood of his being strong enough in
health, should the Unionists again return to power, to conduct
a ministry. His announcement to this effect was made on Nov.
8, at a hastily convened meeting in the City of London. For a
few days the question of who would succeed him was uncertain.
Mr. Austen Chamberlain, not only as principal leader of the
Tariff Reformers and one whose very name would, on his
father's account, be most representative of the Imperialist
movement, but as ex-Chancellor of the Exchequer and officially
Mr. Balfour's deputy on the Opposition front bench, had
apparently the strongest claim; but, as a Liberal Unionist, his
selection was opposed by many Conservatives, who considered
Mr. Walter Long a better choice; and Mr. Long's great pop-
ularity among all sections was much in his favour. It became
clear to the partisans of both that if either were proposed, and
votes were taken, it would only emphasize the division of opin-
ion and create friction between their supporters.
It was found that Mr. Austen Chamberlain and Mr. Long
were both prepared to stand aside in favour of Mr. Bonar Law,
nominally a Conservative and at the same time a Mr _ Booar
strong Tariff Reformer; and on their joint proposal Law, the
he was quickly adopted as leader in the House of new leader.
Commons (Lord Lansdowne continuing to be leader in the
House of Lords), at a party meeting on Nov. 13. Their sac-
rifice of personal ambition set an example which did much
to promote fresh confidence within the party; and Mr. Bonar
Law had no sooner become leader than there were signs of
improved Unionist prospects in the constituencies. In in-
tellectual range, subtlety of exposition and criticism, and
political experience, Mr. Balfour had, admittedly, no rival on
either side, but he still remained in the fighting ranks, ready to
devote himself to the Unionist cause as much as anybody. His
retirement from the formal responsibilities of leadership gave
freer play to the respect and admiration felt for him personally
as a public man, while relieving the party of the accumulation
of doubt as to his policy and tactics, which, rightly or wrongly,
had led to undercurrents of dissension. To the plain man his
detached and philosophical outlook on public affairs had been
rather too lofty; to be " had " or tricked, as the party was
openly taunted with being by its opponents, over the Budget
of 1909 or the Parliament bill of 1911, simply meant that its
leader had failed in astuteness; ardent Tariff Reformers, en-
thusiastic for Mr. Chamberlain's policy and pining for Mr.
Chamberlain's aggressive tactics, felt that Mr. Balfour's balanc-
ing support of their proposals was unpractical and was confined
to economic generalities. He was perhaps " too much of a
gentleman " as well as " too little of a business man " for the
situation. Mr. Bonar Law, on the other hand, was more of the
Chamberlain type a successful man of business, the clearest
and most convincing platform exponent of Tariff Reform, a
speaker who was accustomed to calling a spade a spade.
It so happened that the result of the Canadian elections
at the end of Sept., and the defeat of Sir Wilfrid Laurier's
American Reciprocity proposals, had delighted the
Unionists and given them fresh confidence for the
future of Imperialism. Canada had shown that she
meant to keep her place in the Empire, and that antago-
nism to the prospect of becoming simply an annexe to the
United States was more powerful than the temptation to
secure immediate commercial advantages from reciprocity.
Up to the last the result of the Canadian elections had been
very uncertain, and the Tariff Reformers in England, who
had been thoroughly depressed and disheartened by the idea
that, if -reciprocity between Canada and the United States
were established, their hopes for Imperial commercial union
would be frustrated, had in Mr. Borden's success a legitimate
ENGLISH HISTORY
991
triumph for their own views of Imperial policy. Imperial
patriotism in Canada had averted the greatest danger yet
threatened, in spite of the support given by the Liberal Govern-
ment at home and the British Ambassador at Washington.
Every platform rang with Unionist rejoicings, and the Canadian
victory put new heart into the Tariff Reform propaganda.
On yet another question of Imperial moment a rebuff was
given to the ministerial policy. Throughout 1911 the decision
of the Government to ratify the Declaration of Lon-
Prixe l Biu l don nad le( ^ to a P r l n g eci agitation. Most of the
Unionist party, together with a strong body of
naval opinion, were actively opposed to it, their argument
being that under its provisions the advantages of British
supremacy at sea in war time would be seriously diminished.
The Government succeeded, however (June i 1911), in ob-
taining the support of the Imperial Conference, considerable
weight attaching to Sir E. Grey's view that adhesion to the
Declaration would be advantageous in Great Britain's foreign
relations and to the cause of peace. As Parliament had no
direct control over the action of the Government in the mat-
ter of ratification, political opposition centred on the Naval
Prize bill which was introduced to carry out the provisions of
the Declaration of London, the second reading being taken
on July 3. So much headway was made in arousing antag-
onism to the Declaration itself that when the third reading
of the Naval Prize bill came on in the House of Commons on
Dec. 7 the Government only managed to get a majority of 47 ;
and the House of Lords promptly rejected the bill.
The Government were meanwhile being perpetually worn and
worried by the militant agitation for women's suffrage and by
the difficulty of dealing with any legislation on the subject
when the Cabinet was divided. The Prime Minister himself
was avowedly opposed to women's suffrage altogether. On the
other hand, Mr. Lloyd George, while professing himself a strong
supporter of the cause, which was also advocated by Sir E.
Grey and Lord Haldane, objected to any bill which was not
thoroughly "democratic"; and because the "militants" re-
garded his attitude as obstructing the particular measure which
they had in view, and held him responsible for a Government
bill not being introduced as they desired, he was pestered as
much as if he had actually been an open opponent like Mr.
Asquith. The so-called " Conciliation " bill, introduced by Sir
G. Kemp, which assimilated the parliamentary to the municipal
The Fran- franchise for women and would give votes to about
chise a million, had been read a second time in the House
Question. of Commons on May 5 1911, Mr. Asquith himself
pairing against it while Mr. Lloyd George and other min-
isters supported it; and as there was no time for proceeding
with the bill in 1911 the Government promised to give it " facil-
ities " in the following year. But while the various sections
of supporters of women's suffrage disputed about its pros-
pects, and the " militants " raged together, Mr. Asquith sud-
denly made a new turn on Nov. 7 by announcing the intention
of the Government to add to its programme a Franchise Re-
form bill on the lines of Manhood Suffrage. In answer to
a deputation of woman suffragists on Nov. 17 he declared
that, while he was personally opposed to women's suffrage
altogether, this bill would be so drawn as to admit of amend-
ment to include women on certain terms; and if an amend-
ment, which the Government as such would not oppose, were
carried, the Government would then adopt it. They would also,
as had been promised, give facilities for the Conciliation bill.
It had been generally supposed that the Government would
take advantage of the passing of the Parliament Act to rein-
troduce the bill against plural voting which the Lords had
rejected in 1906, but this larger measure was totally unexpected,
and the announcement was widely construed simply as a device
for " dishing " women's suffrage. It was at once denounced
for that reason by the " militants " who began to make more
trouble than ever. From this moment the internal divisions
within the Cabinet on the subject of women's suffrage, and the
necessity of taking administrative action against " militant "
violence, remained a source of constant difficulty. When
eventually, on March 28 1912, the Conciliation bill was rejected
by 222 to 208, owing to disgust at " militant " tactics, the
prospect of legislative action rested entirely with the question
of an amendment of the Government Franchise bill, which was
read a first time on June 17 1912, by 274 to 50, and a second
time on July 12, by 290 to 218. In other respects this bill, which
abolished plural voting and university representation, made
six months' residence by adult males the only qualification for
votes, and did away with existing restrictions as to registration,
handing it over for automatic action by the municipal author-
ities, excited comparatively little public interest. There did
not seem likely to be time, even if there were inclination, to
pass it into law before the session ended. The Unionists, while
objecting to details, opposed it mainly on the old ground that
redistribution should accompany reform; while the Liberal
rank and file, who for their own electioneering purposes were
principally anxious to destroy the plural vote, felt that a simpler
measure with that object would have sufficed. A bill to abolish
plural voting, introduced by a private member, Mr. Baker,
was read a second time on March i 1912.
The main problem, however, before the Government when
Parliament met on Feb. 14 1912, was Irish Home Rule, with
Welsh Disestablishment and Disendowment in a sec- welsh nis-
ondary place. The main interest of the latter meas- establish-
ure, keenly as it was opposed in the interests of the meat '
Church of England, lay naturally in the financial pro-
visions. The income of the Welsh dioceses in 1906 was 556,-
000 (296,000 representing voluntary contributions which
would be unaffected), and of the 260,000 derived from en-
dowments the bill would take away 172,500, representing
(according to the Liberal view) national property; but this
reduction would only be gradually effected in about 40 years
by the Welsh commissioners appointed to manage the trans-
fer existing interest being maintained and existing incum-
bents being paid their present stipends so that in that time
the Church would have the chance of making good the loss
of income by increased voluntary contributions. The dis-
established Church was given power to set up a representa-
tive body; and to this body the Welsh commissioners would
hand over the cathedrals, episcopal palaces, churches and par-
sonages, and also the modern endowments and such part
of the glebe as was not considered to be part of the ancient
endowments to which the Church as such was strictly entitled;
as a dividing line the date of 1662 was taken as that after which
property of uncertain origin now owned by the Church might
be regarded as her own. The funds which by degrees would be.
taken from the Church were to be applied partly to charitable
and public purposes by being handed over to the county
councils and partly to the university of Wales (library, etc.).
The rather moderate extent of the disendowment thus pro-
posed was somewhat of a surprise. Extreme Liberationists had
to console themselves with the prospect of a success for the
principle of disestablishment rather than any considerable
acquisition of Church property for secular purposes. On the
other hand, from a Church point of view, the smallness of the
operation on its financial side made the whole transaction seem
one of peculiar meanness; for a paltry result, the work of the
Church admittedly now well done, as had been proved before
the Welsh Church Commission, whatever its shortcomings in
the past was to be crippled and hampered. Defenders of the
Church could point to the fact that it was the largest single
religious body in Wales, and the only one which was represented
in every parish by a regular organization. The ecclesiastical
indivisibility of Wales and England was a more fundamental
objection, the Welsh dioceses being from the Church point of
view an integral part of the Church of England. The case
for the Government, granted the principle of disestablishment
at all, was, however, fairly simple. Their precedent was the case
of the Irish Church in 1869: it was equally a part of the Church
of England, and disestablishment and disendowment had
done it good rather than harm. The answer to those who con-
992
ENGLISH HISTORY
Home
Rule.
tended that the Church really was the national Church of Wales
was that the Welsh people thought otherwise; at election after
election, almost unanimously so far as political representation
showed, they demanded the change as an act of justice. On
the first reading of the bill (April 25), which was carried by
means of the closure by 331 to 253, Mr. Lloyd George em-
phasized this point in a somewhat rhetorical plea for the right
of his own nationality to have the religion it chose and not to be
nationally misrepresented by a Church wfcich, however well it
worked, was English and not Welsh. On May 13 the second
reading opened with a slashing criticism from Mr. F. E. Smith,
but on the i6th it was carried by the closure by 348 to 267, and
the bill was then hung up till the late autumn. Its introduc-
tion satisfied the Welsh party, but otherwise it excited no real
parliamentary enthusiasm. In recent years disestablishment
had ceased to interest any large section of Liberal politicians;
and the bill, while alienating many Liberal churchmen and
rallying to defence of the Church numbers of voters who are
normally indifferent to political issues, was not of a nature to
help Liberal or Labour electioneering outside Wales itself.
In making an Irish Home Rule bill their chief measure in
1912 the Government were more fortunate in one respect than
Mr. Gladstone had been in 1886 and 1893, when the whole Irish
question was still associated in Great Britain with the preju-
dice and hostility aroused by the agrarian war, with all its
incidents of cattle-maiming and boycotting, the " plan of
campaign," the Phoenix Park murders and dynamiting out-
rages, the downfall of Parnell and the split in the Nationalist
ranks (see IRELAND). A new generation had grown up, to whom
all this was ancient history, with no special applica-
tion to the existing conditions. Ireland for years had
been peaceful and growing in prosperity; the Union-
ist Government had given her both local government and the
Land Purchase Act; and the idea of Home Rule (as apart from
the forgotten Home Rule bills) was now familiar simply as one
of the standing issues of party politics. Lord Rosebery's de-
fection had not prevented Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman
from inscribing it again in 1905 on the banner of the Liberal
party; and though the Liberals then came into power, in-
dependently of the Nationalist vote, under a pledge not to
introduce a Home Rule bill during the 1905-10 Parliament,
Mr. Asquith had been quite explicit in saying, when the elec-
tions of Jan. 1910 were taken, that if he got a majority this
self-denying ordinance would be at an end. It was true that
at the elections of Dec. 1910 neither Mr. Asquith nor his
colleagues in the Cabinet made Home Rule a direct issue
either in their election addresses or in their speeches. On
the contrary, when the Unionists warned the electorate that
in voting for the Parliament bill they were voting also for
Home Rule, they were constantly told that this was only a
" bogey." But the fact remained that Home Rule was an
integral part of the Liberal programme, and within the Govern-
ment forces returned as supporters of the Parliament bill the
Irish Nationalists held the balance of power. Mr. Redmond,
for his part, had been perfectly frank about the conditions of
his support; on Sept. 27, 1910, for example (to give only one
instance out of many), at a moment when it was still uncertain
to what lengths the Liberal Cabinet would go in framing a Home
Rule bill, he was reported as saying in a speech at Buffalo,
U.S., " I believe the leaders of the Liberals are sincerely friendly
to Home Rule, but, sincere or not, we have the power and will
make them toe the line." The real strength of his position for
making a good bargain over the terms of the bill was based,
however, on the willingness of the Liberal and Labour parties
to concede, in all essentials, the Nationalist demand, repre-
senting as it did not only a solid vote from three-quarters of
Ireland but also an important body of Irish opinion in America
and the British colonies. Apart altogether from the older
arguments for Home Rule, the Liberals justified their policy
by the success attending their grant of self-government to the
Transvaal, and by the congestion of business in the Imperial
Parliament, which in any case made it desirable to move in the
direction of devolution. An Irish Parliament and executive
of the colonial type for purely Irish affairs, subordinate to the
Imperial Parliament, would not only satisfy the Irish claim, but
might be the beginning of a federal scheme for the whole of
the United Kingdom. Arguing on these lines, and Mr. Red-
mond carefully put the Irish case no higher in his speeches
before British audiences it was much easier in 1910 and 1911
for supporters of the Government than it was in 1886 and 1893
to scout Unionist objections to the principle of Home Rule; they
could even appeal to Unionist arguments in favour of an Im-
perial federal constitution. English Liberal Noncomformists
were not now so much agitated about Home Rule meaning
Rome Rule; and public opinion in Great Britain generally had
become rather apathetic about Ireland altogether, being to a
large extent out of touch with its problems. It was only in Ulster
that passionate resistance was as yet reawakened.
Mr. Asquith introduced the Government of Ireland bill in
the House of Commons on April n 1912. He laid particular
stress on its being intended to be the first step towards par-
liamentary devolution and a system of federalized parliaments
within the British Isles, and on its maintaining the supremacy
of the Imperial Parliament at Westminster over the new Irish
Parliament equally with any that might later be set up in other
divisions of the kingdom. The essence of the bill was that in
Ireland an Irish Parliament and Irish executive should be re-
sponsible for exclusively Irish affairs. Instead of saying pre-
cisely what these affairs' were, the bill specified
what were the Imperial affairs which the Irish ^/*%^' fe
Government could not deal with, including cer-
tain Irish matters (Clause 2) " reserved " to the Imperial
Government. There would be two Houses an elected House
of Representatives of 164 members (of whom, on the exist-
ing basis, 39 would probably be Unionists); and a nominated
Senate of 40 members, on which Mr. Redmond's view was
that there would thus be the opportunity to secure the
inclusion of Irish public men of eminence, without reference
to their party colour. In case of a conflict between the two
Houses they would sit and vote together. For Imperial pur-
poses Ireland would still be represented at Westminster, but
only by 42 members, subject to a special provision (Clause 26)
for increasing this number in case the question of altering the
financial relations should arise at some future time and purely
for that purpose. The acts of the Irish Parliament would be
subject to veto or postponement by the Imperial executive or
Parliament, disputes as to their validity being adjudicated on
first by the Irish Court of Appeal and secondly by the Privy
Council. It might not enact privilege or disability, endow-
ment or deprivation, for any form of religion, or make any
religious belief or ceremony necessary to the validity of mar-
riage. Irish taxes would be settled by the Irish Parliament but
would continue to be collected (together with such Imperial
taxes as remained) by the Imperial Government, and an annual
sum corresponding to the cost of Irish services at the time of
the passing of the Act would be " transferred " to the Irish
Exchequer under the administration of a Joint Exchequer Com-
mittee, together with a grant, beginning at 500,000, to be
reduced as circumstances permitted; practically this meant
an annual subsidy of 2,000,000 from the Imperial Exchequer.
The " transferred sum " would provide a security on which the
Irish Government could raise loans. The financing of Old
Age Pensions, National Insurance, the Post Office Savings
Bank, and the Royal Irish Constabulary, was reserved tem-
porarily to the Imperial Exchequer, but the Irish Post Office
(with the patronage attaching to it) was made a separate service
under Irish administration. The powers given to the Irish
Parliament to deal with Customs and Excise as well as other
taxation contemplated the setting-up of Irish custom-houses
independently of Great Britain, and (within certain limits) the
possibility of varying duties as between goods imported into
Ireland or into Great Britain; and as the collection was to be
made by the Imperial Government, and allowance for the
Irish levy to be made to the Irish by the Imperial Exchequer,
ENGLISH HISTORY
993
the procedure was necessarily rather complicated. The finance
of the bill was indeed admittedly and necessarily provisional,
complete data being unavailable, in spite of the Government's
having had the advice of a committee of financial experts, whose
report, however, was not disclosed. For 1912-3 it was estimated
that the revenue derived from Ireland was 10,839,000, and
the expenditure there 12,354,000, showing a deficit of 1,515,-
ooo. In the next ten or fifteen years a further increase in the
deficit was contemplated, bringing it up to over 2,000,000. The
subsidy now proposed was estimated accordingly.
Even before the introduction of the bill it had been seen that
the greatest practical difficulty in the way of Home Rule, ir-
respective of controversy over particular details in
the scheme > would be the attitude of Unionist Ul-
ster. Under Sir Edward Carson's leadership, opposi-
tion was already being organized in 1911, on behalf of the N.
of Ireland Protestants and Orangemen, which, it was openly
avowed, would if necessary go to extreme lengths, even to a re-
fusal to recognize a Parliament in Dublin 1 and to the set-
ting-up of a separate " provisional government." The anxiety
of the Government to counter this movement as far as possi-
ble had been shown early in the session by the announcement
that Mr. Winston Churchill was going over to Belfast to
speak on Feb. 8 in the Ulster Hall, and violent opposition
to the proceeding was at once taken in hand there. It was
considered on the Unionist side that for the son of Lord Ran-
dolph Churchill, who had said that " Ulster would fight and
Ulster would be right," to preach Home Rule in a place asso-
ciated with the campaign against it, was an outrage; and the
leaders of the Ulster Unionist Council took steps to make the
delivery of the speech in the Ulster Hall impossible, Even-
tually its engagement for the purpose was cancelled, and it
seemed for the moment that the prospects of rioting and blood-
shed if Mr. Churchill appeared in Belfast at all were so serious
that the Government would be obliged to keep him away.
Mr. Churchill, however, was not to be daunted. Arrangements
were made for the speech to be delivered in a pavilion in a field
outside the city, and for troops to be drafted there in large
numbers for the maintenance of order. The apparent denial
of free speech at all on the Ulster Unionist side was severely
commented upon elsewhere, and justified with some misgiv-
ings by English sympathizers, but when the leaders had been
successful in defeating the plan for holding a Home Rule meet-
ing in the Ulster Hall they went no further. Mr. Churchill duly
arrived and made his speech, dwelling particularly on the
safeguards which the Home Rule bill would contain against
anything to which Ulster could object; but the city was in a
ferment of dangerous antagonism and he had to be smuggled
away afterwards to avoid the hostility of the crowd. Actual
rioting was avoided, and peace was kept between Nationalists
and Loyalists, at the cost of 2,730 for the expense of the troops
engaged, the Ulster leaders having eventually devoted them-
selves to keeping their supporters well in hand; but the whole
incident was an unpleasant revelation of the rebellious spirit
that was being aroused. A little later (April 9) Mr. Bonar Law
was present at a great demonstration at Belfast, the special note
of which was a solemn pledge of Loyalist resistance.
The Liberal press in England made light of these warnings,
but the organization of opposition in Ulster went steadily on.
As controlled by the Irish Unionist leaders it was
Attitude. formally independent of actual parliamentary tactics,
and therefore of the action of the Unionist party
under Mr. Bonar Law's guidance; but Unionist opposition
in Parliament and in the constituencies was inevitably
concerned with what might take place in Ulster. Mr. Bonar
Law, at Blenheim on July 27 and in the House of Commons
on Aug. 5, took his side openly with the Unionists of Ulster.
If, he said, the Ulstermen were forced into defiance of a meas-
ure passed under the Parliament Act without further appeal
1 The anniversary of "Craigavon Day," Sept. 23 1911, when Sir
E. Carson was acclaimed the Ulster leader, and the Declaration of
Ulster was published to the above effect, was celebrated in 1912.
to the electorate, and by the dictation of a Nationalist vote
which had in their view always been disloyal to the Empire,
any attempt to coerce Ulster could only mean civil war, and
this could not be confined to Ireland; it was incredible that the
Government should contemplate the coercion of Ulster by
British bayonets, but if they went to that length the situa-
tion would be intolerable, ministers would be " lynched
in London." Many Liberals hoped to find relief by propos-
ing to leave Ulster out of the Home Rule bill, at least tem-
porarily, altogether; but an independent Liberal amendment
to this effect in Committee (July 18), after some ambiguous
inquiries from the Government whether Ulster would be satisfied
if it were adopted, was rejected by 320 to 252.
Meanwhile, on April 23 an Irish National Convention in
Dublin, with Mr. Redmond presiding, accepted the bill, and the
doubts as to whether Irish Nationalists might dis-
agree over it and it might be snuffed out like the
Irish Councils bill in 1907, were dissipated. On July
19 Mr. Asquith addressed an enthusiastic meeting in Dublin,
and was received with fervour as the first English Prime Minis-
ter who had had a welcome there in Nationalist circles. The
first reading of the bill was carried in the House of Com-
mons on April 16 by 360 votes to 266, and the second read-
ing (April 30) on May 4 by 372 to 271. The Committee stage
began on June n, and on July 3 the first clause had gone
through; discussion was then suspended till the autumn.
On the Unionist side the objections to any scheme for a
separate Irish Parliament and executive were fortified by
criticisms of special features in the new bill itself the finance,
the proposal for Irish representatives to remain at Westminster,
the separation of post-offices and custom-houses but these
subjects had still to be further discussed when Parliament
adjourned in August. On the Liberal side a good many mem-
bers disliked the provision for the nomination of an Irish Senate,
and this question arose in Committee on Clause i, but an
amendment to exclude it was rejected (June 19) by 288 to 199.
Effective opposition was in Ulster, not in Parliament. Serious
rioting between Protestants and Catholics in the Belfast ship-
yards during July showed the tension there; and on Tlle
Sept. 14 a free fight between partisans of both Solemn
sides, in the course of a football match at Belfast Covenant.
at which 10,000 people were present, resulted in injuries to
about 100, revolvers and knives being used. Active prepara-
tions were on foot for a series of Unionist demonstrations in
Ulster, leading up to the signing on Sept. 28 of a Solemn
Covenant, pledging resistance to Home Rule. The perplex-
ity on the Liberal side in face of Ulster's determination was
shown by a speech of Mr. Churchill's at Dundee on Sept. 12,
in which he suggested, purely on his own account, that,
to secure a federal system of government for the United King-
dom, to which Home Rule for Ireland, however, was an essen-
tial preliminary, it might be desirable to grant separate legis-
latures to large homogeneous areas in England like Lanes.,
Yorks., the Midlands, and London; he would not shrink from
the creadon of 10 or 12 such English bodies, all subordinate to
the Imperial Parliament. Mr. Churchill's speculation was
effectively criticized by Mr. Balfour at Haddington on Oct. 9,
the scheme being described as " the application of decimal
fractions to the United Kingdom." What Unionist Ulster
demanded was to remain under the Imperial Parliament and
not be at the mercy of a parliament in Dublin.
The text of the Solemn Covenant, promulgated by the
Ulster Unionist Council, was as follows:
Being convinced in our consciences that Home Rule would be
disastrous to the material well-being of Ulster as well as of the whole
of Ireland, subversive of our civil and religious freedom, destructive
of our citizenship, and perilous to the unity of the Empire, we, whose
names are underwritten, men of Ulster, loyal subjects of His Gracious
Majesty King George V., humbly relying on the God Whom our
fathers in days of stress and trial confidently trusted, hereby pledge
ourselves in Solemn Covenant throughout this our time of threatened
calamity to stand by one another in defending, for ourselves and our
children, our cherished position of equal citizenship in the United
Kingdom, and in using all means which may be found necessary to
994
ENGLISH HISTORY
defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule Parliament in
Ireland ; and, in the event of such a Parliament being forced upon us,
we further solemnly and mutually pledge ourselves to refuse to
recognize its authority. In sure confidence that God will defend the
right, we hereto subscribe our names, and, further, we individually
declare that we have not already signed this Covenant.
Sir Edward Carson signed first, on Sept. 28, at the head
of a great gathering in Belfast. And when, just afterwards,
he crossed with Mr. F. E. Smith to Liverpool, he had a remark-
able ovation, violent speeches being made by sympathizers with
the cause of Ulster, 1 in favour of supporting her resistance by
force of arms. It was announced later that the total signatures
to the Covenant were: Ulster, men 218,206, women 228,991;
Outside Ulster, men 19,162, women 5,055.
Reference must now be interposed to the progress of the
industrial unrest in England, culminating during 1912 in the
National general strikes of coal-miners and transport workers.
Coal strike. For some time past trouble had been brewing in the
I9U ' coal industry. In Dec. 1910 a strike had begun at
the Cambrian Combine Collieries (of which Mr. D. A. Thomas,
afterwards Lord Rhondda, was managing director), owing
to the failure of the two referees (representing owners
and men) appointed by the South Wales Conciliation Board
to agree upon a tonnage price for the working of a seam at
the Ely Pit, which had till then been worked on day-work.
The rates offered by the owners were denounced by the strike
committee as a "starvation" wage; but the strike was really
a forward move on the part of the younger extremists
among the men, who had obtained the upper hand and were
influenced by socialistic doctrines. A general lockout of the
men working in other seams in the Ely Pit was the masters'
reply. The Welsh Socialists then sent delegates to enlist sym-
pathy among the English and Scottish miners elsewhere, and
to try to bring about a general strike; but the leaders of the
Miners' Federation of Great Britain were not prepared to sup-
port the action of the Ely Pit strike committee, and financial
support was withdrawn, so that the strike collapsed.
The Miners' Federation next put a claim before the owners
in the federated area for the fixing of definite rates of pay-
ment in the case of " abnormal places " where the men were
unable to earn an average day's wage for no fault of their own.
At the Southport conference of miners' delegates in Oct. 1911
the following resolution, proposed by the executive, was unan-
imously passed:
That the federation take immediate steps to secure an individual
minimum wage for all men and boys working in mines in the area of
the federation, without any reference to the working places being
abnormal. In the event of the employers refusing to agree to this,
the 2 1st rule to be put into operation to demand assent.
At a second conference on Nov. 14, at which the refusal of
the employees to accept the minim'um wage was reported, an
adjournment was resolved on (by 336,000 votes to 238,000) for
future negotiations; and on Dec. 21, the situation remaining
the same, it was resolved that a ballot should be taken on Jan.
io-i2 1912 on the question: "Are you in favour of giving
notice to establish the principle of a minimum wage for every
man and boy working in the mines of Great Britain?"' A reso-
lution was also passed " that each district send to Mr. Ashton
(general secretary of the Miners' Federation) a tabulated state-
ment of what it desires to be its minimum wage, and that the
executive committee of the Federation meet to consider the
statements and report to a national conference in Birmingham
on Jan. 18 1912." The result of the ballot showed 445,801
votes for giving notice, 115,721 against, majority 330,080,
1 It must be remembered, of course, that " Ulster," as an Irish
political unit, did not mean the whole province, but only the N.E.
portion, comprising the five counties of Antrim, Armagh, Down,
Londonderry and Tyrone, with the cities of Belfast and London-
derry. As a geographical unit Ulster had a pop. (1911) of 1,581,696,
but the N.E. portion by itself had 1,188,695. Out of the latter total,
those of 16 years old and over were 387,241 males and 438,774
females. As the census classification showed that 33-1 % of the pop.
in this N.E. area was Roman Catholic, the number of adult male
Protestants in Ulster who might be expected to sign the Covenant
was not much in excess of those who actually did so.
South Wales alone giving a majority of 85,107 for stopping
work. And on Feb. 2 1912 a definite schedule of the minimum
rates asked for was approved.
The coal-owners met on Feb. 7, and the Welsh owners then
refused to discuss any minimum wage and retired from the
conference. This made a strike inevitable, since the miners were
not prepared to settle with any but the whole federated area.
Notices were given accordingly, the public being faced with a
prospect of a complete cessation of coal supplies. The Prime
Minister on Feb. 20 invited both sides to meet him to discuss
means of averting a national stoppage, and their representatives
met him on Feb". 22, but to no purpose; and on Feb. 26 the first
miners went on strike at Alfreton, the rest soon following, in
spite of the announcement that the principle of a minimum wage
was now adopted by the Government and that they would take
steps to give it parliamentary sanction unless an agreement were
arrived at. On this point a split occurred between the coal-
owners, those of Durham and the federated districts being pre-
pared to fall in with the proposal of the Government, and the
others refusing. On March i over a million coal-miners were
out (Yorks. and N. Midlands 235,000; S. Wales 220,000; Scot-
land 130,000; Northumberland 120,000; Durham 110,000; Mid-
lands and South 105,000; N. Wales 70,000; N. and E. Lanes.
45,000), and during the whole month the country was con-
vulsed by the calamity.
At last, after the Government had made a further unsuccess-
ful attempt, by a conference, to bring owners and miners to
agreement, on March 19 1912 Mr. Asquith intro-
duced in the House of Commons a Minimum Wage
bill as their last resort. It provided that, in the coal
industry, every contract for employment should involve the
payment of a minimum rate, to be settled for each district by
a joint board set up under the auspices of the Board of Trade.
The bill was read a second time on March 21, after a motion
for its rejection by Mr. Balfour, on behalf of the Opposi-
tion, had been defeated by 348 votes to 225, and it had passed
both Houses on March 28. Having made their protest against
a piece of revolutionary legislation which introduced so novel
and far-reaching a principle into industrial economics, the
Unionists left the responsibility to the Government, and the
only parliamentary difficulty was caused by the Labour party,
who fought for the inclusion of a precise definition of the
minimum in the shape of 55. a day for adults and 2s. for boys;
as the Government refused this and insisted on the rates be-
ing fixed by the district boards, the Labour party opposed
the third reading, which, however, was carried by 213 to
48. There was acute dissatisfaction among the miners at the
failure of the Labour party to get their own minimum sched-
ule of rates adopted, and for a time the result was doubt-
ful; but it was decided to take a ballot (April i) on the question
of returning to work, and though a majority still voted for
staying out (244,011 to 201,013) it was not large enough (two-
thirds being required by the rules).
The fact was, the funds were exhausted and the men had
had enough of the struggle. The conclusion of Sir A. Markham,
the Liberal M.P. and coal-owner, writing in the Quarterly Re-
view for April 1912, is probably the verdict of history; he con-
sidered that " the ground of attack was ill-chosen; the men
should have stood to their original demand, the payment on
account of abnormal places or losses due to bad management.
If in addition they had asked for an increase of wages equiv-
alent to 10% on the basis rates, to meet the increased cost of
living, they would have occupied strong ground. The great
mass of men came out to obtain higher wages, and for no other
reason; and when they voted for the formula 'minimum wage '
nine-tenths did not know what they were voting for." The
result, as the year went on and the minimum rates were settled,
hot without friction, was a profound disgust among the coal-
miners generally with the operation of the new Act, which was
found to do very little to increase the amount pnid in wages;
but it had done its work for the moment, the crisis being over.
In Oct., moreover, an agreement was arrived at between repre-
ENGLISH HISTORY
995
sentatives of miners and coal-owners of the English federated
area, by which about 400,000 workers would at once receive an
advance of a shilling a week in wages. This was the outcome of
discussions before a Conciliation Board, which had been in
existence for some years and was now renewed for a further
period; and this addition of about 1,000,000 a year was worth
more than all the haggling about minimum rates.
In connexion with the opening phases of the railway strike
of 1911, allusion has already been made to the sporadic strikes
Transport l other sections of " transport workers " earlier in
Workers' the year; and the general dock strike, which began
Strike,i9i2. j n L on <ion on May 20 1912, was really the conclud-
ing phase of the unrest which had been only partially quieted
during the previous August. First the lightermen came out,
and then a " sympathetic " strike involved all the other unions
of transport workers connected with the Port of London.
The nominal reason for the lightermen ceasing work was
their objection to one man employed as a watchman having
no " federation ticket"; he belonged to the Foremen's Society,
a union not affiliated to the Transport Workers' Federation,
but refused to join the Lightermen's Society, which was so
affiliated, and when the lightermen demanded his dismissal,
on the ground that they would work only with men who belonged
to the federation, his employers naturally refused. This was,
however, in reality only the culmination of a number of
" grievances " put forward by the men, who complained of
being victimized under the terms of the existing agreements.
Unsuccessful negotiations had for some time been going on
between their secretary, Mr. Gosling (himself actually a mem-
ber of the Port of London Authority), and the Board of Trade,
with a view to pressure being put on the employers; and the
declaration of a strike on May 20 for the reason given was
prompted by the hope that the hands of the Government
would be forced. In taking this step the lightermen relied
on their privileged position in the Port of London. Their
Society held an old licence from the Watermen's Com-
pany, whose functions were transferred in 1908 to the new
Port of London Authority, and the law was that unlicensed
men should not be employed so long as licensed men were
available, so that, apart from the difficulty of obtaining sub-
stitutes in an emergency, the employers, as they knew, would
have to reinstate them when the strike was over. (One result
of the strike was that the Port of London Authority took steps
to get this law altered.)
The Federation of Transport Workers now took up the lighter-
men's cause, and in doing so put forward a further grievance
on behalf of the Carters' Union, by whom an agreement had
been made with the Master Carters' Association when the
strike of the previous August was settled. The complaint was
that one firm which had joined the association had dismissed
their union men, contrary to the terms accepted, and had
resigned from the association when it called them to account,
so that the agreement was useless. The union demanded
accordingly that all employers in the Port should be obliged
to belong to a masters' federation, which would have power to
guarantee the carrying-out of agreements. As no concession
on this point was forthcoming, notice of a general strike of all
members of the Transport Workers' Federation was given.
The Government at once took action by appointing Sir
Edward Clarke, K.C., to hold an inquiry on May 24. He made
Attempts his report on May 28 to the effect that, while the
at Settle- lightermen were wrong in supposing that the award
of the previous Aug. meant that none but mem-
bers of their federation should be employed, and they them-
selves had broken their agreement by striking without re-
course to arbitration, still there were several points on which
the transport workers had legitimate grievances, owing to
the employers not having carried out certain terms of their
agreements also. The Government on May 29 suggested
a conference between the two sides, which was, however, de-
clined by the ship-owners, who insisted that the only point
really at issue was the lightermen's breach of agreement in
suspending work and thus dislocating the whole business of the
Port. Meanwhile a general strike of transport workers was in
progress at the docks, some 80,000 men being affected, and the
whole food supply of London was threatened; but the ship-
owners actively engaged " free " labourers in spite of trade-
union picketing and intimidation, and day by day managed
more efficiently to get their ships unloaded. Public discussion,
influenced by Sir Edward Clarke's report, and its criticism of
both sides, centred round the apparent necessity of providing,
alike for masters and men, some guarantee against breaches of
agreements; and Mr. Lloyd George, who in Mr. Asquith's
temporary absence in the Mediterranean dominated the Gov-
ernment policy, made proposals, which he explained in the
House of Commons on June 5, for a Joint Conciliation Board,
combined with pecuniary guarantees on both sides. Mr. Gos-
ling, on behalf of the transport workers, gave a general assent
to this suggestion, but the employers and the Port of London
Authority (with Lord Devonport formerly Mr. Hudson
Kearley, a well-known Liberal M.P. as chairman), after care-
ful consideration, rejected it on June 10. It was pointed out by
them that there was no proper basis, under the conditions pre-
vailing at the docks, for such a board, the trades concerned being
very different and the employers (some of whom were foreign
firms) themselves being competitors; the Port of London
Authority moreover was a statutory body, with distinct obliga-
tions and responsibilities, and could not well enter into such
an arrangement, any more than a Government department could
the Post Office, for instance with the men in its employ-
ment. This was not a case of a strike against some individual
firm which had given legitimate cause of offence, but a general
strike against the whole Port, defying all agreements.
Negotiations now broke down altogether, and the leaders
of the Transport Workers' Federation declared a " national "
strike and tried to call out all its allied members at other ports
as well as London. But though some 30,000 men responded
altogether at Manchester, Southampton, Bristol, Plymouth
and Swansea, this appeal for a " national " strike was a thor-
ough failure; the railway unions had had enough fighting the
year before and the seamen and firemen, as a body, were not
prepared to come out. Scenes of violence were of daily occur-
rence between unionists and free labourers at the London
docks; but by June 18 it was clear that the Port of London
Authority and the employers, aided by police protection
(which Mr. McKenna, the Home Secretary, provided, though
somewhat grudgingly), had the strikers well beaten, having
obtained a sufficient supply of labour for the handling of cargo.
From this point, the strike degenerated into sheer anarchism.
Serious conflicts occurred, in which revolvers were used in self-
defence by the free labourers, notably on July 24 and on July 31,
but by degrees the strike committee realized that their efforts
were in vain. They recommended a return to work on July 27,
but a mass-meeting in Hyde Park next day refused to comply
with this advice, and it was not till a week later that all pretence
of continuing the strike was abandoned. On July 31 the lighter-
men decided to give in, and the riot among the dockers that day
was mainly due to their finding that their old places had been
filled up and that it no longer rested with them to say whether
they were wanted any more or not. On behalf of the em-
ployers, however, and of Lord Devonport, a general assurance
had been given that, if the strike were abandoned uncondition-
ally, any outstanding grievances under the old agreements
would be inquired into and reinstatement effected as soon as
possible for men who had formerly been in regular employment;
and, as the strike committee and the leaders could hold out no
longer, further resistance came to an end.
The real object of the strike, in so far as it aimed at being
a " national " one, was to compel Parliament to legislate, as
it had done for the coal-miners. In this case, how- "Neutral'
ever, the Labour politicians and their sympathizers Hy "la Par-
were impotent. The discussions in the House of Uameat -
Commons turned mainly on Unionist criticism of the Home
Secretary for the apparent disinclination he showed for using
996
ENGLISH HISTORY
force to preserve order and protect the free labourers. On
June 12 Mr. Austen Chamberlain moved a vote of censure
on Mr. McKenna, which was rejected, however, by 337 to
260. On July i Mr. O'Grady (Labour M.P. for E. Leeds)
moved a resolution " that it was expedient that the represen-
tatives of the employers and working men's organizations
involved in the dispute should meet with a view of arriving
at a settlement," and Mr. Asquith left the matter to the House,
saying that he himself would not vote on it, as he did not think
Government intervention would be justifiable or expedient. Mr.
Bonar Law, for the Unionists, having expressed his surprise
that in those circumstances Mr. Asquith did not oppose the
resolution, moved as an amendment, " that this House regrets
the continuance of the strike and the consequent suffering, and
approves of the declaration of the Prime Minister that the con-
stitutional and normal attitude of the Government should be
one of complete detachment and neutrality, and is of opinion
that the intervention of this House in this instance can serve no
useful purpose." The amendment was rejected by 260 to 215,
and the resolution was carried by 254 to 188. This was the end,
however, of any parliamentary action. The strike was already
collapsing, and its only political result was to focus public
opinion on the desirability of compulsory arbitration, or at any
rate some improved machinery for making agreements, once
entered into, binding on both sides.
Parliament met again for the autumn session of 1912 on Oct.
7, and the political conflict was once more renewed in the House
The of Commons. The effect of the Ulster demonstrations
Autumn on the Government, up to this point, had not been
session, specially terrifying; and Mr. Asquith, speaking at
Ladybank on Oct. 5, dealt somewhat scornfully with
Sir Edward Carson's movement and the Unionist attitude towards
it. The Government, he intimated, were ready to consider any
proposals for safeguarding Ulster, but Ulster had nothing to sug-
gest she simply would not allow Ireland to have what the other
four-fifths of Ireland demanded. It was impossible for the Gov-
ernment to give way to intimidation, prompted by the spirit of
Orange ascendancy ; they meant to go on with their bill. On Oct. 10
he introduced in the House of Commons a series of resolutions for
completing the various stages of discussion on it by Christmas
under the closure. Including the time already occupied, 50
days (to which two were added a few days later) were, on this
scheme, to be devoted to debate. An Opposition amendment,
proposed by Mr. Bonar Law, was defeated by 323 to 232. The
operation of the guillotine, combined with the " Kangaroo "
system by which the chairman of committees was left to choose
which among the various amendments proposed should be
discussed in the time available, made the resumption of the
committee stage simply a question of whether the Government
cbuld maintain their majorities; any effective debate was obvi-
ously impossible, and Mr. Bonar Law bluntly declared that the
Government might just as well have moved that the bill should
be passed without further delay. On the other hand it was
equally true that, without such a time-limit, the Opposition
would have protracted the debates indefinitely; the Govern-
ment had no option in the matter if they were to send the bill
up to the House of Lords during that session, as they must, in
order to obtain the benefit of the terms of the Parliament Act.
Even if the Home Rule bill were to be passed through the House
of Commons by Jan., the Government programme was over-
loaded, for they had announced their intention also to pass the
Welsh Disestablishment bill, the Franchise bill and other
measures, before the session ended.
At the same time, with Mr. Lloyd George's active encourage-
ment, yet another political issue was being made prominent
throughout the constituencies, in the shape of an or-
ganized agitation for land-tenure reform and increased
taxation of land-owners, promoted more particularly
by a section of the Radical party who had long been advocates of
the single-tax theory on Henry George's lines. The Budget of
1909 (as incorporated and passed in the Finance Act of 1910),
with its provisions for effecting a complete valuation of the land,
paved the way for such a movement, and the land-reformers
saw their opportunity now for pushing their views and preparing
for legislation. The fact, indeed, that the yield of the new land-
value duties in 1911 and 1912 proved disappointingly meagre
had even driven them to seek this extension of policy. For,
with the comparatively humdrum budgets of those years, the
critics of " Lloyd George finance " in that respect were already
taunting it with utter failure. The unpopularity of the Insur-
ance Act made it opportune, moreover, for'Mj. Lloyd George's
section of the party to try to divert electioneering attention on
the Radical side to something more attractive, and at the
summer and autumn by-elections the new land campaign was
made a leading feature by Radical candidates. Intense exas-
peration was created on the Conservative side, representing as it
did to so large an extent the landed interests of the country, by
the organization of an unofficial committee of inquiry under Mr.
Lloyd George's auspices, with the authority of the Cabinet, in
order to obtain evidence of various sorts of agrarian grievances
in furtherance of a new Radical policy.
An important change in the Home Rule bill was made when
on Oct. 30 the discussion in committee reached clause 8, con-
cerning the composition of the Irish Senate. It f he Pro-
was suddenly announced by Mr. Asquith that, posed Irish
while the proposed nomination of the first senators Settate -
by the Imperial Government would be adhered to, the Govern-
ment had decided to .abandon the idea of their successors
being nominated by the Irish Government. Instead of this,
the method would be substituted of election by the voters
in the four Irish provinces, taken as units, on a plan of pro-
portional representation, each elector having a " transferable "
vote (see 23.115). The term of office for senators would
be five years, and all would retire together at the end of the
fifth year so that the elections might then be taken. The next
day (Oct. 31) the revised clause was introduced and carried.
Mr. Asquith insisted that it would be an additional safeguard
for the Unionist and Protestant minority in Ireland, but Mr.
Bonar Law regarded it as worthless for any such purpose, and
Mr. Healy frankly declared that in his opinion the Irish Union-
ists would have been better off with the method of nomination.
Mr. Redmond, while accepting the Government's decision,
expressed much the same view. The fact was that the whole
idea of a nominated Senate was distasteful to most of the
Liberal party, and it seemed a favourable opportunity for putting
the experiment of proportional representation, which had
recently made many converts, into practice.
On Nov. 8 Mr. Asquith introduced a " guillotine " time-
table for the Welsh Church bill, allocating 14 days to the com-
mittee stage, two to report, and one to third reading. Oovera .
So short a shift excited much bitterness on the Opposi- meat De-
tion benches, the discussion that day being adjourned; feataadits
and on Nov. 1 1 the situation in the House of Com-
mons was changed by an unforeseen event. On a resolution
required as a preliminary to discussion of the financial clauses of
the Home Rule bill Sir F. Banbury moved an amendment
without notice, providing that the total payment from the
Imperial to the Irish exchequer in any one year should not
exceed 2,500,000. It was early in the afternoon, when the
Unionists were in unaccustomed force, and the Government
was defeated by 228 to 206. Mr. Asquith immediately moved
the adjournment of the House; and next day it was announced
that the Cabinet had decided to move a resolution rescinding
the vote and providing (so as to regularize further proceed-
ings under the time-table, which was entirely upset by the
incident) that the next day on which business was taken on
the Home Rule bill should count as the " i6th allotted day,"
though, as previously fixed, the i6th day was Nov. n; when
this had been done, they proposed to reintroduce their financial
resolution and proceed as though nothing had happened. On
the i3th Mr. Asquith accordingly moved to this effect. This
proposal to rescind the vote and set up the resolution afresh
was, however, as the Speaker agreed in reply to Unionist ob-
jections, absolutely unprecedented in parliamentary procedure.
ENGLISH HISTORY
997
It had always been held, and was laid down by Erskine May,
that no question or bill could be brought up in the House that
was substantially the same as one on which judgment had
already been expressed in the current session; and 'when the
Speaker nevertheless ruled that Mr. Asquith's motion, though
unprecedented, was in order, Opposition exasperation became
intensified to a point beyond control. After Mr. Bonar Law had
argued the case at length, and had moved the adjournment of
the debate, which Mr. Asquith curtly declined to accept, a
state of organized disorder prevented any further proceedings.
The Speaker at last took the only course open to him, and
adjourned the House. There seemed likely to be renewal of
the same scene next day, but calmer counsels prevailed. At
the opening of the sitting the Speaker suggested that, if more
time were given for reflection, a less objectionable way might be
found for regularizing the proceedings. Mr. Asquith promptly
accepted this suggestion, and moved that the House should ad-
journ for the purpose till Monday the i8th. As Mr. Bonar Law
concurred, this course was adopted, and the anticipated storm
was avoided. The air had previously been cleared to some
extent by amends being made by Mr. Ronald McNeill for the
most violent incident in the disorder of the previous evening.
In the heat of the moment he had thrown a book at Mr. Win-
ston Churchill which struck him a severe blow on the face;
but he now offered a handsome apology.
The Liberal press was inclined to treat the opposition to Mr.
Asquith's motion as purely factious, and the organized disorder
as a further mark of deterioration in parliamentary manners.
But the historian cannot well take this simple view. The de-
feat of the Government was certainly an accident, but it was
the sort of accident that happens when a number of nominal
supporters are not personally enthusiastic for the particular
cause involved, or are being tired out by excessive demands
on their attendance. The opinion of a high independent Liberal
authority on procedure, Mr. James Caldwell, ex-M.P. and
formerly chairman of committees, was moreover that Mr.
Asquith's proposal for meeting the new situation was " clearly out
of order " (The Times, Nov. 16), although not so ruled by the
Speaker. Owing to the critical state of foreign affairs, con-
sequent on the situation in the Balkan War, a change of govern-
ment, as Mr. Bonar Law frankly admitted, was not at this
moment desirable; and if the Government chose to ignore what
was formally a parliamentary defeat their normal majority was
still available. But the Opposition were naturally not pre-
pared to forgo what, according to the practice and precedent
of Parliament, was a legitimate opportunity for impeding the
execution of the Government's programme of legislation for the
session; and they gained their point. On Nov. 18 Mr. Asquith
made an amended proposal, which was agreed to without further
discussion, that the financial resolution should simply be
negatived that day and the committee stage on the financial
clauses of the Home Rule bill set up afresh on the igth by the
introduction of an amended resolution, the report stage of which
would be taken on the 2oth, so that the next " allotted day "
(the 1 7th day under the time-table) would be on Thursday
Nov. 21. This course was accordingly pursued.
After the scare in the Government ranks caused by the mis-
adventure of Nov. ii and its immediate consequences, the
Home resumption of proceedings on the financial clauses of
Kuie Bill the Home Rule bill saw their normal majority
auiiiotiae. we]1 kept up; and the ^110^^ fell ^th merciless
regularity. Faced with a hostile and unreformed House of
Lords, whose certain antagonism could only be defeated by
sending the bill up in time to obtain the benefit of the Par-
liament Act, the Coalition were compelled to restrict discus-
sion in the House of Commons; and it might well be thought on
their side that at this stage, since in any case the Parliament
Act involved nearly two years' delay, it was futile to attempt
to examine every detail in a scheme which was approved in
principle, but which still had a long fight before it. On the
other hand it was incontestable that, for a measure of such
profound importance, supposing it to be one that might come
into operation as it left the House of Commons, the discus-
sion of the various difficult and obscure aspects of the new
financial relations proposed between Ireland and Great
Britain was entirely inadequate. Clause after clause was
carried, undiscussed, under the closure, full of complicated
provisions, the working of which very few of the rank and file
in Parliament even pretended to understand. For judicial
examination in debate, reflecting the careful conclusions of
the House of Commons, was substituted the opinion of the
ministers in charge of the bill, alike as to the powers it gave and
the way those powers were likely to be used. Just as the In-
surance Act had left all sorts of obscure questions to be settled
by the commissioners, so the Home Rule bill left some of the
thorniest problems of the financial relations with Ireland to be
solved by the proposed Joint Exchequer Board, an entirely
new official body, whose real status was highly questionable;
and clause 22 providing for this, with the remaining financial
clauses, 23, 24 and 25, were duly guillotined on Nov. 27. Even-
tually, under the guillotine, the bill passed its third reading on
Jan. 17 1913. The committee stage had ended on Dec. 12,
clauses 26-48 and the final schedules having been carried since
Dec. 2 by the operation of the guillotine without any con-
cession to Unionist criticisms. The committee stage had lasted
altogether 36 days, including the 25 provided under the time-
table; two clauses (i and 37) had been fully discussed, and 22
partly discussed, while 24 had received no discussion at all.
For the Welsh Church bill the time-table resolution had
similarly been carried on Nov. 28, at the end of an all-night
sitting, though the Government agreed to give 16
days, instead of the 14 originally proposed, to the
committee stage, which began on Dec. 5; and by
Christmas 1912 this bill too was well on its way through the
House of Commons. The discussions were marked throughout
by much bitterness of feeling on the part of the defenders
of the Church, among whom Lord Robert Cecil was specially
prominent, but they were notable also for some important
expressions of the desire of Liberal churchmen to make the
disendowment proposals less harsh than what the Welsh Non-
conformists considered to be in accordance with their right-
ful demands. A concession was made on clause 8, the Govern-
ment accepting (Dec. 18) amendments proposed by Sir Ryland
Adkins and Mr. Atherley Jones (both Liberals), by which,
much to the disgust of the Welsh members, the Church would
retain possession of the Queen Anne's Bounty funds and prop-
erty. On another amendment, proposed by Mr. Ormsby
Gore (Conservative), for keeping all the glebe as church prop-
erty, the Government majority fell (Dec. 19) to 55, the figures
being 277 to 222; and clause 8 was only carried by 284 to 221.
The fact that the majorities in both these cases were smaller
than the number of Irish Nationalists voting with the Govern-
ment showed that there was a good deal of sympathy with the
opposition among some sections of Liberals.
The actual proceedings in the House of Commons were
being followed, however, with marked apathy in the country.
Everybody felt that the real struggle had to come Revival of
during 1913. During the past month the critical Liberal
state of European affairs monopolized public in- Contldeace -
terest; and the party conflict took a secondary place when larger
issues were at stake. Mr. Asquith and Sir Edward Grey,
by common consent, were making British influence a powerful
factor for peace in the settlement of the Balkan crisis. The
administration was strengthened for the moment simply by
the fact that it represented the whole nation in the councils
of Europe. Meanwhile trade was booming, and in some other
respects also the position of the Government was more fa-
vourable than it had seemed likely to be a few months earlier.
At Bolton, when there was a by-election on Nov. 23, the
Liberal candidate surprised his own party by retaining the
seat with only a slightly diminished majority. Moreover,
the Unionists were again in the throes of further discussions
over their Tariff Reform policy. Since Mr. Bonar Law had
become the Unionist leader little had been heard of any waver-
998
ENGLISH HISTORY
ing as to the principle of low taxes on foreign wheat and
other foodstuffs so as to give a preference to colonial im-
ports. But the question of going to another election at all on
a programme including food-taxes was now raised again on
what started purely as a side issue. It was thought.by the lead-
ers of the party that the time had come when an explicit dec-
laration should be made that Mr. Balfour's proposal, before
the general election of Dec. 1910, to submit the first Tariff
Reform Budget after the Unionists returned to office to a refer-
endum, was no longer the party policy; and Lord Lansdowne
accordingly made a statement to that effect at the Albert
Hall on Nov. 14 1912. No sooner had it been made than an
agitation arose in certain Unionist quarters, especially in Lanes.,
where it was contended that harm would be done to their
electoral prospects by dropping the proposal; and the cry was
taken up in circles where the food-taxes had always been dis-
liked, with the result that pressure was put on Mr. Bonar Law
to make a definite pronouncement on the whole scheme of
Imperial Preference. This he did at Ashton-under-Lyne on
Dec. 16, but without the effect that was presumably intended.
A large part of Mr. Bonar Law's speech was devoted to com-
bating the claims of the Radical party that they were the
Mr. Law's peculiar friends of the working classes; on the con-
Ashton trary he insisted that the party now in power were
Speech. occupied mainly in work of destruction, and that
the real social needs of the community could only be met by
a Unionist government. He repudiated the allegation that
Tariff Reform was simply old-fashioned Protectionism. It
was not proposed to bolster up industries which were not
naturally suited to the country, or to enable manufacturers
to secure an artificial monopoly. Tariff Reform involved the
imposition of duties smaller than in any other country, and
its object was to give British workmen a preference in the
home market over their foreign competitors. Similarly, the
object of Imperial Preference was to unite the Empire on
lines of trade, and to secure for the United Kingdom the lar-
gest possible advantage in the British oversea markets. It
was in connexion simply with colonial preference that food
duties were included in the Unionist programme, and he adhered
to that policy in spite of all the misrepresentations to which it
lent itself. But here he announced a new departure:
" If our countrymen entrust us with power, we do not intend to
impose food duties. What we intend to do is to call a conference of
the colonies to consider the whole question of preferential trade, and
the question whether or not food duties will be imposed will not
arise until those negotiations are completed. . . . Unless the colonies
regard them as essential for preference the food duties will not be
imposed. All that we ask is that our countrymen should give us
authority to enter into that negotiation. If the colonies do think
them necessary, then I for one do not believe that the people of this
country would not be ready to make that readjustment which is
necessary to effect the purpose."
As regards the referendum, Mr. Law repeated Lord Lans-
downe's declaration, and justified it on the ground that a pledge
to submit the result of the negotiations with the colonies to a
referendum would not be fair to the colonies.
Next morning this speech had a " mixed " reception both in
the Unionist press and in the party. In some quarters strong
Unionist objection was taken to making the taxation of the
internal United Kingdom appear in any shape to depend on
Dissen- ^ ne decision of the colonies; the responsibility must
be with the electors of the United Kingdom. In
Lanes, and Yorks., and also in Ireland and Scotland, some
important Unionist papers openly mutinied against the aban-
donment of the referendum. Uncertainty as to what Mr.
Law really meant an unusual thing in his case led to a
revival, in the clubs and in the House of Commons, as well
as in the press, of the same sort of expression of hostile
sectional views that had made Mr. Balfour's leadership so
difficult between 1903 and 1906. There were " alarums and
excursions " for several days. As consideration became cooler,
it was recognized, however, that nobody wanted to do anything
that was not in the interest of a united party. Mr. F E. Smith,
speaking at Dudley on Dec. 20, declared that the whole Unionist
front bench in the House of Commons adopted the views ex-
pressed by Mr. Law, and that he had never meant that the
decision as to food duties would be left to the colonies; all that
he meant was that the decision must depend on what the colonies
wanted. Mr. Austen Chamberlain also wrote a letter to a
correspondent on Dec. 23, agreeing with Mr. Bonar Law. 1
While this lively interlude was providing sport for the Free
Trade party, the penultimate act of another drama, of more
direct import to Liberalism, was also drawing to its The Doc-
close. On Dec. 19 the result of the poll was pub- tors ana
lished which had been taken among the medical pro- the '-
fession, as to whether they would accept Mr. Lloyd
George's latest terms for ordinary medical service under the
Insurance Act. Out of a total vote of 13,731, 11,309 were
for rejection. On Dec. 20 the representative meeting of the
British Medical Association was held, and by 182 votes to 2r
a resolution was passed rejecting the Government proposal
and advising the profession to decline service under the Act.
In the previous Feb. practically the whole profession at all
events 27,400 doctors had signed an undertaking to stand
together by the policy to be decided upon by the British Medical
Association, and if they held to their pledge this meant a com-
plete breakdown in the provisions of the National Insurance
Act for medical benefit, which were to become operative on
Jan. 15 1913. On the other hand, a scheme for an alternative
policy was coupled with this flat refusal of Mr. Lloyd George's
own proposals. It was recommended that the profession should
express its willingness to treat insured persons, under arrange-
ments to be made between local committees of doctors and the
insured or their representatives (i.e. the approved societies)
for a minimum capitation rate of 8s. 6d., inclusive of drugs, or
a minimum fee of 25. 6d. a visit, on condition that each insured
person should have free choice of doctor and that the doctor
should consent to act. Under this plan the doctors would not
be dictated to by the lay insurance committees, but the financial
terms would be practically the same that Mr. Lloyd George
had last offered. It was promptly announced that the Govern-
ment could not fall in with this proposal, which would involve
handing over public money without public control; and the
question now was whether there would be sufficient breaking-
away from the pledges given to the British Medical Association
for the insurance committees to be able to secure their panels
of doctors in accordance with the regulations under the Act.
Only about half of the 27,000 doctors who had ranged them-
selves with the Association in Feb. had actually taken the
trouble to go to the poll in Dec., and though this was generally
believed not to indicate in itself any corresponding failure in
the solidarity of the profession, there were now signs of a good
deal of independent action in certain localities, and notably in
Scotland. Already in Nov. a few doctors who thought it a
public duty to fall in with the Government scheme had started
a new organization in opposition to the British Medical Associa-
tion, called the National Insurance Practitioners Association;
and its influence, backed by Government support, was being
exerted in the same direction. On Jan. 2 1912 Mr. Lloyd
George, addressing the Advisory Committee, took a sanguine
view of this situation, and declared that some 8,000 doctors
were available. Nevertheless the strike now proclaimed against
the Insurance Act by the recognized leaders of the medical
profession was a very awkward fact for the Liberal party.
The year thus ended with the promise of a full crop of domes-
tic political difficulties to be harvested in 1913. (H. CH.)
II. FROM JAN. 1913 TO JULY 1914
The political difficulties bequeathed by 1912 to 1913 were still
unsolved 19 months later, at the outbreak of the World War
in Aug. 1914. The medical opposition to the National Insur-
1 Eventually, as the result of a memorial from the bulk of the
Unionist M.P.'s, Mr. Bonar Law, on Jan. 14 1913. stated in a letter
that he and Lord Lansdowne, while remaining leaders of the party,
were willing to agree that food duties should not be imposed without
the approval of the electorate at a subsequent general election.
ENGLISH HISTORY
999
ance Act did indeed melt rapidly away in 1913. In spite of a
vehement professional meeting of protest on Jan. 7, the British
Medical Association found itself forced by the independent action
of doctors in all parts of the country to release its members from
their pledge not to serve on the panels; and, though the Act
remained for long unpopular, medical benefit was brought
generally into operation, as arranged, on Jan. 15. At first the
panel doctors were greatly overworked, and there were many
hitches in administration. To obviate these, and to meet ob-
jections raised by the great Friendly Societies and by the trade
unions, a substantial amending bill, involving a further charge
on the State of 200,000 per annum, was introduced and carried
by the Government. The Opposition did not fail to point out
that this immediate necessity for amendment proved their
charge that the provisions of the original Act were hasty and
ill-considered; but Mr. Lloyd George was able to claim in Aug.
that there were 18,000 doctors and 9,000 chemists working under
the Act and prospering through it; that 270,000 workers were
receiving sickness benefit, and that 20,000 consumptives
13,000 in sanatoria had been already treated. In Feb. of the
following year he boasted that there were over 20,000 general
practitioners on the panels out of 22,500 in Great Britain; that
nearly 4,500,000 had been distributed among them, besides
933,000 for drugs and an unallotted balance between doctors
and chemists of 310,000.
The internal controversy among the Unionist party about
Tariff Reform was also settled, at any rate temporarily, at the
Unionists beginning of 1913. Mr. Bonar Law's Ashton declara-
and Food tion did not satisfy the opponents of food taxes, who
Taxes. were strongly supported by important organs of the
Unionist press, and early in Jan. a memorial was presented to
him signed by almost the whole body of Unionist M.P.'s,
advocating a further modification of the proposed procedure but
strongly deprecating any consequential change of leadership.
The leaders acceded to their followers' wishes. After stating
that the Unionist policy would be not to impose new duties
on food, in order to secure the most effective system of pref-
erence, until they had been submitted to the people at a general
election, Mr. Law addsd that he and Lord Lansdowne would
have preferred that this change of method should be accom-
panied by a change of leaders, but in deference to the ex-
pression of opinion in the memorial they would remain. In a
speech at Edinburgh on Jan. 24, Mr. Law claimed that, in spite
of the modification, the flag of imperial preference was still flying,
and the Unionist policy remained perfectly definite. They
would impose a lower tariff than that of any industrial country
on manufactured goods; they would give the Dominions the
largest preference possible without food duties; and they would
try to establish cooperation throughout the Empire in trade as
well as in defence. They would work out with the Dominions the
best scheme to this end, and put it before the electors for their
assent. The solution was welcomed by the bulk of the Unionist
party, and was accepted by Mr. Austen Chamberlain, though he
said in Dec. that his submission to the conditions laid down at
Edinburgh was the bitterest sacrifice he had ever made. There
were protests in extreme Tariff Reform circles, but these did not
seriously impair the regained unity of the party.
But no solution was found, before the war broke out, of, the
franchise question, of the grave problems of industrial unrest,
fi/se or ^ tnose involved in the two great measures going
Bill and forward under the provisions of the Parliament Act
Women's the Welsh Disestablishment bill and the Irish Home
Suffrage. Rule bm The Franchise bm which the Government
had introduced was to serve two main purposes: to abolish plural
voting, and to afford a means, by way of amendment, of testing the
opinion of the House of Commons on women's suffrage. The
abolition of plural voting was strongly resented in the City of
London, the most famous constituency in the country, as thereby
an electorate containing the principal bankers and merchants
of the Empire would be transformed into one consisting of a
small number of resident caretakers and messengers. But it
was the proposal to enlarge the bill by including women's
suffrage in it that proved fatal. On Jan. 27 the Speaker ruled,
as a matter of order, that, if any amendments of the kind were
inserted, the bill would become a new bill and would therefore
have to be withdrawn. The Reform bills of 1832, 1867, and
1884 had been designed to enfranchise new classes of the people:
this bill was not, and therefore could not properly be amended
in the sense desired by the advocates of women's suffrage.
The Government accordingly withdrew the measure, promising,
however, to give facilities for a private member's suffrage bill in
the next session. This contretemps was a blow both to the
prestige of the Government and to the suffragist cause. Mili-
tancy was at once resumed and was rampant throughout the year;
Mrs. Pankhurst, the leader of the movement, announced that
she would hold nothing sacred except human life.
Shop- windows were smashed; golf links were defaced;
telegraph wires were cut; church services and public meetings
were interrupted; a woman lost her life in attempting to inter-
fere with the race for the Derby. But arson was the principal
weapon of the extremists, and during the year many railway sta-
tions, grand stands, boat-houses, pavilions, unoccupied country-
houses, and even churches were by them wholly or partially
burnt down. Popular feeling, in consequence, ran high against
the militants; their meetings in London were broken up and
had to be prohibited by the police. A large proportion of
the women who were convicted of committing outrages and
sent to prison started a hunger-strike. This move was met by
forcible feeding a practice against which public opinion revolted,
and for which was substituted, under an Act passed ad hoc
and nicknamed the " Cat and Mouse " Act, a system of releas-
ing prisoners on licence. The atmosphere produced by these
events was not favourable to the Women's Suffrage bill, which
was rejected on May 6 by 267 votes to 219, all parties being
divided except the Labour members who solidly supported the
bill. The " Cat and Mouse " Act proved a failure. The women
released under it qualified for prison once more, directly their
strength was restored, by committing fresh outrages, and the
authorities, who could not let their prisoners die on their hands,
resorted again to forcible feeding in spite of the protests of many
clergy and humanitarians. Meanwhile the non-militants, who
formed the great majority of the supporters of the women's
suffrage movement, were not inactive. Under Mrs. Fawcett's
leadership they constantly pressed ministers to introduce a
Government bill; and they advertised their cause by promoting
a pilgrimage of women who perambulated the length and breadth
of England at the height of summer in eight separate contingents,
uniting at the end in a great demonstration in Hyde Park on
July 26. In spite of the efforts of both sections, the Government
maintained its neutral position. But it introduced a simple
Plural Voting bill in April, with a view to passing it ultimately
into law under the Parliament Act. It was carried
through Committee in the House of Commons, in
spite of Opposition protests, by the " Kangaroo"
closure, and was rejected, because it was unaccompanied by a
measure of redistribution, on second reading by the House
of Lords. There was a repetition of this process in the session
of 1914; but, owing to the outbreak of war, the bill was not
introduced in 1915, and so failed. A compromise was arranged
on another measure, the Temperance (Scotland) bill, to
which it had been intended to apply the Parliament Act.
In the shape in which the House of Lords passed the bill, it
provided for local option on the question of liquor licenses in
certain areas in Scotland; the popular vole, however, was
postponed until 1920 when, it may be added, the Prohibition-
ists met with a severe defeat.
Militancy was continued and intensified in the first half
of 1914. Outrage so frequently took the form of wanton damage
to valuable pictures in the National Gallery, Royal
Academy, and other exhibitions that public galleries *f"f B ' erf
, Militancy
had to be closed. Arson was rampant. Bombs 101914.
were exploded in well-known churches, the corona-
tion chair in Westminster Abbey having a narrow escape
from serious injury by this method. An unsuccessful attempt
IOOO
ENGLISH HISTORY
was made to force a way into Buckingham Palace to petition
the King in person; and His Majesty was subjected, on sev-
eral public occasions, to rude interruption. The number of
militants actually committing crimes was small, but they had
a large number of enthusiastic sympathizers who kept them
well supplied with funds. Formal protests and condemnation
by the non-militant section of suffragists had no effect on the
campaign, which was only terminated by the coming of war.
Although the labour conflicts of 1913 and the first seven
months of 1914 were not on the scale of the great strikes of 1912,
there was constant unrest, and many signs that sen-
t/ore"/" ous trouble was brewing. The Labour party in Par-
liament marked their increasing divergence from the
principles accepted by both the historical parties by moving, at
the beginning of the session of 1913, an amendment to the Ad-
dress, which was of course easily defeated, in favour of a gen-
eral system of nationalization. While there were sporadic strikes
in various parts of Great Britain in the autumn and winter of
that year, the principal disturbance was in Dublin and the
neighbourhood, where, under the leadership of James Larkin,
of the Irish Transport-Workers' Union, a series of strikes
was organized, which lasted, despite official and other efforts
at settlement, from Aug. to the close of the year, and which,
during part of that time, brought the trade of the port of
Dublin to a standstill. Larkin conducted his campaign with
violence, was more than once arrested, was convicted of using
seditious language, imprisoned, and then after a fortnight re-
leased. At first there was much sympathy from the Trades
Union Congress and other representatives of English labour;
the Dublin strikers were supplied with funds from England,
and there were some half-hearted attempts at sympathetic
strikes. But Larkin's revolutionary attitude, which had already
antagonized moderate Irish Nationalists, eventually alienated
British labour leaders, and left him only the support of the
extremists, who held the first Syndicalist congress in Great
Britain that autumn and declared in favour of " direct action."
Early in 1914 there was great indignation in British labour circles
over the deportation by the South African Government of the
labour leaders concerned in strike disturbances in Johannesburg.
They were received, on their arrival in England, with great
demonstrations at the London Opera House and in Hyde Park;
and an unsuccessful attempt was made by the Labour party in
Parliament to interfere with the discretion of a self-governing
dominion. The irritation caused by this deportation was symp-
tomatic of the general labour unrest, which in the first half
of 1914 affected miners, engineers, gas-workers, char-workers,
municipal employees, dockers, transport-workers, coal-porters
and many other groups of artisans. The absolute refusal to work
with a non-unionist had so disorganized the London building
trade that a stubborn struggle, which lasted for months, was
begun by a general lockout in January. In May the railway ser-
vants decided to demand the recognition of their trade union,
a 48 hours' week, and an increase of wages by 53. weekly; and
in June they gave a final approval to the " Triple Alliance "
of their union with the Miners' Federation and the Transport
Workers' Federation. The industrial prospect was dark.
The opening of the year 1913 found Parliament still in session,
and engaged in completing the final stages of the Home Rule
Home Rule an< ^ Welsh Disestablishment bills. The report stage
BUI reject- of the Home Rule bill did not produce any serious
amendment except the introduction of proportional
representation in the nine proposed Irish constituen-
cies returning three or four members. There was a notable de-
bate on New Year's Day on Sir Edward Carson's motion to
exclude the province of Ulster from the operation of the meas-
ure. Mr. Asquith, while expressing his readiness to consider
additional safeguards, denounced the proposal as a claim by
Ulster to veto Home Rule. Mr. Bonar Law solemnly promised
support by the Unionist party to Ulster if the bill were forced
on her and she resisted. The Government had its normal major-
ity of about 100. The third reading debate on Jan. 15 and 16
did not reveal any new arguments, but Mr. Redmond stated
that the Nationalists accepted the bill as a final settlement.
In spite of Unionist predictions of immeasurable calamity,
the third reading was carried by 367 to 257. The Lords debated
the bill on second reading for four days (Jan. 27, 28, 29 and 30)
before rejecting it by 326 to 69. The impossibility of working
the scheme in face of the resistance of Ulster was the main
ground put forward by the Unionists for rejection. But the most
interesting feature of the debate was the strong advocacy by
Lord Grey, ex-Governor-General of Canada, of a solution on
federal lines a proposal supported in a striking speech by the
Archbishop of York (Dr. Lang). Neither the passing of the bill
by the Commons, nor its rejection by the Lords, evoked any
serious popular excitement.
Before the Welsh bill left the Commons its provisions were
further mitigated in some slight degree. An amendment was
adopted, favoured by Liberal churchmen, giving
the Church body the option of commuting the life w f lsh Bin
o/u in, reiected
interests of the clergy on a 3 % basis. There was a t>y Lords.
strong attempt made by the Unionists to confine the
purposes to which the confiscated Church property should
be applied to the advancement of the Christian religion by
grants to Nonconformist churches. But, as the spokesmen
of the Nonconformists repudiated the idea of concurrent
endowment, the amendment was rejected by 273 to 200,
though the Government agreed to limitation to charitable and
eleemosynary purposes. The third reading was carried on Feb. 5
by the usual Government majority, after an eloquent exposition
by Mr. Lloyd George of the sentiments of the Welsh people.
The measure was debated on second reading by the Lords on
Feb. n, 12 and 13, and rejected by 252 to 51. Sixteen bishops
voted in the majority; those of Hereford (Percival) and Oxford
(Gore) in the minority.
The rejection- of these two bills by the Lords, and the deter-
mination of ministers and of their majority in the Commons to
override the veto of the Upper House through the use of second
the powers conferred by the Parliament Act, were the stage of
considerations governing the whole course of politics ** Two
down to the outbreak of war. The main purpose
of the sessions of 1913 and 1914 was to carry the two meas-
ures through the Commons a second and third time, so as to
qualify them for passage into law in spite of the Lords. Feeling
was naturally exacerbated by so high-handed a policy; especially
as both bills, though apparently supported by the bulk
of opinion in Ireland and Wales respectively, were strongly
resisted by a majority of the parliamentary representatives of
England, the predominant partner in each case. A recess of only
three days separated the prorogation of the prolonged session
of 1912 from the opening of the session of 1913 on March 10.
The Opposition immediately joined issue on the Address by an
amendment which asserted that the Irish and Welsh bills ought
not to be proceeded with while the constitution of Parliament
was still incomplete and without reference to the electors; but
they were defeated by 262 to 169. The two controversial bills
were carried for a second time through the Commons by the
normal Government majority. As the Opposition resisted both
measures in principle, no use was made of the limited opportunity
for " suggestion " of amendments in Committee permitted by
the. Parliament Act. When the two bills came up to the House
of Lords they were both met with identical resolutions that " this
House declines to proceed with the consideration of the bill until
it has been submitted to the judgment of the country." This
was carried in the case of the Irish bill by 302 to 64; in that of the
Welsh bill by 242 to 88. Thus the second stage for both under
the Parliament Act was duly completed.
In all the debates on the Home Rule bill the Unionist leaders
dwelt with insistence on the serious prospect before the country.
We were " on the verge of a great national tragedy," fi, e
said Mr. Balfour. The Liberals were crying peace Menace
where there .was no peace, said Sir Edward Car-
son; Ulster had behind her in her resistance the whole force
of the Conservative and Unionist party The Liberals and
Nationalists, however, still maintained that the Ulster attitude
ENGLISH HISTORY
1001
was largely bluff. Mr. Redmond on behalf of his party dis-
claimed any desire to establish ascendancy, and averred that
Ulster would not be attacked. But the Unionists relied more
on speeches in the great towns and on events in Ulster than
on Parliament for the enlightenment of the country. Imme-
diately after the division on the second reading, in June, Sir
Edward Carson started on a political tour in Great Britain, making
eloquent speeches in Glasgow, Edinburgh, Norwich, and Bristol
a demonstration which Mr. Redmond and his friends endeavoured
to neutralize by following in the Ulster leader's footsteps. In
July Sir Edward Carson spent several weeks in organization
and speech-making in Belfast and the neighbourhood. He fore-
shadowed the establishment of a Provisional Government for
Ulster, and assured his hearers that the Cabinet could not rely
upon the army in forcing Home Rule upon them. Volunteers
continued to drill, and provided themselves with the usual
accompaniments of a modern army. More definite steps were
taken in the autumn. On Sept. 25 the Ulster Unionist Council
formally organized itself into a Provisional Government with a
central authority whose chairman was Sir Edward Carson, and a
guarantee fund intended to reach i ,000,000, to which the leader
contributed 10,000. He formally reviewed the Volunteers, who
then numbered 60,000 and increased to nearly 100,000 by the
winter. On Nov. 3 there was a great demonstration in Belfast
in favour of his policy by Ulster men of business, presided over
by the president of the Belfast Chamber of Commerce. And on
the 28th there was an enthusiastic meeting in his support in
Dublin, where Mr. Law repeated his pledges to Ulster.
The Liberals retorted to these proceedings with jeers at
" King Carson," and suggestions, which the Cabinet were too
wise to accept, for his arrest. But many of them be-
gan to realize that there was a substantial difficulty
Settlement in Ulster which could not be any longer ignored.
Suggestions for a conference to arrange a compro-
mise were thrown out in the Lords debate in July,
and became more definite as the year drew towards a close.
Mr. O'Brien, for the Independent Nationalists, pleaded for some
such course; Lord Loreburn, the Liberal ex-Lord Chancellor,
proposed it in The Times of Sept. 1 1 ; Lord Grey urged the
advantages of a federal solution; and on Oct. 9, Mr. Churchill,
an important member of the Cabinet, advocated at Dundee a
solution by agreement. Though Mr. Redmond, on Oct. 12,
refused to contemplate anything beyond an increase in the safe-
guards for the minority, Mr. Asquith, in his annual address to his
constituents at Ladybank on Oct. 25, said that the Government
were prepared to consider proposals within the scope of the
bill; that they were anxious for a settlement by consent, not
through a conference, but through a free and frank exchange of
views. Two days later Sir Edward Grey, at Berwick, suggested
that there might be a Home Rule for Ulster within Home Rule
for Ireland. Mr. Law replied at Wallsend on Oct. 29 that he
would consider any proposals with a real desire to find a solution,
and Sir Edward Carson, who was present, expressed his agree-
ment, but the offer must be consistent with the Covenant. A
fortnight later, at Norwich, Mr. Law said it was the duty of
the Government to submit their proposals to the judgment of
the people either at a general election or by a referendum. Mr.
Redmond, speaking at Newcastle-on-Tyne next day, described
the Unionists as trying to intimidate the people of England.
Still he expressed a preference for a settlement by consent, but
it must be based on national self-government for Ireland. Mr.
Lloyd George on Nov. 29 treated Unionist demonstrations
against Home Rule as a red herring drawn across his campaign
for social reform. There was much speaking on both sides during
the last weeks of the year, but apparently no advance towards an
agreement. Mr. Law said the sands were running out and
nothing had been done, but Sir Edward Grey replied that there
were still some months to spare. In the beginning of the new
year Lord Curzon intimated at Manchester that the conversa-
tions between leaders had had no result. Sir Edward Carson
went to Belfast and advised " peace but preparation," and Mr.
Redmond assured his constituents at Waterford that the bill
would that year automatically become law. The Unionists
were strengthened in their resistance by some gains in by-elec-
tions during 1913 and early in 1914; but perhaps the most
striking feature in the polls was the increasing support given to
Labour at the expense of the Liberals.
It was in these conditions of doubt and apprehension that
Parliament reassembled on Feb. 10 1914. The King's speech,
while admitting that efforts at solution had so far Q 0vern .
failed, expressed a hope that they would yet succeed, meat Con-
Mr. Asquith laid stress upon these words in the cessloas -
debate on the Address. Sir Edward Carson said that, if the
Government were in earnest, there must be an amending bill
a suggestion which Mr. Redmond ridiculed. No move was,
however, made by the Government in the next week or two,
and the organization of public opinion in England in support
of Ulster was rapidly proceeded with. A British Covenant,
similar to the Ulster Covenant, was promulgated on March
3, headed by the signatures of influential men, not closely
identified with political party, such as Lord Roberts, Lord"
Halifax, Lord Milner, Prof. Dicey, Dean Wace, and Mr. Rudyard
Kipling. A Woman's Covenant followed; and both documents
were eagerly signed, an appreciable proportion of the signatures
being professing Liberals. On March 9 Mr. Asquith, in moving
for the third and last time the second reading of the Home Rule
bill, announced the projected concessions. The Government
would propose that any county in Ulster, including the county
boroughs of Belfast and Londonderry, might vote itself out of
the jurisdiction of the Irish Parliament for a term of six years,
after which it would automatically come within that jurisdiction.
The Prime Minister pointed out that, under the Parliament Act,
there would necessarily be two general elections in Great Britain
before the six years expired. This scheme of provisional exclu-
sion entirely failed to satisfy either the Opposition or Ulster. Mr.
Law said that, if this was the last word of the Government, the
position was very grave; Ulster was asked to destroy her future.
Mr. Redmond insisted that this was the extreme limit of con-
cession; and the Independent Nationalists protested vehe-
mently against partition. Sir Edward Carson took note of the
gain involved in admitting the principle of exclusion, but said
emphatically " We don't want sentence of death with a stay of
execution for six years." The situation became sensibly graver
when Mr. Churchill at Bradford, on March 14, said that the
Prime Minister's offer appeared to him to be final, reproached
the Unionists and Ulster for not being satisfied with it, and
maintained that, in the event of violence, the larger issue, be-
tween parliamentary government and armed force, once fought
out at Marston Moor, would become dominant. If there was
any attempt in action to subvert parliamentary government
there was no lawful measure from which the Cabinet would
shrink. They had sent out soldiers during the railway strike
with Unionist approval. If the British civil and parliamentary
systems were to be brought to the challenge of force, he could
only say " Let us go forward together and put these grave mat-
ters to the proof." This utterance, which was endorsed a few
days later by Mr. Lloyd George, and the refusal of the Prime
Minister to give details of his proposals unless the general
principle were adopted, led to an Opposition motion of censure
on March 19. In the debate Mr. Law made a formal offer: if the
new suggestions were put into the Home Rule bill and accepted
by the country on a referendum, he had Lord Lansdowne's
authority to say that, so far as his influence in the House of Lords
went, he would not oppose the will of the people. This Mr.
Asquith would not accept. Sir Edward Carson then left the
House, amid a great Unionist demonstration, and, accompanied
by eight Irish Unionist members, proceeded to Ulster.
An explosion in some form seemed to be imminent. Mr. Law
had said in the censure debate that, in a case merely of disorder,
the army would and ought to obey; if it were a The Army
question of civil war, " soldiers are citizens like the aad
rest of us." This was speedily proved. It was de- ulster -
termined to protect certain military stores in the N. of Ireland
from possible raids by Ulster Volunteers, and a considerable
IOO2
ENGLISH HISTORY
force was ordered on March 20 to move N. from Dublin
with naval support. To the officers on duty at the Curragh
this appeared to be the beginning of a movement to coerce
Ulster by the army an impression which was confirmed by
certain questions asked them and alternatives put before them;
and Gen. Sir Hubert Gough, in command of the cavalry brigade,
with many of his subordinate officers, preferred to accept dis-
missal rather than initiate active military operations against
Ulster. They were informed by the General Officer Commanding
that it was merely a measure of precaution, and the senior officers
concerned were ordered to report themselves at the War Office.
There, in answer to a letter in which Gen. Gough asked the
Adjutant-General to make clear whether, if the Home Rule bill
became law, the officers " could be called upon to enforce it in
Ulster under the expression of maintaining law and order,"
the following minute (dated March 23 1914) was written in reply,
initialled by the Secretary of State, the Chief of the General
Staff (Sir John French), and the Adjutant-General:
You are authorized by the Army Council to inform the officers of
the 3rd Cavalry- Brigade, that the Army Council are satisfied that
the incident which has arisen in regard to their resignations has been
due to a misunderstanding. It is the duty of all soldiers to obey
lawful commands given to them through the proper channel by
the Army Council, either for the protection of public property and
the support of the civil power in the event of disturbances or for
the protection of the lives and property of the inhabitants. This
is the only point it was intended to be put to the officers in the
questions of the General Officer Commanding, and the Army Coun-
cil have been glad to learn from you that there never has been
and never will be in the Brigade any question of disobeying such
lawful orders. His Majesty's Government must retain their right
to use all the forces of the Crown in Ireland, or elsewhere, to main-
tain law and order and to support the civil power in the ordinary
execution of its duty. But they have no intention whatever of
taking advantage of this right to crush political opposition to the
policy or principles of the Home Rule bill.
On receiving this document Gen. Gough asked Sir John French
if it meant that he would not be called on to order his brigade to
assist in coercing Ulster to submit to Home Rule, and Sir John
French wrote across it, " I should read it so." The precautionary
movements were carried out and all orders were duly obeyed.
These facts came out gradually in the week following Sir
Edward Carson's removal from Westminster to Belfast, and
Parties there were many scenes and much recrimination
and tin- in the House of Commons. On hearing the news
Army. o { t j, e o {fi cers > action, the Unionists asserted that
there was obviously a plot to provoke Ulster, which the re-
luctance of the officers had defeated; the Prime Minister re-
plied that the movement of troops was purely protective,
and that, if officers and soldiers were to discriminate between
the validity of different Jaws, the fabric of society would
crumble; while the Labour party claimed that, as any option
given to officers must logically be extended to men, the army
could no longer be used in labour troubles. When the minute of
the Army Council was published the Liberals were dismayed,
while the Unionists accepted it as making the coercion of Ulster
impossible. Ministers explained to their bewildered followers
that the first three paragraphs were settled by the Cabinet, but
that the last two, which, in connexion with Gen. Cough's letter,
seemed to constitute a bargain with the officers in regard to a
hypothetical contingency, had been added by the War Secretary
without Cabinet authority. Amid prolonged Liberal and Labour
cheers Mr. Asquith repudiated any bargain of the kind, and
caused a new army order to be issued, under the heading " Dis-
cipline," as follows:
1. No officer or soldier should in future be questioned by his
superior officer as to the attitude he will adopt or as to his action in
the event of his being required to obey orders dependent on future or
hypothetical contingencies.
2. An officer or soldier is forbidden in future to ask for assurances
as to orders which he may be required to obey.
3. In particular it is the duty of every officer and soldier to obey
all lawful commands given to them through the proper channel,
either for the safeguarding of public property, or the support of the
civil power in the ordinary execution of its duty, or for the protection
of the lives and property of the inhabitants in the case of disturbance
of the peace.
Ministers did not seem to be prepared for the natural result
of these proceedings, the resignation of the three members of the
Army Council who had initialled the minute of Mr A
March 23 Col Seely (the War Minister), Sir John <, u ith as
French, and Sir Spencer Ewart. The Prime Minister War Se <=-
endeavoured to persuade all three to reconsider
their determination, as there was, in his view, no difference
of opinion amongst them; but, having failed, he assumed him-
self the office of Secretary of State for War in addition to
that of First Lord of the Treasury. In an address to his
constituents on seeking reelection, he illustrated the spirit in
which he proposed to act by quoting the words of Chatham:
" The army will hear nothing of politics from me, and in return
I expect to hear nothing of politics from the army." The Union-
ists noted with satisfaction that both Col. Seely himself, and
Lord Morley who assisted in drafting the peccant paragraphs,
stated that they did not see that these differed in spirit and sub-
stance from the three preceding paragraphs. The conclusion
seemed to be that the Government repudiated the intention to
make use of the army " to crush political opposition to the policy
or principles of the Home Rule bill." A gigantic demonstration
of protest against the coercion of Ulster was held on April 4 in
Hyde Park; there were 22 separate processions and 14 platforms,
and men of the public eminence of Mr. Balfour, Sir Edward
Carson, and Lord Milner attended and spoke. The gravity of
the situation led to many expressions in the Home Rule debate
of a desire for an agreed settlement. Sir Edward Carson said
there was only one policy possible: " Leave Ulster out until you
have won her consent to come in." But ministers would not
advance beyond their previous proposals, and the second read-
ing was carried by 80 votes, as compared with majorities of no
and 100 in the previous year. There was a similar decline in
the majority for the second reading of the Welsh bill.
Meanwhile events were moving in Ireland. Easter week saw
a series of reviews by Sir Edward Carson of large bodies of
Ulster Volunteers; and on the night of April 24-25 Determi-
some 35,000 rifles and 3,000,000 cartridges were nation of
landed at Larne and distributed throughout the Ulster.
Protestant north. This successful feat of gun-running, and the
publication of papers with regard to the alleged military
" plot," produced heated debates in Parliament, followed, how-
ever, by further private negotiations between leaders. Before
the third reading of the Home Rule bill, the Prime Minister
gave notice that the Government would introduce in the
House of Lords an Amending bill, which might pass simul-
taneously with the Home Rule bill. It was only, however, after
a scene of disorder in the House of Commons that he disclosed
its nature: it would give effect to the terms of agreement if ar-
rived at, and, if not, to the proposals outlined on March 9.
This was far from satisfying the Opposition, and the third read-
ing of the Home Rule bill was only carried by 351 to 274, that
of the Welsh bill having been secured by 328 to 251.
The two bills left the Commons before the Whitsuntide recess,
which was spent by Sir Edward Carson in Ulster in making " prep-
arations for the final scene." While there was every Approach
sign of resolute determination about Ulster and ot civil
her Volunteers, Nationalist Ireland had retorted War ~
by enrolling Volunteers of her own, who were estimated to
exceed 100,000 men. This force was started independently
of the official Nationalists, and it was only with some difficulty
that Mr. Redmond obtained control by the end of June.
There were thus two armed bodies of many thousands of men
facing each other in Ireland in a state of what Lord Milner
called " smouldering war. " In these alarming circumstances
the Amending bill, introduced in the Lords on June 23, which
merely offered option of exclusion by counties for six years,
seemed inadequate. It was read a second time in the beginning
of July, after a prolonged debate, in the course of Tlle
which Lord Roberts warned the Government that Amendine
any attempt to use the military forces of the nation BIIL
to coerce Ulster would break and ruin the army. In committee
the Unionist majority transformed the measure by amendments
ENGLISH HISTORY
1003
permanently excluding the whole province of Ulster, Nation-
alist counties no less than Unionist, from the operation of the
Home Rule bill. It was certain that the Liberal and National-
ist majority in the Commons would indignantly reject this so-
lution. At the same time the urgency of the Ulster problem
was again enforced by enormous demonstrations on the Boyne
anniversary, emphasizing Sir Edward Carson's words: " Give us
a clear cut or come and fight us."
The Amending bill was to be taken in the Commons on Mon-
day July 20; but the King and the wiser heads in the Cabinet
Conference were determined to make a further effort for peace;
at Buck- and on that morning The Times announced that the
King had issued invitations to a conference on the
Ulster question at Buckingham Palace, consisting of
two members each from the Government, the Opposition,
the Nationalists and the Ulster Covenanters. Moderate men
in all parties hailed the announcement with relief; but
keen partisans were suspicious and critical. The conference met
on Tuesday under the chairmanship of the Speaker. The
Government were represented by Mr. Asquith and Mr. Lloyd
George; the Opposition by Lord Lansdowne and Mr. Bonar Law;
the Nationalists by Mr. Redmond and Mr. Dillon; and the
Ulstermen by Sir Edward Carson and Capt. Craig. The King
opened the proceedings in a brief but weighty speech. He said:
" My intervention at this moment may be regarded as a new
departure. But the exceptional circumstances under which you are
brought together justify my action. For months we have watched
with deep misgivings the course of events in Ireland. The trend
has been surely and steadily towards an appeal to force, and to-day
the cry of civil war is on the lips of the most responsible and sober-
minded of my people."
His Majesty urged on the conference " a spirit of generous
compromise," reminded them that the time was short, and
expressed his confidence that they would be patient, earnest
and conciliatory. In spite of a considerable display of these
qualities, the conference failed. The members met on four days,
from Tuesday to Friday, and at the close the Speaker announced
that they had been unable to agree, either in principle or in detail,
on the area to be excluded from the operation of the Home Rule
bill. It was understood that the deadlock arose over the question
of the exclusion of Fermanagh and Tyrone, both of them counties
greatly divided in political opinion. The position seemed to be
desperate, and passions were once more fiercely excited by a fatal
affray in Dublin on the following Sunday between British soldiers
and the populace an affray which followed on a successful gun-
running on a considerable scale by the National Volunteers.
The Amending bill was put down for July 30, and a great Liberal
meeting in the London Opera House on the previous day urged
the Government to go forward with their programme. But al-
ready the international crisis precipitated by Austria's attack on
Serbia had become too serious to admit of the continuance of
domestic strife. The Amending bill was indefinitely postponed,
and civil war was averted by a gigantic European conflict.
The bitterness introduced into politics by the Parliament Act
led, during the last years of peace, to frequent rumours and
accusations of irregular if not corrupt dealings by
The individual ministers in regard, now to silver, now to
"Scandal." ^> now ^ wireless telegraphy. Only, however, in
one instance did there appear to be any foundation
for the suggestions of improper action. In April 1912, after
the Postmaster-General had accepted a tender for the erection
of wireless stations by the Marconi Co., the Attorney-General
(Sir Rufus Isaacs, afterwards Lord Reading) bought 10,000
shares in the American Marconi Co., a separate company
which, it was contended, did not benefit by the contract, and
sold i, ooo each to two friends in the Government the Chancellor
of the Exchequer (Mr. Lloyd George) and the Chief Whip (Lord
Murray of Elibank). Some of these shares were resold by their
purchasers in the next' few days at a profit, but the total net
result of the transaction after a year was a loss. The advice to
purchase had been given to Sir Rufus by his brother Mr.
Godfrey Isaacs, managing director of the American company,
and also of the English company. These facts were not told
to the House of Commons when in the previous autumn the
Marconi contract was discussed and a committee was appointed
to inquire into it. They only came out in March 1913 during
the trial of an action for libel against a French newspaper which
had given currency to the rumours of corruption that were rife
throughout the winter. Thereupon the Attorney-General and
the Chancellor of the Exchequer appeared before the committee
and explained what they had done. Lord Murray, who had
bought further shares in the company oa behalf of the Liberal
party fund, was abroad. The committee found that the gross
charges of corruption were unfounded, but could not agree upon
a united report. The majority, consisting of Liberal, Labour,
and Nationalist members, awarded no blame to anyone except
those who circulated the charges of corruption, thereby setting
aside their Liberal chairman's draft report, which concluded that
ministers had been ill-advised both in their purchase of shares
and in their delay in disclosing the facts. The minority, con-
sisting of Unionist members only, found that ministers had
acted with grave impropriety. In the debate which followed in
the House of Commons on June 18 and 19, both the Attorney-
General and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, while protesting
their good faith throughout the transaction, admitted that the
original purchase was indiscreet, and that the delay in disclosure
was a mistake of judgment. After a heated discussion, during
which the Unionists vainly endeavoured to secure the passing
of some amendment expressing the regret of Parliament for what
ministers admitted to be indiscretions, a motion was carried by
346 to 268 accepting the two ministers' statements and reprobat-
ing the charges of corruption. Public opinion was more severe
than Parliament. It was shocked that important ministers, and
especially the guardian of the Treasury, should show themselves
so wanting in delicacy and prudence in pecuniary matters.
Subsequently in the House of Lords Lord Murray admitted
that his action had not been wise or correct, but a committee of
that House unanimously found that he had done nothing that
reflected on his personal honour.
Mr. Lloyd George at once endeavoured to divert attention
from his own indiscretions to the shortcomings of the landlords.
What humbug it was for Conservatives, he said, in a
speech on July i at a luncheon given to himself and
the Attorney-General at the National Liberal Club,
to set up an ideal standard for Liberal ministers, when it was
notorious that parliaments of landlords in the past had been
guided in their legislation by their private interests! The Radi-
cal land campaign, started in the previous year, was pushed on,
and the subject formed the staple of Mr. Lloyd George's nu-
merous speeches in the country in the autumn of 1913. The
Unionists countered the movement by a programme of their
own (explained by Lord Lansdowne at Matlock on June 21),
which involved the encouragement of small ownership, and the
provision of advances by the State to assist the building of cot-
tages and the purchase by tenants of their holdings. At Swindon,
on Oct. 22, Mr. Lloyd George announced the ministerial scheme.
The Government proposed to set up a Ministry of Lands to
take over the functions of the Board of Agriculture, together
with registration of title, settled estates, and land valuation
in short to have a general supervision of land and of all deal-
ings with it of whatever kind. Commissioners, having a judicial
character, would be appointed, who would be given large com-
pulsory powers in respect of rent, eviction, compensation for
improvements, and wages. Tenants would be protected against
damage by game. The new ministry would have power to
acquire at a reasonable price all waste, derelict, and neglected
lands, arid to afforest, reclaim, equip, and cultivate them. Hous-
ing and cheap transit were also to be provided. While Union-
ists denounced the extravagance of the scheme, and the " horde
of officials " with despotic powers which it proposed to set up.
they did not take it very seriously. The event proved
them to be right. But Mr. Lloyd George took ad- J?/^Jf^'
vantage of his budget for the next year, 1914, to ad-
vance his programme of social reform in other ways. He made
provision for an extended series of grants to local authorities
ENGLISH HISTORY
for various sanitary and educational purposes, and he largely
increased the sum allocated to national insurance. In order to
obtain the necessary funds he proposed to establish a national
system of valuation for local taxation, separating site from im-
provement values; he increased the income tax and supertax,
and took a million from the sinking fund. The proposals, though
welcomed by Radicals and Labour men, were not popular with
many of his own party; and he had to give up an extra penny
on the income tax, and postpone the operation of most of his
increased grants for a year; and even so, he only escaped defeat
on an Opposition amendment by 303 to 265 votes.
During 1913 and the first seven months of 1914 the King and
Queen strengthened their hold on the loyalty of their subjects
by popular progresses through the Potteries in April,
Royal and through Lanes, in July 1913, through the Midlands in
^visit's. June, and through the Lowlands of Scotland in July
1914. They also took the occasion of the marriage
of their cousin Prince Ernest Augustus of Cumberland to the
Kaiser's daughter to pay a courteous visit in May 1913 to
Berlin, where they were courteously received. Of more political
importance was the State visit of President Poincare to Lon-
don, in the following June, as the King's guest. The cordiality
of the official welcome was reflected in the enthusiasm of the
people in the streets. In April 1914, the King and Queen, accom-
panied by the Foreign Minister, paid a return visit to Paris,
where they were welcomed with similar enthusiasm by President
and people. It was felt in both countries that by these mutual
visits the system of friendly cooperation between France and
England had received a fresh ratification.
Uneasiness as to the national defences in view of the naval
preparations and restless diplomacy of Germany gave a con-
siderable impetus during 1913 to Lord Roberts'
ffoterts campaign for universal military service. In spite of his
and Na- advanced age he addressed great meetings in large
tionaiDe- p rov i nc i a l towns at Bristol in Feb., at Wolverhamp-
ton in March, at Leeds in April, and at Glasgow in
May being everywhere received with respect and even enthu-
siasm. But no party, as a party, was prepared to take up his
cause, which received little support from the organized workers;
and the Government, by the mouth of Col. Seely, the War
Minister, denounced compulsory service as " a political and
military disaster." They pinned their faith to the Territorial
Force, which Lord Haldane had created. The reluctance of many
patriotic men to aid Lord Roberts' movement was due to a fear
lest compulsory service should divert effort and money from the
navy, the principal defensive force of Great Britain. In introduc-
ing the navy estimates for 1913, which involved an increase of
over a million, Mr. Churchill, the First Lord of the Admiralty,
threw out a suggestion that the Powers who were building ships
in competition with each other might all take " a naval holiday "
for a year; but the idea met with no response.
In spite of this lack of response, the Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, in an interview published Jan. i 1914, called loudly fora
. reconsideration of the expenditure on armaments. A
Naval and ,
Military large section of the Liberal party, whose spokesman
Prepara- was sir John Brunner, chairman of the National
Liberal Federation, strongly supported Mr. Lloyd
George. But neither in the Cabinet, nor with the nation at large,
did this view prevail. Sir Edward Grey said at Manchester on
Feb. 3, that to reduce the British naval programme would be
staking too much on a gambling chance. The navy estimates
introduced in March by Mr. Winston Churchill were the largest
on record, amounting to 51,550,000; and yet they were at-
tacked by Lord Charles Beresford and by the Unionists gener-
ally, with considerable public support, as insufficient. On the
army estimates, which also showed a slight increase, Col. Seely
declared that the British army was much better trained and
was much more formidable as a fighting machine than any con-
tinental army, and that the Expeditionary Force was absolutely
ready. The power and readiness of the fleet were shown by a
great review and test mobilization, on a scale never seen before,
at Spithead in the third week of July.
III. THE WAR PERIOD
The murder of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Sarajevo
on June 28 horrified public opinion in Great Britain, and led to
the expression, in Parliament and elsewhere, of much
sympathy for the aged Emperor Francis Joseph. But B ^"th
comparatively few Englishmen realized that the crime crisis.
might start a general conflagration in Europe; and the
weeks which elapsed before Austria made any overt move encour-
aged the belief that the effects would be isolated and localized.
Even the drastic and peremptory ultimatum addressed by Austria
to Serbia on July 23 failed to impress the public with a due sense
of its gravity, absorbed as they were in the Buckingham Palace
Conference of July 21-4, in the Dublin shooting affray of July 26,
and in the apparent imminence of civil war in Ireland. It was
only in the very last days of July that Austria's rejection of
Serbia's conciliatory reply and her immediate declaration of war,
followed rapidly by the Russian and German mobilizations, and
by the evidence of French resolve to rally to France's ally Russia,
aroused the British people to the fact that a great European war
was impending. Even then the general expectation was that
Great Britain would not be involved in it. On July 27 Sir
Edward Grey gave Parliament an account of his anxious and
earnest endeavours to bring the Powers together and avert
hostilities. On July 30 the Prime Minister announced that the
Government were doing their best to "circumscribe the area
of possible conflict." At last on July 31 Mr. Asquith postponed
the Irish Amending bill and all controversial business, announced
that the issues of peace and war were hanging in the balance, and
that it was of vital importance that Great Britain should present
a united front. Mr. Bonar Law expressed his full agreement,
stating that he spoke for Ulstermen as well as for Unionists.
The implications of the entente with France and of the sub-
sequent understanding with Russia were not generally grasped
even yet. Serbia had few sympathizers in England, the
brutal murders of King Alexander and his Queen having Division
never been forgotten. Germany's apparent reasonable- opinion.
ness in the Balkan negotiations had lulled for the time
public and even ministerial suspicions of her designs. Some leading
journals, and notably The Times, did yeoman's work in insisting on
the necessity, even from the most selfish point of view, of Britain
standing by France. The principal Liberal journals, however,
notably the Daily News and Manchester Guardian, protested
vehemently against any departure from neutrality. The Cabinet
were as divided as the public, the bulk of the more Radical mem-
bers pronouncing for neutrality, while Sir E. Grey, supported
by the Prime Minister and others, insisted on British obligations
to France. In consequence Sir E. Grey could not give, on July 3 1 ,
the promise to cooperate with France for which M. Cambon,
the French ambassador, asked; nor could the King respond in
anything except friendly generalities to an earnest appeal from
the French President. But on Saturday Aug. i, the day on
which Germany declared war on France, there was a hurried
summons of such members of the Unionist Opposition
as could be collected at the week's end, and as a result Attitude.
of their meeting Mr. Bonar Law wrote on the Sunday
to the Prime Minister as follows:
" Lord Lansdowne and I feel it our duty to inform you that in our
opinion, as well as in that of all the colleagues whom we have been
able to consult, it would be fatal to the honour and security of the
United Kingdom to hesitate in supporting France and Russia at
the present juncture; and we offer our unhesitating support to the
Government in any measures they may consider necessary for that
object."
This, the natural outcome of the patriotic support which, in
spite of acute domestic differences, the Opposition had through-
out afforded to the foreign policy of Sir E. Grey, im-
mensely strengthened the stalwarts in the Cabinet:
and the evasion by Germany of Sir E. Grey's demand , ol
that she should respect the neutrality of Belgium helped Aug. 3.
them still more. Accordingly, on Monday Aug. 3 the
Foreign Minister was in a position to make a speech of vast historic
moment, inviting the House of Commons to act up to the obli-
ENGLISH HISTORY
1005
gations that England had incurred. These.involved, he explained,
with regard to Russia, no more than diplomatic support.
With regard to France, he had told her, at the crisis which led to
the Algeciras Conference, that, if war were forced on her about
Morocco, he believed that British public opinion would rally
to her support. Since that time conversations had taken place
between French and British naval and military experts, which,
however, did not bind their Governments. In the Agadir crisis
he had taken the same line, and in Nov. 1912 it had been agreed
that, if either Great Britain or France had grave reason to expect
an attack by a third Power or a menace to the general peace,
both Governments should consult whether, and if so how, they
should cooperate. There was no definite promise of intervention ;
but in the existing crisis, in view of Anglo-French friendship, he
invited every man to look into his own heart and construe the
extent of the British obligation for himself. In view of that
friendship, France had concentrated her fleet in the Mediter-
ranean; Britain could not let France's unprotected coasts be
bombarded. Accordingly he had told the French ambassador
that, if a hostile German fleet came into the Channel or the
North Sea, Britain would give France all the assistance in her
power. The German Government had offered, in the event of
British neutrality, to refrain from attacking the northern ports
of France; but that was far too narrow an engagement. Then
came the urgent question of Belgium. He had asked France
and Germany whether they would respect Belgian neutrality.
France had agreed, Germany had delayed replying, and had now
issued an ultimatum to Belgium. Germany had asked if Britain
would be satisfied with the preservation of Belgian integrity
after the war, but the Government had refused to barter away
British interests and obligations. The King of the Belgians had
appealed to King George. If Great Britain stood aside, she
could not prevent Europe falling under the dominion of a single
Power. Ireland was the one bright spot. The feeling there made
it unnecessary to take the Irish question into account. Un-
conditional neutrality was precluded by the commitment to
France and the consideration of Belgium. To stand aside would
be to sacrifice the good name of Great Britain without escaping
the most serious economic consequences. The forces of the
Crown were never more ready or efficient; the Government,
which had wished for peace, appealed to the country for support.
The speech finally convinced the country and the Empire of
the righteousness of the cause. Mr. Law promised full support.
Mr. Redmond electrified the House by saying that Irish
f ee 'i n g na( l completely altered towards England, and
British troops might be withdrawn, as Ireland would
be defended by her own armed sons. Mr. Ramsay Macdonald,
indeed, the leader of the Labour party, and some individual
Liberals and Labour men, condemned any departure from
neutrality; but it was made clear that the bulk of the Liberals and
even of the Labour men were with the Government. Only two
Cabinet ministers, Lord Morley and Mr. Burns, resigned. Next
day Great Britain issued her ultimatum to Germany to respect
Belgian neutrality; and, Germany refusing, she declared war.
Sir Edward Grey had said that the forces of the Crown were
never more ready or more efficient. The navy, through the fore-
sight of the First Lord (Mr. Churchill), and First
I MHitar'"" 1 ^ e& ^ or ^ (Prince Louis of Battenberg, afterwards the
Action* Marquess of Milford Haven), was already mobilized,
the demobilization of the magnificent fleet which the
King had recently reviewed at Spithead having been counter-
manded in view of the European crisis; and it proceeded at once
to its stations in the North Sea, under the command of Sir John
Jellicoe. The German mercantile marine was soon swept, with
slight exceptions, from the seas, and a blockade of Germany set
up. Though the army was small and unequal to a great conti-
nental war, the Expeditionary Force, which Lord Haldane had
fashioned, was also ready, and Sir John French, the Inspector-
General of the Forces, was its commander. The Army Reserve
was at once called out and the Territorial Force (also Lord
Haldane's creation) embodied. It was necessary immediately
to appoint a Secretary of State for War, the seals of the office
having been held since the spring by Mr. Asquith in addition
to the Premiership. In response to public demand, Lord Kitch-
ener, who was starting to resume, after a visit to London, his
duties as British Agent in Egypt, was kept at home to take
over the War Office as a non-political chief. There
was some disposition at first, both in the Cabinet Lord
and in the Liberal press, to endeavour to confine the l ^ ic t ^ e e aer
British share in the war to the sea, and to object to WarOfflce.
sending soldiers to fight in France. No more was
heard of this after Lord Kitchener's appointment. The Expedi-
tionary Force was despatched in perfect secrecy and perfect
safety in the first half of the month, and was ready for action in
France on Aug. 21. Another great service which Lord Kitchener
rendered his country and the world was to bid the British
Empire prepare for a three years' war and raise
troops to be reckoned in millions rather than thou-
sands. He started to organize a new army, which
was popularly known as Kitchener's Army; applications for
commissions poured in, and recruiting was extraordinarily
brisk and general during the remainder of the year, espe-
cially after the news of the retreat from Mons. The dis-
position of all classes of young men to go to the front was
sensibly increased when the young Prince of Wales went to
join Sir J. French's staff in October. Large camps were
formed in all parts of the country, the most extensive
training ground being Salisbury Plain. From all the dominions
and colonies and from India came immediate offers of help.
The dislocation of business in London, the financial capital
of the world, promised at first to be extremely serious. On
the Friday before the outbreak of war the Stock
Exchange, an hour after its opening, closed sine die Safe-
and the Bank rate was advanced to 10 per cent, guarding
Happily the following Monday was the August "nessand
bank holiday; the bankers and merchants met and Finance,
invited the Government to prolong this interlude for
three days. This was promptly done; a Postponement of
Payments bill supplemented the Moratorium proclamation and
was extended to a period of one month; the Government mean-
while relieved the monetary crisis by issuing new Treasury cur-
rency notes for i and los. The Bank rate was reduced after the
bank holidays to 6 %, and before long to 5 %. By these prompt
measures, the first financial flurry was quickly overcome. A
vote of credit for 100,000,000 was proposed in the House of
Commons by the Prime Minister, together with an immediate
increase of 100,000 men for the army and of 67,000 for the navy
and coastguard. The war, he said, had been forced on the coun-
try, and no nation ever entered a struggle with a clearer conscience.
Other immediate steps taken by the Government involved the
control of the railways, and the setting up of a system of insurance
of war risks, so as to secure the continuance of over-
seas trade; the passing of a Defence of the Realm Act Measures.
authorizing trial by court-martial of spies and of per-
sons contravening regulations made for national safety, and of
bills enabling Great Britain to take advantage of enemypatents,
to requisition stores for the army, and foodstuffs " withheld un-
reasonably " in order to raise their price, and to supplement
deficiencies in housing. Other legislation, passed before Parlia-
ment was prorogued, provided for special constables, for re-
striction of the sale of liquor, and for giving emergency powers
to the courts for the protection of debtors. Measures calculated
to relieve distress were pushed forward; but the anticipated
distress from unemployment did not occur, and a great fund
for its relief, running into many millions, which was organized
under the presidency of the Prince of Wales, had eventually to be
diverted into other directions.
An enormous amount of voluntary effort seconded Govern-
ment activity. Private houses were freely offered for hospital
purposes, yachts were converted by their owners in-
to hospital ships; in every profession men who had
retired returned to release younger men for Kitchener's
Army; women, encouraged by the precept and example of the
Queen, set themselves in all parts of the country to make under-
ioo6
ENGLISH HISTORY
clothing, and knit socks for sailors and soldiers; and The Times
accepted, with unprecedented success, the office of organ for col-
lecting money for the British Red Cross and Order of St. John
for the benefit of the wounded. Yet in spite of the various drains
on manhood, time and purse, and of the cruel anxieties, as the tale
of losses came in, in every house in the country, the public adopted
as its motto " Business as usual," and carried on, so far as
practicable, as if the nation were at peace. There was some, but
comparatively little, panic at the outbreak of war as to food-
stuffs, and a certain amount of hoarding, but no serious shortage.
The abandonment of party strife entailed upon the Ministry
one difficult decision. Were the Home Rule bill and the Welsh
Disestablishment bill, which had passed in three suc-
//omel?u/e cess * ve sess ' ons through all their stages in the Com-
BH" " mons, but which had been vehemently opposed by the
Unionists, and rejected by the Lords, to be allowed to
become law automatically under the Parliament Act? Ministers,
influenced no doubt largely by the desire to meet Mr. Redmond's
magnanimous attitude at the outset of the war, determined to
submit them to the King for signature, with the reservation that
neither should be put into operation during the war, and that
special arrangements should be made to meet the case of Ulster.
The Opposition protested that this decision was a breach of faith,
and denounced the Suspensory bill which the Government in-
troduced and passed; but they maintained their patriotic at-
titude unchanged. Their leaders generally had placed themselves
at the disposal of the Government, and the services of Mr.
Austen Chamberlain, Mr. (afterwards Lord) Long, and Mr.
F. E. Smith (afterwards Lord Birkenhead) had been accepted.
Mr. Smith was made head of the Press Bureau, in order to give
out "a steady stream of information." The press had shown as
a body remarkable discretion about naval and military secrets,
so that the arrival of the Expeditionary Force in France was
a complete surprise to the Germans. But the secrecy neces-
sarily observed gave rise to extraordinary rumours which were
widely accepted as fact. The most notorious was the story, for
which there was no foundation whatever, that trainloads of Rus-
sian troops, arrived from Archangel, had passed through England
to aid the French in their fight against the German invaders.
Internal strife came to an end, not merely between parties
in the House of Commons, but throughout the country. Political
propaganda ceased. All strikes were promptly settled,
of internal ' nc ' u< iing the great building strike in London. A gen-
Strife. eral amnesty was proclaimed for offences in connex-
ion with industrial disturbances and for suffragist
prisoners. The women's agitation for the suffrage was sus-
pended; " militancy " on their part was dropped; suffrage
societies organized themselves for the relief of women and
children who suffered by the war; many of the leading mili-
tants diverted their oratorical talents to the promotion of
recruiting. The nation was at one. The Churches impressed
upon their adherents the need for endurance and sacrifice, and
upheld the righteousness of the national cause. Friday Aug.
21 was appointed as a special day of intercession for soldiers
and sailors, and crowded services were held all over the land,
the King and Queen attending at Westminster Abbey.
There was considerable alarm in the country, for a long time,
in regard to German spies. Railways, bridges, and waterworks
were in consequence guarded by Territorial troops and
Aliens*" Bov Scouts. Aliens were registered, and restricted in
their freedom of movement and residence. The outcry
against aliens led Adml. Prince Louis of Battenberg, the First
Sea Lord, to retire owing to his German origin. Several spies
were arrested and tried, and a certain number shot.
The control of the war, as of all other portions of British
policy, rested with the Cabinet. It was assisted by the Com-
mittee of Imperial Defence, and the War Office and
^Council. Admiralty acted as executive agents. But a Cabinet
of over 20 members, a large proportion of whom were
immersed in details of internal policy, was obviously unfitted for
the duties of superintendence of naval and military operations.
On Xov. 25 a War Council was constituted, consisting mainly of
the members of the Committee of Imperial Defence, to whom the
Cabinet delegated (subject to ultimate reference to itself) the
ordinary management of the war. While Mr. Lloyd George,
Sir Edward Grey, Lord Haldane, and Lord Crewe had seats
and influence on the Council, the principal responsibility lay
with the Prime Minister, Lord Kitchener, and Mr. Churchill;
indeed, as was afterwards revealed, the meetings of the War
Council were so intermittent that the authority of these three
was but little controlled. The public gained its authentic
knowledge of military progress mainly from Lord Kitchener's
statements in the Lords, and similar statements about naval
operations by Mr. Churchill in the Commons.
The varying fortunes of the early weeks of the war the
German check at Liege, the retreat from Mons, the burning of
Louvain, and the outrageous conduct of the Germans
in Belgium and France, the escape of the " Goeben,"
the exploits of the "Arethusa" at sea, the advance meat.
of the Russians in East Prussia and their expul-
sion by Hindenburg, the brave resistance of Serbia to the
Austrian attack, the threat to Paris and the removal of the
French Government to Bordeaux, the victory of the Marne, the
German stand on the Aisne, the torpedoing of three British
cruisers in the North Sea, the death of the veteran Lord Roberts
when on a visit to the army in France were all, in one way or
another, calculated to stiffen the resolution of the nation. The
session of Parliament was brought to a close on Sept. 19 amid
unprecedented scenes. Cheers greeted the announcement that
the Home Rule and Welsh Church bills had been duly passed
under the Parliament Act. The King's Speech struck a lofty
note. " I address you," His Majesty began, " in circumstances
that call for action rather than speech. After every endeavour
had been made by my Government to preserve the peace of the
world, I was compelled, in the assertion of treaty obligations
deliberately set at naught, and for the protection of the public
law of Europe and the vital interests of my Empire, to go to war."
And he summarized British policy when he declared: " We are
fighting for a worthy purpose, and we shall not lay down our
arms until that purpose is fully achieved." Mr. Crooks, of the
Labour party, before the members separated, started singing,
" God save the King," in which all present joined upstanding;
and then he exclaimed, " God save Ireland," to which Mr. Red-
mond responded, " God save England."
The Prime Minister had already, before the close of the session,
started, with the cooperation of leading men of all parties, a
great educational campaign, by means of meetings Tl}e
throughout the United Kingdom, to vindicate the country
justice of the British cause and to organize public sad the
opinion and effort. The first meeting was at the
Guildhall on Sept. 4, and was addressed by Mr. Asquith, Mr.
Bonar Law, Mr. Balfour, and Mr. Churchill. Others were held
in rapid succession in different parts of the country, the Prime
Minister speaking himself not only in London but in Edinburgh,
Cardiff, and Dublin. In Dublin the Lord Mayor was in the chair,
and the speakers included (besides the Prime Minister) the Lord
Lieutenant, the Chief Secretary, Mr. Redmond, Mr. Dillon,
and Mr. Devlin. Mr. Redmond said that Ireland, which was
profoundly moved by the sufferings of Belgium, would feel
bound in honour to take her place beside the other autonomous
portions of the King's Dominions. At a meeting in the London
Opera House Mr. Crooks said that the fight was for liberty and
home; he would rather see every living soul blotted off the
face of the earth than see the Kaiser supreme anywhere. One
of the most striking speeches was delivered by Mr. Lloyd George
to a meeting of Welshmen in the Queen's Hall in London. The
German Chancellor, he said, has called treaties " scraps of
paper." So were bank-notes; so were bills of exchange. Treaties
were the currency of international statesmanship. It was a
great opportunity, and a new and more exalted patriotism was
emerging. Britain had been living, he said, in a sheltered valley;
the stern hand of fate had scourged her to an elevation whence
the great peaks of honour were visible Duty, Patriotism,
Sacrifice. The Prime Minister summed up the position of the
ENGLISH HISTORY
1007
War
Conditions.
country in his speech at the Guildhall on Lord Mayor's Day.
Britain, he said, would not sheathe the sword until Belgium had
recovered all and more than all that she had sacrificed, until
France was adequately secured against the menace of aggres-
sion, until the rights of the smaller nationalities were placed
on an unassailable foundation, until the military dominion of
Prussia was fully and finally destroyed.
Meanwhile England was feeling day by day more and more
what it meant to be at war. On the coasts, and especially the
east coast, houses were destroyed which might either
obstruct the British line of fire or serve as landmarks for
a hostile fleet ; lamps were extinguished on the sea front
and all streets leading to it; no lights were allowed to be shown
from private houses; and lighthouses and lightships were tem-
porarily extinguished. The development of air warfare shortly
caused the streets of London and all towns accessible from the
east to be darkened, and searchlights, special guns, and an
increasing number of air machines to be held in readiness against
attack; while all trains in the south-eastern quarter of England
had to have their blinds drawn after nightfall. The fall of
Antwerp and the loss of the Belgian coast to the enemy brought
the imminence of the danger home. These events in Belgium
brought also a great accession to the number of Belgian refugees
who had already sought shelter in England, and a vast organiza-
tion of public and private benevolence catered for their needs.
On the other hand, public opinion in England was cheered about
this time by the arrival of the first contingent of Canadian
troops, the forerunner of a mighty force from all the Dominions;
and by the appearance in the battle line in France of native
troops from India. This was unfortunately succeeded by the
news of the defeat of Adml. Cradock at Coronel.
The new parliamentary session, which opened on Nov. n,
followed immediately upon a serious development of the con-
flict the entry of Turkey into the war as an ally of
<ns ' the Central Powers (which had as one result the
proclamation of Egypt as a British Protectorate). The King,
in his Speech, said that " the only measures which will be
submitted to you, at this stage of the session, are such as seem
necessary to my advisers for the attainment of the great purpose
upon which the efforts of the Empire are set." The most burning
question of the moment was the scale of pensions and disable-
ment allowances for sailors and soldiers and their dependents.
Mr. Asquith welcomed a suggestion made by Mr. Law that it
should be referred for decision to a small committee of all parties.
Mr. Arthur Henderson, who had succeeded the pacifist Mr.
Ramsay Macdonald as chairman of the Labour party, promised
the full support of organized labour in maintaining unity.
The finance of the war claimed the immediate attention of
Parliament. The Prime Minister moved a Vote of Credit for
225,000,000, anda further addition of a million men to
the army. On Nov. 1 7 the Chancellor of the Exchequer
Budget. explained how it was proposed to raise the money.
He had to provide for a deficit of nearly 340 millions.
Following the precedents of Pitt in the French War and Glad-
stone in the Crimean War, a substantial part of this must be
obtained by increased taxation levied on all classes. He proposed
to double the income-tax (bringing it up to 25. 6d.), and super-
tax, to add the equivalent of a halfpenny a half-pint to the
taxation of beer, and to raise the duty on tea from sd. to 8d. In a
full year, he calculated that these increases would bring in over
65 millions. He further announced the immediate issue of a
loan of 350,000,000, at 35%, at 95, which was promptly sub-
scribed. He calculated the cost of the first full year of war as
at least 450,000,000. Other important war measures taken at
this time were the purchase by Government of 18,000,000
worth of sugar a foretaste of the coming control of food sup-
plies, not yet expected; a scheme for the manufacture of aniline
dyes, hitherto made exclusively in Germany the consumers
to subscribe three millions, and the Government to guarantee
debenture interest on another million and a half; the setting up
by statute of a custodian of enemy property in the person of the
Public Trustee.
At the end of November the King crossed to France, and
spent a week with his army in the field. The visit, which was
repeated in subsequent years of war, greatly cheered
and sustained the troops. Almost immediately after- German
wards came the news of Adml. Sturdee's victory off the 'by'sfa
Falkland Isles. But this was succeeded by evidence and Air.
that, even though invasion of England in force might
be too hazardous to be attempted, the country was exposed to
harassing and destructive attacks by sea and air. On the morn-
ing of Dec. 16 German warships appeared off Hartlepool, a
great business port, and Scarborough and Whitby, two much-
frequented watering-places, and bombarded all three towns, doing
considerable damage, and killing some 140 people, and wounding
many others, mostly civilians, including women and children.
The ships only remained for half an hour and then disappeared
in the mist, before any portion of the British fleet, save patrol
boats, could come up. On Christmas Eve a German aero-
plane dropped a bomb in a bed of cabbages near Dover Castle,
and at midday on Christmas Day another got up the Thames
as far as Erith, but was then chased off. These events produced
no panic, but stimulated recruiting, which remained brisk in
England, though in Ireland Mr. Redmond's efforts were only
moderately successful.
Speaking in December, Mr. Bonar Law, while rightfully
claiming that the Opposition had distinguished itself from pre-
vious war-time oppositions by its patriotic reticence,
remarked that perhaps, indeed, they had not criti-
cized the Government enough. The early months of
1915 witnessed a change. It was clear that the war, which
in the west had settled down into trench-fighting, would last for
a considerable time, even assuming that the " steam-roller "
of the Russian advance would eventually cause the German
strangle-hold on north-eastern France to relax; it was not so
clear that all that the Government had done and left undone was
judicious. Criticism therefore awoke, and became steadily more
insistent till the formation of the first Coalition Ministry. But
it was criticism, not on party lines, directed to the more efficient
conduct of the war; the criticism from the pacifist side was
negligible. It was urged that voluntary enlistment, though
hitherto fairly adequate, could not possibly give the army all
the men it would want; that the half-hearted British policy of
search and blockade, though it provoked reasoned objections
from the American Government, failed to do any serious harm
to Germany; that steps should at once be taken to regulate the
price of food, which was steadily mounting; that the Press Bureau,
under Sir Stanley (afterwards Lord) Buckmaster, was unduly
harassing; that quite undue mildness was shown in the treat-
ment accorded to enemy aliens, who should all be interned;
that insufficient attention was paid to the development of the
air force; and, above all, that the Government had entirely
failed to meet the requirements for munitions of war.
Feeling in England was hardened by the German proclama-
tion of Feb. 4, declaring- a blockade of Great Britain from Feb.
18, claiming the right in the war-region to destroy
British ships without providing means of escape "Block-
, , , . ade" of
for passengers and crew, and warning neutral ships Britain.
that they might incur the same fate. " This," as
Mr. Asquith said, "is in effect a claim to torpedo at sight,
without regard to the safety of crew and passengers, any
merchant vessel under any flag." It was resolved, in con-
sequence, to detain, and take into port, ships carrying
goods of presumed enemy destination, ownership or origin;
and also to discriminate against submarine prisoners, as
having disregarded the laws of war. The sinking of the " Lusi-
tania," in accordance with this proclamation, by the Germans
on May 7, with a great loss of life among innocent passengers,
largely American, brought the aliens question in
England to a head, as it produced violent anti-German intern-
riots and demonstrations all over the country. It was Aliens.
decided to intern or deport all enemy aliens, and to
scrutinize carefully the cases of naturalized Germans. Wide-
spread indignation had already been aroused this spring by the
ioo8
ENGLISH HISTORY
The Drink
Question.
reports of American agents about the treatment meted out to
British prisoners in Germany; and this was increased in May
by the publication of the report of a committee, presided over
by Lord Bryce, confirming the stories of outrage committed
by the Germans in Belgium and France. The Prime Minister
had no difficulty in obtaining a supplementary Vote of Credit for
37,000,000, and a fresh Vote of Credit for 250,000,000, the
cost of the war having already reached two millions a day.
The great difficulty with which the Government had to cope
this spring was the insufficient supply of munitions of war, due
mainly to strikes, to trade-union practices favouring
es ' slow production, and to drink. Appeals were made
to the working men by Lord Kitchener; and on March 9 Mr.
Lloyd George introduced a new Defence of the Realm bill, giv-
ing the Government wide powers of mobilizing industry. On
March 17 the Chancellor of the Exchequer met the representa-
tives of 35 trade unions, and pointed out to them that the dura-
tion of the war depended on the rate at which munitions could
be turned out. Ultimately an agreement was reached under
which there was to be in no case any stoppage of work upon muni-
tions and equipments of war; all differences were to be the subject
of conference between the parties and in case of disagreement to
be referred to arbitration; trade practices were to be relaxed
during the war period. In harmony with the spirit of this agree-
ment there was enrolled at Liverpool, under Lord Derby's com-
mand, a Dockers' Battalion. With regard to drink Mr. Lloyd
George told a deputation of shipowners which advocated total
prohibition during the war: " We are fighting Germany, Austria,
and drink; and, as far as I can see, the greatest of these three
deadly foes is drink." In order to set a good example
tne ^ n & announced that he would give up all alco-
holic liquor till after the war, and issued orders against
its consumption in the Royal Household. Lord Kitchener, and
a considerable number of loyal subjects, followed His Majesty's
example. On April 29 Mr. Lloyd George introduced the minis-
terial proposals which increased enormously the taxation on all
alcoholic liquors, and included powers to close and control
pubh'c-houses in munition areas. But public opinion was not
ripe for so stringent a measure, and compelled the withdrawal
of these proposals; and the Government contented themselves
with setting up a Liquor Control Board with Lord D'Abernon
(formerly Sir Edgar Vincent) as chairman, which drastically
reduced the alcoholic strength of beer and spirits, in munition or
populous areas, and the hours during which public-houses might
be open and liquor sold. Only for some two hours in the mid-
dle of the day and for some three hours in the evening could
drink be procured; and the arrangement worked well.
The question of munitions became critical in April and May.
The battle of Neuve Chapelle in March had been indecisive
owing to a deficiency of ammunition, which was re-
Defideacy vealed to the people of England by a dispatch from
"\iuniiiiinx. the Military Correspondent of The Times (Col. Rep-
ington). Mr. Asquith indeed, in a speech at New-
castle-on-Tyne mainly devoted to encouraging munition workers
to deliver the goods " more promptly and more effectively,"
amazed and angered the public by denying that operations in
the field had been crippled through lack of ammunition. But
Lord Kitchener confessed that " the output is not equal to our
needs "; and Mr. Lloyd George dwelt in the House of Commons
on the unprecedented expenditure of artillery ammunition and
the new importance given to high explosives. The problem, he
said, was to produce munitions not only on a much larger scale
than ever before but of a different kind. To the anxieties
caused by the deficiency of munitions were added those due to
the desperate resistance with which the troops, just landed
with high hopes on Gallipoli, had been met. Disagreement
about the Dardanelles operations between Mr. Churchill, the
First Lord of the Admiralty, and Lord Fisher, the First Sea
Lord, came to a head; and the Prime Minister, who had on May
12 contradicted the current rumours of coalition, formally told
the House a week later that the Government was to be recon-
structed " on a broader personal and political basis."
The reconstruction took place during the Whitsuntide recess,
it being carefully explained by Mr. Asquith that there was no
change of policy and no sacrifice by any minister of
his political ideals. The Coalition was " for the pur- Flrst
pose of the war alone." Mr. Asquith, Sir Edward nini*t.
Grey and Lord Kitchener retained their respective
offices, and Lord Crewe remained Lord President and leader
in the Lords; Lord Lansdowne joined the Ministry with-
out portfolio; Mr. Bonar Law became Colonial Secretary; Mr.
Balfour took over the Admiralty from Mr. Churchill, who
became Chancellor of the Duchy; Mr. Austen Chamberlain
went to the India Offiqe; and Lord Curzon, Mr. (afterwards
Lord) Long, and Lord Selborne also entered the Cabinet. Mr.
Asquith sought the cooperation of both the Irish leaders in his
Cabinet; but, while Sir Edward Carson accepted the Attorney-
Generalship (having Mr. F. E. Smith as Solicitor-General),
Mr. Redmond declined to enter. Mr. Henderson, the leader of
the Labour party, became President of the Board of Education.
Public opinion would not tolerate the retention of Lord Haldane,
with his German associations, as Lord Chancellor. The post
was declined by the Attorney-General, Sir John Simon, and he
became Home Secretary. The Solicitor-General, Sir Stanley
Buckmaster, was accordingly promoted to the woolsack as
Lord Buckmaster. The vital importance of guns and ammuni-
tion was recognized by the creation of a new Ministry of Muni-
tions, at the head of which was placed the most energetic member
of the late Ministry, already rivalling Mr. Asquith in reputation,
Mr. Lloyd George. Mr. McKenna succeeded to the Chancel-
lorship of the Exchequer, and Mr. Runciman, Mr. Birrell, Mr.
McKinnon Wood and Mr. Harcourt remained in the Cabinet.
The Liberal ministers who retired, besides Lord Haldane, were
Lord Beauchamp, Mr. Hobhouse, Mr. Pease, Lord Lucas and
Lord Emmott; Mr. Herbert Samuel became Postmaster-General,
but was excluded from the Cabinet; and Mr. Montagu became
Financial Secretary to the Treasury, Lord Robert Cecil Under-
secretary for Foreign Affairs and the Duke of Devonshire Civil
Lord of the Admiralty; Mr. Brace, the Labour member, was '
appointed Under-Secretary for Home Affairs.
The country, which was cheered this May by the entry of
Italy into the war on the side of the Allies, welcomed the new
Ministry as giving promise of a more strenuous con-
duct of hostilities. Mr. Lloyd George threw himself Mr. Lloyd
with ardour into his new work, enlisted the aid of Mnister*of
business and practical men and men of science in its Munitions.
organization, and made a personal appeal to the great
towns, Manchester, Liverpool and Cardiff, to concentrate
on enlarging the output, and to consent to the modification
of such trade-union rules as conflicted with rapid and efficient
production. It was in the workshops of the country, he said,
that success must be sought. He urged the conversion of
workshops engaged in the arts of peace into factories for turn-
ing out munitions of war. Mr. Lloyd George got at once to
work on the lines he had laid down. He brought in on June 23
a Munitions of War bill, embodying his plans for increasing
output. They were based on a system of decentralization. There
were to be 10 munition areas, managed by local business men.
There must be no strikes or lockouts; disputes must be referred
to arbitration. Skilled men must be brought back from the
army; Munition Courts appointed, representative of Govern-
ment, employers and workmen; trade-union regulations restrict-
ing output must be suspended; and employers' profits limited.
These proposals, with some modifications, were accepted by the
Labour leaders; and the bill promptly became law.
But the Act by no means put a complete stop to labour
troubles. In July the South Wales miners suddenly demanded
a new minimum rate of wages higher than the
previous maximum. Mr. Runciman, President of f^f of
the Board of Trade, in vain endeavoured to compose wales
the quarrel. The Government applied the provisions Miners.
of the Munitions Act with no result, and a card vote
gave a majority for a strike. Mr. Lloyd George went down
to Cardiff and effected a settlement by an advance on
ENGLISH HISTORY
1009
Mr. Runciman's conditions, after a week's strike had cost
the country 1,500,000. The continued increase in the price
of coal consequent on these events caused the Government to
pass a Price of Coal (Limitation) bill, which was only accepted
by Parliament with reluctance. The King made in July a tour
of the munition centres in the Midlands to thank and hearten
the workers of both sexes. Mr. Lloyd George was able in the
debate on adjournment on July 28 to give a reassuring account
of the success of his department, which had enrolled nearly
100,000 volunteers, had brought back thousands of qualified
engineers from the ranks, and had set up some 20 national fac-
tories. But, as a result of a recent conference at Boulogne, it
had been decided to embark on a new programme of great pro-
portions which would necessitate 10 new establishments and
need further volunteers, and especially the assistance of women.
Once more he appealed to trade-union leaders to bring
Trade- pressure upon their men to suspend trade-union
Union practices restricting output, and he attended a con-
and ference in the London Opera House on the following
Munitions, day with representatives of the coal-mines industry,
in which there was a general disposition to meet his
views. But these practices continued; and yet once again Mr.
Lloyd George, addressing on Sept. 21, by invitation, the Trade
Union Congress at Bristol, pointed out that, while the Govern-
ment had kept its promises, intercepted war profits, and taken
control of the whole of the engineering works of the country
for the benefit of the State, labour had failed in too many in-
stances to reciprocate. Objections were raised to semi-skilled
and unskilled labour in place of skilled; to women replacing
men; to night work; to artisans working their hardest. It was
a war, he explained, of material, and the Russian retreat of that
autumn threw a heavier burden on England. " I beg you, do not
set the sympathy of the country against Labour by holding back
its might with the fetters of regulation and custom." The speech
produced a great effect on the Congress and materially im-
proved the conditions prevailing in the workshops.
The finance of the war was the next most urgent question for
the Coalition to tackle. The Prime Minister moved on June 14
a supplementary Vote of Credit for 250,000,000, and
anticipated a war expenditure of three millions a day.
The new Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. McKenna,
presently obtained Parliamentary sanction for a fresh War
Loan, to be issued at 45%, at par, with special arrangements,
through the post-offices, trade unions, friendly societies, and
factories, for the encouragement of the small investor, who
could obtain bonds of 5 or vouchers for 55. A great campaign
was at once started in support of the loan and of war economy,
beginning with a meeting of bankers, merchants, manufacturers
and shopkeepers of the City of London in the Guildhall. Mr.
Asquith and Mr. Bonar Law were the principal speakers. The
Prime Minister commended the loan as the first great demo-
cratic loan in British history, and he urged the imperative neces-
sity of reducing all expenditure on luxuries. The loan was a
great success, and realized nearly 600,000,000, including 200
millions from the big banks. At the end of July the Prime
Minister had to apply for a further Vote of Credit amounting to
150,000,000. A Retrenchment Committee, with Mr. McKenna
as chairman, was appointed to inquire into civil expenditure.
The formation of the Coalition Ministry did not abate the
movement for compulsory military service, a movement which
was met by strong demonstrations in favour of re-
tfejrfsJrs'- taining the voluntary system, including a pronounce-
tiott Bill. ment in that sense by the Trade Union Congress in
the autumn. The Government adopted the inter-
mediate measure of introducing a National Registration bill
applicable to all persons between 15 (eventually changed to
16) and 65. This, though resisted by some Radicals and Labour
men, was carried into law without much difficulty. They also
passed an Elections Registration bill, postponing local elections
and suspending registration of voters. But they could not
bring themselves to take strong steps to secure the production
of food, declining to accept the recommendation of a committee
of agricultural experts over whom Lord Milner presided, that
there should be a guaranteed minimum price of wheat for the four
years following the 1916 harvest.
The agitation for compulsory service increased in the autumn,
and dominated the internal politics of the country and the
proceedings of Parliament. Lord Kitchener, who
had hitherto resisted the movement, confessed that Agitation
the provision of adequate forces in the field caused scriptioa.
him anxious thought. Independent members of
Parliament pressed the compulsory solution upon the Govern-
ment. While Radicals and Labour men and Irish Nationalist
politicians deprecated the trend of public opinion, the unsatis-
factory course of the war spoke loudly. Zeppelin raids had
brought home the hard facts of war both to the Londoner and
to the countryman; and the defence was clearly inadequate.
Russia, on whose early successes optimism had fastened, had
been driven back by the Germans. Before the autumn was far
advanced, it was evident that some decisive action must be
taken in regard to the gallant, but fruitless, Gallipoli adventure.
Bulgaria, on a shrewd, but shortsighted, appreciation of the
situation, came into the war on the German side. Greece, put
to the test, declined, under the influence of her King, to honour
her pledge to aid Serbia, which was in consequence heavily de-
feated and overrun. In France the British offensive at Loos,
and the French in Champagne, had seemed to promise well,
but no real progress had been made; and Sir John French,
after 14 months' incessant strain, gave up in October the com-
mand of the British forces, and was succeeded by Sir Douglas
Haig. In the effort to stave off a decision on compulsory serv-
ice Lord Derby was asked, and consented, in Octo-
ber to assume the direction of recruiting. He inaugu- Lord
rated a most strenuous campaign, ushered in by a ^Icru'itiag
spirited letter from the King. Men were divided Campaign.
into various groups, and the unmarried men were to
be taken in preference to the married men. Lord Derby spent
himself without stint, and there was a great rush of recruits;
but before the end of December it was clear that an adequate
number of unmarried men would not be obtained. In November
Mr. Asquith had said that, if Lord Derby's scheme were not a
success, he would, " without the faintest hesitation or doubt,"
ask the House to sanction some form of legal obligation. The
time had come. Mr. Asquith moved on Dec. 21 for an addition
of a million men to the previous three millions voted for the army,
and the Cabinet accepted the principle of compulsion, at the
cost of losing Sir John Simon, the Home Secretary.
In the press the principal demand for compulsion came from
The Times, which had throughout been a strong advocate for
more strenuous prosecution of the war. Another vital
matter, to which it called attention again and again Demand
this autumn, was the necessity of entrusting the l **, l ,,, .
111 i r &IuatI War
uncontrolled conduct of the war to a very small Cabinet.
Cabinet. This demand was echoed in the House
of Lords on Oct. 26 by Lord Cromer, who said that what the
public wanted to see was a small, strong, executive body
chosen from men representing the best talent in the country;
and on Nov. 2 by Sir Edward Carson, who had resigned office
owing to dissatisfaction with the Balkan policy of the Govern-
ment, and who said that responsibility could only properly be
concentrated by the reduction of the Cabinet to five or six
members. Mr. Asquith endeavoured to meet this demand by
promising to commit the strategic conduct of the war to a
committee of not less than three and not more than five mem-
bers, having elastic relations with the Cabinet. Apparently the
old War Council had been allowed to become obsolete. Mr.
Asquith announced, on Nov. n, that, in the absence of Lord
Kitchener, who went in that month to Gallipoli to acquaint
himself with the situation, the new War Committee would con-
sist of himself, Mr. Balfour, Mr. Lloyd George, Mr. Bonar Law,
and Mr. McKenna. The exclusion of Mr. Churchill from the
conduct of the war brought about his resignation from the
Cabinet and his departure for the western front as a British
military officer.
IOIO
ENGLISH HISTORY
ment.
The secrecy enforced upon the press produced many protests,
until the Press Bureau was placed under the competent head-
ship of an able journalist, Sir Edward Cook, and a
Proioaaa- leading ex-colonial administrator, Sir Frank Swetten-
ham. One urgent matter dealt with by Parliament
(which sat continuously, with short intervals of pro-
rogation or adjournment, throughout the war) was
the question of its own existence, which under the Parliament
Act should terminate in December of this year, but which was
prolonged by statute this autumn, and by subsequent statutes
in subsequent years, till after the conclusion of the war.
Further powers were given to the Munitions Ministry by a bill
passed in December; and Mr. Lloyd George, while claiming that
the output of munitions had been prodigiously increased, urged
the imperative need of further efforts, especially by the method
of "diluting" skilled labour by the introduction of women.
The footsteps of the Allies, he warned Parliament, had been
dogged by the spectre of " Too late."
One vitally important matter, the finance of the war, was
resolutely grappled with this autumn by the Coalition Govern-
ment, and by Mr. McKenna, its Chancellor of the Exchequer.
The cost of hostilities was rapidly mounting. In moving a Vote
of Credit in Sept. for 250,000,000, the Prime Minister said that
it had risen in the past half year from 2,700,000 to over 3,500,-
000 a day; in moving a similar Vote for 400,000,000 in Novem-
ber, he estimated for an expenditure of 5,000,000 a day. In
these circumstances a strenuous effort was made in the third
war budget in September to raise a large portion of the outlay
by taxation. In the previous year Mr. Lloyd George
Mr. He- had doubled the income-tax and super-tax, and
rare?"' 5 greatly increased the taxes on beer and tea. Beer,
Budget. which was now severely limited by the Board of Con-
trol, Mr. McKenna left alone. But he increased the
income-tax once more by 40%, and reduced the exemption limit,
while permitting payment in half-yearly instalments. Super-
tax was also increased. He imposed a new excess-profits tax
to tap the lucrative gains of war manufacture of 50 per cent.
He increased the taxation on sugar enormously; added 50% more
in duties on tea, tobacco, cocoa, coffee, chicory and dried fruits;
raised the duty on motor spirits by 3d. a gallon, and doubled the
patent-medicine duty. He abolished the halfpenny post, in-
creased the 6d. telegram to gd., and made the press telegraph
charges self-supporting. He undertook an entirely new departure
by taxing foreign luxuries, putting a 333% ad valorem duty on
imported motor-cars and cycles, cinema films, clocks, watches,
musical instruments, plate-glass and hats. These new taxes were
estimated to bring in 107,000,000; but he placed the expenditure
at 1,590,000,000, and the revenue, on the basis of existing tax-
ation, at 272,110,000, so that there was a wide margin still to
be filled by borrowing. There was some attempt to raise in
debate the issue of Free Trade and Protection; but with the
exception of the plate-glass and hat taxes, which were abandoned,
the budget had an easy passage through Parliament.
When the year 1916 opened there was a general agreement
that the war had become to an enormous extent a war of attri-
tion, and the Cabinet therefore proceeded at once to
k" ng * n the Compulsory Service bill, to which circum-
Bia. stances had, however reluctantly, driven them. It
was far from being universal. It merely treated un-
attested single men and childless widowers between the ages of
1 8 and 40 as if they had attested under Lord Derby's group sys-
tem. Ireland was excluded from the bill, and exemptions were
allowed for ministers of religion, men medically rejected or
physically unfit, those employed in necessary national work,
those who were the sole support of dependents, and " conscien-
tious objectors " to combatant service. Tribunals were set up to
deal with claims for exemption. Sir John Simon led a small and
dwindling opposition; but many of the Labour members, includ-
ing Mr. Henderson, the leader of the party, supported the bill;
Mr. Redmond, who led 60 Nationalists into the lobby against
the first reading, withdrew Nationalist opposition on perceiving
the united demand in Great Britain in its favour; and the second
reading was carried by 431 votes against 39. No hostile amend-
ment received any serious support in committee, and the bill
was read a third time by 383 votes against 36. In the Lords the
measure was passed without a division, Lord Derby explaining
that there were at least 650,000 unattested single men who
would be affected by it. There was some fear that the labour
organizations, who suspected the possibility of industrial con-
scription, would place serious difficulties in the way of enforcing
its provisions. They did indeed condemn it by a considerable
majority at a labour conference held while it was passing through
Parliament; but they decided not to agitate against it. Little
practical effect was given to their condemnation save in the
Clyde district, where in March and April strikes were organized
in munition works with a view to getting this Act, and the
Munitions Act facilitating dilution of labour, repealed. The
ringleaders, however, were arrested and deported.
The local tribunals, which were set up, proved to be, on the
whole, generous in continuing the exemptions; and there was in
consequence strong criticism, in the press and in
Parliament, both on behalf of the married men, who Demand
considered that the pledges of comparative immunity wider
made to them were imperilled, and on behalf of those Measures.
who were eager for the efficient conduct of the war,
and who held that the purpose of the Act was being defeated.
There had been organized in the House of Commons, in each
of the two great parties which supported the Coalition,
a War Committee, having for its sole concern the strenuous
prosecution of the war. On March 21 the Liberal War Com-
mittee passed a resolution approving the extension of the princi-
ple of compulsion to married men; and powerful organs of the
press, notably The Times and other journals of which Lord
Northcliffe was the principal proprietor, proclaimed that the
needs of the army could not be properly supplied without uni-
. versal compulsion. On March 28 the Unionist War Committee
resolved that there ought to be equal sacrifices from all men of
military age; and Sir Edward Carson, a leading spirit in that
Committee, urged the Government to extend compulsion uni-
versally, criticizing their hesitations. Lord Derby was also
very critical in the House of Lords, and Lord Milner in that
House implored the Government to put recruiting on the only
satisfactory basis. The soldiers also pressed ministers hard.
But a Cabinet Committee, consisting of Mr. Asquith, Mr. Mc-
Kenna, Lord Lansdowne, and Mr. Austen Chamberlain came
unanimously on April 14 to an adverse decision. The Cabinet
did not accept their Committee's alternative scheme, but could
not reach a decision. Not for the first time the Prime Minister
had to ask the House of Commons for leave to post-
pone his official statement on the subject, telling the
House that there were still points unsettled, and that
the break-up of the Cabinet would be a national disaster of the
most formidable kind. At length it was announced that a
satisfactory decision had been reached; and on April 25, after
the Easter holidays, in secret session in both Houses (the first of
seven such sessions held during the war) , ministers explained their
proposals, which, it was found, only involved universal compulsion
in case a number of other expedients which it is unnecessary to
enumerate should fail to provide sufficient men. When the bill
embodying the proposals was introduced by Mr. Long two days
later, neither conscriptionists nor anti-conscriptionists found
anything to say in its favour. It was withdrawn at once, and
five days later Mr. Asquith announced that the Government had
accepted universal compulsory service. The bill,
which was introduced on May 3, brought within its Universal
operation every male between the ages of 18 and 41, servk?
and recalled time-expired men under 41 to the army. BUI.
The exemptions remained as before, and Ireland was
not included. In spite of Sir J. Simon's opposition, the bill
passed easily through both Houses, though the method of deal-
ing with conscientious objectors was felt to be a serious difficul-
ty. The final step had been taken at last ; but the Government
had lost much of its prestige owing to the " wait and see " at-
titude which it had adopted.
ENGLISH HISTORY
101 I
Blockade
of
Germany.
There were other matters relating to the conduct of the war on
which the press and the public and the two Parliamentary War
Committees were dissatisfied with what seemed to
them the slackness and hesitation of ministers. Dis-
satisfaction was particularly acute in regard to two
questions, which had long given anxiety, the block-
ade of Germany, and the development of the British air
force. It was pointed out that excessive quantities of food-
stuffs and other sources of military supply were going to neutral
ports adjacent to Germany, and it was suggested that the navy
was hampered in the strict enforcement of the blockade by the
interference of the Foreign Office. This latter charge Sir E.
Grey denied on Jan. 26, but he appealed to neutral countries
to make it easy for Great Britain to distinguish and discrimi-
nate. Business men were not reassured, and an excited meet-
ing was held in the City of London on Feb. 14, with Lord
Devonport in the chair, to demand a fuller and more effectual
use of British sea-power. Thereupon a Ministry of Blockade
was set up, with Lord Robert Cecil as its Parliamentary chief,
and he shortly afterwards issued a very comprehensive list
of contraband articles, and increased the stringency of the
blockade. In June, after consultation with the Allies, he took
the further important step of abandoning the Declaration of
London, which hitherto, contrary to its interests, the British
Government had observed.
Evidences of discontent with the position and development of
the air forces were constantly recurring. The Germans were
known to be- very active in building and developing
Develop- Zeppelins, and a great raid over the centre of England
on J an - 3 1 I 9 I 6 called attention to their capacity for
destruction. The system which made the British air
forces ancillary to the army and navy, and divided the responsi-
bility between Admiralty and War Office, was vehemently
called in question. A demand was made for an Air Ministry;
but the only changes which the Government announced in
February were the transference of the British defences against
aircraft from the Admiralty to the War Office, and the appoint-
ment of a joint naval and military committee to stimulate
production, under the chairmanship of Lord Derby. Public
dissatisfaction was strikingly shown by the return on March 10
to Parliament of a flying man, Mr. Pemberton Billing who had
no local connexion but who advocated a strong air policy for
the conservative constituency of East Herts by a large majority
over a Coalition candidate. The new member took an active,
if somewhat indiscriminate, part in stimulating the Govern-
ment, who shortly added Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, a keen
promoter of aviation, to Lord Derby's committee. But this
arrangement did not last long, and in the second week in April
Lord Derby and Lord Montagu both resigned, as they found
the committee had no real power. Accordingly in May the
Government went further, and established a Joint Air Board
representing both army and navy, with Lord Curzon
as president and Maj. Baird as parliamentary secre-
tary. This departure was welcomed, though it was
doubted whether even this Board would have sufficient independ-
ent power; and not only the critics, such as Mr. Winston Church-
ill, but Lord Curzon himself, proclaimed that an Air Ministry
was destined to come a prediction fulfilled in the following
December, when Mr. Lloyd George formed his Government.
The reforms already effected bore fruit in the autumn, when a
Zeppelin was brought down at Cuffley by an intrepid British
airman, the first of a long series of successes which constrained
the enemy to rely upon aeroplanes rather than airships.
It began to be realized in the winter of 1915-6 that it was not
only in arms that it was necessary to conquer Germany, but
also in the field of economics. Success in arms might be compati-
ble with defeat in the economic sphere. In January a resolution,
proposed by Mr. Hewins, who had been secretary of Mr. Joseph
Chamberlain's Tariff Reform Commission, and supported by
Mr. Prothero, a great agricultural authority, demanding meas-
ures to bring the whole economic strength of the empire to bear
in the struggle against Germany, was accepted by Mr. Runciman,
An Air
Board.
President of the Board of Trade, and carried without a divi-
sion. This conflicted with the free-trade tradition, but even
in Manchester, the home of free trade, the Chamber of Com-
merce came into line. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr.
McKenna, addressing the Association of Chambers
of Commerce in February, said that the Government Economic
were prepared to assist in the development of foreign Germany.
trade so as to ensure that England's bitterest foes and
rivals should not have their former control; and Mr. Bonar
Law next day announced that an economic conference would
be held in Paris in the summer on this vital question. Lord
Selborne, President of the Board of Agriculture, said in March
that the whole attitude of Parliament towards agriculture would
have to be changed; the agricultural laws must be so framed
as to obtain the greatest possible national security. A great reen-
forcement of this propaganda was found in Mr. Hughes, the
Prime Minister of Australia, who had come on a visit to England,
and who made several speeches on the text that not merely
must Germany's military power be destroyed, but that German
control and influence in British trade and industry must be
extirpated. Mr. Hughes's public appearances were received
with acclamation; and he was appointed one of the British
representatives at the Paris Conference, which met in the middle
of June. In its final conclusions the Conference
recommended (i) during the war period, coordina- Allied
tion of regulations of allied countries prohibiting ^ac^at
trading with the enemy, absolute embargo on importa- Paris.
tion of enemy goods, sequestration of enemy busi-
nesses, and stringent measures for restriction of enemy supplies;
(2) in the reconstruction period after the war, restoration and
reequipment for despoiled countries, denial of most favoured
treatment to enemy powers, and measures for conservation of
allied resources and against enemy dumping; and (3) for the
peace period, measures to render allied countries independent of
enemy countries in raw materials and key industries, to facili-
tate interchange of allied products, and to assimilate allied
legislation as to patents, trademarks and copyrights. These
recommendations were received enthusiastically in England;
but a minority objected to the idea of " war after the war."
The stringency of war conditions began to grip England and
particularly London this spring. Public museums and galleries
were to a great extent closed; and, in order to econo-
mize tonnage, the importation of many bulky cargoes, stringency
especially paper pulp and grass for paper-making, ^^f. r
was prohibited. To ensure rapidity of production the tions.
Whitsuntide bank holiday was postponed. Econ-
omy in all directions was preached and practised; to economize
coal and gas and electricity a " Summer time " Act was passed
giving people an extra hour of daylight in the summer evenings;
the King, whose example throughout the war was most inspirit-
ing, made a free gift of 100,000 to the national exchequer; an
elaborate system of war savings was set up, under which 155.
6d. lent to the Government was to mature into i in five years.
None of these restrictions or economies affected the spirit of the
country; a debate raised in Parliament in February, by the
small body of pacifists who ingeminated peace, only drew from
the Prime Minister a repetition, amid enthusiastic cheers, of
his declaration at the Guildhall on Nov. 9 1914, that Britain
would never sheathe the sword until the military domination of
Prussia was wholly and finally destroyed. The only criticism
of the navy estimates was Mr. Churchill's complaint that the
Board of Admiralty which had succeeded him was deficient in
energy and push.
Once again, perhaps the most satisfactory feature of the
ministerial policy was the resolute way in which the financial
problem was faced. On Feb. 21 the Prime Minister
introduced and carried two votes of credit one a Mr. Mc-
supplementary vote of 120,000,000 to cover the re- ^ond*
mainder of the current financial year, and the other Budget.
of 300,000,000 to start the new year on April i.
This brought the total votes of credit since the outbreak of
war to 1,782,000,000. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, in his
IOI2
ENGLISH HISTORY
budget introduced on April 4, estimated the net revenue at 502,-
000,000 and the expenditure at 1,825,000,000; so that there
was a deficit of 1,323,000,000, to be met by borrowing, which
would mean a new charge, for interest at 5 % and sinking fund
at i %, of 79,000,000. He tackled this unflinchingly; raised
income tax to a maximum of 53. in the pound, thus gaining
43,500,000; increased the excess profits tax from 50 to 60%;
imposed an amusement tax on tickets for all public shows and a
railway ticket tax on all journeys costing more than pd. ; he also
took toll of matches, table-waters, cider and perry. Then he
increased very seriously the duties on motor-cars, motorcycles,
sugar, cocoa, coffee and chicory. Colossal as the budget was,
involving 300,000,000 of new taxation since the war began, it
passed through Parliament substantially unchanged.
Mr. Asquith took advantage of Mr. Hughes's presence
this spring to repeat an experiment which he had successfully
made in the previous year when Sir Robert Borden,
Cabinet the Canadian Prime Minister, was in England;
""ominion namely to invite the visiting Dominion minister to
Premiers, sit in Cabinet, and share in the imperial decisions on
the war. He also continued his efforts to draw the
Allies into closer cooperation by attending a war conference
in Paris on March 27, and then proceeding to Italy to consoli-
date relations with the new Ally.
Shortly after his return, he had to deal with a sudden out-
break of rebellion at Easter in Ireland, principally in Dublin.
The rebellion was put down by military force under
^ T J onn Maxwell; the ringleaders were tried by
court-martial and shot; Casement, who had landed
from Germany, was put on his trial for treason and hanged;
the Chief Secretary, Mr. Birrell, and the Lord Lieutenant re-
signed; a commission was appointed to inquire into the causes of
the insurrection (and, it may be added, reported that it was
mainly attributable to weakness in administration); and in the
middle of May Mr. Asquith went himself to Dublin with a view
to arriving at some new arrangement for the future government
of Ireland. On his return he told the House of Commons that he
had been deeply impressed by the breakdown of the existing
machinery, and by the universality of the Irish feeling that there
was now a unique opportunity for a new departure. Accordingly
he announced that ministers had unanimously commissioned
their colleague, Mr. Lloyd George, to endeavour to effect a
settlement. The announcement was favourably received, as
Mr. Lloyd George's good-will to Ireland was well
Mr. Lloyd known, and his reputation for getting work done had
?rih le ' S enormously increased since the outbreak of war. It
Negotia- was believed, moreover, that a Coalition would have a
tioas. better chance than a party Government to arrange
agreed terms. At first the negotiations appeared to
promise well. Mr. Redmond told a meeting of the Irish Parlia-
mentary party in Dublin on June 10 that Mr. Lloyd George's
proposals were: (i) to bring the Home Rule Act into immediate
operation; (2) to introduce at once an Amending bill, to cover
only the period of the war and a short interval after it, providing
during this period for the retention of the Irish members at West-
minster in full number, and of the six Ulster counties under the
imperial Government. Sir Edward Carson persuaded the Union-
ist Ulstermen to accept these terms, and Mr. Devlin obtained
a vote in their support from the Nationalists of the six counties.
But the growing body of Sinn Feiners regarded the negotiations
with great disfavour; and, on the other hand, the Southern
Unionists protested, and many Unionists in Parliament and the
Cabinet objected, Lord Selborne resigning his office in con-
sequence. Lord Lansdowne explained that the Government
were not bound by Mr. Lloyd George's consultations, and
certain modifications were introduced in order to meet
Unionist objections. The main alteration was that the
Government could not agree to retain the Irish members at
Westminster in undiminished numbers after the next election.
The Government also proposed during the transition to appoint
an Irish minister responsible to Parliament, having a military
officer associated with him with forces sufficient to maintain
order. These modifications were the reason, or the excuse, for
Mr. Redmond to raise the cries of " coercion " and " breach of
faith," and to withdraw from the negotiation; though Mr. Lloyd
George, the Government negotiator, protested that in his opinion
the terms were such as the Irish members might well accept.
The negotiations having broken down, Mr. Duke, a Unionist,
was appointed Chief Secretary, and a month later, Lord Wim-
borne, a Liberal, was reappointed Lord Lieutenant.
The summer of 1916 was marked by the sudden death of the
great soldier upon whose experience and power of organization
the majority of Britons at the outset of war placed
their special reliance. Lord Kitchener, on a mission Death of
to Russia, left the north of Scotland on June 5 in Kitchener.
H.M.S. " Hampshire," which that evening struck a
mine to the east of the Orkneys and sank. There were only
12 survivors, and he was not among them. His services, in
the early days of war, were of incalculable value. If, sub-
sequently, he had failed in some degree to adapt himself to
his environment, nevertheless his disappearance was felt
all over the world as a heavy blow to the Allied cause. Its
effect was minimized, so far as might be, by the appoint-
ment to the Secretaryship of State in his place of the civilian
minister who had shown the greatest energy and resource
in the war, Mr. Lloyd George. Lord Derby, who had
rendered exemplary services to recruiting, became Under-
secretary for War. At the same time, Sir Edward Grey, the
trusted Foreign Secretary, whose eyesight had been failing, went
to the House of Lords as Visct. Grey ofr Fallodon. He retained
the Foreign Secretaryship, and had an efficient representative
in the House of Commons in Lord Robert Cecil, at once his
Under-Secretary and Minister of Blockade.
Public opinion in England was disturbed this summer over
many subsidiary matters relating to the war the ill-treatment
of British civilian prisoners at Ruhleben, and of
British military prisoners in German camps, and
the slight attention which the German Government
paid to the reports of American diplomatic visitors
and to British diplomatic representations; the in-
creasing shortness of food, the difficulties of agricul-
turists whose labourers had been taken under the Military
Service Acts and who had not been able as yet to obtain an ade-
quate supply of capable women in their place, and the nearing
prospect of rations; the judicial murder by the Germans of Capt.
Fryatt, of the S.S. " Brussels," for endeavouring to ram a German
submarine; and what loomed largest in Parliamentary debate
the failure of British arms in two exclusively British theatres of
action, the Dardanelles and Mesopotamia. The remaining troops
had all been brought safely away from the Gallipoli peninsula in
the winter of 1915-6, but the causes of the failure of a promising
venture were still hotly disputed; in Mesopotamia, Gen. Towns-
hend had been forced to retire before reaching Bagdad, had been
besieged in Kut, and had finally, on April 29, been driven to
surrender with all his force to the Turks. The Government re-
sisted inquiry until public opinion proved too strong for them;
but at the end of July two Royal Commissions were appointed;
that for Mesopotamia under the chairmanship of Lord George
Hamilton, a former Secretary of State for India; that for the
Dardanelles under the chairmanship of Lord Cromer, the most
venerated of British empire-builders.
Stirring events happened this spring and summer in the war
nearer home. The German fleet ventured out into the North Sea,
and, after being held and fought for several hours by
Sir David Beatty and his battle-cruiser squadron,
was brought to action by Sir John Jellicoe and the
main fleet off the coast of Jutland, was severely handled, and only
got back to harbour under cover of night. But British losses
were serious, and many doubted whether the most had been
made of a unique opportunity. Then the determined German
attempt to take Verdun was resisted most heroically by the
French in-a fight lasting many weeks; and on July i the British
army, partly with the view of relieving the pressure on its Allies,
began a furious assault on the Somme, which, though successful
Darda-
nelles and
Mesopota-
mia Com-
missions.
ENGLISH HISTORY
1013
and productive of glorious deeds, was terribly costly, and lasted
till late autumn without breaking through the German lines.
In the midst of this long-drawn-out battle, Britain entered
the third year of war, with ample indications from King, minis-
ters, Empire and people that the struggle would be
a F/ateh' pursued without flinching. Votes of credit multiplied.
In May Mr. Asquith obtained one for 300,000,000;
at the end of July another for 450,000,000; and in October
yet another for 300,000,000. Mr. Lloyd George, who was felt
more and more to incarnate the spirit which possessed the Brit-
ish people, told an American interviewer in September that
the war could not be ended except by a complete victory. " The
fight must be to a finish," he said; " to a knock-out." Lord Grey
of Fallodon endorsed this opinion in October. There must be no
peace, he said, except a peace which would ensure that Europe
should henceforth live free from the shadow of Prussian militar-
ism. And in November, in a telegram to Mr. Taft, on the occasion
of a banquet in New York of a league to enforce peace, he ex-
pressed a sincere desire to see a League of Nations formed and made
effective, to secure the future peace of the world after the end
of the present war.
Labour was restive this autumn. The railwaymen agitated
for increased war bonuses, the South Wales section being par-
ticularly insistent, and made arrangements for a strike
Restive- which was avoided by a doubling of the previous
m-.s.s- of , e j^i-.i
Labour. war bonus of 53. in some cases and 23. 6d. in others.
The Labour Congress in September was not par-
ticularly fruitful in suggestions, save that there was a call for a
Labour Ministry. The coal-mining industry occupied much
public attention. Mr. Asquith pointed out, at a conference of
owners and men on Oct. 25, that the output had seriously fallen
off, thus imperilling the supply of munitions. Avoidable ab-
senteeism, the main cause, must be reduced, if not eliminated.
Both masters and men promised cooperation. But serious trouble
broke out in November in the South Wales coal-field, owing to
demands for higher wages. The Government made a new regula-
tion under the Defence of the Realm Act by which the Board
of Trade were to have power to take over and work coal-mines.
Under this they took over the South Wales coal-field, but found
it necessary to grant an advance of 15% in wages.
The restiveness of Labour was largely due to difficulties
about food. A Board of Trade Committee on food prices was
appointed in June with Mr. J. M. Robertson as chair-
man; and, with its report before him, Mr. Runciman
announced that the Government had determined to
control the importation of wheat, by the agency of a
Royal Commission, with Lord Crawford as chairman. They had
already made a large purchase of Australian wheat. A week
later he mentioned that the Government had spent altogether
over 60,000,000 in the purchase of meat ; and he explained that
the bulk of the mercantile marine was running under Govern-
ment control. But he declined the suggestions made by Mr.
Barnes from the Labour side for appointing a Food Controller,
or instituting bread tickets or coupons, or any system of ration-
ing. A month later he announced that the Government had
decided to appoint a Food Controller, that war bread would be
instituted, that the Government would take drastic steps to
deal with wheat and potatoes, that maximum prices would be
fixed and that the amount of sugar issued would be seriously
reduced. Another matter in which the Government were driven
against their will to accept the view of the House, and especially
of the Labour members, was the creation of a unified and com-
prehensive Ministry of Pensions, instead of adopting the middle
course of a Pensions Board of inadequate scope.
But the principal preoccupation of a confused autumn was
the constantly recurrent problem of man-power. The army
authorities believed that many young men had managed
illegitimately to escape the obligations of the Military
Service Acts; and they tried for a time, with little
success, the system of " rounding up " men of military
age at theatres, railway stations, football fields, parks, and other
places of public resort. A more legitimate demand was for the
power.
" combing out " of suitable men from Government offices and
in reserved trades; and a Man-Power Distribution Board was
appointed, with Mr. Neville Chamberlain as chairman, which
set about this necessary job. The question of raising the military
age was considered by the War Office, but put aside for the
moment. Arrangements were however made, by which a con-
siderable number of suitable young men were released from civil
occupations and drafted for military service. At the same time
recognition was given to the new volunteers, elderly men who had
come forward to perform such military duties in the Home
defence of the country as their age and their disabilities permitted.
The public in England and Scotland naturally resented the
exclusion of Ireland from the Military Service Acts, and there
was pressure for her inclusion, in which Irish Unionists joined;
but Mr. Redmond declared that any project of the kind was
insane. At the same time he attacked with some bitterness the
system of Government in his country as entirely inconsistent
with the principles for which the Allies were fighting in Europe.
While ministers praised Mr. Redmond's labours for recruiting,
they could not but acknowledge the poor contribution of Ireland
in men to the war compared with the rest of the Empire.
As autumn passed into winter, and the prolonged Somme
battle died down without the hopes with which it had begun
having been realized, and news came that the Ger-
mans had overrun the new Ally of the Western Discontent
Powers, Rumania, and occupied Bucharest, the Ministry.
irritation of ardent spirits against the delays and
apparent want of efficiency of the Government gathered head.
Criticism was largely focussed upon what was considered to be
the " wait and see " temperament of the Prime Minister. New
blood was also demanded for the Admiralty, the public having
been disturbed by the comparative success and immunity of a
recent German destroyer raid in the Straits of Dover; and at the
end of November it was announced that Adml. Jellicoe would
come there as First Sea Lord, Adml. Beatty succeeding him in
command of the Grand Fleet. This change was
welcomed, but more was desired, and was loudly Mr - Lloyd
called for by a considerable section of the press, led rfemand.
by The Times. Mr. Lloyd George, who, within the
Ministry, shared to the full the public desire for greater energy
and coordination in the conduct of the war, recognized that this
was the moment to enforce his ideas. He concentrated upon the
point which had been treated as vital more than a year before
by The Times and by competent critics in Parliament, the ulti-
mate responsibility for the civilian day by day conduct of the
war. The War Committee, at the moment, consisted of Mr.
Asquith, Mr. Bonar Law, Mr. Lloyd George, Mr. Balfour,
Mr. McKenna, Lord Curzon and Mr. Montagu. But it was
merely a Committee of a Cabinet of 23 members, and was sub-
ject to the constant check and control of this miscellaneous and
unwieldy body. On Dec. i Mr. Lloyd George, in a letter to the
Prime Minister, demanded and enforced his demand with a
threat of resignation a radical change of organization; namely
that the conduct of the war should be placed in the absolute
control of a small War Committee sitting daily and consisting
of not more than four members, himself, Sir Edward Carson
(a convinced supporter of an energetic policy), Mr. Bonar Law,
and a Labour member. Mr. Asquith was pointedly omitted
from the proposed body. He refused to agree, but determined,
with the King's assent, to reconstruct his Govern-
ment. Mr. Lloyd George endeavoured to build a golden Political
bridge by consenting to admit the Prime Minister as 1916."'
a consultative and advisory member of the Com-
mittee, with the power of ultimate reference to the Cabinet. Mr.
Asquith at first assented, but on second thought refused. After
all, the essence of the scheme was that Mr. Lloyd George, with
a very limited council of advisers, should direct the war, rather
than Mr. Asquith. On Mr. Asquith's refusal, Mr. Lloyd George
resigned, on Dec. 5- The defection of the most powerful man in
the Ministry made it impossible for Mr. Asquith to continue,
and he too resigned. The King sent for Mr. Bonar Law, the
Unionist leader, but Mr. Law could not secure Mr. Asquith's
ioi4
ENGLISH HISTORY
Mr. Lloyd
George,
Prime
Minister.
Labour's
Place la
the Coall
tlon.
cooperation, and also considered that Mr. Lloyd George had
shown the qualities which the nation wanted at this critical
period. So the commission passed to Mr. Lloyd
George, the statesman whose reputation had steadily
grown throughout the world conflict, who had already
played such a decisive part, as Chancellor of the
Exchequer, Minister of Munitions, and Secretary of
State for War, and who more than any of his colleagues em-
bodied the will to victory of his countrymen.
Mr. Lloyd George was assured of the close cooperation of Mr.
Bonar Law, and of the united support of the Unionist party. He
set great store upon the help of the Labour party, one
of whose members, in his view, ought to sit on the small
Committee or Council directing the conduct of the war.
Meetings of the Parliamentary Labour party and
the National Executive were held, at which, on the
advice of all the labour members who had been ministers in the
First Coalition and of the chairman of the party, it was decided
by a majority to take part in the new Government a decision
which was ratified by the annual Labour Party Conference in the
following month. The action of the Liberal party was thought
at first to be doubtful, because Mr. Asquith, and all his principal
Liberal Cabinet colleagues, such as Lord Grey of Fallodon,
Lord Crewe and Mr. McKenna, refused to serve under Mr.
Lloyd George. But the Liberal War Committee pledged itself
at once to active support ; the Welsh Liberal members rallied in a
body to the side of the Welsh Prime Minister; and a party meet-
ing at the Reform Club, following the advice of Mr. Asquith,
recorded its determination to give support to the King's Govern-
ment engaged in the effective prosecution of the war. Mr. Lloyd
George and Mr. Bonar Law, therefore, had a wide field of
selection, only Mr. Asquith and his immediate friends, and Lord
Lansdowne, who took the occasion to retire, being ruled out.
Having a free hand Mr. Lloyd George carried through an even
more revolutionary change than that which he had submitted
to Mr. Asquith. He constituted a small Cabinet of
four members, who were relieved entirely of serious
departmental duties, who were to sit daily, and
to concentrate themselves upon the war, of the conduct of
which they were to have absolute control. He himself, as
Prime Minister, was the chairman of this War Cabinet; and, in
order to perform this his main duty satisfactorily, he devolved
the leadership of the House of Commons upon Mr. Bonar Law,
who was indeed already the leader of the largest numerical
section of its members. Mr. Law also became Chancellor of the
Exchequer, and was an additional member of the War Cabinet,
but was not expected to attend regularly. The Prime Minister's
three regular Cabinet colleagues were Lord Curzon, who became
Lord President of the Council and leader of the House of Lords,
and two ministers without portfolio, Mr. Henderson, the Labour
leader who had held high office in the first Coalition, and Lord
Milner, the only statesman of marked administrative ability and
experience who had not joined that Coalition. It was right to
turn, at this critical moment, to the man who had borne the civil
responsibility in the last British war, that with the Boers; and
from this time onward Lord Milner's share in the conduct of the
war from the British side was second -only, to Mr.- Lloyd George's.
The War Cabinet sat daily in ' Whitehall Gardens, having Sir
Maurice Hankey, the secretary of the Committee of Imperial
Defence, as its secretary, with a competent staff under him.
Other ministers were summoned to its deliberations, whenever
these concerned the departments for which they were responsible.
The one serious loss which Great Britain suffered through
Mr. Asquith's resignation was that of the Foreign Secretary,
Lord Grey of Fallodon, who had conducted the external
affairs of the country, with increasing reputation
,. and success, for 1 1 years. It was vitally important for
Mr. Lloyd George to secure, as Lord Grey's succes-
sor, a statesman in whose character and record the
Allies could have full confidence. He was fortunate in obtain-
ing Mr. Balfour's consent to accept an office with whose work
he had become familiar when acting Secretary of State in Lord
War
Cabinet.
Ministers
Outside
War
Cabinet.
Salisbury's absence. For the other important posts in his Minis-
try Mr. Lloyd George relied very largely upon the services of
business men and experts, hitherto in many cases outside politics
and the Houses of Parliament, of whose aid he had made such
excellent use in developing munitions. The country saw with
satisfaction the Board of Trade entrusted to Sir Albert Stanley,
who had previously directed the Underground railway and the
motor-omnibus system; the Board of Education to Mr. H. A. L.
Fisher, the Oxford scholar and historian, vice-chancellor of the
university of Sheffield; the Local Government Board to Lord
Rhondda, the South Wales colliery magnate; and the Board of
Agriculture to Mr. R. E. Prothero (afterwards Lord Ernie),
M.P. for Oxford University, who had managed for many years
the vast agricultural estates of the Duke of Bedford. For the
more efficient conduct of the war, five new ministries were
created Air, Labour, Pensions, Food Control, and Shipping
Control for two of which, Pensions and Food Control, some
inchoate provision had been made in the last weeks of the first
Coalition Ministry. Lord Devonport, who had large experience
in the grocery business, became Food Controller; Sir Joseph
Maclay, a Glasgow ship-owner, was appointed Shipping Con-
troller; the new Air Board was constituted with Lord Cowdray,
the head of a great firm of contractors, as president; while Labour
and Pensions were fittingly assigned to two outstanding Labour
members, Mr. Hodge and Mr. George Barnes. Seats were found
in the House of Commons for Sir Albert Stanley and Mr. Fisher;
but Sir Joseph Maclay preferred to work outside Parliament, and
his office was represented in the House by Sir Leo Chiozza Money,
the parliamentary secretary. Where Mr. Lloyd George appointed
experienced parliamentarians to office, he chose those who had
shown special keenness in the prosecution of the war. Then Sir
Edward Carson went to the Admiralty; Lord Derby to the War
Office; Mr. Walter Long to the Colonial Office; Dr. Addison to
the Ministry of Munitions; and Sir Frederick Cawley, chairman
of the Liberal War Committee, to the Duchy of Lancaster.
Mr. Chamberlain remained Indian Secretary, Lord Robert Cecil
Minister of Blockade, Mr. Duke Irish Secretary and Sir F. E.
Smith Attorney-General, Sir Gordon Hewart becoming Solicitor-
General in the place of Sir George Cave, who went to the Home
Office. Sir Robert Finlay, who had been Attorney- General in
1900-6, was made Lord Chancellor as Lord Finlay. There were
joint parliamentary secretaries to the Treasury, Lord Edmund
Talbot (afterwards Lord Fitzalan), and Hon. Neil Primrose,
Lord Rosebery's son.
In addition to these appointments, Mr. Lloyd George an-
nounced, in his statement on Dec. 19 of the policy of the new
. Goyernment, that the time had come for complete
mobilization of the labour reserves, and therefore the J^*" /
Cabinet had adopted the principle of universal national Policy.
service, and had appointed Mr. Neville Chamberlain,
Lord Mayor of Birmingham, Director-General of National Serv-
ice. He would schedule all industries, and set labour free from
non-essential industries, so as to be available for war and for
essential industrie's. The new Prime Minister also announced
that the Government would take complete control of all ships
and of the whole mining industry. There must also, he said,
be real sacrifices made in the matter of food. Every available
square yard must be made to produce; and as to luxuries and
indulgences there must be a national Lent. These exhortations
were supplemented by Mr. Prothero, the Minister for Agriculture,
who said that the War Office and the country must realize that
Britain was as a beleaguered city, and that victory might well be
lost or won on her corn fields and potato lands; and by Lord
Devonport, the Food Controller, who pushed further the restric-
tions which Mr. Runciman had already enforced, limited dinners
to three courses and luncheons to two courses in all public eating
places, and hinted at rationing as the only way of ensuring that
unpatriotic people did not get supplies in excess of their wants.
In another direction the Government developed boldly a policy
tentatively adopted by their predecessors. The Colonial Secre-
tary summoned immediately by cable the Prime Ministers of the
self-governing dominions to a special war conference of the
ENGLISH HISTORY
1015
Empire, explaining that they would for the purpose of these
meetings be members of the War Cabinet, and so directly re-
sponsible for the conduct of hostilities. The enormous share
which the colonial forces had taken in military action by land
and sea fully justified this development.
The public were gratified by the evidences of energy and
resolution shown by the new Government. Mr. Asquith, though
he took his seat on the front Opposition bench, pro-
Oer- ^ tested that he did not appear as leader of an Oppo-
*Peace * sition, or even of the Liberal party, but would give
otter. his successors the benefit of his experience. The Gov-
ernment had to deal immediately with a peace offer
from Germany, based on the assumption that the Central Powers
had won considerable successes 'and could not be defeated. If
the Allies would negotiate on these assumptions, Germany would
bring forward peace propositions; if not, the Central Powers
were resolved to carry on the war to an end, " while solemnly
disclaiming any responsibility for this before humanity and his-
tory." Mr. Lloyd George at once in Parliament said that it was
necessary to know whether Germany was prepared to accept the
only possible terms which the Allies could offer namely res-
titution, reparation and guarantee against repetition. The
formal reply to the Central Powers Was based on this idea,
and treated the German offer as empty and insincere.
Before this reply had been drafted, Mr. Woodrow Wilson,
who had been reelected President of the United States in the
previous month as the man who had kept his country
President out of the war, addressed a Note to the belligerent
aad S War P wers suggesting that they should issue a statement
Alms. of their war aims which, he somewhat strangely as-
serted, seemed to be much alike on both sides. Though
this intervention was not welcomed in England any more
than on the continent of Europe, the Allies sent in Jan. 1917 a
courteous answer, explaining in some detail their objects of
restoration and liberation, while the Central Powers merely
expressed their readiness to enter a peace conference.
It soon became evident that the peace manoeuvres of the
German Government were put forward in order to obtain an
excuse for entering upon that indiscriminate subma-
Uniimited r j ne war fare on which their most active naval and
Warfare, military leaders were coming to base their main hope
of success. The new system was put in force at the
beginning of February. The German Government notified that
they would regard all the waters surrounding the British
Isles and the whole of the northern and western coasts of France,
as well as the eastern Mediterranean, as barred zones within
which German submarines would sink all ships at sight; save
only that one passenger steamer would be allowed each way
weekly between America and Fal mouth, and one paddle-steamer
daily between Flushing and Southwold. While this policy of
desperation brought the United States within a couple of months
into the war, it undoubtedly created a very serious situation for
the Allies especially for Great Britain, though it never deterred
British ships or British sailors from sailing. The Prime Minister
spoke early in February at Carnarvon of the " great and growing
menace of German piratical devices "; at the opening of Parlia-
ment on Feb. 7, Mr. Asquith denounced the new warfare as " a
declaration of war against humanity," and Mr. Bonar Law
warned the House of Commons that the country had reached
the very crisis of its fate.
The note of sacrifice, which Mr. Lloyd George said had
hitherto been confined too much to the trenches, was sounded
loudly in Great Britain from the very beginning of the
!f"sacri- vear - From Jan. i train services became much slow-
fice. er and less frequent than before, while the fares were
raised 50%; and from the same date it became com-
pulsory to bake standard bread in which the proportion of
wheat-flour was comparatively small. Prices were fixed at once
for wheat, oats and potatoes, and a little later for tea, coffee,
bacon, butter, cheese and lard; the amount of beer to be brewed
was considerably reduced, so as to economize barley, sugar,
tonnage, transport, labour and fuel. Lord Devonport, in view
of the urgent necessity for some curtailment of the nation's
food consumption, issued on Feb. 2 a scheme for voluntary
rationing; he called upon heads of families to limit
their weekly purchases to the following quantities
for each person comprising the household: bread 4
lb., meat 2\ lb., sugar f Ib. The King at once put himself
and the Royal family and household on rations; and his example
was widely, but far from universally, followed in the country.
The attempt to limit consumption by prescribing the number of
courses at meals in public eating-places proved a failure, and a
new order was issued in April, providing for a weekly meatless day,
for five days without potatoes, for rationing bread and meat by
bulk on a scale which allowed 2 oz. of bread for each meal, 2 oz.
of meat at breakfast, and 5 oz. at lunch or dinner; but the order
did not apply to any public eating-place where the charge for a
meal, exclusive of drinks, did not exceed is. 3d. Orders were
issued restraining food hoarding, the making of rich pastry,
and the undue consumption of food at afternoon tea. Apart
from the submarine depredations, the harvest of two essential
crops, wheat and potatoes, had failed in a greater or less degree,
this year throughout the world. With regard to potatoes, Lord
Devonport asked people who could afford substitutes, such as
rice or swedes, to use them, so as to prolong the supply of potatoes
for the poor; and Mr. Prothero urged that every village and small
town should make itself self-supporting with regard to potatoes.
With regard to wheat and flour, it was ordered that bread should
be sold only by weight and must be at least 12 hours old; maxi-
mum prices were fixed for home-grown wheat, barley and oats;
the use of wheat, rye and rice for any other purpose except for
human food was prohibited: importation of feeding-stuffs for
cattle was limited; and power was given to the Food Controller
to take over the flour-mills and issue regulations for their manage-
ment. Mr. Prothero, in order to stimulate food production at
home, made arrangements for turning German prisoners and a
large supply of women on to the land.
But the main contribution of the Minister of Agriculture to
native food supply was a Corn Production bill, which was
calculated to turn pasture into arable land on a large
scale. It provided for the payment of a bounty to the Corn Pro-
c , . / , auction
occupier of any land on which wheat or oats were pro- BUI.
duced, if the average price of wheat or oats should
fall below a -certain minimum. A minimum wage of 255.
was also to be secured for agricultural labourers, landlords were
restrained from raising rents in consequence of the measure,
and powers were given to the Board of Agriculture to enforce
proper cultivation and to take possession of untenanted land.
In introducing the bill Mr. Prothero said that, with three-fifths of
the total cultivated area under the plough, the nation would be
free of the nightmare of the submarine menace. Under the bill
the State would go into partnership with the agricultural interest,
and stand security against loss. So complete a breach with the
Victorian 'attitude of lUissef fdire~ to wards agriculture could not,
of course, pass without challenge from rigid free traders like
Mr. Runciman. But the second reading was carried by 288 to
27 ; and in committee an attempt by the Labour party to raise the
minimum agricultural wage from 253. to 303. was rejected by
301 to 102. When the bill reached the House of Lords, it met with
the approval of Lord Lincolnshire, both an eminent free trader
and an expert agriculturist, and duly became law. At the begin-
ning of the session of 1518 Mr. Prothero testified to the patriotic
way in which landowners and farmers were ploughing up grass-
lands and taking advantage of the Act. Besides these measures
of Lord Devonport and Mr. Prothero, steps were taken to save
tonnage by prohibiting or restricting the import of non-essen-
tial articles, notably alcoholic liquors, timber and paper.
Such were the precautions taken to economise food and ton-
nage, and to stimulate production. The measures employed by
the Admiralty to meet the menace included the estab-
lishment of a large new minefield in the North Sea,
the arming of merchantmen as rapidly as possible
and the appropriation of the shipbuilding programme mainly
to making good the losses in the mercantile marine. An anti-
ioi6
ENGLISH HISTORY
submarine department was also set up, composed of the most
experienced men serving at sea, who invited suggestions from
any sailor in the fleet. Then there was the Board of Inventions,
presided over by Lord Fisher, and containing some of the great-
est men of science in the country. But Sir Edward Carson, the
First Lord, did not claim that any certain remedy had been
found. The figures proved this only too clearly. In the first
three months of unrestricted submarine warfare, Great Britain
lost nearly 1,500,000 tons of shipping (out of a total of some
20,000,000 tons of which 8,000,000 long were being used for war
purposes), and April, the last of these months, was the worst of
them all. In one week alone of April 41 British vessels of over
i ,600 tons and 16 under that tonnage were sunk.
These alarming figures naturally suggested the advisability
of compulsory rationing, and both in the press and in Parliament
there were loud calls in May for its immediate in-
More stitution. Lord Milner told the House of Lords that
Confro/. tne Government would only resort to it if con-
vinced of its absolute necessity, but that meanwhile
they were studying the various methods of rationing. The
returns of shipping losses during May and subsequent months,
though grave enough, showed a marked improvement on the
April record, and the Food Ministry stated that the prospect of
compulsory rationing was steadily receding. But people were
worried by the shortness of food, especially bread, sugar and
milk, which led to queues at shops, by the high prices especially
of meat and by the uncertain policy of the Food Controller. He
instituted a campaign to explain to people why they should eat
less bread and meat. He asked people to give up the use of starch.
But he was slow to fix retail prices, and a cry arose that he allowed
the public systematically to be robbed by profiteers owing to
his inaction. Steps were eventually taken in June to curb specu-
lation in food, by prescribing that meat salesmen should sell only
to retail butchers or consumers, and that the prices charged on
reselling should not exceed a certain maximum. More confidence
was felt in the Food Ministry when in the middle of June
Lord Devonport resigned the controllership owing to unsatisfac-
tory health, and Lord Rhondda, whose reputation for getting
things done had been increased at the Local Government Board,
was prevailed upon to accept the post.
Mr. Neville Chamberlain's proposals for national service were
formulated in February. The object was to secure substitutes to
replace the men taken for active service, and to
Military draft labour from unessential to essential trades. He
B//7o7 called for volunteers from men between 18 and 60,
1917. asking willing workers to enter their names on a
register; and the Government introduced a bill estab-
lishing a Ministry of National Service. The bill was not, however,
well received; the Labour party were afraid lest industrial
conscription should be introduced by a sidewind; and the whole
scheme proved somewhat abortive. But the need of the army
for more men was urgent, and the Government introduced
towards the end of March a new Military Service bill, providing
for a fresh examination of discharged and rejected men; the
authorities hoped by this means to secure 100,000 fresh recruits
in three months. Drastic as this measure was, Lord Derby in the
House of Lords said that larger measures would be necessary.
The new Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Bonar Law, lost
no time in making a further effort to raise money on a large
, scale for the war. At a great faceting at the Mansion
o/*/W7. a/ * House on Jan. 5, with the Prime Minister by his side,
he announced the conditions of a new loan. It was to
be a 5% Government stock issued at 95, and arrangements
were made for converting previous war issues into the new stock.
The lowest individual sum accepted would be 50, or 5 through
the Post Office, and bankers would give facilities to their cus-
tomers to subscribe. There was also a tax -compounded 4%
loan to be issued at par. The new loan was a great success,
yielding over a thousand millions sterling subscribed for by five
and a quarter million people. The money was badly needed,
as the expenses of the war were mounting rapidly. Mr. Law
obtained a vote of credit in December 1916 for 400,000,000,
and on Feb. 12 1917 two votes of credit amounting together to
550,000,000, the largest sum ever asked hitherto at a single
sitting in the financial history of the country. He told the House
that the average daily cost of the war had risen to 5,790,000.
It is not surprising that in these circumstances, and with the
enormous development of Government offices and staffs, there
should have been an outcry in Parliament against what Lord
Midleton called an uncontrolled orgy of expenditure. But, in
spite of protest, the expenses continued to mount. Before the
introduction of the budget, Mr. Law had to obtain in March a
further vote of credit for 60,000,000 to meet unfore-
seen items of expenditure. In the budget he proposed Mr - Law's
no new taxation, but increased the entertainments Budget.
tax and the tobacco duty, and raised the excess-
profits duty from 60 to 80 per cent. He explained that 26 % of
the war expenditure had been provided out of revenue. Im-
mediately after the budget, on May 9, he came once more to
the House of Commons, this time for a vote of credit of 500,000,-
ooo; and on July 24 the largest vote of all, 650,000,000, had to be
obtained, and it was recognized in debate that the country was
rapidly reaching the limit of its possible expenditure. Two more
votes, for 400,000,000 in September, and for 550,000.000 in
December, were needed before the end of the year. In this
autumn, Mr. Law put " on tap " an entirely new form
of " continuous " loan, unlimited in amount, in the form National
of national war bonds, bearing interest at 5 %, and 4 % Bonds.
free of income tax. By Jan. n 1919 1,446,625,613
of these bonds had been sold, and nearly 50,000,000 of
small post-office bonds had been subscribed for. It may
be mentioned that the pressure of the war was shown this
year to have broken down many cherished financial prepos-
sessions. The passage of the Corn Production bill has been
already mentioned. A committee on commercial and industrial
policy, of which Lord Balfour of Burleigh, a life-long
free trader, was chairman, recommended in February: Modifica-
(i) the taking of special steps to stimulate, where ^ ons ol
economically desirable, the production of food-stuffs, Trade.
raw materials and manufactured articles throughout
the Empire; (2) the adoption of Colonial Preference; and
(3) the establishment of a wider range of customs duties.
Moreover the Government of India, in spite of determined
opposition from Lancashire, increased, and was supported by
the Government at home and by the House of Commons in
increasing, for revenue purposes, the import duties on cotton,
without imposing any countervailing excise.
These tendencies were accentuated by the proceedings of the
Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial Conference. The Imperial
War Cabinet began its sittings in March, the Prime
Ministers of Canada, S. Africa, New Zealand and New- imperial
foundland and the Secretary of State for India Cabinet
(advised by Indian and Anglo-Indian councillors) sit- 1917.
ting, along with the British Prime Minister and the
members of his War Cabinet, to determine matters essential to
the conduct of the war, as well as to consider imperial policy in
regard to terms of peace. Mr. Hughes, Prime Minister of Aus-
tralia, was unfortunately detained at home by political compli-
cations. Sir Robert Borden explained, in a speech on April 2,
that the various Prime Ministers met in the Imperial War Cab-
inet as equals, though the British Prime Minister presided,
primus inter pares. Each nation of the Empire thus had its voice
upon questions of common concern, while preserving perfect
autonomy. " For many years the thought of statesmen and
students in every part of the Empire has centred round the
question of future constitutional relations. It may be that
now, as in the past, the necessity imposed by great events has
given the answer." At the end of April Mr. Bonar
Law announced in the House of Commons that the Im-
perial War Cabinet had accepted the principle of
Imperial Preference; but there was no intention of
making any change during the war, nor did it involve the
taxation of food. Mr. Lloyd George, when receiving the free-
dom of the City of London, said at the Guildhall that one of
ENGLISH HISTORY
1017
the first duties of statesmanship would be to develop the
Empire. The sittings of the Imperial War Cabinet lasted
till May 17, and Mr. Lloyd George told Parb'ament that the ex-
periment had been a complete success. At the last session, on
his proposal, it was agreed that meetings of an Imperial Cabinet
should be held annually, or at any intermediate time
imperial when matters of urgent imperial concern had to be
^Cabinet settled. Accordingly another session of the Imperial
1918. War Cabinet was held in the summer of 1918, lasting
from June to August, when there was a full attend-
ance. It was decided that for the future the Prime Ministers,
as members of this Cabinet, should have the right of direct
communication with the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom;
and that each Dominion should have the right to nominate a
visiting or resident minister in London to be a member of this
Cabinet at meetings, to be held at regular intervals, other than
those attended by Prime Ministers.
Each of the two years, simultaneously with the Imperial War
Cabinet, an Imperial Conference, of which the membership
embraced other representatives of the various Empire
imperial nations besides the Prime Ministers, sat under the
Confer- presidency of the Colonial Secretary. In 1917 the
/9/7-s. Conference recommended that a special Imperial
Conference should be called to deal with the future
constitutional relations of the Empire as soon as possible after the
cessation of hostilities, couching its recommendations, however,
in such terms as to preclude the setting up of an Imperial Legis-
lature or an Imperial Executive. In 1918 the principal recom-
mendations all related to economic questions. The Conference
endorsed the principle of a Non-Ferrous Metal Industry Act
which the British Government, in spite of determined Free Trade
opposition, had passed in the winter, in order to eliminate enemy
influence in Great Britain from the control of such metals and
ores as zinc, copper, tin, lead, nickel and aluminium, and made
dealing in such metals without a Board of Trade licence unlawful
until five years after the war. The other Governments of the
Empire were advised to free themselves in similar fashion from
dependence on German controlled organizations in respect of
these metals. The Conference also recommended that the Govern-
ments should secure the command of essential raw materials
produced within the Empire so as to repair the effects of war
and safeguard industrial requirements, and should make arrange-
ments with Allied Governments in order to utilize the raw
materials produced in Allied countries. A further resolution
recommended the appointment of a committee to consider the
possible methods of obtaining such command of raw materials,
and consultation with producers and merchants concerned in
each commodity. Mr. Lloyd George and Mr. Bonar Law en-
dorsed these resolutions in speeches to a deputation of manufac-
turers on July 31 1918. The former said that under no conditions
must industries essential from the point of view of national de-
fence and security be let down in the future; the latter, that an
immense move forward had been made in the whole conception
of British trade policy, the principles of a common Empire and
of preference within the Empire being established.
Outside the submarine menace there were some cheering
symptoms in the military situation in the spring and summer of
1917. The retreat in February of the German troops
Entry of in France from the lines they had held since the au-
fofo'the tumn of 1914 to the Hindenburg line, the consider-
War. able captures of prisoners and guns by British troops
in the battles of Arras in April, of Messines in June,
and of Third Ypres in July, and Sir Stanley Maude's victorious
advance to Bagdad in March, confirmed the confidence of the
British people in the efficiency of their new armies. Above all,
the entry of America into the war was hailed with welcome and
relief in Great Britain. As the Prime Minister said, the advent
of the United States made it clear to the world that " this is no
struggle for aggrandizement and for conquest, but a great fight
for human liberty." Mr. Balfour went across the Atlantic on a
mission to arrange for common working; and the services of the
British navy were placed at the disposal of the United States
Strikes la
1917.
for the convoy of troops. It was felt that, if the Allies could hold
out sufficiently long, which there was no reason to doubt, the
numbers and wealth of the United States must finally turn the
scale against the Central Powers. One immediate advantage of
American belligerency was the removal of the last obstacle to
a stringent blockade of Germany, and Lord Robert Cecil could
claim this spring that there was now a complete cessation of
oversea importation into enemy countries.
The Russian Revolution, which began in March, was also
hailed at the time in England as a favourable portent for the
Allies. It was, said Mr. Lloyd George, the sure prom-
ise that the Prussian military autocracy would, be- '
fore long, be overthrown. But, as a matter of fact,
from the first days of the revolution, there was an informal
armistice and overtures for fraternization on the eastern front,
and an attempt by Gen. Brusilov to renew fighting in July
and August came to an end before long through the spread
of insubordination. Thenceforward it was realized that the
Germans would be able to transfer almost the whole of their
forces hitherto in the east to the west, and that in consequence
the task before the British army had become appreciably heavier.
The revolution had also an unsettling influence on British
workmen, already showing symptoms of restlessness
under the strain of war. There was in March a serious
strike of engineers at Barrow, disapproved by their
union, but organized by shop stewards, which collapsed after
a fortnight only on the threat of the Government to use their
powers under the Defence of the Realm Act. Another unauthor-
ized strike of engineers took place in S. Lancashire in May,
largely as a protest against dilution; and there was trouble in
other trades and in other parts of the country. In August a rail-
way strike was threatened, owing to long hours and overwork,
but was abandoned on a promise by the Government to continue
the control of railways for a time after the cessation of hostilities,
and meanwhile to do their best to secure a shorter working-day.
A further railway crisis occurred in November, about wages,
resulting in an advance estimated to cost the companies 9,500,-
ooo a year. To set against these unsatisfactory features, there
was published in June the Whitley Report, so called because
the chairman of the Reconstruction Committee which compiled
it was the then Chairman of Committees of the House
of Commons, afterwards Speaker. This recommended
the setting up of Joint Industrial Councils of masters
and men in each industry, to settle all points of difference and
wages and management. Such councils were set up in many
trades, with beneficial results.
The features in the Russian Revolution which attracted a
section of British working-class opinion were the war aims put
forward by the Socialists, " No annexations and no
indemnities," and the power obtained by the Soviets, Ku^sia
, .,*' i . . J . . ' and War
or workmen s committees, culminating in a Soviet Aims.
Government in October. In answer to pacifists in the
House of Commons Lord Robert Cecil explained that imperi-
alistic aims based on force and conquest were absent from the
British programme, but that, in view of Armenia, the German
African Colonies, Poland, Alsace-Lorraine, and Italia Irredenta,
it was impossible to accept the programme of "no annexations,"
and in view of the wanton damage in Belgium, Serbia, and north-
ern France, and of the destruction of merchant vessels, that of
" no indemnities " was equally out of the question. The In-
dependent Labour party in a conference at Leeds took up an
attitude of sympathy with the Russian position, and advised the
formation of Soviets in England. A large section of Labour
opinion, comprising both moderates and extremists, desired that,
in accordance with the wish of the Russian Socialist Government,
English Labour should be represented at a conference, at which
German representatives would be present, to be held at
Stockholm at the instance of the International Socialist
Bureau. But the Seamen's and Firemen's Union, which ence .
had suffered heavily through Germany's outrageous
policy at sea, refused to carry the delegates; and neither Amer-
ican, Belgian nor French representatives would appear. The
ioi8
ENGLISH HISTORY
only result of the movement was that Mr. Henderson, who had
been active in its promotion, had to resign his seat in the War
Cabinet. Even the Trades Union Congress at its annual
meeting in September declared by an overwhelming majority
against an International Conference at Stockholm " at the
present moment." But befort the end of the year the Labour
party, suspicious of militarist or imperialistic designs among the
Allies, drafted on its own account a statement of war aims of a
somewhat idealistic character, demanding in particular the
establishment of a league of nations, a demand which Lord
Robert Cecil welcomed on behalf of the Government.
During this autumn the Labour party also busied itself with a
reorganization of its constitution, which was to transform it
from a federation of Labour and Socialist societies in-
New Coa- to a national democratic political organization open to
stitutioa every worker who laboured" by hand or brain." The
f abour work was completed during the winter, and the new
Party. constitution was adopted in March 1918. Theaimwas,
by forming local associations, and by appealing to
middle-class workers and to the newly enfranchised women, to
secure sufficient support from the electorate to warrant the
hope of a Labour Government in power before many years.
The new Labour party, thus constituted, held its first annual
meeting in London in June 1918, promulgated a comprehensive
socialistic programme, and in spite of the protests of Labour
ministers, determined no longer to recognize the political truce,
though it did not insist that these ministers should withdraw
from office so long as the country was at war.
The increasing detestation of the Germans which was in-
spired by their merciless submarine campaign and by their
recurrent air-raids insured a warm welcome for certain
The King measures which the King took in the summer of 1917
German ^ or dissociating the royal family from German con-
Titles. nexions. In June he decreed that those princes of his
family who were his subjects and bore German
names and titles should relinquish those titles and adopt British
surnames. Accordingly the family of Teck became that of
Cambridge and that of Battenberg Mountbatten; and the follow-
ing peerages were conferred: the Duke of Teck, Marquess of
Cambridge; Prince Alexander of Teck, Earl of Athlone; Adml.
Prince Louis of Battenberg, Marquess of Milford Haven; Prince
Alexander of Battenberg, Marquess of Carisbrooke. In July the
King abandoned all German titles for himself and family, and
issued a proclamation that his house and family should hence-
forth be known as the house and family of Windsor. The King
also heartened the munition workers of Lancashire and Cheshire
and the shipping and engineering workers of the Clyde district
by making tours among them, and he paid a visit in the summer,
not for the first time, to the Grand Fleet. He instituted, more-
over, two new orders the Order of the British Empire, and the
Order of Companions of Honour.
The reports of the Dardanelles and Mesopotamia Commis-
sions were published, the one in the spring, and the other in the
summer, of the year 1917; and the revelations they
teriaT contained of mismanagement and muddle in high
Changes, quarters confirmed the public in its satisfaction that
the two War Administrations presided over by Mr.
Asquith had given way to Mr. Lloyd George's War Cabinet.
The report of the Mesopotamia Commission, with its reflections
on the Government of India, brought about Mr. Austen Cham-
berlain's resignation of the Secretaryship of State for India.
Other ministerial changes took place about the same time:
Lord Rhondda succeeded Lord Devonport as Food Controller,
Sir Auckland Geddes succeeded Mr. Neville Chamberlain as
Director of National Service; Mr. Barnes succeeded Mr. Henderson
as Labour representative in the War Cabinet; Sir Edward Carson
left the Admiralty to become a member of the War Cabinet
without portfolio -a position from which he resigned in Jan.
1918; Sir Eric Geddes became First Lord of the Admiralty,
Dr. Addison Minister of Reconstruction without portfolio,
Mr. Hayes Fisher (afterwards Lord Downham) President of the
Local Government Board, Mr. Hodge Minister of Pensions,
and Mr. G. H. Roberts Minister of Labour. Mr. Lloyd George
took the opportunity to bring back into high office his friend
Mr. Churchill, and to attract to his banner Mr. Edwin Montagu,
one of the ablest of the younger Liberals. Mr. Churchill be-
came Minister of Munitions, and Mr. Montagu Secretary of
State for India. Mr. Lloyd George also persuaded Gen. Smuts
to remain in England as a regular member of the War Cabinet.
Several of these appointments had a special interest. The
public looked askance at the return to office of Mr. Churchill,
after his responsibility for the Dardanelles fiasco; but
Mr. Lloyd George had a high opinion of his friend's Indian
energy and capacity in office, and realized the inad-
visability of leaving him to become the nucleus of a
critical and aggressive opposition. Mr. Montagu took office
with a mission to satisfy, so far as might be possible, the aspira-
tions of a large body of Indian opinion after a wide measure of
self-government. He visited India in the winter of 1917-8, and
drew up, in conjunction with Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy, a
report on Indian Constitutional Reform published in the
summer of 1918 which was well received in the House
of Commons, but which was met with considerable
criticism in the Lords, where the appointment of a
joint committee to consider it was rejected by a major-
ity of only four. Dr. Addison's appointment as Minister of
Reconstruction showed a laudable desire on the part of the
Government to be prepared for the end of hostilities, which might
come with little warning. So zealously did he work that he was
ready to announce, the day after the Armistice in Nov. 1918, the
plans of the Government for demobilization, for the resettlement
of officers and men in civil life, and for the reestablishment of
industry on a peace basis. His main expedient for tiding over
a difficult time was the establishment of an out-of-work donation
to be in operation for six months for civil workers and for
twelve months after demobilization for soldiers. The advent of
the brothers Geddes to Cabinet rank was due to admirable
administrative work done by Sir Auckland under the War Office,
and by Sir Eric both under the War Office and in
the Admiralty. Sir Auckland changed Mr. Neville
Chamberlain's original scheme of national service,
which had involved somewhat elaborate office expenses and had
produced only moderate results. He saved some 100,000 a
month by reducing the expenses of a central office, and worked
instead through employment exchanges, trade unions and soci-
eties of employers' federations. He effected a drastic comb-out of
civilians, card-indexed the whole of the army at home, trans-
ferred workers from luxury trades and occupations to essential
industries, and recruited a further large supply of female labour.
Sir Eric Geddes went to the Admiralty to complete and work a
reorganization which his predecessor (Sir Edward Carson) had
initiated, when, in May, a new naval war staff was
constituted. The First Sea Lord, as chief of the staff, Keorgaa-
.... . ., . ., . izatloa of
was freed of all administrative detail in order that Admiralty.
he might give his undivided attention to questions
of policy and strategy; and he had the assistance of a direc-
tor of operations, a director of intelligence, and others. There
was also revived the office of Admiralty Controller, who was to
organize the whole of the supply of the navy including transport,
victualling, manufacture of ordnance, and shipbuilding. Sir
Eric had then been brought in from the outside to fill this im-
portant post, as a great civil administrator who had just success-
fully organized the military railway system behind the lines in
France; and in July, when Sir Edward Carson's vigorous counsel
was needed in the War Cabinet, he became himself First Lord.
The two main tasks of the Admiralty under him were to defeat
the submarine menace, and to stimulate shipbuilding. They were
more successful in the first than in the second. By provision of
various ingenious methods of attacking and destroying under-
water vessels they steadily reduced the losses of Brit-
ish ships, and they were able to announce the details
of some 150 German submarines destroyed. But in
spite of obtaining the assistance of Lord Pirrie, the great Bel-
fast shipbuilder, as Controller-General of Merchant Shipbuild-
ENGLISH HISTORY
1019
ing, and of the institution of national shipyards, they were unable
till the last month of the war to make shipbuilding overtake ship
destruction. The destruction of British ships in 1917 amounted
to a tonnage of 4,009,537, and the ships built only reached a ton-
nage of 1,163,474. In the first nine months of 1918 the figures
were: tonnage destroyed 1,925,512, built 1,310,741. In Dec.
1917, Sir Rosslyn Wemyss became First Sea Lord.
In 1917 German air-raids on England, especially on London,
took a new form. They were carried out mostly by aeroplanes
of a greatly enlarged type; and on the first two occa-
Secretary sions, on June 15 and July 7, a fleet of these new
for Air. vessels bombarded with some effect the East End
and the City of London in business hours in broad day-
light. Subsequent raids, which began early in September and
continued at fairly frequent intervals throughout the winter,
were, owing to improved defences, carried out by night, with
comparatively slight damage and casualties. The enormous
development of aerial fighting determined the Government in
October to transform the Air Board into a Secretaryship of State
for Air, and a bill was introduced and carried for that purpose.
The Prime Minister invited Lord Northcliffe to become the first
Secretary of State, but he declined, and his brother, Lord
Rothermere, was appointed.
Such was the vigour of the Government that, despite the
exacting cares and anxieties of the war, they were able to grapple
with, and in two cases temporarily to solve, three
questions about which there had been acrimonious
party differences for many years. They introduced
and passed both a comprehensive Reform bill and also a com-
prehensive Education bill; and they made a laudable but unsuc-
cessful effort to get the Irish question solved by means of a repre-
sentative conference of Irishmen sitting in Ireland. It became
clear from the debates on a special Register bill which Mr.
Asquith's Coalition Ministry introduced in 1916 that there was
a general desire for a further Reform bill and a good deal of agree-
ment as to its nature. The Speaker, accordingly, with the good-
will of the Government and the House of Commons, collected
a committee of unofficial peers and members of Parliament,
some 30 in number, representative of all shades of political opin-
ion, to discuss and report on the question of electoral reform. The
report unanimously recommended the reduction of the qualifying
period for registration as a Parliamentary elector from twelve
months to six, and a revision of the register twice instead of once
a year; and the substitution, for all existing franchises, of two
simple ones, residence and occupation of business premises.
Plural voting was to be abolished, save that a man might vote
for his place of business or his university as well as his residence.
Proportional representation was recommended in the case of two-
member boroughs. By a majority, woman's suffrage was recom-
mended to be exercised by every woman over a certain specified
age, who, or whose husband, was on the Local Government
register. As regards redistribution, a population of 70,000 was
suggested as the standard unit for each member of Parliament.
The report was well received, and a bill on the lines therein laid
down was read a second time in May by 329 votes 1040.
The Government left the questions of proportional representa-
tion and of woman's suffrage, in regard to which the qualifying
age was fixed at 30, to the unfettered judgment of the
Su/hj"e' S House of Commons. It was found that the enormous
OraSed. services rendered by women to the nation during the
war had broken down most of the opposition to
their enfranchisement. Not only had they cooperated heartily
in the time-honoured female occupations of nursing, housework,
and knitting for the sailors and soldiers, but they had supplied
the place of men in countless occupations at home, and even in
France on the land as labourers, in the factories as munition
workers, textile workers, and oxy-acetylene welders, as workers
in canteens, as car and van drivers, as police, as omnibus con-
ductors, as clerks and typists throughout an overgrown Civil
Service, and in three semi-military uniformed organizations,
Queen Mary's Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (W. A. A. C.), the
Women's Royal Naval Service (Wrens), and the Women's Royal
Air Force (Penguins). One after another, the most prominent op-
ponents of woman's suffrage, such as Mr. Asquith and Mr. Walter
Long, announced their conversion; and the House of Commons
accepted the proposal to give women the vote by an enormous
majority the clause being added to by 214 to 17. The gift of the
franchise to women was gracefully completed in the autumn of
1918 by the passing, with little opposition, of a bill enabling them
to sit in Parliament. Proportional representation, after many
vicissitudes, and a disagreement between the Lords who sup-
ported and the Commons who rejected the system, was finally
excluded from the measure, save in regard to university elections.
Further interesting provisions in the bill disqualified conscien-
tious objectors, unless they had done national service, until five
years after the war, and gave the vote to sailors and soldiers at
19 (other men not being qualified till 21), on the ground that if
they were qualified to fight for the country they were qualified to
vote. Arrangements were also made for taking their votes in
their absence on service. There were some warm debates as to
whether there should be redistribution of seats in Ireland as
well as in Great Britain; but finally Ireland was included, the
quota for a member there being fixed at 43,000, as compared with
70,000 in Great Britain. Thirty-seven members were added to
the House of Commons, making 707 in all. It was calculated
that this Reform bill, which became law in Jan. 1918, enfranchised
8,000,000 new voters, of whom 6,000,000 were women.
Mr. Fisher's educational policy was sketched by him in speak-
ing on the education estimates in April 1917, when he said
that both trade unions and enlightened employers
were demanding educational reform; and he further
laid a bill before the House in August of that session
with no serious intention of pressing it, but so as to familiarize
the educational world with his proposals. In 1918 he reintro-
duced it and passed it into law. One part of his policy consisted
in a considerable increase in the pay of teachers, so that they
might be relieved from perpetual financial anxiety. He also pro-
posed a new system of special grants for secondary schools,
which were, he said, the key of the situation. For these Objects
he obtained, in 1917, an increase of four millions in his esti-
mates. The proposals in his bill of 1918 he estimated would
cost more than 10^ millions in addition. But, in spite
of the cost, so strongly was the need felt, both in Par- Mr -
liament and in the country, for improved education BUL"
with a view to reconstruction and progress after
the war, that the opposition was comparatively slight. As
passed into law, the measure provided for the compulsory
attendance at school of all children up to 14 years old,
and at continuation schools in the day-time for 280 hours
the year up to 18, unless they had received full-time educa-
tion up to 16. Exemption after 16 was allowed for the
first seven years after the coming of the Act into force. The
main purpose of the continuation schools was to ensure that
all the money and effort spent on the elementary schools should
not be wasted. No child under 12 was allowed to be employed
at all, and no child over 12 was to be allowed to be employed on
school-days except after school-hours and before 8 P.M. Thus,
in spite of the protests of Lancashire, the " half-timer " was
abolished. No fees were to be charged in either public elementary
schools or in continuation schools, on the principle that, when
education is compulsory, it ought to be free. Provision was
made for nursery schools, holiday and school camps, playing-
fields, physical training, and the medical inspection of places
of higher education. Local education authorities were made
responsible in their areas; and the limit on the spending powers
of authorities for higher education was abolished.
In spite of the failure of Mr. Lloyd George's Irish negotiations
in the summer of 1916, he was still anxious to find an agreed
settlement. The Nationalists threatened in March
1917 to adopt once more the old obstructive op- /r ' sft
position to Government, unless Home Rule were at J/on. Ve '
once put in force. In May, the Prime Minister, in
in a letter to Mr. Redmond and Sir Edward Carson, offered to
introduce a bill applying the Home Rule Act at once to southern
IO20
ENGLISH HISTORY
Ireland, but exempting north-east Ulster for five years, and
providing for delegations representing both areas, with power
to unify Irish legislation. If this plan was not satisfactory, he
suggested that a convention of Irishmen of all parties should be
assembled in Ireland in order to produce a scheme of their
own to submit to the British Parliament. Neither the Nation-
alists nor the southern Unionists would accept Mr. Lloyd
George's specific plan; but all parties except Sinn Fein accepted
the idea of an Irish convention. Representative men, many of
them non-political, were chosen to take part in the assembly;
and, in order to produce an atmosphere of harmony, the Govern-
ment released without reservations all the political prisoners in
confinement for connexion with the Dublin rebellion. One of
these was Mr. De Valera, who refused to have anything to do
with the convention, and who was almost immediately elected
M.P. for East Clare by an enormous majority. In spite of this
ominous event, which showed that popular favour in southern
Ireland was deserting the Nationalists for Sinn Fein, the Conven-
tion duly met on July 25, at Regent House, Trinity College,
Dublin, and unanimously appointed Sir Horace Plunkett as
their chairman. The Convention sat for many months, but,
though there was an unexpected amount of agreement in some
respects, it failed to arrive at anything approaching a unanimous
report. The spread of the Sinn Fein movement in
Sinn Fein Ireland, the death from hunger strike of a Sinn Fein
Coasp r- prisoner, and the illness and death of John Redmond,
the Nationalist leader and a leading member of the
conference, contributed to this untoward result. It was in
April 1918 that the report was issued; and Sir Horace Plunkett
claimed, in a letter to the Prime Minister, that " the Conven-
tion has laid the foundation of Irish agreement unprecedented
in history." The Government, with no definite guidance from
the Convention, proceeded to draft their own proposals; but
these were not submitted to Parliament, as Lord French and
Mr. Shortt, newly appointed Lord Lieutenant and Chief Secre-
tary, discovered in May a further treasonable conspiracy
between the Sinn Fein leaders and Germany, by which the Ger-
mans were to supply munitions for a rebellion to follow a suc-
cessful German offensive in France. The Sinn Fein headquarters
were raided by the police and 150 Sinn Fein leaders were ar-
rested under the Defence of the Realm Act. In view of the
disturbed state of Ireland, ministers, though they were harassed
by the Nationalists in Parliament for their inaction, determined
to postpone legislation.
Lord Rhondda, at the outset of his Ministry, obtained a much
larger control and wider scope than had been possessed by his
predecessor as Food Controller. He took over the Oils
Lord and Fats Department from the Ministry of Muni-
'as Food' ti ns an d was given by Order in Council the same
Controller, powers as the Admiralty, Army Council, and Minis-
try of Munitions already possessed, for requisitioning
and controlling prices. The new crop of potatoes enabled
him to abolish potatoless days; but it was to prices, which
had risen enormously owing not merely to speculation and profi-
teering, but to deficient harvests, shortage through submarine
depredations, and the depreciaton of currency caused by the
vast issues of paper money all over the world, that he mainly
directed his attention. He explained his policy, in the House of
Lords on July 26 1917, as being one of determining prices at every
stage from the producer to the retailer, on the principle of allow-
ing a reasonable pre-war profit. Existing agencies were to be used
for the purposes of distribution under licence and control and
under the supervision of local food controllers to be appointed
by the local authority. He took over all the flour mills, and at
heavy cost to the Exchequer reduced the price of flour so as to
enable bread to be sold at gd. per quartern loaf instead of the
existing price of is. He fixed a sliding scale for prices of live
cattle, but left the fixing of retail prices for joints to the local
food committees. The appointment of local committees and
fixing of prices went on regularly during the autumn of 1917 till
hardly any kind of food was left at market price; and a vigorous
economy campaign was organized under the direction of Sir
'
Arthur Yapp, of the Y.M.C.A., as Director-General of Food
Economy. Sugar cards were issued in October. The sale or use
of cream, save for children and invalids, was pro-
hibited during the winter months. A new scale of New Scale
voluntary rations, not applying to children, was issued aryRa-'
in November. The bread ration varied from 8 Ib. per tioniag.
week for men on the heaviest manual labour to 3 Ib.
8 oz. for women on sedentary work. For other foods the weekly
ration was to be: cereals other than bread, 12 oz. ; meat, 2 Ib. ; but-
ter, margarine, oilsand fats, 10 oz. ; sugar, 8 oz. In December there
were sporadic shortages of food of all kinds, and food queues at
butchers', grocers' and bakers' shops became longer and more
frequent, creating great dissatisfaction among all classes, especi-
ally the working-classes. To meet the difficulty in part Lord
Rhondda gave powers to local committees to transfer stocks of
margarine from retailers who were well supplied to those who
were deficient; -he also set up a Consumers' Council to advise
the Ministry of Food; and he gave permission to the Birming-
ham Food Control Committee to try an experiment with a
scheme whereby each household should be supplied with a card
entitling them to prescribed rations of tea, butter and margarine
to be procured from a particular registered retailer. As the year
drew to a close, it was obvious, and Lord Rhondda admitted it
himself, that compulsory rationing would have to come.
It should be noted that Government control was extended
during 1917 over other staple industries besides those dealing
with food. In July the cotton trade was brought under
a board of control consisting of spinners, manufactur- Genera/
ers, importers, distributors and workmen, together
with representatives of the Board of Trade. In Septem-
ber a similar board was set up by the Army Council to regu-
late the woollen and worsted trade. Railways, the liquor
trade, shipping, and mines had already passed successively under
ministerial direction; as the strain of war grew more severe, the
tendency inevitably was for each trade to set up a representa-
tive body to direct its functions and activities, through consulta-
tion with the Government. It may be added that, though it was
no part of ministerial intention to discourage amusement and
recreation, it was found necessary to suspend racing in May 1917.
Mr. Lloyd George followed Mr. Asquith closely in his state-
ments during the year of the war aims pursued by the Allies,
and in his repudiation of an inconclusive peace. At
Glasgow in July he said that " we should continue Leading
to fight for the great goal of international right and n" Ai ms .
international justice, so that never again can brute
force sit on the throne of justice, nor barbaric strength wield
the sceptre of right." Mr. Asquith at Liverpool in October
said that the worst that could happen to the world would be a
patched-up peace; Gen. Smuts, who made several speeches
while he remained in England as a member of the War Cabinet,
said at Cardiff in the same month that the present struggle was
deciding upon what basis the future would be built, whether on
freedom, or on the will to power and the will to force. An entirely
different note was struck by Lord Lansdowne, advocating in
November, in a letter to the Daily Telegraph (which The Times
had previously declined to publish), a negotiated peace. He
received no support, save from professed pacifists; and Mr.
Lloyd George took occasion to warn people against the man
who thought there was a half-way house bet ween defeat
and victory. He admitted that it was a bad moment for A B ^ eal la
the Allies in the war, because Russia had stopped and tne \y ar .
America was only preparing to come in. Certainly
the course of the war in the autumn was unsatisfactory.
Italy had been invaded in October and her armies driven
back to the Piave, the fruits of Sir Julian Byng's brilliant victory,
by the first use of tanks at Cambrai in November, had been
largely neutralized by a German counterstroke, and in December
a regular armistice was concluded between Germany and Russia,
to be finally turned in the beginning of March 1918 into the
humiliating treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Russia went out of the war;
but Great Britain had a gleam of success in the end of the year
through the capture of Jerusalem by Sir Edmund Allenby.
ENGLISH HISTORY
IO2I
The prospect was sufficiently anxious fully to warrant the
renewed call of the Prime Minister in the new year for sacrifice
sacrifice worthy of the sacrifices made by those at the
Prime front. " To every civilian," he wrote in a message to the
Minister's na tion, " I would say: ' Your firing-line is the works or
New Year ., ^ , , t u
/Message, the office in which you do your bit; the shop or the
1918. kitchen in which you spend or save ; the bank or the
post-office in which you buy your bonds.' " Sir Auck-
land Geddes immediately illustrated the necessity of sacrifice by
introducing a bill, the chief effect of which was to call up from
civil employment a number of young men who had hitherto been
exempt from military service; and he announced that it was
necessary to raise immediately 420,000 to 450,000 from this
class. After some demur the trade unions agreed to cooperate in
making the measure effective, and it became law on Feb. 6.
The finance of the war called this year for greater sacrifices
from the taxpayer than ever before. The money voted for
military purposes exceeded that of any previous year. Mr.
Law obtained votes of credit for 600,000,000 in March;
500,000,000 in June; 700,000,000 (the largest amount ever
voted in one sum) in August; and again for 700,000,000 in
November. This made a total of 8,742,000,000 for the whole
war (of which 1,465,000,000 had been lent to the Allies
down to the Armistice). The average daily expenditure, which
was 6,986,000 in 1917-8, fell in the seven war months of
1918-9 to 6,688,000. In his budget, introduced in April, Mr.
Law made unprecedented demands on the taxpayer, in order to
raise sufficient revenue to cover the peace expenditure and the
increased debt charge. He imposed additional tax-
Secoad"'' 3 at ^ on est i mat ed to bring in 114,000,000. Income
Budget. tax was raised from 53. to 6s. in the ; the farmers'
tax was doubled; rates of supertax increased up to
a maximum of 43. 6d. in the , and the limit of exemption
lowered from 3,000 to 2,500; a 2d. stamp tax was placed
on cheques; beer and spirit duties were doubled, and sugar,
tobacco, and match duties raised; letter rate was raised to
i Jd. and post card rate to id.; and there was to be a luxury
tax of ad. in the shilling. This last tax was eventually dropped,
after a select committee of the House of Commons had spent
many weeks in examining and reporting on its possibilities.
There was little opposition to the rest of the proposals, save to the
doubling of the stamp on cheques, against which there
fi"*eo<// was cons iderable protest in the City, which the Chan-
tun. cellor of the Exchequer disregarded. Protests, however,
were raised against extravagance and waste, without
which the estimates of expenditure and revenue would hardly have
reached the gigantic totals of 2,972,197,000 and 842,050,000,
leaving a deficit of 2,130,147,000 to be met by loan. It was
estimated in January by Mr. Herbert Samuel, chairman of a
select committee of the House of Commons on national expendi-
ture, that the following increases had taken place since the
preceding August: the gd. loaf, 45,000,000; bonus to potato-
growers, 5,000,000; to miners, 20,000,000; to munition workers,
40,000,000; to railwaymen, 10,000,000; and to civil servants,
3,000,000; increases in pay to officers, over 7,000,000; to
soldiers, 65,000,000. The increases of pay voted to navy and
army by Parliament in 1917 were, it may be explained, overdue,
and were only a fitting acknowledgment of their heroic service.
It should be added that in the autumn of 1918 the Government
made provision for the intellectual welfare of soldiers by establish-
ing a new department, under the charge of Col. Lord Gorell, to
direct and coordinate education in the army.
It was in the matter of food that the sacrifices demanded were
most felt by the bulk of the population. In January the quantity
of staple foods which might be consumed by visit-
ors in hotels and by people taking casual meals was
h'mited by order; and in February compulsory ration-
Jtfeat. ing of meat was enforced in London and the Home
Counties. Meat cards were issued, with coupons at-
tached, under conditions that restricted the weekly adult ration
to is. 3d. worth of butcher's meat, together with other meat
equivalent to 5 oz. of butcher's meat. At the same time butter
and margarine were rationed, 4 oz. being allowed per head per
week. At first there was a good deal of outcry against Lord
Rhondda, as there had been against Lord Devonport, and attacks
were made upon him in both Houses of Parliament, on account
of his interferences with the course of trade, his " meddling and
muddling." But in the Lords he was defended with spirit by
Lord Milner, who said " that we were in a better position as
regards food than any of the other countries engaged in the war;
that, however the German submarine campaign might have
embarrassed us, it had certainly not starved us and had not
diminished the necessary supplies of our armies in the field."
Mr. Clynes, the parliamentary Under-Secretary of the Depart-
ment, claimed with justice that, under its arrangements, the
poorest people were going to have an equal chance with their
richer brethren, and that men, women and children, and not
money, would be the consideration that would determine the
appropriation of food. The Government, he said, had taken the
place of the merchant and importer. The shortage of coal de-
manded further sacrifices by the general consumer. It was found
necessary to supplement the " summer time " arrangement, now
become permanent, by a curfew order, limiting the hours for
lights and fires, and compelling theatres to close at 10:30; and
gas and electric light were rationed. Later on in the year railway
facilities were greatly diminished, and fares increased.
The Government was criticised at the opening of the parlia-
mentary session of 1918 for failing to reach the high standard
they had set themselves in the departments of
man-power, food production and shipbuilding. But Coordina-
Mr. Law pointed out that in 1917 they had put into ^," e j f
the army 820,600 additional men; had brought a mil- Action.
lion more acres under the plough, producing an ad-
ditional 8 50,000 tons of cereals and 3,000,000 tons of potatoes;
and had built i , 1 63 ,474 tons of shipping, compared with a tonnage
of 539,000 built in 1916. Another subject of criticism was the
arrangement made with the Allies for the joint conduct of the
war. Here the Government had been very active. The unity
and continuity of direction which Mr. Lloyd George had ensured
in the prosecution of the war, so far as the British forces were
concerned, by the institution of his small War Cabinet in per-
manent session, he and his Cabinet earnestly desired to see more
completely realized in the joint councils of the Allies. At a meet-
ing of leading ministers of the principal Allies, held at Rapallo in
the autumn of 1917, a plan of coordination was approved. A
war council, composed of the Prime Minister and an-
other member of each of the three Governments of The Ver ~
France, Italy and Great Britain, was constituted council.
to meet at Versailles normally not less than once a
month, and it was hoped that other Great Powers, especially
the United States, would join the council. Mr. Lloyd George was
in Paris in November 1917 for the first meeting; but he was dis-
appointed with the results, and, at a luncheon there, he made an
appeal to public opinion in the various Allied countries, by de-
livering a very pessimistic and, as it seemed to many, a very in-
judicious speech, in which he declared that unless some change
were effected he could no longer remain responsible for a war
direction doomed to disaster from lack of unity. He succeeded in
drawing public attention; but the critics were disposed to suggest
that this was a new device to enable politicians to interfere with
work properly belonging to soldiers. One of Mr. Lloyd George's
difficulties in securing coordination had been the instability of
French ministers during 1917. M. Briand's Ministry, after a ten-
ure of office of 18 months, fell in March; M. Ribot, who succeeded
him, was overturned in September; M. Painleve, the next prime
minister, only lasted two months ; but, fortunately, in his successor,
M.Clemenceau, France obtained a chief whose whole thoughts, like
Mr. Lloyd George's, were devoted to winning the war. With his
cooperation the Versailles Council was strengthened, 'and
arrangements were made to coordinate it with the general staffs
of the various Allies by each appointing a staff officer as perma-
nent military adviser at Versailles. This arrangement cost the
Government the services of Sir William Robertson, the chief
of the staff, who refused either to take the military advisership,
IO22
ENGLISH HISTORY
which fell to Sir Henry Wilson, or to continue in office unless
the military adviser at Versailles were merely his deputy.
In fact, Mr. Lloyd George and his Cabinet had by no means
reached their aim of satisfactory coordination when the great
German advance began on March 21. The British
Appoint- a nd French armies were both driven back in a series
General-" of bloody battles, and they were seriously menaced
issimo. with a rupture of their contact with each other by
a fierce attack which the Germans directed against
Amiens. Then it was realized that what the Allied forces in
France needed for success was not an Allied council but a single
military head. Sir Douglas Haig agreed in this with Lord Milner,
who was then representing the War Cabinet in France, and with
M. Clemenceau; and Gen. Foch, the most scientific of French
soldiers, who had already distinguished himself highly in the war,
was appointed Generalissimo, to the general satisfaction.
The next few months in Britain were perhaps the most anxious
time of the whole war. A fresh Military Service bill was at once
introduced, raising the military age to 50 and in certain
New cases to 55, and Ireland was for the first time to be in-
Se'rvtoT eluded in a compulsory measure, ministers announcing
BUI. at the same time that they were about to introduce a
fresh Home Rule bill based on a consideration of the
reports of the Irish Convention. The bill was hotly opposed, not
only by the Nationalists, but by many experienced members who
doubted whether it would really give ministers the men they
needed. But Mr. Law insisted on carrying it as it stood, and
told the Nationalists that they did not realize the growing
bitterness in England at the exemption hitherto of Ireland from
the sacrifices demanded of Great Britain. The bill was carried
by majorities of 200; but it was never in fact put in force in
Ireland. The Roman Church joined the Nationalists and Sinn
Feiners in denouncing conscription, and the Government, having
to abandon this project, abandoned also the attempt to pass
this year a Home Rule bill.
Besides this new Military Service Act, the Government strength-
ened the forces in France by sending at once to Sir Douglas
Haig a large proportion of the men hitherto retained
?/,^, er i n tne island as a home defence army, and they insti-
Milltary . , J . .
Measures, tuted a vigorous comb-out once more of munition
workers, miners, and the Civil Service. They strength-
ened the War Office, by making Lord Milner, the most vigorous
member of the War Cabinet after the Prime Minister, Secretary
of State for War; Lord Derby going as British ambassador to
Paris, where he admirably reinforced the good understanding
of the two Powers. The vacancy in the War Cabinet was filled
by Mr. Austen Chamberlain. About the same time Sir William
(since Lord) Weir succeeded Lord Rothermere as Air Minister.
The strain engendered by the serious situation of the British
forces in France produced some regrettable recriminations in
Parliament & propos of the substitution of Gen. Sykes
Ocnera/ j f or Gen. Trenchard as chief of the air staff, and of
Charges. a letter which a distinguished general, Sir Frederick
Maurice, late director of military operations, thought
fit to write to The Times, accusing ministers of making state-
ments to Parliament, giving " a totally misleading impression"
of the military situation. Ministers in this latter case offered
to refer the charges to two judges, but the leading Liberals
refused this tribunal, and Mr. Asquith, for the first time
definitely acting as leader of opposition, moved to refer the
allegations to a select committee of the House of Commons.
Mr. Lloyd George, in debate, categorically and in detail main-
tained the truth of the Ministerial statements, and the motion
was rejected by 293 votes to 106 votes. Gen. Maurice, for his
breach of discipline, was placed by the Army Council on retired
pay, and became a military correspondent for the press. The
anxieties of the times also revived the strong feeling about the
alien danger; and, in deference to public opinion, certificates of
internment and naturalization were revised, no aliens were
allowed to be employed in Government offices during the war,
new measures were taken to establish the identity of aliens, and
drastic restrictions were imposed on changes of name. Enemy
banks, too, were finally wound up, and it was provided that
no such banks should be established for a period after the war.
The food condition was better this summer, owing to Lord
Rhondda's admirable arrangements for securing supplies from
all quarters of the world, and to the diminution of the
menace from submarines owing to the provision of sub- Book"
marine chasers and other methods. Compulsory rations
of meat, however, continued, though a larger quantity was
allowed. Tea, too, was rationed, and though milk was not
rationed its price was fixed according to the season. Arrange-
ments were made to get in the harvest, in the absence of men at
the front, by a great volunteer contingent of public-school boys
in their holidays, and of women. The Food Controller estab-
lished with great success national kitchens, and afterwards, in a
few great towns, national restaurants. On July 3 Lord Rhondda
died, just when he had arranged to introduce, in place of the
loose cards hitherto used, a system of ration books. These were
brought into use by his successor, Mr. Clynes, on July 14, and
contained coupons for sugar, butter or margarine, lard, butcher's
meat and bacon. Thus a satisfactory national system was at last
evolved, which worked well and favoured no one.
While it was generally admitted that the War Cabinet was a
much better organ for the conduct of the war than any of the
previous arrangements, there was frequent com-
plaint that the result of concentrating all real directing Committee
power in the hands of four to six men, all deeply en- Affairs.
grossed in the war, was that domestic affairs were in-
sufficiently attended to. Accordingly in June 1918 a Com-
mittee on Home Affairs was appointed, which was to meet, at
least once a week, under the chairmanship of the Home Secre-
tary. All domestic questions requiring the cooperation of two or
more Departments and calling for Cabinet decision were to be
referred to it. The Committee were to have the power of deci-
sion, on behalf of the Cabinet, but larger questions of policy
were to be referred to the War Cabinet.
The fourth anniversary of the war, being a Sunday, was
observed as a day of national intercession, to invoke the Divine
Blessing on the country's cause. Marshal Foch's offensive had
been in progress for more than a fortnight; but it was still far
from clear whether it could proceed without a check. Mr. Lloyd
George sent a stirring message on the day to the Empire, bidding
Britons to " hold fast." The battle, he told them, was not yet
won. " We cannot seek to escape the horrors of war for our-
selves by laying them up for our children. Having set our hands
to the task we must see it through till a just and lasting settle-
ment is achieved." The appeal was timely, but many of the
workers paid little heed to it.
Throughout August and September, while the Allied troops in
France, and especially the British armies, were winning victory
after victory and steadily driving the Germans out,
and while Bulgaria and Turkey were being forced I9 r l8 es
to surrender, a series of strikes broke out all over
the country, in many cases promoted not by the unions but
by the shop stewards. Women workers in London on om-
nibuses and tubes struck to obtain the same war bonus as
that accorded to the men. The strike spread to Bath, Bristol,
Brighton, Folkestone, Hastings, and Weston-super-Mare, but
the women returned to work in a couple of days on a promise of
full consideration of their demand, which was eventually con-
ceded. A much more serious matter was the London police
strike which, without notice, deprived London for two days,
Friday and Saturday, Aug. 30 and 31, of police protection.
Undoubtedly the Metropolitan Police had grievances in regard
to wages and allowances, which had been under consideration
of the authorities for an unconscionable time without result,
but it was a shock to public confidence that the defenders of law
and order should have thought themselves at liberty to leave
the public defenceless in order to call attention to their claims.
Sir Edward Henry, the Commissioner of Police, resigned, and
was succeeded by Gen. Macready; but it was believed that it was
the Home Office that was mainly to blame. Mr. Lloyd George
settled the strike by granting the men liberal terms; but he
ENGLISH HISTORY
1023
Other
Anxieties.
declined to recognize any union of the police. There was a strike
of Lancashire operative cotton-spinners in September against
the advice of their union, but the men returned to work on an
appeal by Mr. Lloyd George, who promised to appoint at once
a tribunal of inquiry. The tribunal allowed an increase of wages,
but rejected the men's claim to decide the nature of their un-
employment benefit. The most serious strike was that of railway
men, especially in the South Wales district, in the same month.
There was a dispute as to the extent of the advance to be granted
in wages, and the National Union of Railwaymen and the War
Cabinet agreed upon a certain scale. But the men threw over
their leaders, and were only brought to reason when the Courts
prohibited the unions from paying strike pay to their members.
Mr. J. H. Thomas resigned the secretaryship of the National
Union, and was only induced to return after a while on a promise
of better observance of discipline. These and other less important
strikes caused the Trade Union Congress at Derby to impress
upon trade unions the desirability of a frank acceptance of
the Whitley Report and joint industrial councils.
Other causes of anxiety of the autumn were a severe attack
of influenza, which spread rapidly from July onwards, caused
the weekly death roll by the end of October to rise
in London to 761, and in 96 great towns to 1,895, and
only began to wane in November; a great deficiency
in coal which led to household rationing, and to great economies
in lighting and heating arrangements by municipalities and other
public bodies; a reduction in the meat ration; and the sufferings
of the British prisoners in Germany, and her delay in ratifying
the Hague agreement for reciprocal return of prisoners which
had been negotiated by Sir George Cave and Lord Newton.
But from the end of September onwards the persistent and
accumulating good news from every seat of war gradually
changed the attitude of the country from one of anx-
The Begin- j e ty (- o one o f increasingly hopeful expectation. In
opening a war bond campaign at the Guildhall on
Sept. 30, Mr. Bonar Law concluded his speech with
a new accent: " I do not say that this is the end, but I do say
that this is the beginning of the end." For the purpose of the
appeal Trafalgar Square was turned into a realistic representa-
tion of a shell-shattered French village. The " Feed the Guns "
week, which was started by the opening of this show on Oct. 7,
was all the more successful, as President Wilson was already in
correspondence with the Central Powers as to the general prin-
ciples on which peace could be based. By the time that Nov. Q,
Lord Mayor's Day, came round, terms of armistice, amounting in
effect to surrender, had been handed by Marshal Foch and Adml.
Wemyss to a German delegation, and the news of their accept-
ance was hourly expected. The Lord Mayor's Show, with tanks
and captured guns, and detachments of British, Imperial and
Allied troops and of Women's Auxiliary Corps, typified the
magnificent effort of the Empire now being crowned with victory;
but on that. Saturday evening the Prime Minister could only
say at the Guildhall banquet, " I have no news for you."
It was on Monday morning, Nov. u, at n o'clock, that the
bursting of maroons announced to London that the Armistice had
been signed, that hostilities had ceased, and that the
war > ' n a ^ human probability, was over. Almost in-
stantly crowds poured into the streets, flags and decora-
tive rugs and tapestries were hung out of windows throughout
the centre of the town, from public offices and private houses, and
a great throng assembled at Buckingham Palace to cheer the
King, who appeared with the Queen on the balcony, and showed
how fully he shared the rejoicings of his subjects. The scenes
of enthusiasm and public jubilation in the streets throughout the
day were indescribable. When the House of Commons met, the
Prime Minister read out the terms of the Armistice, and added,
" This is no time for words. Our hearts are too full of gratitude,
to which no tongue can give adequate expression." Immediately
the two Houses of Parliament, led by the Lord Chancellor and
the Speaker, proceeded to St. Margaret's church to give thanks
to God. Next day the King and Queen attended a special service
of thanksgiving at St. Paul's. The general rejoicings lasted
The
Armistice.
throughout the week. Before Parliament was prorogued both
Houses voted addresses of congratulation to the King, which
were presented to him in the Royal Gallery of the Palace of
Westminster; and His Majesty, recalling the splendid services
of the sailors and soldiers from all parts of his Dominions, pledged
himself anew to uphold the honour of the Empire and to promote
the well-being of the people. Before the month was out, in
accordance with the terms of the Armistice, the German sub-
marines came and surrendered off Harwich, and the main German
fleet, battleships, battle cruisers, light cruisers and destroyers,
steamed into the Firth of Forth and there surrendered to Adml.
Beatty. It was a fitting tribute to the sea-power which had been
the main factor in deciding the issue.
IV. AFTER THE WAR, 1918-21
The conclusion of hostilities was immediately followed by
the prorogation and dissolution of Parliament and a general
election. Though protests were raised in some quar-
ters, especially by the Independent Liberals, this ^^^ of
was quite the natural procedure. Under the Parlia- Dec. 1918.
ment Act, the now expiring Parliament should have
been dissolved three years previously, in Dec. 1915, and its life
had only been prolonged from time to time by special Acts in
order to avoid an election during the war. A Reform bill which
enormously enlarged the electorate, adding two million male
and six million female voters, had been passed in Feb., and it was
right, and in accordance with precedent, that the new constituency
should be consulted at the earliest moment compatible with
national safety. It was evident that the Government to whom
the new Parliament should give its confidence would go to
the Peace Conference with its hands strengthened.
Was the Coalition to continue? The two heads of the Govern-
ment, the Prime Minister, Mr. Lloyd George, and Mr. Bonar
Law, the leader of the Unionists, decided, to the pub-
lic satisfaction, that it should, on the ground that it continued.
would be disastrous to deal on party lines with the peace
negotiations and the problems of reconstruction. They issued a
joint appeal for support to the Coalition Government " in the
execution of a policy devised in the interest of no particular class
or section, but, so far as our light serves us, for the furtherance of
the general good. " They asked the nation to preserve the same
unity in peace that it had manifested in war. They promised,
among other things, to promote disarmament and a league of
nations; to take special care of the soldiers and sailors who had
served in the war; to increase production, especially in agri-
culture; to forward housing, afforestation, and transport; to
give a preference to the colonies, and to preserve key industries
at home; to reform the House of Lords; to develop responsible
government in India; and to explore all paths towards a settle-
ment in Ireland, with the provisos that there must be no separa-
tion and no coercion of Ulster. One element of the Coalition, the
Labour party, had determined to secede; and accordingly Mr.
Clynes, Mr. Hodge and Mr. Brace resigned, though Mr. Barnes
preferred to leave his party and remain in the Government, and
Mr. George Roberts accepted Mr. Clynes's post of Food Con-
troller. The Labour party made great preparations to capture a
large number of constituencies, but they committed the mistake
of adopting among their candidates those Labour leaders who had
opposed the national policy and had been notorious pacifists, as
well as those who represented the patriotic majority. This
attitude helped to increase the electoral support of the National
Democratic party, who favoured the claims of Labour but ap-
proved of the Coah'tion. The Liberal party were divided. Those
who had hitherto regularly supported Mr. Lloyd George were
prepared to continue their support; but Mr. Asquith and those of
his colleagues who had resigned with him, and a large section
of the party, declined to commit themselves to any further
support, and stood as Independent Liberals. In these circum-
stances, the Government asked for a pledge of support from
candidates, and refused to assist those who declined to give it.
The certificate that the pledge had been given was commonly
called a " coupon, " and was the subject of indignant protest by
IO24
ENGLISH HISTORY
Independent Liberals and some others. In response to a popular
agitation for the trial of the Kaiser, for punishment of war
criminals and for full reparation from Germany, Mr. Lloyd
George on the eve of the election announced that these points
were included in the Coalition programme, and further that he
was against conscript armies in all lands.
The election was held on Dec. 14 1918, but owing to the
arrangements which had been made for taking the votes of
sailors and soldiers, the votes were not counted and
announced till the end of the year. The result was an
overwhelming victory for the Coalition, 478 of whose
official candidates were returned, constituting a majority of 249
over all non-Coalition parties. The Labour party obtained 63
seats, a number which was sufficient to constitute them the
official Opposition, as the Independent Liberal party came back
only 28 strong, Mr. Asquith and all his former colleagues of
Cabinet rank being defeated. The same fate befell the whole of
the pacifists, whether among the Labour or among the Liberal
party. The defeat of Labour and Independent Liberalism would
not have been so overwhelming had there not been an extraor-
dinary number of three-cornered contests. But the resolve of
the electorate that the Government which waged the war to a
successful issue should make the peace and begin the reconstruc-
tion of the country was clearly manifest. In Ireland the returns
indicated the collapse of the. Nationalists and the triumph of
Sinn Fein in the south and west. Only seven Nationalists sur-
vived, compared with 73 Sinn Feiners and 25 Unionists. The
only woman returned was Countess Markiewicz, a Sinn Feiner.
None of the Sinn Feiners took their seats at Westminster.
Mr. Lloyd George immediately undertook a reconstruction
of his Ministry. The changes were not so numerous as had been
expected. Mr. Austen Chamberlain relieved Mr.
Rccon- Bonar Law of the extra burden of the Chancellorship
stmction O f ,-jje Exchequer; Sir Frederick Smith, the Attorney-
General, became Lord Chancellor, with the title of
Lord Birkenhead; Lord Milner became Colonial Sec-
retary; Mr. Walter Long was appointed First Lord of the Ad-
miralty; Mr. Churchill was entrusted with two secretaryships
of State, that of War and that of Air a combination much
and reasonably criticised; Sir Robert Home became Minister of
Labour, in succession to Mr. Hodge; Mr. Andrew Weir, created
Lord Inverforth, was made Minister of Munitions (rechris-
tened " Supply"); a new Ministry, that of Ways and Communi-
cations (afterwards better named " Transport "), was created for
Sir Eric Geddes; and an Indian, Sir S. P. Sinha, who had been
the first native to sit on the Viceroy's Council, was made
Under-Secretary for India, and created a peer. In view of the
approaching Peace Conference, the system by which the Prime
Minister was relieved of the labours of leadership in the Com-
mons, by entrusting them to Mr. Bonar Law, was continued.
The last days of 1918 witnessed the reception in London of the
first detachments of the returning British troops, of their vic-
torious commander, Field-Marshal Haig, of Marshal
Great Foch and M. Clemenceau; and, especially, of President
after'the Wilson, passing through England on his way to the
Armistice. Paris Conference. This great assembly was opened
formally by President Poincare on Jan. 18 1919, and
thenceforward for several months Mr. Lloyd George and many
of his principal colleagues were absent for long periods in Paris.
These tokens of victory and peace were at variance with the symp-
toms of domestic life in Great Britain. Within a few days of the
Armistice deputations from workers, especially munition work-
ers, were demanding of the Prime Minister a living wage. The
railway men decided to withdraw the truce in their industry and
demanded an 8-hour day, which the Government promptly
conceded. Other industrial troubles followed. Demobilized
soldiers, miners, police, boilermakers, dock workers, engineers,
all made urgent demands, with strikes declared or threatened.
At first the trouble was worst on the Clyde, but the outlook was
soon gloomier in London. The " tube " men came out on Feb. 3,
and remained out for a week till they obtained an 8-hour day.
Then the London electricians threatened to cut off all the elec-
Mlners'
Strike and
Saakey
Commis-
sion.
tricity, stopping tramways and lighting, if the Government did
not settle with the Clyde workers. The Government met the
threat by a regulation under the Defence of the Realm Act
making electrical strikers liable to six months' imprisonment.
It was in these unpropitious circumstances that Parliament
met. Mr. Adamson, a miners' representative, as chairman of
the Labour party, appeared as Opposition leader; and
Sir Donald Maclean, who had been deputy chairman of 'u!fre"f
Ways and Means in the last Parliament, led the Inde-
pendent Liberals, pending Mr. Asquith's return. Ministers did
not satisfy the Labour men, who moved an amendment to the
Address, but were beaten by 311 to 59. The note of labour un-
rest thus struck resounded throughout the session and the year.
Increased wages and shorter hours were demanded in trade after
trade, though in most cases there had been repeated advances
of wages during the war. The increase of prices, indeed, seemed
to warrant, or at least excuse, a further advance. On the
other hand, there was an unfortunate but natural tendency,
after the strenuous labours of the past four years, to take work
easily, and not merely to work shorter hours but to produce less
in the hour. Further, the revolution in Russia, the deplorable
effects of which on the condition of the Russian working-classes
were only gradually revealed to British working men, increased
the revolutionary ardour of the more advanced leaders, and
disposed them to foment disputes and reject conciliation. The
miners were the first in the field, demanding not merely a 30%
increase in wages, and a 6-hour day, but nationalization
of the mines and minerals. The Government wished,
reasonably enough, before coming to a decision, to con-
sider the effect on the general welfare of such stringent
changes in the fundamental industry of the country.
The Miners' Executive however would not wait, but
took a ballot which declared by a large majority in favour of
a strike. A truce, however, was arranged, while the Govern-
ment set up in haste a Royal Commission, presided over by
Mr. Justice Sankey, the proceedings of which were hurried for-
ward. Meanwhile ministers endeavoured to meet the industrial
unrest by a new scheme of conciliation. Sir Robert Home,
Minister of Labour, convened on Feb. 27 a representative meet-
ing of employers and workmen at Westminster, which Mr. Lloyd
George subsequently addressed. This Joint Industrial Confer-
ence appointed a committee which recommended, inter alia,
a maximum normal week of 48 hours, establishment by law of
minimum time rates of universal application, and the creation
of a permanent National Industrial Council of 400 members,
elected in equal numbers by organized employers and work-
people, to advise the Government on industrial questions. The
report was accepted by the conference and received sympatheti-
cally by the Government. In pursuance of this policy the Govern-
ment in November introduced and passed an Industrial Courts
bill, giving the Minister of Labour power to appoint courts of
inquiry into trade disputes, consisting of employers, workmen and
independent persons. In March the two other members, besides
the miners, of the " Triple Alliance " as it was called, the rail-
way men and the transport workers, insistently demanded im-
proved conditions, in particular a 48-hour week. Both gained
the greater part of their claims, but the railway men only after
a strike resolution. The Sankey Commission produced a litter of
interim reports, the chairman's, which the Government adopted,
recommending an increase in wages of 2s. a day, a 7-hour
day till 1921, then a 6-hour day; a penny a ton, equivalent to
1,000,000 a year, to be set aside for the improvement of housing;
reorganization of the industry, and an effective voice for the
miners in its direction. On nationalization no opinion was ex-
pressed in the chairman's report. The miners were still dis-
satisfied, but, on their leaders' advice, gave a majority on a
ballot for acceptance. Subsequently, in June, the Sankey Com-
mission issued further reports, all recommending
nationalization in some form, and most of them calling i za t/ a.
attention to the alarming decrease of output. The
miners' leaders insisted that the Government, having accepted
the interim report, were bound also to accept the nationalization
ENGLISH HISTORY
1025
Railway
Strike.
advocated in the final reports. But, in Oct., Mr. Lloyd George
emphatically repudiated this, and said that the nation, and not
a fraction, must decide a political and economic question of this
magnitude. As time went on it became increasingly evident
that the nation's experience of Government control during war
did not incline it to extend the system during peace. People were
thoroughly sick of " bureaucracy."
The Government showed their good faith towards the Labour
party by introducing and carrying through a bill restoring pre-
war " trade practices," in spite of the growing evi-
Kestora- dence that many of these practices were hindrances
Trade' to l ^ at mcrease f output which the situation needed.
Practices. There was a comparative lull in trade disputes dur-
ing the summer, though discontent was rife among
the police both in London and in Liverpool, and there was a
cotton strike which was settled by an advance of 30% in wages
and the concession of a 48-hour week. There were also sporadic
strikes of miners in South Wales and in Yorkshire. The threat-
ened London police strike took place on Aug. I, the object being
to compel the Government to recognize the men's union. But
it was a fiasco; those who came out were less than 900 out of a
total of 20,000; and they were all dismissed. The labour situa-
tion became acute in September. The Trade Union Congress
which met at Glasgow on Sept. 8 was mainly concerned with
" Direct Action," that is, the application of the industrial strike
to secure political change. In spite of a spirited protest
Action by Mr. Clynes, who adjured the Labour men to ad-
here to constitutional methods, the Congress passed a
resolution calling for the repeal of the Conscription Acts, and the
immediate withdrawal of troops from Russia, and, failing com-
pliance by the Government, for a special Congress " to decide
what action shall be taken." This was almost immediately
followed by a sudden and formidable railway strike.
There had been negotiations for a standardization of
wages for six months. Dissatisfied with Government
concessions already amounting to 65,000,000 a year in the rail-
way wage bill, and necessitating an advance of 50% in passenger
rates and more in goods rates, a national strike was declared
without warning on Sept. 26. Prompt and decisive measures to
meet the threat to the nation were taken by Government. Volun-
teers were called for and responded in great numbers. Drastic
restrictions were placed on light and fuel. Hyde Park was used
as a milk depot for London. The motor lorries, which were the
product of the war, proved an enormous resource. After the
first few days, the railway companies began to run trains in
increasing numbers. An attempt was made to involve other
unions, but their officials, as a rule, promoted conciliation,
and on Oct. 5 an agreement was reached, by which the Govern-
ment promised stabilization of wages at their existing level till
Sept. 30 1920, instead of Dec. 31 1919 a concession more of form
than of substance. The strike ended on Oct. 6, having only
lasted 10 days. Another dispute, not so spectacular, but gravely
affecting the whole engineering trade, an iron moulders' strike,
was in progress throughout all the last quarter of the year, and
was finally settled at the end of the following Jan. by the con-
cession of a 55. increase in wages instead of the 155. demanded.
Fortunately this dismal record of industrial conflict does not
exhaust the story of 1919. First of all, after many vicissitudes
and uncertainties, peace was made and signed at Ver-
sailles on June 28. There were royal proclamations
and public rejoicings. Parliament accepted the treaty
at Mr. Lloyd George's hands with only a few expressions of
dissatisfaction, and on July 19 there was a great victory march
through London, ending up with a defile before the King, in front
of Buckingham Palace, of the armed forces of the Empire and of
those of the Allies. Sir David Beatty and Sir Douglas Haig led
their men; Gen. Pershing commanded the Americans; and the
Allied commander-in-chief, Marshal Foch, was himself present
with his staff. The friends of the most novel portion of the
Treaty of Versailles, the Covenant of the League of Nations,
organized in the autumn a campaign in the country in its support,
beginning with a meeting on Oct. 13 at the Mansion House,
The
Peace.
presided over by the Lord Mayor, and addressed by Mr. As-
quith, Lord Robert Cecil, and Mr. Clynes. One result of the
peace was the termination in Oct. of the exceptional
methods of government improvised by Mr. Lloyd Cabinet
. , . * Qovern-
George in order to win the war, and the reversion to a meat
Cabinet in the pre-war sense. It consisted of 20 mem- Restored.
bers, being for the most part the holders of those offices
which usually conferred Cabinet rank in pre-war days; but Mr.
Barnes was a member, though without a portfolio; the Viceroy and
Chief Secretary for Ireland were to alternate, whichever happened
to be in London at the moment being summoned; and the new
Minister of Transport, Sir Eric Geddes, was also included. The
Cabinet Secretary and his staff were retained.
Besides the measures necessary for demobilization and for
restoring the navy and army to a peace basis, ministers passed
in this year several bills of great importance. Two new
ministries were established, one of Health, into which ^'^ s<rtes
the old Local Government Board was converted and to created.
which were allotted various departments, relating to
national health, from other offices; and one of Transport,
which was to have control of railways, light railways, tram-
ways, canals and inland navigation, roads, bridges, and traf-
fic generally. Even electricity was included within its general
scope; but a special Electricity Supply bill was passed, constitut-
ing commissioners who were to control the supply of electricity
for domestic and industrial purposes. It was said in debate
that the task of the Transport Ministry would be one for a
" superman "; and eventually docks and harbours were exempted
from his direct control. Then a Housing bill was passed, compel-
ling local authorities to provide housing plans; and a scheme was
adopted empowering such authorities to issue 5 1 % local social
bonds, free of income tax for holders of less than 500. Leglsla-
A subsidy of not exceeding 15,000,000 was also pro- " oa '
vided by Government. There were bills also facilitating the acqui-
sition of land for public purposes, and for the settlement of soldiers
and sailors on the land. The emancipation of women, moreover,
was practically completed by the passing of a bill providing that
no person should be disqualified by sex from the exercise of any
public function, or from being appointed to any civil or judicial
office or post, or from entering or resuming any profession or
vocation. Women were also made eligible as jurors, but the
House of Lords still refused to admit women holders of peerages
in their own right to sit or vote. At a by-election for Plymouth
in Nov. Lady Astor was returned as member in place of her
husband, who had succeeded to the peerage, and she was the
first woman to sit and vote in the House of Commons. The last
Government bill which deserves notice was a Profiteering bill,
to endeavour to cope with the great inflation of prices. A central
tribunal, presided over by Mr. McCurdy, was set up; and there
were also local tribunals, with powers of fining and imprisoning
those found guilty before them of undue profit -making.
The object and general tendency of this legislation were greatly
to improve the health and social and industrial conditions of the
masses of the people; to make, in Mr. Lloyd George's
full-blooded phrase, " a land fit for heroes to live J** f
in," but at the price of setting up costly new ministries, / 1919.
and a considerable expenditure in rates and taxes. Mr.
Chamberlain's budget was conceived on the same large lines.
He estimated the expenditure at the gigantic sum of 1,434,-
910,000, and the revenue on the existing basis of taxation at
1,159,650,000. Therefore, though the war was over, he proposed
to increase rather than diminish taxation, except that he reduced
the excess profits duty a war tax par excellence from 80 1040%.
But he greatly increased the taxes on spirits and on beer, and
raised the death duties on large estates. The main feature of the
budget was the establishment at last of imperial preference,
by giving an abatement of a sixth on the duties levied on such
imports as tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, tobacco and motor spirit,
and of a third on those levied on cinema films, clocks and watches,
motor-cars and cycles. He calculated that, by the changes pro-
posed in taxation, he would bring the revenue up to 1,201,100,-
ooo. For the balance he looked to a Victory Loan, which was
1026
ENGLISH HISTORY
sold after Whitsuntide in two forms: (i) 4% Victory Bonds
issued at 85 redeemable by annual drawings at par; (2) a 4%
funding loan issued at 80 and redeemable within 70 years in the
ordinary way. The Labour party, with a portion of the Liberal
party, strongly advocated a levy on capital in order to reduce
the debt, now 8,000,000,000, to more manageable proportions;
but Mr. Chamberlain set his face against it as the greatest
possible discouragement of industry and enterprise.
Mr. Asquith and the Independent Liberal party, with some
assistance from the Labour men, started a not very formidable
Anti-waste agitation in the name of Free Trade against the pref-
Move- erential proposals of the budget. A more effective
ment - movement , which gathered force as the year advanced ,
was that against the extravagant manner in which the Govern-
ment was carried on. There was a special scandal about a motor-
vehicle reception depot which had been established towards the
close of the war on 600 ac. of good wheat land at Chippenham,
near Slough, and which was apparently, now that the war was
over, being rather extended than curtailed. A select committee
of both Houses reported in July that the decision to continue the
works after the Armistice had not been justified. Complaint
was made of the continuance in peace of war-time naval and
military estimates, of war-time ministries, such as Food, Supply
and Shipping, and of enormously swollen staffs. It was main-
tained that it was impossible that the country could go on paying
the gigantic taxes and rates which Parliament and the local
authorities were exacting, without speedy bankruptcy. Lord
Rothermere, who had himself been in charge of a new depart-
ment during the war, was the protagonist of this movement;
and his son, Mr. Esmond Harmsworth, was returned in Nov.
to Parliament as primarily an " Anti-waste " member. An in-
creasing section of the press harped on the same theme.
The principle of self-determination, as proclaimed by President
Wilson in Paris, produced fermentation in many parts of the
British Empire, notably India, South Africa, Egypt and Ireland.
In India there was serious trouble in the Punjab, and a regret-
table affair at Amritsar, but hope was placed in the Montagu-
Chelmsford scheme of reform. In South Africa, fresh life was
given to the Hertzog nationalist movement, and the South
African party and the Unionists were driven to draw closer
together. In Egypt there was violent upheaval, and Lord Milner
went out with a special mission to inquire and report. In Ireland
things proceeded from bad to worse throughout the
sian Feia year gj nn fein, who had triumphed in the elections,
Ireland. met at Dublin in Jan., appointed an executive, and
pledged themselves to the independence of Ireland.
An informal war against all representatives of British authority
in the country was begun; and outrages and murders steadily
increased, an attack on the life of the Viceroy, Lord French,
coming near the end of the year. Meanwhile the Cabinet ap-
pointed a committee, of which Mr. (afterwards Lord) Long was
chairman, to make representations as to Irish government.
It is pleasant to turn to record the visit in the autumn of the
Prince of Wales, first to Newfoundland, then to Canada, and
finally to the United States, each visit, owing to
Mace of his charm and power of sympathy, proving a bond of
ana e the union, first of the Empire, and then of the English-
Bmplre. speaking peoples. He made another imperial trip in
1920, this time to Australia and New Zealand, with
equally happy results; but it was wisely decided that his con-
templated visit to India should wait, in view of the strain of
the last few years on his strength, till another winter. Another
considerable accomplishment of the year 1919 was the passage of
a Church Enabling bill, promoted both by the ecclesiastical au-
thorities and by the main body of Church laymen, setting up
a National Assembly of the Church of England, which should
have some of the powers of independent action always asserted
by the Church of Scotland, but subject to the supreme
Church authority of Parliament. The National Assembly in
l:nantinif . - ...
BUI. its first meetings in the coming year seemed to jus-
tify the hopes formed of it. Though earnest, it was
businesslike and not extreme.
The year 1920 opened with the final severance of all direct
connexion between the Government and organized labour by
the resignation of Mr. Barnes, Minister without
portfolio, and of Mr. George Roberts, the Food Con- Mr.
troller. These resignations were, however, of small Asguith's
i r +-L r- -Hi Return to
importance by the side of the reappearance of Mr. p ar // a .
Asquith in Parliament as member for Paisley. Mr. ment.
Asquith's platform was that of a strong opponent to
the Coalition, which he said ought now to be dissolved; he ad-
vocated Free Trade, retrenchment, and for Ireland Dominion
Home Rule. At first it seemed as if he might provide the
Government with what they sorely needed, a competent and
determined Opposition. But his followers in the House were
so few that, after a while, he was discouraged and transferred
his main activities to the constituencies, where he succeeded in
rallying most of the local Liberal associations to his banner.
The principal matters which occupied the attention of the
country in the year were the labour unrest, Ireland, and Govern-
ment extravagance. Mr. Chamberlain's budget dealt
with figures of the same magnitude as in the previ- J d gf
ous year. In spite of the fact that the estimates for ofi920.
the navy and army showed a diminution of about
340,000,000 compared with those of the previous year, he
nevertheless contemplated a total expenditure of 1,418,300,000;
and in order that he might make a serious attempt at reducing
the weight of the debt he increased the charges for letters,
newspapers and telegrams, and also for receipt and stamp duties;
he increased, moreover, still further the duty on beer; doubled
that on wine with a special 50% duty on imported sparkling
wines; and increased that on cigars. He lowered the limit of
exemption from supertax to 2,000; but made various readjust-
ments of income tax which would ease the burden to the taxpayer
of small means, while taxing the rich man still more severely.
Finally he imposed a new tax of is. in the on company profits,
and raised the excess profits duty (which it had been hoped might
be repealed) to 60%. To this last provision most serious ex-
ception was taken in the City of London and by the industries
of the country; and an agitation was started which did not rest
till it had finally secured a promise from the Chancellor to repeal
the excess profits tax altogether in the coming year. The
general result of the budget was to stimulate the "Anti-waste "
party, who began to count seriously in by-elections.
The labour unrest during the year mainly affected the great
coal-mining industry, which never settled down during the two
and a half years that succeeded the war. It was but a
patched-up truce that was arranged after the Sankey
Commission, and the men still hankered after higher
wages (to correspond with the still rising prices) and for national-
ization in some form. The Government absolutely refused nation-
alization, but promoted a Coal Mines (Emergency) bill which
should continue the war pooling arrangements and the Sankey
wage till the termination of State control. This did not at all
content the men, who demanded in March an immediate advance
of 35. per shift for miners over 16, and of is. 6d. below that age.
After many negotiations the Government made a proposal of a
guaranteed minimum advance of 25. for adults, is. for youths
between 16 and 18, and gd. for boys under 16. This was accepted
on ballot in April. It was estimated that this concession implied
an extra charge of more than 30,000,000 a year on the industry,
the surplus available to meet it being only about 8,000,000.
The Government passed this session a Mining Industry bill,
constituting a Department of Mines under the Board of Trade,
dropping their original and wasteful idea of constituting a brand
new ministry. This was unpopular among the miners, and
perhaps contributed to the new demand sprung in Aug. on the
Government. In 1919 ministers had had unfortunate dealings
with the price of coal. In July of that year they had increased
the price by 6s. a ton on the reasonable ground that this was the
necessary result of the increased wages granted in accordance
with the Sankey report. Then suddenly in Nov. they decreased
the price of domestic coal by ios., on the ground that it was fair
that the consumer should share in the large profits which, owing
ENGLISH HISTORY
1027
to the high prices ruling in America, were made on exported coal.
But this could not be maintained, and in May 1920 the price of
domestic coal was raised by 145. 2d. a ton, and that of industrial
coal by 43. ad. In view of these facts the miners at the end. of
July 1920 coupled with a demand for a further advance
of 2S., is. and gd. a shift for the three grades, a demand for a
reduction of price to the consumer of 145. 2d. a ton. It was
thought that this bribe would make the public sympathetic to
their claims. The calculation was that the increase of wages
would cost the industry 27,000,000, and the reduc-
^ on f pric 6 would add another 36,000,000, thus
more than accounting for the 60,000,000 made by
the Government as profits on exported coal, and badly needed
by them for their general revenue. These demands the Govern-
ment absolutely declined to entertain; and on a ballot near the
end of August the miners determined to strike in order to obtain
them. But the opening of the strike was postponed for more
than a month and a half, pending a series of negotiations be-
tween the Government, the representatives of the owners and
the Miners' Federation, and also the spokesmen of the railway
men and of the transport workers, who intervened as mem-
bers of the Triple Alliance to support the miners' claims. Na-
tionalization, though Mr. Smillie, one of the leaders, said the
miners would never rest till they got it, was not actually claimed
on this occasion ; the altruistic demand for a large reduction of the
price of coal to the consumer was soon dropped, and the struggle
became one merely for increased wages a claim based by the
miners on the still rising prices. The Government and the
owners pointed out that, since the increases in wages under the
Sankey award, output had decreased, and maintained that in-
crease in wages would only be justified by increase of output.
The miners insisted on an advance of 2s. as a preliminary, and
the strike began in the middle of October and lasted a fortnight.
The National Union of Railway Men threatened to strike in
support of the miners, but it is doubtful whether the railway
men themselves would have come out in any number. The
question was never put to the test, as a provisional arrangement
was come to, and confirmed on ballot, by which the miners got
their 2s. a day (and could get more by increased output) till
Jan. 3, after which wages were to be governed by a sliding scale,
ultimately to be superseded by an agreed scheme for their per-
manent regulation. Sir Robert Home, who, with the Prime Min-
ister, bore the brunt of these negotiations, greatly enhanced his
reputation by his firmness, adroitness and geniality.
There were disputes in the cotton and engineering and other
trades during the year, but nothing comparable to that in the
coal industry. Organized labour, which had been very sensitive
since the Russian Revolution of any attempts to interfere in
arms with the Soviet Government, formed, in this
of Action, summer of 1920, in view of the strained relations be-
tween Poland and Russia, a Council of Action to pre-
vent any such interference, with the implied threat of a general
strike at its back. This unconstitutional proceeding was justified
in a half-hearted manner by the moderate leaders, Mr. J. H.
Thomas and Mr. Clynes. But the French Government refused
to allew delegates of the Council of Action to remain in France;
and, as an independent Poland and peace with Russia were soon
seen to be secured, Mr. Thomas discreetly buried the Council
with an appropriate eulogium at the Trade Union Congress.
The financial offers made by the Bolshevists to the Daily Her-
ald, the labour organ, which were revealed in the autumn, added
to the growing discredit of Bolshevist rule in Labour eyes.
The " war " of murder and outrage waged by. civilian Re-
publicans in Ireland against the civil and military forces of the
Crown, and against prominent loyalists in all parts
" > 'war"'in of the south and west > was intensified from the be-
ireiaad. ginning of the year onwards. To meet the crisis the
Royal Irish Constabulary were increased, an auxiliary
force of cadets, mainly young English officers who had served in
the war, was created, and the troops reinforced. In August
Sir Hamar Greenwood, who had succeeded Mr. Macpherson in
April as Chief Secretary, hurried through Parliament a Restora-
tion of Order in Ireland bill which provided for the suspension
of trial by jury in disturbed areas and the substitution of trial
by court martial. The strain of outrage and assassination to
which military and police were subjected proved too much for
the nerves of some members of the forces of order, especially
among the insufficiently disciplined auxiliaries; and in a consid-
erable number of cases unauthorized reprisals were
carried out, in which individuals, not always guilty,
were shot, and dwelling-houses and shops and warehouses and
creameries were sacked and burnt. The British public, as a
whole, was so conscious of the widespread conspiracy and the
appalling crimes that had to be faced and got under by in-
adequate but courageous forces, that it was disposed to con-
done occasional acts of reprisal, provided that due efforts were
made by the authorities to restore and enforce discipline. That
was eventually done and certain definite reprisals authorized
in definite cases, but not until after a delay of several months,
during which Mr. Asquith and Sir John Simon and the Inde-
pendent Liberals in general, with the aid of some bishops and
other ministers of religion, conducted a violent agitation against
the misdeeds of a small portion of the forces of the Crown in
which the crimes and the " war " against which these forces were
struggling seemed to be unduly disregarded. The police and
troops were successful in so far that they prevented Sinn Fein
officers and tribunals from functioning openly, as heretofore, in
many parts of the south and west. But, in spite of occasional
boasts by ministers, like Mr. Lloyd George's assertion at Guild-
hall on Lord Mayor's day " We have murder by the throat,"
crime was not stopped, and there was little improvement in the
state of the southern and western provinces by the summer of
1921. Indeed the " war " was carried in the spring of 1921 into
England; and in Liverpool and the neighbouring country, and in
London and the Home Counties, outrages were committed.
It was not merely by force that the Government proposed to
meet the crisis in Ireland. The conjunction of Unionists and
Liberals in one coalition seemed to give an opportunity for an
agreed settlement of the Home Rule dispute. As a result of the
labours of the Cabinet Committee presided over by Mr. Long,
the Government introduced in Feb. a Home Rule bill of a novel
character. It provided for the establishment of two Irish Parlia-
ments, one in Belfast, for the six north-eastern counties, and
one in Dublin for the remaining counties, and of a
Council of Ireland "with a view to bringing about
harmonious action between the Parliaments and Gov-
ernments of Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland." The
Council was to consist, in the first instance, of a President ap-
pointed by the King, and of delegations of 20 members of each
of the two Irish Parliaments; but the two Parliaments might
vary its constitution, and provide for it being elected by Parlia-
mentary electors. Further, the two Irish Parliaments had power
given them to establish, in place of the Council of Ireland, a Par-
liament for the whole of Ireland, consisting of one or two
Houses. Thus the bill, which recognized the necessity of parti-
tion for the present, made provision for unity in the future.
As originally drafted, the bill provided only for one House, a
House of Commons, in each area; but the Lords added a Senate
in each case, which the Government accepted. The executive
power in the two areas was to continue vested in the King, who
might delegate his authority to the lord lieutenant. The number
of Irish members of Parliament at Westminster was to be 42. Of
the Irish contribution of 18,000,000 a year to Imperial expendi-
ture, 56% was apportioned to Southern, and 44% to Northern
Ireland. There was to be a separate judiciary in each area, with
a High Court of Appeal for the whole of Ireland. The powers
reserved for the Imperial Parliament were roughly those reserved
under the Act of 1914 which Mr. Redmond had accepted, save
that further taxes were placed at the disposal of the two Parlia-
ments; and in case of an Irish Parliament being constituted full
powers over customs and excise were to be extended to it. If the
southern Parliament refused to function, that part of Ireland was
to be governed as a Crown colony. The reception of the bill was
very unfavourable in southern and western Ireland, by Nation-
1028
ENGLISH HISTORY
and
Ulster.
alists and Sinn Feiners. It was a scheme, said the Freeman's
Journal, for the " plunder and partition " of Ireland. Protestant
Ulster, after a little hesitation, took the line that she was quite
satisfied with her present position in the United Kingdom, but
that, if Parliament thought such a measure right, she would accept
it and do her best to make it a success. The bill was opposed, on
the ground that it involved partition, both by the Labour party,
who were prepared to concede the absolute right of self-determi-
nation, and by Mr. Asquith, who proclaimed his adherence to a
Dominion Constitution. That also was the view of Sir Horace
Plunkett; and several southern Unionists, such as Lord Dun-
raven and Lord Midleton, demanded complete fiscal autonomy
for Ireland. The bill eventually passed into law in Dec. 1920,
and was put into force in 1921. Lord Edmund Talbot, who
became Viscount Fitzalan, an English Roman Catho-
BUI Passed jj C; was appointed Lord Lieutenant, and elections were
*ioasHeid. duly held for the two Parliaments in the spring. As
the campaign of Sinn Fein terrorism was still in full
swing in southern Ireland, Sinn Feiners were everywhere returned
in that area unopposed, save in Trinity College. In northern
Ireland the Unionists had a great electoral success, returning 40
out of the 52 members of the new House of Commons. As Sir
Edward Carson had retired and taken a Lordship of Appeal, Sir
James Craig was the Unionist leader, and formed a Government
as Prime Minister. The King and Queen opened the
The King Ulster Parliament in state on June 22, the King, in
moving language, expressing the hope in his Speech
from the Throne that Irishmen would forgive and for-
get. Thereupon Mr. Lloyd George, while making every arrange-
ment for strengthening the authority of the Crown in southern
Ireland against the forces of disorder, issued a public invitation to
Mr. De Valera, the Sinn Fein leader, and to Sir James Craig, to
come and confer with him at once in London without conditions.
Sir J. Craig accepted immediately; and Mr. De Valera, after
consulting with other Sinn Fein leaders and with some of the
southern Unionists, also came to London; while a truce was called
in the " war" (see further the article IRELAND).
Several important changes took place in the Ministry in the
early months of 1921. Mr. Long retired from the Admiralty
for ill health and was subsequently created a viscount. Lord
Milner, after remarkable service to the State, resigned the Colo-
nial Office, and retired into private life, being succeeded by
Mr. Churchill. Mr. Bonar Law had a sudden breakdown, which
entailed immediate abandonment of political work, and which,
as he was one of the main pillars of the Coalition, might well
result in serious political complications. But Mr. Austen Cham-
berlain was immediately elected by the Unionist party
Minis- to be leader in the House of Commons in his place;
'changes an< ^ ne stepped into the same confidential relation
la 1921. that Mr. Law had held in regard to the Prime Min-
ister. He became Lord Privy Seal. Sir Robert Hornq:;,:
succeeded him as Chancellor of the Exchequer, and waj;suc
ceeded at the Board of Trade by Mr. Stanley Baldwin. -VTJi
Government bills which attracted most attention in this session-^
were one by Sir Eric Geddes for grouping the railways ofin
country in the interests of efficiency and economy; and another
promoted by the Board of Trade for the safeguarding of special
industries. The Independent Liberals, in their opposition to
the Protection which they discovered in this latter bill, made
use of the well-known arts of obstruction, and all-night sittings
were resumed. The budget dropped the excess profits duty,
and the higher rates of duty imposed in the previous year on
sparkling wine and cigars. Postal rates were however further
increased. Otherwise taxation remained at the same height.
This heavy burden was more felt this year, because the period
of inflated trade which had succeeded the war had come to a sudden
end in the previous autumn; prices tumbled down;
Depres- j[ was impossible to find markets for goods; wages
Trade. na< l to be reduced and men dismissed in one great
industry after another; and unemployment steadily
increased. It was borne forcibly in upon every individual that
economy in public and private expenditure was imperative.
By-elections, as might be expected with so huge a majority, had
on the whole gone against the Government from the beginning.
But their losses this spring and early summer had this excep-
tional character, that the victors in the three contests which
attracted most attention, at Dover, St. George's (Westminster)
and East Herts., ran simply and purely as " And- waste " candi-
dates. The tendency of the Government, already manifested^
to restrict its ambitions and curtail its schemes, was intensified.
Already practically all the new war ministries, except
the Pensions Ministry, had been disbanded; the put- Govern-
ting into complete effect of Mr. H. A. L. Fisher's ^^f^,'
comprehensive-but somewhat extravagant Education Curtailed.
Act had been postponed; and urgent admonitions in
favour of economy had been circulated to the departments.
Now it was announced by Mr. Churchill that he had formulated
a scheme by which the enormous outlay in Mesopotamia and
Palestine, against which there had been a great public outcry,
might be materially reduced. Dr. Addison, who was thought to
have studied thoroughness rather than economy in regard to his
housing schemes and his medical staff at the Ministry of Health,
resigned that Ministry; and so strong a protest was roused by
his retention in the Cabinet without a portfolio but with a salary,
that the Prime Minister felt it necessary in June to declare that
the arrangement was only for the remainder of the session, and
that the salary would be halved. Dr. Addison's successor in the
Ministry of Health, Sir Alfred Mond, announced an adminis-
tration on much less ambitious lines. Ministers also abandoned
their guarantee of agricultural prices and wages; and further
determined to terminate their control of the coal industry on
April i, four months earlier than the date originally announced.
This resulted in yet another coal strike, or stoppage, the most
serious of all the strikes in the industry in these years. The men
could not reconcile themselves to the great reductions in wages
necessary to make the industry self-supporting. And
they also demanded a national pool a half-hearted
form of their old demand for nationalization. They
alienated public sympathy at first by withdrawing the
pump men from the mines a position from which they had to
recede. The Government offered a temporary subsidy of 10,000,-
ooo to tide over the difficult early weeks; but terms could not
be arranged, and the strike lasted for three months April, May
and June, and was settled in the end on terms which the men
might have had early in the dispute, if they had not clung to
the national pool, which of course had to be abandoned. The
loss to the country was enormous, as the great industries de-
pendent upon coal had one after another to close down their
works. But the employers in these industries could support the
stoppage better than the men, as, owing to the depression of
trade, they would have been manufacturing during these months
at a loss. The funds of the great unions were depleted, and many
of them got deeply into debt; and there was some want and
jiardehip amongst women and children. Happily, it was a season
of warmth and brilliant sunshine, so that the domestic fire was
Deeded only for cooking.
.1." A momentous conference was held in London in the summer
of 1921 between the Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom,
the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Aus-
tralia, the Dominion of New Zealand and the Union of Empire
South Africa, together with representatives of India, '^c'oa'fer-
The main object of the conference was to formulate eace.
a common foreign policy for the sister nations com-
posing the British Empire, and to come to a decision as to the
renewal of the Anglo- Japanese alliance (see BRITISH EMPIRE).
There were symptoms of uneasiness in the latter part of 1920
and in 1921 in the extreme wings of both parties to the Coalition.
On the one hand there was some fraternizing between
Independent and Coalition Liberals; and on the other
Lord Salisbury was the spokesman of those Tories
who urged Unionists to come out of the Coalition and
resume their independence, a course which had already been
taken by a few individuals, conspicuous among whom were his
brothers, Lord Robert and Lord Hugh Cecil. But neither move-
/
ENGLISH HISTORY
1029
ment appeared to be strongly supported, though much greater
independence had been shown of late by the Ministerial majority
in the House of Commons. The Labour party, though alternately
upbraided and cajoled by the Independent Liberals, showed no
disposition to enter into a political compact with them; and with-
out such an arrangement it did not look as if Mr. Asquith and his
friends could command anything approaching adequate support
in the country to regain office. Many Liberals indeed had gone
over to Labour; but the Labour party, whose programme de-
manded a continuance of heavy expenditure and therefore high
taxation, were for the time out of accord with public sentiment.
Mr. Lloyd George, in spite of virulent abuse, partly political,
partly personal, still remained throughout 1921 by far the great-
est individual force in the country. He strengthened his position,
indeed, from every point of view but one, by the course of events
during the closing months of the year. The fact that, after
general expectations of a break-down in the Irish negotiations,
the conference which began in London in October between
delegated representatives of Sinn Fein and the Government
ended on Dec. 6 in a unanimously signed agreement for the
setting-up of an Irish Free State, was a great personal triumph
for his patient diplomacy. Though he was too much engaged
in this matter to be able, as he had intended to do, to attend the
Conference for the Limitation of Armament held in Washington,
at which Mr. Balfour took his place, the Prime Minister could
claim for his Government a very satisfactory issue from the Con-
ference, to the initiation of which by President Harding and his
Secretary of State, Mr. Hughes, Mr. Lloyd George himself had
given the strongest encouragement earlier in the year. Inci-
dentally, the question of a prolongation of the Anglo-Japanese
alliance which had been a difficult point at the Imperial Con-
ference in the summer was successfully removed by the sub-
stitution of the Four- Power Agreement adopted in Washington;
and thus Mr. Lloyd George had the satisfaction of clearing
away two important obstacles to the consolidation of the Anglo-
American entente for which he was always striving in interna-
tional affairs.
The only point of view from which Mr. Lloyd George's in-
dispensability at this moment as Prime Minister could be said,
therefore, to have been weakened was that of his success. Para-
doxically enough, the mere fact that his long struggle to reconcile
Irish national aspirations with inclusion within the British
Empire had at last been rewarded might appear to leave him no
longer I'homme necessaire for that purpose. How far this possi-
bility might react on the political situation, in the later re-
grouping of parties, had now to be shown. But individually
Mr. Lloyd George, at the end of 1921, held the dominating
place among political leaders. Mr. Asquith had lost his hold
both over the country and over his old party. The Labour
party, though practically certain of a large increase in Parlia-
mentary representation whenever the country should be appealed
to, had several prominent leaders but no really outstanding
chief. The Conservatives, as such, were without any striking
personality; Mr. Austen Chamberlain had shown no disposition
to break away from the alliance with Mr. Lloyd George, and
Mr. Bonar Law, though his health was restored, had ignored
every suggestion so far that he should return to the political
arena as an independent Conservative leader. Among the rest,
the only men whose reputations had notably grown in 1921
were Lord Birkenhead and Mr. Churchill; and it was to them,
either in rivalry or in combination, that current political talk
usually pointed, should occasion arise for alternatives to a
Lloyd George Ministry. As Lord Chancellor, Lord Birkenhead
had won golden opinions on all sides, and he had never shown
his capacity for statesmanship more prominently than during
the past year, when he had put all his pre-war record as an aggres-
sive sympathizer with Ulster aside in helping to secure an agree-
ment with Sinn Fein. He and Mr. Churchill were still sufficiently
young, as well as able and experienced, to make their political
futures incalculable. (G. E. B.)
END OF THIRTIETH VOLUME
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
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REFERENCE
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